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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/cottagecyclopedi00pier_0 
 
THE 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 A COPIOUS DICTIONARY 
 
 OP 
 
 MEMORABLE PERSONS, EVENTS, PLACES, AND THINGS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 
 NOTICES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES AND 
 NATIONS OF THE KNOWN WORLD, 
 
 AND A 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 BY ED. M. PIERCE. 
 
 COLUMBUS, OHIO: 
 
 O. S. READ, PUBLISHER 
 1873. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by 
 CASE, LOCKWOOD AND COMPANY, 
 in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
 Manufactured by 
 
 CA8E, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARtt 
 
 HARTFORD, CONN. 
 

 PREFACE 
 
 Every reader of a book, a magazine, or a newspaper, is sometimes at 
 loss for a date or. fact, and meets with frequent references to historical 
 and biographical subjects which he knows nothing about, or obscurely 
 remembers, or only partially understands. If he has at hand a volume 
 which will readily answer any inquiries that arise in his mind, he will 
 turn to it, and thus remove his ignorance, or clear away the doubt and 
 obscurity that rest upon his understanding. If he has no such work at 
 easy command, he will in most cases let the matter pass, and the need 
 for knowledge goes unsatisfied. 
 
 Ji Such extensive works as the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Ameri- 
 ' can Cyclopedia are costly, and are therefore in the hands of compara- 
 A tively few persons ; besides, they are too cumbrous for easy and frequent 
 reference. The value of a volume like The Cottage Cyclopedia of 
 History and Biography, to lie familiarly upon the table or the shelf, 
 ready at call to answer the thousand questions that arise, is too plain 
 to require discussion. It will prove a great convenience even to those 
 w*%ho possess ample libraries, and whose minds are stored with historical 
 data. But it is more especially designed for family use, and for the 
 
 c 
 
 * 
 
 young. 
 
 The Cottage Cyclopedia is intended to supply to every general reader 
 such a book of reference as that of which the need has been shown. 
 It is particularly commended to the attention of parents : let them place 
 
iv 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 it within the reach of their children, and inculcate the habit of consult- 
 ing it as a dictionary of history and biography, whenever curiosity, 
 doubt, or want of information may suggest. There will be thus laid 
 up a store of precise practical knowledge, incalculable in value. 
 
 It is not, however, as a mere book of reference, that this volume is 
 offered to the public. The materials are, it is true, gathered to a great 
 extent from books familiar to the public. The Compiler, however, has 
 culled many traits, anecdotes, and adventures, from less common sources; 
 and interspersing these and other illustrative sketches throughout the 
 pages, he has sought to enliven the work, and thus render it amusing, 
 attractive, and readable. Many of the articles are more extensive than 
 in the voluminous encyclopedias. Interesting topics not found in those 
 are also introduced. The history of our own country will be found 
 fully treated of, under different heads ; and at the close of the volume 
 a Chronological View of American History is appended. The present 
 condition of the various countries of the earth is sketched in connection 
 with their history. The lives of eminent political characters in all ages, 
 as well as the lives of those whose greatness in science or literature 
 made their names enduring, are given, some of them at considerable 
 length, and with many characteristic anecdotes. Extended sketches will 
 be found of several royal families ; as the houses of Hanover, Plantag- 
 enet, Romanoff, Stuart, Tudor, &c. Such topics as Oracles, Druids, El 
 Dorado, Knighthood, Chivalry, Fairies, the Argonauts, the Man in the 
 Iron Mask, Don Carlos, the Gulf Stream, Jesuits, Ac., &c., which are 
 frequently alluded to in literature, are treated of with particularity. 
 
 The dates of important inventions, discoveries, and improvements in 
 the arts and sciences, and remarkable and interesting facts generally, 
 will be found appropriately arranged. Among such topics may be men- 
 tioned the following: — Abdications; Alliances; Amazons; Ambassadors; 
 the Armada ; Bachelors ; Banks ; order of the Bath ; Bells ; Bible ; the 
 vicar of Bray; the Cinque Ports; Coin; the Continental Congress; 
 Conspiracies and Insurrections ; the English Constitution ; the Consti- 
 tution of the United States; Councils of the Church; Declaration of 
 Independence, with those passages in the original draught which were 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 V 
 
 omitted or changed by Congress; Discoveries in modern times, Dress; 
 Earthquakes; order of the Garter; Labor; Libraries; Luxury; Lynch 
 Law; Marriage; Massacres; Metals; Naval Battles; North-west Passage ; 
 Painting; Plague; Planets; Poet Laureate; Popes; Printing; Time; 
 Wandering Jew; Wonders of the World. 
 
 The great battles of the world, ancient and modern, by land and by 
 sea, — Thermopylae, Marathon, Cannae, Pharsalia, Blenheim, Austerlitz, 
 Marengo, Waterloo, Bunker Hill, Saratoga, Yorktown, New Orleans, 
 Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo, Chapultepec, Alma, Inkermann, Balaklava, 
 &c. ; Salamis, Actium, Aboukir, Trafalgar, Erie, Champlain, &c., — are 
 duly chronicled. 
 
 The work is liberally illustrated with wood-cuts, of a superior execu- 
 tion ; the most of them designed by Baker & Andrew. A list of them 
 is given on another page. 
 
 The Cottage Cyclopedia is arranged with a view to compress a great 
 amount of matter into a small compass, that the bulk of the volume 
 may not render it inconvenient, and that its expense may not hinder its 
 general circulation. In preparing so extensive a publication for the 
 press, the Compiler can not hope that he has wholly escaped error or 
 that omissions may not be noticed ; but he trusts that the volume may 
 be found sufficiently accurate and complete to fulfill the proper design 
 of such a work, and that it may prove a valuable accession to the 
 means of diffusing useful knowledge. 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Residence of Adams Family, Quincy, Mass. 
 Great Chestnut-tree of Mount iEtna. 
 Alabama. 
 
 Alcibiades. 
 
 Cleopatra’s Needle, at Alexandria. 
 
 The Court of Lions, Alhambra. 
 
 Mont Blanc. 
 
 Mount Ararat. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 The Hill of the Areopagus. 
 
 Place where Gold was first discovered in 
 Australia. 
 
 The Balloon. 
 
 Reading the Bible to the People. 
 
 Diamond Washing in Brazil. 
 
 The Britannia Tubular Bridge. 
 
 California. 
 
 Peak of Tenerifife. 
 
 Charles the Twelfth. 
 
 The Charter Oak. 
 
 Chinese Lady of Rank. 
 
 Great Wall of China. 
 
 Ashland. 
 
 De Witt Clinton. 
 
 Capitol at Washington. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Stonehenge. 
 
 A Druid. 
 
 Earthquake at Lisbon. 
 
 Colossi near Thebes. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Cathedral of Notre Dame at Strasburg. 
 Franklin’s Grave at Philadelphia. 
 
 Fulton’s First Steamboat. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Hamilton’s Monument in Trinity Church- 
 yard, New York. 
 
 The Hancock House in Boston. 
 Hieroglyphics. 
 
 Homer. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Jackson at the Hermitage. 
 
 Monticello. 
 
 Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Montpelier, Madison’s Residence. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 New York. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Temple of Isis at Pompeii. 
 
 Faust taking First Proof from Moveable Types. 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 The Colossus of Rhodes. 
 
 The Coliseum. 
 
 St. Peter’s. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Story’s House at Cambridge, Mass. 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Arch of Titus at Rome. 
 
 Plains of Troy. 
 
 Henry the Eighth. 
 
 Leaning Tower of Pisa. 
 
 Tyrolese Peasants. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Vesuvius. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Mount Vernon. 
 
 Washington’s Tomb. 
 
 Birthplace of Webster. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 The Pyramids and Sphinx. 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 OF 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 A. 
 
 AARON, the brother and associate of Mo- 
 ses, and the first high-priest of the Jews, 
 born about b.c. 1574, and died b.c. 1451. 
 
 ABAUZIT, Firmin, a Protestant author of 
 celebrity and learning, born in Languedoc, 
 1679, and died in 1767, having long filled the 
 office of public librarian at Geneva. His 
 knowledge was great, and embraced the 
 whole circle of the sciences. He enjoyed the 
 friendship of Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 ABBAS, Shah, the Great, ascended the 
 throne of Persia in 1589, and distinguished 
 himself in arms, by his victories over the Ot- 
 tomans, and by wresting Ormus from the 
 Portuguese in 1622, aided, however, by the 
 British. During his reign, Ispahan became 
 the capital of Persia. His death took place 
 in 1629. 
 
 ABBASSIDES. The caliphs who, during 
 the eighth and ninth centuries, made Bagdad 
 their capital, are distinguished in history as 
 the Abbassides. Their sway extended over 
 Persia, Arabia, and Syria. Al-Mansur, in 
 762, built Bagdad, and raised the Saracenic 
 empire to its highest point of splendor and 
 fame. Al-Modi, to whom the empire was 
 transmitted, did not let its reputation wane, 
 and, under Haroun al Raschid, the dignity 
 of the caliphate was preserved and adorned. 
 After Haroun, reigned Al-Amin and Al-Ma- 
 mun. Under Al-Motasser the governors of 
 several provinces asserted their independence, 
 and Bagdad alone was governed by the caliph. 
 
 ABBEY, or monastery, is a house erected 
 for the dwelling of men or women who have 
 taken the monastic vow, which binds them 
 1 
 
 to relinquish all worldly interests, and devote 
 themselves to the performance of religious 
 duties, living in a state of celibacy. A mon- 
 astery receives its title from that of the eccle- 
 siastic governing it. An abbey is governed 
 by an abbot or abbess ; a priory, by a prior 
 or prioress, &c. The term nunnery is applied 
 to a religious house inhabited by women. 
 The buildings inhabited by religious commu- 
 nities were originally of the plainest kinc^ 
 but increased in extent and splendor with 
 their revenues, until, from the humble dwell- 
 ings of unpretending ecclesiastics, they be- 
 came the abodes of luxury, brilliant with 
 costly architectural decorations, and hiding, 
 within their lofty walls, the revels of men 
 whose piety was but a cloak for unlimited 
 indulgence. The buildings constituting an 
 abbey or monastery, consisted principally of 
 churches, cloisters, refectories, chapters, par- 
 lors, dormitories, courts, gardens, &c. The 
 choir and interior buildings of convents were 
 fenced in by grates, and inaccessible to vis- 
 itors. The church consisted of the choir, an 
 altar, a nave, aisles, chapels, and a tower. 
 The cloister comprehended the galleries or 
 covered porticoes of a monastery, in which 
 the monks took their exercise, and surround- 
 ed an open space, generally devoted to the. 
 cultivation of flowers, neatly distributed in 
 parterres, interspersed with grass-plats, and 
 refreshed by careful irrigation. The cloisters 
 were sometimes adorned with valuable paint- 
 ings, and were generally finished specimens 
 of art. The refectory of an abbey was the 
 hall in which the fathers ate. The refectory 
 
 ABB 
 
2 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 furnished at first frugal fare, and the holy 
 fathers did not tarry long in it ; but with the 
 declension of ecclesiastical simplicity, the 
 character of their meals was changed, and 
 they made the walls ring with the merriment 
 of high living and rich wines. The refectory 
 of the Abbey of St. Denis, at Paris, has been 
 celebrated for its architectural beauty. The 
 chapter was for the reception of assemblies 
 to discuss the private affairs of the house. 
 The chapter-houses were sometimes orna- 
 mented with splendid pictures. The parlor 
 was a kind of cabinet, where visitors convers- 
 ed with the monks or nuns through a grated 
 window. Formerly, convents contained par- 
 lors, in which novices were allowed the priv- 
 ilege of conversing together, at hours of 
 recreation, but even then they were over- 
 heard by their superiors, who were provided 
 with places for eavesdropping. The dormi- 
 tories were usually wings in the building, 
 containing the cells of its inhabitants. Here 
 the monks enjoyed their brief repose, from 
 which they were awakened to acts of devo- 
 tion, or to bend in solitude before the crucifix, 
 with its accompanying mementos of mortal- 
 ity, and lose themselves in the reveries of 
 religious enthusiasm. The gardens of mon- 
 asteries generally exhibited neatness, and 
 were not the least favorite appendage to the 
 dwellings of the monks. 
 
 The monks, in the ages of general dark- 
 ness (that is, from a.d. 600 to 1500), pre- 
 served in their monasteries many valuable 
 volumes, and kept alive the spark of learning, 
 which, but for their exertions, would have 
 been extinguished. Religious houses were, 
 for ages, the sole depositories of literature 
 and science, and their inhabitants were act- 
 ively employed in the duties of education. 
 In England, one person or more in each con- 
 vent was appointed to instruct pupils, and 
 these were the children of those neighbors 
 who chose to send them. They were instruct- 
 ed in grammar and church music, free of ex- 
 pense. In the nunneries, females were taught 
 to read and work, and the daughters of noble- 
 men and gentlemen, as well as of the poorer 
 people, were indebted to the nuns for a large 
 part of whatever knowledge they possessed. 
 Many poor descendants of noble families 
 looked to monasteries for refuge, and having 
 taken the vow, made use of the influence of 
 
 friends to gain high ecclesiastical offices. 
 Many of the monks were men driven to enter 
 religious houses by the pangs of remorse, and 
 who hoped to expiate a career of crimes by se- 
 clusion from the world, and the observance of 
 the most austere rites of the church. These, as 
 well as some who were unaffectedly pious, lived 
 a blameless life ; but there were others whose 
 profligacy was unrepressed, because hidden 
 by that veil of hypocrisy which they closely 
 drew around them. Many monks were skill- 
 ful painters, as the richly illuminated manu- 
 scripts of other days prove, and numerous 
 were the legends of saints, gorgeously bla- 
 zoned upon pages of vellum, that filled the 
 shelves of the holy fathers. Living a life of 
 undisturbed seclusion, those who possessed a 
 literary turn, had ample time to indulge their 
 propensity, though very few literary works 
 of any merit issued from the monasteries. 
 
 The year 305 is that in which the earliest 
 monasteries were established in Egypt, under 
 the conduct of St. Anthony, and hence sprang 
 shortly afterward, many others in various 
 places. In 360, the earliest monastery in 
 France, that of Saint Martin, at Poitiers, was 
 established. In the beginning, monasteries 
 were inhabited by laymen. For more than 
 six centuries all the eastern monasteries were 
 independent of each other, and governed by 
 abbots who were answerable to their bishops 
 only. The first monasteries, in times of 
 trouble and darkness, preserved the spirit of 
 religion, and were sanctuaries in which piety 
 and learning sought refuge from the igno- 
 rance, irreligion, and persecutions of the 
 world. A mild light, denied to the rest of 
 mankind, was shed upon those who took 
 upon themselves the fulfillment of monastic 
 vows. The conduct of the monks was regu- 
 lated by the plain commands of the Scriptures, 
 and antiquity was followed in the celebration 
 of religious ceremonies, and the practice of' 
 Christian virtues. The monks, as remarked 
 above, were, for many centuries, the pre- 
 servers of literature, many valuable works of 
 the present day having been rescued from 
 destruction by monastic libraries. But with 
 the revival of letters, and the triumph of the 
 Reformation, the usefulness of monastic es- 
 tablishments passed away. 
 
 Constantine IV. ordered a vast number of 
 friars and nuns to appear at Ephesus, where 
 
 ABB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 3 
 
 he bade them change their black habits for 
 white, and to destroy their images. They 
 remonstrated that because of their vows, to 
 obey was impossible ; whereupon their eyes 
 were put out, they were banished, and their 
 monasteries forfeited and sold for the uses 
 of the state. The suppression of monastic 
 •houses has been frequent, even in Roman 
 Catholic countries. All those in England 
 were swept away by Henry YITI. Their 
 revenues, treasures, and lands were either 
 retained by the crown or bestowed upon 
 favorite courtiers. 
 
 The diminution of the papal power, and 
 the enlightened spirit of the age, in the 
 eighteenth century, exerted a strong influ- 
 ence upon the public mind with regard to 
 monasteries in Catholic countries, and they 
 lost many of their privileges and much of 
 the protection previously given them by law. 
 Joseph II. of Austria, in 1781, abolished 
 some orders of monasteries and limited the 
 number of inmates in others. In France 
 they were all abolished in 1790. During the 
 reign of Napoleon, all the states incorporated 
 with France, as well as other Catholic <*>un- 
 tries of Europe, abolished them, with the ex- 
 ception of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Austria, 
 Poland, and Russia. Pope Pius VII. pro- 
 cured means for the maintenance of old, and 
 the foundation of new ones in France, Bava- 
 ria, and Naples, while in Austria they became 
 extinct. 
 
 ABBOT, George, born in 1562, and made 
 Archbishop of Canterbury in 1610. He was 
 a cloth-worker, and early remarkable for 
 polemical skill. He strenuously opposed 
 some measures of King James, thereby dis- 
 proving the assertion that he owed his rise 
 to acts more worthy of a courtier than an 
 ecclesiastic. Having the misfortune to kill a 
 gamekeeper of Lord Zouch, he ever afterward 
 fasted upon Tuesday, the day on which the 
 unhappy event took place, fie was sup- 
 planted in favor at court by Laud, and died 
 at the age of seventy-one in 1633. 
 
 ABBOT, Charles, Viscount Colchester, 
 was speaker of the British House of Com- 
 mons, from 1802 to 1817. He was born in 
 1757, and died in 1829. 
 
 ABDICATIONS OF MONARCHS: of 
 Sylla as perpetual dictator of Rome, b.c. 79. 
 Dioclesian, a.d. 304. Ceawlin, king of the 
 
 West Saxons, 593. Henry IV. of Germany, 
 1080. Stephen II. of Hungary, 1114. Al- 
 bert of Saxony, 1142. Lestus V. of Poland, 
 1200. Uladislaus III. of Poland, 1206. John 
 Baliol of Scotland, 1306. Otho of Hungary, 
 1309. Eric IX. of Denmark, 1439. Eric 
 XIII. of Sweden, 1441. Amurath II., em- 
 peror of the Turks, 1447. Charles V. of 
 Germany, and as Charles I. of Spain, 1556. 
 Christina of Sweden, 1654. John Casimir 
 of Poland, 1668. James II. of England 
 (really dethroned), 1688. Frederick Augus- 
 tus II. of Poland, 1704. Philip V. of Spain, 
 1724, January 15th, but resumed the scepter 
 in about fourteen months afterward, on the 
 death of his son Louis, in whose favor he had 
 abdicated. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, 
 1730. Charles of Naples, 1759. Stanislaus 
 of Poland, 1795. Victor of Sardinia, June 
 4th, 1802. Francis II. resigns his title as 
 Emperor of Germany, August 11th, 1804. 
 Charles IV. of Spain, March 19th, 1808. 
 Joseph Bonaparte from Naples to take the 
 crown of Spain, June 1st, 1808; fled before 
 the British from Madrid, July 29th, 1808. 
 Gustavus Adolphus IV. of Sweden, March 
 19th, 1809. Louis Bonaparte of Holland, 
 July 1st, 1810. Jerome Bonaparte of West- 
 phalia, Oct. 20th, 1813. Napoleon Bonaparte 
 of France, April 5th, 1814. Emmanuel of 
 Sardinia, March 13th, 1821. Pedro IV. of 
 Portugal, May 2d, 1826. Charles X. of 
 France, Aug. 2d, 1830. Pedro I. of Brazil, 
 April 7th, 1831. Miguel of Portugal, May 
 26th, 1834. William I. of Holland, Oct. 8th, 
 1840. Christina of Spain (queen dowager 
 and regent), Oct. 12th, 1840. Louis Phil- 
 ippe of France, Feb. 24th, 1848 (deposed 
 immediately afterward). Louis Charles of 
 Bavaria, March 21st, 1848. Ferdinand of 
 Austria, Dec. 2d, 1848. Charles Albert of 
 Sardinia, March 26th, 1849. 
 
 ABEL, son of Waldemar II. of Denmark, 
 gained the scepter by assassinating his brother 
 Eric in 1250. A revolt of the Frisons caused 
 the loss of his life, in 1252. His appellation 
 was certainly a misnomer. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter (properly Abailard, 
 Pierre), was born in 1079, of a noble family, 
 at Palais, near Nantes in Brittany. The stir- 
 ring incidents of his chequered life, and 
 especially his passion for Heloise, with its 
 melancholy fruits, have thrown a peculiar and 
 
 ABE 
 
4 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 romantic charm around the name of Abelard. 
 From his youth he devoted himself to study. 
 Coming to Paris at the age of twenty, and 
 having soon rivaled and eclipsed his tutor, 
 Guillaume de Champeaux, he removed in two 
 years from Paris to Melun, thence to Corbeil, 
 and thence to Palais, his birthplace, teaching 
 philosophy 'all the while with great success. 
 The attractions of Paris soon drew him again 
 to the metropolis, where he attacked the 
 realism of his old master with such dialectic 
 dexterity and vigor, that Champeaux’ s school 
 was speedily extinguished. By and by his 
 antagonist was made Bishop of Chalon-sur- 
 Marne, and Abelard commenced to study 
 theology under Anselm at Laon. Having, 
 by his transcendent talent, made the seminary 
 at Laon his envious enemy, he returned to 
 Paris, and opened a school of divinity with 
 unrivaled popularity. In that school were 
 trained many men, from various countries, 
 who afterward arrived at high ecclesiastical 
 honors ; one pope, nineteen cardinals, and 
 above fifty bishops. In this zenith of his 
 fame, when, according to his own confession, 
 pride and luxury had misled him, he loved 
 and seduced his pupil, Heloise, a young and 
 fatherless lady, not twenty years of age, and 
 a niece of Canon Fulbert, a Parisian ecclesi- 
 astic. Heloise was conveyed to Brittany, and 
 bore a son in the house of Abelard’s sister. 
 The canon insisted upon a marriage, which 
 accordingly took place ; a union which He- 
 loise openly denied, to her uncle’s great vexa- 
 tion. Abelard placed her in the convent, of 
 Argenteuil ; but her uncle took a terrible re- 
 venge for the abduction of his niece. Hired 
 ruffians broke into Abelard’s chamber, and 
 inflicted on his person a disgraceful mutila- 
 tion. Heloise became a nun, and Abelard 
 retired as a monk into the abbey of St. Denis. 
 At length he resumed his prelections, but 
 had the misfortune of being suspected of 
 heresy, and was condemned in 1121, by a 
 council which met at Soissons. He retired 
 to Troyes, and selected a retreat which his 
 subdued and chastened spirit named the Par- 
 aclete, or Comforter; and in this convent 
 Heloise was at length established as superior. 
 But the unfortunate recluse provoked the ire 
 of his neighbor, Bernard of Clairvaux, and 
 a> ?in, for suspected heresy, did the council 
 0 Sens put its brand upon him. He appeal- 
 
 ed to Rome, but did not follow out his appeal. 
 Worn out with fatigue, persecution, and 
 infirmity, he at length took refuge in the 
 priory of St. Marcel, where he died April 
 21st, 1142, at the age of sixty-three. His 
 body, first interred at'Cluni, was soon removed 
 to the Paraclete ; and twenty years afterward 
 Heloise was buried beside him at her own 
 request. Their ashes lay undisturbed for 
 three hundred years ; but in 1497 they were 
 transferred to the church of the abbey ; then 
 in 1800 removed to the garden of the Musee 
 Fran§ais, in Paris; and lastly, in 1817 they 
 were deposited beneath a Gothic shrine in the 
 cemetery of Pere la Chaise. The brilliant 
 talents and oratory of Abelard are beyond 
 dispute. As a subtle and accomplished dia- 
 lectician he had no rival. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., a writer of 
 some note in intellectual philosophy, born at 
 Aberdeen, Scotland, Nov. 11th, 1781 ; attain- 
 ed high rank as a physician at Edinburgh ; 
 died Nov. 14th, 1844. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, an eminent 
 British general, was born in Scotland, in 1788. 
 He Entered the army at eighteen, and rose 
 from cornet to general. He distinguished 
 himself in the Duke of York’s campaigns in 
 Holland, from 1793 to 1795. He was then 
 made commander-in-chief in the West Indies, 
 and conquered several islands from the French. 
 He commanded the expedition to re-conquer 
 Egypt in 1801, and fell at the battle of Alex- 
 andria, March 21st. In this action, by whose 
 decision Egypt was lost to France, Gen. 
 Abercrombie displayed the chivalric valor 
 of a knight of the olden time. Dismounted, 
 and suffering from two mortal wounds, he 
 disarmed his adversary, and gave the sword 
 into the hands of Sir Sydney Smith. He 
 survived about a week. His memory was 
 honored by his countrymen, and a costly 
 monument erected in St. Paul’s, a public 
 token of the respect of England for as brave 
 and true a soldier as ever fought beneath her 
 banner. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John (1763-1831), was a 
 native of the north of Ireland. He was a 
 pupil of John Hunter, and became an emi- 
 nent surgeon in London. He was as eccen- 
 tric and brusque in his manners as he was 
 skillful in his profession. 
 
 ABINGER (James Scarlett), Lord, an 
 
 ABI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 5 
 
 eminent English barrister and judge, was 
 born in Jamaica, about 1769, of an influential 
 West Indian family. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge and the Middle Temple, and was called 
 to the bar in 1791. He was a successful 
 lawyer ; sat in parliament, at first acting with 
 the Whigs ; going over to the Tories, he was- 
 attorney-general under Canning, and after- 
 ward under Wellington. In 1834 he was 
 made chief baron • of the exchequer, and 
 raised to the peerage by the title of Baron 
 Abinger. He died April 7th, 1844, of paraly- 
 sis, by which he was attacked while on the 
 circuit. 
 
 ABOUKIR, the site of the ancient Cano- 
 pus, is an Arabian village containing but 
 about a hundred inhabitants. Its bay is spa- 
 cious, and has, upon the western side, a castle 
 of considerable strength. It is thirteen miles 
 north-east of Alexandria, upon the coast of 
 Egypt. Aboukir is rendered famous by the 
 important naval battle fought here between 
 the French and English fleets, the latter com- 
 manded by Admiral Nelson, «on the 1st of 
 August, 1798. Bonaparte’s army was con- 
 veyed to Egypt by the French fleet, which 
 sailed from the harbor of Toulon, on the 1 9th 
 of May, 1798. As soon as intelligence of 
 this reached the English fleet before Cadiz, 
 Admiral St. Vincent despatched Rear-Admiral 
 Nelson with fourteen ships of the line, to the 
 Mediterranean, with orders to find and attack 
 the French fleet. Nelson, burning for fame, 
 and eager to meet the enemy, at length found 
 them in the road of Aboukir. The signal for 
 battle was immediately given. The French 
 captains, who had been assembled on board 
 the admiral’s ship, hastened to their posts, 
 and an English ship instantly commenced 
 the attack. The* French fleet was disposed 
 in the form of a crescent, following the curve 
 of the bay, and anchored as close as possible 
 to an island on which was erected a powerful 
 battery of cannon and mortars. Nelson or- 
 dered a part of his fleet to break through 
 between the island and the French line of 
 battle, and to coast along until they gained 
 the enemy *s rear, while the remainder of the 
 English fleet approached the enemy’s front, 
 and anchored within pistol-shot. These or- 
 ders were executed with skill and daring, 
 and, at half past six in the evening, the battle 
 began, just as the setting sun threw a fiery 
 
 hue upon the fearful scene. The fire of the 
 English was well directed and deadly. At 
 the end of one hour, five French ships were 
 disabled and captured. Admiral Brueys was 
 shot as he was directing the fight from his 
 ship 1’ Orient. After the admiral was shot, 
 Capt. Casabianca and crew, determined to 
 maintain the honor of the flag-ship, fought 
 her with great spirit. L’ Orient, blew up after 
 having been fought for four hours. She was 
 a superb vessel, a hundred-and-twenty gun 
 ship, with a crew of a thousand men, out of 
 whom but eighty or ninety were saved from 
 destruction. The scene of the combat must 
 have been awfully sublime, for the cannon- 
 ading continued all night, and day dawned 
 upon a scene of destruction and dismay. The 
 French suffered severely. Only two of their 
 ships of the line, and two frigates, got off 
 clear. Nine ships of the line were taken, 
 one blown up, and one frigate sunk. The 
 French themselves set fire to and burned a 
 ship of the line and a frigate. The success 
 of the British was a severe blow to Bona- 
 parte, as it cut off his communication with 
 France, and inspired his enemies with fresh 
 hope and resolution, giving spirit to the coali- 
 tion formed against the power which had so 
 suddenly attained a giant strength. The con- 
 flict is also sometimes called the battle of the 
 Nile: it obtained the victorious admiral a 
 peerage, by the title of Baron Nelson of the 
 Nile. His exclamation upon going into the 
 fight was, “ Victory or W estminster Abbey ! ” 
 Aboukir was also the point where Abercrom- 
 bie’s forces debarked, and it surrendered to 
 him after an obstinate and sanguinary strug- 
 gle with the French, March 8th, 1801. 
 
 ABRADATES, a king of Susa, of whom 
 Xenophon relates that his wife, Panthea, 
 having been taken prisoner by Cyrus, was 
 well treated, in consequence of which her 
 husband joined the troops of he conqueror, 
 but was killed in the very first battle which 
 he fought for him. His wife, in despair, 
 killed herself upon his corpse. Both were 
 honored and lamented by Cyrus. 
 
 ABRUZZO is divided into three provinces : 
 Abruzzo Citra, and Abruzzo Ultra, I. and II. ; 
 so named from their relative position with re- 
 gard to Naples. It is the northern extremity 
 of the Neapolitan kingdom, and bounded on 
 the north and west by the territories of the 
 
 ABR 
 
6 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 church, and on the east by the Adriatic. Its 
 population in 1845 was estimated at 825,940. 
 The country is crossed in all directions by 
 the lofty Apennines and their off-shoots. 
 The spring rains and thaws often swell the 
 streams to such an extent, that bridges are 
 swept away, and all communication broken 
 up. The inhabitants of the valleys, which 
 are fertile, are generally shepherds, and fine 
 herds feed upon the eminences and pasturage 
 spots of the valleys. Abruzzo is a very im- 
 portant division of the Neapolitan states, of 
 which it constitutes the chief defense on the 
 land. side. During the numerous invasions 
 and civil wars of that kingdom it has often 
 been the scene of protracted contests. The 
 chief towns are, Chieti, population 15,000; 
 Teramo, population 10,000; Aquila, popula- 
 tion 14,000. 
 
 ABULFEDA, or Ishmael, prince of Hamah 
 in Syria; an Arabian, famous for his historical 
 and geographical writings, and surnamed the 
 Pillar of Religion, and the Prince of Victory. 
 He was a native of Damascus, and born a.d. 
 1273. Although inheriting the throne of 
 Hamah from his uncle, he was debarred for a 
 long time from the enjoyment of his rights, 
 but when gained, the kingdom remained un- 
 disturbed under his sway, until the time of 
 his death, which took place a.d. 1333. 
 
 ABYDOS, a city on the Asiatic side of the 
 Dardanelles, of Milesian origin, famed for the 
 bridge of boats constructed by order of 
 Xerxes, and familiar to all readers as the res- 
 idence of Hero, the mistress of Leander, who 
 swam the Hellespont to meet her, until 
 
 “ That night of stormy water, 
 
 When Love — who sent — forgot to save 
 
 The lone, the beautiful, the brave, 
 
 The only hope of Sestos’ daughter.” 
 
 Lord Byron, whose lines we quote, per- 
 formed Leander’ s feat in company with Mr. 
 Ekenhead, an Englishman. The turbulence 
 of the currents renders the passage a critical 
 undertaking. The inhabitants of Abydos 
 gallantly defended their city against Philip 
 of Macedon. 
 
 Another Abydos in Upper Egypt, was 
 famed for the magnificence of the palace of 
 Memnon and the temple of Osiris. Some 
 splendid ruins, manifesting its former grand- 
 eur, are to be found in the village of El- 
 Rherbeh. 
 
 ABYSSINIA is a large tract of elevated 
 table-land in eastern Africa, the north-eastern 
 edge of which is directed toward the Red 
 Sea, and is from thirty to sixty miles from 
 the coast. It lies between 8° 30' and 15° 40 
 N. lat., and between 35° and 42° E. long., and 
 is drained by the principal branches of the 
 Nile. The name is thought by most authors 
 to be derived from the Arabic Habesh , which 
 signifies a mixed people. The Portuguese 
 gave this country the name of Prester or 
 Presbyter John’s empire, but it appears that 
 there is no foundation for the supposition that 
 any such person ever dwelt or was heard of 
 in Abyssinia. The ancients, who were very 
 little acquainted with the kingdom, represent- 
 ed its extent as far greater than the reality 
 proved. Its three grand divisions are Tigre, 
 Amhara, and Shoa and Efat. There is an 
 ancient tradition that Abyssinia was the 
 kingdom of Sheba or Seba, the visit of whose 
 queen to Solomon is spoken of in the sacred 
 writings, and that the Queen of Sheba had a 
 son, of whom Solomon was the father. From 
 this prince, whose name was Menileh, the 
 sovereigns of Abyssinia claimed to be de- 
 scended. The Jewish religion, some think, 
 was prevalent in Abyssinia until nearly the 
 middle of the. fourth century, when mission- 
 aries from Alexandria converted the people 
 to Christianity. Others conjecture that Abys- 
 sinia was the kingdom of that queen Can- 
 dace, whose eunuch was baptized by Philip, 
 and that Candace and her people embraced 
 the same faith. In the fifteenth century the 
 Portuguese assisted the Abyssinian monarch 
 against his enemies and in return he adopted 
 the Catholic religion. The Romish priests 
 were finally expelled in 1632. 
 
 For more than a century this country has 
 been in anarchy. There is a sovereign, but 
 his authority is only nominal, and civil wars 
 are frequent. The population is estimated at 
 between three and four millions. The bulk of 
 the people are of the Circassian race. There 
 are many Mohammedans in the land, but the 
 prevailing faith is Coptic Christianity. The 
 head of the church, called Abuna, (meaning 
 “our father”), receives his ordination from 
 the Archbishop of Alexandria. Wheat and 
 barley are grown; in some places Indian 
 corn, and in others cotton. The country is 
 poor in minerals. Iron-ore of good quality 
 
 ABY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 7 
 
 is found. Rock salt is found abundantly in the 
 eastern extremity of Tigre, and the common 
 currency consists of pieces in the shape of 
 a whetstone, weighing nineteen or twenty 
 ounces. The manufactures are rude, but 
 what progress in these the Abyssinians have 
 made, is original, for they have had little in- 
 tercourse with Europeans. They tan skins 
 well, make rough iron implements, and weave 
 coarse cotton cloth. Coarse black pottery is 
 made in every part of the country. They 
 have some traffic with the interior of Africa, 
 in slaves, ivory, coffee, civet, gold, cloth, iron, 
 and cattle. 
 
 The first ruler who established supremacy 
 over the petty princes and consolidated the 
 country into one empire, was King Theodore 
 (real name Kassai), who acceded to the 
 throne in 1855. He involved himself in a 
 war with England by imprisoning some of 
 her subjects, and was killed at the capture of 
 his fortress, Magdala, by the English, April 
 1868. In Aug. 1868, King Gobazie, the ruler 
 of Waag, declared himself Emperor of all 
 Abyssinia, and was crowned at Gondar in 
 September of the same year. 
 
 Bruce gives a sorry picture of the people. 
 The punishments in Abyssinia are severe, 
 and frequently as well as unfeelingly inflicted. 
 Death on the cross, hanging, stoning to death, 
 flaying alive, and plucking out the eyes, stand 
 foremost in the dark catalogue. Their fes- 
 tivities are disgraced by the most revolting 
 practices. When the guests are assembled, 
 the cooks cut steaks from the cattle at the 
 door while they are yet alive, and roaring 
 with agony. The guests wipe their fingers 
 upon the cakes which they afterward eat. 
 The people are illiterate and depraved, and 
 their whole country exhibits the appearance 
 of hopeless wretchedness and poverty. 
 
 ACARNANIA, a division of ancient Greece, 
 now II Carnia, or II Despotato, Albania, was 
 formerly called Curetis, a country of Epirus, 
 separated from iEtolia by the Achelous, and 
 long an independent state. After having 
 been conquered by the Romans, it was per- 
 mitted to retain its own laws until the de- 
 struction of Corinth by Mummius, when it 
 Was united to the province of Achaia. 
 
 ACHAIA was a narrow strip of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and stretching along the Bay of 
 Corinth. The name is sometimes employed 
 
 by the early poets to distinguish all Greece. 
 After Greece became a Roman province, 
 Achaia included all the Grecian states but 
 Macedonia and Thessaly. Eighty years after 
 the Trojan war, the descendants of Achaeus, 
 who first dwelt in the country near Argos, 
 being driven out by the Heraclidse, seized 
 upon the twelve Ionian cities, and kept them. 
 These were Pellene, ^Egira, iEges, Bura, 
 Tritaea, iEgion, Rhypse, Olenos, Helice, Pa- 
 trae, Dyme, and Pharae. These twelve little 
 states of Achaia were independent republics, 
 and were combined in the famous confederacy 
 known as the Achaian League, about b.c. 
 281. This was much like the federal union of 
 our own states. Aratus and Philopcemen by 
 their talents and bravery raised it to a high 
 rank. It was conquered by the Romans 
 146 b.c. 
 
 ACHILLAS, a general of Ptolemy, and 
 the murderer of Pompey the Great. 
 
 ACHILLES, as the poets tell us, was the 
 son of Peleus, a Thessalian king, and Thetis, 
 daughter of Nereus, grandson of iEacus. 
 Thetis, in order to preserve her beautiful boy 
 from the dangers of war, dipped him in the 
 Styx (a river of hell), which rendered him 
 invulnerable, with the exception of the heel 
 by which she held him. Having been warned 
 that if Achilles went to the Trojan war, he 
 would meet death after a glorious career, while, 
 in remaining at home, he would attain a good 
 old age, Thetis disguised her boy in a female 
 ' dress, and sent him, under the name of Pyrrha, 
 to be educated at the court of Lycomedes, 
 king of Scyros, who brought him up with 
 his daughters. The Greeks were informed 
 by the prophet Chalcas, that Troy could not 
 be taken without the aid of Achilles, and 
 accordingly, Ulysses, the most wily of the 
 Greeks, went as a merchant to the court of 
 Lycomedes. Here he was surrounded by the 
 princesses, before whose eager eyes he spread 
 out his sparkling store, taking care to mingle 
 implements of war with feminine articles. 
 While the daughters of the king seized upon 
 the trinkets, Achilles possessed himself of 
 the arms. The gleaming breastplate and the 
 burnished spear ill matched the garb he wore, 
 and the fiery young hero was soon induced 
 to cast it off, and take part with the Greeks 
 in their expedition. Phoenix and the Cen- 
 taur Chiron had instructed him in mental 
 
 ACH 
 
8 
 
 ^OTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and bodily accomplishments, and the former 
 accompanied him to Troy. Achilles is one of 
 the bravest and most beautiful of the Homeric 
 heroes, being the subject of some of the 
 finest verses in the “ Iliad.” The following 
 glowing description is from the nineteenth 
 book of the immortal poem. 
 
 “ In the midst was arm’d the godlike Achilles, 
 Grinding his teeth, and whose eyes 
 Roll’d glowing like a flash of fire, into whose 
 heart 
 
 Enter’d intolerable pain : raving against the 
 Trojans, 
 
 He donn’d the gifts divine which the artist Vul- 
 can had made for him. 
 
 First around his thighs he placed the cuishes 
 Beautifully form’d, and fix’d with silver clasps, 
 Next the cuirass on his chest he placed, 
 
 Then around his shoulders he threw the baldric 
 of his sword studded with silver knobs 
 And brass : and then his shield, large and broad, 
 He took, whose refulgence spread far and wide 
 like that of the moon, 
 
 As when from the sea, there shines to mariners 
 a beam 
 
 Of flaming fire, which blazed aloft from the 
 mountains, 
 
 In a shepherd’s solitude : them reluctant, the 
 tempests 
 
 Bear far away from their friends over the fishy 
 sea : 
 
 In like manner the gleam mounted heavenward 
 from Achilles’ shield 
 
 Beautiful, Dsedalaean. His mighty helmet up- 
 lifting 
 
 On his head he placed ; like a star, shone 
 Che horsehair-crested helmet : there waved 
 around him the hair 
 
 Ox gold, with which in great abundance Vulcan 
 had surrounded the crest. 
 
 The godlike Achilles essayed himself in his 
 armor, 
 
 Whether it might fit him, at d if his fair limbs 
 should move easily : 
 
 To him it was like wings, iilid buoyed up the 
 Shepherd of the people. 
 
 From the sheath his paternal spear he drew, 
 Ponderous, huge, strong: which none other of 
 the Greeks was able 
 
 To brandish, and which Achilles alone knew how 
 to rear, 
 
 — That ashen spear of Peleus which Chiron had 
 hewed for his father 
 
 From the summit of Pelion, — to be death to 
 heroes ! ” 
 
 Achilles proved himself no wavering or 
 weak partisan. His presence was a host, but 
 he also sailed with fifty ships well manned, 
 and destroyed twelve island cities, and eleven 
 on the main-land. Minerva and Juno aided 
 him. Agamemnon, whom the Greeks had 
 chosen their leader, having taken prisoner 
 
 Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of 
 Apollo, was forced to restore the maid to 
 avert from the Greeks the plague which 
 Apollo, moved by the prayers of his aged 
 worshiper, sent upon them. Agamemnon 
 offended Achilles by taking fiom him his 
 beautiful captive, Briseis, daughter of Brises, 
 and wife of Mines, king of Lyrnessus. En- 
 raged at his loss, the formidable warrior re- 
 tired from the field, permitting the Trojan 
 Hector to carry terror and slaughter through 
 the ranks of the Greeks. He, however, suf- 
 fered his friend Patroclus to assume his arms, 
 and take the field at the head nf his own 
 warriors ; but this hero soon fell beneath the 
 arm of Hector. Burning to revenge the death 
 of his friend, Achilles determined again to 
 confront the Trojans. His mother brought 
 him the splendid arms which Vulcan had 
 forged for him, so finely described above. 
 Again he burned with a warrior’s ardor, was 
 reconciled to Agamemnon, and, refreshed by 
 nectar and ambrosia sent by Minerva, plunged 
 into the heat of battle. 
 
 Achilles speedily rolled back the tide of 
 war. He pursued the retreating Trojans into 
 the river Xanthus, which became choked 
 with bodies, and crimson with carnage. The 
 river-god, resenting this sanguinary pursuit 
 as an insult, comman^bd Achilles to desist, and 
 on the refusal of the impetuous warrior, over- 
 flowed his banks, and opposed him, assisted 
 by the waters of Simois. The west and south 
 winds, and the aid of Vulcan, sent by Juno, 
 chastised the assumption of the river-god and 
 reduced him to his original limits. Achilles 
 was only prevented from taking the city by 
 the interference of Apollo, the protector of 
 the Trojans. Hector confronted and fought 
 Achilles, by whom he was slain. His body, 
 after being attached to the chariot of the vic- 
 tor, and dragged round the city, was ran- 
 somed by Priam, the venerable father of the 
 slain warrior. Achilles, falling in love with 
 Polyxena, daughter of Priam, purchased her 
 hand by a promise to defend Troy ; but while 
 standing at the altar with her, an arrow from 
 the bow of Paris pierced his heel and slew 
 him. His body was a prize for which a fierce 
 contest arose. The Greeks sacrificed his 
 bride upon his tomb, according to his dying 
 request, that he might enjoy her society in 
 the Elysian fields, the paradise of the heathen 
 
 ACII 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 9 
 
 Alexander the Great, who venerated and im- 
 itated Homeric heroes, visited the tomb of 
 Achilles, and crowned it, saying, “Achilles 
 was happy in having Patroclus for a friend, 
 and Homer for a poet.” 
 
 ACHMET I., sultan of the Turks, began to 
 reign in 1603, and died in 1617. The tran- 
 quillity of this sovereign was disturbed by 
 insurrections, and the intrigues of a pretender 
 to his throne. Achmet II. was sultan of the 
 Turks from 1691 to 1695. Achmet III., son 
 of Mahomet IV., was raised to the throne of 
 the Ottoman empire, in 1705, by the revolt 
 of the Janizaries, who deposed his brother, 
 Mustapha II. Achmet, although he appre- 
 hended and punished the leaders of the revolt, 
 yet availed himself of the fruits of their 
 crime. His reign, however, was by no means 
 passed in tranquillity, and repeated changes 
 of the viziers marked the insecurity felt by 
 the monarch. Achmet placed his principal 
 reliance on the power of gold, which he 
 sometimes used for good ends. When Charles 
 XII. had been defeated at Pultowa, he was 
 hospitably received at the Turkish court, 
 where his intrigues soon kindled the flame 
 of war between Russia and Turkey; but 
 Achmet III. was unable to compete with 
 Peter the Great, and the military views of 
 his vizier were by no “means clear. When 
 the fortunes of the czar were in the hands 
 of the Turks on the borders of the Pruth, the 
 Muscovite purchased of the vizier permission 
 to retreat, but surrendered Azof to the Otto- 
 mans. Against the Venetians Achmet was 
 more successful, wresting the Morea from 
 their grasp in a single campaign. But the 
 imperialists, under the able conduct of Prince 
 Eugene of Savoy, trampled on the laurels of 
 the Turks, and humbled the pride of their 
 sultan. Achmet, by the loss of Peterwaradin, 
 and the taking of Belgrade and Temeswar, 
 was forced to sign the treaty of Passarowitz. 
 In 1718, the sultan lost Temeswar, Orsoa, 
 Belgrade, Servia, and part of Wallachia; a 
 loss which was compensated, in the ensuing 
 year, by his Persian successes. A revolt of 
 the Janizaries made Achmet sultan, and a 
 similar rebellion hurled him from the throne 
 in 1730. The celebrated Caliph Patrona 
 headed this revolt. Achmet went in person 
 to seek his nephew, Mahmoud I., and, saluting 
 him as ruler, said, “ Profit by my example. 
 
 Had I always adhered to my old policy of 
 permitting my vizier but a short stay in office, 
 I should have ended my reign as triumph- 
 antly as I commenced it. Farewell ! May 
 your career be happier than mine! I com- 
 mend to your especial care my son.” He 
 then went into the obscurity of that prison 
 from which he had drawn his nephew. He 
 died of apoplexy, on the 23d of June, 1736. 
 Achmet possessed a brilliant wit, and much 
 shrewdness, with a ready turn for public 
 business. He loved money, and was the first 
 to levy imposts on the Turks, but he was no 
 less attached to science, which he patronized. 
 He established the first printing-press at Con- 
 stantinople, 1727. He was fond of pleasure, 
 and the Turks yet cherish the recollection 
 of those splendid festivals at Constantinople, 
 which sprang from his luxury, and were 
 graced by his presence. Achmet gave con- 
 certs of nightingales, numbers of those birds 
 being inclosed in cages, delighting the court 
 with their rare and plaintive melody. 
 
 ACRE, called also, Akka, St. Jean d’Acre, 
 and, in the middle ages, Ptolemais, is a town 
 on the coast of Syria. The famous Mount 
 Carmel overlooks the city, which contains 
 16,000 inhabitants, and is the emporium of 
 the cotton trade of Syria. Its harbor is good, 
 although containing many sand-banks. Acre 
 has been a noted scene in war. It was taken 
 by Richard I. and other crusaders, July 12th, 
 1191, after a siege of two years, which cost 
 the lives of six archbishops, twelve bishops, 
 forty earls, five hundred barons, and three 
 hundred thousand soldiers. It was held by 
 the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem till 
 1291, when it was retaken by the Saracens. 
 Sixty thousand Christians perished in this 
 capture, which was also memorable for the 
 slaughter of the nuns, who had mangled 
 their faces to avoid the lust of the conquerors. 
 In the siege of Acre by Bonaparte in 1799, 
 the Turks were relieved by a British fleet 
 under Sir Sydney Smith. Twelve assaults 
 were repulsed between March 6th and May 
 27th. Baffled by the British squadron on 
 the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte 
 raised the siege. On the retreat from St„ 
 Jean d’Acre, it is said that a body of French 
 soldiers, who were sick of the plague, were 
 poisoned by order of Bonaparte ; but this 
 has been frequently denied. Of the kindness 
 
 ACR 
 
10 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of Bonaparte to his sick soldiers we have 
 many proofs. Louis Philippe, when king of 
 the French, having his attention called to an 
 old veteran who had been in the army of 
 Napoleon, rode up and shook hands with him. 
 The old man was not flattered. “When I 
 was sick with the plague at Jaffa, 5 ’ said he, 
 bluntly, “the emperor shook hands with me; 
 but he didn’t have gloves on.” The siege of 
 St. Jean d’Acre lasted sixty-one days, and 
 was attended with great loss to both parties. 
 Acre was seized by Ibrahim Pacha in 1832 
 when Egypt revolted from Turkish rule. In 
 1840 it was stormed by an Anglo-Austrian 
 fleet, given up by the Egyptians, and restored 
 to the sultan. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory on the Gulf of 
 Arta on the western coast of Greece, at the 
 extremity of Acarnania. Here was fought 
 
 the most memorable naval battle of antiquity, 
 since the stake was the empire of the world, 
 Sept. 2d, b.c. 31. The leaders of the hostile 
 forces were Marc Antony and Octavius. The 
 latter had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, 
 and 260 ships of war; while Antony had 
 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 
 ships of war. The battle was hotly contested. 
 Cleopatra, the beautiful Egyptian queen who 
 had captivated Antony, seized with a panic, 
 fled from the battle with her sixty galleys, 
 the most brilliant vessels brought into action. 
 Antony, whose energies had been prostrated 
 by dissipation, followed his leman, and a dis- 
 graceful rout among the troops on shore com- 
 pleted his ruin, while the sovereignty of the 
 world was the prize of Octavius, afterward 
 Augustus Caesar. 
 
 RESIDENCE OF ADAMS FAMILY, QUINCY, MASS. 
 
 ADAMS, John, the second president of the 
 United States, was born October 19th (o.s.), 
 1735, in that part of Braintree, Mass., which 
 has since been incorporated as the town of 
 Quincy. He was the fourth in descent from 
 Henry Adams, who fled from persecution in 
 Devonshire, and settled in Massachusetts, 
 about 1 630. Another of his ancestors was 
 John Alden, one of the pilgrim founders of 
 
 Ptymouth. He received his early education 
 in his native town, and in 1751 entered Har- 
 vard College, where he graduated in regular 
 course four years afterward. He commenced 
 the study of law at Worcester with Mr. James 
 Putnam, defraying his expenses by his in- 
 come as instructor in Greek and Latin. In 
 1758 Mr. Adams entered the office of Jeremy 
 Gridley, attorney-general of the province, 
 
 ADA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 11 
 
 who had previously directed the law studies 
 of James Otis, and who, in allusion to his 
 two talented pupils, said, “ I have trained up 
 two young eagles, who are, one day or other, 
 to pick out my eyes.” In 1759, Mr. Adams 
 was admitted to the Suffolk bar, and com- 
 menced practice in Braintree. In' 1761, he 
 was admitted to the degree of barrister at 
 law, and very soon afterward his father’s 
 decease put him in possession of a small 
 landed property. In the February of this 
 year the British cabinet enjoined the Massa- 
 chusetts custom-house officers to execute 
 their oppressive acts of trade, applying to the 
 supreme provincial judicature for writs of 
 assistance, a kind of general search-warrants. 
 The applications made in consequence to the 
 court at Salem, were resisted on the ground 
 of their unconstitutionality. When it was 
 determined to argue the matter by counsel 
 in Boston, Mr. Otis was engaged to defend 
 the rights of the Salem and Boston mer- 
 chants, and, that he might do it with the 
 more freedom, he relinquished his lucrative 
 office of advocate-general in the court of 
 admiralty. Mr. Adams, who took a deep 
 interest in the affair, was present at the dis- 
 cussion, and thus eulogizes the orator : “ Otis 
 was a flame of fire ! With a promptitude of 
 classical allusion, a depth of research, a rapid 
 summary of historical events and dates, a 
 profusion of legal authorities, a prophetic 
 glance of his eyes into futurity, and a rapid 
 torrent of impetuous eloquence, he hurried 
 away all before him. American independence 
 was then and there born .” 
 
 In 1764, Mr. Adams married Abigail, 
 daughter of the Rev. William Smith, of Wey- 
 mouth, and grand-daughter of Col. Quincy. 
 She was a lady of uncommon endowments 
 and excellent education, and her patriotism 
 and piety rendered her worthy of her hus- 
 band. He had previously imbibed a preju- 
 dice against the prevailing religious opinions 
 of New England. He was Unitarian in his 
 predilections, and a firm believer in the 
 Christian faith. In 1765, he published anon- 
 ymously a series of articles in the Boston 
 Gazette , under the title of “An Essay on 
 Canon and Feudal Law,” the object of which 
 was to show the conspiracy between church 
 and state to oppress the people. It was re- 
 
 printed in England and gained high com', 
 mendation. 
 
 In 1766, by the advice of Mr. Gridley, he 
 removed to Boston, where his superior talents 
 soon won him a prosperous practice. At an 
 earlier period of life he had turned his 
 thoughts to politics and the condition of 
 the harassed colonies. Soon after leaving 
 college, he wrote a letter to a friend, dated at 
 Worcester, Oct. 12th, 1755, which evinces so 
 remarkable a foresight that it is fortunate it 
 has been preserved. “ Soon after the refor- 
 mation, a few people came over into this new 
 world for conscience’ sake. Perhaps this 
 apparently trivial incident may transfer the 
 great seat of empire into America. It looks 
 likely to me, if we can remove the turbulent 
 Gallics, our people, according to the exactest 
 computation, will, in another century, become 
 more numerous than England herself. The 
 only way to keep us from setting up for our- 
 selves, is to disunite us. Divide et impera. 
 Keep us in distinct colonies, and then some 
 great men in each colony, desiring the mon- 
 archy of the whole, will destroy each other’s 
 influence and keep the country in equilibrio. 
 Be not surprised that I am turned politician : 
 the whole town is immersed in politics. I sit 
 and hear, and, after being led through a maze 
 of sage observations, I sometimes retire, and, 
 by laying things together, form some reflec- 
 tions pleasing to myself. The produce of one 
 of these reveries you have read above.” 
 
 After his removal to Boston, the friends of 
 the crown attempted to lure him by the offer 
 of the office of advocate-general in the court 
 of admiralty, but he refused “ decidedly and 
 peremptorily, though respectfully.” He was 
 appointed, in 1769, chairman of the commit- 
 tee chosen by the town of Boston tt> draw up 
 instructions to their representatives to resist 
 the unpardonable and increasing encroach- 
 ments of the crown. At this time the indig- 
 nation of the friends of liberty was excited 
 by the presence of an armed force in the 
 town, while a band of hirelings surrounded 
 the state-house, and cannon menaced its 
 doors. Mr. Adams displayed his sense of 
 honor and firmness by advocating the cause 
 of the soldiers who, when attacked by the 
 mob, in State street, on the 5 th of March, 
 1770, fired upon them and killed several. 
 
 ADA 
 
12 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Such was the excitement of the public mind 
 that a word in defense of the British was 
 almost sure of being punished by the loss of 
 popularity, and yet, Adams, in company with 
 Josiah Quincy and Mr. Blowers, scrupled not 
 to defend the soldiers on their trial. In con- 
 sequence of this, all were acquitted but two, 
 who, being found guilty of manslaughter’ 
 were dismissed with a slight branding. But 
 in May, 1770, Mr. Adams received a proof 
 that he had not lost favor with his fellow- 
 citizens, being chosen a representative of the 
 town of Boston in the legislature. The active 
 part which he took in resisting despotism in 
 every shape, and espousing the cause of his 
 countrymen in every way, brought him under 
 the displeasure of Gov. Hutchinson, who 
 negatived the choice of Mr. Adams as coun- 
 cilor, in 1773. In 1774, Gov. Gage also re- 
 jected him, and he was soon chosen member 
 of the committee employed to prepare reso- 
 lutions on the Boston port-bill. That same 
 year Gov. Gage dissolved the assembly. 
 Before separation, Thomas Cushing, Samuel 
 Adams, John Adams, and Robert Treat Paine 
 had been chosen to act as delegates in the 
 first continental congress. 
 
 Mr. Adams took his seat in Congress on 
 the first day of the session, September 5 th, 
 1774. He was. one of the most efficient and 
 able advocates of liberty, and his voice was 
 decided for prompt and vigorous action. The 
 following spring he was instrumental in put- 
 ting Washington at the head of the army. 
 He was the adviser and great supporter of 
 the Declaration of Independence. May 6th, 
 1776, Mr. Adams moved a resolution, recom- 
 mending the colonies “to adopt such a gov- 
 ernment as would, in the opinion of the 
 representatives of the people, bes.t conduce 
 to the happiness and safety of their constitu- 
 ents and of America.” It was not without a 
 hard struggle that this passed on the 15th of 
 the same month, and preluded Richard Henry 
 Lee’s daring resolution of the 7th of June 
 following, declaring the dissolution of the 
 connection with Great Britain. On the 4th 
 of July, the Declaration of Independence, 
 with but few alterations from the words of 
 Mr. Jefferson, passed. The committee who 
 had been chosen to prepare it was composed 
 of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin 
 Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. 
 
 Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Adams 
 were deputed a sub-committee to prepare the 
 instrument, and the former did so at the in- 
 stigation of the latter. The declaration did 
 not pass without the most strenuous opposi- 
 tion by many members, including some lead- 
 ing and able men. Mr. Adams overcame all 
 arguments offered against it, by an over- 
 whelming torrent of splendid eloquence. In 
 the words of Mr. Jefferson, “the great pillar 
 of support to the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence, and its ablest advocate and champion 
 on the floor of the house, was John Adams.” 
 His speech on the subject of independence is 
 said to have been unrivaled. Mr. Webster 
 has done honor to the style and sentiments 
 of Mr. Adams, in alluding to his brightest 
 effort. He tells us that he spoke right on, and 
 that the torrent of his manly reasoning car- 
 ried conviction along with it. Mr. Webster 
 gives what we may well suppose to be a por- 
 tion of Mr. Adams’s speech, concluding with 
 this powerful and patriotic language. “ Sink 
 or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am 
 for the declaration. Living, it is my living 
 sentiment, and, by the blessing of God, it 
 shall be my dying sentiment — Independence 
 now and independence forever ! ” 
 
 On the recall of Silas Deane, who (with 
 Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee) was a com- 
 missioner at the court of Versailles, Mr. 
 Adams was appointed to fill his place, Nov. 
 28th, 1777. Mr. Adams, embarking on board 
 the frigate Boston, arrived safely at his place 
 of destination, notwithstanding the efforts of 
 an English fleet to intercept him. On his 
 return, in the summer of 1779, being chosen 
 member of the convention to form a plan of 
 government for Massachusetts, he was placed 
 upon the sub-committee whose task it was to 
 draught the plan of a constitution. His plan 
 was, in most of its important features, adopted 
 by the convention. He went abroad again 
 upon public business and visited Holland and 
 France. The definite treaty of peace which 
 he visited Paris to negotiate, in 1782, with 
 Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, Mr. Laurens, and Mr. 
 Jefferson for colleagues, was ratified, Jan. 
 14th, 1784. The next year Mr. Adams was 
 appointed the first minister to London, an 
 office at that time peculiarly delicate and in- 
 teresting. His reception by George III. was 
 favorable and courteous, but the cabinet were 
 
 ADA 
 
HISTORY AND 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 13 
 
 cold and unfriendly, and Mr. Adams was 
 unable to negotiate a commercial treaty. 
 Having assisted in forming treaties with 
 Prussia and Morocco, he resigned, and in 
 June, 1788, arrived in *his native land after 
 an absence of nearly nine years. That fall 
 he was chosen vice-president, the first elected 
 under the new constitution, and was re-elected 
 in 1792. On the resignation of Washington, 
 Mr. Adams was chosen president, entering 
 upon office March 4th, 1797. The adminis- 
 tration of Mr. Adams though at first popular, 
 was strongly opposed toward its close. At 
 the expiration of his term he was the candi- 
 date of the Federal party for re-election. He 
 Was defeated, and was succeeded by Mr. 
 Jefferson, his warm personal friend and de- 
 cided political adversary. 
 
 After Mr. Adams’s retirement from public 
 life, he occupied himself M T ith literary and 
 agricultural pursuits at his seat at Quincy, 
 and with the exception of severe afflictions, 
 the loss of his wife in 1818, and the death 
 of his only daughter in 1813, his days glided 
 calmly away until the 4th of July, 1826. 
 On that day he died, with the sentiment upon 
 his lips which he had uttered with such force 
 fifty years before upon the floor of Congress — 
 independence forever ! On the morning of 
 that eventful day, the peals of the bells and 
 the report of cannon awakened him. He was 
 asked if he knew what day it was. “Oh! 
 yes,” he replied, “it is the glorious Fourth 
 of July: God bless it, God bless you all!” 
 In the course of the day, he said, “ It is a 
 great and glorious day ! ” Before his death, 
 he said, “ Jefferson survives.” He was mis- 
 taken. On that very day, an hour after noon, 
 Jefferson breathed his last. 
 
 The services of John Adams to the cause 
 of independence were unsurpassed. They 
 were not so readily appreciated by the people, 
 as exploits in the field, and though he was 
 of great worth in the public councils, others 
 may have outshone him there. But he was 
 an indefatigable man of business, lofty in his 
 patriotism and honest in his devotion to what 
 he considered the true interests of the coun- 
 try. He has been called the Great Leader of 
 the American Revolution. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy (sixth president 
 of the United States, and the son of JohTi 
 Adams, the second president), was born at 
 
 Braintree, July 11th, 1767. The boy was 
 cradled and bred amid the most ardent pat- 
 riotism, and when but a lad of nine years, 
 heard the first reading of the Declaration of 
 Independence from the old state-house in 
 Boston. His father took him abroad, and he 
 studied at the public school of Amsterdam 
 and the university of Leyden. In 1781, Fran- 
 cis Dana, of Massachusetts, who had been 
 designated as minister to Russia, selected 
 young Adams as his private secretary. In 
 the winter of 1782-3 he returned to Holland, 
 and till May, 1785, he was chiefly with his 
 father in England, Holland, and France. It 
 was at this time, that he became acquainted 
 with Mr. Jefferson, who was his father’s in- 
 timate friend and then minister at Paris. 
 
 He was now a youth of eighteen. His life 
 had been one of unusual wandering and 
 changes. His studies had been interrupted 
 and irregular. When his father, in 1785, was 
 appointed minister to England, he obtained 
 permission to return to America, studied at 
 Harvard College, and graduated in 1787. 
 
 After preparatory law studies under Theoph- 
 ilus Parsons at Newburyport, he began prac- 
 tice at Boston. His essays and speculations 
 on the politics and public questions of the 
 day attracted attention, and won him high 
 reputation as a statesman and political think- 
 er. They drew upon him the notice, and 
 gained him the confidence, of Washington, 
 to whom he had been warmly recommended 
 by Jefferson; and in 1794 he was honored 
 with the mission to the Netherlands, where 4 
 
 he remained for two years. His father was 
 then vice-president, but the appointment was 
 made by Washington without any intimation 
 to him. Toward the close of the-administra- 
 tion, Washington made Mr. Adams minister 
 to Portugal. On his way from the Hague 
 to Lisbon he received a new commission, 
 changing his destination to the Prussian court. 
 
 This transfer to Berlin was made by his father, 
 who had succeeded Washington in the presi- 
 dency. Fearful that the change might be 
 imputed to paternal partiality, the senior 
 Adams had consulted his predecessor, and 
 had received the following letter. 
 
 “Monday, February 20, 1797. 
 
 “Dear Sir: I thank you for giving me a 
 perusal of the enclosed. The sentiments do 
 
 ADA 
 
14 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 honor to the head and heart of the writer ; 
 and if my wishes would be of any avail, they 
 should go to you in a strong hope that you 
 will not withhold merited promotion from 
 John Q. Adams because he is your son. For, 
 without intending to compliment the father 
 or the mother, or to censure any others, I 
 give it as my decided opinion, that Mr. Adams 
 is the most valuable public character we have 
 abroad ; and that there remains no doubt in 
 my mind, that he will prove himself to be the 
 ablest of all our diplomatic corps. If he was 
 now to be brought into that line, or into any 
 other public walk, I could not, upon the prin- 
 ciple which has regulated my own conduct, 
 disapprove of the caution which is hinted at 
 in the letter. But he is already entered ; the 
 public, more and more, as he is known, are 
 appreciating his talents and worth ; and his 
 country would sustain a loss, if these were to 
 be checked by over-delicacy on your part. 
 
 “With sincere esteem and affectionate re- 
 gard, 
 
 “I am ever yours, 
 
 “George Washington.” 
 
 Mr. Adams was recalled by his father in 
 1801, and after serving in the state senate, 
 was chosen United States senator in 1803. 
 He pursued an independent course in the 
 senate, and for supporting the embargo rec- 
 ommended by Jefferson, was censured in 
 1808, by the Federalist legislature of his state. 
 Not choosing to represent constituents whose 
 confidence he had lost, he resigned his seat. 
 Soon after Mr. Madison sent him to Russia, 
 the first minister from the United States to 
 that country. Through his influence the Em- 
 peror Alexander offered himself as a media- 
 tor to conclude the difficulties between Great 
 Britain and our country ; and although the 
 proffer was declined by the British, it led 
 them to an offer to treat directly, which re- 
 sulted in peace. Mr. Adams was therefore 
 fitly put at the head of the American com- 
 mission by which the treaty of Ghent was 
 negotiated. His colleagues were, James H. 
 Bayard, of Delaware, Henry Clay, of Ken- 
 tucky, Jonathan Russell, of Rhode Island, 
 and Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania. In the 
 counsels and labors of the important confer- 
 ence, Mr. Adams bore his full part. With 
 Messrs. Clay and Gallatin he was afterward 
 
 employed in adjusting a commercial conven- 
 tion with Great Britain, and in February, 
 1815, he was appointed minister to the Brit- 
 ish court. Mr. Monro£ recalled him in 1817 
 to take the post of secretary of state in his 
 cabinet. During the eight years of Mr. Mon- 
 roe’s administration, Mr. Adams continued at 
 the head of that department, and his expe- 
 rience abroad was of great service in directing 
 the foreign policy of the government. With 
 Mr. Clay he was instrumental in obtaining 
 the recognition of the independence of the 
 South American republics. Long standing 
 difficulties with Spain were also honorably 
 and successfully closed under his direction, 
 and the important acquisition of Florida was 
 made. 
 
 At the close of Mr. Monroe’s second term, 
 Mr. Adams was a prominent candidate for the 
 succession, and of many who preferred Jack- 
 son, or Clay, or Crawford, he was the second 
 choice. When the votes of the electoral col- 
 lege were counted, it was found that Mr. Cal- 
 houn had been elected vice-president, while 
 for president there was no choice. General 
 Jackson had received ninety-nine votes, Mr. 
 Adams eighty-four, Mr. Crawford forty-one, 
 and Mr. Clay thirty-seven. The choice of 
 president from the three leading candidates, 
 accordingly devolved upon the house of rep- 
 resentatives. The friends of Mr. Clay in that 
 body voted for Mr. Adams, and his election 
 was effected on the first ballot. He received 
 the votes of thirteen states, General Jack- 
 son seven states, and Mr. Crawford four states. 
 The Crawford men and Jackson men corm 
 bined in opposition to the administration, and 
 although Mr. Adams’s course was not parti- 
 san, but conciliatory to his opponents, his 
 efforts to conduct the public affairs with in- 
 tegrity and usefulness could not turn the flood 
 of popular opinion that set steadily against 
 him ; and in 1828, General Jackson was elect- 
 ed president by a large majority over him. 
 Mr. Adams retired to private life at Quincy, 
 esteemed by his political friends and respected 
 by his opponents. But his neighbors and 
 friends were not willing that the country 
 should have no more the benefit of his ser- 
 vices, and they elected him to represent the 
 district in Congress. In December, 1831, 
 being then in the sixtj-fifth year of his age, 
 and already forty years in active public ser- 
 
 ADA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 15 
 
 vice, he took his seat in the house of repre- 
 sentatives, a member of which he continued 
 till his death, more than sixteen years after. 
 
 In this position he maintained the stand to 
 which his distinguished services and expe- 
 rience, no less than his eminent talents, well 
 entitled him. At the opening of the twenty- 
 sixth congress, a singular scene was exhibited 
 in the house of representatives. Eight seats 
 were contested, and the clerk of the last house, 
 upon whom it fell to preside till a speaker 
 should be chosen, in calling the roll of mem- 
 bers elect, refused to call the gentlemen hold- 
 ing certificates for the contested seats. An 
 angry and discordant debate, amid confusion 
 and disorder, ensued for three days, and on 
 the fourth there was . little better than anar- 
 chy. The clerk persisted in his contumacy, 
 no speaker could be chosen, and the mode of 
 extrication could not be discerned. At this 
 point Mr. Adams rose. The tumult hushed. 
 After a short, pointed speech, aimed at the 
 impudence of the acting clerk, he submitted 
 a motion that that official should at once pro- 
 ceed with the* call of the roll in due and usual 
 order. The clerk, as he had previously done, 
 refused to entertain the motion. “ How shall 
 the question be put ? ” anxiously cried several 
 voices. “I intend to put it myself! ” replied 
 Mr. Adams. This restored order. Richard 
 Barnwell Rhett, of South Carolina, sprang to 
 the floor and loudly moved that John Quin- 
 cy Adams should take the speaker’s chair 
 until the house should be constitutionally 
 organized ; put the question himself, and de- 
 clared it carried. Mr. Adams presided several 
 days, till Mr. Hunter, of Virginia, was chosen 
 speaker. 
 
 A striking feature of Mr. Adams’s congres- 
 sional career, was the earnestness and firmness 
 with which he adhered to the right of the 
 people to petition Congress, and to be heard 
 through their representatives, on any subject 
 whatsoever. He took an active part in debate, 
 on nearly every topic of public interest, and 
 his speeches were marked with a fervor that 
 won him the name of “The Old Man Elo- 
 quent.” Like Lord Chatham, he died at his 
 post. The 22d of February, 1848, he was 
 stricken by paralysis in his seat, was borne to 
 the speaker’s room, and there died the next 
 day, being in his eighty-first year of age. 
 His last words were, “This is the last of 
 
 earth.” A committee from Congress accom- 
 panied his remains to the family’s place of 
 burial at Quincy, and solemn honors were 
 paid to his memory in the towns and cities 
 through which the corpse was borne. 
 
 Mr. Adams was of middle stature and full 
 person, his eyes dark and beaming, and pierc- 
 ing with intelligence. He always led an act- 
 ive life, and enjoyed good health to an 
 advanced age, the fruit, no doubt, of his 
 early rising and bodily exercise. His mind 
 was highly cultivated, and he was considered 
 one of the most accomplished among Ameri- 
 can scholars and statesmen. In May, 1797, 
 he was married to Louisa Catherine, daugh 
 ter of Joshua Johnson, Esq., of Maryland, 
 who'then resided . in London. By this lady 
 who survived him, he had three sons and one 
 daughter. Only one child, Charles Francis, 
 survived him. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, a distinguished patriot 
 in our revolution, born in Boston, Sept. 27th, 
 1722, was descended from a family which had 
 been among the earliest settlers in New Eng- 
 land. Mr. Adams graduated at Harvard, 
 with the usual academical honors, in 1740. 
 On taking the degree of master of arts he dis- 
 cussed the question, “Whether it be lawful 
 to resist the supreme magistrate, if the com- 
 monwealth can not be otherwise preserved ? ” 
 and maintained the affirmative with great 
 ability. He commenced the study of divin- 
 ity, but found his attention completely ab- 
 sorbed by politics, which then excited an 
 universal interest. His vigorous support of 
 republican principles soon endeared him to 
 the patriotic party, who placed him in the leg- 
 islature in 1766. Thenceforward he distin- 
 guished himself as one of the most active, 
 able, and uncompromising advocates of inde- 
 pendence. He was on every committee, his 
 hand was employed upon every report, and 
 his voice heard upon every subject, involving 
 opposition to the tyrannical measures of the 
 colonial government. The enemies of Amer- 
 ica heard that Mr. Adams was poor, and those 
 among them who believed in the omnipotence 
 of British gold, asked why this demagogue 
 was not silenced by a bribe. Governor Hutch- 
 inson answered, “Such is the obstinacy and 
 inflexible disposition of the man, that he can 
 never be conciliated by any office or gift what- 
 ever.” In 1774, he was sent to the first con- 
 
 ADA 
 
16 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gress of the old confederation. He was one 
 of the signers of the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence in 1776. He was active in the conven- 
 tion which formed the constitution of Massa- 
 chusetts, was placed in the senate of the state, 
 presided for several years over that body, 
 and was elected lieutenant-governor in 1789. 
 In 1794, at the death of Hancock, he was 
 chosen governor, and was yearly re-elected 
 until 1797. His retirement from public life 
 took place in that year ; and, on October 2d, 
 1803, he expired at his house in Winter 
 street, Boston, in the eighty-second year of 
 his age. 
 
 Mr. Adams foresaw the course which the 
 colonies were obliged to take from the begin- 
 ning. He was aware that, upon the side of 
 the British, there would be no concessions, 
 no retractions ; that they entertained a con- 
 temptuous opinion of the force and spirit of 
 the colonies, and would abide by their own 
 measures.' He received warning at Lexing- 
 ton, on the night of the 18th of April, of the 
 intended British expedition, which turned out 
 so disastrously for them, and prepared to 
 make his escape at dawn across the fields. 
 Turning to the friends who accompanied him, 
 he exclaimed, “ This is a fine day ! ” His re- 
 mark was thought to allude to the weather, 
 and one of his companions answered, “It is 
 really a pleasant day.” “I mean,” said he, 
 his eye lighting up, as he spoke, “ I mean, this 
 is a glorious day for my country ! ” There 
 was a certain narrowness and sternness in the 
 political and religious opinions of Samuel 
 Adams. He was a strict Calvinist, and re- 
 garded with no favor opinions at variance 
 with those of his sect. He was firmly at- 
 tached to habits and principles in which he 
 had been bred, and too fond of making im- 
 portant measures conform to a certain code 
 of his own. He undervalued the services of 
 Washington during the war, thinking him too 
 slow and cautious, and being impatient for 
 some decisive stroke, which the commander- 
 in-chief would not have failed to strike when- 
 ever the opportunity occurred. After the war 
 was happily concluded, and there could be 
 but one opinion of the services of Washing- 
 ton, Mr. Adams feared for his country, when 
 the man who had led her through the perils 
 of the armed struggle was made her chief mag- 
 istrate. He feared the popularity of Wash- 
 
 ington ; but his was the error of judgment. 
 No unprejudiced man who had regarded the 
 previous course of the Father of his country, 
 could fear that he could prove either a Caesar 
 or a Cromwell. Mr. Adams possessed those 
 manly virtues which eminently fitted him fora 
 revolutionary epoch, and when the cloud hung 
 darkest over his country, his character and 
 resources appeared most strikingly. Of an 
 austere and unyielding mind, he was yet dig- 
 nified and courteous to a high degree. He 
 was never shackled by pecuniary considera- 
 tions, and would have died in poverty, had not 
 the death of an only son supplied his wants, 
 while it grieved him to the soul. A colleague 
 of Mr. Adams thus described him in good- 
 humored caricature: “Samuel Adams would 
 have the state of Massachusetts govern the 
 Union, the town of Boston govern Massachu- 
 setts, and that he should govern the town of 
 Boston, and then the whole would not be in- 
 tentionally ill-governed.” 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, an author of celebrity, 
 was the son of a clergyman, and was born at 
 Milston, Wiltshire, in 1672. He'was educated 
 at the Charter-House in London, and at Ox- 
 ford, where he distinguished himself by his 
 Latin poetry. Having obtained a pension, he 
 set out on his travels, remaining abroad two 
 years. Of his “ Travels,” which he published 
 on his return, Dr. Johnson said, that “they 
 might have been written at home.” In 1704, 
 a poem on the victory of Blenheim procured 
 him the office of commissioner of appeals. In 
 1796 he was chosen under-secretary of state, 
 and in 1709 went to Ireland as Lord Whar- 
 ton’s secretary, at the same time deriving an 
 income of £300 a year from his appointment 
 of keeper of the Irish records. The “Tat- 
 tler,” “Spectator,” and “Guardian,” periodi- 
 cal papers commenced by Steele, owed their 
 celebrity in a good degree to the essays of Ad- 
 dison. In these papers, which were read with 
 avidity by all classes, Addison displayed that 
 chaste humor, refined observation, and world- 
 ly knowledge, that poetical imagination, deep 
 vein of feeling, and purity of style, which 
 make his prose a model in our language. 
 The success of his tragedy ot “ Cato,” pro- 
 duced in 1713, was owing less to the merits 
 of the piece (which is better adapted to pri- 
 vate perusal than public exhibition), than to 
 the high state of party feeling; anything 
 
 ADD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 IT 
 
 liberal in tone being warmly supported by 
 the Whigs. 
 
 The pen of Addison was devoted to politi- 
 cal subjects for a long time, and he was em- 
 ployed a second time as secretary to the 
 viceroy of Ireland, and afterward was ap- 
 pointed one of the lords of trade. Having 
 fixed his affections on the dowager Countess 
 of Warwick, he obtained her hand with diffi- 
 culty, and was married in 1716. The union, 
 however, was anything but happy. The lady 
 awarded him the “heraldry of hands, not 
 hearts,” treated him with contempt, and 
 made his fireside so uncomfortable that he 
 often forsook it for a tavern. In 1717 he was 
 appointed secretary of state, but finding him- 
 self incapable of filling the office with honor, 
 he retired with a pension of £1,500. He 
 wanted the physical boldness and ready re- 
 sources of an effective public speaker, and 
 was unable to defend his measures in parlia- 
 ment. He is also said to have been slow 
 and fastidious in the quieter duties of office. 
 When he was under-secretary, it fell to him 
 to send word to Hanover of the death of 
 Queen Anne. The critical nicety of the au- 
 thor so distracted him in the choice of ex- 
 pressions, that the task was abandoned to a 
 clerk, who boasted of having done what was 
 too hard for Addison. In retirement he en- 
 gaged himself in writing a work on “The 
 Evidences of the Christian Religion,” which 
 he did not live to complete. Throughout his 
 life he was a sincere Christian. He died in 
 1719, and on his death-bed he sent for Lord 
 Warwick, a youth of dissolute habits, and 
 said to him: “I have sent for you, young 
 man, to show you with what calmness a 
 Christian can die.” 
 
 The temper of Addison was jealous and 
 taciturn, until cheered by wine. “I have 
 never seen a more modest or more awkward 
 man,” was the remark of Lord Chesterfield, 
 one of the best judges and most accurate ob- 
 servers of manners that ever lived. Button’s 
 coffee-house was the favorite resort of Ad- 
 dison and contemporary wits in London. 
 
 ADRIAN, or HADRIAN, Publius HSlius, 
 the fifteenth emperor of Rome, was born 
 a.d. 76, and brought up under the eye of 
 Trajan, his father’s kinsman, who adopted 
 him as his son, and to whom he succeeded, 
 117. He was a successful soldier, and a great 
 9, 
 
 lover of literature and the arts, but disgraced 
 by the indulgence of sensuality. In the 
 course of his reign he visited nearly every 
 part of his dominions, and when in Britain, 
 120, built a wall eighty miles in length, from 
 the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to 
 prevent the incursions of the Caledonians. 
 He was the restorer of Jerusalem, which he 
 named TElia Capitolina, and on Mount Cal- 
 vary he erected a temple to Jupiter ; died 138. 
 
 Six popes have also borne the name of 
 Adrian. 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, or Gulf of Venice, wash- 
 es the shores of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, and 
 Albania. It is about 480 miles long, and gen- 
 erally 130 broad. Venice claimed the exclu- 
 sive sovereignty of this sea. The ceremony 
 of the Doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic 
 was instituted in 1173. Annually, upon As- 
 cension day, the doge dropped a ring into 
 its waves from his bucentaur or state barge. 
 On these occasions he was attended by all 
 the Venetian nobles and the foreign ambassa- 
 dors in gondolas. The ceremony was inter- 
 mitted, for the first time in centuries, in 
 1797. 
 
 REGINA, an island thirty miles in circum- 
 ference, between the coasts of Attica and the 
 Peloponnesus, formerly independent, popu- 
 lous, wealthy, and famed for the commercial 
 spirit of its inhabitants. Its capital bore the 
 same name. 
 
 7ELFRIC, a brave and talented Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, who lived in the tenth centu- 
 ry. He translated the historical books of the 
 Old Testament, and distinguished himself for 
 his resistance to the Danes. His death took 
 place in 1005. 
 
 i&MILIUS PAULUS, a brave and noble 
 Roman, father of Scipio Africanus the Young- 
 er. He defeated Perseus, king of Macedon, 
 and celebrated his success by a triumph, 
 b.c. 168, which was rendered memorable 
 by the death of his two sons, and the 
 heroic fortitude with which he bore their loss, 
 thanking the gods that they were chosen for 
 victims, so that the Roman people might be 
 shielded from calamity. 
 
 JENEAS, a Trojan prince, the hero of the 
 “ JEneid” of Virgil, who represents him as 
 the son of Anchises and the goddess Venus. 
 The former he bore in safety, from the flames 
 of Troy, which he had defended until valor 
 
 iENE 
 
18 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was of no avail. He retired to Mount Ida, 
 where he built a fleet, and sailed in quest of 
 a settlement. He is said to have been con- 
 temporary with Dido, and, after plighting his 
 faith to the Carthaginian queen, to have left 
 her a prey to pangs so poignant as to deprive 
 her of judgment, in which state she threw 
 herself upon a funeral pile and was burned 
 alive. This, however, is a poetical anach- 
 ronism. iEneas, after various adventures, 
 and great sufferings, landed on the coast of 
 Latium, in Italy, where he was hospitably 
 received by king Latinus, who bestowed upon 
 the stranger the hand of his daughter Lavin- 
 ia. This gift involved iEneas in a war with 
 Turnus, a disappointed rival, who was signally 
 defeated by the son of V enus. The history 
 of iEneas is wholly traditional. 
 
 iEOLIANS, a Thessalian tribe, who estab- 
 lished several small states in Greece, while a 
 portion settled iEolis, in Asia Minor, in the 
 ancient Troad. They united themselves in a 
 confederacy, and were free while they pre- 
 served it. The name AEolic is applied to a 
 dialect of the Greek language, very nearly 
 resembling the Doric. 
 
 AESCHINES, an Athenian orator, the rival 
 of Demosthenes, born 393, died 323 b.c. He at 
 first led a life of wandering poverty, but be- 
 came an actor, a pupil of Plato and Socrates, 
 and attained some distinction. Having lost 
 the favor of the people, he fled to Samos and 
 Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric until his 
 death. Another ^Eschines, a philosopher, 
 was a poor disciple of Socrates. 
 
 7ESCHYLUS, a celebrated Greek dramatic 
 writer, was born of a noble family at Eleusis 
 in Attica, b.c. 525, and died at Gela in Sic- 
 ily, b.c. 456. At the age of twenty -five, 
 b.c. 499, he first presented himself at the 
 festival of Bacchus as a competitor for the 
 public prize, and fifteen years afterward, b.c. 
 484, gained his first victory. The pre-emi- 
 nence which he thus acquired was success- 
 fully maintained till b.c. 468, when he was 
 deieated in a similar contest by his younger 
 rival, Sophocles. Mortified at the indignity 
 he thought thus put upon him, he quitted 
 Athens and went to the court of Hiero, king 
 of Syracuse. Of the remaining portion of his 
 life but little is known, except that he con- 
 tinued to prosecute his favorite pursuit ; and 
 that his residence in Sicily was of some dura- 
 
 tion, may be inferred from the fact that it was 
 sufficient to affect the purity of his language. 
 His thirteenth and last victory was gained 
 b.c. 458. On the manner of his death, which 
 was singular, the ancient writers are unani- 
 mous. While sitting motionless in the fields, 
 his bald head was mistaken for a stone by an 
 eagle which happened to be flying over him 
 with a tortoise in her bill. The bird dropped 
 the tortoise to break the shell, and the poet 
 was killed by the blow. iEschylus is said to 
 have been the author of seventy tragedies, of 
 which only seven are now extant. The im- 
 provements which he introduced in the econ- 
 omy of the drama, were, so important as to 
 gain for him the distinction of the Father of 
 Greek Tragedy. To the single actor of Thes- 
 pis he added a second, and thus presented the 
 regular dialogue. He abridged the length of 
 the choral odes and made them subservient to 
 the main interest of the plot ; substituted a 
 regular stage for the movable wain of his 
 predecessor ; provided appropriate scenic dec- 
 orations, and dresses for the actors; and 
 removed all deeds of murder and bloodshed 
 from public view. His style is bold, lofty, 
 and sublime, full of gorgeous imagery and 
 magnificent expressions, suitable to the ele- 
 vated characters of his dramas. His plays 
 have little or no plot ; and have therefore been 
 blamed as deficient in dramatic interest. But 
 iEschylus was illustrious not merely as a 
 poet. Along with his brother Cynaegirus he 
 distinguished himself so highly in the battle 
 of Marathon, b.c. 490, that his exploits were 
 commemorated by a descriptive painting in 
 the theater of Athens ; and it is probable that 
 he took part in the subsequent battles of 
 Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea. 
 
 iESQULAPIUS, believed to have been the 
 inventor of medicine, and worshiped as a di- 
 vinity in many cities of Greece. He is gen- 
 erally represented with a long beard, and 
 grasping in one hand a staff entwined by a 
 serpent, the emblem of convalescence, the 
 other hand supported by a serpent. Some- 
 times he was denoted by a serpent only. He 
 was believed to be the son of Apollo. 
 
 iESOP, whose fables have been so celebra- 
 ted, was born in Phrygia, a country of Asia 
 Minor, about the fifty-second Olympiad, the 
 first year of which corresponds with 572 b.c. 
 The age in which he lived is noted in Grecian 
 
 JE SO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY* 
 
 19 
 
 history as that in which Solon, the famous 
 lawgiver, flourished. In his youth iEsop was 
 a slave. Among the Greeks the condition of 
 the slaves was abject and pitiable indeed ; the 
 Spartans, in particular, regarding them in the 
 light of brute beasts, whom it was allowable 
 to kill upon the least provocation, and even 
 without the slightest offense. It does not, 
 however, appear that iEsop experienced any 
 great severity of treatment. His first master 
 was one Dinarchus, who resided at Athens. 
 iEsop passed into the hands of Xanthus of 
 Samos, who afterward sold him to Iadmon of 
 the same place. There were no fewer than 
 three islands to which the ancients gave the 
 name of Samos. That of which we speak 
 was situated off the coast of Ionia. It was 
 supposed to have been the birthplace of the 
 goddess Juno, to whom a magnificent tem- 
 ple was erected, no remains of which have 
 escaped the ravages of time. The fertility of 
 “he island, and the salubrity of its climate, 
 gained it universal admiration, and made its 
 possession an object of great importance. It 
 was formerly not so much noted for its wine 
 as it is at present, the Samian wine being con- 
 sidered by the moderns as equal to that of 
 Cyprus, while it was very much underrated 
 by the ancients. 
 
 After he had obtained his freedom, iEsop 
 distinguished himself by his art of inculcat- 
 ing useful truths under the cloak of fiction. 
 This invention is attributed to him, and Phae- 
 drus acknowledges this in his own fables. 
 * The words,” says the latter, “are mine, but 
 the invention belongs to iEsop.” It is, how- 
 ever, probable that fables originated with the 
 oriental nations, from whom iEsop borrowed 
 them. 
 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, whose wealth was 
 so immense, hearing of the fame of iEsop, 
 invited him to his court. It has been Tsaid 
 that the personal appearance of iEsop was 
 far from being prepossessing ; that he was of 
 small size and dreadfully deformed; that 
 Croesus was at first disgusted at beholding a 
 figure so entirely at variance with his precon- 
 ceived ideas of the man; and that iEsop 
 speaking of his own deformity, said, “ It is 
 not the exterior of the vase that we should 
 regard, but the quality of the wine which it 
 contains.” The conduct of JEsop and Solon, 
 both of whom were at the same time at the 
 
 court of Croesus, exhibited a marked con- 
 trast. The fabulist played well the part 
 of an accomplished courtier, but the stern 
 lawgiver rigidly adhered to the truth in 
 all he said. Solon having displeased the 
 monarch by the independent tone which he 
 assumed, iEsop said to him, “You should 
 never speak to kings, or only tell them what 
 will flatter them.” “Not so,” said Solon; 
 “we must never speak to kings, or only tell 
 them useful truths.” 
 
 A3sop had lived too long in slavery not to 
 have acquired habits of submission and def- 
 erence toward those whom circumstances 
 made his superiors. He found no difficulty 
 in winning the entire confidence of Croesus. 
 The latter, wishing to consult the oracle of 
 Delphi with regard to Cyrus, who menaced 
 him with ruin, sent iEsop with instructions 
 to offer up sacrifices to the deity in the name 
 of the king of Lydia, and to present to each 
 inhabitant of Delphi a considerable sum of 
 money. iEsop came to Delphi, and offered 
 up his sacrifices, but having quarreled with 
 the Delphians, he sent away the money which 
 the Lydian monarch had intended for them, 
 and declared that they were unworthy of 
 such benefactions. The cause of this quarrel 
 is not exactly known, but perhaps the nat- 
 ural shrewdness and intelligence of iEsop 
 enabled him to make a discovery of the arti- 
 fices employed to deceive those who referred 
 to the oracle for instruction, and his indigna- 
 tion impelled him to reproach the priests with 
 their imposition. The Delphians, enraged at 
 the conduct of the bold stranger, and fearing 
 that, if permitted to depart, he might reveal 
 enough to destroy their character and hopes 
 forever, determined, if possible, to effect his 
 ruin. To accomplish their purposes, they 
 hid a golden cup which had been consecrated 
 to Apollo, among his effects, and then cnarged 
 him with having stolen it. He indignantly 
 denied the charge. His enemies were inex- 
 orable ; a search was made, and the golden 
 cup having been found in his possession, he 
 was condemned to death, and, pursuant to 
 his unjust sentence, hurled from the summit 
 of a high rock. Soon after this bloody deed, 
 heavy calamities fell upon the Delphians, 
 which they did not fail to attribute to the in- 
 dignation of the gods, aroused at their inhu- 
 man conduct. Various methods were resort- 
 
 A ESO 
 
20 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ed to in order to appease the just indignation 
 of their deities. At length they offered to 
 make restitution to the descendants of iEsop, 
 if any such existed. iEsop, however, was a 
 solitary being, the last of his race. But a 
 relation of Iadmon, his last master, came 
 forward, claimed, and received, the proffered 
 indemnity. 
 
 The authorship of the fables attributed to 
 iEsop has been a source of much dispute 
 among different writers. It is thought that 
 many of the fables which have descended to 
 us with his name were not of his invention. 
 The fables of iEsop attained a very great ce- 
 lebrity in Greece. iEsop was peculiarly hap- 
 py in the application of his fables. Having 
 visited Athens soon after Pisistratus had 
 usurped the authority, and found the Athen- 
 ians shrinking beneath the yoke which had 
 been imposed upon them, he related to them 
 the following fable. “Once upon a time, 
 the frogs, thinking it a fine thing to have a 
 ruler, petitioned Jupiter to give them a king. 
 Yielding to their wishes, he threw down a 
 huge log, from which they at first fled in dis- 
 may. But finding it quiet and harmless, 
 they at length ventured to approach, and 
 soon after grew weary of its inaction, and 
 complained bitterly to Jupiter of their stupid 
 ruler, desiring one more active. Indignant 
 at their querulous cries, Jupiter sent down a 
 stork, whose activity made up for the long 
 sloth of the log ; in fact, he was never idle, 
 but darting here and there, preyed upon his 
 subjects with restless ferocity, until the rem- 
 nant of the frogs groaned to be restored to 
 their former liberty.” The moral of this 
 fable was apparent to the meanest under- 
 standing. The Athenians honored the mem- 
 ory of iEsop, by erecting a fine statue, 
 executed by Lysippus, to the man who was 
 once a slave. Its design was to show that 
 the road to fame was open to all, and that, 
 with perseverance and mental power, a man 
 requires few external advantages, to succeed 
 in what he undertakes. The life of iEsop 
 was checkered with light and shade : perhaps 
 the latter predominated, for, in allusion to 
 the misfortunes of humanity, he was wont to 
 say that “Prometheus formed man of clay, 
 and tempered it with tears.” His death took 
 place about the year 531 b.c. 
 
 JETIUS, the brave general of Yalentinian 
 
 III., who repulsed Attila, and was stabbed 
 by his suspicious master in 454. 
 
 ^ETNA, the greatest volcano in Europe, is 
 on the north-eastern coast of Sicily, and now 
 called Mongibello. Its elevation above the 
 surface of the sea is 10,784 feet. Towns and 
 villages are scattered on its sides. It exhib- 
 its three distinct climates, the hot, temperate, 
 and frigid; and three distinct regions, the 
 fertile, woody, and barren. It measures nine- 
 ty miles round the base, and its crater forms 
 a circle of three or four miles in circumfer- 
 ence. The crater’s shape and size are liable 
 to constant change from the eruptions. The 
 summit is enveloped in smoke and snow at 
 the same time, while the sides of the moun- 
 tain present a rich prospect of cultivated fields 
 and smiling vineyards. The mountain fur- 
 nishes snow and ice to Sicily and Malta, and 
 thus yields quite an income to the Bishop of 
 Catania, the exclusive proprietor of the trade. 
 A chestnut-tree, wonderful for its gigantic 
 size, stands upon the side of Mount iEtna. 
 It is known by the name of the Castagno de 
 Cento Cavilli, because it is said to be capable 
 of sheltering a hundred horses beneath its 
 boughs. It still bears rich foliage and much 
 small fruit, though the heart of the trunk is 
 decayed, and a road leads through it wide 
 enough for two coaches abreast. 
 
 Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. 
 Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption as hav- 
 ing happened 1693 b.c. Thucydides speaks 
 of three eruptions, occurring 734, 477 and 
 425 b.c. To the second of these, both ^Es- 
 chylus and Pindar allude. The awful erup- 
 tion of 1169 overwhelmed Catania, and fifteen 
 thousand persons perished among the burn- 
 ing ruins. There were destructive eruptions 
 in 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564. In 
 that of 1669, tens of thousands lost their lives 
 in the streams of lava that flooded the land. 
 The hot flood reached the walls of Catania, 
 which had been raised to save the town, 
 swelled over the barrier, and fell in a fiery 
 cascade. The wall was not thrown down, and 
 the solid lava may still be seen, curling over 
 the rampart like a torrent in the act of fall- 
 ing. There were eruptions in 1766, 1787, 
 1809, 1811, and in May, 1830, when several 
 villages were destroyed and showers of lava 
 reached near to Rome. By the violent out- 
 break of November, 1832, Bronte, a town of 
 
BMVC LY AND BIOGRAPHY.. 
 
 21 
 
 GREAT CHESTNUT-TR] 
 
 13,000 inhabitants was destroyed. A violent 
 eruption occurred in August and September, 
 1852. 
 
 iETOLIA, a country of antiquity, in the 
 middle of Greece, whose boundaries varied 
 greatly from time to time. It was strong, 
 but unfruitful, and the inhabitants illiberal, 
 given to plunder and avaricious. Divided 
 into small tribes, they were proud of their in- 
 dependence, and ardent lovers of freedom. 
 After the ruin of Athens and Sparta, they 
 attained an eminence which they had not be- 
 fore possessed, and ranked with the Mace- 
 donians and Achaians as a leading power in 
 Greece. As allies of the Romans, they ren- 
 dered themselves formidable, and were no less 
 so when they forsook the former for the Mace- 
 donians. They were conquered by Fulvius. 
 In war, their fine cavalry was famed for the 
 fierce impetus of its attacks. Their common- 
 wealth was much like that of Achaia. i 
 
 E OF MOUNT A2TNA. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, in Asia, has an area 
 somewhat larger than that of France. To 
 the north of it is Turkistan, to the east the 
 Punjaub, to the south Beloochistan, and on 
 the west Persia. Beloochistan is properly a 
 part of Afghanistan, but is at present polit- 
 ically separated from it. Afghanistan is an 
 elevated table-land, the eastern base of which 
 is washed by the Indus. The mountain 
 range of Hindoo-Coosh on the north, rises to 
 eighteen and twenty thousand feet, and may 
 be considered as an offshoot of the Himalaya 
 chain. The valleys are fertile. The snow 
 on the mountains feeds numerous streams, 
 but there are no navigable rivers. The pop- 
 ulation is estimated at 14,000,000, inclusive 
 of Beloochistan. The large towns, such as 
 Cabul, Candahar, Ghuznee, Jellalabad, and 
 Herat, are inhabited chiefly by Persians and 
 Hindoos ; an Afghan never keeps a shop or 
 labors at a trade. The only Afghans found 
 
22 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 in the towns are officers of government, and 
 their followers, with soldiers and priests. 
 The Afghans, who number little more than a 
 third of the people, are of moderate stature, 
 remarkably hardy and athletic. Their high 
 cheek-bones and prominent noses distinguish 
 them essentially from the Tartars. Their 
 manners are frank and open. Little respect 
 is paid to rank, but great reverence is shown 
 for old age. They are sociable, and like sing- 
 ing, dancing, and music. Of games of chance 
 or skill they are fond. In long genealogies 
 they feel pride, scarcely allowing a man to be 
 a genuine Afghan, if he can not prove six 
 descents. Hospitality is a point of honor. 
 A man may travel without money from one 
 end of the country to the other, and the bit- 
 terest enemy is safe if he claims the protection 
 of hospitality. They have, however, more of 
 such honor than conscience, and robberies 
 are frequent in the more remote districts. 
 Social intercourse with women is less re- 
 strained than among other Mohammedans. 
 Women are generally well treated, not being 
 permitted to engage promiscuously in the 
 labors of the men, but being employed in 
 domestic avocations. Wives, are, however, 
 regarded as property, being invariably pur- 
 chased, and those of the upper classes live in 
 total seclusion, though their privacy is lux- 
 urious, and their style of life magnificent. 
 Want of feeling is not in general a fault of 
 the Afghans, and the females are frequently 
 regarded with a tenderness and devotion 
 worthy of the chivalric age. Many a young 
 Afghan, in consequence of passionate attach- 
 ment to some young woman to whom his 
 plighted faith belongs, resolutely bids a fare- 
 well to home, and labors for a long time in 
 a distant place, until he procures sufficient 
 money to buy her from her father. Instances 
 of cruelty to women are of infrequent occur- 
 rence. The Afghans are not insensible to the 
 advantages of education, and are rather liber- 
 al in their allotments of land for the support 
 of public teachers, who are also ministers of 
 religion. They are an imaginative people, 
 and take delight in those wild narratives 
 which it is the sport and province of oriental 
 imaginations to create. The spirited lyrics 
 of their poets breathe a strong love for liberty. 
 
 The Afghans are divided into tribes, almost 
 independent in their government. Their re- 
 
 publican spirit has saved them from sinking 
 into the common oriental despotism. The 
 Duranees and the Ghiljies are the leading 
 tribes. The tribes are subdivided into clans, 
 often at feud with one another. To an En- 
 glish traveler, who expatiated on the freedom 
 from alarm, blood, and discord, that a stead- 
 ier government would give, this reply was 
 made : “We are content with discord, we are 
 content with alarms, we are content with 
 blood, but we will never be content with a 
 master.” There are three independent po- 
 litical states, Cabul, Candahar, and Herat, the 
 chiefs of which have but a limited authority. 
 
 Afghanistan was known to the Greeks as 
 Ariana. As part of the Persian empire, it 
 passed under the dominion of Alexander the 
 Great. The origin of the Afghan race and 
 the date of its settlement in the land are un- 
 certain. They have a tradition that they are 
 the descendants of Afghan, the son of Irmia, 
 or Berkia, son of Saul, king of Israel ; and 
 their histories begin with narrating the trans- 
 actions of the Jews, from Abraham down to 
 the captivity. Various tides of conquest, 
 Scythian, Arab, Tartar, and Mogul, have 
 swept over the land. Ahmed Khan estab- 
 lished its independence of Persia in 1747, and 
 founded the Duranee dynasty. In the early 
 part of this century the sway was disputed 
 by various rivals. In 1838 the British es- 
 poused the cause of Shah Soojah against 
 Host Mahomed. Candahar, Ghuznee, and 
 Cabul were taken; Shah Soojah was put on 
 the throne ; the conquest was considered com- 
 plete ; and the main body of the British army 
 returned to India. The next year insurrec- 
 tions broke out and grew more and more 
 troublous. In September, 1841, the neigh- 
 borhood of Cabul swarmed with predatory 
 bands. On the 2d of November, the house 
 of Sir Alexander Burnes, one of the British 
 envoys at Cabul, was fired, and he and every 
 man, woman, and child on the premises, 
 murdered. The British officers seemed to be 
 stupefied. G encral Elphinstone held the chief 
 command, but was in such a state of nervous 
 weakness from ill health as to be utterly in- 
 capable of acting with the energy necessary 
 for such an emergency. The Afghans grew 
 bolder; the British became more confused 
 and indecisive. The 23d of December, Sir 
 William MacNaghten, the other envoy, was 
 
 ?G 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 23 
 
 murdered by Akbar Khan, (son of Dost Ma- 
 homed), who had invited him to a conference. 
 Three days later the despairing Europeans 
 agreed to yield all but six guns, to relinquish 
 all the treasure, to leave four officers as host- 
 ages, and to pay forty thousand rupees, in 
 bills drawn upon India, but negotiated on the 
 spot by Hindoo bankers, for a safe escort to 
 Peshawur. Akbar Khan undertook to con- 
 duct them in safety to Jellalabad. The disas- 
 trous retreat from Cabul was commenced on 
 the 6th of January, 1842. The British force 
 was estimated at forty-five hundred soldiers, 
 twelve thousand men of camp-followers, be- 
 sides a great number of women and children. 
 Massacre began at once. The cold was in- 
 tense ; the attacks of the Afghans were inces- 
 sant ; the fugitives were almost without food ; 
 only a handful escaped ; twenty-six thousand 
 individuals were destroyed. This terrible 
 reverse aroused the British to great effort; 
 victories were gained, and before the close of 
 1842 the war was at an end, and the British 
 army withdrawn. Shah Soojah had been 
 assassinated, and Dost Mahomed regained the 
 sovereignty. 
 
 AFRICA formed a third part of the world, 
 known to the ancients. They gave it the 
 name of Libya, and divided it into Africa 
 Propria and Africa Interior. The former of 
 these, or the territory of Carthage, included 
 several countries inhabited by twenty-six dif- 
 ferent nations, comprehending two provinces, 
 the Regio Zeugitana and Byzacium, corre- 
 sponding with the kingdom of Tunis. Ham 
 and his descendants are thought to have first 
 peopled Africa. Egypt was peopled by Miz- 
 raim. Africa Interior included the distant 
 portions of Africa little known to the ancients, 
 whose knowledge did not extend much be- 
 yond the tropic of Cancer, the limit of both 
 their victories and researches. Those parts 
 of Africa which they did not visit, their fer- 
 tile fancies peopled with various races of men 
 endowed with strange attributes ; and singu- 
 lar tales, thus originating, have been handed 
 down even to modern times. Thus we hear 
 of nations of curious dwarfs, of men who 
 dwelt in trees like monkeys, of races forming 
 a connecting link between man and the brutes, 
 and tribes whose history has been invented 
 by wild imaginations in their wildest flights. 
 Herodotus states that Africa is surrounded 
 
 with water except at the narrow neck of 
 Suez. He reports its circumnavigation by 
 Phenician mariners between the years 6 lb 
 and 594 b.c. “Necho, king of Egypt,” he 
 says, “ dispatched some Phenicians in vessels, 
 with instructions to sail round Libya and 
 through the Pillars of Hercules [straits of 
 Gibraltar] into the northern [Mediterranean] 
 sea, and so to return to Egypt. They set out 
 from the Red Sea and navigated the southern 
 ocean. When the rainy season came on, 
 they would land on whatever part of the coast 
 they happened to be, sow the ground, and 
 wait for the harvest. After reaping it, they 
 would again put to sea ; and thus after two 
 years had gone, in the third they passed 
 through the Pillars of Hercules and arrived 
 at Egypt. And they said (but for my part I 
 do not believe the assertion, though others 
 may) that in their voyage round Libya, they 
 had the sun on their right hand.” 
 
 Africa was an important division of the 
 ancient world. Many of her nations and 
 states, at a very early period, had made great 
 advancement in the liberal arts. The north- 
 ern part was inhabited by several enterprising 
 nations, whose extensive commerce rolled 
 abundant wealth into the land. With their 
 riches the power of these states increased : 
 Egypt and Ethiopia became famous, and 
 Carthage sent forth her fleets to every part of 
 the then known world. The career of dis 
 covery by which Africa has become known 
 to the modern world, was commenced by the 
 Portuguese in the fifteenth century. Prince 
 Henry, a younger son of John I., devoted his 
 life to the task. The Azores, the Cape Verde 
 Isles, and various points on the coast, were 
 colonized under his auspices. His zeal excit- 
 ed long-continued ridicule and opposition, but 
 African discovery became a national passion, 
 and after his death, was prosecuted by the 
 government. Bartholomew Diaz rounded the 
 continent’s farthest promontory in 1487. 
 The storms that tossed him there led him to 
 call it the Cape of Tempests, but John II., 
 thinking the discovery a precursor of brighter 
 revelations beyond, changed the name to the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Vasco de Gama doubled 
 it in 1497, sailed along the eastern coast, and 
 found the path to India. Portuguese mar- 
 iners had now navigated the whole extent 
 of the African coast, from the Straits of Gib- 
 
24 : 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 raltar to the Straits of Bab-el-mandeb, with 
 the exception of the thousand miles between 
 the latter point and Magadoxa. They had as- 
 certained the general shape of the continent 
 to this extent, and the position of most of the 
 principal rivers and headlands. At the be- 
 ginning of the century, the line of coast thus 
 traced was entirely unknown to the nations 
 of Europe, excepting the extent of six hund- 
 red miles between the Straits of Gibraltar and 
 Cape Nun. But the Arabs had long been ac- 
 quainted with the greater part of the eastern 
 coast along which Yasco de Gama passed after 
 doubling the Cape of Good Hope; and the 
 great towns which he saw or heard of, from 
 Sofala onward to Magadoxa, were for the most 
 part settlements that they had founded. The 
 chief of these was the town of Quiloa. In 
 course of time the Portuguese gained consid- 
 erable knowledge of the interior also, partly 
 by means of the establishments they formed 
 at divers points, and partly from information 
 brought them from other parts by the natives. 
 Very early they heard of a great Christian 
 potentate whom they called Priest John ; 
 anglicized to Prester John. The expeditions 
 to find the domains of this mysterious person- 
 age, and the missions of a later date, all help- 
 ed to increase the scanty and confused knowl- 
 edge of the vast country. The French, the En- 
 glish, the Dutch, and others, followed the lead 
 of Portugal, and founded settlements on the 
 coast, and penetrated a little into the interior. 
 
 The discoveries of Bruce in his long and 
 perilous journey toward the sources of the 
 Nile, gave a new impetus to African explora- 
 tion at the close of the last century. An 
 association for its promotion was formed in 
 London, under whose auspices Mungo Park 
 searched for the secret of the Niger’s course. 
 Since then important discoveries have been 
 made, bought for the most part by the lives 
 of the explorers. Eminent are the names of 
 Park, Burckhardt, Ledyard, Hornemann, La- 
 ing, Denham, and Clapperton, Lander, Rich- 
 ardson, Overweg, and Barth, in the north ; 
 and Sparrman, Vaillant, Cowan, and Dono- 
 van, Lichtenstein, Campbell, Alexander, and 
 Livingston, in the southern part, while Grant, 
 Speke, and Baker, have completed the dis- 
 coveries of the sources of the Nile. Dr. Liv- 
 ingston, who was a missionary at Kolobeng, 
 (24° 3i0' S. latitude, 26° E. longitude,) made 
 
 several journeys thence into the interior, and 
 in 1849, reachei Lake Ngami. The exists 
 ence of this large inland sea had been report- 
 ed to the Portuguese as early as 1508. In a 
 subsequent journey Dr. Livingston penetrated 
 as far north as 10 > S. lat., came out unexpect- 
 edly at the Portuguese settlement of Loanda, 
 pushed back into the wilderness, and at last 
 returned to England in 1856. The river Lee- 
 ambye, after innumerable windings, he traced 
 to the river Zambezi, which discharges itself 
 into the Mozambique Channel. The Leeam- 
 bye consists of a system of rivers, which 
 spread out periodically into a great sea, filling 
 hundreds of lateral channels. The principal 
 stream is about a thousand yards broad. But 
 a small portion of its waters reaches the sea, 
 the remainder being absorbed by vast lakes and 
 marshes. It is so diminutive when it reaches 
 the sea as not to be navigable for vessels. It 
 will, however, be of great use, as a means of 
 communication with the interior. Dr. Liv- 
 ingston ascertained that a large portion of the 
 blank in South African maps consists of ferr 
 tile countries, inhabited by populous tribes, 
 and intersected by large rivers. The farther 
 he traveled into the interior of Africa, the 
 more civilized and numerous he found the 
 inhabitants. They were less ferocious and 
 suspicious, had better and more settled forms 
 of government, and more comforts than the 
 coast tribes. He met with tribes who practic- 
 ed inoculation, knew the medicinal virtues of 
 quinine, and had a tradition of Noah’s deluge. 
 He found the climate of eastern Africa more 
 humid than the other sections. The natives 
 were athletic and brave. The next or middle 
 zone is comparatively arid and flat. The in- 
 habitants are not as well developed as the Kaf- 
 firs. The western portion is nearly flat and 
 sandy, but it is not a desert. There is abund- 
 ance of vegetation, but water is scarce. The 
 inhabitants manage to subsist on a very small 
 supply of the precious fluid, some of which 
 is obtained from tuberous roots, which con- 
 tain in their cellular tissues supplies of pure 
 water. In the plains are immense numbers 
 of ostriches and antelopes, which can subsist 
 for months without water. 
 
 Mr. Anderssen, in 1851, penetrated from 
 the western coast to Lake Ngami. He there 
 heard of the existence of a large town called 
 Liberbe, nineteen days journey to the north- 
 
 AFR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 25 
 
 east, which was said to be a great place 
 of trade. Between 1847 and 1850, Messrs. 
 Krapf and Rebmann, missionaries stationed 
 near Mombaz on the eastern coast, made sev- 
 eral journeys inland, and discovered two lofty 
 mountains, crowned with everlasting snow, 
 Kilimandjaro and Kenia. From the latter 
 a river flows northward, which is conjectured 
 to feed the Nile. 
 
 One of the most important expeditions ever 
 undertaken to the interior of Africa was that 
 sent out by the British and Prussian govern- 
 ments in 1849, and conducted by Messrs. 
 Richardson, Barth, and Overweg. The trav- 
 elers departed from Tripoli in March, 1850. 
 On the way across the desert Dr. Barth vis- 
 ited Agadez, the capital of Air, a city of 
 eight thousand inhabitants, situated in a fer- 
 tile valley. The kingdom has a population 
 of seventy thousand. The climate is healthy 
 for Europeans. The people are tall and fine- 
 ly formed. The children are taught to read 
 the Koran and to write. No European had 
 wandered there before Dr. Barth. The par- 
 ty arrived on the borders of Soudan Jan. 1st, 
 1851. Here they separated. Richardson 
 sickened under the heat and fatigue, and 
 died in the following March. Dr. Overweg 
 visited Mariadi and Guber, two independent 
 pagan nations toward Sackatoo, where he was 
 kindly received by the natives, who are a 
 cross between the Tuaricks and the negro 
 races, and obtained much curious information. 
 Dr. Barth at Kano heard of a large kingdom 
 in the south, called Adamawa, said to be the 
 most beautiful portion of Central Africa. 
 The sultan of Bornou furnished him an escort ; 
 he traveled three weeks over broad, fertile 
 plains and through a forest infested with 
 lions and elephants. He found Adamawa 
 thickly populated. The inhabitants have 
 large herds of cattle. The soil is tilled by 
 slaves, who greatly outnumber the free inhab- 
 itants. On the 18th of June Dr. Barth came 
 to the great river Benueh. The name signi- 
 fies the ‘mother of waters,’ and the stream is 
 half a mile wide and nine feet deep in the 
 channel. His conjecture that it 'was the same 
 as the Chadda, the eastern arm of the Niger, 
 has been confirmed. Yola, the capital of 
 Adamawa, is a town two miles and a half in 
 length by one and a half in breadth, sited on 
 a plain at the foot of Alantika, a mountain 
 
 ten thousand feet in height. Dr. Barth was 
 allowed to tarry in Yola only three days, re- 
 turned by the route he came, and rejoined Dr. 
 Overweg at Kuka the 22d of July. During 
 his absence the latter had launched his boat 
 on Lake Tchad, and explored the islands and 
 shores. He found the lake to be about eighty 
 miles in breadth, quite shallow, and filled 
 with islands inhabited by the Biddumas, who 
 treated him with great kindness. Barth and 
 Overbeg planned an excursion to Kanem and 
 Borgou, an unexplored region north-east of 
 Lake Tchad, and extending midway to Egypt. 
 Their party was driven back by the Zibboos, 
 and they returned to Kuka. They accompa- 
 nied an expedition sent to subjugate Mandara, 
 a country north-east of Bornou. The campaign 
 lasted from the 25th of November to the 1st 
 of February, 1852. The army of twenty 
 thousand men penetrated to the distance of 
 two hundred miles, and returned with a booty 
 of five thousand slaves and ten thousand head 
 of cattle. The country was level, and abound- 
 ed with marshes. The next year, Dr. Barth 
 after great difficulties and dangers, succeeded 
 in reaching Masena, the capital of Baghirmi, 
 a powerful kingdom east of Bornou, never 
 before visited by an European. Unable to 
 penetrate further to the east, he returned to 
 Kuka in August. Dr. Overbeg had unsuc- 
 cessfully attempted to enter the great Fellatah 
 kingdom of Yakoba, on the river Benueh. 
 He succumbed to the heat, and died at Kuka 
 in September. Thus left alone Dr. Barth 
 relinquished the design of journeying from 
 Kuka to the shores of the Indian Ocean, and 
 turned his steps toward the Niger. He left 
 Kuka on the 25th of November, 1852, reach- 
 ed Sackatoo in April, 1853, and entered the 
 famous city of Timbuctoo on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember. Nothing was heard of him for a 
 long time ; then rumors reached Tripoli that 
 he had been murdered. At last came the 
 joyful news that he was yet alive. He had 
 tarried in Timbuctoo nearly a year, had ex- 
 plored the whole middle course of the Niger, 
 and had found two large kingdoms, Gando 
 and Hamd-Allahi, the very names of which 
 were before unknown. He finally returned 
 safe to Europe in the autumn of 1855. 
 
 The country traversed by Dr. Barth in this 
 expedition extended over twenty-four degrees 
 of latitude and twenty of longitude. He had 
 
 AFR 
 
26 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 erosscd deserts of frightful desolation, and 
 traversed fertile lands watered by navigable 
 rivers and large central lakes, covered with 
 the finest timber and fruitful in grain, rice, 
 nuts, sugar-cane, cotton, and indigo, products 
 found abundantly all over Central Africa. 
 The people wear cotton of their own weav- 
 ing, and dyed with native indigo. The Niger, 
 by means of its eastern branch, affords unin- 
 terrupted navigation into the interior for six 
 hundred miles. At a distance of about three 
 hundred miles from the coast, the western 
 branch is interrupted by rapids and cataracts, 
 but higher up, the river opens an unobstruct- 
 ed highway a thousand miles long, into the 
 heart of western Africa, so rich in vegetable, 
 animal, and mineral products. These regions 
 exhibit an equal variety in the human race. 
 Starting from Tripoli, on the north, the trav- 
 eler proceeds from the Arab villages, rem- 
 nants of the empires of the middle ages, into 
 a country dotted with ruins of the Roman 
 dominion, through the wild roving hordes of 
 the Tuaricks, to the Negro tribes and the na- 
 tives of Southern Africa. Throughout this 
 vast region the greatest diversity of race and 
 idiom prevails. Mohammedan learning is 
 ingrafted on ignorance, and magnificent cere- 
 monial rises side by side with the simplicity 
 of barbarous Negro tribes. A thread of his- 
 tory, even, can be traced through this laby- 
 rinth of tribes and overthrown kingdoms, 
 and a commerce is found radiating from Kano, 
 the great emporium of Central Africa, in 
 every direction. In respect to the Nile ex- 
 plorations, Capt. Speke ascertained, on the 
 28th of July, 18G2, what he had already sur- 
 mised from previous discoveries, that the lake 
 Victoria Ny'anza was one of the sources of 
 the Nile. The second great source, the lake 
 Albert Ny'anza, was discovered by Baker, on 
 the 14 th of March, 1864. Dr. Livingstone 
 has also been absent several years in Africa 
 engaged in extended explorations. There 
 have been various rumors of his death, but 
 they have generally been regarded as false. 
 
 Africa comprises an area of 10,786,000 
 square miles. Its population, roughly estima- 
 ted of course, is set down at 61,689,000. 
 Its chief rivers are the Nile, in Egypt ; the 
 Senegal and Gambia, in Senegambia; the 
 Niger or Quorra, the Congo or Zaire; the 
 Orange, the northern boundary of the Cape 
 
 colony ; and the Zambezi on the eastern coast 
 The great feature of Northern Africa is the 
 Sahara or Great Desert, the most barren, 
 parched, and terrific waste on the globe. The 
 mineral treasures of this immense continent 
 are of course as imperfectly known as its 
 geography. Salt is widely diffused ; gold dust 
 is found in the sands of almost all the streams ; 
 copper, iron, and some tin are also met with. 
 The southern regions of this continent are 
 occupied by two distinct races, Hottentots and 
 Kaffirs ; the former one of the most indolent, 
 shiftless, and dirty of the human family ; the 
 latter higher in the scale. The most widely 
 extended race in Africa is the Negro, varying 
 in intelligence and power with different local- 
 ities. The Moors of the north are of mixed 
 descent, since the Barbary region has been 
 occupied by various races. The Arab stock 
 has produced the most marked effect. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, leader of the Greeks in the 
 Trojan war, was king of Mycene and Argos, 
 son of Plisthenes, and brother of Menelaus, 
 the seduction of whose wife lighted the flames 
 of war. Returning, after the destruction of 
 the city, he was murdered by his wife, Clyt- 
 emnestra, either from jealousy, or on account 
 of her love for another. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, a potter, who, from being 
 a private soldier, made himself master of Syr- 
 acuse and Sicily, b.c. 317. This he accom- 
 plished by the death of thousands. Although 
 defeated by the Carthaginians in Sicily, he 
 carried the war into Africa, where he was 
 successful. After having lost his sons and 
 army by a mutiny in Africa, he succeeded in 
 establishing tranquillity, b.c. 306. In Italy 
 he conquered the Brutii, and took and sacked 
 Crotona. He was killed by his favorite, 
 Msenon, who poisoned the feather with which 
 the king usually cleansed his teeth after 
 dinner. 
 
 AGESILAUS, king of Sparta, signalized 
 himself by his valorous resistance to the Per- 
 sians, and successfully opposed the arms of 
 the Thebans under Epammondas. Agesilaus 
 was lame and of small stature, but brave, and 
 almost idolized by his troops. He was eighty- 
 four years old at the time of his death, b.c. 
 360. 
 
 AGTNCOURT, or Azincour, a village in 
 the department of Pas de Calais, France, 
 where Henry V. of England, with an army of 
 
 AGI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 27 
 
 little more than fifteen thousand men, defeat- 
 ed the flower of the French troops, amount- 
 ing to seventy or a hundred thousand. Hen- 
 ry entrenched his archers against onsets of 
 cavalry, within fences of pointed stakes, then 
 first used, and in modern times, known under 
 the name of chevaux de /rise. The rashness 
 and disordered impetuosity of the French, 
 and the coolness and orderly intrepidity of 
 the English, produced the same effects at Ag- 
 incourt as at Poictiers. The English had 
 spent the previous evening in preparing their 
 weapons, confessing themselves, and receiving 
 the sacrament ; while the French gamed and 
 drank the night away. The narrowness of 
 the field prevented the French from profiting 
 by their superior force. The Constable d’ Al- 
 bret, the Count de Nevers, and the Duke of 
 Brabant, the Dukes of Alencon and Bar, the 
 Counts of Yaudemont and Marie, scorning to 
 survive defeat, rushed into the thickest of the 
 fight and died, with upward of ten thousand 
 of their followers. The number of captives 
 taken by the English was fourteen thousand, 
 a number about equal to that of the conquer- 
 ors. Among the captives were the Dukes of 
 Orleans and Bourbon. The loss of the Eng- 
 lish was about twelve hundred, and the Duke 
 of York almost the only person of rank who 
 fell. This nobleman was Henry’s uncle, and 
 was slain in defending the king against the 
 Duke of Alencon, who rode furiously upon 
 him. Alencon dashed Henry’s crown from 
 his head, with a blow of his battle-axe, and 
 was preparing to dispatch him, when the 
 king’s attendants closed around him in a 
 steely circle, and he fell, covered with wounds, 
 the blood pouring from every joint of his ar- 
 mor. This great battle was fought October 
 25th, 1415. 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, born at Milan, 
 in 1718. In a Latin oration, delivered in her 
 ninth year, she advocated the study of the 
 ancient languages by females. At the age of 
 eleven, she was conversant with Greek, which 
 she spoke with great fluency, and she after- 
 ward mastered the oriental languages. Ge- 
 ometry and philosophy next engaged her 
 attention. She was the ornament of brilliant 
 and talented circles, and her loveliness added 
 to the magic of her words. In mathematics 
 she was no less successful, and at thirty 
 she published a treatise on the rudiments of 
 
 analysis, thought to be the best introduction 
 to Euler’s works extant. She acquired such 
 fame by this performance, that she was ap- 
 pointed professor of mathematics in the uni- 
 versity of Bologna. Incessant application 
 seems finally to have rendered her melan- 
 choly ; she renounced society, and died in a 
 nunnery, 1799. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, a brave Ro- 
 man commander, and a distinguished states- 
 man. He subjected a great part of Britain, 
 a.d. 70. Domitian recalled him, and he died 
 in retirement, a.d. 93. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, a native of 
 Cologne, born in 1486, and noted for his 
 acquirements, talents, and eccentricity. For 
 his military services, he was knighted. He 
 was acquainted with eight languages, and 
 made pretensions to magic, which procured 
 him invitations from various personages of 
 celebrity, who sought to acquire a knowledge 
 of futurity. After a life full of change and 
 incident, he died at Grenoble, in 1535. 
 
 AGRIPPA I., grandson of Herod the 
 Great, and king of Judea. St. James per- 
 ished in a persecution commenced by him. 
 The occasion and manner of his death are 
 related, Acts xii. 20-23, under his patronymic 
 name of Herod. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, the son-in- 
 law and friend of xVugustus, whose fleet he 
 commanded in the battle of Actium ; died 
 B.C. 12. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the elder, daughter of the 
 above, wife of Germanicus Caesar, whom 
 she accompanied in his German expeditions. 
 She was banished a.d. 33, by the cruel Tibe- 
 rius, who hated her for her virtues and popu- 
 larity, to the island of Pandataria, where she 
 starved herself to death. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the younger, daughter of the 
 former, was born at Cologne. She was pos- 
 sessed of talents, but intriguing, dissolute, and 
 ambitious. She was married to her uncle 
 Claudius, the emperor, whom she poisoned to 
 clear the throne for her wicked son Nero, who 
 assassinated her when she became trouble- 
 some after his elevation. 
 
 AHASUERUS, the king of Persia whose 
 marriage with Esther, and protection of the 
 Jews, are described in the Scriptures. He is 
 probably the Artaxerxes Longimanus of the 
 Greeks, whose reign began b.c. 465. 
 
 AHA 
 
28 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Prus- 
 sian city on the borders of Belgium, lying be- 
 tween the Rhine and Meuse, in a rich valley 
 encompassed by hills ; population 45,000. It 
 was the birth-place of Charlemagne, accord- 
 ing to some authors, and contains many build- 
 ings and monuments of historical interest. 
 It was the northern capital of .Charlemagne, 
 who held a splendid court here, and was 
 buried in its cathedral. Succeeding empe- 
 rors conferred so many privileges on the city, 
 that it was remarked that “the air of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle gave freedom even to the outlaws.” 
 By the celebrated treaty signed here in 
 1784, peace was concluded between England, 
 France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. 
 A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Rus- 
 sia, and Prussia, with ambassadors from 
 England and France, was held at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in 1818, to decide upon the terms 
 for the evacuation of France by the allied 
 army. 
 
 AKBAH, a Saracen conqueror, who over- 
 ran Africa from Cairo to the Atlantic, was 
 killed in a revolt of the Greeks and Africans, 
 682. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, the son of a butcher, 
 born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, November 9th, 
 1721. He was intended for the ministry, but 
 preferred the study of medicine. He never 
 had much success in the practice of his pro- 
 fession, but as a poet acquired renown. His 
 “Pleasures of the Imagination” is his best 
 poem. He died of a fever, June 23d, 1770. 
 
 ALABAMA was originally settled by 
 Frenchmen and Spaniards. In 1800 the 
 region between Georgia and the Mississippi 
 river was organized as a territory. It was 
 divided in 1817, the western portion forming 
 the state of Mississippi ; the eastern the ter- 
 ritory of Alabama, now the state of that name, 
 having been so constituted by Congress in 
 1819. It contains 50,722 square miles. The 
 state is divided into several regular terraces, 
 or belts, as it were, which rise above each 
 other from the Gulf of Mexico. Of these the 
 southern is flat and swampy, containing sev- 
 eral savannahs. In the center of the state 
 the wide spread plains or gently waving lands 
 of the prairies are covered with herbage, 
 grass, and flowers. The greater part of Ala- 
 bama is separated from the Tennessee valley 
 by abrupt and precipitous hills, or rather 
 
 mountains, which, in some places, rise to an 
 elevation of two thousand feet above the gulf 
 level. The swamps in the vicinity of Florida 
 are numerous, and covered with cypress, gum, 
 and loblolly pine-trees, while the uplands are 
 timbered with the long-leaved pine. What 
 are termed the hummock lands, the fertility of 
 which is lasting, form a belt between the pine 
 ridges and the bottoms. The French imag- 
 ined that they were well adapted to the 
 rearing of grape-vines. Attention is now 
 being more than ever turned to wine-grow- 
 ing, and it may not be long before these 
 slopes will be clustered with smiling vine- 
 yards, and echo the joyous song of the vine- 
 dresser, and the merriment of the autumnal 
 vintage. Corn, cotton, wheat, and rice con- 
 stitute the main products of the state. Groves 
 of orange-trees, undoubtedly of Spanish or- 
 igin, are not infrequent. Tobacco and sugar 
 are grown to some extent. Iron and coal are 
 found in various parts of the state. Nearly 
 every part of the state is amply watered by 
 large streams, admitting of extensive steam- 
 boat navigation. The most important of 
 these rivers are the Tennessee, Chattahoo- 
 chee, Alabama, and Tombigbee. 
 
 The French who settled on the borders of 
 the Mississippi at an early period, did not 
 meet with much success at first, and for a 
 long time the French settlements were insig- 
 nificant and unnoticed. Instead of drawing 
 their support from the fertile bosom of the 
 earth beneath their feet, they are said to have 
 subsisted on provisions obtained from France 
 and the Spanish colonies. So slow were they 
 in appreciating the richness of the soil, and 
 so tenacious of established opinions and pre- 
 judices, that on a superficial examination of 
 facts, we are surprised to find that, in the 
 northern and more sterile parts of North 
 America, where a thousand obstacles pre- 
 sented themselves in the path of the adven- 
 turer, the work of colonization went on with 
 the greatest rapidity. This appears to have 
 been a wise ordination of providence. The 
 French settlers, while they wanted the per- 
 severance of the English and the colonial 
 experience of the Spaniards, had a singular 
 facility in winning the friendship and esteem 
 of the savages. Yet, in spite of this advan- 
 tage, few of the colonies they founded at the 
 south, went on without many interruptions, 
 
 ALA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 29 
 
 while the Spanish settlements were generally 
 permanent. 
 
 After the English had obtained possession 
 of the whole country east of the Mississippi, 
 which was ceded to them by the French, in 
 the treaty of peace concluded between France 
 and Great Britain, Feb. 10th, 1763, they en- 
 countered the hostility of the Spanish, who 
 were in possession of Louisiana, and were 
 inflamed against the English by hostility and 
 jealousy. The war of the American revolu- 
 tion placed the British colonists in this section 
 in a peculiarly embarrassing and dangerous 
 situation. On the one hand they were threat- 
 ened by the Spanish colonists of Louisiana, 
 while, on the other, they feared the hostility 
 of the new states. The Spanish colonists in 
 turn, although fearful of the spread of liberal 
 principles, and aware that the discomfiture 
 of the British in the south-west would be a 
 source of congratulation to the Americans, 
 yet so ardently desired the conquest, that 
 they laid aside all minor considerations, and 
 determined on attempting it. At this time, 
 Galvez, a gallant and enterprising officer, was 
 the Spanish commander of Louisiana. He 
 took the field against the British with twenty- 
 three hundred men. Natchez and Pensa- 
 cola capitulated, and Galvez, in 1780, sailed 
 against Mobile with a powerful armament. 
 A storm overtook him in the gulf, and the 
 wreck of one of his armed vessels, with the 
 
 no good omen of ultimate success. Many 
 commanders so circumstanced, would have 
 despaired, but Galvez, keeping up a tolerable 
 appearance, landed near Mobile, and halted 
 in the momentary expectation of an attack 
 from the British. He saw that such an attack 
 would be ruinous, and entertaining no doubt 
 that the British would commence hostilities, 
 made preparations for relinquishing his artil- 
 lery and military stores, and falling back, in 
 what order he might, upon New Orleans. 
 Whether from want of foresight, or from 
 cowardice, the English did not attempt to 
 disturb him.* 
 
 Finding himself, much to his surprise, un- 
 molested, Galvez took heart again, and having 
 carefully dried his stores and ammunition, 
 which, upon examination, were found not 
 to have been spoiled, though badly wet, he 
 marched upon Mobile, which was garrisoned 
 and defended by regulars and militia. Six 
 Spanish batteries, playing, with well-directed 
 aim, upon the place, opened a breach, and the 
 garrison immediately capitulated! At Pen- 
 sacola, only sixty miles off, General Camp- 
 bell was stationed with an overwhelming 
 force ; yet he marched not to the relief of Mo- 
 bile, until it was in the hands of Galvez. 
 
 Toward the close of the year 1811, the 
 troops of the United States were employed 
 against the Indians, who formed powerful 
 hostile combinations in the western country. 
 During the war with Great Britain, many 
 
 wetting of his provision and ammunition, gave 
 
 ALA 
 
80 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 bloody engagements were fought with the 
 Indians. After the surrender of Detroit, an 
 event which produced such an universal feel- 
 ing of shame and degradation in the west, 
 the Indians sent news of their triumph even 
 to the most southerly extremity of the Union, 
 and invited the neutral tribes of the south 
 to assume the hatchet. The Creeks and Sem- 
 inoles, with many other tribes, were not slow 
 in responding to the summons, and became 
 involved in the war, which was felt, in hostile 
 incursions, by the entire frontier, from Ten- 
 nessee to the bay of Mobile. Tecunseh, 
 arming himself with the persuasive predic- 
 tions of his brother, the Prophet, arrived 
 among the Creeks in 1812, and urged them 
 forward to deeds of blood. The most dread- 
 ful outrages were consequently perpetrated 
 by the Creeks along the Alabama frontier, 
 which suffered extremely during this war. 
 
 In 1814, Mobile was attacked by the Brit- 
 ish, and defended by Major Lawrence, with a 
 gallantry which gained him no inconsiderable 
 renown. His Spartan band of one hundred 
 and thirty men were resolved to suffer no 
 stain to dim the brilliancy of their starred 
 banner, and to uphold it while life-blood ran 
 warm in their veins. On the 12th of Sep- 
 tember, intelligence was received at the fort 
 of the landing of a pretty large force of In- 
 dians and Spaniards in its vicinity. In the 
 course of that day two British brigs and 
 sloops hove in sight, and anchored at no in- 
 considerable distance. At half after four in 
 the evening of the 15th, the Hermes, Charon, 
 Sophia, and Anaconda, with ninety guns, 
 anchored at such a distance from the fort, as 
 to admit of firing upon it conveniently. A 
 simultaneous land attack was begun by Cap- 
 tains Nicholls and Woodbine. Their fortifi- 
 cations were made of sand, and they brought 
 a howitzer to bear upon the fort at point 
 blank distance ; but they were soon compelled 
 to abandon their position. Still a severe 
 firing was maintained by the ships and fort. 
 The Hermes, receiving a raking fire, ran 
 ashore, was abandoned, and blew up. The 
 Charon was almost wholly disabled. When 
 the flag-staff of the fort was shot away, 
 Woodbine and Nicholls, thinking the foe van- 
 quished, rushed forward to the fort, but were 
 awakened to a sense of their error by a mur- 
 derous fire which sent them to the right about 
 
 with enviable facility. What praise is too 
 warm for the conduct of the few who com- 
 posed the garrison, when we consider the 
 numbers and advantages of the enemy ? Six 
 hundred men attacked the fort by sea, sup- 
 ported by ninety heavy guns. Four hund- 
 red Indians and others made an attack in the 
 rear. Captain Lawrence had but about a 
 seventh of the enemy’s numerical force, and 
 twenty guns, all badly mounted, and some of 
 them quite ineffective. Yet, while he lost 
 but ten men, he compelled the enemy to 
 retire with a loss of their very best ship, and 
 two hundred and thirty men. 
 
 The state secaded January 11, 1861 ; at its 
 capital, Montgomery, the rebel congress as- 
 sembled, Feb. 4, inaugurated the rebel gov- 
 ernment, and adjourned to Richmond, March 
 16, 1861. It underwent a fair share of the 
 miseries of war, having been penetrated and 
 traversed a number of times by the Union 
 troops, particularly by Gen. Rousseau with a 
 strong cavalry force in July, 1864, during 
 Sherman’s investment of Atlanta, by Gen. 
 Wilson with an army of 10,000 cavalry in 
 March and April, 1865, and by the forces 
 operating against Mobile, in 1864 and ’65. 
 Farragut, with a fleet of 32 vessels and 231 
 guns, forced an entrance into Mobile Bay, 
 Aug. 5, 1864, defeating the rebel fleet and tak- 
 ing the ram Tennessee. Operations against 
 the city itself began March 25th, 1865, when 
 Smith and Canby broke ground before Span- 
 ish Fort. Mobile was evacuated Apr. 10th 
 and 11th, and Gen. Canby’s troops entered it 
 on the 12th. This was the last important 
 fighting of the rebellion, Lee having surren- 
 dered to Grant some days before. 
 
 The judicial power of the State is vested 
 in a supreme court with three Justices; a 
 court of chancery with three chancellors, the 
 state being divided into three districts ; nine 
 circuit courts ; a city court for Mobile, and 
 courts of probate. The justices are chosen 
 by the legislature by joint ballot for terms of 
 six years each. The judges are chosen by 
 the people and may be removed by impeach- 
 ment or by the governor on petition of two- 
 thirds of the legislature. 
 
 The capital of Alabama is Montgomery, a 
 thriving city, built on a high bluff at the 
 head of steamboat navigation on the Alabama 
 river; population in 1870,10,588. The most 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 31 
 
 important town is Mobile, which except New 
 Orleans is the largest cotton mart in the 
 United States. It is a handsome city, and 
 rapidly growing in business and prosperity. 
 Population in 1870, 32,034. Tuscaloosa, the 
 former capital, stands at the head of steam- 
 boat navigation on the Tuscaloosa River; 
 population in 1870, 5,029. 
 
 By the U. S. census of 1870, Alabama had 
 a population of 996,992 : consisting of 521,384 
 whites, 475,510 colored, and 98 Indians. 
 
 AL ANI, or Alans, a warlike tribe that left 
 their abodes near Mount Caucasus, in Alia, 
 when the Roman empire was declining, and 
 aided in its overthrow. After 412, they be- 
 came lost among the Vandals. 
 
 ALARIC, king of the Visigoths, and con- 
 queror of Rome. But little is known of his 
 early history. His wild ambition was excited 
 by overtures from intriguers against Arca- 
 dius, emperor of the eastern empire, and he 
 commenced his famous march from the Dan- 
 ube, through Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, and 
 Thessaly, into Achaia. Everywhere the 
 Goths were victorious, and in their ravages 
 some of the finest monuments of Grecian art 
 were lost. Ilonorius, the emperor of the west, 
 sent an army to the aid of his brother, and 
 for a few years a truce was had between 
 Alaric and the Romans. But in 405 his 
 army entered the eternal city. The Romans 
 bought his forbearance by a ransom of five 
 thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand 
 pounds of silver, four thousand garments of 
 silk, three thousand pieces of fine scarlet 
 cloth, and three thousand pounds of pepper. 
 In 410 his bands returned and sacked the 
 city. The treasures which had been accu- 
 mulated during a thousand years, vanished in 
 three days beneath the hands of the rapacious 
 conquerors. The flames destroyed works of 
 art which the barbarians were unable to carry 
 off, but Alaric spared the churches and those 
 who had sought refuge in them. Alaric died 
 at a Calabrian town (Cosenza), a.d. 410, 
 when he was preparing to lay waste Sicily 
 and Africa. In order to conceal his remains 
 from the Romans, slaves were employed to 
 divert the waters of the Busento, and hollow 
 his last resting-place in the channel of the 
 stream. When the earth had received the 
 body of the conqueror, the waves were per- 
 mitted to rush in above it, and the slaves 
 
 were murdered, that Alaric’ s secret might 
 be in the keeping of the waters and the 
 voiceless dead. 
 
 ALASKA. See Appendix, page 971. 
 
 ALBERT I., emperor and duke of Aus- 
 tria, the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg. He 
 was crowned in 1298, after slaying Adolphus 
 of Nassau, his competitor. They engaged 
 in single combat, and Adolphus exclaimed, 
 “Your crown and life are lost!” “Heaven 
 will decide,” was the answer of Albert, as 
 he forced his lance into the face of his adver- 
 sary and unhorsed him. Albert was assassin- 
 ated in 1308, by his nephew John, son of the 
 Duke of Suabia, whose paternal estates he 
 had seized. John had often asserted his 
 claims, and urged them upon Albert when 
 he was departing for Switzerland, on account 
 of the revolt of the Swiss. The emperor con- 
 temptuously offered his nephew a garland of 
 flowers. “ Take this,” said he, “amuse your- 
 self with botanical investigations, but leave 
 the cares of government to those who are old 
 and wise enough to understand them.” Al- 
 bert breathed his last in the arms of a poor 
 woman, who was sitting by the road-side at 
 the time of his assassination. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS, or Albertus Gro- 
 tus, was born in Lauingen, in Suabia, about 
 the commencement of the thirteenth century. 
 In youth he is said to have been singularly 
 obtuse; but he afterward studied at Paris, 
 Padua, and Bologna, displayed prodigious 
 capacity, and became a wonder of erudition. 
 He was a Dominican, and was made Bishop 
 of Ratisbon in 1260; resigned his episcopate 
 in 1263, and died in 1280. Cologne was his 
 chief place of residence. Thomas Aquinas 
 was among his pupils. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, the Protestants of Savoy 
 and Piedmont, in the middle ages ; the ob- 
 jects of cruel persecution and of several cru- 
 sades. They are said to have originated at 
 Albigeois, in Languedoc, about 1 1 60. They 
 professed a hatred of the corruptions of the 
 Church of Rome. 
 
 ALBRET, Jeanne d’, daughter of Marga- 
 ret, Queen of Navarre, was married at the age 
 of eleven to the Duke of Cleves, but the mar- 
 riage was annulled in 1548, when she espous- 
 ed Anthony de Bourbon, Duke of Vendome, 
 by whom she became mother of Henry IV. 
 In 1555, her father dying, she became Queen 
 
 ALB 
 
32 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 of Navarre, and in 1562, the death of her 
 husband left her independent. She then set 
 herself to establish the Reformation in her 
 kingdom, although opposed by France and 
 Spain. She expired suddenly, at Versailles, 
 in 1572, and her death was attributed to 
 poison. 
 
 ALBUERA, Battle of. Between the 
 French, commanded by Marshal Soult, and 
 the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
 manded by Marshal Beresford, May 16th, 
 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary 
 engagement, the latter obtained the victory, 
 one of the most brilliant achievements of the 
 peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 
 7,000 men, and the allies lost an equal 
 number. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, the name of two Portu- 
 guese brothers, distinguished for bravery, 
 who founded the Portuguese dominion in the 
 Indies. They took Cochin, in India, in 1505. 
 Francis was lost on his passage home. When 
 Alphonso captured Ormus, the Persian king 
 demanded the tribute which he had been 
 accustomed to receive from the princes of the 
 island. Upon this Albuquerque laid down 
 a sword and a bullet, saying haughtily, 
 “ This is the coin in which Portugal pays her 
 tribute.” After a rash and unsuccessful at- 
 tempt upon Calicut, he took Goa and Malacca. 
 The envy of courtiers, and the suspicions of 
 King Emmanuel, did not spare even the dis- 
 tinguished merit of Albuquerque, who died 
 at Goa, in 1515, after his ungrateful master 
 had appointed his personal enemy, Lopez 
 Soarez, to fill his post. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, an Athenian, famous for 
 his enterprise, gallantry, versatility, and nat- 
 ural foibles. He was the son of Clinias and 
 Dinomache, and was born at Athens, about 
 450 b.c. He inherited high rank and vast 
 wealth, while nature had endowed him with 
 a person unusually handsome, manners the 
 most fascinating, a'nd talents of high order. 
 Left early an orphan, he was educated in the 
 house of Pericles, who was too much occu- 
 pied with state affairs to pay much attention 
 to the youth. The impetuosity of Alcibiades 
 displayed itself early, as the following anec- 
 dote shows. While he was playing dice in 
 the street with some juvenile companions, a 
 wagon came up. Alcibiades requested the 
 driver to stop, but he refused. The daring 
 
 ALCIBIADES. 
 
 youth then threw himself before the wheel, and 
 exclaimed, “ Drive on, if thou darest ! ” The 
 instructions of Socrates restrained for a time 
 his vain and wanton propensities. Socrates 
 fought by his side in his first battle, and, 
 when he was wounded, defended him, and 
 bore him off safe. The dissipation and ex- 
 travagance of Alcibiades were unbounded. 
 One night, being at a banquet, he laid a 
 wager that he would box the ears of the rich 
 Hipponicus, and did so. This excited gen- 
 eral indignation, but Alcibiades went to the 
 injured party, threw off his garment, and, 
 placing a rod in his hand, bade him strike 
 and revenge himself. Hipponicus not only 
 pardoned him freely, but gave him his daugh- 
 ter in marriage w ith a goodly portion. At 
 the Olympic games, Alcibiades would enter 
 seven chariots, and at one time w r on three 
 prizes. 
 
 In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the 
 Athenians to engage in an expedition against 
 Syracuse. He was chosen general in that 
 w r ar, and in his absence, his enemies, having 
 found all the statues of Mercury broken, 
 charged him w r ith being concerned in the 
 deed and confiscated all his property. He 
 then fled to Sparta, w r here he attempted to 
 gain popularity by adopting the temperate 
 habits of the Spartans, whom he wished to 
 rouse against the Athenians. Finding this 
 of no avail, he went to Tissaphernes, the 
 
 ALC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 33 
 
 satrap of Lydia. He was afterward recalled 
 by the Athenians, and having compelled the 
 Spartans to sue for peace, and been success- 
 ful in Asia, was welcomed to Athens with high 
 honors. The failure of an expedition, with 
 the command of which he was intrusted, 
 again aroused the resentment of the people, 
 and Alcibiades fled to Pharnabazes, satrap 
 of Bithynia. Lysander, the Spartan general, 
 induced Pharnabazes to assassinate him. The 
 attendants sent for that purpose, found him 
 in a castle in Phrygia, in company with his 
 favorite Timandra. They set the building on 
 fire, and the warrior rushed out sword in 
 hand. Dreading his valor, the cowardly as- 
 sassins retreated to a safe distance, and shot 
 him with their arrows. Thus perished Alci- 
 biades, in the forty-fifth year of his age, about 
 404 b.c. Though he wanted firm moral prin- 
 ciples, he was generous, brave, persevering, 
 and gifted with distinguished qualities. His 
 eloquence won the hearts of men impercep- 
 tibly and unostentatiously ; although it is said 
 that he stuttered, and was unable to pro- 
 nounce the letter ‘ r.’ 
 
 ALEMANNI, the ancient inhabitants of 
 Suabia and Switzerland, united in a league, 
 from whence Germany derives its French 
 name of Allemagne. They were the deter- 
 mined opponents of the Romans. They 
 finally submitted to the Franks. 
 
 ALEXANDER the Great, son of Philip 
 of Macedon, was born at Pella, b.c. 356. 
 Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus of Epi- 
 rus, was his mother. At an early age, he 
 showed a veneration for great deeds and a 
 determination to achieve them. Hearing of 
 the victories of Philip, he exclaimed, “ My 
 father will leave nothing for me to do.” Ar- 
 istotle instructed him in the most elegant as 
 well as the most profound branches of knowl- 
 edge, and never for a moment forgot that it 
 was his duty to fit him for governing a great 
 kingdom. That he might become acquainted 
 w T ith military virtues and ambition, Aristotle 
 put the “Iliad” into the hands of his noble 
 pupil. Alexander was so fond of this, that 
 he never lay down without having read some 
 pages in it. His exclusive ambition is' well 
 illustrated by the letter which he wrote his 
 preceptor on the publication of his “ Meta- 
 physics.” “You did wrong in publishing 
 those branches of science hitherto not to be 
 
 " 3 
 
 acquired but from oral instruction. In what 
 shall 1 excel others, if the more profound 
 knowledge I gained from you be communicat- 
 ed to all ? For my part, I had rather surpass 
 the majority of mankind in the sublimer 
 branches of learning, than in the extent of 
 power and dominion.” 
 
 It was no part of the ancient Grecian plan 
 of education, to permit the culture of the 
 mind to supersede that of the body. The 
 instructors of the young trained the intellec- 
 tual and corporeal powers at the saifie time. 
 Alexander was early accustomed to gymnas- 
 tic exercises, and at a tender age, displayed 
 his strength and skill in an extraordinary 
 manner. His father had been presented with 
 a superb charger (Bucephalus), which no one 
 dared to mount. Alexander sprang upon 
 his back and succeeded in completely taming 
 him, after which the steed would permit none 
 but the noble youth to mount him. He bore 
 him through some of the most perilous scenes 
 of his career, and, when he died, was honored 
 by a splendid memorial, the erection of a city 
 called Bucephalia. At the age of sixteen 
 years, Alexander was appointed by his father, 
 regent of Macedon, when the latter departed 
 on his expedition to Byzantium. In 338, at 
 the battle of Cheeronea, he so distinguished 
 himself, that Philip, embracing him, exclaim- 
 ed, “My son, seek another empire, for that 
 you will inherit is unworthy of you.” 
 
 When Philip married Cleopatra, and di- 
 vorced, or at least disgraced, Olympias, Al- 
 exander, having taken the part of his mother, 
 incurred the displeasure of his father, and 
 was forced to fly to Epirus, whence, however, 
 he was soon recalled. Soon after this he 
 saved his father’s life in an expedition against 
 the Triballi. Philip was assassinated, b.c. 
 336, when preparing to make war upon Per- 
 sia, at the head of all the Grecian forces. 
 Alexander, then twenty years of age, ascended 
 the throne, and soon gave proof of talents to 
 govern and to conquer. He conquered the 
 Illyrii and Triballi, and forced a triumphant 
 passage through Thrace. Urged by the elo- 
 quence of Demosthenes, the Athenians were 
 about to join the Thebans, who had taken up 
 arms, to throw off the yoke of Macedon. 
 Alexander promptly repaired to Thebes, and 
 on the refusal of the citizens to surrender, 
 took it and destroyed it, with the exception 
 
 ALE 
 
34 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of the poet Pindar’s house. Six thousand 
 individuals were put to the sword, and thirty 
 thousand reduced to captivity. The Athen- 
 ians, although punished, were not so severely 
 handled, and the fate of Thebes had the 
 intended effect of striking terror into all 
 Greece. The general assembly of the Greeks 
 confirmed Alexander in the chief command 
 against Persia, and he determined to leave 
 Antipater, who had been a minister of his 
 father, at the head of the government. The 
 confidence reposed in this man was great, as 
 appears from the following anecdote. Philip 
 was fond of wine, and occasionally indulged 
 himself to excess. One night, observing one 
 of his companions unwilling to drink deeply, 
 “Drink, drink,” said he, “all’s safe, for An- 
 tipater is awake.” 
 
 In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed 
 into Asia with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. 
 In the plains of Ilium, he offered sacrifices 
 to Minerva, and crowned the tomb of Achilles. 
 Approaching the Granicus, he learned that 
 Persian satraps, with 600,000 foot and 20,000 
 horse, were prepared to oppose his progress. 
 The passage of the river was effected in the 
 teeth of this force, and Alexander was com- 
 pletely triumphant. During the heat of battle, 
 the Macedonian monarch was a mark for the 
 weapons of the enemy, by the splendor of hi^ 
 equipments, and the conspicuous beauty of 
 his superb charger. The cities of Asia Minor, 
 with few exceptions, now opened their gates to 
 the youthful conqueror. In passing through 
 Gordium, Alexander cut the Gordian knot. 
 Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappa- 
 docia, were successively conquered. The con- 
 queror was seized with a severe illness in 
 consequence of imprudently bathing in the 
 Cydnus, which proved a check to his career. 
 While in a dangerous state, he received a 
 letter from Parmenio, his general, warning 
 him against his physician Philip, whom Par- 
 menio accused of the design of poisoning his 
 master. Phjlip was at that time preparing a 
 potion for the king; and Alexander, hand- 
 ing him the letter, looked steadily in his 
 face while he drank off the draught. He 
 recovered. 
 
 Darius, instead of waiting for Alexander on 
 the plains of Assyria, had advanced with an 
 immense army to the defiles of Cilicia, whither 
 the Macedonian followed, defeating the Per- 
 
 sians in the battle of Issus, which placed the 
 treasures, and the mother, wife, and children 
 of Darius in the hands of the conqueror. 
 His generous treatment of the family of Da- 
 rius conferred as much honor upon Alexander, 
 as the victory which preceded it. He turned 
 toward Coelosyria and Phoenicia for the pur- 
 pose of cutting off Darius, who had fled 
 toward the Euphrates. The Persian monarch 
 sent a letter to Alexander suing for peace, and 
 the latter answered him, that if he would 
 come to him, he should receive his mother, his 
 wife, his children, and his empire; but no 
 notice was taken of this liberal proposal. 
 Damascus, and all the towns along the Med- 
 iterranean, were entered and taken possession 
 of by Alexander. The resistance of Tyre 
 was severely punished ; it stood a siege of 
 seven months ; the inhabitants were massa- 
 cred or sold as slaves. This is one of the 
 blackest acts in Alexander’s career. In Pal- 
 estine, Gaza, which resisted the conqueror 
 like Tyre, shared a like fate. Gaza was the 
 emporium, for the productions of Arabia, and 
 a place of considerable wealth and import- 
 ance. Among the plunder, the conquer- 
 or gained great quantities of frankincense, 
 myrrh, and other aromatics, the sight of 
 which recalled a long forgotten incident of 
 his juvenile days. His governor, Leonatus, 
 observing him one day at a sacrifice throw 
 incense into the flame by handfuls, remon- 
 strated, and said, “ Alexander, when you 
 have conquered the spice countries, you may 
 be thus lavish of your incense ; meantime use 
 what you have more sparingly.” Alexander 
 now sent his governor several large bales of 
 spices, with the following note: “Leonatus, 
 .1 have sent you frankincense and myrrh in 
 abundance ; so be no longer a churl to the 
 gods.” On his way through Palestine it is 
 said that Alexander marched against Jerusa- 
 lem to destroy it ; but when he saw Jaddus 
 the high-priest clad in his solemn robes, he 
 declared he had seen such a figure in a vision 
 in Macedonia, inviting him to Asia and prom- 
 ising to deliver the Persian empire into his 
 hands. The holy city was spared, and in the 
 temple Alexander offered sacrifices to the 
 God of the Jews. 
 
 He proceeded into Egypt, and founded the 
 city of Alexandria. The Egyptians, to whom 
 the Persian yoke had been a galling burden, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 35 
 
 were well pleased with the arrival of Alex- 
 ander, whom they gratefully regarded as a 
 deliverer. His next expedition was a visit 
 to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the des- 
 erts of Libya, where, having consulted the 
 oracle, the crafty god is said to have acknowl- 
 edged him as his son. In the ensuing spring, 
 learning that Darius had gathered an im- 
 mense force in Assyria, and was determined 
 to tight to the last, rejecting all proposals for 
 peace, Alexander marched in that direction. 
 In 331, a furious battle was fought at Gauga- 
 mela, not far from Arbela, in which the army 
 of Darius was not less than 500,000 strong. 
 Notwithstanding this overwhelming force, 
 the Macedonian was irresistible, and scattered 
 the thronged Persians like leaves before the 
 tempest. Alexander’s principal object was 
 to capture the Persian monarch, or prevent 
 his flight by death. In the midst of the 
 crowd and crush of battle, Darius was no incon- 
 siderable figure, for he was mounted on a char- 
 iot of great height, and surrounded by guards 
 splendidly armed and equipped. These, 
 however, no sooner perceived the extraordi- 
 nary success of Alexander, than, forgetful of 
 their duty, they took to flight. Darius was 
 saved by the speed of a horse upon which he 
 hastily threw himself. 
 
 The immense wealth of the East was de- 
 posited in Babylon and Susa, both of which 
 opened their gates without hesitation to the 
 mighty victor, who continued his march to- 
 ward Persepolis, then the capital of Persia. 
 Ariobarzanes, with 40,000 men, had thrown 
 himself into the only passage which opened 
 on Persepolis, to defend it as long as he was 
 able. He did not hold out long, for the 
 troops of Alexander, flushed with success, 
 and impatient of opposition, swept away all 
 obstacles. Persepolis, with all its wealth 
 and luxury, was won. In Persepolis, Alex- 
 ander forgot his duty and his interest in 
 unexampled riot and dissipation. He was 
 intoxicated with success, and inclined to 
 believe himself the god which his flatterers 
 would have made him. In a moment of in- 
 toxication and unbridled pleasure. Alexander, 
 yielding to the persuasions of an abandoned 
 woman, Thais, the Athenian, fired the cap- 
 ital of Persia, which* was soon reduced to 
 ruins. On the right bank of the Medus and 
 Araxes, near Istakar, the ruins of the royal 
 
 palace of Persepolis are still visible ; tall col- 
 umns yet attesting its former magnificence, 
 before the vengeance of the Greek was 
 wreaked upon the pride of art. 
 
 The burning of Persepolis filled Alexander 
 with remorse, and he set forth in pursuit of 
 Darius. He soon learned that Bessus, the per- 
 fidious satrap of Bactria, kept his master in 
 custody, but before he could save Darius, Bes- 
 sus had the unfortunate monarch assassinated, 
 b.c. 330. He was found lying in his chariot 
 covered with wounds. The perfidy of Bess-us 
 was subsequently punished with death. Da- 
 rius was interred with great solemnity, and 
 Alexander caused himself to be proclaimed 
 king of Asia. While occupied in the for- 
 mation of plans of vast importance, a conspir- 
 acy broke out in the camp of Alexander, in 
 which Philotas, the son of Parmenio, was 
 found to be concerned. Philotas, though 
 brave and hardy, was addicted to pleasure, 
 to expensive amusements, and given to boast- 
 ing. He frequently spoke slightingly of 
 Alexander to the companions of his pleasures, 
 calling him the and saying that the 
 
 victories were rather the result of his own 
 exertions and those of his father, than of the 
 bravery and skill of Alexander. Parmenio 
 endeavored to check his son, saying, “ Make 
 yourself less conspicuous,” but his counsel 
 was of no avail. Alexander heard of the 
 boastings of Philotas with indignation ; and 
 when the conspiracy broke forth, his anger 
 knew no bounds. Philotas was executed, 
 and, by the orders of Alexander, the veteran 
 Parmenio was secretly put to death, a crim- 
 inal act which excited the displeasure of the 
 whole army. 
 
 Meanwhile Agis, king of Sparta, threatened 
 the destruction of the power of Alexander in 
 Greece, and raised a powerful army to obtain 
 independence, but he was defeated by Anti- 
 pater, and the dissolution of the Grecian 
 league ensued. Neither the severity of the 
 winter nor the want of local knowledge pre- 
 vented Alexander from marching into the 
 north of Asia and reaching the Caspian Sea. 
 He attacked the Scythians, urged on by an 
 insatiable thirst for distinction. On his re- 
 turn to Bactria, he assumed the dress of the 
 Persians, which disgusted the Macedonians, 
 who thought the flowing robes of the orien- 
 tals too effeminate. The Persians were dis- 
 
 ALE 
 
86 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 pleased at beholding the Macedonian officers 
 entering the royal presence without those 
 tokens of respect, which the kings of their 
 nation invariably exacted from their subjects. 
 The low inclinations of reverence could oaly 
 be claimed from the Greeks on the plea that 
 Alexander, as a god, was entitled to them. 
 A blunt Spartan once satisfied the master of 
 ceremonies and his own scruples, by first 
 dropping a ring and then stooping to pick it 
 up in the presence of the king. Offimded 
 with the independence and freedom of Clitus, 
 Alexander slew him with his own hand at a 
 banquet. As soon as he saw the lifeless body 
 of his most faithful friend and bravest general 
 stretched before him, he was seized with all 
 the agonies of remorse. 
 
 The next year Alexander subdued Sogdi- 
 ana, and married the Bactrian Roxana, love- 
 liest of Asiatic women. The Asiatic women, 
 but particularly the ladies of Persia, were 
 famous for the richness of their attire, and 
 the art with which they heightened their 
 native beauty. The Persian ladies wore the 
 tiara or turban, richly adorned with jewels. 
 They wore their hair long, and both plaited 
 and curled it ; nor, if the natural failed, did 
 they scruple to use false locks. They pen- 
 ciled the eye-brows, and tinged the eye-lid, 
 ■with a dye that was supposed to add a pecu- 
 liar brilliancy to the eyes. They w r ere fond 
 of perfumes, and the delightful attar was the 
 favorite. Their tunic and drawers were of 
 fine linen ; the robe or gown, of silk, with a 
 long train that on state occasions required a 
 supporter. Round the waist they wore a 
 broad zone or cincture, flounced on both 
 edges, and embroidered and jeweled in the 
 centre. They also wore stockings and gloves, 
 but history does not record their materials. 
 They used no sandals ; a light and ornamental 
 shoe was worn in the house ; and for walking 
 they had a kind of coarse half boot. They 
 used shawls and wrappers for the person, and 
 veils for the head ; the veil was large and 
 square, and wffien thrown over the head, 
 descended low on all sides. They were fond 
 of glowing colors, especially of purple, scar- 
 let, and light-blue dresses. Their favorite 
 ornaments were pearls ; they wreathed these 
 in their hair, wore them as necklaces, ear- 
 drops, amulets, bracelets, anklets, and worked 
 them into conspicuous parts of their dresses. 
 
 Of the precious stones they preferred eme- 
 ralds, rubies, and turquoises, which w r ere set 
 in gold and worn like the pearls. No fewer 
 than ten thousand Greeks, captivated with 
 their charms, married Asiatic brides, and 
 each couple received a present from Alexan- 
 der. 
 
 Soon after the marriage of Alexander with 
 Roxana, a conspiracy was discovered among 
 his troops, headed by Hermolaus. All were 
 condemned to death but Callisthenes, who 
 was mutilated and carried about with the 
 army in an iron cage, until his tortures be- 
 came insufferable, and he killed himself by 
 poison. Alexander penetrated into India and 
 was highly successful. His most determined 
 enemy was Porus, an Indian king, whom 
 he effectually subdued. When this warlike 
 monarch was asked how he should be treated, 
 he answered Alexander, “ Like a king,” and 
 was consequently restored to his kingdom. 
 
 Alexander established Greek colonies in 
 India, and is said to have built no fewer than 
 seventy towns, one of which was erected in 
 honor of his horse Bucephalus, killed on the 
 banks of the ITydaspes. He would have pen- 
 etrated as far as the Ganges, but for the mur- 
 murs of his fatigued army. He returned to 
 the Hydaspes, and built a fleet upon its banks, 
 dispatching part of his army by water, 
 while the remainder marched down by land. 
 His march through the country was not 
 unopposed, and he himself received a severe 
 wound, from which, however, he recovered, 
 and sailing down the Indus, reached the sea. 
 Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, sailed 
 to the Persian gulf, while the conqueror 
 reached Babylon by land, in the spring 
 of 324 b.c., after encountering incredible 
 fatigues, w r hich cost him the loss of many 
 men. At Susa, he was married to two Per- 
 sian princesses. At Opis, on the Tigris, he 
 sent home the invalids with presents, and 
 quelled a mutiny of his troops. Not long 
 after this, his friend and favorite, Hephaestion, 
 died. It is asserted that the fever of He- 
 phaestion was brought on by hard drinking. 
 Alexander’s grief at the loss of his favorite 
 was excessive, and even endangered his rea- 
 son ; for three days he tasted no food, and lay 
 stretched upon the ground, either in silent 
 sorrow or loud lamentation. The money 
 expended on the funeral pile might have 
 
 ALE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 37 
 
 erected a palace ; and all the barbarian sub- 
 jects of Alexander were ordered to go into 
 mourning. 
 
 When Alexander went from Ecbatana to 
 Babylon, which he meant to make the capital 
 of his empire, he is said to have been warned 
 by the astrologers that the latter place would 
 prove fatal to him. Despising these warnings, 
 he went to Babylon and gave audience to the 
 several foreign ambassadors who awaited his 
 arrival. His mind was engaged in forming 
 vast plans of future conquest, when he was 
 seized with sickness, after a banquet, and 
 died in the spring of 323 b.c. Alexander had 
 reigned twelve years and eight months, and 
 was thirty-two years old at the time of his 
 death. The vast possessions which he had 
 acquired by force, were deluged by continual 
 bloodshed when he was no more. When 
 asked to whom he left his kingdom, he an- 
 swered, “to the worthiest.” . The body of 
 Alexander was interred with all the pomp and 
 circumstance of regal burial at Alexandria, 
 where Ptolemy inclosed his remains in a 
 golden coffin. The Egyptians and other na- 
 tions paid divine honors to him after his 
 death. A modern writer has said: “The 
 history of Alexander forms an important 
 epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike 
 other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was 
 marked by something more than devastation 
 and ruin ; at every step of his course the 
 Greek language and civilization took root and 
 flourished ; and after his death, Greek king- 
 doms were formed in all parts of Asia, which 
 continued to exist for centuries. By his con- 
 quests the knowledge of mankind was in- 
 creased; the sciences of geography, natural 
 history, and others received vast additions ; 
 and it was through him that a road was 
 opened to India, and that Europeans became 
 acquainted with the products of the remote 
 East.” 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, a Phoenician 
 by birth, related to Heliogabalus, who at- 
 tempted his life, in consequence of which the 
 praetorian guards slew the monster, and 
 made Alexander emperor in his seventeenth 
 year. He proved himself worthy of the 
 sceptre, and having .gained a great victory 
 over the Persians, on his return to Rome was 
 honored by a triumph. When he marched 
 into Gaul, where an irruption of the Germans 
 
 required his presence, he fell, by a mutiny of 
 his troops, in the year 235, after a reign of 
 twelve years. He was temperate, frugal, 
 humane, and so favorably disposed to Chris- 
 tianity, that he placed the statue of Jesus in 
 his private chapel. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the name of seven popes, 
 the first of whom introduced the use of holy 
 water. The sixth was remarkable for his 
 cruelty and the infamy of his son, Caesar 
 Borgia. He died in 1503, having greatly 
 extended the papal dominions in Italy. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEVSKOI, grand duke 
 of Russia, a hero and saint of the Russian 
 church, was born in 1218, and died 1263 
 
 ALEXANDER I., of Russia. [ See Roman- 
 off.] . 
 
 ALEXANDRIA was the Greek capital of 
 ancient Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, 
 whose favorite residence it was, was cele- 
 brated for its wealth, splendor, and arts. It 
 was founded in 332 b.c. by Alexander, who 
 employed the celebrated architect, Dinocrates, 
 in beautifying and embellishing it, and sprang 
 at once into beauty and importance. The 
 situation of Alexandria, and the excellence 
 of its fine harbors, appeared to adapt it to 
 the rank which its founder hoped that it 
 would hold among the cities of the world. 
 Ptolemy Soter, or the Savior, and Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, conferred great benefits upon 
 the city, which became the seat of literature, 
 the resort of the learned of all countries, and 
 an important mart. Its earliest inhabitants 
 were Greeks and Egyptians. The population 
 was augmented by colonies of Jews trans- 
 ported thither for that purpose. These peo- 
 ple made themselves familiar with Grecian 
 lore, and translated into the Greek language 
 the whole of the Old Testament, a version 
 called the Septuagint. Four hundred thou# 
 sand volumes of the royal library were con- 
 tained in a magnificent edifice belonging to 
 the academy and museum, in which Euclid 
 taught; 300,000 more were deposited in the 
 temple of Jupiter Serapis. As all these works 
 were in manuscript, their value was immense. 
 The Ptolemies spared no pains to enrich their 
 library, which became the finest in the world. 
 When Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, 47 
 b.c., the library was injured by fire, but the 
 loss was repaired by the library of Pergamus 
 which Antony presented to Queen Cleopatra. 
 
 ALE 
 
86 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Cleopatra’s needle. 
 
 It was much injured by the Christians under 
 Theodosius the Great, and the Arabs com- 
 pleted the devastation. When the division 
 of the Roman empire was effected, Alexan- 
 dria, together with the country of which it 
 was the capital, was included in the Eastern 
 empire. Alexandria came into the hands of 
 the Arabs in 640. It received the attention 
 of the Caliph Motawakcl, who, mindful of 
 its former state, restored both the library and 
 academy, in 845. In 868, it was taken by 
 the Turks, and under their sway, very rap- 
 idly declined. Still its commerce was in a 
 flourishing state, and continued so until the 
 close of the fifteenth century, when the Por- 
 tuguese, by the discovery of the passage to 
 the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, altered 
 the commercial channel, and enriched them- 
 selves at the expense of the Egyptians. The 
 modern city of Alexandria occupies only a part 
 
 of the site of the ancient city. The remains 
 of ancient Alexandria are unimportant, the 
 red granite obelisks called Cleopatra’s needles, 
 and Pompey’s pillar, being the most conspic- 
 uous. The latter was erected by a prefect of 
 Egypt, in honor of the Emperor Diocletian; 
 but the equestrian statue which formerly 
 surmounted it, is gone. Some years past, a 
 party of English sailors resolved to amuse 
 themselves, and astonish the natives, by 
 mounting to the top, and refreshing them- 
 selves at an elevation which should put them 
 above the cares and turmoils of humanity. 
 How to accomplish their purpose was the 
 next question. This was soon settled. They 
 raised a line by means of a kite, and dropped 
 it over the pillar, and by this means drew up 
 a rope, by which they gained the top, whence, 
 looking down upon the spectators from a 
 giddy elevation of eighty-eight feet, they eon- 
 
 ALE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 39 
 
 gratulated themselves on their success. The 
 island of Pharos yet bears the ruins of the 
 light-house erected by the Ptolemies. This 
 celebrated building was of white marble. 
 Ptolemy directed his name to be inscribed 
 upon the tower, but the cunning architect 
 carved the name of his employer upon a 
 tablet of plaster, which, decaying in time, 
 displayed the name of the builder, with a 
 dedication to the gods, claiming for himself 
 all the honors due to his sovereign. One 
 of Cleopatra’s needles was presented to En- 
 gland by the pacha, but its weight, 400,000 
 pounds, was a serious bar to its transportation. 
 The ancient Alexandria had a population of 
 600,000; the modern contains about 60,000. 
 It is the seat of a patriarch. It is the only 
 port of Egypt, and the ancient canal com- 
 munication with the Nile has been reopened. 
 This, and the establishment of the overland 
 route to India, have increased its importance. 
 
 A battle was fought at Alexandria, March 
 21st, ‘ 1801, between the French under Menou 
 and the British under Abercrombie. The 
 latter gained the day. Abercrombie was 
 mortally wounded. 
 
 ALFIERI, Victor, Count, was born at 
 Asti in Piedmont, in 1749. His family was 
 rich and distinguished, but, an orphan from 
 childhood, his education was neglected, like 
 that of most of the young Italian nobles of 
 his age and rank. Thus he quitted the 
 academy of Turin, with an undisciplined and 
 uninformed mind, and joined a regiment in 
 the hope of finding something exciting in 
 military pursuits. But here he was disap- 
 pointed : the regiment was mustered only a 
 few days in the year, and he was compelled 
 to seek some other mode of killing' time. For 
 several years he led a dissipated and wander- 
 ing life through Italy, France, England, and 
 Holland, but wanted the information to ren- 
 der his wanderings profitable. A love for 
 horses and horsemanship was one of his two 
 strongest passions. The other involved him 
 in a swarm of profligate amours. Yet by one 
 of these affairs, his poetical susceptibility 
 and his literary ambition were for the first 
 time aroused. Aware of his deficiencies, he 
 resolved to educate himself. He studied as- 
 siduously Latin and Tuscan. In Tuscany, 
 he became acquainted with the Countess of 
 Albany, the unhappy wife of the Chevalier 
 
 Charles Edward Stuart. To her love he 
 owed much of his inspiration. Settling his 
 fortune on his sister, he resided alternately 
 at Florence and Rome, until the death of 
 Charles Stuart put an end to the woes of 
 the Countess of Albany, and enabled her to 
 marry him. They lived together in Alsace 
 and at Paris, until the revolution in France 
 drove Alfieri from a country he loved, to his 
 native land, where he resided at Florence till 
 his death, in 1803. Alfieri’s talents were 
 great, but misapplied, and his tragedies are 
 rather valuable as indicating his powers, than 
 as establishing his fame. 
 
 ALFRED the Great, was born 849, and 
 died 900. He was the youngest son of Eth- 
 elwolf, king of the W est Saxons, and was 
 born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He went to 
 Rome at the age of five years, and was 
 annointed by the pope, although he then had 
 an elder brother. This brother, Etheldred, 
 fell in battle with the Danes, and in 872, 
 Alfred ascended the throne. This was an 
 unpropitious time, for the power of the Danes 
 was then great and employed in harassing 
 the Saxons, whose country they ravaged in 
 various directions. Alfred concluded some 
 treaties with them, but they were not kept, 
 and unable to make head against the invaders, 
 he was compelled to fly, and in concealment 
 to await a moment when his reappearance 
 would be advantageous for his country. The 
 old chronicles tell that he found refuge in a 
 peasant’s hut at Athelney in Somersetshire. 
 The goodwife .set the disguised monarch to 
 watch the baking of cakes. His mind was 
 busy with the Danes ; the cakes burned to a 
 coal ; and the words of his mistress were 
 loud and sharp. In the disguise of a harper, 
 he penetrated the Danish camp to gain infor- 
 mation of the strength and hopes of his foes. 
 Having satisfied himself of both, he directed 
 his nobles and their vassals to assemble at 
 Selwood. Here he headed the troops, and, 
 attacking the Danes at Eddington, gained a 
 signal victory. A series of successes soon 
 restored him his throne. He permitted those 
 Danes who were willing to embrace the 
 Christian religion, to remain in the kingdom 
 of East Anglia, which he surrendered to 
 them. He built forts to secure his subjects, 
 augmented and strengthened his navy, and 
 established the prosperity of London on a 
 
40 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 firm basis. He defeated the Danes who still 
 persisted in attempting to obtain footing in 
 England, and made his name a terror to the 
 pirates. He had fought fifty-six battles by 
 sea and land, in every one of which he was 
 personally engaged. His zeal for the reforma- 
 tion of laws and manners is as honorable to 
 him as his military prowess. He composed 
 a valuable code. By some he is said to have 
 instituted the trial by jury, and to have 
 divided England into shires, hundreds and 
 tithings. But it is probable that the jury 
 trial and these municipal divisions had pre- 
 viously subsisted among the Anglo-Saxons, 
 and that Alfred confirmed them upon a surer 
 basis. He so arranged the business of the 
 nation that all measures passed through three 
 councils. To the first of these only those 
 high in the king’s confidence were admitted, 
 and here were debated all affairs that were to 
 be laid before the second council, which con- 
 sisted of bishops and nobles, appointed by 
 the king. The third was a general assembly 
 of the nation, called Wittenagemote, to sit 
 in which quality and offices gave a right in- 
 dependent of the king. In these councils we 
 discern the origin of the present cabinet, 
 privy council, and parliament of England. 
 
 Alfred was an ardent lover of learning, and 
 was himself a distinguished scholar. He in- 
 vited learned men from all parts, and estab- 
 lished schools throughout his kingdom. He 
 is said to have been the founder of the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, or, at least, to have exalted 
 it to a height which it had never before 
 attained. University College sprang from 
 his liberality. He composed several works, 
 and translated others into Anglo-Saxon for 
 the benefit of his subjects. Among his trans- 
 lations may be mentioned the “ Consolations 
 of Philosophy” of Boethius, and perhaps the 
 Psalms of David and the Fables of .ZEsop. 
 He was industrious and fond of order, divid- 
 ing the twenty-four hours into three equal 
 portions ; one devoted to religious duties, 
 another to public affairs, and the third to 
 rest. Alfred laid the foundation of the navy 
 of England, by building galleys of a size 
 superior to that of any of the age. In pri- 
 vate life, he was distinguished by piety, 
 affability, and cheerfulness. His person was 
 commanding and stately. 
 
 ALGIERS. The state formely known as 
 
 the regency of Algiers is now in possession 
 of the French, and called by them L’Algerie. 
 It comprises the territory of the kingdom of 
 Numidia, which was reduced to a Roman 
 province 44 b.c., and afterward subjugated by 
 the Vandals, then by the Byzantine Greeks, 
 and finally by the Arabs, who invaded the 
 north of Africa at the beginning of the eighth 
 century and established Islamism. The city 
 of Algiers was founded by Zeiri, an Arab of 
 distinction, in 944, and his family were en- 
 dowed with hereditary power by one of the 
 Fatimite caliphs. 
 
 TheZeirite dynasty ruled until 1148, when 
 Roger, king of Sicily, and the Moravites, 
 possessed themselves at different times of the 
 whole of the territory of Hassad Ben Ali. 
 Algiers was again an independent sovereignty 
 after 1270. The regency of Algiers, tributary 
 to the Turkish sultan, was founded about 
 1518, by Horush (nicknamed Barbarossa) 
 and his brother Khair-ed-din, two Turkish 
 corsairs who were summoned by the Algerines 
 to beat back Ferdinand of Spain, and who 
 usurped the government. It was about this 
 time that the Christian knights, having war- 
 red against the Mohammedan states, and al- 
 most annihilated the Moorish commerce, the 
 Moslem rulers exhorted their subjects to 
 make reprisals, and to annoy their foes by 
 extensive piracies. The call was obeyed 
 without reluctance, and the Mohammedans, 
 crowded beneath the crescent, spread the 
 terror of their name upon the seas. The 
 piratical republic founded by the fierce 
 chieftains above named, was the stronghold 
 of religious fanaticism and authorized piracy. 
 The barks of the corsairs swept the seas 
 in triumph, and the Algerines distinguished 
 themselves above the inhabitants of the other 
 Barbary states, by the fierce perseverance with 
 which they pursued their career of crime. 
 
 Charles V. undertook the siege of Algiers, 
 in the latter part of 1541, with an armament 
 of two hundred sail and thirty thousand men. 
 But his ships and camp were destroyed by 
 storms of uncommon violence, followed by 
 the ravages of earthquakes. He lost his 
 cannon, military stores, and baggage, and was 
 compelled to abandon some of his scattered 
 troops, while fifteen ships of war, a hundred 
 and forty transports, and eight thousand 
 men perished in the storm. . This success 
 
 ALG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 41 
 
 inspired the Moors with the liveliest joy, but 
 they attributed it entirely to the pious exer- 
 tions of Sid-Atica, a marabout who employed 
 himself diligently in beating the sea with his 
 stick, until the waves lost all patience* and, 
 rising in a body, destroyed the Christian 
 fleet. The worthy old gentleman was buried 
 with great solemnity, and his bones rested 
 beneath a monument erected by his country- 
 men. They were said to be gifted with the 
 magic power of his stick, and, employed upon 
 the waves with proper emphasis, capable 
 of raising the wind to an incredible extent. 
 Antiquity furnishes precedent fora belief in 
 the efficacy of chastising the waters, for 
 Xerxes, enraged at the turbulence of the Gre- 
 cian waves, caused them to be. whipped with 
 rods. 
 
 The corsairs continued the scourge of Chris- 
 tendom. On even the coasts of England and 
 Ireland they swooped, and “took prey of men 
 to be made slaves.” “ They carried their En- 
 glish captives to France, drove them in chains 
 overland to Marseilles, to ship them thence 
 with greater safety for slaves to Algiers,” an 
 old historian says. Admiral Blake taught the 
 pirates to respect the flag of England, in 1653 ; 
 but they repulsed later attacks of that and 
 other European powers. Many nations paid 
 tribute to the dey, and thus bought freedom 
 for their flags. In 1815 Commodore Decatur 
 compelled the Algerines not only to renounce 
 their claim to black mail from our shipping, 
 but to make indemnification for the losses 
 which we had experienced from their pira- 
 cies. The city of Algiers was vigorously 
 bombarded by a British fleet under Lord 
 Exmouth, Aug. 27th, 1816. The dey was 
 forced to conclude a treaty, by which all 
 Christian slaves were set free, and he prom- 
 ised that no more captives should be reduced 
 to that ignominious condition. This last 
 stipulation was afterward evaded. The Al- 
 gerines claimed the right, as an independent 
 power, of declaring war against any state 
 they chose, and of seizing its merchantmen, 
 and keeping the crews in prison till peace 
 was agreed on. In 1817 their corsairs pene- 
 trated the North Sea, and there, with sur- 
 prising audacity, captured ships which did 
 not belong to tributary powers, or to those 
 who were exempted from their depredations 
 by treaty. Prisoners were only ransomed at 
 
 enormous prices. Their treatment, now, in- 
 stead of being ameliorated was more harsh 
 than ever, and the corsairs, although they 
 respected the flags of America and other 
 strong powers, warred with the ships of 
 weaker states, and enforced the superiority of 
 might over right. The jealousy of the Eu- 
 ropean states for a long time favored the 
 encroachments of the Algerines, until the 
 French prepared for conflict with stern de- 
 cision. One of the last events in the reign of 
 Charles X., was the entire prostration of the 
 power of Algiers. The dey, with his personal 
 treasures and his women, was permitted to 
 retire, and selected Italy as a retreat. The 
 French took possession of the town, the castle, 
 and all public property whatsoever. Among 
 the spoil were twelve ships of war, fifteen 
 hundred brass cannon, and forty-eight mil- 
 lion francs in gold and silver. They secured 
 their conquest, and since then Algiers has 
 been a military province of France. 
 
 During the prosperity of Algiers, a strug- 
 gle was kept up with the Sublime Porte about 
 the appointment of the deys, till the sultan 
 finally relinquished the claim of choosing 
 them to the soldiery, and retained but a nom- 
 inal authority over Algiers. The deys, when- 
 ever they displeased the ferocious soldiery 
 they affected to rule, were deposed and put 
 to death. The lives of these men were pro- 
 verbially short, but we admit an exception in 
 the person of Mohammed III., who died in 
 1791, after a reign of twenty-three years, at the 
 age of ninety-three. Omar Pacha, the oppo- 
 nent of Lord Exmouth, was murdered in 1817. 
 Ali Hodya, his successor, shut himself up in 
 the castle of Casaba, where, by means of his 
 fifty-six cannon, and a garrison on which he 
 could rely, he maintained ascendency over the 
 city and the cruel Turkish troops, who had 
 murdered Omar. Hussein, successor of Hodya, 
 rendered cautious by experience, likewise 
 occupied this strong castle. The government 
 of Algiers was despotic, the dey possessing 
 unlimited power, but being assisted by a 
 divan composed of his chief officers of state 
 and first ministers. The common soldiers 
 elected the dey, but no election was permit- 
 ted without unanimity in the electors. There- 
 fore, when there was a difference, the majority 
 compelled the weaker party to concur with 
 them. The new dey espoused the principle 
 
 ALG 
 
42 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of proscription, and frequently put to death 
 incumbents, for the sake of opening state 
 offices to his partisans. He held a court of 
 justice on four days in the week, where pro- 
 ceedings were summary, and condemnation 
 was followed by punishment at no long 
 interval. 
 
 By the capitulation of the dey, the French 
 became possessed “of the city of Algiers, 
 and the forts and harbors depending on it.” 
 No mention was made of the provinces, or of 
 the native tribes in the interior, over which 
 the authority of the dey was little else than 
 nominal. Ahmed Bey of Constantine and 
 the Bey of Titteri refused allegiance, and 
 were not subdued for several years. The 
 grasping policy of the French alienated the 
 Arab tribes moreover. In May, 1833, Abd- 
 el-Kader, the Emir of Mascara, took up arms 
 against the invaders, and his leadership was 
 soon recognized by all the Arabs. The con- 
 test between him and the French was not 
 closed till December, 1847, when he surren- 
 dered and was sent with his family and 
 attendants to France. There he remained a 
 prisoner, treated however with much cour- 
 tesy, till October, 1852, when he was 
 released by Louis Napoleon. He swore upon 
 the Koran never to disturb Africa again, and 
 was to reside thenceforward at Broussa, in 
 Asia Minor. In consequence of the earth- 
 quake at that place, Feb. 28th, 1855, he 
 removed to .Constantinople. 
 
 The French keep a large army in the col- 
 ony. The European emigration settled in 
 Algeria up to 1852, amounted to about sev- 
 enty thousand, and it has since been rapidly 
 augmented. The native races of the country 
 consist of Berbers or Kabyles (the aboriginal 
 inhabitants), Arabs, Moors, Kooloolis (de- 
 scendants of Turks), Jews (who flocked hither 
 when extirpated from Spain and Portugal), 
 and negro slaves from Soudan. Slavery has 
 been abolished by the French. The popula- 
 tion of the city of Algiers is 94,600, of whom 
 45,000 are Europeans, and the remainder na- 
 tive Mussuhnen and Jews. The French have 
 much improved its appearance; they have 
 opened wide streets and squares, built fine 
 houses in the European style, hotels, coffee- 
 houses, a theatre, &c. The activity of the 
 new settlers will soon change the look of the 
 
 whole country. Constantine, the ancient 
 Cirta, has a population of about 30,000. 
 
 ALHAMBRA was the fortified palace of 
 the Moorish kings of Granada, a possession 
 to which they clung with their latest grasp, 
 and which was the best beloved spot in their 
 terrestrial paradise. The meaning of the 
 Moorish name is ‘the red,’ and it was so 
 called from the deep red brick of which the 
 pile is built. The Spanish term it the Sierra 
 del Sol, because, from its situation on an emi- 
 nence, it catches and reflects the first beams 
 of the rising sun. The palace composes but 
 a small portion of the fortress, whose walls 
 encompass the crest of a lofty hill rising from 
 the Sierra Nevada, or ‘snowy mountain.’ 
 The fortress was at one time capable of con- 
 taining forty thousand men. The Alhambra 
 originally consisted of a summer palace and 
 a winter palace. The latter was pulled down 
 to make room for the palace commenced and 
 never finished by Charles Y. The pile that 
 remains exhibits traces of the splendor of the 
 arts among the Moors. A striking portion 
 of the palace is the Court of Lions, which 
 is a hundred feet in length, and fifty in 
 breadth, surrounded by a beautiful colon- 
 nade seven feet broad at the sides, and 
 ten at the ends Two splendid porticoes, 
 fifteen feet square, project into this court. 
 The square is paved with tiles, the colonnade 
 with white marble. The walls are covered 
 with arabesques. The columns upon which 
 the roof and gallery rest, are grotesqtiely or- 
 namented and irregularly distributed. Over 
 the columns is inscribed in Cufic characters, 
 “And there is no conqueror but God.” The 
 capitals abound with curious devices. The 
 fountain consists of twelve ill-shaped lions, 
 bearing on their backs a large basin, out of 
 which rises a smaller one. Here water gushed 
 from the inner basin, and, passing through 
 the lions, communicated by channels with 
 other apartments. The fountain is of white 
 marble and inscribed with Arabian distiches, 
 like the following: “See’st thou how the 
 water flows copiously like the Nile ? ” “ The 
 
 fair princess that walks by this garden, cov- 
 ered with pearls, ornaments its beauty so 
 much, that thou mayest doubt whether it be 
 a fountain that flows or the tears of her 
 admirers.” 
 
 ALH 
 
THE COURT OF LIONS. ALHAMBRA, 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 43 
 
44 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 The hall beyond the colonnade on the south 
 side was the place chosen by Boabdil for the 
 execution of the chiefs of the Abencerrages, 
 and their bleeding heads fell, as fast as they 
 were decapitated, into the limpid waters of 
 the fountain. The hall of the Two Sisters 
 ( Torre de las dos Ilermanas ) was named from 
 two beautiful slabs of white marble, inserted 
 in the pavement. El Tocador, or the Tiring 
 Tower, was appropriated to the toilette of the 
 sultana, who in one part had a marble slab 
 in the floor perforated with holes, to admit 
 vapor and perfumes for the purification of 
 her person. The king’s bed-chamber was 
 furnished with fountains to cool the atmos- 
 phere, and the royal baths were commodious 
 and superb. Beneath were vaults used as a 
 cemetery by the Moorish monarchs. The 
 regret of the Moors at leaving this place, 
 which wealth, art, and taste had brought to 
 such splendor, can easily be conceived. They 
 never ceased to offer up prayers in their 
 mosques for their restoration to Granada. 
 After it fell into the hands of the believers, 
 Alhambra continued to be a royal demesne. 
 Charles V. abandoned it as a residence in 
 consequence of earthquakes ; and Philip V., 
 with his beautiful queen, Elizabeth of Parma, 
 was the last royal tenant of this princely 
 abode. Subsequently it became infested by 
 a lawless population ; this was expelled ; but, 
 owing to culpable negligence, the palace was 
 permitted to fall into decay, from which the 
 Moorish portion was partially rescued by the 
 exertions of the French troops garrisoned in 
 it from 1810 to 1812. The French, on their 
 departure, blew up part of the walls of the 
 fortress, and destroyed its importance as a 
 military post. To the historian, the poet, 
 the antiquary, and the artist, this relic of 
 Moorish splendor possesses an indisputable 
 interest. Nothing could be more plain and 
 unattractive than its exterior, but within it 
 was probably the most gorgeous specimen of 
 Moorish architecture and decoration that has 
 ever existed. 
 
 ALT, the cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet. 
 When Mahomet, assembling his kinsmen, 
 and making known to them his pretended 
 mission, asked who would be his vizier, Ali, 
 then only fourteen years of age, started up 
 and exclaimed: “I will! Let but a man 
 advance against thee, I will pluck out his 
 
 eyes, dash in his jaws, break his legs, and 
 tear up his belly. 0 prophet, I am thy 
 vizier.” So well did he keep his word, that 
 he .was called the ‘lion of the Lord/ the 
 ‘ever victorious.’ He should have succeeded 
 Mahomet, but being opposed successfully by 
 Omar and Othman, he formed a sect of his 
 own, and gained many followers. On the 
 death of Othman, he was declared caliph, 
 but was assassinated in a mosque, ! at Cufa, in 
 the sixty-third year of his age, 669* The 
 Persians belong to the sect of Ali. 
 
 ALT, Pacha of Janina, commonly called 
 Ali Pacha, was born in Albania, in 1744, and 
 at the age of sixteen, headed the followers 
 whom the death of his father left with no other 
 leader. In freebooting he was so unsuccess- 
 ful, that he was forced to pawn his sabre to 
 keep himself from starving. As he was sit- 
 ting, ruminating upon his hard luck, and 
 carelessly turning up the ground with his 
 staff, he struck upon something hard. Cm 
 riosity induced him to search further, and he 
 dug up a chest of gold ! He now equipped 
 a band of followers whose cruelty and rapac- 
 ity made them formidable. Having rendered 
 some service to the Porte, he obtained the 
 pachalic of Janina in southern Albania, and 
 maintained himself in almost independent 
 sovereignty. He subjugated the Suliotes, be- 
 came a formidable military potentate between 
 1790 and 1821, and raised Albania to power 
 and renown that recalled the memory of its 
 ancient Epirote princes. Having declared 
 himself independent, and his capital, Janina, 
 being taken, he was put to death by order of 
 the sultan, in 1822. He was brave and able, 
 but cruel, rapacious, false, ambitious, and 
 suspicious. He had a Greek lady, Euphros- 
 yne, and fifteen other women thrown into 
 the sea, because he suspected that they ex- 
 erted an undue influence over his son. If he 
 wished to possess himself of a beautiful 
 Greek girl, he sent his executioner to her 
 parents, with this message, “Your daughter 
 has found favor in the eyes of Ali.” They 
 were forced to surrender her, or fly. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, brigadier-general in our 
 revolutionary army, was born in Litchfield, 
 Conn., Jan. 10th, 1737. His parents re- 
 moved to Vermont, when he was quite young. 
 In the contest between the settlers of Ver- 
 mont and the colony of New York, which 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 45 
 
 began about 1770, he took so active a part 
 that he was outlawed by New York and five 
 hundred guineas were offered for his capture. 
 Soon after the battle of Lexington, in com- 
 pliance with the request of the legislature of 
 Connecticut, he headed two hundred and 
 thirty Green Mountain boys, and marched 
 against the fortresses of Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point. At Castleton he was to have 
 been joined by a reinforcement under Bene- 
 dict Arnold, but the latter, unable to raise the 
 proposed force, set forward with the Spartan 
 band of Allen. On the night of the 9th of 
 May, 1775, Allen landed eighty-three men 
 near Ticonderoga, having with difficulty pro- 
 cured boats for that purpose. Bay surprised 
 him before his rear-guard was brought over, 
 and he found himself compelled to attack the 
 fort. He concluded an animated speech by 
 saying, “ I am going to lead you forward. 
 The attempt is desperate. I wish to urge no 
 man onward against his will. Those who 
 will follow me, poise firelocks ! ” Every fire- 
 lock was immediately poised. “On then, 
 my boys ! ” said Allen, and led the central 
 file to the wicket gate. He was opposed by 
 a sentry, but brought his men through the 
 covered way, and formed them on the parade. 
 The huzzas of the assailants roused the com- 
 manding officer, Captain de la Place, from 
 his slumbers. He awoke to find Allen hold- 
 ing a drawn sword over his head and demand- 
 ing the surrender of the fortress. “ In whose 
 name?” asked the commander. “In the 
 name of the Great Jehovah, and the Conti- 
 nental Congress.” On the same day, by 
 the capture of Crown Point, and the only 
 armed vessel on Lake Champlain, that im- 
 portant lake was placed in Allen’s power. 
 
 In the autumn, in conjunction with Col. 
 Brown, he attempted the reduction of Mon- 
 treal, but being attacked by the British 
 before Col. Brown’s troops came up, he was 
 defeated and made prisoner. He was treated 
 with great barbarity in his captivity ; carried 
 to England, and then to Halifax ; thence to 
 New York, where he remained a year and a 
 half, before he was exchanged. His health 
 having been greatly impaired, he returned to 
 Vermont, where he was appointed to com- 
 mand the militia. He indignantly rejected 
 the bribes offered by the British to attempt a 
 union of Vermont with Canada. He died sud- 
 
 denly, at his estate at Colchester, Feb. 13th, 
 1789. He published some pamphlets, one of 
 which contained an open declaration of infi- 
 delity. He adopted the most absurd ideas 
 of the ancients, with regard to the transmi- 
 gration of souls, often saying that he expected 
 to live again in the form of a large white 
 horse ; but if we may believe the following 
 anecdote, his atheism was insincere. When 
 his daughter was dying, she sent for him, and 
 said, “Father, I am about to die: shall I be- 
 lieve in what you have taught me, or in the 
 Christian principles my mother teaches.” 
 After a moment of convulsive agitation, he 
 replied, “Believe in what your mother has 
 taught you.” 
 
 ALLIANCES. Between the .confederate 
 Greeks, against Troy, b.c. 1194-84. Between 
 the Romans and the Carthaginians, b.c. 508. 
 Between the Athenians, Thebans, Corin- 
 thians, and Argives, against the Lacedemo- 
 nians, b.c. 395. It is not a little remarkable, 
 that in the long course of Roman conquest, 
 not one well arranged and conducted alliance 
 was formed and contributed to restrain her 
 power. In modern ages, alliances in the true 
 sense of the term, are recent. The crusades 
 were really a species of alliance, but with 
 very little of the system of modern alliances. 
 The league of Cambray, formed Dec. 10th, 
 1508, between Louis XII. of France, Maxi- 
 milian of Germany, Pope Julius II., and 
 Ferdinand of Spain, against the Venetians, 
 was the first of those coalitions so disastrous 
 or beneficial, as the case may be, which have 
 so deeply influenced modern European policy. 
 By it Venice was forced to cede to Spain her 
 possessions in the kingdom of Naples. Those 
 of most importance since have been, a league 
 between Henry VIII. of England and the Em- 
 peror Charles V., against Francis of France. 
 The league of the princes of Germany in 
 favor of Protestantism, at Smalcald, Dec. 
 22d, 1530. Between Francis I. of France and 
 Sultan Solyman, against Charles V., 1536; 
 renewed in 1542. Between Charles V. and 
 Pope Paul III., against the Protestants, 1546. 
 Between Spain, Venice, and Pope Pius V., 
 against the Turks, 1570. Between England 
 and the states-general of Holland, against 
 Spain, 1578. Union of Utrecht, whereby 
 began the Dutch republic of the Seven 
 United Provinces, 1579. Evangelical league, 
 
 ALL 
 
46 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 formed in 1626, between the Protestant 
 princes of Germany and Denmark (Sweden 
 afterward acceded), against the Emperor 
 Ferdinand I. Triple alliance between En- 
 gland, Sweden, and the states-general of 
 Holland, against France, 16p8. Alliance of 
 the empire and Holland against France, July 
 15th, 1672. League of Augsburg against 
 France, July 1 1th, 1686. Grand alliance 
 between Emperor Leopold I., the states-gen- 
 eral of Holland, and William III-, of England, 
 against France, May 12th, 1689. First 
 treaty of partition, between England and 
 Holland, for regulating the Spanish succes- 
 sion, 1698. Second treaty of partition, be- 
 tween France, England, and Holland, declar- 
 ing the Archduke Charles heir presumptive 
 of the Spanish kingdom, 1700. Alliance of 
 Germany, England, and Holland, against 
 France, Spain, and Portugal, 1701. Barrier 
 treaty of Antwerp, between Germany, Hol- 
 land, and England, by which the Low Coun- 
 tries were ceded to the empire, Nov. 15th, 
 1715. Quadruple alliance between Great 
 Britain, France, Germany, and Holland, to 
 guarantee the succession of the reigning 
 families in Great Britain and France, and to 
 settle the partition of the Spanish monarchy, 
 Aug. 2d, 1718. Defensive alliance between 
 Great Britain and Prussia, 1742. Between 
 Great Britain and Prussia, Feb. 16th, 1756; 
 renewed April 11th, 1758, without any regu- 
 lar compact. France, Austria, Russia and 
 Sweden, were at the epoch of the last men- 
 tioned alliance between Great Britain and 
 Prussia, actually in the field against Prussia. 
 To the United States, if not to the w r orld, the 
 most important of all alliances or confedera- 
 tions was that of the British North Ameri- 
 can colonies. This great union, not for war, 
 but defense, after many incipient steps, was 
 formed in 1775; announced to the world as 
 free and independent, July 4th, 1776; received 
 the general name of the United States, by a 
 resolution of Congress, Sept., 1776, and was 
 consummated by the adoption of a federal 
 constitution of government, March 3d, 1789. 
 First coalition against France, by Great Brit- 
 ain, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia, &c., 1793. 
 Second, by Great Britain, Germany, Russia, 
 Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, June 22d, 
 1799. Third, by Great Britain, Austria, and 
 Naples, Aug. 5th, 1805. Fourth, by Great 
 
 Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, Aug. 
 6th, 1806. Fifth, by Great Britain and 
 Austria, April 6th, 1809. Sixth, by Russia 
 and Prussia, March 17th, 1813. Sweden 
 joined the grand alliance against Napoleon, 
 March 13th, 1813. Alliance of Toplitz be- 
 tween Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great 
 Britain, Sept. 13th, 1813. Holy Alliance, 
 between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 1815. 
 Alliance of England, France, and Turkey, 
 against Russia, sigfied at Constantinople, 
 March 12th, 1854; ratified by the first two 
 powers, April 3d, 1854; joined by Sardinia, 
 Jan. 26th, 1855. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington, was born in 
 Charleston, S. C., Nov. 5th, 1779. He fitted 
 for college at Newport, R. I., and entered 
 Harvard University in 1796, graduating four 
 years after. He had inherited a handsome 
 patrimony, and he determined to devote him- 
 self to art. For this purpose he repaired to 
 London in 1801, and entered as a student in 
 the Royal Academy. Benjamin West, who 
 had just succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
 president of the institution, warmly wel- 
 comed his young countryman. Two years 
 were well spent in London; then Allston 
 enriched his pencil awhile amid the rich col- 
 lection of the Louvre, richer than ever with 
 the spoils that Napoleon had borne there ; 
 and soon after we find him settled in Rome, 
 where he dwelt four years. There he formed 
 an acquaintance with Coleridge, which be- 
 came a close friendship. He studied his art 
 diligently, and by fellow-artists was held in 
 high esteem. He returned to America in 
 1809. The public mind was absorbed in pol- 
 itics, and Art could not gain its attention. 
 Allston had married, and needed that the pro- 
 fession in which his genius and skill were so 
 great, should support him. After two years’ 
 trial he repaired to London again. There he 
 was embarrassed by the hostilities which 
 arose between the two countries. Fie lost 
 heart, was laid low by a long and serious 
 illness, and had but a little while recovered 
 when he was bereft of his cherished and 
 lovely consort. "When again he resumed the 
 pencil, he found his pictures sought for by 
 the most approved judges, and he was no less 
 beloved for the qualities of his heart than 
 admired for his genius. He returned to 
 America in 1818, and for the remaining 
 
 ALL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 47 
 
 twenty-five years of his life Boston or its 
 vicinity was his residence. Here he found 
 cordial welcome from a wide circle of friends, 
 and a patronage only limited by his power of 
 producing. His great historical painting, 
 “Belshazzar’s Feast,” unfinished as it is, fur- 
 nishes decisive proof that in the highest 
 branch of the art he has had no equal in the 
 present century. His relative, Mr. Dana, in 
 the preface to Mr. Allston’s “Lectures on 
 Art,” thus describes his last hours: “His 
 death occurred at his own house, in Cam- 
 bridge, a little past midnight, on the morning 
 of Sunday, the Oth of July, 1843. He had 
 finished a day and week of labor in his 
 studio, upon his great picture of ‘Belshaz- 
 zar’s Feast;’ the fresh paint denoting that 
 the last touches of his pencil were given to 
 that glorious but melancholy monument of 
 the best years of his later life. Having con- 
 versed with his retiring family with peculiar 
 solemnity and earnestness upon the obliga- 
 tion and beauty of a pure spiritual life, and 
 on the realities of the world to come, he had 
 seated himself at his nightly employment of 
 reading and writing, which he usually carried 
 into the early hours of the morning. In the 
 silence and solitude of this occupation, in a 
 moment, ‘ with a touch as gentle as the morn- 
 ing light,’ which was even then approaching, 
 his spirit was called away to its proper home.” 
 Allston was an author as well as an artist, 
 and published a volume of poems and several 
 works of fiction. 
 
 ALMA, Battle of the. The English and 
 French armies moved out of their first en- 
 campment in the Crimea, Sept. 19th, 1854, 
 and bivouacked for the night on the left 
 bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
 manded by Prince MenschikofF) mustering 
 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the 
 heights of the Alma, and on the morning of 
 the 20th were joined by 6,000 cavalry. The 
 English force, under Lord Raglan, consisted 
 of 25,000 men; the French, under Marshal 
 St. Arnaud, of 23,000. At twelve o’clock 
 the signal to advance was made, and the river 
 Alma crossed under the severe fire of the 
 Russian batteries. After four sanguinary 
 hours the allies were completely victorious. 
 The Russians flung away their arms and 
 knapsacks in their hasty flight, having lost 
 about 5,000 men, of whom 900 were made 
 
 prisoners. The loss of the English was 353 
 killed, 1,612 wounded ; that of the French, 
 236 killed, 1,087 wounded. 
 
 ALPS, the loftiest system of mountains 
 in Europe. Mont Blanc, the highest, is 
 15,777 feet high, Monte Rosa, 15,206 and 
 Monte Cervin, 14,835. Separating Italy from 
 Spain, France, and Germany, it would seem 
 as if they opposed an insurmountable barrier 
 to the march of conquest ; but they have 
 been several times crossed by large armies, 
 the expeditions of Hannibal and Bonaparte 
 being the most celebrated. Bonaparte passed 
 the Great St. Bernard, in the year 1800, and 
 swooped like a hawk upon the plains of Italy. 
 His army met with obstacles which only 
 genuine enthusiasm enabled them to sur- 
 mount. They had to draw their artillery 
 along narrow paths, in many places almost 
 perpendicular, and over mountains of snow. 
 A very small force would have arrested their 
 progress, but they met no opposition. They 
 reached St. Peter, near the Great St. Bernard, 
 on the 15th of May, General Berthier acting 
 as Bonaparte’s lieutenant. Here the whole 
 park of artillery was collected. The moun- 
 tain they had to pass over was wild and bar- 
 ren, with a vast extent of snow and ice, 
 mingled with terrific silence. Over this 
 frightful route the mind of Bonaparte had con- 
 ceived the possibility of passing his army 
 with all its artillery, baggage, &c. The can- 
 non, caissons, forges, &c., were immediately 
 dismounted, piece by piece; a number of 
 trees were hollowed like troughs, in which 
 the pieces of cannon might safely slide, and 
 five or six hundred men drew them up these 
 •tremendous heights ; the wheels were carried 
 on poles ; sledges conveyed the axle-trees ; 
 and empty caissons and mules were loaded 
 with the ammunition-boxes made of fir. 
 
 The consul took no more baggage than was 
 absolutely necessary. Five hours were con- 
 sumed in climbing as high as the monastery 
 of the Bernardines. There were still six 
 leagues to go, and the rapidity of the descent 
 made that distance truly terrible ; men and 
 horses constantly falling, and often recover- 
 ing with the greatest difficulty. The march 
 commenced at midnight, and did not finish 
 till about nine o’clock the next evening. Two 
 other Alpine roads were constructed by Na- 
 poleon, one of which passes near Mount Ce- 
 
 ALP 
 
48 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 MONT BLANC. 
 
 nis. In the year 1865, Mr. Fell, an English 
 engineer, obtained a grant from the French 
 and Italian governments to lay down a rail- 
 way of new construction on the line of the 
 Mount Cenis road. The railway is now in 
 successful operation. But several years be- 
 fore this work was begun, an enterprise of far 
 greater importance had been commenced. 
 This was the excavation through Mount Ce- 
 nis of a sufficient size for the construction of 
 a railway. This gigantic work was begun in 
 1859, and on the 26th of December, 1870, the 
 working parties in the opposite headings of 
 the tunnel were within hearing distance of 
 each other. On September 17th, 1871, the 
 opening of the tunnel was formally inaugu- 
 rated by the French and Italian ministers. 
 The tunnel is nearly eight miles long, and its 
 cost is estimated at $15,000,000. 
 
 Over the pass of the Simplon a magnificent 
 
 road leading from Switzerland into Italy was 
 constructed by order of Napoleon in 1801-6. 
 It has eight principal bridges. Between thirty 
 and forty thousand workmen were employed 
 upon this undertaking at once. 
 
 ALYA, Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, 
 descended from a high Castilian family, born 
 in 1508, distinguished himself in the career 
 of arms at the age of seventeen, and was at 
 the siege of Pavia. Charles Y. made him a 
 general, and he was commander at the siege 
 of Mentz, where he fought with desperate 
 but unavailing valor, for the siege was raised. 
 He was noted for excessive cruelty and super- 
 stition. In the campaign against the pope, 
 Alva compelled the pontiff to sue for peace, 
 and then went to Rome to supplicate pardon 
 for the offense. In 1561, he was sent to the 
 Netherlands by Philip II., to reduce them 
 more completely to the Spanish yoke, and 
 
 ALY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 49 
 
 extirpate the Protestant heresy. The cruelty 
 of the Council of Blood, a military tribunal 
 which he established, deluged the United 
 Provinces in their best blood. At first the 
 arms of Alva were successful, but the mad- 
 dened malcontents afterward gaining head, 
 he was recalled. In Portugal, he acquired 
 renown by his success in driving Don Anto- 
 nio from the throne. He died in 1582. 
 
 AMADEUS, the name of several of the 
 Counts of Savoy, of whom Amadeus VI. was 
 the most famous. He lent his powerful aid 
 to John of France, against Edward of En- 
 gland, and was the ally of John Paleologus 
 (Emperor of Greece), in 1365. His reign of 
 forty years was glorious, and his death in 
 1383, deeply lamented. 
 
 AMAZONS, a fabulous race of female war- 
 riors in antiquity. They are said to have 
 been the descendants of Scythians in Cappa- 
 docia, whose husbands were all slain in war. 
 The widows resolved to form a female domin- 
 ion. Having firmly established themselves, 
 they decreed that matrimony was a shameful 
 state. They were said to have been con- 
 quered by Theseus about 1231 b.c. These 
 warlike women burned their right breasts 
 off, that they might hurl the javelin with 
 more force ; whence their name, from the 
 Greek a (no) and /<«£ os (breast). Orellana, the 
 discoverer of the river Amazon, saw bands 
 of armed women on its banks, whence he 
 gave the stream that name. 
 
 AMBASSADORS and ministers plenipoten- 
 tiary, have been from time immemorial, con- 
 sidered in some measure, privileged charac- 
 ters. Those of King David, about 1030 b.c., 
 being insulted by the king of the Ammonites, 
 led to a war destructive to the aggressors. 
 The Roman ambassadors at Clusium, b.c. 390, 
 mixing with the inhabitants in battle with the 
 Gauls, Brennus, king of the latter, considered 
 their conduct an act of hostility on the part 
 of their country, raised the siege of Clusium, 
 marched toward Rome, defeated the Romans 
 at the Alia, and took, plundered, and burned 
 Rome. In modern times the privileges of 
 ambassadors have been more distinctly de- 
 fined. In England during the protectorship 
 of Oliver Cromwell, Don Pantaleon Sa, brother 
 to the Portuguese ambassador in London, 
 committed a murder in open day, and sought 
 refuge in his brother’s house ; but the pro- 
 
 4 
 
 \ tector refused to sanction such an asylum in 
 a case of murder, and Sa was seized, tried, 
 and hanged, 1653. About twenty years af- 
 terward, the Prince of Furstenburg was ar- 
 rested at the diet of Ratisbon, for murder, by 
 order of the Emperor of Germany, and the 
 case of Sa given as a justification. In 1709, 
 in England, the Russian ambassador was ar- 
 rested for debt by a lace merchant, which led 
 to an act of parliament exempting ambassa- 
 dors, or their immediate suit, from arrest in 
 civil cases. 
 
 The first ambassador from Russia to Eng- 
 land, arrived in London, 1556. First from 
 India to any part of Europe, was from Tippoo 
 Saib to France, 1778. First from the United 
 States was Silas Deane to France, 1776. First 
 from the Ottoman emperor to Great Britain, 
 1793. The first from the United States to 
 England was John Adams, presented to 
 George III. June 2d, 1785. The first from 
 England to America was Mr. Hammond, in 
 1791. 
 
 AMBROSE, St., was born at Treves about 
 340. He was Bishop of Milan, and died in 
 397. He introduced anthems into the church 
 service, and the glorious “ Te Deum Lauda- 
 mus ” is ascribed to him and Augustin, al- 
 though some say a later date belongs to it. 
 
 AMERICA, one of the twin continents of 
 the earth, including a vast extent of territory, 
 embracing every variety of climate, and bear- 
 ing within it, besides its precious ore and 
 gems, the germs of immense wealth, remained 
 undiscovered until the 11th of October, 1492, 
 when Christopher Columbus, a native of Ge- 
 noa, who had sailed from Spain with three 
 small vessels under the patronage of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, seeking a westward way to In- 
 dia, first beheld a light on the shores of the 
 new world, two hours before midnight. On 
 the ensuing day he set foot in the virgin isle. 
 Columbus felt the importance of the discovery, 
 as, erecting the cross, and surrounded by his 
 crew and the wild and wonder-stricken na- 
 tives, he took possession of the new country 
 in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. The 
 Christian adventurers did not fail to kneel 
 upon the sand, and offer up their thanks for 
 having been preserved through the perils of 
 a long voyage, and favored with such brilliant 
 success to compensate for all their perils. 
 This island was called Guanahani by the na- 
 
 AME 
 
50 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tives, a name which Columbus altered to St. 
 Salvador, and was one of the Bahamas. He 
 then visited other adjacent islands, and pro- 
 ceeded to Cuba and Hay ti ; the latter he called 
 Hispaniola. In subsequent voyages he dis- 
 covered Jamaica and Trinidad, and landed on 
 the coast of South America near the mouth of 
 the Orinoco. » 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that the vast conti- 
 nent which Columbus discovered was not 
 called by his name, but derived its appellation 
 from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine naviga- 
 tor, who made some subsequent discoveries, 
 in company with Alonzo de Ojeda, in 1499, 
 and was the first to publish an account of the 
 new countries. The work which he issued 
 became very popular and was soon translated 
 into several different languages. Thus Amerigo 
 Vespucci attained a greater degree of celebrity 
 than he merited, and, by the concurrence of 
 all classes, gave his name to that extensive 
 and important country which another had dis- 
 covered. Neither was Columbus the first to 
 reach the continent. He did not touch upon 
 South America till May 30th, 1498. Almost a 
 year sooner, June 24th, 1497, Sebastian Cabot 
 had reached the coast of North America. 
 
 The wondrous field for exploration and dis- 
 covery that Columbus had opened was soon 
 thickly occupied. In 1498, Cabot in a second 
 expedition visited Newfoundland. In 1500, 
 Pedro Alvarez Cabral, admiral of a Portuguese 
 fleet bound for the East Indies around the 
 Cape of Good Hope, blundered upon Brazil. 
 Nunez de Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean from 
 a mountain near Panama, in 1513. He was 
 transported with delight as he beheld its waves 
 sparkling in the light of the sun, and appearing 
 to glitter with that gold which the natives told 
 him abounded in the country to the south. 
 He imagined that he had found the Indies, a 
 region then the greatest ambition of European 
 adventurers to reach. He acquainted the 
 Spanish court with his discovery, and solicited 
 an appointment proportionate to the extent of 
 his services. He was, however, grievously 
 disappointed ; the government of Darien was 
 obtained by Davila, and this rival, finding a 
 pretext for wreaking his vengeance upon Bal- 
 boa, had him executed publicly in 1517. In 
 1513, Diaz de Solis landed on the south-east 
 coast of South America, about the mouth of 
 the Rio de la Plata, where he and several of 
 
 his crew were killed, roasted, and eaten by 
 the savages. In 1520 Magellan passed through 
 the straits that bear his name and crossed the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The Spaniards entertained the most exag- 
 gerated ideas of the wonders of the New 
 World. To most of them, it appeared a realm 
 of magic, a fairy-land, in which supernatural 
 occurrences were by no means infrequent. 
 Thus Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, fitted out 
 three ships from Porto Rico, of which he was 
 governor, and set forth in search of a fountain 
 which was fabled to restore all who bathed in 
 it, even if they were tormented by the infirm- 
 ities of extreme old age, to the freshness, vigor, 
 and beauty of youth. Although he failed to 
 find the fountain, he made the discovery of 
 Florida. As the Spaniards had been foremost 
 in American discovery, so they were first in 
 conquest and settlement. Early in the six- 
 teenth century Cortez conquered Mexico, and 
 not long after Pizarro subjugated Peru. More 
 than a hundred years elapsed after North 
 America was first visited by Cabot, before an 
 English colony was established in the country. 
 
 The external appearance of the New World 
 has much which presents a very marked con- 
 trast to the superficial features of the Old. 
 A stupendous chain of elevated mountains 
 traverses the whole continent, running from 
 north to south, and even under the equator, 
 where, upon the low lands the most intense 
 heat is felt, these tall mountains elevate their 
 heads into the region of intense cold. - Every- 
 thing in the New World appears to be of 
 greater magnitude than the corresponding 
 objects in the Old. The lakes are vast inland 
 oceans, exhibiting in storms the striking and 
 sublime aspects of the great deep, rolling as 
 mighty waves, and shaken by an equal con- 
 vulsion. The rivers are of prodigious size, 
 and the plains of extraordinary extent. Over 
 those of South and North America, countless 
 herds of wild cattle roam at will. The Amer- 
 ican continent stretches from the icy ocean of 
 the north to the cold regions of the south. It 
 is composed of two great peninsulas linked by 
 an isthmus. The Atlantic washes its eastern 
 coast, the Pacific its western. Its length, 
 from 80° N. lat. to 55° S. lat., exceeds 9,000 
 miles ; its greatest breadth is between Cape 
 St. Roque in Brazil and Cape Parma in Peru, 
 where it is upward of 3,250 miles wide. The 
 
 AME 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 51 
 
 narrowest part is the Isthmus of Panama, 
 which divides it into North and South Amer- 
 ica ; the isthmus is only twenty-eight miles 
 wide. The area of North America, not includ- 
 ing the West Indies, may be estimated at 
 7,779,218 square miles, and its population at 
 35,774,498; the area of South America at 
 6,199,080 square miles, and its population at 
 18,033,465. About half the population of the 
 continent are whites ; the other half, native 
 Indians, negroes, and mixed races. 
 
 The New World was inhabited by a race of 
 men differing, in many respects, from the na- 
 tives of the eastern hemisphere. The Indians 
 of North America varied, in many particulars, 
 from those of the southern portion of this vast 
 continent, and the aboriginal inhabitants of 
 Mexico, at the time when they were first vis- 
 ited by the Spaniards, had attained a greater 
 degree of refinement than was found by the 
 Europeans in any other quarter of the New 
 World. Malte Brun has thus described the 
 general personal appearance of the aborigines : 
 “ The natives of this part of the globe are in 
 general large, of a robust frame, well propor- 
 tioned, and without defects of conformation. 
 They have a bronzed or coppery red complex- 
 ion, as it were ferruginous, and very like cin- 
 namon or tannin ; the hair black, long, coarse, 
 shining, and scanty ; the beard thin, growing 
 in tufts ; the forehead short, the eyes elonga- 
 ted, and having the corners pointing upward 
 to the temples ; the eyebrows high, the cheek 
 bones projecting, the nose a little flattened, 
 but marked ; the lips wide, the teeth serrated 
 and sharp ; in the mouth an expression of 
 mildness, which is contrasted with a sombre, 
 and severe, and even hard expression of coun- 
 tenance; the head rather square, the face 
 large without being flat, but diminishing to- 
 ward the chin ; the features taken in profile, 
 projecting and strongly marked; the belly 
 high, the thighs large, the legs bowed, the 
 foot large, and the whole body squat.” Such 
 are said to be • the general characteristics of 
 the aborigines of this continent, with perhaps 
 two exceptions, the Esquimaux at the north- 
 ern extremity and the Patagonians at the 
 southern. The copper or bronze hue of the 
 skin is, with some slight exceptions, common 
 to almost all the native nations of America, 
 whatever the climate, the situation, or the 
 mode of living. 
 
 In regard to the peopling of the continent, 
 various conjectures have been formed, and no- 
 thing is known. Some have supposed that 
 the lost tribes of Israel wandered hither ; 
 others that the Mexicans were of Egyptian 
 ancestry ; some that the Carthaginians, and 
 others that the ancient Celts, made expeditions 
 to America. What surmise too fanciful to 
 meet with supporters, when facts are few and 
 doubtful. Perhaps the theory of the Asiatic 
 origin of the Americans has been most gener- 
 ally accepted. The question is buried in ob- 
 scurity. The great number of separate lan- 
 guages goes to show that the American tribes 
 must have long existed in the savage solitude 
 in which the Europeans found them plunged. 
 There are scattered over the continent traces 
 of the labor of man that belong to no race 
 known since its discovery by Europeans. The 
 mounds in our western states, overgrown with 
 primeval trees ; the teocallis of Mexico, the 
 strange remains of Central America, and the 
 ruins of Peru ; these, their buried trinkets 
 and utensils, their hieroglyphics, idols, orna- 
 ments, and sculpture, speak variously of arts, 
 religions, civilizations, and races that were 
 above the savage, and were gone before the 
 European came. 
 
 North America is politically divided into 
 the republics of the United States, Mexico 
 and Central America, the British and Russian 
 possessions, and the tracts still possessed by 
 native tribes. The north-western coast has 
 been discovered and held by the Russians. 
 Greenland is subject to Denmark. The pop- 
 ulation of Danish America is stated at 10,000, 
 that of Russian America at 66,000. The broad 
 tract called British America comprises (1870) 
 the Northwest, population 102,000, area 2,- 
 750,000 sq. miles, British Columbia, pop. 52,- 
 000, area, 220,000 sq. miles, Ontario, Quebec, 
 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, 
 and Prince Edwards Island, the latter prov- 
 ince having a pop. of 97,246, area 2,100 sq. m. 
 The extent of British North America is 3,- 
 049,146 sq. m., pop. 4,525,205. [See Canada, 
 U. States, Mexico, Central America.] 
 The Bermudas are under the control of Eng- 
 land, and the West Indies are possessed by va- 
 rious European powers. [Nee West Indies.] 
 
 South America is thus divided. The north- 
 ern portion, formerly Columbia, is now cut 
 into the three republics of New Grenada. Ven- 
 
 AME 
 
52 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ezuela, and Ecuador. To the south of these 
 on the western coast, lie the republics of Peru, 
 Bolivia, and Chili. The states of the Argen- 
 tine Confederation, formerly known as the 
 United Provinces of La Plata, lie between the 
 two last-mentioned states and the Atlantic. 
 Buenos Ayres once belonged to this confeder- 
 acy, but is now a distinct republic. The em- 
 pire of Brazil is the largest of South American 
 states. South of it lies the republic of Uru- 
 guay. Paraguay lies south-west of Brazil, 
 between the rivers Paraguay and Parana. 
 Guiana is a tract on the north-eastern coast 
 between the mouths of the Amazon and the 
 Orinoco. The southern part of the continent 
 is called Patagonia. Further information 
 concerning the countries of America will be 
 found under the articles devoted to them sep- 
 arately. 
 
 AMERICUS VESPUCCIUS, a Florentine 
 navigator, of an ancient family, born 1451. 
 His first voyage to America was made under 
 Ojeda, a year after its discovery by Columbus, 
 and yet the vast continent bears his name, 
 while that of the great discoverer is applied to 
 it only by poetical courtesy. In the glowing 
 narrative which he wrote, he appropriated the 
 laurels of Columbus to his own brow, and 
 strengthened his claims by a tale of a voyage 
 made before that in which Columbus touched 
 South America. This was afterward proved 
 a falsehood, but the old world had already 
 named its new-born sister America. Ves- 
 pucci died in Spain in 1512 or 1514. 
 
 AMES, Fisheii, was born in Dedham, Mass., 
 April 9th, 1758. He was educated at Harvard 
 College, which he left with high character. 
 After instructing a school for some years, in 
 1781 he commenced the practice of law, and 
 becoming distinguished for his oratorical 
 powers, and his success as a political essayist, 
 was chosen member of the legislature. He 
 was the first representative of the Suffolk dis- 
 trict in the Congress of the United States, in 
 which he remained during Washington’s ad- 
 ministration. On the retirement of W ashing- 
 ton A Mr. Ames, whose health had been im- 
 paired, occupied himself in farming at Ded- 
 ham, and practicing law. But although his 
 voice was unheard in public, his pen was not 
 inactive, and the publication of various essays 
 proved the interest which he continued to 
 take in politics until the time of his death, 
 
 July 4th, 1808. Fisher Ames had fine fea- 
 tures, and a commanding person, and his 
 manner in speaking was expressive, although 
 not characterized by studied grace. His con- 
 versational abilities are said to have been of 
 the highest order. His father, Nathaniel, 
 was a physician, and well versed in astronomy. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffery, Lord, was born in 
 1717. lie commenced his military career in 
 1731, and regularly rose to the rank of field- 
 marshal. He was at Dettingen, Fontenoy, 
 Rocoux, commanded at the siege of Louis- 
 burg, and reduced the Canadas. He was 
 successively governor of Virginia, and of the 
 isle of Jersey, and commander-in-chief of the 
 British army. He died in 1798. 
 
 AMIENS, an ancient city of the old prov- 
 ince of Picardy in France, ninety-two miles 
 north of Paris, having a population of 52,000. 
 Its cathedral is one of the most magnificent 
 Gothic edifices in the world. Here, March 
 27th, 1802, peace was concluded between 
 Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, established 
 at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the man- 
 agement of all affairs relative to Greece, 1498 
 b.c. It consisted of twelve delegates. Other 
 cities in process of time sent also some of their 
 wisest and most virtuous men, till the num- 
 ber was increased to thirty. This is the first 
 instance on record, of a free representation of 
 independent states, meeting to deliberate and 
 settle their concerns by the force of reason, in 
 place of arms. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, a fanatical sect which 
 arose about 1525 in Germany. They taught 
 that infant baptism was a contrivance of the 
 devil, that there is no original sin, and that 
 men have a free will in spiritual things. 
 Munster in Westphalia they called Mount 
 Zion, and one Mathias a baker was declared 
 to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led 
 them to the maddest practices, and at length 
 they rose in arms under pretense of gospel 
 liberty. Their fanatical leader, John of Ley- 
 den, a tailor, defended himself in Munster for 
 a whole year. After this, the execution of 
 the leaders quelled the insurrection. Munster 
 was taken, June 24th, 1535. 
 
 ANACREON, a Greek lyric poet of Teos, 
 in Ionia, who flourished in the sixth century 
 b.c. Poly crates, King of Samos, was his pat- 
 ron until his death. At Athens he was en- 
 
 ANA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 53 
 
 couraged by Hipparchus, but the fall of the 
 latter drove him from Athens, and he passed 
 an old age of gayety at Abdera, where he was 
 choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth 
 year. He was the poet of love and wine, 
 practiced what he praised, and was much 
 honored by the Greeks. Verse of a jovial or 
 bacchanalian strain is called Anacreontic. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, one of the Ionic philoso- 
 phers, born at Clazomene, in Ionia, 500 b.c. 
 died at Lampsacus at the age of seventy-two. 
 Anaxagoras is celebrated as the friend of Per- 
 icles, and for his trial and condemnation art 
 Athens for alleged impiety and a suspicion of 
 favoring the interests of Persia. The inter- 
 cession of Pericles softened his sentence from 
 death into banishment. The researches of 
 the Ionic school were confined to the nature 
 and laws of physical phenomena, and Anaxa- 
 goras in his investigations groped near the 
 thought of a great First Cause. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, a disciple of Thales, 
 whose chief study was mathematics and as- 
 tronomy, born at Miletus, 610 b.c., died 546 
 B.c. He is said to have been the first who 
 constructed maps and spheres. 
 
 ANDRE, John. Among the various events 
 which contributed to give a distinctive char- 
 acter to the war of our Revolution, the fate of 
 Major Andre, a young English officer, can 
 never be forgotten, nor the sad story of the 
 close of his life ever read without a deep and 
 painful interest. This young man was hand- 
 some, talented, brave, enthusiastic, generous, 
 and accomplished, beloved by all his acquaint- 
 ance, without distinction of country. He 
 was born in England in 1749, entered the 
 royal army with high hopes in 1771, and was 
 well fitted to adorn an elevated station. His 
 history is connected with that of the worst 
 traitor who ever disgraced the name of Amer- 
 ica. This man was Benedict Arnold. His 
 unrepressed extravagance had led him to incur 
 heavy debts which he saw no means of dis- 
 charging but by accepting the gold of the 
 British as the price of treason to his country. 
 In September, 1780, Arnold was in command 
 of West Point, a post on the Hudson, of vast 
 importance to the Americans. Arnold had 
 selected for betrayal this fortress, which was 
 almost impregnable from natural defenses, 
 and from fortifications on which no care or 
 expense had been spared. Arnold had opened 
 
 a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, 
 under fictitious names and the pretense of 
 mercantile business, through Major Andre, 
 then holding the rank of adjutant-general. 
 The young officer was conveyed up the river 
 in the Vulture sloop-of-war, and, under a pass 
 for John Anderson, came on shore in the 
 night, and had an interview with Arnold. 
 Morning surprised them before their business 
 was transacted, and, as it was impossible for 
 Andre to get on board the Vulture by day- 
 light, he consented to remain hidden till the 
 next night. In the course of the day, the 
 Vulture altered her position, in consequence 
 of a gun being brought to bear upon her, and 
 the boatmen, at night, refused to take Andre 
 on board. 
 
 The young officer found himself compelled 
 to attempt to get to New York by land. Ar- 
 nold gave him a pass, granting permission to 
 John Anderson “to go to the lines of White 
 Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being 
 on public business.” Changing his uniform, 
 which he had previously worn under a sur- 
 tout, for a plain coat, he mounted a horse, 
 passed the American guards in safety, and 
 was congratulating himself on his escape, 
 when three militia men, suddenly appearing, 
 seized his bridle-rein, and demanded his busi- 
 ness. Surprised, and off his guard, he did 
 not produce his pass, but hastily asked the 
 men where they belonged. “ Down below,” 
 was the answer. “So do I,” replied Andre, 
 rejoiced to find them friends. But he was 
 mistaken, and being pressed, he finally de- 
 clared that he was a British officer. He beg- 
 ged them to suffer him to pursue his way, 
 offering them gold, and a watch of great value. 
 John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac 
 Van Wert were poor men; their dress be- 
 spoke it ; but they loved their country, and 
 despised a bribe. They might have answered 
 Andre, in the words of another American, on 
 another occasion, “Your king has not gold 
 enough to buy us.” They carried Andre be- 
 fore Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson, who com- 
 manded the troops on the lines. The captors 
 of Andre were rewarded by Congress with 
 an annual pension of two hundred dollars 
 each, and a silver medal bearing on one side 
 a shield inscribed “Fidelity;” and on the 
 other the motto “ Amor Patriae.” 
 
 Andre still passed as John Anderson. He 
 
 AND 
 
54 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 generously wished to save Arnold, and asked 
 permission to write to him. This the com- 
 manding officer incautiously permitted, al- 
 though in Andre’s boots there had been found, 
 in the handwriting of Arnold, returns of the 
 state of the forces, ’and the condition of West 
 Point, with other important papers. Arnold 
 was at dinner when the letter arrived. Ab- 
 ruptly leaving the table, he ran down a steep 
 bank, threw himself into a boat, and was 
 rowed to the Vulture, which immediately got 
 under sail, and carried the traitor to New 
 York. Gen. Washington was soon apprised 
 of the circumstances, and the same express 
 which conveyed the intelligence, carried a let- 
 ter from the prisoner, frankly avowing his 
 name and the circumstances under which he 
 had been forced to appear as an impostor. 
 All the American officers who saw Andre, 
 were struck with his candor and manliness, 
 and there was not one who did not feel for 
 his situation. 
 
 The consideration of his case was referred 
 by Gen. Washington to a board of fourteen 
 general officers, of which Gen. Green was 
 president, and Steuben, Knox, and La Fayette 
 were members. It was decided that he ought 
 to be regarded as a spy, and the stern rules 
 of war, and the necessity of an example, re- 
 quired that he should die upon the gibbet. 
 He begged of Washington to be allowed to 
 die as a soldier, but the patriotism of the gen- 
 eral refused what his feelings would have 
 granted. Led to the place of execution, An- 
 dre, surveying the instrument of his fate, 
 asked with concern, “ Must I die by this V I 
 am reconciled to my death, but oh ! not to 
 the mode.” Recovering his composure, he 
 added, “It will be but a momentary pang.” 
 His countenance was unruffled and calm, to 
 the very last moment of his life ; the instant 
 before he was launched into eternity, it ex- 
 hibited a sunny serenity and high magnanim- 
 ity which touched the hearts of all ! At the 
 last moment he was asked if he wished to say 
 anything. “ But this,” he replied : “ You 
 will witness to the world, that I die like a 
 brave man.” 
 
 The kindest attentions were bestowed on 
 Andre by the American officers, particularly 
 by Alexander Hamilton, who did all in his 
 power to soothe him. Far different was the 
 treatment of the pious and patriotic Captain 
 
 Hale, a young American officer, who was 
 taken as a spy, and ordered to be executed 
 the next morning. He begged the use of a 
 Bible, which was refused; to be allowed to 
 write a letter to his mother, which poor priv- 
 ilege was also denied him. “ The Americans,” 
 said the British commander, “ shall not know 
 that they have a rebel in their army who can 
 die with so much firmness.” On the occasion 
 of the capture of some young American offi- 
 cers upon Long Island, they were brought be- 
 fore Sir Henry Clinton, who thus addressed 
 them : “ Gentlemen, do you know that I can 
 hang every man of you as rebels, taken in 
 arms against the king.” “ Hang and be 
 hanged!” bluntly exclaimed Lieut. Dunscomb, 
 with the energy of a rough soldier ; “I have 
 lived for my country, and I am not afraid to 
 die for her.” 
 
 Andre’s ashes, several years ago, were se- 
 cured by the British, and conveyed to Eng- 
 land, where a monument was erected to him 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 ANDROCLUS, a Dacian slave, of whom a 
 story is told that he was exposed in the arena 
 of a Roman circus, to fight a lion ; but the 
 animal forbore to injure him, because he had 
 formerly extracted a thorn from his foot while 
 in the Dacian wilds. Androclus was released, 
 and used to lead the friendly lion about the 
 city. 
 
 ANDROMACHE, the faithful and affection- 
 ate wife of Hector, prince of Troy, of whom 
 she was so fond, as to feed his horses with 
 her own hands. After his death, she was 
 married to Neoptolemus, to whose share the 
 lovely captive fell, and afterward to Helenus, 
 son of Priam. 
 
 ANDROMEDA, daughter of Cepheus, king 
 of Ethiopia, by Cassiopeia. She is fabled to 
 have been exposed by Neptune to a sea-mon- 
 ster, from which she was delivered by Perse- 
 us. An explanation of the fable is offered in 
 the supposition that she was courted by the 
 captain of a ship, who attempted to carry her 
 away, but was baffled by the enterprise and 
 activity of a more faithful lover. 
 
 ANDROS, Sir Edmund, royal governor of 
 New York from 1674 to 1682, of New England 
 from 1686 to 1689, and of Virginia from 1692 
 to 1698. His tyrannical administration in 
 New England rendered his name obnoxious. 
 His failure to seize the charter of Connecticut 
 
 AND 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 55 
 
 is told in another place. [See Charter Oak.] 
 In April, 1689, the people of Massachusetts, 
 irritated by his exactions, deposed Andros, 
 put him in prison, and declared for William 
 a nd Mary. The subsequent career of Andros 
 in Virginia was more moderate. He died in 
 England in 1714. 
 
 ANGLES, a tribe which occupied the coun- 
 try between the Weser and the Elbe, now a 
 part of Prussia. In the fifth century, uniting 
 with the Saxons, their powerful neighbors of 
 the north, under the name of Anglo-Saxons, 
 they effected the conquest of England. A 
 small tract of land near the Danish peninsula, 
 where some of them remained, is called at the 
 present day Angeln.' 
 
 ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, 
 Marquis of, was born May 17th, 1768, the eld- 
 est son of the Earl of Uxbridge. . At an early 
 age he entered the army, and his first active 
 service was in Flanders under the Duke of York 
 in 1794. Toward the close of the year 1808, 
 having been raised to the rank of a major- 
 general, he joined Sir John Moore, and took 
 a brilliant share in the Peninsular campaign. 
 On his return to England he was a member 
 of the Commons from 1806 to 1812. On the 
 death of his father in the latter year, he took 
 his seat in the upper house, as Lord Uxbridge. 
 When Napoleon returned from Elba, Lord 
 Uxbridge was given the command of the 
 British cavalry in Flanders, and fought with 
 great gallantry at Waterloo, where he lost 
 a leg. Five days after the battle he was 
 created Marquis of Anglesey. During the 
 trial of Queen Caroline, the wife of George 
 IV., he took the unpopular side in favor 
 of the king, and when he was surrounded 
 by a crowd who insisted upon his hurrah- 
 ing for the queen, he cried out at last, “Well 
 then, the queen ! may all your wives be like 
 her ! ” In April, 1827, he held office under 
 Canning, and in 1828 was lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland under W ellington. Having expressed 
 a strong sympathy with Catholic emanci- 
 pation, he was recalled from Ireland and 
 resumed his place in parliament, where he 
 continued to advocate the Irish cause. The 
 bill of Catholic emancipation having passed, 
 Lord Anglesey was restored to the lord-lieu- 
 tenancy of Ireland, and continued at that 
 post until his resignation in 1838. He died 
 in 1854. 
 
 ANHALT was an ancient principality in 
 the north of Germany. The house of Anhalt 
 traced their origin to Ascanius, grandson of 
 Japhet the son of Noah ! whose descendants 
 were reputed to have migrated from the 
 marshes of Ascania in Bithynia, and at last to 
 have settled among the forests of Germany. 
 Whether this somewhat lengthy pedigree be 
 correct or not, it is certain that no family in 
 Germany has produced a greater number of 
 brave and skillful warriors than the house of 
 Anhalt; beginning with Bernhard, who de- 
 clined the imperial sceptre in 1198, because 
 he deemed himself “too corpulent” for such 
 a dignity; or from Wolfgang, one of the 
 staunchest soldiers of the Reformation, who 
 on being reinstated in his possessions ex- 
 claimed, “Old and poor as I am, I would 
 give a thousand florins could I gibbet a 
 pope;” down to Leopold, at the beginning 
 of the last century, who led the Branden- 
 burg troops to victory in the Low Coun- 
 tries and Italy, created the Prussian infantry, 
 and invented the iron ramrod. The prin- 
 cipality is now divided into three duchies, 
 the former two of which are under the same 
 monarch: Anhalt-Dessau, area 360 square 
 miles, Anhalt Kothen, area 318 square 
 miles, population, of the united duchies in 
 1855, 114,850; Anhalt-Bernburg, area 339 
 square miles, population in 1855, 53,475. 
 
 ANNA, a heathen goddess, in whose honor 
 the Romans instituted festivals. Several 
 fabulous explanations of the origin of these 
 celebrations have been given, but the most 
 probable is the least poetic ; that Anna was an 
 industrious old lady of Bovillas, and her apo- 
 theosis the reward of her kindness in daily sup- 
 plying the Romans at Mount Sacer with cakes. 
 
 ANNA COMNENA, daughter of Alexis I., 
 Emperor of the East, celebrated for her beauty 
 and acquirements, born in 1083. Being de- 
 feated in a conspiracy for placing the crown 
 on the head of her husband, she devoted her 
 life to letters, and wrote the history of her 
 father’s reign. She died in 1148. 
 
 ANNE of Austria, was daughter of Philip 
 III., of Spain, and was born in 1602. She 
 became the wife of Louis XIII. of France, in 
 1615, but lived upon bad terms with him. 
 On the death of Louis, she became sole regent 
 during the minority of her son, Louis XIV., 
 but made herself unpopular among her sub 
 
 ANN 
 
56 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 jects by reposing unbounded confidence in 
 Cardinal Mazarin. Affairs assumed so threat- 
 ening an aspect, that she was compelled to 
 leave Paris. Tranquillity was restored at 
 length, and when her son assumed the reins 
 of power, in 1661, she went into retirement, 
 in which she lived till her death, in 1666. 
 
 ANNE, daughter of John III., Duke of 
 Cleves, was married in 1540, to Henry VIII. 
 of England, who had fallen in love with her 
 picture. He was soon,- however, disgusted 
 with the Flanders mare, as he coarsely termed 
 her, and she quietly returned to her native 
 land, where she died in 1557, happy in escap- 
 ing the dangers by which Henry’s queens 
 were beset. 
 
 A^NE, Queen of England. [ See Stuart.] 
 
 ANSON, George, Lord, was born in 1697, 
 in Staffordshire, and entered the navy at an 
 early age. In his twenty-seventh year he 
 gained the rank of post-captain, and when, 
 in 1739, a war with Spain appeared inevitable, 
 he was made commander of a squadron for 
 the South Pacific. He sailed Sept. 18th, 
 1740, but encountering a violent storm, was 
 prevented, for three months, from doubling 
 Cape Horn, and was rejoined at Juan Fer- 
 nandez, by only three of his eight vessels, in 
 a wretched condition. He sailed for the coast 
 of Peru, made some prizes, and burned the 
 town of Paita, but found himself compelled 
 to destroy all his disabled vessels but one. 
 Having equipped this one, the Centurion, 
 he retreated to Tinian, one of the Ladrone 
 Islands. He refitted at Macao, and there 
 formed the plan of taking the Acapulco gal- 
 leon, which brought every year treasure from 
 Mexico to exchange for goods at Manilla. 
 To accomplish this bold purpose, he gave out 
 that he had returned to England. Mean- 
 while, he directed his course to the Philip- 
 pines, cruising in the vicinity of Cape Espir 
 itu Santo. After about a month, the long 
 expected galleon appeared, and, confident in 
 her superior strength, eagerly commenced the 
 fight. The British fought with cool, daunt- 
 less valor, and succeeded in making a prize of 
 the galleon, whose gold and precious wares 
 some have estimated at the worth of a million 
 sterling. The whole amount of the booty 
 previously taken was £600,000. Anson then 
 returned to Macao, where he disposed of his 
 prize. The Chinese were inclined to insult 
 
 his flag, but he maintained his rights with his 
 characteristic pertinacity. From Macao, he 
 sailed for England, which he reached June 
 15th, 1744, having escaped the French fleet 
 which lay in the channel. Anson’s perilous 
 voyage threw new light upon the geography 
 and navigation of the southern ocean. 
 
 He was liberally rewarded for his bravery 
 and perseverance, being made, soon after his 
 return, rear-admiral of the blue, and at no great 
 distance from that period, rear-admiral of the 
 white. In 1 747, he gained a brilliant victory 
 over the French under Admiral Jonquiere, oft 
 Cape Finisterre, and was consequently raised 
 to the peerage with the title of Baron Anson 
 of Soberto'n. L’ln vincible and La Gloire, two 
 French vessels, were taken by Anson on this 
 occasion, and the captain of the former, on 
 surrendering his sword, said, “Monsieur, you 
 have conquered the Invincible, and Glory 
 follows you.” 
 
 Lord Anson was made first lord of the ad- 
 miralty, four years after his elevation to the 
 peerage. In 1758, he commanded the fleet 
 before Brest, protecting the landing of the 
 English, and receiving them after their re- 
 pulse. He died in 1762. 
 
 ANTiEUS, the fabulous son of Neptune 
 and Terra (the Earth), of a gigantic stature. 
 He resided in Libya, where he challenged 
 every stranger to single combat. What made 
 him peculiarly formidable, was the circum- 
 stance of the renewal of his strength by his 
 mother, every time he was thrown to the 
 earth. Hercules, having found out the secret 
 of his prowess, overcame him by lifting him 
 in the air, and crushing him in his iron grasp. 
 The dwelling of this monster was adorned 
 with the skulls of his vanquished adversaries. 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCEAN, a name properly 
 applied to the seas between the Antarctic Cir- 
 cle and the South Pole, and used to denote 
 generally those cold oceanic regions without 
 strict regard to the limits of the Antartie 
 Circle. It was long considered beyond the 
 pale of navigation because of the ice, which 
 extends much farther than in the polar re- 
 gions of the north. During the present 
 century important discoveries have been 
 made in these high southern latitudes. The 
 South Shetland and the South Orkneys were 
 discovered, and various navigators saw bits 
 of apparent coast. The expedition under 
 
 ANT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 57 
 
 Capt. Wilkes, sent out by the United States 
 in 1839, found a coast line in 154° 27' E. 
 long., and in a westward course as far as 97° 
 30' E. long., had either always a coast in 
 sight or unequivocal indications that land was 
 not far. The same year (1840), a French 
 expedition under d’Urville reached this coast 
 in 140° 41' E. long., traced it to 130° E. long., 
 and called it AdHie Land. This coast, as 
 well as Trinity Land, Palmer’s Land, Gra- 
 ham’s Land, and Alexander’s Land, points 
 previously seen between 36° and 70° W. long., 
 and Enderby’s Land (between 49° and 51° E. 
 long.), all lie close upon the Antarctic Circle. 
 In January, 1841, Sir James Clarke Ross 
 discovered a mountainous coast, on which he 
 landed, trending to the southward, near 70° 
 41' S. lat. and 170° 36' E. long. He traced a 
 continuous shore over six hundred miles as 
 far as 78° S. lat. To this tract he gave the 
 name of Victoria Land, and he supposed it 
 to be a continent. In 77° 30' S. lat. and 
 167° E. long., he placed Mount Erebus, an 
 active volcano, about 12,400 feet high, and an 
 extinct crater of somewhat less elevation, 
 to which he gave the name of Mount Ter- 
 ror. A main object of his expedition was 
 to seek the position of the south magnetic 
 pole. This he found to be 75° 5' S. lat., 
 154° 8' E. long. No traces of vegetation 
 have been observed on these far southern 
 coasts, and no quadrupeds. Some birds, 
 whales, and seals are found. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., the Great, first institutor 
 of the monastic life. His native place was 
 Coma, a town of Upper Egypt, where he was 
 born, a.d. 251. In 285, he retired into solir 
 tude from a devotional spirit, and in 305, 
 established the first community of monks. 
 Being disappointed in his attempts to gain 
 the honor of martyrdom at Alexandria, he 
 left the cottages of his monks to the car.e of 
 his pupil Pachomius, and, in company with 
 two of the brethren, retired to a very remote 
 desert, where he died, a.d. 356. The disease, 
 called from him St. Anthony’s fire, is a mal- 
 ady of peculiar violence with frightful accom- 
 paniments, in which every limb attacked, 
 becomes withered, shrunk, and blackened, as 
 if under the influence of flame. The life of 
 St. Anthony in the wilderness, was believed 
 to have been fearfully eventful, in combats 
 with devils. 
 
 ANTIGONE, a daughter of (Edipus, king 
 of Thebes, by his incestuous connection 
 with Jocasta. Antigone was the faithful 
 guide of GEdipus, after his loss of sight; 
 having buried the corpse of her brother 
 Polynices, against the express commands of 
 Creon, the tyrant ordered her to be buried 
 alive, but she killed herself before the execu- 
 tion of the sentence. [See (Edipus.] 
 
 ANTIGONUS, ‘ the Cyclops,’ one of the 
 generals of Alexander the Great, after whose 
 death he attempted to gain the sovereignty 
 of Asia, but was defeated by Seleucus, Ptol- 
 emy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, at Ipsus, 
 301 b.c. In this battle Antigonus fell. The 
 first profile on record is that of this Anti- 
 gonus, whose likeness was thus taken because 
 of the loss of one of his eyes. 
 
 ANTINOUS, a Bithynian youth, of whom 
 the Emperor Adrian was excessively fond. 
 When the latter was on his travels, Antinous 
 threw himself into the Nile and was drowned, 
 a.d. 132, but whether the act was committed 
 with the intention of saving the life of the 
 emperor, or from weariness of existence, has 
 not yet been decided. The grief of Adrian 
 was intense, and the honors of divinity were, 
 by his command, paid to his young and 
 unfortunate favorite. He named a newly 
 discovered star Antinous, and gave this name 
 to cities, while various images of the lost 
 youth emanated from the hands of different 
 artists. Those which have come down to us 
 bearing the name of Antinous, are distin- 
 guished for a languid loveliness, and a round- 
 ness of contour, which resemble the traits of 
 female rather than manly beauty. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. Several distinguished kings 
 of Syria bore this name. [ See Syria.] The 
 first was the general of king Philip, a Mace- 
 donian by birth, -whose fame was eclipsed by 
 that of his son Seleucus. Antiochus Soter, 
 the son of Seleucus, was unsuccessful in 
 -war, but is chiefly distinguished by his pas- 
 sion for his step-mother, the beautiful Strat- 
 onice. His struggles to quell his misplaced 
 affection, threw him into a lingering disorder, 
 the cause of which he was unwilling to 
 divulge. Erasistratus, the king’s physician, 
 penetrated his secret in the following man- 
 ner. As he was holding the hand of his 
 patient, he perceived by the accelerated 
 motion of his pulse on the entrance of Strat- 
 
 ANT 
 
58 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 onice, that love for her was the cause of his 
 disorder. The king, to save the life of his 
 son, relinquished to him his young and lovely 
 bride. Antiochus the Great succeeded 
 his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, 223 b.c. 
 Molo, governor of Media, felt the power of 
 his arms, and Ptolemy Philopater was by 
 him compelled to give up the whole of Syria. 
 Over the Parthians, also, he was completely 
 triumphant, and favoring the cause of Hanni- 
 bal, he made war upon the Romans. He was, 
 however, dispirited by ill success in the com- 
 mencement of this contest, and not fully 
 comprehending or seconding the views of the 
 Carthaginian general, was several times de- 
 feated, but signally at Magnesia, the conse- 
 quence of which was the conclusion of a 
 peace disgraceful to the Syrian monarch. 
 He was killed in an attempt to plunder a 
 temple of Jupiter. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES, second son 
 of Antiochus the Great, oppressed the Jews 
 cruelly and laid siege to Alexandria. He 
 was compelled to desist by the interference 
 of the Romans in behalf of their ally Ptolemy. 
 Nothing can show in a more striking light the 
 terror of the Roman name, than the follow- 
 ing anecdote. When Antiochus was on the 
 point of marching against Ptolemy, Popilius 
 Lagnas arrived at his court as ambassador 
 from the Roman senate. He was instructed 
 to command Antiochus to relinquish his hos- 
 tile project. Any other but a Roman citizen 
 would have been awed at the presence of the 
 courtiers and army of the king, sitting as he 
 was, surrounded by all the imposing splen- 
 dors of a regal camp. But Popilius sternly 
 delivered the message of the senate, and with 
 such an air of haughty authority, that Anti- 
 ochus was embarrassed. He endeavored, 
 however, to satisfy the ambassador with an 
 evftisive answer ; but Popilius, with his staff, 
 drew a circle around the king’s seat, and said 
 sternly, “Pass not that boundary, I command 
 you, 0 king, until you have given a plain 
 answer to the senate’s demand.” The king 
 overawed by this boldness, promised to 
 sacrifice his project to the wishes of the 
 Romans. 
 
 ANTIPATER, a Macedonian, the faithful 
 minister of Philip and Alexander, and pupil 
 of Aristotle. He obtained the European 
 provinces on the death of Alexander. His 
 
 war with the states of Greece terminated 
 successfully. He died, b.c. 317. 
 
 ANTISTHENES, founder of the sect of the 
 Cynics, was born at Athens between 424 and 
 421 b.c. From Socrates he imbibed an 
 enthusiastic love of virtue. He thought that 
 virtue consisted in independence of circum- 
 stances, and to maintain this, he thought it 
 requisite that our wants should be reduced 
 to the smallest number. He affected a con- 
 tempt for wealth, honor, the delights of 
 the senses, and knowledge, and sturdily 
 walked the streets, in the ragged garb of a 
 beggar. Plato was one of the first to pene- 
 trate his whims, and guess at their design, 
 and his brilliant remark to the Cynic, has 
 not escaped oblivion: “ I see your vanity,” 
 said the sage, “through the holes of your 
 coat.” Antisthenes is worthy of high praise, 
 if it be true that he attacked the accusers of 
 Socrates* and by his perseverance obtained 
 the banishment of one, and the death of 
 another. 
 
 ANTIUM, a city of the Yolsci on the Tuscan 
 Sea, traces of which are still visible in Porto 
 d’Anzo. Camillus took it, b.c. 337, and car- 
 rying the beaks of the vessels to Rome, 
 employed them in ornamenting a tribunal in 
 the forum, thence called the Rostra (beaks). 
 The city was dedicated to the goddess of For- 
 tune, whose statue nodded answers, when 
 consulted as an oracle, being probably formed 
 upon some simple mechanical principle. In 
 Antium Coriolanus sought refuge. It be- 
 came a favorite residence for the opulent 
 Romans. Cicero • had a* splendid villa here, 
 Augustus a palace, and here Caligula and 
 Nero were born. In the excavations made 
 among the ruins of the imperial villa, two of 
 tne noblest works of ancient sculpture were 
 found, the Apollo Belvidere and the Fighting 
 Gladiator. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Annius Verus, best known 
 by the name of Marcus Aurelius, born a.d. 
 121, assumed the imperial dignity, a.d. 161, 
 on the death of Antoninus Pius. He chose 
 for his colleague, Lucius Verus, but the latter, 
 dying a few years after, left the govern- 
 ment solely in the hands of Antoninus. In 
 the prosecution of the war against the Quadi. 
 his army was on the point of perishing of 
 thirst, when there fell an abundant shower 
 of rain, which was attributed to the praj'ers 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 59 
 
 of the tenth (a Christian) legion, and they 
 were thenceforth termed the ‘ thundering 
 legion.’ Though justly celebrated for benefi- 
 cence and equity, Antoninus was not free 
 from religious fanaticism, and authorized a 
 persecution of the Christians in Gaul. His 
 want of foresight in introducing the profligate 
 Commodus, his son, into the government, was 
 productive of most unhappy consequences. 
 After his death, which took place in the fifty- 
 ninth year of his age, and the nineteenth of 
 his reign, he was deified by the Romans. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Ful- 
 vius, originally of a Gallic family, was born 
 near Rome, a.d. 86. He succeeded to the 
 consulate in a.d. 120, and was adopted by, 
 and succeeded Adrian in 138. He was toler- 
 ant to the Christians, humane, dignified, and 
 just, and his reign was one of undisturbed 
 tranquillity. He was wont to say, with 
 Scipio, “ I had rather save the life of a single 
 citizen, than destroy a thousand of my 
 enemies. He died a.d. 161. 
 
 ANTONY, Mark (Marcus Antonius), the 
 triumvir, was bora 86 b.c. He attracted 
 notice at an early age by his bravery and 
 dissipation. He attached himself to the party 
 of Caesar, whose favor he gained by the em- 
 ployment of all the arts of which he was 
 master, and was appointed by Caesar his 
 colleague in the consulship, b.c. 44. After 
 the fall of Caesar, Antony obtained from the 
 senate a confirmation of the acts of his col- 
 league, and a public funeral, at which he 
 delivered an harangue so eloquent and stir- 
 ring that he roused the indignation of the 
 people, and forced Brutus and Cassius to fly. 
 Octavius, the heir of Caesar, was supported 
 by the enemies of Antony, who wished to 
 curtail the authority of this ambitious man, 
 but Antony, uniting with Lepidus and Octa- 
 vius, formed the triumvirate, which speed- 
 ily manifested the most sanguinary designs. 
 Each of the triumvirs agreed to sacrifice his 
 friends, and their alliance was cemented by 
 the blood of Rome’s bravest and best citizens. 
 Antony affixed the head and hand of Cicero 
 to the rostrum dignified by his eloquence. 
 Brutus and Cassius being defeated at Philippi, 
 Antony went to the East, and surrounded by 
 Asiatic luxuries, forgot the manliness he had 
 once possessed. Captivated by Cleopatra, 
 his ambition was lost in the indulgence of his 
 
 passions. Fulvia, his wife, having taken up 
 arms against Octavius, the latter quarreled 
 with Antony, but a reconciliation was effected, 
 and Antony, on the death of his wife, mar- 
 ried Octavia, the sister of his colleague, to 
 strengthen the bonds which united them. 
 His renewal of the amour with Cleopatra 
 drew down upon him the vengeance of Octa- 
 vius, and war was declared against Egypt by 
 the Romans. How Antony fought and fled 
 at Actium has been described. [ See Actium.] 
 Finding himself deserted on all sides, and 
 hearing of the death of Cleopatra, Antony 
 desired his slave Eros to slay him. This 
 humble friend, affecting to consent, requested 
 his master to turn away his face, and then 
 falling on Antony’s sword, died at his feet. 
 Antony, touched at this heroism, snatched 
 the weapon, and gave himself a mortal wound, 
 but had strength enough left to be carried 
 into the presence of Cleopatra, in whose arms 
 he died, b.c. 30. 
 
 APELLES, a celebrated painter of anti- 
 quity, was born about 365 b.c. at Cos, or at 
 Colophon in Ionia. The date of his death is 
 unknown. He seems to have earned skill 
 and reputation by his unflagging industry, 
 which became proverbial among the Romans, 
 and their saying, Nulla dies sine linea, “no 
 day without a line,” is reported to have had 
 its origin with Apelles. His most celebrated 
 work was “Venus Anadyomene,” (Venus 
 rising out of the ocean), wffiich centuries 
 after was such a favorite with the Romans, 
 that Ovid says but for this picture, Venus 
 would still have remained buried beneath 
 the waves of the sea. He received the patron- 
 age of Alexander the Great, and for a paint- 
 ing representing the Macedonian monarch as 
 Jupiter hurling his thunderbolts, he is said 
 to have received twenty talents of gold, about 
 $250,000. Having limned Campaspe, a beau- 
 tiful slave and favorite of Alexander, he had 
 her in recompense for the picture. The pic- 
 tures of Apelles were probably mostly painted 
 upon panels of larch, in distemper. They 
 were celebrated for the beauty of the horses 
 introduced in them. It is said that he had 
 painted a horse which was severely criticised 
 by a person who examined it, and in such 
 a manner that the pride of the artist was 
 wounded. Resolved to put his performance 
 to the test, he had a horse led into his paint- 
 
 APE 
 
60 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ing-room, where the animal, on beholding 
 the picture, neighed, and thus secured the 
 triumph of Apelles. 
 
 APOLLO, the fabled son of Jupiter and 
 Latona, and twin brother of Diana, born on 
 the island of Delos. He was the god of 
 all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, 
 and eloquence, and considered by physi- 
 cians, shepherds, and founders of cities, 
 as their patron. A few days after his birth, 
 he killed the serpent Python with an arrow, 
 and is generally represented with a bow and 
 quiver. lie fought bravely against the Ti- 
 tans, under Jupiter. When his son JEscu- 
 lapius was killed by Jove’s thunder-bolt, 
 Apollo slew the Cyclops, who forged the 
 ihunderer’s weapons. Having conquered the 
 satyr Marsyas, in a musical dispute, Apollo 
 fiayed him alive. Pan having disputed the 
 superiority of Apollo in music, a day was 
 appointed for deciding their merits, and 
 Timolus and Midas were judges. The lat- 
 ter, denying the merit of Apollo, was pun- 
 ished by having a pair of ass’s ears affixed 
 to his head. When he built the walls of 
 Megara, he laid his lute upon a stone, which 
 ever afterward sent forth a strain of music 
 upon being touched. The Romans celebrated 
 games in his honor which were called Apol- 
 linaria, and consisted of bull-fights, contests 
 of athletae, and theatrical shows. Temples 
 and statues were erected to him in Egypt, 
 Greece, and Italy. The most splendid shrine 
 of Apollo was at Delphi, built 1263 b.c. 
 The laurel was sacred to Apollo, and from 
 the earliest times was used for crowning’ 
 successful poets and victorious generals. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, one of the 
 most celebrated architects of antiquity, built 
 the forum and column of Trajan at Rome, of 
 which there are still magnificent remains, 
 a.d. 113. His most remarkable work, how- 
 ever, was the great bridge over the Danube 
 in Bulgaria. It stood on twenty piers, one 
 hundred and fifty feet high above the founda- 
 tions, sixty feet wide, and one hundred and 
 seventy feet apart. It was built for the 
 emperor Trajan ; the bridge was of wood, the 
 piers of stone. The woodwork was after- 
 ward destroyed by Hadrian, as it gave the 
 barbarians too great facilities for crossing the 
 Danube. Remains of the piers are still stand- 
 ing. Apollodorus is said to have fallen a 
 
 victim to the jealousy of Hadrian, who dab- 
 bled in architecture as well as in other arts. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSINUS, the 
 profligate decemvir, who attempted to destroy 
 the virtue of Virginia. His conduct pro- 
 duced a revolution, and he killed himself in 
 prison, according to Livy. He was at the 
 height of his power about 450 b.c. 
 
 AQUINAS, Thomas (often called the An- 
 gelic Doctor), was a younger son of the Count 
 of Aquino, and was born at the castle of Rocca 
 Sicca in Italy, in 1227. From his earliest 
 years he was smitten with a love for solitary 
 study. Force was used to prevent his be- 
 coming a monk, but in vain ; he entered the 
 Dominican order when a very young man. 
 So much was the youthful scholar wrapt up 
 in his own cogitations, that when he studied 
 under Albertus Magnus at Cologne, his fellow- 
 pupils nicknamed him Bos Hutus (mute ox) 
 on account of- his taciturnity and apparent 
 stupidity. He received a doctorate in theol- 
 ogy from the university of Paris in 1255, and 
 lectured with brilliant success in Paris, in 
 several Italian universities, and afterward at 
 Naples. Being summoned by the pope to at- 
 tend a general council at Lyons in 1274, he 
 died at Merracina on his way thither. He 
 was canonized by Pope John XXII. in 1323. 
 His works are numerous, but his mental vigor 
 surpassed even his amazing industry. He is 
 the most famous of the medieval schoolmen 
 and divines. 
 
 ARABIA has an area about four times that 
 of France. It presents the form of a vast pe- 
 ninsula, lying between 12° and 30° N. lat., 
 and 32° and 59° E. long., partly within and 
 partly north of the tropical region. Arabia 
 is mostly populated by independent tribes 
 each governed by its own sheikha Muscat or 
 Oman is quite an important state. The fol- 
 lowing are the other principal divisions now 
 generally adopted: Yemen , bordering upon 
 the Red Sea and upon the territories of Hejaz, 
 Nejd, and Hadramaut. It includes the towns 
 of Sana, Mocha, and Aden, which is now in 
 the hands of the British as a depot for the 
 overland mail to India. Hadramaut , on the 
 southern coast, a country once famous for its 
 trade in frankincense. Hejaz is the holy land 
 of the Mohammedans, and contains the cities 
 of Mecca and Medina [which see]. The greater 
 portion of Arabia is occupied by long, dreary 
 
 ARA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 61 
 
 deserts of sand ; while, in some parts, as on 
 the western side of the Arabian desert, the 
 soil is rendered fertile by the irrigation of 
 rivulets, and various flowers, both indigenous, 
 and transplanted from India, spring up, bud, 
 and blossom, filling the air with their ravish- 
 ing perfume. Some precious stones are found 
 in Arabia, but its principal riches are flocks 
 and herds. Of the natural history of Arabia 
 we can say but little. Ferocious animals 
 pursue their prey in the deserts, which they 
 render terrific by their presence and ferocity, 
 while the mountains produce animals yielding 
 many and great advantages to commerce. Of 
 these we may mention the civet-cat, the be- 
 zoar-goat, the musk-rat, and others of domes- 
 tic habits and importance. 
 
 Concerning the old Arabians, who are now 
 destroyed, or merged and lost in other tribes, 
 there is no distinct history extant. Kahtan 
 or Joktan, son of Eber, and Adnan, the direct 
 descendent of Ishmacl, were the ancestors of 
 the present races, of Arabians. The posterity 
 of Joktan are termed genuine or pure Arabs, 
 that of Ishmael, naturalized Arabs, or Mosta- 
 rabi. More than thirty-six hundred years 
 ago, Yarab, Joktan’ s eldest son, is said to have 
 succeeded his father in the kingdom of Yemen, 
 while Jorham, the younger, founded the king- 
 dom of Hejaz, which his posterity possessed 
 until the time of Ishmael. In the time of Al- 
 exander the Great, the inundation of Arem 
 overwhelmed with misery the tribes settled in 
 Yemen, eight of which were forced to fly their 
 dwellings and migrate to other lands. Ish- 
 mael, marrying the daughter of Modab, one 
 of the princes of Hejaz, had twelve sons. The 
 descendants of Ishmael, driving out the Jor- 
 hamites, took possession of their country. 
 The government appears to have been in the 
 hands not of one ruler, but of the leaders of 
 the different tribes. An aristocracy prevailed 
 at Mecca until the time of Mahomet. Sesos- 
 tris, of whom Josephus speaks under the 
 name of Sesac, conquered Arabia. Yet this 
 conquest was but in name, for the Arabs were 
 too proud and independent to bow their necks 
 beneath the tread of the conqueror, and sub- 
 sequent events show, that even during his 
 reign, they made themselves formidable to the 
 Egyptians, and Sesostris was forced to erect 
 a wall between Heliopolis and Pelusium, to 
 guard his native subjects against the attacks 
 
 of the Arabs. Although he had a powerful 
 fleet upon the Red Sea, he did no more than 
 skirt the shores of Arabia Felix, or at most, 
 take possession of some of its maritime prov- 
 inces. It may safely be asserted that the 
 whole peninsula of Arabia never was, or at 
 least never for any length of time, subjected 
 to the Egyptians. 
 
 The Ilycsos or Shepherd Kings, who in- 
 vaded Egypt, and for a long time held undis- 
 puted sway in that country, were Arabians. 
 Neither the Assyrians, the Medes, nor the 
 Persians, ever obtained firm footing in Arabia. 
 The Persian monarchs w r ere regarded by the 
 Arab chiefs in the light of friends, and received 
 annually a voluntary present of frankincense 
 as a tribute of respect, but other ties than 
 those of the heart never bound the free dwell- 
 ers of Arabia to the proud potentates of Persia. 
 Cambyses, when flushed with ambitious pride, 
 and rushing forward to the conquest of Egypt, 
 paused in his impetuous career, and respect- 
 fully asked of the Arabians permission to pass 
 through their country. The Spartans, war- 
 like and daring as they were, had reason to 
 repent of an incursion which they made upon 
 the Arabs. Alexander the Great, when in- 
 flated with the success of his arms, was sur- 
 prised to find that the Arabs so little dreaded 
 his tremendous power, as to neglect sending 
 ambassadors to him. This gave the Macedo- 
 nian a high opinion of them as “warriors 
 worthy of his steel but death put an end to 
 his hostile proj ects. His successors attempted 
 the conquest of Arabia, but were completely 
 defeated. The Romans made different incur- 
 sions into Arabia with but partial successes 
 to compensate for heavy losses, until HHius 
 Gallus, in the reign of Augustus, penetrated 
 into the interior of the country, and gained 
 victories which the deadly heats his army en- 
 countered rendered unavailing. The Arabs 
 were not again disturbed by the Romans until 
 the reign of Trajan. The north-western part 
 of Arabia, the country of the Nabachaei, was 
 called Arabia Petraea, from their chief town, 
 Petra. In the reign of Trajan it became a 
 Roman province. Petra sunk into insignifi- 
 cance ; its dwellers forsook it for the freedom 
 of the deserts ; even its site was forgotten till 
 Burckhardt discovered the ruins of its temple 
 and tombs in the Wady Musa. 
 
 At the commencement of the seventh cen- 
 
 ARA 
 
62 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tury a few small provinces in the north were 
 subject to the Byzantine empire, while those 
 bordering on the Euphrates acknowledged 
 Persian supremacy, and an Ethiopian dynasty 
 ruled temporarily at Yemen. This latter fact 
 had a melancholy importance for the world, 
 through the small-pox which the victors 
 brought into Arabia and which, by the con- 
 quests of the Mohammedans, was soon carried 
 far and wide. But the great mass of the land 
 was possessed by wandering tribes whose 
 freedom, even of each other, was unbounded. 
 The union of these tribes into a nation, a na- 
 tion which conquered old empires and founded 
 new, dates from the day of Mohammed. Be- 
 fore the close of the century the Saracens had 
 overcome a large part of Europe, Asia, and Af- 
 rica. Disunion had heretofore weakened their 
 forces, but now, uniting, they showed their 
 power was indeed formidable. If they had no 
 knowledge of those military arts by which 
 alone the strongholds of power are prostrated, 
 they possessed that wild and desperate valor 
 which carried them triumphantly through 
 their predatory expeditions. Mohammed, and 
 after him the caliphs, called forth the energies 
 of the Arabs and the display of every quality 
 which fitted them to bear arms, but that of 
 implicit obedience. The Arabs were too proud 
 of their hereditary independence to submit 
 blindly to the yoke of any man or combination 
 of men, and they accordingly, for the most 
 part, acknowledged only the spiritual author- 
 ity of the caliphate. When the power of the 
 Turks gained the ascendant, the Arabs shook 
 themselves free from fetters, rejoicing in the 
 chainless spirit of liberty. It is not difficult 
 to conceive the wild delight of roaming the 
 desert on a fleet horse, and beholding all 
 around a plain which seems interminable, and 
 presents to the Arab horseman the idea of 
 solitary existence in a world of his own. 
 
 In the sixteenth century, during the war 
 between the Turks and Portuguese, Sctyman 
 Pacha seized upon all the towns on the Ara- 
 bian Gulf. His successors also were victori- 
 ous, and almost all Arabia became subject to 
 the Ottoman empire. These events occurred 
 between 1538 and 1568. Still all the sheikhs 
 and princes were not subdued, but many of 
 them, remaining independent, continued to 
 harass the Turks, until, about the middle of 
 the seventeenth century, the latter were forced 
 
 to relinquish all the conquered places on the 
 coast of Arabia. The independent spirit of 
 the Arabs has gained them great celebrity. 
 
 Arabia is celebrated as being the scene of 
 many of those wonderful events which are 
 commemorated in the Holy Scriptures. It 
 was for a long time the dwelling-place of Mo- 
 ses, who married the daughter of Jethro and 
 fed his flocks upon Mount Horeb. The chil- 
 dren of Israel, under the guidance of the Lord, 
 passed into Arabia, when they went from the 
 grinding bondage of the Egyptians. In the 
 desert of Sinai, rises that lofty mount which 
 was clad in thunder and lightning, when God 
 gave his commandments to the people. Mount 
 Sinai commands a view of Mount Horeb, 
 where again the Lord appeared in the burning 
 bush to Moses. There is still to be seen that 
 rock, which, when the people thirsted for 
 water, Moses smote; where, from twelve 
 mouths, the living waters gushed profusely. 
 Again, when they were in want of water, in 
 the wilderness of Paran, Moses smote a rock 
 twice before the water flowed. That rock also 
 remains at the present day, an impressive 
 memorial of the miracle, exhibiting the vari- 
 ous fissures whence the clear element gushed 
 forth, cheering, by its presence, the many 
 hearts of those who had panted for the succor. 
 
 The Bedouin Arabs, although possessed of 
 not a few good qualities, are inveterate rob- 
 bers. When a Bedouin descries a traveler at 
 a distance, he puts his horse to his speed, and 
 rides furiously up, exclaiming loudly, “Un- 
 dress thyself, thy aunt [my wife] is without 
 a garment.” There is no way to avoid death 
 in this case but submission, as the possession 
 of the meanest article of wearing apparel is an 
 object important enough to warrant the shed- 
 ding of human blood, in the eyes of the Arabs. 
 There arc many singular contradictions in the 
 character of these wild people. A stranger 
 who confides his safety to their honor will be 
 treated with the utmost kindness, and share 
 the wealth or poverty of his entertainer, who 
 bids him welcome to what is his. The patri- 
 archal form of government has ever subsisted 
 among the Arabs. The dignity of grand 
 sheikh is heredita^ in certain families, but 
 the inferior sheikhs choose a successor out of 
 his family, on the death of a grand sheikh. 
 The greater portion of the inhabitants are ill 
 fed and clad, simply because they prefer a 
 
 ARA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 63 
 
 wandering life of freedom, to one of confine- 
 ment and restraint, even if it bring the great- 
 est luxuries. These they profess to despise. 
 One trait in their character is highly praise- 
 worthy; their extreme kindness to the do- 
 mestic animals to which they owe so much. 
 They free these creatures from work in their 
 old age, and permit them to die a natural 
 death. The Arab horses are reared with ex- 
 treme care ; spirited, docile, fleet, handsome, 
 and hardy, they always command the highest 
 prices. The Arabs, proud of the antiquity of 
 their own origin, are no less careful of the 
 fame of their horses, of which they preserve 
 authenticated pedigrees w For chargers, the 
 Arab horses are unrivaled. A war-horse of 
 this country appears delighted with the din 
 of battle. His spirit rises with the ardor of 
 the conflict, and he dashes into the “current 
 of a heady fight,” reckless of the volleys of 
 musketry and cannon pealing around him, 
 even when struck with shot, 
 
 “Staggering, yet stemming all, his lord, un- 
 harmed he bears.” 
 
 He will watch his master if he falls from his 
 saddle in the fight, and not only shield him, 
 but neigh for assistance. The price in Eng- 
 land for an Arabian horse has been 1,000, 
 2,000, or even 3,000 pounds sterling. Some- 
 times even the poorest Arabs will not part 
 with their faithful chargers, even though the 
 most tempting offers be held out. “No, my 
 jewel, was the affectionate exclamation ad- 
 dressed to his mare by that Arab who, after 
 he had agreed to relinquish the beautiful crea- 
 ture to grace the stud of the King of France, 
 at an enormous price, could not find it in his 
 heart to tear himself from his faithful servant : 
 “No, my jewel ! they shall never part us ! we 
 have lived and we will die together.” Sa}dng 
 this with tears in his eyes, he sprang upon 
 her back, and rushed back to the desert, happy 
 in having escaped the temptation and the sac- 
 rifice. The camel, which the natives call the 
 ship of the desert, is also an invaluable treas- 
 ure. Like the Bedouins themselves it learns 
 from early youth to endure hunger, thirst, 
 and fatigue. 
 
 ARAGO, Francois Dominique, was born in 
 Estagel, in the south of France, Feb. 26th, 
 1786. His father had originally intended 
 him, in accordance with his humble position, 
 for a simple agricultural life. But the taste 
 
 and aptitude he evinced for the natural sci- 
 ences were such, that he was presented for 
 admission into the Polytechnic school of Paris. 
 His examiner sent him to the institution, with 
 high compliments of his ability and attain- 
 ments. He distinguished himself by the ardor 
 and success of his studies while a student of 
 the Polytechnic, and was attached to the ob- 
 servatory of Paris. Such was the rapid ac- 
 knowledgment of his ability, that in 1806 he 
 received the appointment of assistant to M. 
 Biot, in the scientific commission for the 
 measurement of an arc of the meridian in 
 Spain. While Arago was at Galazo in the 
 island of Majorca, engaged in this scientific 
 duty, war broke out between France and 
 Spain. The fires which he made, to aid his 
 observations, excited the suspicions of the ig- 
 norant populace, who, fancying them beacons 
 to guide the French in their march, attempted 
 to seize the young philosopher. He escaped 
 to the coast in disguise, could not get off, and 
 sought security for his life by yielding him- 
 self to the authorities. On his way to the 
 prison he was beset by a rabble, and his life 
 put in great danger. By the connivance of 
 the Spanish captain-general he escaped to Al- 
 giers. There he embarked on an Algerine 
 vessel for Marseilles. In sight of that port 
 the vessel was captured by a Spanish priva- 
 teer, and Arago was thrown into prison at 
 Rosas. An attempt was made to frighten 
 him, by the show of preparation for his exe- 
 cution, into a confession that he was a rene- 
 gade Spaniard, that the government might 
 confiscate the vessel. He lay in a loathsome 
 dungeon, overrun with vermin, and almost 
 starved to death. Two lions had been sent by 
 the Dey of Algiers as a present to Napoleon, 
 in the vessel in which Arago had taken pas- 
 sage and which had been captured. One of 
 these animals had died, and Arago bethought 
 himself of writing word to the dey that it had 
 been starved to death by the Spaniards. He 
 succeeded in sending off a letter to that pur- 
 port, which was received by the dey, who, 
 much enraged at the treatment of his beast, 
 called the Spanish government to account, 
 and demanding compensation for the seizure 
 of the vessel, threatened war if the demand 
 was not instantly complied with. Arago was 
 now permitted to set sail for Marseilles, but 
 under the guidance of an ignorant pilot, his 
 
 ARA 
 
64 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 vessel drifted about for several days, until by 
 hazard the coast of Africa was made. The 
 vessel had been so much damaged that it was 
 determined to abandon her. Arago resolved 
 to make his way to Algiers by land, and dis- 
 guising himself as an Arab, he succeeded in 
 reaching that place with safety. He found 
 that the dey had just died, and a revolution 
 resulted in the death of the legitimate suc- 
 cessor. The usurper made a demand upon 
 France for a pretended debt, and as the French 
 government positively refused compliance, the 
 names of the French residents were placed on 
 the list of slaves. The galleys threatened the 
 philosopher. After much suffering and anx- 
 iety, Arago, in 1809, obtained permission to 
 leave Algiers with a convoy of Algerine ves- 
 sels and a corsair of that nation, in which he 
 himself embarked. The convoy had not sailed 
 Out of sight of Algiers when they were 
 pounced upon by a brace of English frigates. 
 The corsair, on board of which Arago had 
 taken passage, succeeded in eluding the Eng- 
 lish, and landed him in safety on the French 
 coast. 
 
 On his arrival at Paris he was welcomed 
 with great enthusiasm and elected with ac- 
 clamation a member of the institute. It is 
 impossible here to enumerate all the brilliant 
 discoveries with which Arago has illuminated 
 natural science. The determination of the 
 diameters of the planets, the discovery of col- 
 ored polarization of light, and of magnetism 
 by rotation, are among the most remarkable. 
 The “Transactions of the Academy of Scien- 
 ces,” of which society he was secretary, are 
 enriched by his scientific contributions ; and 
 various published memoirs testify to his in- 
 dustry and philosophical genius. Arago al- 
 ways advocated the cause of progress, and in 
 the revolution of 1830 he boldly presented 
 himself as a champion of democracy. During 
 the reign of Louis Philippe he wgs a member 
 of the chamber of deputies and sat on the ex- 
 treme left. His interest in politics was never 
 allowed to interfere with his philosophic pur- 
 suits. He was appointed head of the Paris 
 observatory, and directed with undiminished 
 ardor its astronomical observations. In the 
 provisional government of 1848 he held the 
 office of minister of marine, and fulfilled its 
 duties to the manifest advantage of the repub- 
 lic, of which he was an ardent supporter. On 
 
 the violent accession of Louis Napoleon to the 
 imperial throne, Arago refused to take the 
 oath of allegiance to the usurper, but in con- 
 sequence of his fame and the glory he had 
 shed over his country, he was left undisturbed 
 in his position at the head of the observatory, 
 and continued to devote himself with exclusive 
 ardor to his scientific pursuits until his death 
 in the year 1853. 
 
 ARAM, Eugene, whose erudition and fate 
 have rendered him remarkable, was born in 
 Yorkshire, England, in the year 1704. His 
 father was forced to contend with depressing 
 poverty. Eugene was sent to school, and- 
 learned to read the New Testament in English ; 
 but from that period, with the exception of a 
 month’s tuition from a clergyman, Aram owed 
 nothing to teachers, all his learning being 
 self-acquired. His father was gardener to Sir 
 Edward Blackett, at Newby ; and, when about 
 thirteen or fourteen years of age, Aram joined 
 him. In the house of the baronet, Eugene 
 first displayed his love of literature and sci- 
 ence. Apart from the bustle and turmoil of 
 the world, he passed his solitary hours in in- 
 cessant study. Mathematics early engaged 
 his attention, and he became a proficient in 
 the exact sciences ; indeed, his fondness for 
 mathematics recommended him to Mr. Chris- 
 topher Blackett, of London, whom he served 
 for some time in the capacity of book-keeper, 
 commencing his London life at sixteen years 
 of age. After residing with Mr. Blackett for 
 a year and a half, he was taken with the 
 small-pox, and suffered greatly from the ter- 
 rible disorder. 
 
 He afterward returned to Yorkshire, where 
 he pursued his studies with increasing avidity, 
 but with altered views, having discovered that 
 polite literature possessed greater charms for 
 him than mathematics. He made himself ac- 
 quainted with the works of the most celebra- 
 ted poets, and went through a course of his- 
 torical reading. He went to Netherdale for 
 the purpose of engaging in teaching, and here, 
 considering himself satisfactorily settled, he 
 married. His marriage proved unhappy, and 
 to his matrimonial connection he afterward 
 attributed the evils which befell him, and the 
 crime which he committed. Finding himself 
 deficient in classical learning, he resolved to 
 master the learned languages and applied 
 himself to the study of the Latin and Greek 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 65 
 
 grammars with great spirit. He soon perused 
 the Latin classics, poets, and historians. He 
 next read the Greek Testament, and finished 
 his course with Hesiod, Homer, Theocritus, 
 Herodotus, and Thucydides, with the Greek 
 tragic poets. 
 
 At the seat of his friend, William Norton, 
 Esq., of Knaresborough, he learned the He- 
 brew language, and read the Pentateuch, in 
 1734. In 1744, he was engaged in London, 
 as usher, and gave instruction in Latin and 
 writing. Here he became acquainted with 
 the French language. Afterward,' he was 
 employed as usher and tutor in various semi- 
 naries in England, and never suffered a single 
 opportunity of making new acquisitions to 
 escape. He was acquainted with the volum- 
 inous and quaint details of heraldry, and with 
 the gentle lore of flowers. He acquired the 
 Chaldee and Arabic languages, and investi- 
 gated the Celtic dialects. Having discovered 
 an affinity between the Celtic, English, Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew tongues, he was employed 
 upon a comparative lexicon of these languages, 
 when a frightful event arrested his literary 
 progress. Aram was accused of having mur- 
 dered Daniel Clark, a shoemaker. The mur- 
 der had been concealed for nearly fourteen 
 years, when the discovery of a skeleton, at 
 first supposed to be that of Clark, set on foot 
 investigations which resulted in the arrest of 
 Aram. At the time of his being taken into 
 custody, he was usher of a school at Lynn, in 
 Norfolk. The murder was committed on the 
 8th of December, 1744-5. Its object was a 
 little paltry gain, although the murderer as- 
 signed jealousy as the motive. Remorse had 
 preyed upon the spirits of Aram from the time 
 of the commission of the deed, and he is said 
 to have conversed with the boys at Lynn on 
 the subject of murder, and related to them 
 tales of murders, commencing with the crime 
 of Cain. 
 
 Upon his trial at York assizes, on the 3d of 
 August, 1759, he displayed great calmness 
 and self-possession. The principal evidence 
 against him was his wife, from whom he had 
 been a long time separated. Circumstantial 
 evidence, in addition to that of Richard House- 
 man, helped to convict him. His defense dis- 
 played talent and consummate address ac- 
 knowledged by the judges. He was found 
 
 5 A 
 
 guilty. He subsequently confessed his crime, 
 and acknowledged the justice of his sentence. 
 While in prison, he attempted to commit sui- 
 cide by opening his arm in two places with a 
 knife which he had concealed for the purpose. 
 He almost succeeded, and was in a state of 
 excessive weakness, when conducted to the 
 scaffold. Standing beneath the fatal tree, he 
 was asked if he had anything to say, but he 
 silently shook his head. He was instantly 
 executed, and his body hung in chains in 
 Knaresborough forest. 
 
 ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia,* where 
 it is supposed Noah’s ark rested. It rises 
 majestically from a fertile plain in two conical 
 peaks, one of which rises far above the limits 
 of perpetual snow, and is the highest point in 
 western Asia. The whole country is full of 
 traditions about the ark and the flood. Vari- 
 ous attempts have been made to gain the top 
 of Ararat ; none of which were successful till 
 July, 1856, when the toilsome and perilous 
 ascent was achieved by five Englishmen. The 
 dwellers about its base regard the snowy 
 summit with mingled awe and veneration, and 
 as a spot not to be profaned by the impious 
 tread of man. None had stood there since 
 the days of Noah. Ararat shows traces that 
 at some period it has been subjected to violent 
 volcanic action. Major Stuart, one of the 
 party mentioned above, pronounces the sum- 
 mit an extinct crater filled with snow. The 
 highest peak of Ararat is 17,323 feet above 
 the sea, and 14,300 feet above the table-land 
 on which it stands. 
 
 ARCADIA, a mountain country in the 
 heart of the Peloponnesus. Originally called 
 Pelasgia, from the Pelasgi, its first inhabit- 
 ants, it received its name of Arcadia, from 
 Areas, grandson of Lycaon. The shepherds 
 inhabiting the sequestered valleys were for a 
 long time rude and uncivilized, but when they 
 cultivated the arts of agriculture, and sweet- 
 ened their labors by occasional intervals of 
 relaxation, in which they occupied themselves 
 with music and dancing, they became famous 
 in song, and Arcadian felicity was a phrase 
 expressive of unalloyed enjoyment. But Ar- 
 cadia was far from being a paradise, and its 
 inhabitants were not so devoted to pastoral 
 pursuits, that they forgot the excitements of 
 war. On the contrary, when no quarrels of 
 
66 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 MOUNT ARARAT. 
 
 their awn occupied them, they engaged in the 
 service of other states. It was finally united 
 to the Achaian league. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated geom- 
 etrician of antiquity, born at Syracuse, 287 
 b.c. He was famed for the mechanical con- 
 trivances which he employed to defend his 
 native city, when besieged by the Romans 
 (212 b.c.), whose fleet, Lucian says, he set on 
 fire with burning-glasses. Marcellus, who 
 took the city, wished to spare the life of Ar- 
 chimedes. When the Romans entered the 
 city, Archimedes was found by a soldier, 
 poring over some figures which he had drawn 
 in the sand. He begged the Roman to spare 
 his circle, but the man heedless of his re- 
 quest, rushed forward and killed him with a 
 blow. He was then seventy-five years old. 
 He is said to have declared that he could 
 move the globe, if he only had a place to 
 stand upon. To Archimedes we ascribe the 
 discovery of the fundamental properties of 
 the lever, inclined plane, and pulley, of the 
 screw for raising water, which yet bears his 
 name, and much advancement in geometry 
 and mensuration. 
 
 ARCOLA, Battle of. Between the French 
 under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under 
 Marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19th, 1796. 
 This bloody conflict continued eight success- 
 ive days and resulted in a disastrous defeat 
 to the Austrians, who at the outset had the 
 advantage. 
 
 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION, com- 
 prises an area of 927,000 square miles, and 
 has a population of 800,000. This estimate 
 does not include Buenos Ayres, which is now 
 a distinct republic. [See Buenos Ayres.] 
 The population consists of descendants of 
 Spaniards and wandering tribes of Indians. 
 There are twelve states in the confederacy, 
 Santa Fe, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Cordova, 
 Santiago, Tucuman, Salta, Catamarea, La Ri- 
 oja, San Luis, Mendoza, and San Juan. Diaz 
 de Solis visited the mouth of the La Plata in 
 1512, but formed no settlement. Before the 
 end of the century the Spaniards founded the 
 towns of Salta, Tucuman, Cordova, Buenos 
 Ayres, &c. These regions formed a part of 
 the viceroyalty of Peru till 1777, when they 
 were made into the separate viceroyalty of 
 Buenos Ayres. Like the other colonies of 
 Spain in South America, these provinces did 
 not submit to the authority of Joseph Bona- 
 parte, and in 1810 they organized an inde- 
 pendent government in the name of Ferdinand 
 VII. In 1816 they threw off Spanish domin- 
 ion altogether. Since then, they have been 
 torn by intestine commotions. Rosas was 
 placed at the head of affairs in 1835 . His 
 commercial policy had for its object to secure 
 Buenos Ayres the monopoly of the trade of 
 the Plata ; his political policy was to obtain 
 a similar superiority. His sway was marked 
 by cruelty and despotism, and his ambitious 
 designs against Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bra- 
 
 ARG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 67 
 
 zil, interfering with commerce and the rights 
 of European merchants, caused the interposi- 
 tion of England and France. Buenos Ayres 
 was blockaded by their fleets from 1845 to 
 1847, and the free navigation of the Parana 
 thus maintained. Rosas was at last deposed 
 in 1851, and fled to Europe. Civil war con- 
 tinued between Buenos Ayres and the other 
 states, which resulted in the establishment, in 
 1856, of the Argentine Confederation and the 
 distinct republic of Buenos Ayres. In 1865 
 the Confederation under President Mitre, 
 took sides with Brazil and Buenos Ayres, 
 against Paraguay, after having long endeav- 
 ored to remain neutral. The seat of govern- 
 ment for the confederation is Parana, the cap- 
 ital of Entre Rios, population, 6,000, 
 
 ARGOLIS lay in the eastern part of the 
 Peloponnesus, bounded on the north by Achaia 
 and Corinth, on the north-east by the Sar- 
 onic gulf, and on the west by Arcadia, and 
 on the south by Laconia. The Argolic gulf 
 lies upon the south-west. Fertile plains and 
 swelling hills vary the surface of this region. 
 Pelops, who reigned over Argos, gave his 
 name to the peninsula. It was the kingdom 
 of Atreusand Agamemnon, Adrastus, Eurys- 
 theus, and Diomedes, the birth-place of 
 Hercules, and the scene of his victory over 
 the Lerngean Hydra. The fine arts, and 
 music in particular, were successfully cul- 
 tivated by the Argives. The modern Ar- 
 golis is but a shadow of the ancient city. 
 Argos was anciently divided into small, inde- 
 pendent states. These were Argos, Mycenae, 
 Tirynthus, Troezen (now Damala), Hermione 
 (now Castri), and Epidaurus. 
 
 ARGONAUTS. The story of the expe- 
 dition of Jason and his adventurous compan- 
 ions, to procure the golden fleece of Colchis, 
 is chiefly fabulous, and has probably little 
 connection with any known facts. Jason was 
 not permitted to ascend the throne of his 
 father by Pelias, who filled it, except on con- 
 dition of bringing from Colchis the golden 
 fleece of the ram, which bore Phryxus and 
 Helle away from their cruel step-mother, 
 Ino. Most of the heroes of Greece embarked 
 with Jason in the Argo, a splendid vessel 
 built for the adventure, and superior to any 
 which had previously floated on the waves. 
 After encountering many vicissitudes, they 
 came to the country of iEetes. This monarch, 
 
 whose life depended on the preservation of 
 the golden fleece, without refusing to surren- 
 der it, first imposed upon Jason three labors 
 which he hoped would destroy him. He was 
 to yoke the bulls of Vulcan to a plough of 
 adamant, and turn up a field consecrated to 
 Mars, which had never been opened ; in the 
 furrows thus formed, he was to sow the 
 serpent’s teeth of Cadmus, which would in- 
 stantly start forth as armed men, whom he 
 was to slay ; and finally, he was to kill the 
 dragon that was the watchful guardian of 
 the golden fleece. The magical arts of Me- 
 dea, who had fallen in love with the young 
 hero, assisted him to achieve these enter- 
 prises with success, and when the king deter- 
 mined on the murder of the Argonauts, 
 enabled him to possess himself of the fleece, 
 and escape with the enamored lady and all 
 his companions. The king soon missing the 
 fleece and the fleet, pursued and came in 
 sight of them ; Medea then murdered her 
 brother Absyrtus, w r hose limbs she strewed 
 upon her father’s path. The afflicted old 
 man, by staying to collect them, gave the 
 fugitives time to escape. After many adven- 
 tures, the Argo returned safely. The time 
 of the undertaking is placed in the middle of 
 the thirteenth century b.c. 
 
 ARGUS, the fabled son of Arestor, whose 
 hundred eyes caused him to be selected by 
 Juno as the keeper of Io. Having been slain 
 by Mercury, he was changed into a peacock, 
 and his eyes were placed in his tail. 
 
 ARION, a musician and poet, born at Me- 
 thymna, in Lesbos, and flourished b.c. 625. 
 His fabulous fate has been often celebrated. 
 When at sea with all his treasures, the mar- 
 iners sought his life ; but he leaped overboard, 
 and it is related that a dolphin, charmed with 
 his music, carried him safe to land. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Ludovico, the author of the 
 celebrated “ Orlando Furioso,” was born at 
 Reggio, Sept. 8th, 1474, and died at Ferrara, 
 in 1533. Having lost the favor of Cardinal 
 d’Este, he entered the service of Duke Al- 
 fonso of Ferrara, whose rewards, how- 
 ever, were but trifling. He experienced 
 many vicissitudes. His minor works alone 
 would entitle him to high rank in Italian 
 literature. 
 
 ARISTIDES, son of Lysimachus, a noble 
 Athenian, surnamed, from his high integrity, 
 
 ARI 
 
68 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the Just. He was instrumental in gaining 
 the battle of Marathon. There were ten 
 generals, of whom he was one, each having 
 the command of the army for one day. 
 Thinking this arrangement injurious to the 
 troops, Aristides prevailed on the other gen- 
 erals to give up their days of command to 
 Miltiades, and this measure secured the 
 triumph of the Greeks. Becoming obnox- 
 ious to the party of Themistocles, he was 
 banished by ostracism. Each person wrote 
 the name of the man he wished banished, on 
 a shell (ostralcori) ; these were then counted, 
 and the person whose name occurred most 
 frequently was banished. An ignorant fel- 
 low, in the public assembly, not knowing 
 him, turned to Aristides, and asked him to 
 write Aristides. “What reason have you 
 for disliking him ? ” asked Aristides. “ Oh,” 
 replied the fellow, “ I am tired of hearing 
 him called the Just.” When the Athenians 
 were alarmed by the approach of Xerxes, 
 they recalled Aristides, who, casting away 
 the remembrance of former wrongs, assisted 
 Themistocles in the public cause. At the 
 battle of Salamis his services were eminent. 
 Aristides refused to countenance the banish- 
 ment of Themistocles, when he incurred the 
 displeasure of his countrymen. Nothing dis- 
 plays more clearly the reputation of Aristides, 
 than his being appointed to apportion the 
 contributions to be paid by the several states 
 of Greece toward the expenses of the war. 
 This delicate duty he discharged to the sat- 
 isfaction of all. He died poor about 467 
 b.c. His countrymen bestowed a magnifi- 
 cent funeral upon him, pensioned his son, 
 and portioned his two daughters. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS of Cyrene, a pupil of So- 
 crates and founder of the Cyrenaici, 392 b.c. 
 This sect, which flourished for several ages, 
 maintained that the supreme good of man in 
 this life is sensual pleasure, and that virtue 
 ought to be commended only so far as it con- 
 duced to delight. He had no sternness. 
 Gay, brilliant, careless, and enjoying, Aris- 
 tippus became the ornament and delight of 
 the court of Dionysius, already made illus- 
 trious by the splendid genius of Plato and the 
 rigid abstinence of Diogenes. The grave 
 deportment of Plato and the savage virtue 
 of Diogenes had less charms for the tyrant 
 than the easy graces of Aristippus, whose 
 
 very vices were elegant. His ready wit 
 was often put to the test. On one occasion 
 three hetmree were presented for him to make 
 a choice: he took them all three, observing 
 that it had been fatal even to Paris to make 
 a choice. On another occasion, in a dispute 
 with iEschines, who was becoming violent, 
 he said, “Let us give over; we have quar- 
 reled, it is true ; but I, as your senior, have 
 a right to claim the precedency in the recon- 
 ciliation.” Scinus, the treasurer of Diony- 
 sius, a man of low character, but immense 
 wealth, once showed Aristippus over his 
 house. While he was expatiating on the 
 splendor of every part, even to the floors, the 
 philosopher spat in his face. Scinus was 
 furious.- “Pardon me,” exclaimed Aristip- 
 pus, “ there was no other place where I could 
 have spat with decency.” One day, when 
 interceding with the t} r rant for a friend, he 
 threw himself on his knees. Being reproach- 
 ed for such a want of dignity, he answered, 
 “ Is it my fault if Dionysius has his ears in 
 his feet ? ” 
 
 ARISTOGITON, and Harmodius, two of 
 the most famous patriots of Athens ; finding 
 their country oppressed by Hipparchus and 
 Hippias, sons of Pisistratus, they formed a 
 conspiracy against them. Hipparchus was 
 slain 514 b.c., but owing to the backward- 
 ness of the people, Harmodius was killed by 
 the guards, and Aristogiton seized. Being 
 tortured to make him disclose the names of 
 his accomplices, he named the friends of the 
 tyrant, and they were put to death in rapid 
 succession. “Now,” said Aristogiton to 
 Hippias, “ there only remains yourself worthy 
 of death.” Hippias was expelled three 3 ’ears 
 afterward, and the Athenians paid the greatest 
 honors to the memory of the two friends. 
 Praxiteles executed their statues, winch 
 were erected in the forum, their praise was 
 sung in hymns, and it was forbidden to give 
 the name of either to a slave. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated Greek 
 dramatist, author of numerous comedies 
 equally remarkable for the beauty of their 
 composition and their pungent satire, flour- 
 ished in the fifth century b.c. But little is 
 known of his life. Out of fort} r -four compo- 
 sitions of his, only eleven are extant. 
 
 ARISTOTLE, the most famous philosopher 
 of Greece, founder of the Peripatetic sect, was 
 
 ARI 
 

 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 69 
 
 born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, 384 b.c. 
 He died 322 b.c., having taken poison to 
 avoid the persecution of his enemies. He 
 enjoyed the instructions of Plato. He was 
 selected by Philip of Macedon as the pre- 
 ceptor of Alexander. When the latter went 
 forth on his Asiatic campaign, Aristotle re- 
 paired to Athens. There in the charming 
 retreat of the Lyceum, he delivered his teach- 
 ings to a throng of pupils, while walking 
 amid the groves and fountains. Envy of his 
 fame rankled into persecution, and he was 
 forced to flee to Chalcis, where he died. He 
 is considered the founder of the philosophy 
 of botany; he was the first to write of 
 mechanics; and with him the term ‘meta- 
 physics’ originated. His writings, on various 
 branches of science, have been of great value 
 to the world, although much of his philoso- 
 phy has been supplanted in the progress of 
 truth. 
 
 ARIUS, the noted schismatic, was born 
 about the middle of the third century. His 
 entire life was embroiled with disputes, prin- 
 cipally with Bishop Alexander and with 
 Athanasius, on the divinity of Christ. He 
 held that God created the Son, that the Son 
 had not existed from eternity, and was not 
 in dignity and essence equal with the Father. 
 This doctrine was condemned by the great 
 council which met at Nice in 325. After 
 numerous vicissitudes, intrigues, and strifes, 
 Arius was in the act of celebrating a triumph 
 
 at Constantinople, and suddenly died at a 
 ver) 7- advanced age. 
 
 ARKANSAS derives its name from a tribe 
 of Indians now extinct. It is between 33° 
 and 36° 30' N. lat., and 89° 4(V and 94° 40' 
 W. long., having an area of 52,198 square 
 miles. By the U. S. census of 1870, the state 
 had a population of 362,115 whites, 4,212 
 colored, 98 Chinese, and 89 Indians, in all 
 484,471. There has been a rapid increase 
 within twenty years. In 1850, the whole pop- 
 ulation was 209,897. The land on the Missis- 
 sippi, and from forty to fifty miles back from 
 it, is low, interspersed with lakes and swamps, 
 and, with few exceptions, annually overflowed 
 by that river and its tributaries. West of 
 this tract, the ground rises, and near the 
 centre of the state, becomes hilly, and farther 
 west, mountainous. Its rivers are the Ar- 
 kansas, which has a course of 2,000 miles and 
 traverses the whole state, the Mississippi, 
 which washes its eastern side, the Red River, 
 which furnishes steamboat transportation to 
 the southern section, the St. Francis, the 
 White River, and the Washita. 
 
 The Ozark Mountains run through the 
 western part of the state. The soil on the 
 river bottoms is fertile, the other parts gen- 
 erally are sterile. Cotton and Indian corn 
 are the staple productions. Wild fowls and 
 animals are abundant. A variety of mine- 
 rals are found in the state, such as iron, 
 gypsum, coal. Some salt is obtained. The 
 
70 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 country is well adapted for raising horses 
 and cattle. Considerable quantities of wheat, 
 oats, sweet potatoes, and tobacco are raised. 
 The peach is cultivated with success, but the 
 apple does not flourish. 
 
 Arkansas was included in the Louisiana 
 territory purchased from France in 1803. 
 Settlements were made within its limits by 
 French adventurers as early as 1685. It was 
 organized as a territory in 1819, and was 
 admitted into the Union in 1836. 
 
 Arkansas seceded March 20, 1861, and 
 was during the rebellion more or less pene- 
 trated by Union troops, several desperate bat- 
 tles having been fought in the rugged, moun- 
 tainous country in the north-west corner of 
 the state, the north-eastern part having been 
 long held by the Union forces, apd the Union 
 navy controlling the chief rivers and their 
 banks. The state returned to the Union ap- 
 parently with readier and kinder feelings than 
 most of the seceding states. A loyal state 
 government was early organized with Isaac 
 Murphy at its head, and at an election held 
 March 16, 1864, this government was con- 
 firmed and a new constitution adopted abol- 
 ishing and prohibiting slavery. Tracts of land 
 have been set apart for school purposes, but 
 an indifference on the subject of education 
 has pervaded the public mind. The prevail- 
 ing religious denominations in Arkansas are 
 Methodists and Baptists, while there are also 
 considerable bodies of Episcopalians, Presby- 
 terians, and Roman Catholics. 
 
 Little Rock, the seat of government, is on 
 the Arkansas, about a hundred and fifty miles 
 from its confluence with the Mississippi. 
 The river is navigable for steamers to this 
 point at all stages of water. The rocky bluff 
 on which the town stands is the first stone 
 met on the Arkansas west of the Mississippi. 
 The town was founded in 1820, and in 1850 
 had 2,167 inhabitants. None of the other 
 towns are very populous. Among the chief 
 are Fulton, on the Red River, Helena, on the 
 Mississippi, and Fort Smith, a government 
 post on the western frontier. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, was born in 
 Preston in 1732, and in early life was a 
 barber. He became interested in machinery 
 for spinning cotton, and in 1769 obtained a 
 patent for an improvement upon Hargreaves’ 
 spinning-jenny. Combinations were formed 
 
 against him, and his patent was set aside in 
 1785. His business energy was equal to his 
 mechanical skill ; he could not be crushed. 
 When he died in 1792, he had accumulated a 
 property of £500,000, which his heirs, in 
 their generation, increased to one of the most 
 colossal fortunes ever realized in the king- 
 dom. 
 
 ARMADA, the Invincible, a famous ar- 
 mament fitted out against England in the 
 time of Elizabeth (1588), by Philip II. of 
 Spain. It consisted of one hundred and fifty 
 large ships, with 20,000 soldiers, 8,250 sea- 
 men, and 2,000 volunteers, under the Duke of 
 Medina Sidonia. The number of guns the 
 ships bore was 2,650, some of them of extra- 
 ordinary calibre. The English navy at that 
 time consisted of but thirty ships of war. 
 It was reinforced, however, by volunteers. 
 The proud armament was shattered by storms. 
 The size of the Spanish vessels prevented 
 them from acting with advantage on the seas 
 in which they were engaged. Admiral How- 
 ard, ably seconded by the officers under him, 
 attacked and beat the fleet for several days, 
 and very few of the Spanish vessels entered 
 port again. Sir Francis Drake, Captain 
 Hawkins, and others, greatly distinguished 
 themselves at this time. The preparations 
 on land, superintended by the queen herself, 
 were fully commensurate to those at sea. 
 
 ARMENIA, a country of western Asia, 
 lying south of the Caucasus, in ancient 
 times a powerful kingdom. The name lingers 
 merely in geography ; the greater portion of 
 the territory is in the hands of the Turks, the 
 eastern part belongs to Persia, the northern 
 to Russia. The early history of Armenia is 
 not well known. The Assyrians, Medes, 
 Persians, and Macedonians by turns pos- 
 sessed it. After the death of Alexander, it 
 was united to Syria, of which it formed a 
 part until it revolted from Antiochus the 
 Great, when it was possessed by two different 
 rulers and divided into Armenia Major and 
 Minor. Tigranes, king of the former in 95 
 b.c., reduced Armenia Minor, and other prov- 
 inces, and united the two countries. Under 
 him it became tributary to Rome, in 63 b.c., 
 and Trajan made it a Roman province in 
 106. After Sapor of Persia vainly attempted 
 its conquest from the Romans, it was gov- 
 erned by native princes, until the Arabians 
 
 ARM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 71 
 
 conquered it in about 650. It was conquered 
 by the Seljukian Turks about 1046, after 
 which it suffered many changes, till it was 
 reduced by the prince of Kharasm in 1201, 
 who was driven out of it by Genghis Khan in 
 1218. In 1335, the Ilkanian dynasty began 
 here, and continued till 1385, when Armenia 
 was conquered by Tamerlane, from whom it 
 was soon after recovered by the Ilkanian 
 princes. On the death of Ahmed Jalayr, the 
 last of the line, in 1405, Kara Yusef, the 
 chief of the Turcomans, got possession of it. 
 This dynasty had the name of the Black 
 Sheep, and in 1488, it fell by conquest to the 
 family of the White Sheep. In 1500, it 
 was conquered by Ishmael Sosi, and reduced 
 by Selim I. in 1514. During the late war 
 between Russia, and England, France, and 
 Turkey, Armenia was a seat of hostilities, 
 and the siege of Kars attracted much interest. 
 The population is scanty, considering the 
 extent of the country, and consists of Arme- 
 nians, Turks, and the wild Kurds. Oppres- 
 sion has driven the Armenians somewhat 
 widely from the land of their fathers. They 
 have much aptitude for business, and Arme- 
 nian merchants are now established in nearly 
 all the countries of Europe and Asia. At 
 almost every great fair or mart, from Leip- 
 zig and London to Bombay and Calcutta, 
 they are to be seen. Originally the Arme- 
 nians were worshipers of fire, but toward 
 the* close of the third century they became 
 converts to Christianity. To their fidelity 
 to their faith they owe their existence as a 
 separate people through long centuries of 
 servitude. The Armenian church is a cor- 
 rupt form of the Roman Catholic. It does 
 not acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, 
 and is governed by patriarchs. 
 
 ARMINIUS (Van Harmine) was born at 
 Oudewater, South Holland, in 1560. After 
 studying at Leyden, he went to Geneva and 
 enjoyed the prelections of Beza. His. mind 
 seems to have had an early itching to oppose 
 established forms of thought and belief, and 
 he became a romantic supporter of the phi- 
 losophy of Peter Ramus. At twenty-six he 
 was ordained minister of one of the churches 
 in Amsterdam, and there preached with great 
 acceptance. He was soon entangled in con- 
 troversy. In 1603 he succeeded Junius in the 
 chair of theology at Leyden. There he 
 
 attacked the doctrine of predestination, and 
 based it upon foreknowledge of faith and 
 merit. From this a hot theological war 
 grew. Arminius died in 1609. His candor 
 is unimpeached and his ability undoubted. 
 The system that bears his name, was elab- 
 orated after his death, several of its distinct- 
 ive tenets not being held by Arminius. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, a native of Penn- 
 sylvania, was a brigadier-general in the 
 Continental army, and fought well at Fort 
 Moultrie, Germantown, and Brandywine. 
 Piqued at certain promotions, he resigned 
 his commission in 1777, and afterward sat in 
 Congress. He died in 1795. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, son of the former, 
 was the author of the celebrated “ Newburgh 
 Addresses.” He was aid-de-camp to Gates. 
 He was United States senator from New 
 York, and minister to France from 1804 to 
 1811. Mr. Madison made him secretary of 
 war. The capture of Washington by the 
 British, led to his retirement from office. 
 He died in 1843, in his eighty -fifth year. 
 
 ARNE, Thomas Augustine, was the son of 
 an upholsterer, and born in London in 1710. 
 His father educated him at Eton and placed 
 him iri an attorney’s office ; but such was his 
 love for music, that he had no relish for the 
 quiddities of law. After a few lessons from a 
 German violinist, he made such progress with 
 the bow, that he left his master the attorney, 
 and took music for a profession. His father 
 happening accidentally to call at the house of 
 a neighboring gentleman, was amazed and 
 consternated to find his Thomas Augustine 
 playing the leading violin. But the old gen- 
 tleman acquiesced. The world gained an ex- 
 cellent musician and lost a discontented pet- 
 tifogger. Arne became a popular lyrical 
 composer, writing several pleasing operas, 
 many charming songs, besides a large number 
 of fine glees, catches, and canons. His song 
 and chorus, “Rule Britannia,” has been said 
 “ to have wafted his name over the greater 
 half of the habitable world.” In 1769, the 
 university of Oxford conferred upon Arne the 
 degree of doctor in music. He died March 
 5th, 1778. His last moments were cheered 
 by a Hallelujah sung by himself. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, was born in Norwich, 
 Conn., Jan. 3d, 1740, and before the outbreak 
 of the Revolution was a druggist and book- 
 
 ARN 
 
72 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 seller in New Haven. He engaged early in 
 the struggle between the colonies and the 
 mother country, espousing the cause of the 
 former. His reckless bravery gained him 
 general applause. He was at the taking of 
 Ticonderoga, and his expedition to Canada 
 has been celebrated as a great military enter- 
 prise. The troops marched to Canada by the 
 way of Maine, encountering the severity of 
 midwinter, threading tangled forests, and suf- 
 fering every hardship. In 1777, Arnold dis- 
 played great gallantry, and bore a conspicuous 
 part in those efforts which led to the capitula- 
 tion of Burgoyne. Being unfitted for active 
 service by a severe wound received in the 
 battle of Stillwater, he was placed in command 
 of Philadelphia. He plunged into expensive 
 pleasures, soon became involved in debt, and 
 saw no means of escaping from his embarrass- 
 ments, but by flying into the arms of the 
 British, and earning their gold- by treason to 
 his country. Having been reprimanded by 
 Washington for misbehavior, he solicited and 
 obtained the command of W est Point, for the 
 basest of purposes. The ill success of his 
 traitorous scheme to yield this important for- 
 tress to the British has been told in our sketch 
 of Andre. Arnold escaped to the British 
 camp. After joining the enemy, he published 
 two manifestoes, in which he attributed the 
 change in his opinions to the declaration of 
 independence, and the alliance of America 
 with France, although long after the adoption 
 of these measures, he had fought beneath the 
 colonial colors, had been wounded at Quebec, 
 and was pledged to support the cause of his 
 country. A large sum of money, and the 
 rank of brigadier-general in the British army, 
 were the rewards of his apostasy. After his 
 treason, he made war upon his former friends 
 more after the manner of a bandit chieftain, 
 than that of a high-souled warrior. Upon the 
 recognition of the independence of the United 
 States, Arnold retired to England, where he 
 died in June, 1801. In the country for which 
 he had given up his own, his reception was 
 anything but flattering. On one occasion 
 the British monarch desired to make Arnold 
 known to the high-minded Earl of Balcarras. 
 After the usual form of introduction, Arnold 
 extended his hand to the earl. “ What, sir ! ” 
 said the latter to the king, drawing himself up 
 
 to his proudest height ; “is this the traitor 
 Arnold ? ” He walked haughtily away. 
 
 “The hand of Douglas was his own.” 
 Arnold challenged the earl. They met, 
 and Arnold missed his antagonist. The proud 
 nobleman, instead of discharging his pistol, 
 dashed it to the ground. “Stay, my lord,” 
 exclaimed Arnold, “you have not had your 
 shot!” “No,” replied the earl indignantly, 
 “I leave you to the hangman.” 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., was born at 
 West Cowes in the Isle of Wight,. June 13th, 
 1795. After completing his collegiate studies 
 at Oxford, and receiving deacon’s orders, he 
 was for nine years the principal of a private 
 school of high repute, at Laleham near Staines. 
 His success as a Christian teacher caused him 
 to be chosen head-master of Rugby school in 
 1827. It was Dr. Arnold’s aim to combine 
 Christian with secular instruction. 
 
 He taught the upper classes, governed and 
 guided the whole great school, edited classics 
 and wrote histories, and yet found time to 
 watch over the careers of all his pupils, with- 
 out taking the least credit to himself, or seem- 
 ing to know, or let any one else know, that 
 he ever thought particularly of any boy at all. 
 It is related by an old Rugby pupil that one 
 of the boys died, on a bright Saturday after- 
 noon, while the cricket was going on as usual. 
 The doctor coming from the death-bed, passed 
 the merry crew cheerfully, and no one knew 
 what had happened till the next day. His 
 allusion, in the afternoon discourse, to the fact 
 that while they were at their sports, their 
 playmate was dying, was at once cheerful, 
 grand, and impressive. “ When I came yes- 
 terday from visiting all but the very death-bed 
 of him who has been taken from us, and 
 looked around upon all familiar objects and 
 scenes within our own ground, where your 
 common amusements were going on, with 
 your common cheerfulness and activity, I felt 
 there was nothing painful in witnessing that ; 
 it did not seem in any way shocking or out of 
 tune with those feelings which the sight of a 
 dying Christian must be supposed to awaken. 
 The unsuitableness in point of natural feeling 
 between scenes of mourning and scenes of 
 liveliness did not at all present itself. But I 
 did feel that if at that moment any of those 
 faults had been brought before me which 
 
 ARN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 73 
 
 sometimes occur amongst us ; had I heard 
 that any among you had been guilty of false- 
 hood, of drunkenness, or of any such sin ; 
 had I heard from any quarter the language of 
 profaneness, or of unkindness, or of indecen- 
 cy; had I heard or seen any signs of that 
 wretched folly, which courts the laugh of fools 
 by affecting not to dread evil and not to care 
 for good, then the unsuitableness of any of 
 these things with the scene I had just quitted 
 would indeed have been most intensely pain- 
 ful. And why ? Not because such things 
 would really have been worse than at any 
 other time, but because at such a moment the 
 eyes are opened really to know good and evil, 
 because we then feel what it is so to live that 
 death becomes an infinite blessing.” 
 
 He is known as an author by several vol- 
 umes of discourses and by a “History of 
 Rome” written on Niebuhr’s plan. He was 
 appointed to the chair of modern history at 
 Oxford ; but he had only given his inaugural 
 lecture, when a spasmodic affection of the 
 heart cut him off suddenly at Rugby, June 
 12th, 1842. 
 
 ARTHUR, a mythical prince of ancient 
 Britain, whose story Hume thinks has some 
 foundation in fact. He is said to have been 
 born about 501, and died 542. The institution 
 of an order of chivalry, called the Knights of 
 the Round Table, is attributed to him, and 
 also the establishment of Christianity at York. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, containing a 
 chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 
 355 b.c., and said to have been sculptured 
 2G4 b.c. They consist of thirty-seven statues 
 and one hundred and twenty-eight busts, with 
 two hundred and fifty inscriptions in Greek 
 characters. They were found in the isle of 
 Paros about 1610, purchased by the Earl of 
 Arundel, and given to the university of Ox- 
 ford, 1627. 
 
 ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, priests among 
 the Romans who foretold future events by 
 observing the entrails of the animals sacri- 
 ficed, and the manner in which the victim 
 behaved. They existed from the time of 
 Romulus to that of Constantine (337 a.d.), 
 when all soothsaying was prohibited on pain 
 of death. Their number at this time was 
 seventy. 
 
 ASBURY, Francis, a Methodist preacher 
 who came hither from England in 1771, and 
 
 was one of the first bishops of the Methodist 
 Episcopal church in the United States. His 
 labors were crowned with great good. He 
 died suddenly at Spottsylvania, Va., March 
 31st, 1816, aged seventy. 
 
 ASCALON. In this battle, Sept. 7th, 1191, 
 Richard I. of England, commanding the cru- 
 saders, reduced to 30,000, defeated ten times 
 that number of Saracens under Saladin. It 
 is said that 30,000 of the paynim foe were left 
 dead on the field of battle. 
 
 ASHANTEE, a nation of negroes, on and 
 near the Gold Coast of Guinea. They are in 
 the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, the British 
 settlement at Sierra Leone. W arlike and un- 
 yielding, they carried on a bloody war with 
 the English from 1807 to 1826. The kingdom 
 of the Ashantees has been in existence more 
 than a hundred years. The king has a band 
 of devoted attendants, one hundred in number, 
 who are slain upon his tomb, that he may be 
 properly accompanied on his arrival in the in- 
 fernal regions. His 3,333 wives are regarded 
 with reverence, and on that mystical number 
 the safety of the state depends. The empire 
 of Ashantee, consisting of several conquered 
 states, has a population of three million souls. 
 The Ashantees display some ingenuity and 
 taste in their architecture, and manufacture 
 cloths which are skillfully dyed in brilliant 
 colors. Coomassie, the residence of the king, 
 has been forcibly described by an intelligent 
 traveler. “A prospect of the capital (if such 
 it may be called) at last opened in front of us ; 
 it was a partial glimpse, at the distance of 
 twenty or thirty paces, of a few mud-built 
 hovels, surrounded in part by plantations, 
 and some straggling walls of the same mate- 
 rial, covering a contracted space gained from 
 the surrounding waste.” 
 
 ASIA is the largest of the great divisions of 
 the earth. Hesiod and Herodotus give a 
 mythical origin of the name from the nymph 
 Asia, daughter of Oceanus and Zethys, and 
 mother or wife of Prometheus. Strabo pre- 
 serves an old statement that Asia was the 
 original name of Lydia. Orientalists hare 
 concluded that the root-syllable in ‘Asia’ 
 means the ‘ Sun,’ especially as an object of 
 religious worship ; that the Asians are ‘ the 
 people of the Sun,’ or ‘ the people from the 
 east ;’ and that ‘ Asia ’ is thus the correlative 
 of ‘Europa,’ which is derived from the Phoe- 
 
 ASI 
 
74 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 nician or Hebrew word ‘Ereb’ or ‘Oreb,’ 
 signifying ‘evening,’ ‘sunset,’ and hence the 
 ‘West.’ The ancient Greeks were acquaint- 
 ed with little more than Asia Minor. The 
 establishment of the Persian empire, b.c. 550, 
 advanced geographical knowledge, because 
 many nations and extensive regions being 
 gathered under one rule, the intercourse be- 
 tween them, which before had been difficult, 
 was much facilitated. The conquests of Alex- 
 ander brought still farther advance. He had 
 almost reached the valley of the Ganges, when 
 a mutiny in his wearied army forced him to 
 give over his scheme of penetrating India. 
 He founded the city of Alexandria at the 
 mouth of the Nile ; the commerce of Tyre and 
 the Phoenicians was diverted thither; and 
 Egyptian vessels pushed from the Red Sea as 
 far as the shores of Malabar and the isle of 
 Ceylon. The extreme eastern boundary of 
 the Roman empire was formed by the Tigris, 
 the Euphrates, and the mountains of Armenia. 
 In one instance their armies passed beyond 
 the limits of the known world. When war- 
 ring with Mithridates they arrived at Mount 
 Caucasus, and on the shores of the Caspian 
 Sea they learned of a commercial road through 
 Bactria, by which an active traffic was had 
 with India. Shortly after another route was 
 discovered, leading over the high table-land 
 of upper Asia to the Seres, or Chinese ; prob- 
 ably the road which still passes through the 
 town of Kashghar. Though the Roman eagles 
 did not swoop in victory over these regions of 
 the remote East, the wealth of the imperial 
 city caused a demand for the productions and 
 the luxuries of the orient ; so that these newly 
 discovered paths were much frequented by 
 merchants, while the maritime trade was also 
 duly enhanced. The dominion of the Saracens 
 cut off the intercourse of Europe with Asia, 
 and till the time of the crusades no new 
 knowledge was gained by Europeans of its 
 geography. The Arabians, however, began 
 to nourish geography among other sciences. 
 To them we owe its establishment upon math- 
 ematical and astronomical principles. They 
 renewed trading intercourse with India, and 
 extended it to the Chinese seas. Zeal for 
 propagating their creed inspired them, as well 
 as the love of gain. 
 
 In the thirteenth century, Genoa, Venice, 
 and Florence commenced their lucrative trade 
 
 with the East. In this century too, the Mon- 
 gols under Genghis Khan crossed the Volga, 
 subjected Russia, and laid prostrate the power 
 of Poland. .All Europe trembled, but the 
 death of Genghis stayed the Tartars in their 
 western march. The policy of Innocent IV. 
 and of Louis IX. of France suggested the plan 
 of turning the Mongols against the Saracens. 
 For this it seemed necessary to convert the 
 barbarians to the Christian faith. Friars were 
 accordingly sent among them. They did not 
 succeed in their mission, but their journeyings 
 made Europeans for the first time acquainted 
 with the immense extent of those regions 
 vaguely known as Scythia, which thenceforth 
 were called Mongolia or Tartary. Genghis 
 Khan had extended his dominion over all in- 
 land Asia, from the boundary of Siberia to 
 that of India and Thibet. After his death the 
 Mongols continued in their career of victory, 
 and at length in the reign of his most able 
 successor, Kublai Khan (1259-1294), China 
 came under their sway. At the court of this 
 monarch at Pekin, Marco Polo . dwelt from 
 1275 to 1292, and under his favor had the best 
 opportunities for visiting the wide Mongol 
 realm. The account which he published of 
 his travels added more to geographical knowl- 
 edge of Asia than all that was previously 
 known. It very materially influenced the 
 views of Columbus, and directed the course of 
 Vasco de Gama. [See Polo.] 
 
 After the circumnavigation of Africa by 
 Vasco de Gama in 1498, the Portuguese rap- 
 idly explored the Indian seas, founded many 
 colonies, and carried on a rich commerce. At 
 the close of the sixteenth century, Portugal 
 passed under the yoke of Spain ; and one 
 result of the struggle of the Netherlands 
 against Philip II., was the gradual transfer 
 of the Portuguese possessions in the Indies 
 into the hands of the Dutch. About this 
 time Siberia was subjected by Russia, and 
 the Jesuits obtained a footing at the Chinese 
 court which gained them considerable knowl- 
 edge of that vast empire. India was longer 
 involved in obscurity than almost any part 
 of Asia. The progress of the East India 
 Company of England during the last two 
 centuries, has rapidly opened its recesses. 
 
 Yet this quarter of the world, concerning 
 which modern civilization has so slowly and 
 imperfectly gained any information, was the 
 
 ASI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 75 
 
 first peopled ; here the law of God was first 
 promulgated ; here many of the greatest 
 monarchies of the world have had their rise ; 
 and hence most of the arts and sciences have 
 been derived. To its immensity of extent, 
 the importance of its history, and the 
 vastness of its monumental remains, justly 
 correspond. It has been the theatre of 
 some of the mQst important events which 
 history records, the clime of wonders and 
 of wealth, the chosen region of romance. If 
 we search for the fate of proud monarchies, 
 for the tale of powerful dynasties, for the 
 doom of splendid cities, we shall find the 
 name of Asia constantly recurring, and the 
 fame of Asia the theme of unfailing wonder 
 and of praise. 
 
 Its extent is estimated at 17,500,000 square 
 miles, and its population set down at more 
 than 600,000,000. We give a summary of 
 the principal divisions of Asia. More detailed 
 accounts may be sought in the appropriate 
 place. Siberia, a division of the Russian 
 empire, occupies the north. The Chinese 
 empire comprises one-fourth of the surface of 
 Asia, and one-half the inhabitants. The Brit- 
 ish dominions are for the most part iq India, 
 the peninsula within the Ganges, but their 
 rule has extended over a great number of 
 dependent native sovereigns. Nepaul and 
 Ava are the only important states of India 
 that have remained independent of the Brit- 
 ish. The Portuguese have saved from the 
 wreck of their once mighty possessions little 
 more than Goa on the Malabar coast, Daman, 
 a small portion of the peninsula of Guzerat, 
 the island of Macao in the bay of Canton, 
 and some districts in the island of Timor. 
 These are supposed to contain about 60,000 
 square miles and 600,000 inhabitans. The 
 French have a small foothold in Asia at Pon- 
 dicherry, at Chandernagore in Bengal, and at 
 Nahe on the coast of Malabar. The Dutch 
 have been driven from the mainland. Their 
 power begins on the west with Sumatra, and 
 extends beyond Java to the Moluccas or Spice 
 Islands. Their possessions are roughly 
 guessed to comprehend about 612,000 square 
 miles, with 16,500,000 inhabitants. In the 
 south-eastern corner of Asia lie the empires 
 of Birmah, and the kingdoms of Siam and 
 Annam, which latter comprehends the an- 
 cient sovereignties of Camboja, Cochin China, 
 
 and Tonkin. East of China is the insular 
 empire of Japan. In the west we have Af- 
 ghanistan, Beloochistan, Arabia, Turkey in 
 Asia, and Persia. The tract between Persia 
 and China, sometimes called Independent 
 Tartary, is inhabited mostly by nomadic 
 tribes. Here are the states of Bokhara and 
 Khiva, and many petty sovereignties in the 
 mountain regions. But none of these have 
 any fixed government. 
 
 The islands in the Asian seas are many and 
 important. Besides those belonging to Japan, 
 the larger are Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, 
 the Philippines, the Moluccas, Ceylon, and 
 Formosa. 
 
 ASPERNE, Battle of. Between the Aus- 
 trian army under the Archduke Charles, and 
 the French; fought on the 21st, 22d, and 
 23d of May, 1809. In this very sanguinary 
 fight the loss of the Austrians exceeded 
 
 20.000, and that of the French was more than 
 
 30.000. It ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, 
 who commanded in person, and was the 
 severest check that he had yet received. 
 This success, however, benefited the Aus- 
 trians but little in the end. 
 
 ASSASSINS, the followers of an Arab 
 chief in the time of the crusades, who pro- 
 fessed a blind devotion to his will. When 
 Henry, Count of Champagne, was passing 
 through the dominions of their chief, Alo- 
 addin, the “Old Man of the Mountains,” he 
 boasted of his power at home. “ Are any of 
 your vassals as devoted as my followers?” 
 asked the chieftain. On this he gave a 
 signal to ten young men, clad in white, 
 standing on the top of a tall tower, and they 
 instantly threw themselves from it and were 
 dashed to pieces ! To the stealth with which 
 they took the lives of those they hated, the 
 word ‘assassin’ owes its adoption and its 
 meaning in European languages. 
 
 ASSAYE. The British army under Gen. 
 Arthur Wellesley (afterward the Duke of 
 Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on 
 the south, took the fort of Ahmednugger 
 Aug. 12th, and defeated Scindiah and the 
 Rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23d, 1803. 
 This was the future Wellington’s first great 
 battle, and the opposing force was ten times 
 his own. The enemy retired in great dis- 
 order, forsaking all their artillery, ammunb 
 tion, and stores. 
 
 ASS 
 
76 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ASSYRIA, a kingdom of Asia, said to have 
 been founded by Asher, whose boundaries 
 varied greatly at different times. It was 
 anciently bounded as follows : north by the 
 mountains Niphates, and Armenia Major, 
 east by Media, south by Susiana, and west 
 by Mesopotamia. Ninus, t the son of Belus, 
 (2069-2017), subdued the Babylonians and 
 Medes, and Semiramis, his wife and successor, 
 increased the fame of the kingdom. The 
 kings of Assyria degenerated from this re- 
 nown. Such were the indolence and volup- 
 tuousness of Sardanapalus as to encourage 
 the successful revolt of Arbaces the Mede, 
 and Assyria was then divided into the Me- 
 dian, Assyrian, and Babylonian kingdoms. 
 It was over this second Assyrian kingdom 
 that Sennacherib reigned, whose great army 
 besieged Jerusalem and was swept away in a 
 single night by the angel of the Lord. Nin- 
 eveh was razed by the Medes and Babylo- 
 nians, 621 b.c., and the Assyrian monarchy 
 divided' by the conquerors; Through the 
 conquest of Cyrus these countries became 
 one of the most -important satrapies of the 
 Persian empire, sometimes called Babylonia 
 and sometimes Assyria. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. The history of the science 
 of the heavens dates backward into the 
 morning of time. Observations oh. the appa- 
 rent and real revolutions of the stars must 
 have been made, and a really great advance 
 attained in the science, long before any form 
 of record preserved the fruits of discovery. 
 Some of the principal constellations, as they 
 are now named, are mentioned in Job. The 
 earliest accounts we have of the science are 
 those of Babylon, about 2234 b.c. The study 
 of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldea 
 under Nabonassar. It was known to the 
 Chinese about 1100 b.c., some say many 
 centuries before. One tradition is that the 
 Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, 
 and planets, and were acute astronomers, in 
 the reign of Jao, which is set down 2357 b.c. 
 Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon 
 with exceeding accuracy, 720 b.c. Thales 
 taught the spherical form of the earth, and 
 the true cause of lunar eclipses, 640 b.c. 
 Pythagoras, who made further discoveries, 
 taught nearly the true doctrine of celestial 
 motions and believed in a plurality of habit- 
 
 able worlds, 500 b.c. Hipparchus began his 
 observations at Rhodes, 167 b.c., and contin- 
 ued them thirty-four years, making great 
 advances. He began his new lunar cycles 
 from the new moon of Sept. 28th, 143 b.c. 
 The precession of the equinoxes was con- 
 firmed, and the places and distances of the 
 planets discovered, by Ptolemy, a.d. 130. 
 The system he taught, in which the earth 
 was made the immovable centre of the uni- 
 verse, remained in vogue till the time of 
 Copernicus. After the lapse of nearly seven 
 centuries, during which astronomy was neg- 
 lected, it was resumed by the Arabs, about 
 800, and was brought into Europe by the 
 Moors of Barbary and Spain, about 1200, 
 geography being introduced at the same time. 
 The celebrated tables known as the Alphon- 
 sine, were composed by command, and under 
 the direction, of Alphonsus X. of Castile, at 
 an expense of four hundred thousand crowns, 
 in 1284. Alphonsus was justly surnamed 
 the Wise. Clocks were first used in astron- 
 omy about 1500. In 1530 Copernicus com- 
 pleted his immortal work, “Astronomia 
 Instaurata,” although it was not published 
 until the year of * his death, 1543. This 
 treatise, in which the true doctrine of the 
 motions of the planetary bodies was revived, 
 did more for astronomy than was ever done 
 for any other science by a single production. 
 The science was also greatly advanced by 
 Tycho Brahe in the latter part of the same 
 century. Kepler discovered the true laws of 
 the planetary motions in 1619. Nearly a 
 century before Copernicus had shown that 
 the planets moved round the sun ; now Kep- 
 ler showed in what manner and by what 
 laws they moved : it was left for Newton to 
 show why they moved. Kepler had before 
 found that the planetary orbits were elliptical, 
 and had demonstrated the equality of the 
 spaces described by the radii vectored in 
 equal times ; and now he enunciated the im- 
 portant law that the square of the periodic 
 times of the planets’ revolutions are as the 
 cubes of their distances. Telescopes and 
 other instruments were used about 1627. 
 The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
 1631. Horrox, an Englishman, was the first 
 who ever observed a transit of Venus over 
 the sun’s disk, Nov. 24th, 1639 (o.s.) * Hor- 
 
 AST 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 77 
 
 rebow, in 1659, discovered the aberration of 
 the light of the fixed stars. Hevelius con- 
 structed a map of the moon, 1670. Halley 
 demonstrated the motion of the sun round its 
 own axis, 1676. Huygens discovered the rings 
 of Saturn, 1636. In 1687 Newton’s “Prin- 
 cipia ” was published, and the system initiated 
 by Copernicus and confirmed by Kepler, was 
 incontrovertibly established. Flamstead cat- 
 alogued the stars, 1688. La Grange demon- 
 strated the harmony of the perturbations of 
 the solar system, 1780. Iderschel discovered 
 Uranus, 1781. The “ Mecanique Celeste ” of 
 La Place was published in 1796. Ceres was 
 discovered in 1801 ; Pallas, in 1802; Juno, 
 in 1804; Yesta, in 1807. [For the several 
 planets recently discovered, see Planets.] 
 
 The distance of the nearest fixed stars is 
 supposed to be about two hundred thousand 
 times greater than the distance of the earth 
 from the sun ; that is to say, twenty millions 
 of millions of miles ; so that a telegram from 
 the earth would be thirty six years in reach- 
 ing one of them, supposing there was nothing 
 to hinder its free transmission thither. As 
 light takes about eight minutes and a quarter 
 to reach us from the sun, it would be three 
 and one-half years in coming from one of 
 these stars; yet the calculations of later 
 astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, 
 that their light must take centuries before it 
 can reach us, and the light by which we now 
 see these started on its journey three or four 
 hundred years ago. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, a great theological cham- 
 pion in the fourth century, was born about 
 296. He was an active member of the coun- 
 cil of Nice. His rising fame led to his eleva- 
 tion to the see of Alexandria, upon the death 
 of his patron, Bishop Alexander. He was 
 immediately involved in contests with the 
 Arians concerning the divinity of Christ, that 
 ended only with his life. Deposed most 
 unjustly in 335, he was reinstated in 338. 
 Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 
 342. The unscrupulous charges of his foes 
 he refuted with overwhelming proof and 
 eloquence. But in 355 he was again sen- 
 tenced to be banished, when he retired to the 
 deserts, till again he was welcomed back to 
 the Egyptian capital.* Once more, Julian the 
 apostate exiled him, and once more he was 
 restored. A fifth time was he banished by 
 
 the Emperor Yalens, who soon recalled him, 
 however, and Athanasius, after holding the 
 primacy for the long space of forty-six years, 
 passed into peace in 373. He was a man of 
 devout life, an orator of ready and forcible 
 eloquence, and a prelate of heroic and inde- 
 fatigable activity. 
 
 ATHENS. The early period of Athenian 
 history is so far beyond our ken. as to be but 
 dimly discerned. It is not till the time of 
 Solon that the story becomes definite. Some- 
 thing is said of Ogyges, who reigned in 
 Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then 
 called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place 
 (by some supposed to be no other than the 
 great flood), that laid waste the land, and so 
 it remained until the arrival .of Cecrops and 
 his colony, by whom it was peopled, 1556 
 b.c. Originally Athens was called from its 
 founder, Cecropia, but in time his name was 
 only retained by the citadel, the Acropolis, 
 while the Greek name of Minerva (Athena) 
 was applied to the city. The position of 
 Athens is peculiar, and the surrounding 
 scenery luxuriant and interesting. The blue 
 Saronic Gulf, so often swept by victorious 
 navies, the opposite shore of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, the rocky steep of the Acropolis, and 
 the beauty of the surrounding plains, are 
 prominent features in a landscape which 
 antiquity has made interesting, and fame 
 immortal. Nor were the natural beauties of 
 the scene its chief recommendation. Art 
 here successfully vied with nature, and erec- 
 tion of most noble edifices bore witness to 
 the taste, industry, skill, and public spirit of 
 the Athenians. Cecrops, the founder of 
 Athens, was an Egyptian, skilled in the arts 
 of his countrymen, and possessing more than 
 their customary enterprise; he founded the 
 kingdom of Athens, dividing the country into 
 twelve districts, over which he ruled for a 
 long time with the title of king. He insti- 
 tuted the senate called the Areopagus, which 
 met upon a hill in the vicinity of the citadel, 
 dedicated to Mars. This court acquired an 
 active influence in the affairs of government. 
 To it the examination of the laws and state 
 of public morals was committed, while crimes 
 against religion and the state, required its 
 peculiar attention. In 1498 b.c., Amphic- 
 tyon, one of the successors of Cecrops, 
 established the Amphictyonic council, an 
 
 ATH 
 
78 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 THE HILL OF THE AREOPAGUS. 
 
 assembly which ultimately attained a high 
 degree of celebrity. At first they assembled 
 at Delphi, where was the oracle of Apollo, 
 but finally at Anthela, a village in the vicinity 
 of the famous Thermopylae. 
 
 To both of these monarchs the Athenians 
 owed much. If Cecrops softened the man- 
 ners of the inhabitants of Attica, taught them 
 how to clothe their lands with the verdure of 
 the olive and the vine, and instructed them in 
 the love of order, the worship of the gods, 
 the rites of Hymen, and those of sepulture, 
 Amphictyon strengthened and secured the 
 advantages which his subjects had begun to 
 reap. No longer they feared the incursions 
 of predatory neighbors, but sat in the shade 
 of their vineyards, enjoying the happiness 
 which security and peace bestow. Theseus 
 was the greatest warrior among these early 
 kings of Athens. He is said to have united 
 in one confederation the hitherto independ- 
 ent twelve states of Attica founded by Ce- 
 crops. Codrus was the last of the line. In 
 a battle with the Hcraclidae, 1068 b.c., he 
 sought and found death, for the oracle had 
 promised that victory should rest with the 
 side whose leader was slain. The govern- 
 ment assumed a republican form. The 
 
 change was but in # name, for the archon had 
 nearly all the power of the king, whose 
 place in the state he filled. The archon was 
 orginally chosen for life. After a lapse of little 
 more than three centuries, the term of office 
 was curtailed to ten years, and less than a 
 century afterward, the number of archons 
 was increased to nine, and they served for a 
 term of one year only. 
 
 Originally all the Grecian states had a 
 regal government, which was abolished in 
 consequence of the tyranny of the various 
 princes, and supplanted by republican forms. 
 Recovering their liberty at an early period, 
 the Greeks acquired that love of freedom 
 which characterized them throughout their 
 long career, and it was only when luxury 
 and wealth had banished the temperate and 
 unostentatious life of their ancestors, that 
 the Greeks found themselves unable to con- 
 tend against the encroachments of hostile 
 power, and fell beneath the arnis of more 
 enterprising rivals. The rivalry of Athens 
 and Sparta produced, together with much 
 good, an infinity of evil. The Spartans were 
 of a sterner cast than the Athenians, and 
 even more distinguished for their love of 
 freedom and their invincible courage. They 
 
 ATH 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 79 
 
 despised those triumphs of the arts which 
 the Athenians made their glory, and relied 
 for fame on stern contempt of the elegan- 
 ces and the common comforts of life. 
 
 What their Lycurgus was to them, Solon 
 was to the Athenians. Solon was one of 
 those great characters whom their country- 
 men regard with veneration for ages, and 
 whose memory they recall even in the midst 
 of oppression, and the darkness of disgrace ; 
 one of those rare spirits whose virtues and 
 self-possession are most conspicuous when 
 most needed, and whose knowledge, like the 
 lamp of the glow-worm, shines brightest 
 when the darkness is most heavy. At a 
 time (b.c. 594-578) when the turbulence and 
 ambition of the archons threatened the Athe- 
 nians with a multitude of evils, all eyes 
 were turned upon Solon, as the pilot who 
 alone could guide the vessel of state through 
 the rocks and surges that surrounded it. He 
 was at once created archon extraordinary 
 with unlimited power, for his high character 
 and calm demeanor inspired confidence among 
 the people he was destined to assist. Solon 
 introduced a mild code of laws, in opposi- 
 tion to that of Draco, his predecessor in legis- 
 lation, whose appalling severity had raised 
 him many enemies. The government was 
 placed in the hands of a senate of four hun- 
 dred members chosen by the people. After 
 an acquittal of their debts, the people were 
 divided into four classes. The members of 
 the three first classes were eligible to office, 
 while those of the fourth, whose poverty was 
 thought to incapacitate them from serving, 
 were yet allowed the privilege of voting in 
 the popular assemblies. The power of the 
 commonwealth was vested in these assem- 
 blies, but there was a restrictive influence in 
 the senate. 
 
 Whatever merit we may be disposed to 
 allow the constitution of Solon, framed as it 
 was at a very early period, it was much 
 too artificial to be permanently successful. 
 Solon lived to see this. During his retire- 
 ment from Athens, factions disturbed the 
 peace of the people, and Solon, after having 
 vainly endeavored to stem the current, re- 
 tired to the isle of Cyprus, where he died, 
 b.c. 560. A change of government was 
 effected by Pisistratus, a popular but am- 
 bitious man, who headed the poorer class of 
 
 people (a class who considered themselves 
 peculiarly oppressed by the constitution of 
 Solon) and gamed possession of the supreme 
 power. The plans of the usurper possessed 
 plausibility and brilliancy. His benevolence 
 was undoubted; he governed with equity 
 and moderation. At his death Pisistratus 
 bequeathed his power to his two sons, Hip- 
 parchus and Kippias, who, for a long time, 
 by a liberal patronage of the arts and of 
 learned men, gave a brilliancy to their admin- 
 istration which was unhappily not destined to 
 endure. Among the most brilliant ornaments 
 of the court was Anacreon, the elegant though 
 effeminate poet of love and wine. The cru- 
 elty of Hippias at length roused the spirit of 
 the Athenians, who broke forth into an open 
 revolt, in which Hipparchus was slain, and 
 Hippias banished. Pisistratus and his sons 
 governed under the title of tyrants, a term 
 at that time not necessarily implying an 
 abuse of power. They held the tyranny for 
 thirty-six years, during which time we may 
 naturally infer that all tendency toward a 
 democratical form of government was sup- 
 pressed, but under their rule the arts began 
 to flourish. Upon the downfall of Hippias, 
 two factions contended for the mastery in 
 Athens; the one headed by Cleisthenes, of 
 the aristocratical family of the Alcmseonidae, 
 the other by Isagoras, son of Tisander. Cle- 
 isthenes effected some changes in the laws of 
 Solon, increasing the number of the divis- 
 ions of the people to ten, and of the members 
 of the senate to five hundred, and by these 
 and other measures he gained the favor of the 
 Athenians. His rival called in the aid of 
 Cleomenes, the mad king of Lacedaemon. 
 But Cleomenes was baffled, his allies the 
 Boeotians and Chalcidians defeated by the 
 Athenians, and the territory of Chalcis in the 
 fertile isle of Euboea colonized by four thou- 
 sand Athenians. Athens lent some aid to 
 the Ionian Greeks, who were in revolt against 
 Darius. Hippias had finally sought refuge 
 at the Persian court, and when the Athenian 
 force burned Sardis he easily excited the 
 hostility of Darius against the city of his 
 former rule. But the bravery of the Athe- 
 nians was not wasted in words, and they 
 joined against the invaders with heart and 
 hand. When the heralds of Darius came 
 with the insolent demand of earth and water, 
 
 ATH 
 
80 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the usual signs of submission, they were 
 seized and thrown, the one into a ditch and 
 the other into a well, whence they were con- 
 temptuously told to satisfy their wants. The 
 troops of Darius entered Attica, encamping 
 at Marathon, a small town unon the sea-coast. 
 Against an army of 500,000 horse and foot, 
 the brave Miltiades led forth a band of 10,000 
 Athenians, who were victorious in the most 
 sacred of causes, 490 b.c. Ten years after- 
 ward when Xerxes poured his forces into 
 Greece, the Athenians, under Themistocles, 
 were triumphant, and the victory of Salamis 
 bore witness to the terrible energy and roused 
 spirit of freemen. Yet it is painful to mark the 
 fickleness and ingratitude of the Athenians. 
 One would think that while Marathon was 
 remembered, the services of Miltiades could 
 not be forgotten. Yet the noble Athenian, in 
 consequence of misfortune, was thrown into 
 a prison where he perished. Aristides, whose 
 virtue procured him the surname of “the 
 just,” w T as banished by ostracism, without 
 any adequate cause. The practice of ostra- 
 cism was so called, because the citizens wrote 
 upon a tile or shell (ostrakori) the names of 
 those who were obnoxious to them. The 
 shells being counted, the person whose name 
 occurred most frequently, was banished. 
 Themistocles was also persecuted and forced 
 to seek refuge at the Persian court ; yet so 
 fond was he of his ungrateful country, that 
 rather than serve against her, he killed him- 
 self. It was men like these who reflected a 
 lustre on the Athenian name. 
 
 Xerxes in his march through Attica had 
 entered Athens. After his defeat at Salamis 
 he hastily retreated into Asia, leaving his 
 general Mardonius with 300,000 men. Mar- 
 donius re-entered Athens, applied the torch, 
 and reduced the city almost utterly to ruins. 
 His defeat at Plataea, b.c. 479, by the com- 
 bined Greeks, rid the land of its invaders. 
 
 When the Persians, humbled to the dust, 
 no longer had the audacity to threaten Greece, 
 the glory of the Athenians brightened, day 
 by day. The people saw with delight the 
 extension of their privileges. All orders, 
 feeling the benefit of equal institutions, lab- 
 ored in common for the aggrandizement of 
 their country. Members of all classes were 
 now made eligible to office, and the poor felt 
 that they stood upon an equal footing with 
 
 the rich, and rpight, by exertion, rise superior 
 to them. The period from the close of the 
 Persian war, b.c. 479, to the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, b.c. 431, includes days of un- 
 common splendor in the history of Athens. 
 The naval supremacy of Attica arose. Cimon 
 and Pericles introduced elegance into Athens, 
 and the age of the latter is commonly quoted 
 as the golden era of the country. The arts 
 under his liberal patronage, flourished to a 
 great degree. In his time, that glorious tem- 
 ple to Minerva, the most perfect example of 
 Grecian art, the Parthenon, was erected. 
 Magnificent temples sprang up in every direc- 
 tion, the marble breathed, the pencil glowed, 
 and the lips of the orator and poet were gifted 
 with kindling eloquence. To this age belong 
 the tragic verse of iEschylus, the lofty dramas 
 of Sophocles and Euripides, and the biting 
 satire of Aristophanes. In this time, too, 
 Herodotus read his history publicly in the 
 Athenian council. Yet, in the midst of much 
 apparent prosperity, the foundation of mis- 
 fortune was laid. The abundance of wealth 
 was not without deteriorating influence, and 
 the Athenians became so enamored of the 
 elegances of life, that they began to prefer 
 them to manliness and independence. Peri- 
 cles was at the zenith of his greatness b.c. 
 444. He engaged in the Peloponnesian war, 
 b.c. 431, the end of which, after twenty-seven 
 years, was that the Lacedaemonians, ever 
 more hardy if not more brave than the ele- 
 gant Athenians, made themselves masters of 
 Athens, and granted peace to the vanquished 
 on the most humiliating conditions. For 
 eight months the Athenians groaned under 
 the yoke of the thirty magistrates, or, as 
 they were called, the thirty tyrants, whom 
 the Lacedaemonians imposed upon them, and 
 kept under the protection of their garrison. 
 The man who led to the overthrow of this 
 oppression, was Thrasybulus. Again the 
 star of Athens rose to the zenith, bright as 
 if no cloud had ever covered it and hid its 
 silvery brilliancy beneath a veil. The Athe- 
 nians joined the Thebans against Sparta and 
 were successful. They were yet to feel, 
 however, the importance of a power hitherto 
 unacknowledged or despised. Philip of Mac- 
 edon descended from the north. In vain did 
 Demosthenes urge the Athenians to die in 
 defense of their liberty. In vain did this 
 
 ATH 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 81 
 
 extraordinary man hurl his tremendous anath- 
 emas against Philip. He was doomed to see 
 the subjugation of his countrymen. Philip 
 was neither daunted by eloquence, nor re- 
 pulsed by bravery. The battle of Cheronaea, 
 b.c. 338, struck a death-blow to Grecian 
 liberty. Athens remained, with the other 
 states of Greece, dependent upon the Mace- 
 donian power for existence. She did not 
 sink without a struggle, but all her struggles 
 were of no avail against the giant power 
 which had prostrated her, and fettered her 
 with bonds of adamant. 
 
 When Athens was taken by Cassander 
 (b.c. 317), the oligarchy was restored, and 
 Demetrius Phalerius, upheld by a Macedo- 
 nian garrison, enjoyed the office of governor 
 of the state for ten years. The Athenians 
 entreated the assistance of Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, who, having taken the city, restored 
 the form of the ancient constitution. To this 
 dissolute ruler the corrupt Athenians paid 
 the honors due only to the gods ; temples were 
 erected to his mistresses ; nor did the abode 
 of the Virgin Goddess herself, on the Acrop- 
 olis, escape desecration from the unbridled 
 licentiousness of the time. Demetrius was 
 overthrown, 287 b.c. Antigonus Gonatas of 
 Macedon conquered the Athenians, 268 b.c. 
 After twelve years under his yoke they were 
 delivered by Aratus, and joined the Achaean 
 league. The Romans gladly availed them- 
 selves of the co-operation of the Athenians 
 against the last Philip of Macedon. After 
 having drawn down upon themselves the 
 vengeance of Rome by espousing the side of 
 Mithridates, 88 b.c., the Athenians trembled 
 for the consequences. Sylla took their city, 
 b.c. 86, and the show of liberty which it after- 
 ward retained, was but a bitter mockery. 
 Yet under the Romans, Athens continued to 
 be the centre of the arts, of philosophy, and 
 of all the learning of the time. Vespasian 
 made Athens a Roman province, and it was 
 included in the empire of the east, after the 
 division of the Roman empire. But it was 
 destined to feel the terror of that power 
 beneath which the queen of cities was pros- 
 trated to the dust. Alaric the Goth, a.d. 
 396, conquered and devastated the country. 
 From this period, the liberty of Athens ex- 
 isted but in the recollection of the past. In 
 420, paganism was abolished in Athens, and 
 6 
 
 the Parthenon converted into a church of the 
 Virgin Mary. In 1456, the Turks gained 
 possession of the city. A black eunuch held 
 the place which Pericles once adorned, and 
 the Parthenon, no longer a Christian church, 
 was forced to answer as a mosque. In 1687, 
 the Venetians besieged Athens, and some of 
 the works of the immortal Phidias, the sculp- 
 tor, were destroyed by the explosion of a 
 magazine, fired by' a bomb thrown into the 
 Parthenon by the besiegers. On the 29tA 
 of September, Athens came into the hands oi 
 the Venetians, after its inhabitants had suf- 
 fered severely from the siege, but was again 
 relinquished to the Turks in 1688. From the 
 erection of many barbaric structures, some 
 of the most valuable remains of antiquity 
 have been covered and concealed, to be 
 brought to light by the researches of the 
 curious of later days. From the Turks, 
 the Greeks of Athens experienced a milder 
 treatment than many of their brethren, and 
 were permitted to retain many of their an- 
 cient observances. In 1822, the Acropolis 
 sustained a long siege, which was terminated 
 by its falling into the hands of the patriots. 
 News of this was heard with delight by all 
 the Greeks, who loved their country, and 
 rejoiced to behold 
 
 “ The flag of freedom wave once more 
 
 Above the lofty Parthenon.” 
 
 When at last Grecian independence was 
 established, Athens was made the capital of 
 the new kingdom. 
 
 ATHOS, a mountain of ancient Macedonia, 
 now Agion-oros, or Monte Santo, in the Turk- 
 ish province of Saloniki. On its sides are 
 many hermitages, and twenty monasteries, 
 with over eight thousand monks, chiefly Rus- 
 sians and Greeks, of the order of St. Basil. 
 No female, even of the animal kind, is allowed 
 to enter the peninsula on which the holy 
 mountain stands. Some of the monasteries 
 are said to contain very ancient and valuable 
 manuscripts. Not long since, a manuscript 
 of the eighth century, a translation of the Bi- 
 ble into the Georgian language by St. Euphe- 
 mius, was discovered here. The summit of 
 this mountain is about 6,350 feet above the 
 level of the sea. At the foot of it, Xerxes 
 caused a trench a mile and a half long, to be 
 cut and filled with sea-water. This was for 
 
 ATH 
 
82 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 * 
 
 the passage of his fleet, and of such width that 
 two ships could sail abreast. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN. There is not in the 
 multitude of natural wonders, a more sublime 
 spoctacle than that afforded by the world of 
 waters, under whatever view it is contempla- 
 ted. Impressive and: beautiful it is, when 
 stretched out in the tranquil repose of an un- 
 broken calm, reflecting the still splendor of 
 the heavens by day, or their diamond bril- 
 liancy by night. Far as the eye can reach, 
 there is hardly a ripple on the wave, and at 
 the horizon, the azure of the air and that of 
 the ocean join in the bridal of the sea and sky. 
 Yet more impressive is the aspect of the deep 
 sea in a tempest; when the elements are 
 awakened from their slumber, and abroad in 
 their terrible strength, and the wild winds of 
 heaven sport with gigantic mountains of wa- 
 ter, heaving them to and fro, with the ease of 
 zephyrs sporting with dew-drops. 
 
 The formation of the bed of the Atlantic, 
 from latitude 20° S., up to the north pole, 
 has been ascribed to the concussion of im- 
 mense masses of water, produced by the del- 
 uge, when, it is conceived, the waters of the 
 great southern ocean below the equator, 
 rushed upon the northern hemisphere. From 
 Cape Frio to the river of the Amazons, in 
 South America, there is a vast protuberance 
 answering to the incurvation of the African 
 shore from the river of Congo to Cape Palmas ; 
 while, from the Straits of Gibraltar to Cape 
 Palmas, there is an immense protuberance, 
 corresponding to the incurvation between 
 New York and Cape St. Roque. This con- 
 jecture is thought probable, since the depres- 
 sion caused by such an immense body of wa- 
 ter could not be otherwise than enormous, 
 considering the shock and weight of the op- 
 posing bod} r . 
 
 Until the successful issue of the voyages of 
 Columbus, it was imagined that there was 
 one unbroken extent of water between the 
 western shores of Europe and Africa, and the 
 East Indies ; and the great navigator himself 
 imagined that he had reached the Indian 
 realms, by a shorter route than that pursued 
 by the Portuguese. The name of the Atlantic 
 Ocean is connected with a tradition which is 
 lost in the night of antiquity, and which, 
 reaching the Greeks from the Egyptians, has 
 been commemorated by Plato. It was said 
 
 that there originally existed an isle called At- 
 lantis, which rose from the bosom of the 
 ocean, and surpassed in extent Asia and Libya 
 together. Plato’s testimony has caused a 
 controversy among modern authors respecting 
 the situation and nature of Atlantis. Of 
 course, it is impossible to determine the situ- 
 ation of an isle which existed before the ages 
 of history, but still shall we disregard the 
 truth of the tale? What interest had the 
 Greeks in imagining a fable, which bore no 
 relation to their history, and which was not 
 calculated to affect their religious belief? 
 Why should the Greeks have adopted it? 
 “ The islanders,” says Plato, “ subdued Libya, 
 Egypt, and Europe, as far as Asia Minor ; at 
 last, Atlantis was swallowed by the waters, 
 and for a long time afterward, the sea was 
 full of earth and sand-banks, in the vicinity of 
 the place which the island had occupied.” 
 This last passage proves the existence of a 
 tradition of a terrible outbreak of the waters 
 of the Atlantic Ocean, which overwhelmed 
 Atlantis. 
 
 The depth of the Atlantic is various, being 
 in some parts unfathomable. Its saltness and 
 specific gravity diminish gradually from the 
 equator to the poles. Near the British islands, 
 the salt is said to be one thirty-eighth of the 
 weight of the water. The temperature of the 
 Atlantic is influenced, considerably, by the 
 masses of ice which float from the northward 
 toward the equator, reaching frequently the 
 fortieth degree of latitude. Dangerous as are 
 these icebergs to the mariner, they yet pre- 
 sent a splendid appearance as they float on- 
 ward to southern latitudes, gleaming in the 
 sunbeams, which, while they impart dazzling 
 brilliancy, hasten the dissolutionof thefloating 
 masses. The continual melting gives a very 
 fanciful appearance to the icebergs, which is 
 heightened by the rivulets pouring from point 
 to point, like the streams trickling down a 
 cavern of stalactites. Passages between North 
 America and Europe ir\ the months of June 
 and July, are sometimes rendered perilous by 
 the frequency of icebergs from the northward. 
 
 Much important information concerning the 
 currents and winds of the Atlantic has been 
 gained by the observations planned and di- 
 rected by Lieut. Maury. The waters of the 
 tropical seas have a westward motion, known 
 as the equatorial current. This oceanic stream 
 
 ATL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 83 
 
 flows from the African coast to Cape St. Roque, 
 where dividing, one branch sets southward 
 along the coast of Brazil, while the larger 
 branch rushes impetuously along the shore 
 of Guiana, and through the Caribbean Sea. 
 The Gulf Stream, the most famous of all the 
 Atlantic currents, is described in a separate 
 article. A powerful current takes its start 
 from the sea between Ireland and Spain, and 
 sweeps down the African coast as far as the 
 shores of Guinea. The Arctic current has its 
 origin in the polar seas of the north, skirts 
 the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, and off 
 the banks of Newfoundland is bifurcated by 
 the Gulf Stream. The forks continue south- 
 ward in deep submarine currents. These 
 are the great arteries of the Atlantic. The 
 heart of the ocean never ceases to beat. A 
 strong current, far down in the depths of the 
 sea, is supposed to flow from the Atlantic into 
 the Arctic seas. Lieut. Maury tells us of a 
 Grassy (Sargasso) Sea, midway the Atlantic, 
 in the triangular space between the Azores, 
 Canaries, and Cape Y erde Islands. Covering 
 an area equal in extent to the Mississippi val- 
 ley, it is so thickly matted over with gulf- 
 weed that the speed of vessels passing through 
 it is often much retarded. The comrades of 
 Columbus thought it marked the limits of 
 navigation, and were much alarmed. Patches 
 of the weed are always to be seen floating 
 along the Gulf Stream. Now, if bits of cork 
 be put into a basin, and a circular motion 
 given to the water, they will be found crowding 
 near the centre of the pool, where there is 
 the least motion. Such a basin is the Atlantic 
 to the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea is 
 the centre of the whirl. Columbus found this 
 grassy sea, and there it is at this day. 
 
 The steady easterly breezes that prevail 
 within the tropics are known as trade-winds. 
 Without this region the winds are variable, 
 but generally westerly. In the latitude of 
 the equator and of the two tropics, calms pre- 
 vail. Those of the tropic of Cancer have long 
 been known as the ‘horse latitudes,’ from 
 the fact that vessels carrying horses from New 
 England to the West Indies were often be- 
 calmed here till their water was almost ex- 
 hausted, and some of the cargo must be thrown 
 overboard, to save the remainder. By taking 
 advantage of the prevailing winds and cur- 
 rents, voyages have been almost incredibly 
 
 shortened, and the old adage made true, that 
 “ the longest way round is the shortest way 
 home.” 
 
 ATLAS is the historical and geographical 
 name of the extensive mountain system whose 
 ranges, branches, and table-lands cover the 
 north-west of Africa, and form a barrier be- 
 tween the Barbary states and the sands of the 
 Sahara. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Francis, Bishop of Roches- 
 ter, an eloquent English preacher, born in 
 1662, arrested on a charge of conspiracy in 
 favor of the Stuarts, 1722 ; died in exile, 1732. 
 
 ATTICA, a country of ancient Greece, is a 
 peninsula, united with Boeotia toward the 
 north, and partially with Megaris on the west. 
 At Cape Sunium (now Colonna), it projects 
 far into the ^Egean Sea. [Nee Athens.] At- 
 tica was once famous for its gold and silver 
 mines, which constituted the best part of the 
 public revenues, and were worked by twenty 
 thousand men. The inhabitants were num- 
 bered, in the sixteenth Olympiad, at 31,000 
 citizens, and 400,000 slaves, in a hundred and 
 seventy-four villages, some of which were 
 considerable towns. The fragrance and abun- 
 dance of flowers in Attica made the mountain 
 slopes of Hymettus famous for their honey. 
 
 ATTILA, king of the Huns, ravaged Europe 
 between 434 and 453. He rendered the Greek 
 empire tributary, and invaded Gaul, but was 
 defeated on the Maine. He threatened Rome, 
 but was induced by a vast ransom to retire. 
 Attila was given to excess, and died from the 
 bursting of a blood-vessel on the night of his 
 nuptials with the beautiful Ildico, 453. His 
 body was put in three coffins, the outer of 
 iron, the next of silver, and the inner one of 
 gold. His personal appearance has been de- 
 scribed by Jornandes. He had a large head, 
 a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short, mis- * 
 shapen body. The dread inspired by this 
 fierce warrior, at the head of hundreds of 
 thousands of barbarians, gained him the sur- 
 names of the ‘ terror of the world ’ and the 
 ‘ scourge of God.’ 
 
 AUDUBON, John James, born in Louisiana 
 1782, died Jan.* 27th, 1851. His life was de- 
 voted to ornithology, and his great work, 
 
 “ The Birds of America,” was pronounced by 
 Cuvier, “ the most gigantic and most magnif- 
 icent monument ever erected to Nature.” 
 His parentage was French, and in youth he 
 
 AUD 
 
84 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 enjoyed the tuition of the great painter David. 
 His love of nature led him to the forest, and 
 he had crowded portfolios with drawings of 
 birds long before he had any thought of pub- 
 lishing. “ The Birds of America ” was a costly 
 publication. There were one hundred and 
 seventy -five subscriptions of a thousand dol- 
 lars each, eighty of which were obtained in 
 this country, and the remainder in Europe. 
 The work was issued in Edinburgh. 
 
 AUERSTADT. In this bloody conflict be- 
 tween the French and Prussian armies, Oct. 
 14th, 1806, they were commanded by their 
 respective sovereigns, and Napoleon gained a 
 decisive victory. The Prussians, routed on 
 every side, lost two hundred pieces of cannon, 
 thirty standards, and 28,000 prisoners, leaving 
 80,000 slain upon the field. Napoleon at once 
 entered Berlin. 
 
 AUGEREAU, Pierre Francois Charles, 
 Duke of Castiglione, was one of those men 
 who emerged from obscurity, and obtained a 
 high rank among the officers that surrounded 
 Napoleon, giving such unrivaled brilliancy to 
 his court and camp. Augereau was the son 
 of a fruit-merchant, and was born at Paris, 
 1757 ; serving, as soon as he was able, as a 
 carbineer in the French army. Having sub- 
 sequently entered the Neapolitan service, he 
 was banished from Naples, in 1792. He then 
 served as a volunteer in the army of Italy, 
 and attracted attention by his bravery and 
 military talent. In 1794, we find him a gen- 
 eral of brigade, and, in 1796, general of divis- 
 ion. He distinguished himself, at the pass 
 of Millesimo, at Lodi, at Castiglione, at Ar- 
 eola, &c. In 1799, he was chosen member of 
 the council of five hundred. He was intrusted 
 by Bonaparte with the command of the army 
 in Holland, joined Moreau, and fought with 
 varying fortune, until the campaign was ended 
 by the battle of Ilohenlinden. In 1803, he 
 was appointed to head the expedition against 
 Portugal, which enterprise failed. Returning 
 to Paris, he was named, in 1804, marshal of 
 the empire, and grand officer of the legion of 
 honor and the next year, Duke of Castiglione. 
 In 1805, he was in Germany, contributing to 
 the successes of the French. Wounded in 
 the battle of Eylau, he was forced to return 
 to France. In 1811, he had a command in 
 Spain. Tn 1813, he was engaged in the battle 
 of Leipsic. After the success of the allies, 
 
 Louis XVIII. named him a peer. In conse- 
 quence of his speaking disrespectfully of Na- 
 poleon after his fall, the latter, on his return 
 from Elba, declared him a traitor, although 
 Augereau had again acknowledged him as 
 emperor. Augereau took no active part in 
 affairs until the return of the king, when he 
 resumed his seat in the chamber of peers. He 
 died of the dropsy, June 11th, 1816. 
 
 AUGSBURG, Battle of. Between the 
 Austrians and the French, the latter com- 
 manded by Moreau, who gained a victory so 
 decisive, that Augsburg and Munich were 
 opened to him ; fought Aug. 24th, 1796. Mo- 
 reau, Sept. 2d, again defeated the Austrians 
 on the Inn, and again Sept. 7th, at Mainburg. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Bishop of Hippo, eminent 
 among the church fathers, was born in Nu- 
 midia, a.d. 354. In early life he was loose, 
 roving, and sensual, but he was rescued for 
 a higher existence by the influence of his 
 mother, Monica, and the preaching of St. Am- 
 brose. When Hippo was menaced by the 
 Vandals, the good bishop died in the third 
 month of the siege, at the ripe age of seventy- 
 six. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St., has been sur- 
 named the Apostle of the English. The 
 time at which he flourished, was the reign of 
 Ethelbert, toward the close of the sixth cen- 
 tury. Ethelbert was then seated on the 
 throne of Kent, to which he had succeeded on 
 the death of his father Hermenric, about 560. 
 After a determined struggle, he had mastered 
 all the states of the heptarchy, with the 
 exception of Northumberland. Ethelbert 
 formed a matrimonial alliance with France, 
 claiming in marriage the hand of Bertha, a 
 Christian princess, from her father, Caribert, 
 king of Paris. The princess, distinguished 
 for her piety and virtue, exacted a promise 
 from her husband that she should not be 
 molested in the enjoyment of her religion, 
 and that, on the contrary, she should be per- 
 mitted to bring over to England with her a 
 French bishop. Ethelbert, who was tenderly 
 attached to her, made no objections, and 
 the French bishop was received with every 
 mark of respect. The conduct of the queen 
 was such as to reflect honor on herself and 
 the court of her husband, and excited the 
 admiration of Ethelbert and his subjects. 
 The king could not but perceive the salutary 
 
 AUG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 85 
 
 influence of Christianity, and was strongly 
 prepossessed in its favor. Pope Gregory 
 the Great received the intelligence of the 
 favorable disposition of the king with un- 
 feigned gladness, and dispatched a mission of 
 forty monks, headed by Augustin, a.d. 596. 
 
 Augustin found the king ready to lend a 
 willing ear to his arguments, and displayed 
 in a striking and happy light the truth and 
 beauty of the gospel. The king was not 
 long in avowing his belief in the doctrines of 
 Christianity. With his subjects, Augustin 
 was no less successful ; they embraced the 
 true religion with readiness, and crowded to 
 baptism. It is said that Augustin baptized 
 no fewer than ten thousand in one day. He 
 desired to be made Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 with supreme authority over all the churches 
 in England. The pope was by no means dis- 
 posed to refuse any of his requests, consider- 
 ing that he had fairly earned any distinction 
 which it was in papal power to bestow. The 
 archiepiscopal pall was granted him, with 
 permission to establish twelve sees in the 
 province. The British bishops in Wales 
 refused to acknowledge the authority of the 
 church of Rome, under whose jurisdiction 
 they had never placed themselves. They 
 were descendants of the British converts 
 of the second century, and sternly resolved 
 to maintain their independence. Augustin 
 urged, then threatened. The bishops were 
 neither pliant nor timid, and adhered to their 
 original determination. A dreadful tragedy 
 was acted, twelve hundred Welsh monks 
 being ruthlessly put to the sword. Augus- 
 tin was suspected not only of having sanc- 
 tioned, but of having instigated the massacre. 
 He had been irritated by the refusal of the 
 Welsh ecclesiastics to unite with the English 
 church, and he thought their contumacy de- 
 serving of the severest punishment. He died 
 in 604 or 614, and his relics were deposited 
 in the Cathedral of Canterbury. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Caius Julius Oesar Octa- 
 vius, son of Caius Octavius and Accia, niece 
 of Julius Caesar, was born during the consul- 
 ate of Cicero, 63 years b.c. His education 
 was carefully attended to, and he was adopted 
 by Julius Caesar. He was studying eloquence 
 at Apollonia, when his grand-uncle was assas- 
 sinated, and at nineteen years of age, placing 
 himself at the head of the veterans, he 
 
 marched to Rome, which he found distracted 
 by the republicans and the followers of Antony 
 and Lepidus. Here he announced publicly 
 his adoption, and took his uncle’s name. An- 
 tony treated him with a contempt which the 
 magistrates and leading men were far from 
 feeling, and Octavius joined the army that 
 was sent against Antony after his proscrip- 
 tion. Thinking it politic, however, to con- 
 ciliate him, he joined Antony, and they with 
 Lepidus formed the triumvirate, which was 
 to last for five years, each enjoying an equal 
 share of authority. Octavius sacrified Cicero 
 to the malice of his associates, and Rome be- 
 came the theatre of the most sanguinary 
 tragedies. Brutus and Cassius having been 
 defeated, a new partition of spoils took place, 
 Octavius and Antony obtaining the Roman 
 empire, while Lepidus was forced to content 
 himself with the African provinces, and was 
 finally deposed. Octavius gave his sister 
 Octavia in marriage to Antony. The con- 
 duct and fate of Antony have been related. 
 [See Antony.] Octavius was soon firmly 
 established in the empire. The senate gave 
 him the title of Augustus, and, finding his 
 po wer confirmed, he seems to have endeavored 
 strenuously to render his conduct worthy of 
 his dignity. He made regulations for the 
 safe conduct of the government; reducing 
 the number of senators from a thousand to 
 six hundred, and raising the degree of wealth 
 which was to qualify them for a seat. He 
 set about the reform of the public manners 
 and morals, and carried his arms successfully 
 into Gaul, Germany, and the east. In the 
 latter part of his reign, however, he met with 
 severe losses in Germany, when Hermann 
 roused his enthralled countrymen to arms. 
 
 He died at Nola, a.d. 14, in the seventy- 
 sixth year of his age, and forty-first of his 
 reign. On the approach of death, he called 
 for a mirror, and arranged his hair. He then 
 asked those about him, if he had played his 
 part well ? On their answering in the affirm- 
 ative, he said, after the manner of the actors, 
 “ Then farewell — and applaud ! ” He greatly 
 improved the appearance of the capital, and 
 it was said, that “ he had found Rome brick, 
 and had left it marble.” He liberally patron- 
 ized men of letters, and ‘ Augustan age ’ is 
 a phrase applied to any era distinguished for 
 literature and the arts. Yirgil and Horace 
 
 AUG 
 
86 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 were among the brightest ornaments of his 
 reign. Two conspiracies formed against him 
 miscarried, Cinna, the leader of one, being 
 generously pardoned. The emperor’s private 
 griefs were heavy, and he suffered great 
 misery from the debauchery of his daughter 
 J ulia. 
 
 AURELIAN, Lucius Domitius, emperor of 
 Rome, distinguished for his military talents 
 and severity, was the son of a peasant of 
 Illyricum, born a.d. 212, and having served 
 with distinction under Valerian II. and Clau- 
 dius II., was recommended as his successor 
 by the latter, and raised to the throne to the 
 satisfaction of all. He subdued Zenobia, 
 queen of Palmyra, erected a new wall round 
 Rome, and was assassinated, a.d. 275. 
 
 AURENG-ZEBE (‘ ornament of the throne ’) 
 was born October 20th, 1619. His father, 
 Shah Jehan, succeeded to the Mogul throne 
 when Aureng-zebe was in his ninth year. 
 In youth, he was distinguished by his great 
 sanctity of appearance, and he used the arts 
 of hypocrisy to cloak his designs. He looked 
 forward to the possession of the throne of 
 Hindostan, in the life-time of his father. In 
 1658, he seized Agra, and imprisoned his 
 father. Having murdered his relatives in 
 succession, he ascended the throne in 1659, 
 and took the name of Aalem Guyr. Not- 
 withstanding his crimes in gaining the throne, 
 he governed with ability and success. He 
 greatly enlarged his dominions, and became 
 so formidable, that all the eastern princes 
 sent him ambassadors. He died at the age 
 of eighty-nine, bequeathing his possessions 
 to his sons. Wars broke out immediately 
 after his decease, and many of the conquered 
 provinces sought their former independence. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, a town of Moravia, in the 
 circle of Brunn, has been rendered famous 
 by the battle fought in its neighborhood, on 
 the 2d of December, 1805, in which the troops 
 of France, under the command of Napoleon, 
 defeated the combined forces of Russia and 
 Austria, headed by their respective emperors. 
 The combined troops amounted to 100,000 
 men, of w r hom one-fourth were Austrians; 
 while Napoleon had but 80,000, tw r enty bat- 
 talions of which, with forty pieces of artillery, 
 he kept back as a reserve. At sunrise the 
 battle began, and shortly afterward, a most 
 furious cannonade wrapped the combatants 
 
 in fire and smoke. Two hundred pieces of 
 cannon created an appalling uproar. At one 
 o’clock in the afternoon, the French were vic- 
 torious, and the Russians and Austrians 
 retreated. The French found themselves in 
 possession of forty stands of colors, and a 
 hundred and fifty pieces of cannon, while 
 twenty generals, and upward of 30,000 pris- 
 oners were taken. 
 
 An artillery officer of the Russian imperial 
 guard, having just lost his guns, met Napo- 
 leon: “Sire,” said he, “order me to be shot, 
 fori have lost my pieces.” “Young man,” 
 replied the emperor, “ I appreciate your tears ; 
 but you may have been defeated by my army 
 and yet have indisputable claims to glory.” 
 The French artillery caused a heavy loss to 
 the enemy, and Napoleon in noticing their 
 exploits, said, “Your success has given me 
 great pleasure, for I do not forget that in 
 your ranks I commenced my military career.” 
 The soldiers called this battle the day of the 
 three emperors, while Napoleon named it the 
 day of Austerlitz. The commencement of 
 the action was striking. The French empe- 
 ror, surrounded by his marshals, in brilliant 
 uniforms, refrained from giving his orders 
 until the first rays of the sun shot a splendor 
 on the scene, and the horizon became illumi- 
 nated. He then issued his orders distinctly 
 but rapidly, and the marshals parted at full 
 gallop, each to his corps. The emperor, 
 passing in front of several regiments, thus 
 addressed them : “ Soldiers ! we must finish 
 this campaign by a thunder-clap, which will 
 astound our enemies and crush their pride ! ” 
 Thousands of hats waved on bayonets, and 
 cries of “ Long live the emperor,” w ere the 
 signals of attack. “Never,” said Napoleon, 
 “w r as field of battle more dreadful.” 
 
 On the 4th of December, Napoleon had an 
 interview with the Emperor of Germany, in 
 w hich an armistice and the principal condi- 
 tions of peace w r ere agreed upon. Meanwhile, 
 the French troops having nearly surrounded 
 the retreating Russians, Savary, Napoleon’s 
 aid-de-camp, w r as dispatched to the Emperor 
 of Russia, to inform him that he could retire 
 in safety if he adhered to the capitulation, 
 retreating by stages regulated by Napoleon, 
 and would evacuate Germany and Poland. 
 “On this condition,” added Savary, “lam 
 commanded by the emperor to repair to our 
 
 AUS 
 
I 1 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACE WHERE GOLD WAS FIRST DISCOVERED IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 87 
 
 advanced posts, which have already turned 
 you, and give them his orders to protect 
 your retreat, the emperor wishing to respect 
 the friend of the first consul.” “ What guar- 
 antee must I give you ? ” “ Sire, your word.” 
 
 “ I give it.” Orders were accordingly given, 
 and the retreat of the Russians protected. 
 
 This decisive battle led to the treaty of 
 Presburg, b} 7 " which Austria confirmed the 
 independence of the Helvetic republic, aban- 
 doned the Venetian territories to the king- 
 dom of Italy, and renounced her possessions 
 in the Tyrol and Suabia. The latter, Napo- 
 leon transferred to the sovereigns of Bava- 
 ria, Wurtemburg, and Baden, in reward for 
 their aid. 
 
 AUSTRALIA is the present name of a 
 large island formerly known as New Holland, 
 lying south-east of Asia. The Dutch discov- 
 ered it in 1606. The British began the 
 transportation of convicts to Botany Bay in 
 1787, and abandoned it in 1853. The dis- 
 covery of gold has worked a startling revul- 
 
 sion in the condition of Australia. As early 
 as 1841 Sir R. I. Murchison called attention 
 to the similarity of the geological formations 
 of the mountains of Australia to those of the 
 Ural range in Russia, and asserted his belief 
 that gold must exist in Australia. In 1849, 
 a Mr. Smith informed the colonial govern- 
 ment that he had found gold, and offered to 
 make known the locality for a certain reward. 
 Smith and the government could not agree 
 upon the amount of bonus, and the matter 
 dropped till 1851, when Mr. Hargraves, who 
 had come from gold-digging in California, 
 also found gold, and disclosed the places.* 
 The colony was seized with a frenzy, and 
 almost the entire population sought the golden 
 realm. An immense emigration from Great 
 Britain ensued, and has steadily continued. 
 The precious metal has been found in profu- 
 sion, and to all appearance this golden garner 
 of ages will not be exhausted for years to 
 come. Copper, iron, lead, and coal have also 
 been found in abundance. 
 
 AUS 
 
83 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Australia is divided into the colonies of 
 New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 Western Australia, and the district of North 
 Australia. By the immigration rapidly pour- 
 ing in, and the consequent swift development 
 of its resources, Australia is in a transition 
 state which precludes a detailed description. 
 The truth to-day is far outstripped to- 
 morrow. New South Wales, occupying the 
 south-eastern portion, is the oldest colony. 
 Sydney, its capital, a city on the south shore 
 of Port Jackson, had a population of 50,000 
 in 1851. Bathurst, two hundred miles north- 
 west, is a thriving town. Victoria, or Port 
 Phillip, the most prosperous of the Australian 
 colonies, lies between New South Wales and 
 South Australia, and was first settled in 
 1885. Melbourne, its capital, is on the Yar- 
 ra-Yarra River, near the head of Port Phillip 
 Bay. It is a spacious city, the seat of ex- 
 tensive commerce, and had a population of 
 100,000 in 1852. Geelong is an important 
 port on the south-western shore of Port 
 Phillip. The discovery of the gold-fields of 
 New South Wales and Victoria checked for a 
 while the growth of South Australia, but 
 could not destroy its prosperity. Adelaide is' 
 its capital. W estern Australia, or Swan 
 
 River Settlement, is the least of the colonies. 
 Perth is its seat of government. 
 
 We have mentioned only the principal 
 towns of Australia. Myriads of villages and 
 settlements are springing from the wilderness. 
 Railroads are being constructed. The com- 
 merce is an important item in the merchandis- 
 ing of the mother country. From the fertile 
 soil excellent crops of all the common grains 
 are gained. Sheep and cattle are largely bred. 
 Nearly all the vegetables of Europe are culti- 
 vated. Australia was destitute of indigenous 
 edible fruits, but those of almost every land 
 and clime are successfully raised, and the 
 grape and olive bid fair to take rank among 
 the most valuable productions. The most 
 unfavorable characteristics of the climate are 
 the long droughts that prevail, apparently 
 every ten or a dozen years, and the sudden 
 transitions from heat to cold. In spite of 
 these, the climate in the settled parts is com- 
 monly delightful, and not unhealthy. 
 
 AUSTRIA. The Austrian empire occupies 
 nearly a twelfth of the surface of Europe. In 
 its dominions are comprised, the archduchy 
 
 of Austria and circle of Salzburg ; the duchy 
 of Styria ; ,the earldom of the Tyrol and ter- 
 ritory of Voralberg; the kingdom of Bohe- 
 mia ; the margraviate of Moravia and Austrian 
 Silesia; the kingdom of Illyria, comprising 
 Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and circle of 
 Carlstadt ; the kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- 
 meria, including the duchy of Aufschwitz 
 and Zator and the Buckowine ; the kingdom 
 of Hungary, with Sclavonia, Croatia, and the 
 military frontier ; the principality of Transsyl- 
 vania with the military frontier ; the kingdom 
 of Dalmatia ; the kingdom of Lombardy and 
 Venice ; and the territory of Cracow. These 
 have an area of 255,722 square miles, and had 
 in 1854 a population of 39,411,309. The only 
 sea-coast which this great empire possesses is 
 on the Adriatic, so that its commerce is re- 
 stricted. Vienna, on the Danube, is the capi- 
 tal of the empire, and the principal seat of 
 trade and manufactures. [See Vienna.] 
 
 The house of Hapsburg has been one of the 
 most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburg 
 was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a 
 lofty eminence in the canton of Berne. This 
 castle was the cradle as it were of the imperial 
 line of Austria, whose ancestors may be traced 
 back to the thirteenth century, when Rodolph, 
 Count of Hapsburg, was chosen to wear the 
 imperial diadem of Germany. He wrested 
 the Austrian duchy from Bohemia, and confer- 
 red its sovereignty upon his son Albert, as an 
 appendage to the Hapsburg possessions. The 
 house thus founded was much indebted for 
 its rise to power, to the good fortune of suc- 
 cessive marriages and the beauty of its daugh- 
 ters ; whence it came to be a common saying, 
 that “Venus was more favorable to it than 
 Mars.” Albert succeeded to the imperial 
 crown. This monarch deputed harsh and ty- 
 rannical governors to rule the Swiss, and, in 
 consequence of continued oppression, that 
 brave people revolted in 1307, headed by the 
 famous Tell. Frederick, son of Albert, found 
 himself forced to relinquish the empire into 
 the hands of Louis of Bavaria. The crowns 
 of Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia, were 
 united in the person of Albert II., Duke of 
 Austria, who ascended the throne, a.d. 1438. 
 Hungary and Bohemia were his by inherit- 
 ance, and the empire by universal suffrage. 
 
 The Emperor Maximilian, grandfather r f 
 Charles V., married the heiress of Burgundy, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 89 
 
 in consequence of which alliance, the Nether- 
 lands were subjected to Austria in 1477. In 
 1496, the marriage of his son Philip to the 
 heiress of Castile and Arragon, led to the 
 junction of the broad domains of Spain with 
 the already ample territories of Austria. 
 Charles V., desirous of retiring from public 
 life and passing his days in gloomy seclusion, 
 resigned the crown in 1556 ; Philip II., his 
 son, gained possession of Spain and the Neth- 
 erlands ; Ferdinand, his brother, received 
 Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, and was also 
 chosen Emperor of Germany. The house of 
 Austria was noted for its bigotry and cruel 
 intolerance. In 1570, Maximilian granted 
 liberty of conscience (a great grant in a mon- 
 arch !) to the Protestants of Austria, but 
 those in other portions of his dominions, par- 
 ticularly in Bohemia, were most cruelly per- 
 secuted. In their distress the Protestant Ger- 
 man princes finally sought the assistance of 
 the famous Gustavus Adolphus, King of Swe- 
 den. This famous warrior, the “Lion of the 
 North,” as he was called, broke upon the em- 
 pire like a whirlwind, and its very foundations 
 tottered beneath the shock. France, espous- 
 ing the cause of the Protestants, hoped thus 
 to weaken the power of Austria, and the coun- 
 try experienced no release from the tumults 
 and horrors of war, until the treaty of West- 
 phalia was signed in 1648. 
 
 The sword was idle for a time, but the war 
 with France broke out afresh during the reign 
 of Leopold I., and was continued under his 
 successor. The Turks, emboldened by suc- 
 cess, in 1688, pushed their arms into the heart 
 of the empire, and the walls of Vienna echoed 
 back the clangor of the oriental cymbals. The 
 siege of Vienna by the Turks, is a memorable 
 and impressive event. In the war of the allies 
 with France, Joseph I., son of Leopold, joined 
 with heart and hand, and acquired a share of 
 their good fortune. His queen was a daugh- 
 ter of John Frederick, Duke of Hanover. 
 Charles VI. dying without issue, on the 20th 
 of October, 1740, the extinction of the male 
 line of the house of Austria was the signal for 
 the movement of the Elector of Bavaria, to 
 contest the succession. He seized the king- 
 dom of Bohemia, was elected emperor in 1742, 
 and died in 1745. Francis of Lorraine suc- 
 ceeded to the Austrian dominions in right of 
 his queen, Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles 
 
 VI. The throne is still occupied by his de- 
 scendants. He was elected Emperor of 
 Germany in 1745, and the crown, though 
 nominally elective, descended to his suc- 
 cessors with the regularity of an hereditary 
 sovereignty. 
 
 Francis II. was crowned emperor in 1792. 
 In 1795, when the second division of Poland 
 took place, Austria received an immense ac- 
 cession of territory. In 1 797, she relinquished 
 to France her possessions in the Netherlands, 
 as well as the duchies of Milan and Mantua. 
 To compensate for this, the greater part of the 
 Venetian states was transferred to Austria. 
 The military power of France was so formid- 
 able, that even the strongest sovereignties of 
 Europe feared they should be unable to resist 
 its encroachments. The French threatened 
 to attain the empire of the world by rapid 
 strides. Involved in the wars of 1799 and 
 1805, Austria met with repeated defeats and 
 continued discomfiture. After she had lost 
 the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, 
 Ulm and Austerlitz, her Venetian possessions, 
 the Tyrol, and other territories were wrested 
 from her grasp. In 1809, Austria took the 
 field against Napoleon, but having to contend, 
 not only against the French, but against Rus- 
 sia, and the confederation of the Rhine, found 
 herself defeated, and when Bonaparte entered 
 the capital, she was compelled to relinquish 
 again immense territories. After a hopeless 
 inaction of some years, the failure of Napole- 
 on’s Russian expedition roused the Austrians 
 to arms, and the subsequent success of the 
 allied powers restored the power and splendor 
 of the Austrian empire, which gained the ad- 
 dition of some Italian territories. Of the sub- 
 ject kingdoms and states of Austria, Hungary 
 since 1563 has continued an appanage of the 
 house of Austria; Transsylvania came into 
 possession of the Austrians in 1699 ; Croatia, 
 anciently a part of Illyricum, was annexed to 
 Austria in 1540 ; Sclavonia, also anciently a 
 part of Illyricum, fell into the hands of the 
 Austrians in 1687 ; the crown of Bohemia 
 passed to the house of Austria in 1526. 
 
 In the eventful year of 1848, revolutions 
 broke out in Lombardy and Venice, in Hun- 
 gary, and in Austria proper. At first they 
 were everywhere successful : the Austrian 
 troops were driven back from Hungary and 
 Italy, and the insurgents held Vienna. Hun- 
 
 AUS 
 
90 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gary asserted its independence ; Venice united 
 itself to Sardinia ; and this vast empire seemed 
 rapidly falling to piecos. Ferdinand abdicated 
 in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph ; a lib- 
 eral constitution was proclaimed for a sop, in 
 March, 1849, and the German subjects were 
 satisfied or silenced. Radetzky conquered 
 obedience in Italy, and with the assistance of 
 Russia Hungary was crushed. In 1852 the 
 constitution of 1849 was revoked, and the 
 emperor now wields an absolute power. 
 
 The early sovereigns of Austria will be 
 found in the list of emperors of Germany. 
 Francis II. surrendered the dignity of the 
 empire, Aug. 11, 1804, and took the title of 
 Francis I., Emperor of Austria. The Austrian 
 emperor was one of the six leading members 
 of the German confederation, by virtue of his 
 sovereignty over certain states of Germany. 
 
 This Confederation after half a century 
 ceased to exist on the 14th of June, 1866. 
 Early in the year trouble began between 
 Austria and Prussia respecting the Danish 
 Duchies, which Prussia desired for the devel- 
 opment of her naval force. Austrian influ- 
 ence prevailing in the German Diet it au- 
 thorized overt measures against Prussia. The 
 very next day, June 15th, Prussia, who 
 had been girding herself for war, invaded 
 Saxony. Austria counted upon her foe being 
 as slow as herself, and relying upon her mili- 
 tary resources, thought hers would be an 
 easy victory. Her General Benedek arro- 
 gantly cast disdain upon the soldiery and 
 military science of Prussia. The armies, 
 after several small affairs, met at Gitschin on 
 the 24th of June, and at Sadowa July 3d, in 
 decisive conflict. The Austrians were thor- 
 oughly routed. The battle of Sadowa will 
 rank among the greatest of battles, there 
 being 195,000 Austrians and Saxons, and 250,- 
 000 Prussians engaged. And thus, in 19 
 days, Austria was so thoroughly broken and 
 humbled by her foe that she surrendered Von- 
 etia, lost her place and provinces in Germa- 
 ny, and her position as one of the leading 
 continental governments. Peace negotia- 
 tions were concluded August 23d, just 70 
 days after the decision of the Diet. 
 
 EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1804. Francis I. : died March 2d, 1835. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand, his son March 2d: abdicated 
 
 AZORES, or Western Islands, a group of 
 nine islands, lying in the Atlantic, about 800 
 miles west of Portugal. Population in 1843, 
 214,300. They were discovered by the Por- 
 tuguese, prior to 1439, and have ever since 
 belonged to that nation. The name w T as 
 given from the abundance of falcons ( azores ) 
 found here. When discovered by the Portu- 
 guese they were void of inhabitants. In 
 1466 these islands were presented to the 
 Duchess of Burgundy, by her brother, the 
 King of Portugal. They were colonized by 
 Germans and Flemings, who appear, however, 
 always to have acknowledged the sovereignty 
 of Portugal. The Azores are recognized at 
 sea from a great distance, by Pico, a tall 
 mountain, which, like the Peak of Teneriffe, 
 towers far above the deep, and stands a last- 
 ing landmark to mariners. The islands are 
 subject to earthquakes and volcanic erup- 
 tion, and, in 1574, St. George’s, Pico, Fayal, 
 and Terceira, although detached and distant 
 from each other, were violently convulsed. 
 The ocean overflowed from the shock, which 
 produced eighteen little islands. A similar 
 convulsion of nature occurred in July, 1638. 
 And after a commotion of six weeks, an island 
 of nearly six miles in circumference, arose 
 near St. Michael’s, but was subsequently ab- 
 sorbed. In 1720, the most horrible and tu- 
 multuous scenes occurred, and, amidst an 
 almost unequaled combination of horrors, 
 causing the death of many persons from 
 fright, an island nearly as large as that of 
 1638, emerged from its submarine birth-place. 
 The islands are supposed to rest on volcanic 
 foundations, which extend to the western 
 shores of Portugal, though the communica- 
 tion may be in many parts obstructed. In 
 1811 a volcano appeared in the sea near St. 
 Michael’s, where the water was eighty fath- 
 oms deep, throwing up an island a mile in 
 circumference. This new isle w T as called Sa- 
 brina. It gradually disappeared. Fayal is 
 frequently visited by American and European 
 ships for provisions or refitting. 
 
 • AZTECS, a race supposed to have migrated 
 from the region north of the Gulf of Califor- 
 nia, to Mexico, where they founded the ex- 
 tensive empire which was conquered by the 
 Spaniards. They were possessed of knowl- 
 edge in astronomy, architecture, sculpture, 
 and other arts of social life, and their antiq- 
 uities have been a puzzle for the learned. 
 
 in favor of his nephew, Dec. 2d, 1848. 
 1848. Francis Joseph, Dec. 2d. 
 
 AZT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 91 
 
 BAALBEC, a ruined city in Syria, forty- 
 two miles east-north-east of Beirut. The 
 name signifies ‘ the city of the sun ; ’ and 
 accordingly by the Greeks and Romans it 
 was called Heliopolis. Its origin and history 
 are obscure. By some it is conjectured to be 
 the Baalath reared by Solomon in Lebanon, 
 as mentioned in the eighth chapter of the 
 second book of Chronicles. Its ruins are 
 magnificent. 
 
 BABYLON^ a famous city of Assyria, and 
 once the greatest in the world. Its ruins 
 still exist on the banks of the Euphrates, 
 near Ilillah. Herodotus tells us that its 
 walls, three hundred and fifty feet high, and 
 eighty -seven feet thick, were cemented with 
 bitumen, and were more than sixty miles in 
 circuit. They had a hundred brazen gates, 
 and two hundred and fifty towers. Nothing 
 is left of this mighty town but rubbish and 
 desolation, among which the recent excava- 
 tions of Mr. Layard, Col. llawlinson, and M. 
 Botta, have brought to light many relics of 
 interest. According to the Mosaic record, 
 the Babylonian empire was founded by Nim- 
 rod, supposed to be the Belus of profane 
 history, 2245 b.c. After the destruction of 
 Nineveh, b.c. G04, Babylon was the metropolis 
 of the east. To this period is assigned the 
 reign of Nebuchadnezzar, under whom the 
 power of Babylon was extended over all the 
 lands between Persia and Egypt. The great 
 city was taken by Cyrus, b.c. 538, and Baby- 
 lonia became a Persian province. Alexander 
 the Great intended to make Babylon the cap- 
 ital of the vast empire which he had won in 
 war. Death forbade him, and the city never 
 again regained its prosperity. 
 
 BACIIAUMONT, Francois le Coigneux 
 de, born at Paris, 1624, died in the same 
 city, 1702. He was a counselor of parlia- 
 ment, and opposed to the court party in 
 the disturbances of 1648. He said that the 
 members of the parliament put him in mind 
 of the little boys that played with slings in 
 the street, who dispersed on the appearance 
 of a police officer, but collected as soon as he 
 was out of sight. Pleased with this compar- 
 ison, the enemies of Mazarin adopted hat- 
 bands in the form of a sling ( fronde ), and 
 .hence were denominated F rondeurs. 
 
 BACIIE, Alexander Dallas, an Amer- 
 ican philosopher, born in Philadelphia, July 
 19th, 1806. lie was educated at West Point, 
 and was graduated with the highest honors. 
 In 1825 he was made lieutenant of topograph- 
 ical engineers, and in 1827, was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the University 
 of Pennsylvania, which appointment lie held 
 until elected president of Girard College. 
 He then visited Europe for the purpose ot 
 visiting the various Universities abroad, but 
 upon his return the college net having opened, 
 he accepted the position of principal ot the 
 Philadelphia High School. In 1843, he was 
 appointed superintendent of the U. S. coast 
 survey. Under his charge this project has 
 been carried on, and its results have proved! 
 of great advantage to navigators. Papers 
 upon the coast survey contributed by Prof. 
 Baclie, may be found in the proceedings oi the 
 American Association for the Advancement 
 of Science. He died February 17th, 1867, 
 aged 61 years. 
 
 BACON, Francis, son of Sir Nicholas Ba- 
 con, lord-keeper of the great seal, was born 
 in London, Jan. 22d, 1561, and died in 1626. 
 He was entered in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, in his thirteenth year, and distin- 
 guished himself for his early proficiency in 
 the sciences. At sixteen he wrote against 
 the Aristotelian philosophy, and at nineteen 
 his work “ Of the State of Europe,” the fruit 
 of a journey in France, attracted general 
 attention from the clearness of perception and 
 maturity of judgment which it displayed. 
 At the age of twenty-eight, his legal reputa- 
 tion was such that he was appointed counsel 
 extraordinary to the queen, a post of more 
 honor than profit. Three years afterward he 
 sat in parliament. Ben Jonson highly extols 
 him as an orator. Bacon at first crouched for 
 the favor of the Cecils, till disregarded by them, 
 he attached himself to their rival, the Earl of 
 Essex, who with generous ardor strove in 
 1594 to procure him the vacant office of attor- 
 ney-general. Being unsuccessful, he soothed 
 Bacon’s regret with a gift of a fine estate. 
 Yet when Essex sank into disfavor, Bacon 
 not only abandoned him, but unnecessarily 
 appeared as counsel against him, and with 
 
 BAC 
 
92 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 barbarous ingenuity aided greatly in bringing 
 the unfortunate nobleman to the scaffold. 
 Similar baseness stains all his public career. 
 When first in parliament he made show of 
 maintaining popular rights against exactions 
 of the court. Royal frowns soon brought 
 him to his knees, and he disgraced himself 
 by servility that was unmanly for even a 
 courtier. He stood high in the good graces 
 of James I., and was knighted by him in 
 1603. His marriage was fortunate, and he 
 at length saw himself free from those pecu- 
 niary embarrassments by which he had been 
 so long shackled. 
 
 In 1613 he reached the attorney-general- 
 ship. Here he lent himself to the most arbi- 
 trary measures of the court, and even as- 
 sisted in an attempt to* extort from an old 
 clergyman, of the name of Peachham, a con- 
 fession of treason, by torturing him on the 
 rack. 
 
 In 1617 he was made lord-keeper of the 
 seals; in 1619, lord high chancellor of En- 
 gland, and Baron Verulam, and not long 
 afterward, Viscount of St. Albans. He had 
 not now the poor plea of necessity for mak- 
 ing offices and privileges venal, yet he 
 was charged with receiving bribes for his 
 decisions. Rather than submit to a trial 
 which would stamp his name with indelible 
 disgrace, he confessed his guilt, supplicated 
 the lenity of his peers, and begged to be dis- 
 missed with the loss of his office. His sen- 
 tence was severe but just. He was sentenced 
 to pay a fine of £40,000, to be imprisoned in 
 the Tower as long as the king should choose, 
 declared incapable of office, forbidden to take 
 his seat in parliament, or to show himself 
 within the verge of the court. He was soon 
 released from the Tower, but did not long 
 survive his fall. His errors sprang more 
 from weakness than from avarice or want of 
 principle, for he displayed through life a 
 strong sympathy for Virtue, if he did not 
 have firmness enough to be faithful to her 
 cause. 
 
 It is as a writer and philosopher that Lord 
 Bacon is illustrious. Walpole called him the 
 prophet of art. He examined the whole 
 circle of the sciences. In so masterly a way 
 did he expound the inductive method of 
 philosophizing, that posterity has called him 
 the father of experimental science. His 
 
 prose is among the foremost in our tongue. 
 
 He died in 1626. In his will this passage 
 was found: “My name and memory I be- 
 queath to foreign nations, and to mine own 
 country after some time be passed over.” 
 BACON, Roger, an English monk, born 
 at Ilchester in 1214. He made many discov- 
 eries in the sciences, which caused him to be 
 regarded as a sorcerer by the common people, 
 whose prejudices were espoused by the clergy, 
 against whom Bacon had openly spoken. 
 
 He was imprisoned in consequence of their 
 denunciations, and at one time, kept in com 
 finement for ten years. He died in 1292. 
 
 He had an idea of gunpowder, for he dis- 
 tinctly says in one of his works that thunder 
 and lightning could be imitated by means of 
 charcoal, sulphur, and saltpetre. Like all 
 philosophers of that day he dabbled in astrol- 
 ogy ; he discovered the polarity of the load- 
 stone ; he invented the camera-obscura and 
 the magic lantern ; and he foreshadowed the 
 invention of telescopes and spectacles, even 
 if he did not really construct the latter. He 
 was well versed in the Greek, Hebrew, and 
 Latin languages, the last of which he wrote 
 with facility and elegance, and although not 
 free from many of the prejudices of his age, 
 was altogether a very extraordinary man. 
 Many of the old English ballads and romances 
 contain accounts of the wonderful exploits 
 of Friar Bacon, who is gifted with magical 
 arts of the most tremendous nature. The 
 “Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon,” toward 
 the conclusion, informs us that Friar Bacon 
 broke his magic glass, burned his books of 
 the ‘ black art,’ devoted himself to theological 
 studies, and lived in a cell which he had 
 excavated in a church wall. “Thus lived he 
 two yeeres space in that cell, never coming 
 forth : his meat and drink he received in at 4 
 a window, and at that window he did dis- 
 course with those that came to him; his 
 grave he digged with his own nayles, and was 
 laid there when he died.” “He lived most 
 part of his life a magician, and died a true 
 Penitent Sinner, and an Anchorite.” 
 
 BACTRIANA, or Bactria, before the time 
 of Cyrus was a powerful kingdom, and gave 
 to the Persians their mythology and archi- 
 tecture. It lay between the Oxus, Scythia, 
 Mount Paropamisus, and Margiana. After 
 the destruction of the Persian monarchy, 
 
 BAG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 93 
 
 it was held by the Parthians and Scythians, 
 until they were expelled by the Huns. 
 
 BADAJOZ, the Pax Augusta of the Ho- 
 mans, a ’fortified city of Spain, on the left 
 bank of the Guadiana, contains about 12,000 
 inhabitants. It is 220 miles south-west 
 of Madrid. This important barrier fortress 
 was besieged without success by the French 
 under Kellerman and Victor, in 1808 and 
 1809. It surrendered to Soult March 11th, 
 1811. It was invested by Wellington March 
 16th, 1812, and taken by storm on the night 
 of the 6th of April. The carnage was terri- 
 ble. For two days and nights the city was 
 sacked, British generals endeavoring in vain 
 to check the atrocities of the infuriated sol- 
 diers. The fall of Badajoz forced the French 
 to a precipitate retreat from Portugal. 
 
 BADEN, a grand-duchy in the south-west 
 of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 was erected into a grand-duchy in 1806. In 
 1855 it had a population of 1,314,837, upon 
 an area of 5,712 square miles. The surface 
 of Baden is mountainous, arid it contains the 
 elevated range of the Black Forest, which 
 derives its name from the dark tint of its 
 foliage. The capital of the duchy is Karls- 
 ruhe, population 23,219. Freiburg has a 
 population of about 16,000. Its cathedral, 
 built in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, is 
 perhaps the most beautiful and perfect spe- 
 cimen of Gothic architecture in Germany. 
 The university of Freiburg, founded in 1454, 
 is famous as a school of Catholic theology. 
 Mannheim, at the junction of the Neckarand 
 the Rhine, has 25,000 inhabitants. The an- 
 cient city of Heidelberg stands on a narrow 
 ledge between wooded vine-clad hills and the 
 left bank of the Neckar, having about 16,000 
 inhabitants. It is famous for its Protestant 
 university, founded in 1386, and the oldest 
 in Germany, except that of Prague. In 1850 
 there were seventy-one professors and teach- 
 ers, and six hundred and three students. On 
 a hill overlooking the town is the vast ruin 
 of the castle where once the electors palatine 
 held their court. Here in a damp vault 
 moulders the great tun that once was kept 
 full with eight hundred hogsheads of best 
 Rhenish wine. In a picturesque valley, 
 twenty-three miles south-west of Karlsruhe, 
 lies Baden-Baden ; population 6,000. These 
 springs wore a resort for the Romans. In 
 
 [ some late years the number of visitors has 
 exceeded 14,000. The well known gaming 
 tables of this glittering haunt are farmed by 
 the grand-duke, and thence he derives a 
 handsome slice of his income. 
 
 The Catholic and Protestant faiths are 
 each sanctioned by the state, and full liberty 
 of conscience and private worship prevails. 
 The sovereign must be a Protestant. Ex- 
 ecutive and judicial powers are vested in the 
 grand-duke and a ministry of state ; the legis- 
 lative powers are shared by tho sovereign 
 with an upper and lower chamber. In 1848 
 Hecker and Struve headed an attempt to 
 establish a republic in Baden. The grand- 
 duke fled from his throne, but was restored 
 by Prussian bayonets in 1849. 
 
 BAERT, or Barth, John, was bom at Dun- 
 kirk, 1651. He was the son of a poor fisher- 
 man, but. his bravery and talents raised him 
 to the rank of commodore in the reign of 
 Louis XI Y., whose navy he greatly improved. 
 The Dutch, English, and Spanish called him 
 the French devil. “I have made you a com- 
 modore,*’ was the king’s annunciation of hB 
 promotion to Jean Baert, at Versailles. 
 “Your majesty has done well,” replied tho 
 sturdy seaman- The courtiers tittered. “ B 
 is the reply,” said Louis, “of a man whc» 
 knows his own worth-” He received a patent 
 of nobility for one of hB naval exploits, and 
 died in 1702. 
 
 BAFFIN, William, an English navigator 
 of the seventeenth century, was the first to 
 determine longitude at sea by observations of 
 the heavenly bodies. In 1616 he discovered 
 and explored the bay which bears his name. 
 He was killed near Ormuz in 1621, while en- 
 gaged in an expedition against the Portuguese. 
 
 BAGDAD, a large city of Asiatic Turkey, 
 contains about 60,000 inhabitants. It lies on 
 the east bank of the Tigris, over which a 
 bridge is thrown. The city is surrounded by 
 a brick wall ; the houses are of brick, and 
 but one story high, and the unpaved streets 
 so narrow as to admit of two horsemen 
 abreast with difficulty. The palace of the 
 pacha forms a contrast to the other buildings 
 of the city, being spacious and splendid. Eu- 
 ropean manufactures, as well as the produc- 
 tions of India, Arabia, and Persia, find a sale 
 here, and the thronged bazaars present a brill- 
 iant and animated appearance. From Bag- 
 
 BAG 
 
94 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dad, East Indian goods were formerly supplied 
 to Asia Minor, Syria, and part of Europe, but 
 of late its traffic has declined. The popula- 
 tion consists of Turks, Persians, Armenians, 
 and a small number of Christians and Jews. 
 The ancient city, founded in 762, by the Ca- 
 liph Abu Giafar Almanzor, once the residence 
 of the caliphs, and containing 2,000,000 in- 
 habitants, is now in ruins. The prosperity of 
 this city completed the ruin of the neighboring 
 city of Babylon. It was twice taken by the 
 Turks and Tartars, and nearly destroyed. In 
 1638, it was taken by Amurath IV:, after a 
 memorable siege, and the greater part of the 
 inhabitants were butchered in cold blood. In 
 the eighteenth century, Nadir Shah was de- 
 feated in an attempt to take it. 
 
 BAHAMAS, or Lucaya Islands, are near 
 the coast of Florida, in the Atlantic Ocean. 
 The soil of the islands is rich, but thin, and 
 soon exhausted. A large portion of the resi- 
 dents are descendants of the loyalists who 
 emigrated from Carolina and Georgia when 
 the royal cause was lost in America. The 
 wreckers, a large class of the population, are 
 hardy mariners, employed in assisting ship- 
 wrecked vessels. They display admirable 
 skill and courage in the working of their 
 small flat-bottomed sloops, in which they fre- 
 quent the most dangerous places, receiving 
 legal salvage on all rescued property. They 
 are licensed by the government. These 
 islands were discovered by Columbus, Oct. 
 12th, 1492, St. Salvador being the first land 
 he saw. In 1667, Charles II. of England 
 granted the Bahamas to the Duke of Albe- 
 marle and others. The first settlement was 
 made on New Providence, one of the largest 
 of the group. The settlers suffered severely 
 from the ravages of pirates and the inroads 
 of the Spaniards. Black-beard, the noted 
 leader of the buccaneers, was killed off here 
 in 1718. The town of Nassau on New Prov- 
 idence was fortified in 1740. Nassau was 
 taken by the Americans during the Revolu- 
 tion, but was- soon abandoned. Afterward 
 the whole group was held by the Spaniards, 
 but was regained by the English. 
 
 Turk’s Islands are well known for their 
 salt. The entire population of the Bahamas 
 in 1845 was 26,500: deducting Caicos and 
 Turk’s Islands (since set off under a separate 
 
 i 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 government), it was 22,841, which in 1857 
 had increased to 27,519. 
 
 BALE, a town of Campania, a favorite re- 
 sort of the ancient Romans, many of whom 
 had country-seats here. Its sheltered bay, 
 breezy hills, and baths gave it a high reputa- 
 tion, but the dissoluteness practiced here was 
 so notorious and infamous, that Cicero, in his 
 defense of M. Coelius, thought it necessary to 
 apologize for defending a young man who had 
 lived at Bake. 
 
 BAILLIE, Joanna, born in 1762, was the 
 daughter of the parish minister of Bothwell in 
 Lanarkshire, Scotland. Her mother was sis- 
 ter of John Hunter, the great anatomist. Her 
 brother, who became Sir Matthew Baillie, 
 having settled as a physician in London, she 
 removed thither at an early age, and resided 
 either in London or its vicinage, till her death 
 in 1851. She published several volumes of 
 dramas and minor poems. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, William, a distinguished 
 commodore in the American navy, was born 
 at Princeton, N. J., on the 7th of May, 1774. 
 He died at Philadelphia, July 27th, 1833. 
 
 BAJAZET I.. Sultan of the Turks, son of 
 Amurath, whom he succeeded in 1389. By 
 strangling his brother and rival, Jacob, he 
 established a precedent which has since been 
 frequently followed by the Turkish court. 
 The rapidity of his conquests gained him the 
 name of Ilderim, ‘ lightning.’ He carried his 
 conquering arms far into Europe and Asia, 
 and on the 28th of September, 1395, defeated 
 the army of Hungarians, Poles, and French, 
 who were headed by Sigismund, King of 
 Hungary. In 1402, he was defeated near 
 Ancyra, m Galatia, by Tamerlane, and was 
 himself taken prisoner, and treated with great 
 courtesy by the conqueror. The story of his 
 being confined and carried about in an iron 
 cage, is deemed unworthy of belief. He died 
 in the camp of Tamerlane in 1403. 
 
 BAJAZET II., son of Mohammed II., Sul- 
 tan of the Turks, succeeded his father in 1481. 
 He extended his empire, gained some Grecian 
 towns from the Venetians, and by ravaging 
 Christian states, sought to avenge the expul- 
 sion of the Moors by the Spaniards. He fi- 
 nally resigned his throne to his rebellious son 
 Selim, by whose order, it is supposed, he was 
 murdered in 1512. 
 
 BAJ 
 
9 
 
 HISTORY AN! 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, was bom in 
 1475. He was one of the numerous adven- 
 turers who sought to retrieve their fortunes, 
 by following up in the New World the discov- 
 eries which Columbus had commenced. He 
 formed a colony on the isthmus of Darien. 
 An Indian, who was the scornful witness of 
 a dispute between two of Balboa’s companions 
 about some gold, agreed to show him a coun- 
 try where the precious metals. might be ob- 
 tained in abundance. He led Balboa to the 
 shores of the Pacific, and pointed the path to 
 Peru. Considering his force of a hundred 
 and fifty men too feeble to attempt the con- 
 quest, Balboa took possession of the vast ocean 
 that rolled before him in the name of the 
 Spanish king, and after an absence of four 
 months led back his followers to the colony, 
 enriched wi th gold and pearls. Here he was 
 required to obey a new governor, Pendrarias 
 Davila, who held a royal commission. He 
 was appointed, the ensuing year, viceroy of 
 the South Sea, but seized by Davila, on pre- 
 text of neglect of duty, tried, condemned, and 
 beheaded in 1517. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Cri- 
 mea, with a fine harbor, ten miles south-east 
 from Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, 
 the allies advanced upon this place, Sept. 26th, 
 
 1854. Oct. 25th following, 12,000 Russians, 
 commanded by Gen. Liprandi, captured some 
 redoubts in the vicinity, which had been in- 
 trusted to a scanty force of Turks. They 
 next assaulted the English, by whose heavy 
 cavalry they were compelled to retire. After 
 this, from a disastrous misconception of Lord 
 Raglan’s order, Lord Lucan ordered the Earl 
 of Cardigan with the light brigade to charge 
 upon the Russians, who had formed again on 
 their own ground with their artillery in front. 
 This desperate gallop into the jaws of death 
 was at once made, and great havoc dealt upon 
 the enemy ; but out of 607 British horsemen 
 only 198 returned. A sortie from the garri- 
 son of Sebastopol led to another desperate en- 
 gagement here on the night of March 22d, 
 
 1855, in which the Russians were repulsed 
 with a loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, the 
 allies losing about 600. 
 
 BALDWIN. There were five kings of Je- 
 rusalem of this name. Baldwin I. succeeded 
 his brother Godfrey Bouillon, 1100, and died 
 1118. The second reigned from 1118 till his 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 95 
 
 death in 1131. He founded the order of 
 Templars. Baldwin III., king from 1143 to 
 1162, was one of the bravest and most honor- 
 able of the crusaders. The Christians pos- 
 sessed territories of vast extent, but the vas- 
 sals of Baldwin were divided by dissensions 
 among themselves this was also the case 
 with their adversaries, although the latter 
 warred with more success. The reign of 
 Baldwin was unhappy, and convinced the 
 Christians of the impossibility of establishing 
 Christian chivalry in the east. When Nou- 
 reddin, his valiant and proud opponent, was 
 counseled to fall upon the Christians during 
 the funeral of their leader, he answered: 
 “No! Let us respect their grief, for they 
 have lost a king whose like is rarely to be 
 met with.” 
 
 BALIOL, John, was a claimant for the 
 Scottish crown on the death of Queen Marga- 
 ret. Edward III., being made arbiter, award- 
 ed it to Baliol against Robert Bruce. Baliol 
 afterward allied himself with France, and took 
 up arms in consequence of the interference of 
 the English king in his government, but was 
 defeated at the battle of Dunbar, andconsigned 
 to the Tower, whence he was liberated by the 
 intercession of the pope. He died on his es- 
 tate in France, 1314. His son Edward after- 
 ward gained the crown, but finally resigned 
 it to Edward III. of England. 
 
 BALK, or Balkan, anciently Haemus, a 
 chain of rugged mountains, extending from 
 the Black Sea, in European Turkey, to the 
 Adriatic. The summit of Orbelus, the high- 
 est peak, is 9,000 feet above the surface of the 
 sea. The passage of the Balkan by a hostile 
 army was deemed impracticable till effected 
 by the Russians under Diebitsch, whose march 
 through the mountains in July, 1829, was a 
 memorable achievement in the war then pend- 
 ing between Russia and Turkey. Its conse- 
 quence was an armistice, and this was followed 
 by a treaty of peace in September. 
 
 BALLOONS. From the earliest ages men 
 have longed to mount into the air and rival 
 the easy flight of the birds. The first balloons 
 on record were made in France by the broth- 
 ers Montgolfier, and the first ascent made by 
 M. Rozier and the Marquis d’Arlandes at Pa- 
 ris, Nov. 23d, 1782. The elevating power of 
 the Montgolfier balloon was air rarefied by 
 fire. M. Rozier and M. Romain perished in 
 
* 
 
 96 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 THE BALLOON. 
 
 an attempted voyage from Boulogne k) Eng- 
 land, the balloon having taken fire, June 14th, 
 1785. Hydrogen balloons were successfully 
 used soon after the Montgolfier. The para- 
 chute was invented by Blanchard, in 1784. 
 At the battle of Fleurus, June 17th, 1794, the 
 French used a balloon to reconnoitre the op- 
 posing army. In 1802, Garnerin ascended in 
 a balloon to the height of four thousand feet, 
 and descended safely by a parachute. Gay 
 Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
 twenty-three thousand feet, Sept. 21st, 1802. 
 The first ascent in England was by Sig. Lu- 
 nardi, from Moorfields, Sept. 15th, 1784. 
 Blanchard and Jeffries crossed from Dover to 
 Calais in 1785. The first experiments with 
 balloons in this country, were made b}^ Dr. 
 Rittenhouse and Francis Hopkinson, in De- 
 cember, 1783. They connected several small 
 balloons together, and thus enabled a man to 
 ascend to the height of one hundred feet, and 
 to float to a considerable distance. Afterward 
 an ascent was made by Blanchard, at Phila- 
 delphia, January 9th, 1793. 
 
 Attempts to steer the balloon have proved 
 futile, and it is now a mere toy. Its history 
 is darkly marked with risk and loss of life. 
 Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at 
 night in the midst of fireworks, from which 
 her balloon caught fire, and she was dashed 
 to the ground and killed, July 6th, 1819. An 
 Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
 Sept. 14th, 1851 ; his shattered corpse was 
 found on the shore of a contiguous island. 
 Mr. Arnold ascended near London, and was 
 ducked in the Thames ; Major Money went up 
 from Norwich and fell into the North Sea, but 
 was saved by a revenue cutter. During the 
 siege of Paris by the Prussians, in 1870-71, 
 balloons were used to great advantage by the 
 Parisians, and were employed principally for 
 the transmission of letters and dispatches from 
 the beleaguered city, and for the conveyance 
 of the agents of the government to points be- 
 yond the Prussian line. 
 
 The navigation of the air has ever been a 
 favorite scheme, and artificial flying has been 
 attempted in all ages. The fable of the waxen 
 
 BAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 97 
 
 wings of Daedalus and his unlucky son Icarus, 
 is familiar to all. Its interpretation ;'s found 
 in the tradition that Daedalus invented sails 
 for ships. Friar Roger Bacon maintained the 
 possibility of the art of flying, and predicted 
 it would be a general practice. Dr. Wilkins 
 (brother-in-law of Cromwell, and Bishop of 
 Chester), amused himself with dreaming of a 
 voyage to the moon, and said it would yet be 
 as usual to hear a man call for his wings when 
 he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear 
 him call for his boots. 
 
 BALZAC, Honore de, a brilliant French 
 novelist, born at Tours about 1799, and died 
 at Paris, in August, 1850. 
 
 BANC A, an island off the north coast of 
 Sumatra ; area 7,533 square miles ; population 
 in 1849, 43,000 ; since 1816 in the possession 
 of the Dutch. Tin mines were discovered 
 here in 1810, and their stores of ore seem in- 
 exhaustible. 
 
 BANKS. The first bankers were the 
 Lombard Jews in Italy about 808, of whom 
 some settled in Lombard street, London, 
 where many bankers now do business. The 
 mint in the Tower of London was used by 
 merchants to lodge their money in, till 
 Charles I. made free with it in 1 640 ; after 
 which they trusted to servants, till too many 
 of these ran to the army ; they then lodged 
 it with the goldsmiths in Lombard street, 
 whose business it was to buy and sell plate, 
 and foreign coins. These at first paid four- 
 pence per cent, per diem, but lent it to others 
 at a higher interest, and so became the first 
 bankers in England, 1645. 
 
 The Bank of England was first incorpo- 
 rated in 1694, in consideration of £1,200,000, 
 then the amount of its capital, being lent to 
 the government. It suspended specie pay- 
 ments from 1797 to 1817. 
 
 In the United States, banks were com- 
 menced in the early part of the Revolution- 
 ary war ; the first by a number of gentlemen 
 in Philadelphia, June 17th, 1780, with a cap- 
 ital of $839,160; instituted for the purpose 
 of supplying the American army with pro- 
 visions. Bank of North America, at Phila- 
 delphia, incorporated by Congress, Dec. 31st, 
 1781 ; the Massachusetts Bank, the first at 
 Boston, began in 1784, and the Bank of 
 New York commenced the same year. 
 
 The Bank of the United States was in- 
 
 7 B7 
 
 corporated March 2d, 1791, with a cap- 
 ital of $10,000,000, the government holding 
 $2,000,000. Its charter expired March lltL, 
 1811, and was not renewed; but the finan- 
 cial burdens of the ensuing war with Great 
 Britain, induced the creation of a similar in- 
 stitution, the United States Bank, with a 
 capital of $35,000,000. This was chartered 
 for twenty years in April, 1816, with power 
 to form branches, and went into operation at 
 Philadelphia, Jan. 1st, 1817. The United 
 States deposites, $9,868,435, were removed 
 from it by Gen. Jackson, at the close of 1833, 
 and at the expiration of the charter in 1836, 
 Congress declined to renew it. A bank 
 under the same name and with the same 
 amount of capital was chartered by Pennsyl- 
 vania, and continued in operation several 
 years. 
 
 BANKS, Sir Joseph, bart., a celebrated 
 botanist and traveler, was born in London in 
 1743, and died in 1820. Inheriting at an 
 early age an ample fortune, his love of botany 
 led him to visit lands at that time little known 
 to naturalists. He made a voyage to New- 
 foundland and the coast of Labrador; he 
 accompanied Capt. Cook to the South Seas ; 
 he visited the coasts of Scotland, and spent 
 some time in Iceland. He made a vast col- 
 lection of objects in natural science, and 
 introduced many valuable species of plants 
 and trees into Britain. In 1771 he was 
 elected president of the Royal Society, over 
 which he presided till his death. Soon after- 
 ward he was created a baronet. With George 
 III., who was fond of botany and agriculture, 
 he was a great favorite. He was a generous 
 patron of science and scientific men, both in 
 England and abroad. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, a village in Scotland 
 about three miles south-east from Stirling, 
 Here was the field where the king of England 
 had to flee before peasants ennobled by the 
 struggle for freedom. The battle was fought 
 June 24th, 1314. The English army consisted 
 of 100,000 men under Edward II., 52,000 
 of whom were archers, and the Scottish army 
 ofonfy 30,000, commanded by Robert Bruce. 
 The Scottish leader had selected the ground 
 of Bannockburn to meet his enemies, because 
 on its rugged and broken surface his light- 
 armed troops could better encounter the heavy 
 men-at-arms of the English. He strength- 
 
93 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 cued his position among the morasses that 
 lined the burn of Bannock by digging pits 
 close together. These were slightly covered 
 with brush and sods, so as not to be seen by 
 an impetuous enemy. The English floun- 
 dered into them, and while they were in 
 confusion, the trembling scale of battle was 
 turned by the sudden appearance of Bruce’s 
 camp-followers, on an upland behind the 
 Scottish force. The wavering English, think- 
 ing them an army of reserve, fled in utter 
 rout. Edward barely escaped capture. Ilis 
 loss is estimated at upward of 30,000 men, 
 and 700 barons and knights. 
 
 When the son of James III. (afterward the 
 clever and popular James IV., who fell at 
 Flodden), was in rebellion, a fight occurred 
 between the king’s forces and those of the 
 insurgent son, about a mile from Bannock- 
 burn. King James, who was a weak man, 
 was bade by some of his followers to see to 
 his own safety, and all clad in burnished 
 armor he galloped along an unfrequented 
 road. The mill still stands whence issued a 
 woman to draw water. Alarmed by the 
 startling apparition of a knight in full armor, 
 she dropped her pitcher and fled into the 
 mill. She, in turn, had scared the king’s 
 horse,, which fell, and smothered in his heavy 
 armor the bruised monarch lay as if dead. 
 He was carried into the mill, and put upon a 
 bed. Abjectly depressed and fearing imme- 
 diate death, he told the people of the mill that 
 he was the king, and prayed for a confessor. 
 Thereupon a woman ran abroad, calling fran- 
 tically for a priest to come and shrive the 
 king. Friends and enemies soon gathered 
 round. A man clothed in a dark mantle, 
 like an ecclesiastic, said, “I am a priest,” and 
 followed the woman into the house. Bend- 
 ing down over the king as if to receive the 
 whispered confession, he stabbed him over 
 and over again, and vanished as mysteriously 
 as ho had come. The people of the mill had 
 only the -word of the man killed on their bed 
 that he was their king. There was a mystery 
 over the whole affair, and all that is abso- 
 lutely known is that James III. was ft ever 
 seen again. The miller, apparently not know- 
 ing what to do with the bodjq cast it forth by 
 the wayside. Thence it was borne to the 
 gray abbey of Cambusker.neth, -whose monks 
 bestowed upon it royal obsequies. 
 
 BANQUO, Thane of Lochaber, from whom 
 the royal house of Stuart was descended. He 
 was murdered by Macbeth about 1046. 
 
 BARBADOES, the most eastern of the 
 Caribbean Islands, was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, but belongs to the English, who 
 planted here their first settlement in these 
 seas, in 1605. Longitude 59° 41' W., lat. 1C<> 
 5' N. It is fifteen miles long, and ten broad, 
 containing an area of 106,500 acres. Popula- 
 tion, 135,939. The climate is hot, but the 
 air uncommonly salubrious ; though hurri- 
 canes are unhappily not unfrequent. The 
 soil is various and fertile, and greatly undu- 
 lating. Bridgetown is the capital of the 
 island. Barbadoes has often been sorely 
 visited by tremendous hurricanes and sweep- 
 ing conflagrations, and in 1854 the cholera 
 carried off nearly seventeen thousand persons. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, are Tripoli, Tunis, 
 Algiers, and Morocco, and lie on the northern 
 coast of Africa, extending westerly from 
 Egypt to the Atlantic. The snow-capped 
 Atlas range intersects them almost from east 
 to west. The tract south of the mountains 
 extending to the great desert, is sandy and 
 unproductive of any fruit but dates. Be- 
 tween the mountains and the Mediterranean 
 he fertile tracts, of which the climate is 
 salubrious, the sea air tempering the heat, 
 which is, however, of a degree to permit the 
 growth of vegetation in April and May. Bar- 
 ley, wheat, figs, grapes, olives, oranges, 
 pomegranates, melons, cypress, cedar, and 
 almond trees, spring from the luxuriant soil. 
 The sugar-cane, palm-tree, and lotus are 
 abundant ; and, in the early part of the spring, 
 the country is bright and fragrant with roses, 
 from which the purest attar is obtained. 
 The domestic animals are valuable, and wild 
 ones are found in abundance. Among the 
 minerals of the mountains, are silver, copper, 
 iron, lead, and antimony. Salt is abundant. 
 The commerce between these and The Euro- 
 pean states on the Mediterranean, is by no 
 means inconsiderable. In antiquity, the 
 countries now composing the Barbary States, 
 were distinguished for the activity of the 
 inhabitants in commercial pursuits. The 
 Carthaginians were the most wealthy and 
 enterprising of the possessors of these places, 
 but the Romans, Vandals, and Saracens did 
 not permit commerce to be prostrated. Now, 
 
 BAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 99 
 
 a country capable of sixty millions of inhab- 
 itants, contains barely ten millions and a half. 
 The patriotism of the Carthaginians induced 
 them to labor for the promotion of the best 
 interests of their country, but their power 
 could not stand against that of a nation of 
 victorious and hardy warriors. The Romans 
 endeavored to make the most of their con- 
 quered provinces, and the vast influx of 
 wealth, which conquest poured in upon them, 
 subdued that stern spirit of temperance 
 which had carried their banners in triumph 
 through the troubled tide of war. Then 
 came the Vandals and Saracens, who endeav- 
 ored to render the possessions they wrested 
 from the Romans as available as possible. 
 
 The present population of the Barbary 
 States, is composed of Moors, Jews, who carry 
 on the greater part of the business done here, 
 Turks, and Arabs. The last are the descend- 
 ants of the Saracenic conquerors of the coun- 
 try. Their habits are migratory, and they 
 dwell in tents, ten or a hundred families 
 gathering together, each family being under 
 the government of a sheikh. They are gen- 
 erally at war with the Berbers, the descend- 
 ants of the original inhabitants of the country. 
 On these, and on the Turkish collectors of 
 tribute, the Arabs wage war, and, when their 
 hands are not full of personal quarrels, enter 
 the service of any chieftain who may require 
 them. The Moors are Moslems, indolent, 
 unsociable, luxurious, superstitious, and un- 
 cultivated. They treat the Jews, whom they 
 despise and hate, with great harshness. In 
 addition to the races above enumerated, there 
 are many negroes in Barbary. 
 
 BARCELONA, capital of Catalonia, and 
 one of the largest cities in Spain, contains 
 140,000 inhabitants. It is built in the form 
 of a crescent, and stands on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean. The harbor is commodious, 
 but rather difficult of access. In the middle 
 ages, Barcelona was one of the most flourish- 
 ing ports of Europe ; its trade has dwindled 
 to a trifle. Its citadel, built in 1714, has a 
 secret connection with the fort of San Carlos ; 
 and it may be considered as a strongly forti- 
 fied place. Until the twelfth century, Barce- 
 lona was under the government of its own 
 counts, afterward united with the kingdom 
 of Arragon, but withdrew and united to the 
 French crown in 1040. In 1652, it again 
 
 submitted to the Spanish government, but 
 was taken by the French in 1697. Its resto- 
 ration was made at the peace of Ryswick. 
 In the war of succession Barcelona adhered 
 to the Archduke of Austria. It is famous for 
 the resolute, but unavailing defense it made 
 against the troops of Philip V., under the 
 cemmand of the Duke of Berwick, in 1714. 
 when the sufferings of the inhabitants were 
 unparalleled. In 1809, it was taken by the 
 French, and remained in their power until 
 1814. In 1821, the yellow fever committed 
 great ravages in it. The candor of a Barce- 
 lona galley-slave, is brought to remembrance 
 on seeing the name of this city. The Duke 
 of Ossuna, as he passed by Barcelona, having 
 obtained leave from the king to release some 
 slaves, went on board the galley, and, pass- 
 ing through the benches of slaves at the oar, 
 asked several of them what their offenses 
 were. Every one excused himself; one say- 
 ing he was put there out of malice ; another 
 by the bribery of the judge; but all of them 
 unjustly. Among the rest was a little sturdy 
 fellow ; and the duke asked him what he was 
 there for? “Sir,” said he, “I can not deny 
 thsV I am justly sent here ; for I wanted 
 money, and so I took a purse from the high- 
 way to keep me from starving.” Upon this, 
 the duke struck him gently with a little 
 stick he had in his hand, saying, “You 
 rogue, what do you do among so many honest 
 men ? Get you gone out of their company.” 
 BARCLAY, Robert (the celebrated Apolo- 
 gist for the Quakers), was born in 1648, at 
 Gordonstown, county of Moray, Scotland, of 
 an ancient and honorable family. The unset- 
 tled state of affairs induced his father to send 
 him abroad, and he received the greater part 
 of his education at Paris, under the guidance 
 of his uncle, who was rector in the Scots 
 college. His parents, fearful lest he might 
 be perverted to Romanism, called him home. 
 An accomplished scholar, and of great natu- 
 ral abilities, he rapidly ro&e to distinction. 
 His family having become Quakers, he did 
 likewise, and valiantly combated the violent 
 prejudices against the sect, by several trea- 
 tises in defense of its tenets. He was enthu- 
 siastic in his faith, and in 1776 accompanied 
 William Penn in a tour of propagandism 
 through England, Holland, and Germany. 
 While at Amsterdam, he published his great 
 
100 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 work on which he had been long engaged : 
 '* An Apology for the true Christian Divinity, 
 as the same is preached and held forth by 
 the people in scorn called Quakers.” The 
 original was in Latin, but it was speedily 
 translated into most of the languages of 
 Europe, and widely spread the author’s rep- 
 utation. On his return to Scotland he suf- 
 fered severely from the cruelties practiced 
 on the nonconformists. Latterly he was 
 smiled on by Charles II. and James II. 
 Through the royal favor he received a com- 
 mission as governor of East Jersey, America, 
 for life. On a visit to his native land in 1690, 
 he was seized with fever, and died among his 
 kinsmen at Ury in Aberdeenshire. 
 
 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, field-marshal of 
 Russia, born 1755 ; director of the war against 
 Napoleon in 1810 ; commander of the Rus- 
 sians at the battle of Leipzig 1812, and in 
 France 1815 ; died 1818. 
 
 BARDS. The Bards, among Celtic nations, 
 in battle, raised the war-cry of their people, 
 and in peace, sang the exploits of their war- 
 riors. They appear to have acted, as the 
 heralds, legislators, and priests of the free 
 Celtic tribes of Europe, until the gradual 
 progress of southern despotism and civiliza- 
 tion drove them into the strongholds of the 
 Welsh, Irish, and Scotch mountains, which 
 echoed to the wild notes of their harps and 
 patriotic songs. Their music and poetry kept 
 alive the spark of national patriotism and 
 enthusiasm, and inspired a stern resistance 
 to the attacks of despotism. Hence Edward 
 I. of England caused the Welsh bards to be 
 slain, as the instigators of sedition. Ossian 
 flourished in the Highlands in the third cen- 
 tury ; Merlin in the fifth. The poems of 
 Ossian were gathered and translated by Mac- 
 pherson, who was suspected of being their 
 author. Of these poems, Bonaparte was 
 passionately fond, and the influence they ex- 
 erted upon his style, may be traced in many 
 of his declamatory harangues. 
 
 BAREBONES, Piiaise God, a fanatical 
 leather seller, by whom one of Cromwell's 
 parliaments gained the nickname of ‘Bare- 
 boncs Parliament.’ 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, was born at Reading, 
 Conn., about 1755. He was educated at 
 Dartmouth and Yale Colleges, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself by his poetical talent. In 
 
 the college vacations he served as a volunteer, 
 and was present at the battle of White Plains. 
 His first publication was a collection of minor 
 pieces called “American Poems.” After 
 leaving college, he commenced the study of 
 law, but afterward became a chaplain in the 
 American army. His patriotic lays are said 
 to have exerted an animating influence upon 
 his countrymen. His “Vision of Columbus,” 
 which was afterward expanded into “The 
 Columbiad,” met with a flattering reception, 
 both in America and England. The first 
 edition was printed in 1787. About this 
 time, in pursuance of the request of the gen- 
 eral association of the clergj^ of Connecticut, 
 he revised the psalms and hymns of Dr. Watts. 
 To further the sale of these works, he be- 
 came a bookseller, at Hartford, but soon 
 quitted the business. In Europe, whither he 
 went to effect the sale of lands in Ohio, he 
 made himself conspicuous by the publication 
 of prose and poetical works of a political 
 nature. He was in France at the outbreak 
 of the revolution and was intimate with the 
 Girondist leaders. He also found time to 
 write a mock heroic poem, in three cantos, 
 called “ Hasty Pudding,” doubtless the hap- 
 piest of his efforts. In '1795, he w r as ap- 
 pointed American consul at Algiers, con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with the dey, and 
 procured the liberation of all American citi- 
 zens who w r ere held as slaves within that 
 territory. By the conclusion of a similar 
 treaty at Tripoli, he was enabled to redeem 
 and send home all the American prisoners 
 found there. In 1797, he returned to Pa- 
 ris, w r here, by commercial speculations, he 
 amassed a very considerable fortune. In 
 Paris, he lived in sumptuous style, and lost 
 no opportunity of serving his countrymen. 
 When the rupture between America and 
 France took place, on account of the mari- 
 time spoliations of the latter, he endeavored 
 to adjust the differences between them. After 
 an absence of nearly seventeen years, he 
 returned to his country early in the year 
 1805. In 1808, appeared his “Columbiad,” 
 a splendid volume, ornamented with engrav- 
 ings by London artists. It was so expensive 
 a work that but few' copies w^ere sold. In 
 
 1811, Barlow' w r as appointed minister pleni- 
 potentiary to the French government. In 
 
 1812, while repairing to Wilna, in order to 
 
 BAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 101 
 
 have a conference with the Emperor Napo- 
 leon, he died of an inflammation of the lungs, 
 Dec. 22d, at Zarnawica, an obscure Polish 
 village, near Cracow. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, John d’Olden, grand- 
 pensionary of Holland, born 1547, became 
 one of the greatest diplomatists of his age, 
 but by adopting the opinions of Arminius, 
 was involved in the religious controversies 
 which then distracted his country. By his 
 influence in great part, Spain, in 1609, ac- 
 knowledged the independence of the seven 
 united provinces. Under frivolous charges 
 he was beheaded in 1619. 
 
 BARNEY, Joshua, was born at Baltimore, 
 July 6th, 1759. He was put into a retail shop 
 at an early age, but manifesting a dislike for 
 that employment, went to sea. At sixteen 
 years of age, the illness of the captain and 
 discharge of the mate of a vessel on board of 
 which he was, put him in command of her, a 
 station which he retained for eight months. 
 At the commencement of the Revolution, he 
 espoused the cause of the colonies, and was 
 made master’s-mate on board the Hornet sloop- 
 of-war, Capt. William Stone. In 1775, the 
 Hornet was concerned with Hopkins’ fleet, in 
 the capture of New Providence, one of the 
 Bahama Islands. In 1776, in consequence of 
 his conduct in the engagement between the 
 American schooner Wasp and the English 
 brig Tender, which was captured under the 
 guns of two hostile vessels, he was presented 
 with a lieutenant’s commission, being then 
 not seventeen years of age. Soon afterward, 
 he became lieutenant of the Sachem, and as- 
 sisted in the capture of an English brig, after 
 a severe engagement. Being placed on board 
 of a captured vessel as prize-master, Barney 
 was taken, on his return from the West In- 
 dies, by the Perseus, but prisoners were ex- 
 changed in Charleston, S. C. In 1777, Bar- 
 ney was on board the Andrew Doria, and as- 
 sisted in the defense of the Delaware. Having 
 been ordered to Baltimore, to join the Virginia 
 frigate, Capt. Nicholson, his vessel was run 
 ashore by the pilot, and taken by the British. 
 Barney was exchanged in 1778, but while 
 commanding a small schooner, was again taken 
 in Chesapeake Bay. In November, 1778, he 
 sailed with Capt. Robinson in a ship from 
 Alexandria, with a letter of marque. They 
 
 arrived at Bordeaux, after a warm action with 
 the Rosebud, shipped eighteen guns and sev- 
 enty men, and took on board a cargo of brandy. 
 On their return, they captured a valuable 
 prize. Barney reached Philadelphia in Octo- 
 ber, 1779. In the following year, he married 
 Miss Bedford, and, a month afterward, was 
 robbed of his whole fortune, on the road to 
 Baltimore. Saying nothing of his misfortune, 
 he returned to Philadelphia, and served on 
 board the United States ship Saratoga, sixteen 
 guns, Capt. Young. He was taken prisoner 
 and sent to England, escaped, was retaken, 
 again escaped, and reached Philadelphia, 
 March, 1782. 
 
 Soon after, he received from the state of 
 Pennsylvania the command of the Hyder Aly, 
 a ship of sixteen guns. With a loss of four 
 killed and eleven wounded, the Hyder Aly 
 captured the ship General Monk, twenty guns, 
 after an action of twenty-six minutes. On 
 board the captured vessel were thirty killed 
 and fifty -three wounded, fifteen out of sixteen 
 officers being either killed or wounded. For 
 this exploit Barney was presented with a 
 sword by the legislature of Pennsylvania. 
 The General Monk having been purchased by 
 the United States, Barney was put in com- 
 mand of her,, and sailed for France with sealed 
 dispatches for Doctor Franklin, in November, 
 1782. He returned to America, after having 
 been favorably received at the French court, 
 with a large loan from the French king, a 
 passport from the king of England, and assur- 
 ances that the preliminaries of peace were 
 signed. Barney then served in the French 
 navy from 1795 till 1800, when, resigning the 
 command of a French squadron, he returned 
 to America. In 1812, on the breaking out of 
 the war between England and the United 
 States, he commanded the flotilla designed for 
 the defense of the Chesapeake. He set out 
 for Bladensburg, with a small force of marines 
 and five pieces of artillery, in July, 1814, but 
 found the Americans in full retreat. Notwith- 
 standing, he made a most gallant opposition to 
 the enemy, was wounded in the thigh, and 
 taken prisoner. He received a sword from 
 the corporation of Washington, and a vote of 
 thanks from the legislature of Georgia for his 
 gallant conduct. In 1815, he was intrusted 
 with a mission to Europe. Commodore Bar 
 
 BAR 
 
102 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 nej 7- died at Pittsburg, in 1818, while on his 
 way to Kentucky, whither he had resolved to 
 emigrate. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, 
 having discovered that no principle of suction 
 existed, and that water did not rise in a pump 
 because nature abhorred a vacuum, imitated 
 the action of a pump with mercury, and made 
 the first barometer, in 1643. Descartes ex- 
 plained the phenomena. Wheel barometers 
 were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers 
 in 1695 ; marine in 1700; aneroid in 1840. 
 
 BARR AS, Paul Francis, Count de, was 
 born about 1755, of a noble family of Provence, 
 of whom it was proverbial to say, “Noble as 
 the Barrases, old as the rocks.” After a some- 
 what adventurous youth he returned from the 
 East Indies to France, dissipated and reckless, 
 ready to share in the troubles of 1789. He 
 was one of the Jacobin club ; and as a mem- 
 ber of the convention in 1792 he voted for the 
 king’s death, and declared against the Giron- 
 dins. In 1793, he was sent to the south of 
 France, in command of the left wing of the 
 army besieging Toulon, and there became ac- 
 quainted with Napoleon, then a captain of ar- 
 tillery. He did not participate in the savage 
 excesses of the revolutionists, and it was only 
 his popularity that saved him from Robes- 
 pierre. At the close of the reign of terror he 
 was foremost in effecting Robespierre’s down- 
 fall. He was appointed general-in-chief, called 
 in Bonaparte to suppress revolt, and when 
 the directory was established, Barras was a 
 . member of it. For a while he had great 
 power, but the directory waned, and was sup- 
 planted by the consulate. Barras died in re- 
 tirement, Jan. 29th, 1829. 
 
 BARR&RE DE VIEUZAC, Bertrand 
 (1755-1841), styled by Burke, “the Anacreon 
 of the guillotine,” was a conspicuous character 
 in the French revolution, and a colleague of 
 Robespierre, Danton, &c. He voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI., saying, “The tree of 
 liberty only grows when watered by the blood 
 of tyrants.” 
 
 BARROSA, or Barossa, Battle of, a long 
 conflict in the Peninsular war, between the 
 British army tinder Major-General Graham 
 (afterward Lord Lynedoch) and the French 
 under Marshal Victor, March 5th, 1811. The 
 British at last forced the French to retreat, 
 
 leaving nearly 3,000 dead. The loss of the 
 victors was 1,169 killed and wounded. 
 
 BARROW, Isaac, D.D., an eminent Eng- 
 lish divine and mathematician, was born in 
 London in 1650, and died in 1677. He was 
 the predecessor of Newton as Lucasian pro- 
 fessor of mathematics a£ Cambridge. His 
 sermons are still held in high estimation. 
 Charles II. called him “an unfair preacher, 
 because he exhausted every subject and left 
 nothing for others to say after him.” 
 
 BxARRY, John, the first naval officer that 
 held the rank of commodore in the service of 
 the United States, was born in the county of 
 Wexford, Ireland, in 1745. His father was a 
 respectable farmer, and made no opposition to 
 his son’s wish to lead a seafaring life. Barry 
 acquired a good practical education, and was 
 between fourteen and fifteen years of age, 
 when he came to the country of his adoption. 
 The experience which he had gained in the 
 merchant service, and the naval skill which 
 he displayed, procured for him a commission 
 in the continental navy on the breaking out 
 of hostilities with Great Britain. He was ap- 
 pointed commander of the brig Lexington, 
 sixteen guns, in February, 1776. After cruis- 
 ing with success, he was transferred in the 
 sanie year, to the frigate Effingham, at Phila- 
 delphia, but the ice in the Delaware preventing 
 immediate operations, Barry served on shore 
 as aid-de-camp to General Cadvvalader, and 
 was present at the occurrences near Trenton. 
 While the American vessels were shut up near 
 Whitehill, he conceived the daring plan of 
 descending the river in boats and capturing 
 the supplies sent to the enemy. He succeeded 
 in taking not only a valuable stock of provi- 
 sions, but military stores, for which exploit 
 he received the thanks of Washington. After 
 the loss of his frigate, he was appointee! to 
 command the Raleigh of thirty -two guns, but 
 ran her on shore in Penobscot Bay, on being 
 chased by a large squadron. In February, 
 1781, h,e was in command of the Alliance, a 
 frigate of thirty -six guns, and sailed from Bos- 
 ton, for L’ Orient with Colonel Laurens and 
 suite, on an embassy of importance to the 
 court of Paris. After having taken several 
 prizes, he was severely wounded in the action 
 with the ship Atalanta, and her consort the 
 brig Trcpasa, which were taken after an en- 
 
 BAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 103 
 
 gagement of several hours. Throughout the 
 war, Commodore Barry behaved with gallant- 
 ry, and on the termination of hostilities he 
 was appointed to superintend the building of 
 the frigate United States, which he was to 
 command. In the short naval war with 
 France, Barry was. of great service to this 
 country, and he remained in command of the 
 United States till she was laid up in ordinary. 
 He died Sept. 13th, 1803, with the reputation 
 of a virtuous, brave, and talented man. 
 
 BARRY, Marie Jeanne de Vaubernier, 
 Countess du, was in early life a milliner, then 
 a courtesan, and in 1759 succeeded Madame 
 Pompadour as mistress of Louis XV. She 
 was corrupt, even for that age of harlotry. 
 Louis XVI. sent her into retirement. She 
 died under the guillotine in 1793, at the age 
 of forty -nine, uttering on her way to the scaf- 
 fold piteous cries for mercy. 
 
 BARTHELEMY, John James, an eminent 
 French writer, author of “The Travels of the 
 Younger Anacharsis,” born at Cassis in Pro- 
 vence, 1716, died April 30th, 1795. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, St., martyred Aug. 
 24th, a.d. 71. The festival was instituted in 
 1130. The horrid massacre of Bartholomew’s 
 day was perpetrated on the Huguenots of 
 Paris, by the Catholic faction, during the reign 
 of Charles IX., in 1572, according to secret 
 orders from the king at the instigation of 
 Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The mas- 
 sacre extended throughout the kingdom, and 
 the victims were not fewer than seventy thou- 
 sand. Women and infants were not spared. 
 At Rome the news was received with every 
 demonstration of joy, salutes of cannon were 
 fired, a procession went by order of the pope 
 to the church of St. Louis, and the “Te De- 
 um” was chanted. 
 
 BARTLETT, Josiah, was born in Ames- 
 bury, Mass., in 1729. He commenced the 
 study of medicine at the age of sixteen, and 
 at the age of twenty -one the practice of it, in 
 which he was highly successful. In 1754, he 
 was a representative of the town of Kingston, 
 N. H., in the provincial legislature, where he 
 took the side of the minority, firmly opposing 
 all violations of right. In 1775 he was de- 
 prived by the governor of his commission in 
 the army, # and of that of justice of peace. 
 From the provincial congress, however, he 
 received a regiment, and, as a delegate to the 
 
 Continental Congress, was the second signer 
 of the declaration of independence. In 1780 
 he was appointed judge of the superior court 
 of New Hampshire, and chief justice in 1790. 
 In the same year he became president of New 
 Hampshire, and its governor in 1793. He 
 retired from office in 1794, and died in 1795. 
 
 BARTON, Bernard, the ‘Quaker poet,’ a 
 banker’s clerk in England, 1784-1849. 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl of Ad- 
 dington, in Kent, commonly called the Holy 
 Maid of Kent. She appeared in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. , with pretensions to miraculous 
 powers, and was executed at Tyburn, April 
 30th, 1534, after a full confession of her im- 
 posture. It was at the time that the king 
 was about to be divorced from his first wife, 
 and the English church separated from Rome, 
 and this girl was deluded by priests to warn 
 Henry of the vengeance of Heaven if he per- 
 sisted. 
 
 BARTON, William, lieutenant-colonel in 
 the American army during the Revolution, 
 was a native of Providence, R. I. He headed 
 the party which seized Gen. Prescott of the 
 British army near Newport, July 10th, 1777. 
 For this bold deed Congress gave Barton a 
 sword and a large grant of land in Vermont. 
 Some irregularity in the transfer of this land 
 led to his imprisonment in Vermont for many 
 years. La Fayette, on his visit to this country 
 in 1825, heard of his incarceration, liquidated 
 the claim, and set the veteran free. He died 
 at Providence in 1831, aged eighty-four. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, an American natu- 
 ralist, born in Pennsylvania, 1739. He ac- 
 companied his father (John, also a learned 
 botanist) on an expedition to explore the natu- 
 ral productions of East Florida, and in 1778 
 commenced an examination of the natural pro- 
 ductions of the Floridas, and the western parts 
 of Carolina and Georgia, at the request of Dr. 
 F othergill of London. This employment lasted 
 nearly five years. In 1790 he published an 
 account of his travels and discoveries. He 
 belonged to many learned societies in Europe 
 and America. He assisted Wilson in the com- 
 mencement of his “American Ornithology.” 
 On the 22d of July, 1823, a few minutes after 
 writing an article on the natural history of a 
 flower, he ruptured a blood-vessel and died. 
 
 BASHKIRS, a tribe of Mongol origin, under 
 Russian rule. They are Mohammedans, but 
 
104 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 little civilized, and live by hunting, raising 
 cattle and keeping bees. They intoxicate 
 themselves on a beverage made from fermented 
 mare’s and camel’s milk. They dwell about 
 Orenburg on the Ural. 
 
 BASIL, St., an Eastern patriarch, called 
 the Great, born 326, and made Bishop of 
 Csesarea, in Cappadocia, in 370. Here he 
 died in 379. The rules for the regulation of 
 the monastic life, which he prepared, were 
 followed by all the orders in Christendom. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, Francois de, Marshal 
 of France, enjoyed the favor of Henry IV. and 
 Louis XIII., and was one of the most amiable 
 and accomplished men of their courts. He 
 was bom in 1579 and died in 1646. He 
 served in a military and civil capacity. Hav- 
 ing become enamored of the charms of the 
 daughter of the Constable de Montmorency, 
 he relinquished his hopes when he discovered 
 that he was the rival of Henry IY. 
 
 BASTILE, a royal castle commenced by 
 Charles Y. for the defense of Paris against the 
 English, and completed in 1383. It was of 
 great strength. It was afterward used as a 
 state prison, like the Tower of London, and 
 became the scene of deplorable suffering and 
 frightful crimes. Prisoners were confined by 
 the authority of lettres de cachet, that is, 
 letters of arrest, written in the king’s name, 
 with blanks for the names of individuals, 
 which were to be filled up by the ministers 
 who possessed these letters. Heads of fami- 
 lies among the nobility, who wished to confine 
 any unworthy member of the family, claimed 
 the privilege of confinement by a lettre de 
 cachet, and this privilege was next claimed by 
 the ministers of government, to be used for 
 the punishment of refractory servants and 
 others. It will easily be conjectured that it 
 was not long before unprincipled ministers 
 abused this right by imprisoning worthy per- 
 sons, who, in the actual discharge of their 
 duties, had incurred the displeasure of men of 
 power by thwarting their interests. In fact 
 the use of the lettres de cachet was the main- 
 stay of despotism, and used not merely by the 
 throne, but by many of its satellites. Men 
 were imprisoned for offenses too trifling to be 
 registered, and remained thirty or forty years 
 in the Bastile, or even till death, without any 
 examination into the charges on which they 
 were imprisoned. At the commencement of 
 
 the French revolution, the attention of the 
 people was called to this enormity. In July, 
 1789, they assembled in force and attacked 
 the Bastile, which surrendered after a few 
 hours. The governor and other officers were 
 murdered. The prisoners were feasted in 
 Paris, and the building was completely de- 
 molished. 
 
 M. Mercier has given an interesting account 
 of a prisoner who w r as confined for some ex- 
 pressions of disrespect toward Louis XY. He 
 was set at liberty by the ministers of Louis 
 XVI. He had been in confinement for forty- 
 seven years, and had borne up against the 
 horrors of his prison-house w r ith a manly 
 spirit. His thin, white, and scattered hairs, 
 had acquired an almost iron rigidity. The 
 day of his liberation, his door was flung wide 
 open, and a strange voice announced to him 
 his freedom. Hardly comprehending the 
 meaning of the w r ords, he rose and tottered 
 through the courts and halls of the prison, 
 which appeared to him interminable. His 
 eyes by degrees became accustomed to the 
 light of day, but the motion of the carriage 
 which was to convey him to his former abode 
 appeared unendurable. At length, supported 
 by a friendly arm, he reached the street in 
 w r hich he had once resided, but on the spot 
 formerly occupied by his house, stood a public 
 building, and nothing remained in that quar- 
 ter that he recognized. None of the living 
 beings of the vast city knew him ; his liberty 
 was a worthless gift, and he wept for the sol- 
 itude of his dungeon. Accident brought in 
 his way an old domestic, a superannuated 
 porter, wdio had barely strength sufficient to 
 discharge the duties of his office. He did not 
 recognize his master, but told him that his 
 wufe had died of grief thirty years before, that 
 his children had gone abroad, and that not 
 one of his relations remained. Overcome by 
 this intelligence, the captive supplicated the 
 minister to take him back to the dungeon from 
 w r hich he had been liberated, and the man of 
 office was moved to tears by his misery. The 
 old porter became his companion, as he w'as 
 the only person who could converse to him of 
 the friends he had lost, but so wretched was 
 the isolated condition of the victim of the Bas- 
 tile, that he died not long after hi§ liberation. 
 
 BATH, Order of the. Its origin is un- 
 certain. The ancient Franks, when they 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 105 
 
 conferred knighthood, bathed before the y 
 performed their vigils. Henry IV. instituted 
 a degree of knighthood of the Bath, and on 
 his coronation in the Tower, he conferred 
 the or.der upon forty-six esquires, who had 
 watched the night before and had bathed. 
 To each of these he gave green side-coats 
 reaching down to their ankles, with straight 
 sleeves, and furred with minever ; they also 
 wore upon their left shoulder two cordons of 
 white silk, with tassels hanging down. 
 
 It was usual in former times to create 
 knights of this order from the flower of the 
 nobility, who had not previously received the 
 order of knighthood, at the coronation of 
 kings and queens, and at their marriages ; 
 sometimes also, when their sons were in- 
 vested Prince of Wales, or dukes, or when 
 they solemnly received the cincture or mil- 
 itary girdle of knighthood ; and that accom- 
 panied with many ceremonies, which at 
 present are for the most part disused. After 
 the coronation of Charles II., the order was 
 neglected until 1725, when it was revived by 
 George I., who fixed the number of knights 
 at thirty-eight, the sovereign and thirty- 
 seven knights-companions. 
 
 By statute, January 2d, 1815, it was or- 
 dained that, “for the purpose of commemo- 
 rating the auspicious termination of the long 
 and arduous contest in which this empire 
 [Great Britain] has been engaged,” the order 
 should be composed of three classes. 
 
 First class: to consist of Knights Grand 
 Crosses ; number not to exceed seventy-two, 
 exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the 
 blood royal, one-sixth of which may be ap- 
 pointed for civil and diplomatic purposes. 
 The remainder must have attained the rank 
 of major-general in the army, or rear-admiral 
 in the navy, and must have been previously 
 appointed to the second class. 
 
 Second class : Knights Commanders ; num- 
 ber not to exceed, upon the first institution, 
 one hundred and eighty, exclusive of foreign 
 officers holding British commissions, of 
 which not exceeding ten may be admitted as 
 honorary knights commanders. In the event 
 of actions of signal distinction, or future 
 wars, the number of this class may be in- 
 creased. To be entitled to the distinctive 
 appellation of knighthood ; to have the same 
 rights and privileges as knights bachelors, 
 
 but to take precedence of them ; to wear the 
 badge, &c., pendent by a ribbon round the 
 neck, the star embroidered on the left side. 
 No officer can be nominated, unless he shall 
 have received a medal or other badge of 
 honor, or shall have been especially men- 
 tioned in dispatches in the London Gazette, as 
 having distinguished himself in action. No 
 person is now eligible to this class under 
 the rank of major-general in the army, or 
 rear-admiral of the navy. 
 
 Third class : Companions of the Order ; 
 not limited in number ; they are to take pre- 
 cedence of esquires, but not entitled to the 
 appellation, style, &c., of knights bachelors. 
 To wear the badges assigned to the third 
 class, pendent by a narrow red ribbon to the 
 button-hole. 
 
 Motto of the order, Tria juncta in uno — 
 the Trinity. 
 
 BATTHYANY, Count Casimir Stralt- 
 man, a Hungarian revolutionist, whose large 
 estates were confiscated. He died in exile and 
 poverty, at Paris, July 12th, 1854. 
 
 BATTHYANY, Louis, a Hungarian noble- 
 man, who was seized by the Austrians, sen- 
 tenced to death by an unjust court-martial, 
 and shot Oct. 6th, 1848. % 
 
 BATUTA, Ibn, an Arab Moor of Tan- 
 giers, was one of the greatest travelers that 
 ever lived. Between 1324 and 1354, he wan- 
 dered from his native place to Timbuctoo, the 
 Ural Mountains, Ceylon, and the eastern 
 coast of China, visiting all the countries 
 between these extreme points. 
 
 BAUTZEN, or Budissin, capital of Upper 
 Lusatia, situated on a height washed by the 
 Spree. It contains about 12,000 inhabitants. 
 The Catholics and Lutherans worship to- 
 gether in the large cathedral, divided by a 
 screen of trellis-work, the former possessing 
 the altar and the latter the nave. On the 
 20th and 21st of May, 1813, Napoleon here 
 defeated an army of Prussians and Russians, 
 whose masterly retreat left him but little 
 advantage. In the evening of the 21st the 
 field of battle presented a grand but terrible 
 spectacle, more than sixteen thousand men 
 being stretched in their last sleep, and the 
 scene illuminated by the red glare of thirty 
 burning villages. 
 
 BAVARIA, a kingdom of Germany, a 
 waste in the time of Caesar, and a Romap- 
 
106 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 province (Yindelicia and Noricum) under 
 Augustus. At the end of the fifth century, 
 a confederacy was formed by several German 
 tribes, under the came of Boioarians, Ratis- 
 bon being their chief seat. Their country 
 was called Noricum, and was never subject 
 to the Ostrogoths. They became subject 
 however to the Franks, when the latter gained 
 possession of Rhgetia. Otho, Count of Wit- 
 telsbach, who after the death of Charlemagne, 
 and the occurrence of convulsions incident to 
 the division of the empire, gained possession 
 of Bavaria, died in 1183. Louis I., his suc- 
 cessor, enlarged his territories, and added the 
 palatinate of the Rhine. Bavaria was divided 
 into Upper and Lower, in 1255 ; Maximilian 
 I., a distinguished leader of the league against 
 the Protestants, gained the upper palatinate 
 in 1G23. He died in 1651. After the battle 
 of Blenheim, the emperor treated Bavaria as 
 a conquered country. Charles Albert of 
 Bavaria was elected emperor of Germany in ! 
 1742, but in 1743 the states of Bavaria were 
 constrained to swear homage to Maria The- 
 resa, and in the war, Charles’s fortunes sank 
 rapidly, and he was forced to abandon Bava- 
 ria. His son and successor, Maximilian 
 Joseph IH., assumed, like his father, the 
 title of Archduke of Austria, but making 
 peace with Austria, in 1745, received from 
 Francis all the Bavarian territories' which had 
 been conquered by that power. Maximilian 
 Joseph devoted himself to the promotion of 
 the interests of his people, and favored their 
 industry by every means in his power ; the 
 foundation of the academy of sciences at 
 Munich proves his liberality, and the exten- 
 sion of his views. 
 
 By the treaties of the house of Wittelsbach, 
 and by the terms of the peace of Westphalia, 
 the right of succession reverted to the palat- 
 inate, on the extinction of the Wittelsbach 
 line in the person of Maximilian Joseph, who 
 died 30th of December, 1777, but the claims 
 of Austria to Lower Bavaria were enforced by 
 arms, and Charles Theodore, in 1778, was 
 persuaded formalty to renounce the Bavarian 
 succession. The Duke of Deux-Ponts, how- 
 ever, the presumptive heir, relying on the en- 
 couragement afforded b}^ Frederick II. of Prus- 
 sia, refused to acknowledge the surrender of 
 the succession. This was the cause of the 
 Bavarian war of succession, which was ter- 
 
 minated by a treaty of peace, signed May 
 13th, 17,9, in consequence of war being 
 declared again&t Austria by Russia, and 
 Bavaria was secured to the elector palatine of 
 Bavaria. The Austrians yet coveted the 
 country, and, in 1784, Joseph II. proposed to 
 exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bava- 
 ria, with the sum of three million florins 
 for the elector and the Duke of DeuX-Ponts, 
 and the title of King of Burgundy. This, 
 however, was formally refused by the Duke 
 of Deux-Ponts, who declared he would never 
 barter away the inheritance of his ancestors. 
 Charles Theodore revived the order of Jesuits, 
 and restrained the freedom of the press, and 
 on the breaking out of the French revolution, 
 the elector sent troops to aid the empire. In 
 1796 Bavaria became the theatre of war. 
 Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Deux-Ponts, 
 now came into possession of Bavaria. At the 
 beginning of the war of 1805, the elector 
 joined the French with 30,000 troops, and at 
 the peace of Presburg received from Napoleon 
 a vast addition of territory, and the title of 
 king. A matrimonial alliance connected the 
 interests of Bavaria still more closely with 
 those of France. Bavaria took part against 
 Prussia and Austria, in 1806 and 1809. In 
 the war of 1812 between France and Russia, 
 Bavaria brought 30,000 men into the field, 
 and but a few fragments of her fine army 
 survived the expedition to Moscow. In 
 1813, the King of Bavaria abandoned the 
 confederation of the Rhine and turned his 
 arms against Napoleon. In 1825, Louis 
 Charles succeeded to the throne, and reigned 
 till 1848, when he abdicated in favor of his 
 son Maximilian Joseph II. His abdication 
 was mainly caused by his attachment to 
 the celebrated Lola Montez, whom he had 
 created Countess of Landsfelt. She was 
 expelled from the kingdom. 
 
 The kingdom of Bavaria is among the prin- 
 cipal of the secondary continental powers. 
 Bavaria, exclusive of the province west of the 
 Rhine, is bounded north by Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 Ilesse-Cassel, and Saxony; east and south 
 by Austria, and west by Wurtemberg, Baden, 
 and Hesse-Darmstadt. The kingdom con- 
 tains 28,435 square miles, and had in 1855, 
 4,541,556 inhabitants. It is a mountainous 
 countrjq having, however, many extensive 
 I plains and valleys wide and fertile. Agrh 
 
 BAY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 107 
 
 culture is the chief branch of industry. The 
 soil is mostly owned in small estates. Bava- 
 ria’s most important manufacture is beer, of 
 which more than ninety-six million gallons 
 are yearly brewed. Coarse linens are. largely 
 woven by the country women. Marriage is 
 forbidden without permission from the au- 
 thorities, who do not grant it unless, there is 
 sufficient probability that adequate means for 
 maintaining a family will be possessed. Lib- 
 erty of conscience, and equality in civil rights, 
 are guaranteed to both Protestant and Ro- 
 manist. Education is supervised by the 
 government, and no children are excused 
 attendance at the schools, except such as 
 have received permission for private tuition. 
 No printing-press can be established without 
 the previous sanction of the king. The gov- 
 ernment is a limited monarchy. There are 
 two legislative, chambers. Bavaria has a 
 right of way by a military road through 
 Baden, which gives direct access to its domin- 
 ions on the Rhine. 
 
 Munich (Munch en) is the capital of Bava- 
 ria, and perhaps the handsomest city in Ger- 
 many. Its population in 1856 was 13 7,093. 
 The city is indebted mostly to the ex-king 
 Louis for its splendid buildings and its treas- 
 ures of ancient and modern art. It has a 
 library of 400,000 volumes and 22,000 MSS. 
 Here lithography was invented by Senne- 
 felder, in 1796. Fraunhofer’s astronomical 
 and optical instruments are unsurpassed. 
 Munich surrendered to the Sw’edes and Ger- 
 man Protestants, under Gustavus Adolphus, 
 in 1632 ; in 1704 it fell into the hands of the 
 Austrians. In 1741, it shared the vicissi- 
 tudes of the war, and in 1796, the French 
 army under Moreau obliged the elector to 
 make a separate treaty. In 1800, Moreau 
 again occupied Bavaria, and secured his 
 superiority by the victory of Hohenlinden ; 
 and from that time, to 1813, Bavaria re- 
 mained in alliance with the French. 
 
 Niirnberg (incorrectly called Nuremberg), 
 an ancient city in the province of Franconia, 
 once a flourishing member of the Hanseatic 
 league, has 59,000 inhabitants. This “ quaint 
 old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town 
 of art and song,” was in the olden time one 
 of the chief marts of Europe. It received the 
 rich merchandise of Italy, and forwarded it 
 
 to the north. Four hundred years,, ago its 
 artisans in metals w r ere famous. 
 
 “ Here when Art was still religion, with a simple 
 reverent heart, 
 
 Lived and labored Albrecht Durer, the Evangel- 
 ist of Art.” 
 
 Here sang Hans Sach, the cobbler bard. 
 Here were invented watches (first called 
 Niirnberg eggs), the air-gun, the clarionet, 
 brass, and the lock for fire-arms. Niirnberg 
 continued a free city till 1803, w r hen it was 
 parceled to Bavaria. 
 
 Augsburg, population 38,000, is a town 
 of important trade and manufactures. Here 
 dwelt the great family of the Fuggers. In 
 the best days of Augsburg, the front of every 
 respectable dwelling shone with the glories 
 of the pencil, and the whole Scriptures might 
 be studied in these fresco paintings out of 
 doors. The first tulip known in the west of 
 Europe, was brought to Augsburg from Con- 
 stantinople in 1557. Here paper was made 
 from rags as early as 1330. Printing was 
 early established here, and is now largely 
 carried on. The Allgemeine Zeitung , called 
 also the Augsburg Gazette , the most widely 
 circulated journal in Germany, is printed 
 here. Augsburg was a free imperial city 
 from 1276 to 1806. Melancthon drew up 
 the celebrated confession of faith protesting 
 against the abuses of the church of Rome, 
 whence the Lutherans were called Protest- 
 ants. By him and Luther, in 1530, it was 
 presented to the Emperor Charles Y. in the 
 palace of the Bishop of Augsburg, whence it 
 is called the confession of Augsburg. H&*e 
 in 1555 was signed the celebrated treaty by 
 which religious liberty was secured to Ger- 
 many. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, a noted divine among 
 the English nonconformists, was born at 
 Rowton, Shropshire, November 12th, 1615. 
 At first connected with the established 
 church, he beeame a dissenting minister. 
 Though he sided with parliament during the 
 civil war, he did not approve of the exe- 
 cution of the king and other extreme action 
 of the day. During the persecution of the 
 nonconformists in the reign of James II., 
 Mr. Baxter was tried and abused by the in- 
 famous Jeffreys, but the king remitted the 
 fine imposed upon him. He was a volumi- 
 
 BAX 
 
108 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 nous author upon theological and religious 
 subjects. “The Saints’ Everlasting Rest' 5 
 and “A Call to the Unconverted” are still 
 much read. He died in 1691. 
 
 BAYARD, James A., an eminent Ameri- 
 can lawyer and politician, born at Philadel- 
 phia, in 1767. He was educated at Princeton 
 College. He represented Delaware in both 
 houses of Congress, and distinguished him- 
 self by his patriotism and ability in debate. 
 He was sent to Europe as one of the commis- 
 sioners to treat for peace in 1813, but after 
 the treaty of Ghent, the state of his health 
 induced him to return home with all possible 
 speed. He accordingly embarked at Havre, 
 in May, 1815, arrived in the United States, 
 and died in the bosom of his family. 
 
 BAYARD, John, an eminent patriot in our 
 Revolution, born in Maryland, 1738, died in 
 1807. 
 
 BAYARD, Pierre du Terr ail, Chevalier de, 
 called Le chevalier sans peur etsans reproche 
 (the knight without fear and without re- 
 proach,) was born near Grenoble, 1476, of one 
 of the most ancient families in Dauphiny. Ed- 
 ucated under the eye of his uncle, the Bishop 
 of Grenoble, he early displayed those traits 
 for which he was afterward so much beloved 
 and celebrated. Modest, pious, affectionate, 
 tender, brave, and honorable, all who beheld 
 him augured well of his future career. Charles 
 VIII., who saw him at Lyons, managing a 
 stately steed with ease and grace, begged him 
 of the Duke of Savoy, whose page he then 
 was, and committed him to the care of Paul 
 of Luxemburg, Count de Ligny. He won 
 his earliest laurels in tournaments, but he was. 
 destined to shine upon redder fields of glory, 
 and at the age of eighteen accompanied 
 Charles VIII. to Italy, and took a standard 
 at the battle of Verona. When, in the reign 
 of Louis XII., he was taken prisoner by fol- 
 lowing some flying adversaries into Milan, 
 Ludovico Sforza generously returned him his 
 horse and arms, and dismissed him without 
 ransom. His exploit at the bridge over the 
 Garigliano was worthy of a Roman in Rome’s 
 • best days, for like Iloratius Codes he gal- 
 lantly defended the bridge against the victo- 
 rious Spaniards, until the French army were 
 safe. On account of this action, he had for 
 his coat of arms a porcupine, with the fol- 
 lowing motto: Vires agminis unus hahet , 
 
 ‘alone he has an army’s strength.’ When 
 Julius II. declared himself against France, 
 Bayard hastened to the assistance of the Duke 
 of Ferrara. Defeated in his attempt to take 
 the pope prisoner, he yet sternly refused to 
 listen to an offer to betray him. He was 
 wounded in the assault on Brescia, and car- 
 ried into the house of a nobleman who had 
 fled, leaving his wife and two daughters ex- 
 posed to the brutal insults of a licentious 
 soldiery. Bayard protected them faithfully, 
 refusing their offers of reward, and returning, 
 as soon as he was cured, to the French camp, 
 whose stay and hope, Gaston de Foix, had 
 been killed in consequence of neglecting the 
 advice of Bayard. The latter received a 
 second wound in the retreat from Pavia, 
 which it was thought would prove mortal. 
 On learning this, the gallant chevalier said, 
 in the true spirit of a warrior, “I grieve not 
 to die, but to die in my bed like a woman.” 
 The military misfortunes of the latter part 
 of the reign of Louis XII. did not cast a 
 shadow on the glory of Bayard, but his 
 personal bravery was conspicuous even in 
 reverse. He was ever the foremost in the 
 charge, and the last in the retreat. Fran- 
 cis I. had no sooner ascended the throne, 
 than he gave proof of the confidence he re- 
 posed in Bayard, by sending him into Dau- 
 phiny to open a passage for his army over the 
 Alps, and through Piedmont. Ba}^ard cap- 
 tured Prosper Colonna, who lay in wait for 
 him, hoping to surprise him. Elated with 
 this success, in the battle of Marignano, to 
 which it was a prelude, he performed prodi- 
 gies of valor by the side of the king, who 
 emulated the bravery of the gallant chevalier. 
 After this day of glor}' Francis received 
 knighthood from the sword of Ba} r ard. Bay- 
 ard defended the town of Meziere, when 
 Charles V. invaded Champagne, with such 
 spirit and resolution, that at Paris he was 
 called the savior of his country. He received 
 from the hands of the king the order of St. 
 Michael, and a company of a hundred men 
 to command in his own name, an honor 
 never before conferred but on princes of the 
 blood. Bayard reduced to obedience the 
 revolted Genoa, but the fortunes of the French 
 changed, and they were obliged to retreat. 
 Bonnivet the commander, his rear-guard beat- 
 en, and himself severely wounded, committed 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 109 
 
 the care of the army to the gallant Bayard. 
 Compelled to pass Sesia in the presence of a 
 superior force, Bayard, the last man in the 
 retreat, was combating the Spaniards, when 
 a stone from a blunderbuss shattered his back- 
 bone, and he exclaimed, “Jesus Christ, my 
 God, I am a dead man ! ” He was removed 
 at his request, under the shadow of a tree ; 
 “From this spot,” said he, “I can behold the 
 enemy.” He confessed his sins to his squire, 
 and, in default of a crucifix, kissed the 
 hilt of his sword. Bidding a farewell to his 
 friends, his king, and his country, he died, 
 surrounded by admiring and weeping friends 
 and enemies, April 30th, 1524. His enemies, 
 who retained possession of the body, em- 
 balmed it, and restored it to his countrymen, 
 by whom it was consigned to a tomb in a 
 church of the Minorites, near Grenoble. A 
 simple bust, and a Latin inscription, mark 
 the place of his repose. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, a French writer, born at 
 Carlat, in Languedoc, in 1647. He died, pen 
 in hand, in 1706, at the age of fifty-nine. His 
 “Historical and Critical Dictionary” is a 
 grand monument of the logic and learning 
 for which the author is so celebrated. He 
 modestly called it “an ill-digested compila- 
 tion of passages tacked together by the ends.” 
 Voltaire calls him “the first of logicians and 
 skeptics,” but adds, that his warmest apolo- 
 gists can not deny, that there is not a page 
 in his controversial writings, which does not 
 lead the reader to doubt, and often to skep- 
 ticism. He himself says, “ My talent consists 
 in raising doubts ; but they are only doubts.” 
 
 BAYONNE, a fortified city in France, about 
 two miles from the Bay of Biscay, at the con- 
 fluence of the Nive and Adour. It is in the 
 department of the Lower Pyrenees, and was 
 formerly the capital of a district of Gascony. 
 Population, 1,900 Bayonne has consid- 
 erable commerce with Spain, and is much 
 engaged in the cod and whale fishery. Its 
 hams, wines, brandies, and chocolate are 
 famous. It is said that in 1564 Bayonne was 
 the scene of an interview between Catherine 
 de Medici and the Duke of Alva, at which 
 was planned the murder of the Huguenots, 
 carried into effect seven years afterward on 
 St. Bartholomew’s day. When the massacre 
 took place, however, D’Orchez, commandant 
 of Bayonne, refused to execute the orders of 
 
 the court, returning this noble answer : 
 “Sire, I have communicated your majesty’s 
 letter to the garrison and inhabitants of this 
 city. I have found only brave soldiers and 
 good citizens, and not a single executioner.” 
 At Bayonne, in 1 >70, the bayonet was in- 
 vented, whence its name. Here in 1808, 
 Napoleon met the King of Spain, Charles IV., 
 and his son Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, 
 when they signed an agreement by which 
 they and the king’s other children renounced 
 their rights in the European and Indian ter- 
 ritories of Spain, in favor of Bonaparte. Dur- 
 ing Wellington’s invasion of France from 
 Spain, the neighborhood of Bayonne was the 
 scene of desperate fighting, Dec. 10th, 11th, 
 and 13th, 1813. Soult then retired within 
 the intrenchments of the city, and it was 
 invested by Lieut. -Gen. Sir John Hope, Jan. 
 14th, 1814. On the morning of April 14th, 
 Soult made a sortie with much success, 
 though driven back in the end. Sir John 
 Hope was wounded and made prisoner. 
 News of Napoleon’s abdication arrived shortly 
 after. A treaty was signed at Bayonne, Dec. 
 2d, 1856, establishing the frontier line be- 
 tween France and Spain. 
 
 BEATON, David, Archbishop of St. An- 
 drew’s in Scotland, and cardinal, born in 
 1494. On the coronation of the young Queen 
 Mary, he renewed his cruel persecutions of 
 the heretics, and among others, brought 
 George Wishart, the famous Protestant 
 preacher, to the stake. Seated at his win- 
 dow, he beheld with fiendish joy the cruel 
 sufferings of this estimable man. He was 
 openly licentious, and, although endowed 
 with some good qualities, was disgraced by 
 flagrant vices. He was murdered in his 
 chamber, May 29th, 1546. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, a miscellaneous writer, 
 and pleasing poet, born at Lawrencekirk, in 
 Kincardine county, Scotland, in 1735, died 
 in August, 1803. The poem by which he 
 will be remembered as a follower of the 
 muses, is the “Minstrel,” the first book of 
 which was published in 1771. He wrote an 
 “Essay on Truth,” and some other meta- 
 physical works, in which, however, he did 
 not shine so much as in his poems. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry, cardinal, half-brother 
 of Henry TV. of England, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 afterward of Winchester, and chancellor of 
 
 BEA 
 
110 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the kingdom. In 1431, he crowned Henry 
 VI., in the great church of Paris. He is 
 strongly suspected of having directed the 
 assassination of Humphrey, Duke of Glou- 
 cester. He was one of the judges of Joan of 
 Arc. He died in 1447. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, son of Vis- 
 count Beauharnais and Josephine, born 1781. 
 
 He was a general under Napoleon ; viceroy 
 of Northern Italy, 1805 ; married to the 
 daughter of the king of Bavaria, 1806 ; made 
 Duke of Leuchtenburg by his father-in-law ; 
 died in 1824. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Hortense Eugenie de, 
 daughter of Josephine, was born at Paris 
 1783, and married to Louis Bonaparte in 
 1802. This forced union proved unhappy to 
 both husband and wife. They were sepa- 
 rated, after Hortense had borne three sons, 
 the eldest two of whom died early, and the 
 other has become famous as Louis Napoleon. 
 Hortense joined her mother in retirement at 
 Malmaison, but the speedy fall of Napoleon 
 left her a desolate wanderer, till at last the 
 Bavarian king gave her a refuge at Augsburg. 
 She died Oct. 5th, 1837. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Ca- 
 ron de, artist, politician, projector, painter, 
 merchant, and dramatist, was the son of a 
 watchmaker, and born at Paris, in 1732. 
 
 He was teacher of the harp to the daughters 
 of Louis XV., and by a wealthy marriage, 
 laid the foundation of his immense fortune. 
 
 His “Eugene,” “Mere Coupable,” “Ma- 
 nage de Figaro,” and “Barbier de Seville,” 
 keep possession of the stage in several lan- 
 guages. His “Memoirs” exhibit Beaumar- 
 chais in his true character. He increased his 
 fortune by his contract to supply the United 
 States with military stores, during the Revo- 
 lutionary war. He died in 1799. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, and FLETCHER, 
 John, two English dramatic writers of great 
 power, who united their interests and wrote 
 conjointly. Beaumont, born in 1585, died in 
 1016; Fletcher, born in 1576, died in 1625, 
 of the plague, in London. They used to fre- 
 quent ale-houses, as Shakspeare is said to 
 have done, for the sake of studying human 
 nature, and were once arrested in a very 
 dramatic manner. They were disputing in 
 an ale-house about the fate of a king in one 
 of their plays, one insisting upon his assas- 
 
 BEC 
 
 sination, the other on his preservation. Some 
 of their uninitiated auditors procured their 
 arrest, imagining that a conspiracy against 
 the reigning sovereign was on foot. 
 
 BECCARIA, Caesar, Marquis of Bonesana, 
 author of a celebrated treatise on crimes 
 and punishments, born 1720, died November, 
 1794. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas a, a celebrated prelate, 
 was born in London, in 1117. He was the 
 son of a merchant who, while a prisoner in 
 the East, is said to have engaged the affec- 
 tions of a Saracen lady; she followed the 
 merchant to London, where he married her. 
 Becket’s advancement was rapid : he was a 
 favorite with Henry II., who made him tutor 
 to his son in 1158, and heaped spiritual and 
 temporal honors upon him. He rivaled roy- 
 alty in the splendor of his living. On his 
 election to the see of Canterbury, in 1162, 
 he resigned the office of chancellor, and 
 assuming all the arrogance of a sovereign 
 pontiff, lent himself to oppose the reforma- 
 tion intended by the king among the clergy. 
 Their enormities had disgusted the whole 
 kingdom; and the archbishop screened the 
 most abandoned, under the pretext that they 
 were not amenable to the civil power. After 
 a series of hostilities between the king and 
 Becket, many references to the pope, ex- 
 communications and anathemas, reconcilia- 
 tions and fresh quarrels, on the archbishop’s 
 refusal to withdraw his excommunication of 
 some bishops, which was felt to lie very hard 
 upon them, the king, in a fit of passion, re- 
 proached his courtiers for permitting him to 
 be so long and so ignobly tormented. On 
 this, four knights went down to Canterbury, 
 and killed Becket before the altar as he was 
 at the vesper service, December 29th, 1170. 
 The perpetrators of this deed were finally 
 admitted to penance, but the king was com- 
 pelled to expiate his guilt at the tomb of the 
 archbishop, who was canonized two years 
 after his death. He became a popular saint, 
 and miracles were abundant at his tomb, 
 which was much visited by pilgrims till the 
 reformation. His bones, which had been 
 enshrined in gold, and set with jewels, in 
 1220, were taken up and burned in the reign 
 of Henrv VTTT., 1539. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, was the son of Al- 
 I derman Beckford, the lord mayor of London 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 who bearded George III. on his throne. At 
 nineteen he wrote in French the gorgeous 
 romance of “Vathek.” He inherited a 
 princely estate. At Cintra in Portugal he 
 reared a palace for his residence. Abandon- 
 ing this, he built on his estate in Wiltshire, 
 the magnificent Gothic structure of Fonthill 
 Abbey, where he realized those lavish splen- 
 dors which lie had imagined in his oriental 
 romance. His last years were spent at Bath, 
 where he died in 1844, in his eighty-fourth 
 year. 
 
 BEDE, commonly called the Venerable 
 Bede, was born, in the neighborhood of Wear- 
 mouth, in the year 672 or 673, and pursued 
 his studies in the monastery of St. Peter, 
 Wearmouth. He died in May, 735. His 
 “English Ecclesiastical History,” his greatest 
 and most popular work, was translated by 
 Alfred the Great. He was modest and mod- 
 erate, and although a monk, wished to have 
 the number of monasteries lessened. Bede 
 led a life of pious and studious retirement, 
 and on the day of his death, he was dictating 
 a translation of the gospel of St. John to his 
 amanuensis. “ Master,” said the young man, 
 as he raised his eyes, “ there is but one more 
 sentence wanting.” Bede bade him write 
 rapidly, and when the scribe said, “It is 
 done,” replied, “It is indeed done,” and ex- 
 pired a few minutes afterward in the act of 
 prayer. 
 
 BEDFORD, John, Duke of, the third son 
 of Henry IV. of England. In 1422, he com- 
 manded the English army in France, and the 
 same- year was named regent of that king- 
 dom for Henry VI., whom he caused to be 
 crowned at Paris. He defeated the French 
 fleet near Southampton, entered Paris, beat 
 the Duke of Alen^on, and made himself mas- 
 ter of France. The greatest stain upon his 
 character, is his cruelty to the Maid of Or- 
 leans, whom he caused to be burnt in the 
 market-place of Rouen. He died at Rouen, 
 in 1435. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Ludwig von, was born at 
 Bonn, Dec. 17th, 1770. His musical educa- 
 tion began at the age of five, under his 
 father, who was a tenor singer in the electoral 
 chapel of Cologne. While yet a youth, his 
 success was foretold by Mozart. At one time 
 he enjoyed the instruction of Haydn. The 
 -ast twenty years of his life he was afflicted 
 
 by severe deafness, which conspired to make 
 him distrustful and taciturn. He made his 
 residence at Vienna. He died March 26th, 
 1827. His musical compositions are well 
 known and very beautiful. 
 
 BEGUINES, females who bound themselves 
 to obey the rules of an ecclesiastical order, 
 forming societies for purposes of devotion and 
 charity, living together in beguinages, without 
 taking the monastic vows. They originated 
 in Germany and the Netherlands, in the thir- 
 teenth century, and some of their societies 
 still exist in the Netherlands. Some of these 
 nuns once fell into the error that they could 
 in this life arrive at the highest moral perfec- 
 tion, even to impeccability. 
 
 BEHRING, Vitus, a Dane by birth, and 
 captain in the Russian navy, who in the year 
 1728, explored the coasts of Kamtschatka, 
 and proved that Asia was disjoined from 
 America. He died on a desolate island of the 
 Aleutian group, during a voyage of discovery, 
 December 8th, 1741. The strait between 
 Asia and America, has received the name of 
 Behring’s Straits from him. The uninhabited 
 island on which he died, is called Behring’s 
 Island. 
 
 BELGiE, a collection of German and Celtic 
 tribes, who inhabited the country extending 
 from the Atlantic to the Rhine, and from the 
 Marne and Seine, to the southern mouth of 
 the Rhine, which is united with the Meuse. 
 Caesar has borne witness to the bravery of 
 the Belgians, particularly of those who resided 
 on the northern frontiers of Germany, declar- 
 ing that they were the most valiant of the 
 Gauls. When Caesar invaded Britain he found 
 the south of the island occupied by the Belgae, 
 who had crossed over and driven the original 
 inhabitants into the interior. 
 
 BELGIUM, the name of that part of the 
 Netherlands which formerly belonged to Aus- 
 tria. It was a part of the kingdom of Holland 
 till 1830, when the Belgians revolted, and it 
 was recognized as a separate kingdom. Prince 
 Leopold of Saxe Coburg, widower of Princess 
 Charlotte of England, and uncle of Queen Vic- 
 toria, was elected to the crown, which had 
 been refused by Louis Philippe for his son, 
 the Duke of Nemours. The area of the king- 
 dom is nearly 11,400 square miles, and in 
 1856 its population was 4,530,228. It com- 
 prises the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, 
 
 BEL 
 
112 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 WestFlanders, East Flanders, Hainault, Liege, 
 Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur. It is 
 generally a low and level country, and its 
 short sea-coast of forty miles is carefully em- 
 banked against the encroachments of the sea. 
 The principal rivers are the Maas, or Meuse, 
 and the Schelde. It has not such a network 
 of canals as Holland, but there are many, both 
 for draining and for commercial intercourse. 
 The country is everywhere intersected by 
 wide and well-kept main roads, either paved 
 or macadamized, having commonly a double 
 row of lime-trees. Belgium was the first of 
 the continental states to adopt a general sys- 
 tem of railways. Coal and iron are exten- 
 sively mined. The grains are extensively 
 grown, and Belgian flax is of high repute. 
 The heavy Flemish horses are in much demand 
 for draught, and are largely exported. The 
 Flemings were once great weavers in woolens, 
 but the tyranny of Spain drove the artisans 
 away. Still, woolens are an important branch 
 of industry. Linens, cottons, and silks are 
 made. The laces of Brussels and Mechlin are 
 famous. 'The inhabitants of the northern 
 provinces of Belgium, comprising about two- 
 thirds of the population of the kingdom, are 
 mostly Flemings, speaking the Flemish tongue. 
 Those of the southern provinces are French, 
 speaking on the western side the Picard and 
 on the eastern the Walloon dialect of the 
 French language. The Belgians are mostly 
 Catholics, but freedom is enjoyed by all reli- 
 gious persuasions, and the Catholic and Prot- 
 estant clergy are both supported from the 
 public treasury. The government is a limited 
 constitutional monarchy. There are two leg- 
 islative chambers, both elective. The king 
 may confer titles of nobility, but no peculiar 
 privileges are granted thereby, since all dis- 
 tinction of orders is expressly repudiated by 
 the constitution. The French language is 
 used in all public affairs. The French decimal 
 system is also adopted for money, weights, 
 and measures. 
 
 The capital is Brussels (Bruxelles) ; popu- 
 lation 210,400. It is a miniature of Paris, 
 and one of the best built cities in Europe. Its 
 laces and carpets have long been noted. St. 
 Gery, Bishop of Cambray, founded it in the 
 seventh century. In 1695, during its memo- 
 rable bombardment by Marshal Villeroi, four- 
 teen churches and four thousand houses were 
 
 destroyed. It was taken by Marshal Saxe in 
 1746, and again by Dumouriez in 1792. Till 
 1814 it was held by France. The Hotel de 
 Ville of Brussels is the finest of all municipal 
 palaces. Its Gothic tower, three hundred 
 and sixty-four feet high, is surmounted by a 
 gilded copper statue of St. Michael, seventeen 
 feet tall, which serves as a weathercock. 
 
 Antwerp is the great port of Belgium. It 
 is strongly fortified, containing several beau- 
 tiful public buildings, and 90,000 inhabitants. 
 Its manufactures are important, especially its 
 black silks and velvets, and recently its com- 
 merce has been flourishing. Antwerp in the 
 eleventh century was a small republic. The 
 spirit of its inhabitants raised it to the rank 
 of the first commercial city in Europe. In 
 1585 it was taken by the Prince of Parma, 
 after a long and memorable siege, and the ex- 
 actions of Spain drove its trade to Amsterdam. 
 In the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 the Schelde, on which it is situated, was 
 crowded with vessels ; but its harbor was 
 closed by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. 
 This completed the ruin which the siege under 
 the Prince of Parma commenced. When Na- 
 poleon declared the Austrian Netherlands free, 
 he prevented the revival of its commerce by 
 making Antwerp a military depot. In 1814, 
 Carnot gallantly defended the city against the 
 English and Saxons. In 1832, the Dutch 
 garrison under General Chasse, held out for 
 a long time against the French and Belgians 
 under Marechal Gerard, but the latter were 
 victorious. Rubens was a native of Antwerp, 
 and here are preserved his finest paintings, as 
 well as many masterpieces of Vandyck and 
 other Flemish painters. Ghent (Gend) the 
 capital of East Flanders, is a handsome city 
 of 115,000 inhabitants, and the seat of 
 thriving manufactures. Its origin dates to 
 the fifth century. Here the third son of Ed- 
 ward III. of England was born, and hence 
 called John of Gaunt. Here also Charles Y. 
 of Spain was born. The woolen manufacture 
 was early established here. W ith wealth and 
 freedom the men of Ghent waxed turbulent, 
 and led on first by Jacques van Artevelde, 
 and afterward by his son Philip, they gave 
 many a proof of their sturdy valor and their 
 strong purses in brunts with the counts of 
 Flanders and the dukes of Burgundy. 
 population was once greater than now. ^ a ‘ 
 
 BEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 113 
 
 cification of Ghent, signed Nov. 8th, 1576. 
 Peace concluded here between Great Britain 
 and the United States, Dec. 24th, 1814. 
 Liege, on the Maas, has 80,000 inhabitants. 
 Its staple manufacture is that of fire-arms, 
 and it owes its prosperity to the valuable coal 
 fields adjacent. On account of the number of 
 its churches and convents, it was once termed 
 “the paradise of priests, the purgatory of 
 men, and the hell of women.” Bruges, the 
 capital of YV est Flanders, has a "population of 
 49,457. It was to commemorate the high 
 perfection which the woolen manufacture had 
 reached in Bruges, that Philip the Good in 
 1430tinstituted the order of the Golden Fleece. 
 While under the dominion of the dukes of 
 Burgundy, Bruges became a principal empo- 
 rium of the commerce of Europe, the great 
 centre of the English wool trade, and the con- 
 necting link between the Hanseatic league 
 and the rich republics of Italy. Then it had 
 a population of 200,000. Bruges was famous 
 for its carillons, or chimes, as early as 1300. 
 They are the finest in Europe, and are played 
 by machinery every quarter-hour. 
 
 BELGRADE (‘ white city ’), an important 
 commercial city of Servia, with 50,000 inhab- 
 itants, situated at the confluence of the Save 
 with the Danube. It is well fortified, com- 
 manding the Danube, and is at present occu- 
 pied by a Turkish garrison. It has been an 
 object fur the attainment of which the hostile 
 nations have struggled during the various 
 wars between Austria and Turkey. At dif- 
 ferent times it has been possessed by Greeks, 
 Hungarians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Servians, 
 and Austrians. The Turks besieged the city 
 in 1456, and a battle was fought between the 
 German and Turkish armies, in which the 
 latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 
 men. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522, 
 and retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from 
 whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. 
 A siege of it was undertaken in May, 1717, 
 under Prince Eugene. On Aug. 5th of that 
 year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, ap- 
 proached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle 
 was fought,. in which the Turks lost 20,000 
 men ; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. 
 It was held by Austria till 1739, when it was 
 ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications 
 had been demolished. It was again taken in 
 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichen- 
 8 
 
 bach, in 1790. The Servian insurgents had 
 possession of it in 1806. 
 
 BELISARIUS, general of the armies of the 
 Emperor Justinian. He defeated a superior 
 force of Persians, in the year 530, and in the 
 year after he took Carthage, made prisoner 
 Gelimer, king of the Vandals, and entered 
 Constantinople in triumph. He was next sent 
 against the Goths in Italy, and arriving on 
 the coasts of Sicily, took Catania, Syracuse, 
 Palermo, and other places. He then pro- 
 ceeded to Naples, which he took, and marched 
 to Rome. After this he conquered Vitiges, 
 king of the Goths, sent him to Constantinople, 
 and refused the crown which was offered him 
 by the Goths. For his exploits he was re- 
 garded as the savior of the empire, and med- 
 als are extant with this inscription, Belisarius 
 Gloria Romanorum, ‘ Belisarius, the glory.of 
 the Romans.’ Having fallen under suspicion 
 of Justinian, he was deprived of his property 
 and honors, but there is reason to believe that 
 he was subsequently restored to them. Mar- 
 montel in his romance, adopts a story which 
 is related by no contemporary historian ; that 
 Belisarius was deprived of his eyes by his 
 cruel master, and forced to beg his bread in 
 the streets of Constantinople. Others say that 
 he was imprisoned in a tower, whence he used 
 to let down a bag by a rope, addressing the 
 passengers in the following words : “ Give an 
 obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue exalted, 
 but envy crushed.” He died in 565. 
 
 BELKNAP, Jeremy, an American clergy- 
 man, born in June, 1744, educated at Harvard 
 College, and ordained pastor of the church in 
 Dover, N. H., 1767. For some years previous 
 to his death, which took place in 1798, he 
 officiated in a church in Boston. He was an 
 easy and correct writer, and his reputation 
 rests on his “History of New Hampshire,” 
 and two volumes of his unfinished “ American 
 Biography.” He was one of the founders of 
 the Massachusetts Historical Society. 
 
 BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent surgeon, 
 born at Edinburgh, 1774, died in 1842. He 
 made important discoveries respecting the 
 spinal marrow and the nerves. 
 
 BELLAMY, Joseph, D.D., an eminent 
 Congregational minister in Bethlem, Conn. 
 He died in 1790, at the age of seventy-one. 
 
 BELLINGHAM, Richard, deputy -governor 
 and governor of Massachusetts colony for 
 
 BEL 
 
114 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 twenty-three years, came to America in 1634, 
 and died in 1072, aged eighty. He somewhat 
 ^nocked the old Puritans by marrying for his 
 econd wife a lady affianced to another, per- 
 forming the ceremony himself without license. 
 
 BELLINI, Vincenzio, was born at Catania 
 in Sicily in 1806. He received his musical 
 education from Zingerelli in the conservatorio 
 of Naples, and produced, at the theatre San 
 Carlo, in that city, his opera “Bianco e Fer- 
 dinando,” before he was twenty years old. 
 He died of consumption in 1835 at Pa v is. 
 During his brief life he composed a num >er 
 of operas, the most of which are yet hig tly 
 popular: “IlPirata,” “La Straniera,” “La 
 Sonnambula,” “I Capuletti ed i Montecchi,” 
 “Norma,” “I Puritani,” &c. 
 
 BELLOT, Lieut., a young officer of promise 
 in the French navy, who volunteered in an 
 expedition dispatched by Lady Franklin to 
 search for her husband Sir John, in 1851. 
 He was of much service, and on his return at 
 once entered upon a second task of the same 
 nature. On the 21st of August, 1852, while 
 bearing dispatches to Sir Edward Belcher 
 across the ice, he was overtaken by a storm, 
 borne by a floe out to sea, and drowned. A 
 monument to his memory stands in the yard 
 of Greenwich Hospital. 
 
 BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, 
 and heathen. The responses of the Dodonean 
 oracle, were in part conveyed by bells. Pliny 
 tells us that the monument of Porsenna was 
 decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by 
 bells. They were introduced by Paulinus, 
 Bishop of Nola, in Campagna, about 400 ; 
 first known in France, 550 ; first used in the 
 Greek empire, 864; were introduced into 
 monasteries in the seventh or eighth century. 
 Pope Stephen III. placed three bells in a tower 
 on St. Peter’s at Rome. In the churches of 
 Europe they were introduced in 900, and about 
 this time they were used, by order of Pope 
 John IX., as a defense, by ringing them, 
 against thunder and lightning. They were 
 first introduced into Switzerland 1020. The 
 first tunable set in England were hung up in 
 Croyland Abbey, in Lincolnshire, 960 ; bap- 
 tized in churches, 1020. Bells of the church 
 of Notre Dame at Paris baptized and received 
 the names of Duke and Duchess d’ Angouleme, 
 the Prince de Foix and Duchess de Damas 
 being proxies, Nov. 15th, 1816. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN extends along the coast 
 of the Indian Ocean from the Indus nearly to 
 the Persian Gulf, comprising about 200,000 
 square miles. It is a rough region, and some 
 of the mountains are of great height. The 
 heat of summer is intense, and water scarce. 
 The desert of Beloochistan is three hundred 
 miles long, and two hundred broad. Among 
 the minerals of this country, are gold, silver, 
 lead, iron, copper, tin, alum, saltpetre, sul- 
 phur, rock salt, &c. Cotton, indigo, grain, 
 assafoetida, and madder are productions of 
 the soil. The natives are divided into three 
 tribes, the Belooches, the Dewars, and Bi a 
 hooes. They are Mohammedans, warlike, 
 half-civilized, and pastoral in their habits. 
 Kelat is a place of considerable strength, and 
 has about 20,000 inhabitants. The Khan of 
 Kelat has only a nominal authority over the 
 country. 
 
 * BELZONI, John Baptist, was born at Pa- 
 dua, and educated at Rome, being destined 
 for a monastic life. Having a taste, however, 
 for an active life, he served in the French ar- 
 mies, and went to England in 1803. Here 
 his finances were probably at a low ebb, for 
 he was reduced to exhibit postures at Astley’s. 
 From London he afterward went, with his 
 wife, to Egypt, passing through Portugal, 
 Spain, and Malta. Here he succeeded in 
 opening the pyramid of Cheops, which had 
 defied the ingenuity and efforts of the French, 
 that of Cephrenes, and several catacombs nea* 
 Thebes, one of which is believed to have been 
 the burial place of Psammis, who died 400 
 b.c. He exhibited great accuracy and skill 
 in the drawings which he took. In 1816, he 
 accomplished an undertaking of great diffi- 
 culty, the removal of the enormous bust of 
 Jupiter Memnon, and a sarcophagus of ala- 
 baster, from Thebes to Alexandria, whence 
 they were shipped for England. On the 1st 
 of August, 1817, he opened the temple of Ip- 
 sambul, near the second cataract of the Nile, 
 discovering a subterranean chapel in its ruins. 
 He discovered the ruins of the ancient Bere- 
 nice, four day’s journey from the spot where 
 Cailliaud asserted that he had found it. Bel- 
 zoni died on his way to Timbuctoo, Dec. 3d. 
 1823, at the age of forty -five. In person he 
 was tall and well-proportioned, and his gigan- 
 tic stature protected him from attack, even 
 when alone amidst ferocious barbarians. His 
 
 PEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 115 
 
 wife, who accompanied him to Egypt, dis- 
 played great intrepidity amidst the dangers 
 which they encountered. 
 
 BEM, Joseph, was a native of Gallicia, and 
 born in 1795. Bred to arms, he entered the 
 army of Napoleon, and served in the divisions 
 of Davoust and Macdonald, and, after peace 
 was concluded, was for a while an officer in 
 the Russian service. During the Polish rev- 
 olution he commanded the artillery. At Os- 
 trolenka he was wounded, but as he lay upon 
 the ground, he directed the movements of his 
 guns. When the cause of Poland was lost, 
 he sought refuge in France, and there and in 
 England tasted the bitter bread of poverty 
 and exile. Upon the breaking out of the 
 revolutions of 1848, he drew his sword in aid 
 of the Hungarians, and as a general in their 
 army brilliantly combated the Austrians. 
 When Austria and Russia triumphed, Bern 
 fled to Turkey, where he embraced Islamism. 
 and entered the Turkish army under the 
 name of Murad Bey. He died at Aleppo in 
 December, 1850. 
 
 BENAVIDES, an outlaw and pirate, whose 
 singular perseverance and ferocity rendered 
 him for many years the terror of the southern 
 parts of Chili. Under pretext of establishing 
 a navy, he seized upon English and American 
 vessels that stopped for refreshment near the 
 town of Arauco, the centre of his operations. 
 In 1821, the Chilians fitted out an expedition, 
 and succeeded in breaking up his stronghold, 
 and capturing him. He was condemned and 
 executed, February 23d, 1822. In the early 
 part of his career, he espoused the cause of 
 the Chilians against Spain, but soon deserted 
 them, and having been taken prisoner in the 
 battle of Maypu, 1818, he was sentenced to be 
 shot, and actually sustained the fire of a file 
 of soldiery. He was covered with wounds 
 and believed to be dead, but had his senses 
 left when he was dragged to the field where 
 the bodies of criminals were exposed. Here 
 a man who had owed him a grudge, smote 
 the supposed corpse with a sword, and such 
 were the powers of endurance possessed by 
 Benavides, that he did not flinch in the least, 
 or give the slightest sign of vitality, or of the 
 agony he suffered. As soon as it was dark, 
 he crawled away to the house of a friend, and 
 had his wounds dressed. His bravery and 
 fortitude would have honored a better cause. 
 
 BENBOW, John, an English admiral, born 
 in 1650. His gallantry in repelling the attack 
 of a Barbary corsair, when in the merchant 
 service, procured him the command of a ship 
 of war, from James II. Being sent by William 
 III. to the West Indies, he relieved the colo- 
 nies, and in a subsequent engagement with 
 the French fleet, off Carthagena, Aug. 19th, 
 1702, a chain-shot carried off one of his legs. 
 He was carried below, but, as soon as his 
 wound was dressed, brought on deck again, 
 and persisted in continuing the action. He 
 was abandoned at this moment, through the 
 cowardice of several captains under his com- 
 mand, who signed a paper expressing their 
 opinion that nothing more could be done, and 
 the whole fleet of the enemy was suffered -to 
 escape. Shortly after Benbow’s arrival at 
 Jamaica, where he died of his wounds and 
 chagrin in the following October, he received 
 a note from the French admiral, of which the 
 following is a literal translation : 
 
 “ Carthagena, Aug. 22d, 1702. 
 
 “Sir: I had little hopes, on Monday last, 
 but to have supped in your cabin: yet it 
 pleased God to order it otherwise. I am 
 thankful for it. As for those cowardly cap- 
 tains who deserted you, hang them up, for by 
 G-d they deserve it. “Du Casse.” 
 
 Two of the cowardly captains were tried 
 and shot upon their return to England. 
 
 BENEDICT, the name of several popes. 
 Of these, Benedict XIV. (Prosper Lamberti- 
 ni) was the most noted. When, on the death 
 of Clement XII., in 1740, the conclave was 
 divided, and the cardinals could not agree, 
 Lambertini said, in his good-natured way, 
 “If you want a saint, take Gotti; if a politi- 
 cian, Aldobrandi ; if a good old man, take 
 me.” The humorous manner in which this 
 quaint speech was delivered, operated like 
 magic, and Lambertini became sovereign 
 pontiff. He reformed abuses, introduced good 
 regulations, cultivated letters, encouraged 
 men of learning, and was a patron of the fine 
 arts. He died May 3d, 1758. 
 
 BENEDICT, St. (480-543), founded the 
 first religious order of the west. Besides per- 
 forming religious duties, the monks of his or- 
 der gave instructions to youth, in reading, 
 writing, ciphering, religion, and manual la- 
 bors, including all the mechanic arts. Bene- 
 dict caused the aged monks to copy manu- 
 
116 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 scripts, and thus many literary works of great 
 importance were preserved from ruin. From 
 the sixth to the tenth century, almost all the 
 monks in the west were Benedictines. The 
 rules of the order were severe. At an early 
 period the dress of the brethren of the differ- 
 ent monasteries varied, but after the sixth 
 century, when union was enjoined, the monks 
 of this order all wore black. The Cluniacs 
 were a branch of the Benedictines, proceeding 
 from the convent of Clugny in Burgundy, 
 founded in 910. Their regulations were at 
 first strict, but in the twelfth century, when 
 the order had two thousand monasteries, they 
 declined, from the excess of their luxury. 
 
 BENEZET, Anthony, was born at St. 
 Quentin, in France, January, 1713. His pa- 
 rents were opulent, and his descent noble. 
 The confiscation of his father’s estates, in con- 
 sequence of his having joined the Protestants, 
 in 1715, drove the family to England, where 
 Anthony was educated. Of his early life little 
 is known, but he was fourteen years of age 
 when he joined the society of Friends. In 
 1731, he came to Philadelphia in company 
 with his parents. His first employment was 
 that of instructor in a school at Germantown. 
 About 1750, being struck with the enormities 
 of the slave-trade, he determined to employ 
 all his energies in bettering the condition of 
 the blacks. He established an evening school 
 for them in Philadelphia, and taught them 
 gratuitously. On the subject of negro slavery 
 he published numerous short essays in alma- 
 nacs and newspapers, which he circulated 
 with unwearied assiduity. He printed and 
 distributed at his own expense, many valuable 
 tracts. The circulation of these was not con- 
 fined to America ; in Europe they procured 
 Benezet the notice and correspondence of many 
 eminent men. He undoubtedly gave the first 
 impulse to the measures which resulted in the 
 abolition of the slave-trade in the United 
 States. His philanthropy was unbounded; 
 the whole human race were his brethren. The 
 wrongs inflicted on the aborigines of North 
 America, excited his strong sympathy about 
 the year 1763, and his efforts in their behalf 
 excited the warmest admiration in all high- 
 minded observers of his course. In 1780, he 
 wrote and published a “ Short Account of the 
 Religious Society of Friends, commonly called 
 Quakers,” and in 1782, “A Dissertation on 
 
 the Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the 
 Christian Religion.” He also published and 
 circulated several tracts against the use of ar- 
 dent spirits. In the spring of 1784, he was 
 taken ill ; after his case was pronounced hope- 
 less, he conversed intelligently with hundreds 
 who came to see him. He died on the 5th of 
 May, at Philadelphia, extensively known and 
 beloved. His naturally strong understanding 
 was improved by extensive reading. His pri- 
 vate habits endeared him to his friends, and 
 his small estate was devoted to the furtherance 
 of his benevolent purposes. 
 
 BENNINGTON, a town in Vermont. Here 
 a battle was fought, Aug. 16th, 1777, between 
 a detachment of Burgoyne’s army, under 
 Lieut. -Col. Baum, and a body of American 
 militia commanded by Gen. Stark. Baum 
 was mortally wounded. Seven hundred of 
 the enemy were captured, and two hundred 
 and seven killed. The loss of the Americans 
 was about one hundred dead, and as many 
 wounded. A good quantity of arms and 
 ammunition fell into the hands of the victors. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English philoso- 
 phizer upon jurisprudence and morals, born 
 Feb. 6th, 1749. He was entered of Queen’s 
 College, Oxford, when only twelve years of 
 age, and was even then known by the name of 
 ‘the philosopher.’ He attained the ripe age 
 of eighty-four. This eccentric man, who 
 made utility the basis of his philosophy, be- 
 queathed his body to the dissectors, in order 
 to benefit the science of anatomy. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, a celebrated English 
 divine and classical scholar, was born in 1662. 
 His father was a blacksmith, and he received 
 his earliest instruction from his mother, a 
 woman of much talent. He entered St. 
 John’s College, Cambridge, at the age of 
 fourteen. He was victorious in a controversy 
 with the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterward Earl 
 of Orrery, relating to the genuineness of the 
 Epistles of Phalaris. Bentley was opposed 
 by a host of wits, Pope, Swift, Garth, Atter- 
 bury, Conyers, Middleton, &c., but he satis- 
 factorily proved that the Epistles were not 
 the production of the tyrant of Agrigentum, 
 who lived more than five centuries b.c. ; but 
 of some late sophists, who borrowed the name 
 of Phalaris. The tyrant Phalaris had a hol- 
 low brazen bull, in which, when hot, he used 
 to place those who were unfortunate enough 
 
 BEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 117 
 
 to displease him, and whose cries were thus 
 made to resemble the roarings of the animal. 
 Conyers Middleton, whose enmity to Bent- 
 ley arose from the epithet of fiddling Conyers, 
 applied to him while an university student, 
 was suspected of being the author of a pun- 
 ning caricature representing Bentley on the 
 point of being thrust into the brazen bull of 
 Phalaris, and exclaiming, “ I had rather be 
 roasted than Boyled.” Bentley was presented 
 by the crown to the mastership of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, worth nearly £1,000 a 
 year; and, in 1701, he was called to the arch- 
 deaconry of Ely. Among the accusations 
 brought against him, as head of the college, 
 he was accused of embezzling money, a charge 
 which occasioned a lawsuit that was termin- 
 ated in the doctor’s favor near twenty years 
 afterward. He was appointed Regius professor 
 of divinity at Cambridge, in 1716. In 1726, 
 he published his edition of Terence and Phce- 
 drus, his notes to which brought on a dispute 
 with Bishop Hare, on the metres of Terence, 
 when Sir Isaac Newton observed that “two 
 dignified clergymen, instead of minding their 
 duty, had fallen out about a play-book.” 
 Bentley’s edition of “Paradise Lost,” with 
 conjectural emendations, his last work, was a 
 decided failure. He died, July 14th, 1742. 
 
 BENYOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, Count 
 of, was born in 1741, at Werbowa, in Hun- 
 gary. His father was a general, and he 
 himself entered the Austrian service, and 
 served as a lieutenant in the seven years’ 
 war till 1758. Having joined the Polish con- 
 federation against Russia, and served with the 
 rank of colonel, commander of cavalry, and 
 quartermaster-general, he was taken by the 
 Russians in 1769, and sent to Kamtschatka. 
 On his voyage thither, he saved the vessel 
 during a storm, and thus, on his arrival, 
 secured a favorable reception from the gov- 
 ernor, Niloff, whose family he instructed in 
 the French and German languages. In May, 
 1771, he escaped from Kamtschatka, accom- 
 panied by Aphanasia, the governor’s daugh- 
 ter, and ninety-six other persons, sailing for 
 Formosa, whence he departed for Macao. 
 Here he lost many of his companions, and the 
 faithful and unfortunate Aphanasia. Arrived 
 in France, he was commissioned to found a 
 colony in Madagascar, where he arrived in 
 June, 1774. He was not long in gaining the 
 
 good will of the natives, who appointed him 
 their king. He went to Europe to obtain 
 recognition as an independent prince in Mad- 
 agascar, but was forced by the persecution of 
 the French ministry, to enter the Austrfan 
 service. In the battle of Habelschwerdt, 
 1778, he commanded against the Prussians. 
 In 1784, receiving assistance from private 
 persons in London and America, he set out 
 for Madagascar, and arrived in 1785. Here 
 he commenced hostilities against the French, 
 and the authorities of the Isle of France sent 
 a force against him ; in contending against 
 which he was wounded mortally, May 23d, 
 1786. The fate of Benyowsky’s only son 
 was singular: he is said to have been de- 
 voured by the rats of Madagascar. 
 
 BER ANGER, Pierre Jean de, was born 
 in Paris, Aug. 19th, 1780. During the storm 
 of the revolution he dwelt with an aunt at 
 Peronne, and there became apprentice to a 
 printer. This vocation led him to study, and 
 he determined to be a poet, a vocation the 
 adoption of which naturally included poverty. 
 It was such extreme poverty that he thought 
 of suicide. The kind aid of Lucien Bona- 
 parte rescued him from this wretchedness. 
 Beranger was a warm admirer of Napoleon, 
 and deeply deplored his fall. The unequaled 
 political songs of Beranger, for which at times 
 he was incarcerated or mulcted, helped to 
 make the Bourbons unpopular and bring on 
 the overturn of 1830. One of his fines was 
 paid by a national subscription opened by 
 his friend Lafitte, the banker. “ Beranger,” 
 said Benjamin Constant, “writes sublime 
 odes when he imagines he is only composing 
 simple songs.” He enjoyed the friendship of 
 Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Lamartine, and 
 Dumas. Adversity visited Beranger late in 
 life. His publisher failed, and he was me- 
 naced with losing the eighteen or twenty 
 thousand francs he had in the bankrupt’s 
 hands, all he had in the world. Lafitte knew 
 very well it would be lost time to persuade the 
 poet to accept money. He sent for M. Hector 
 Bossange, the well known publisher, and said 
 to him, as he placed eighteen bank notes of a 
 thousand francs in his hands, “ Go and see Be- 
 ranger, M. Bossange. Propose to him to 
 become the publisher of his works for the 
 next three years. Offer to take them at six 
 thousand francs a year certain, and such a 
 
 BER 
 
118 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 percentage on all sales over that amount, and 
 give him these eighteen thousand francs. You 
 will pay me when you clear thirty -six thou- 
 sand francs yourself.” M. Bossange called 
 instantly on Beranger and made him these 
 propositions. Beranger accepted them with 
 delight, and expressed warm gratitude to M. 
 Bossange. The latter, embarrassed at re- 
 ceiving thanks not his due, revealed the secret 
 he had been charged to keep inviolate. Ber- 
 anger’s manner changed instantly, and he 
 refused to take the money. Foiled in this 
 way, Lafitte took the affairs of the ruined 
 publisher in hand, and managed them so 
 well that the creditors were paid in full, Ber- 
 anger among the rest. 
 
 When the revolution to which the lyrics 
 of Beranger had aided, happened in July, 
 1830, he did not salute it with any paeans. 
 Nevertheless his popularity at this time was 
 unbounded. On the stages of every theatre 
 in France, his bust was crowned by the favor- 
 ite actress. The orchestra would play his 
 airs, and the audience would sing the words. 
 He fled from all this boisterous popularity, 
 and, what vexed him even more, the annoy- 
 ing visits of office seekers, anxious to procure 
 his recommendation. The last years of his 
 life were spent quietly in Paris, where he 
 died, July 16th, 1857. He had published 
 nothing since 1838. His decease caused all 
 France to mourn. He was buried by the 
 French government the day after his death, 
 and great precautions were taken to avoid a 
 popular outbreak at his funeral. 
 
 BERCHTOLD, Leopold, Count, born in 
 1758. He was a distinguished philanthro- 
 pist, and spent thirteen years in traveling 
 through Europe, and four in Asia and Africa, 
 to relieve the distresses of humanity. He 
 died July 26th, 1809, on his estate at Buch- 
 lan in Moravia, where he had fitted up an 
 hospital for sick and wounded Austrian sol- 
 diers. 
 
 BERESFORD, William, Baron, Duke of 
 Elvas, and Marquis of Campo Mayo, a dis- 
 tinguished British general. In 1810 he 
 defeated Soult at Albuera. In 1812, having 
 a command under Wellington, he shared in 
 the dangers and glory of the battles of Vit- 
 toria, Bayonne, and Toulouse. He died in 
 1854, at the age of eighty-six. 
 
 BERESINA, a river in the west of Russia, 
 
 famous for the passage of the French army 
 under Napoleon on the disastrous retreat 
 from Moscow, Nov. 26th and 27th, 1812. 
 The ice with which the morasses on both 
 sides of the river were covered, was not strong 
 enough to bear. The Russian army were 
 threatening the fugitives, whose discipline 
 was lost, and who, despairing of escaping by 
 means of the two crowded bridges, trusted 
 themselves to floating masses of ice and were 
 lost. Seventy -five hundred men and five gen- 
 erals, according to the Russian account, were 
 taken, and twice as many more lost their lives. 
 
 BERGHEM, Nicholas, a famous painter, 
 bom at Harlem in 1624, died in 1683. His 
 landscapes and representations of animals are 
 much valued. Once, when pursued by his 
 father, he fled for safety to the workshop 
 of Van Goyen, who shouted to his pupils, 
 “ Berg hem” (hide him); and this expres- 
 sion was adopted as his name. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, Bishop of Cloyne 
 in Ireland, famous for his ideal theory, that 
 there is nothing material, and that objects 
 which are called sensible material objects, 
 are not external, but only impressions made 
 upon the mind by an act of God, according 
 to certain laws of nature, which are invaria- 
 ble. Lord Byron says : 
 
 “ When Bishop Berkeley said there was no mat- 
 ter, 
 
 And proved it, ’twas no matter what he said.” 
 
 He was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, 1684. In 
 furtherance of his project for converting the 
 American savages to Christianity, by the 
 establishment of a college in the Bermuda 
 Islands, he considerably impaired his fortune. 
 He resided some time in Rhode Island. His 
 estate at Newport he gave to Yale College, 
 by which it is still held. Pope, who was 
 much attached to him, says that he had 
 “every virtue under heaven.” It was when 
 inspired by liis transatlantic scheme that he 
 penned those fine moral verses, the last stan- 
 za of which seems almost prophetic : 
 
 “Westward the course of empire takes its way; 
 
 The first four acts already past, 
 
 A fifth shall close the drama with the day; 
 
 Time’s noblest offspring is the last.” 
 
 He died in 1753, expiring without a groan 
 or sigh in the midst of his family, just as he 
 had concluded a commentary on that beau- 
 tiful and consoling portion of Holy Writ, the 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 119 
 
 fifteenth chapter of the first epistle to the 
 Corinthians. 
 
 BERKELEY, William, governor of Vir- 
 ginia under Charles I. and II. He was a- hot 
 royalist, and on the death of Matthews, whom 
 Cromwell had made governor in his stead, 
 being asked by the people to resume the exec- 
 utive, would only do so on condition that 
 Charles II. should be proclaimed king. The 
 consequences of this bold step might have 
 been serious, had not Cromwell’s death soon 
 followed. During the latter part of Berkeley’s 
 term, the colony was convulsed by Bacon’s 
 rebellion, and the governor’s severity caused 
 Charles II. to complain that “the old fool 
 shed more blood in that naked country than 
 he had done for the murder of his father.” 
 Berkeley died in England in 1077. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, Goetz, or Godfrey yon, 
 
 4 with the iron hand,’ a brave and honorable 
 knight of the middle ages, who headed the 
 rebellious peasants of Bavaria, against their 
 oppressors. Before this time, having lost his 
 right hand, he had substituted one made of 
 iron. He died July 23d, 1562. 
 
 BERLIN DECREE, a memorable inter- 
 dict launched by Napoleon against the com- 
 merce of England. It declared the British 
 islands to be in a state of blockade, and all 
 Englishmen found in countries occupied by 
 French troops were to be treated as prisoners 
 of war. The whole world, in fact, was to 
 cease from any communication with Great 
 Britain. It w'as issued from the palace at 
 Berlin, Nov. 21st, 1806, shortly after the 
 battle of Jena. 
 
 BERMUDAS, or Sommers’ Islands, a clus- 
 ter of about three hundred small islands in 
 the Atlantic. They were discovered by Juan 
 Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522. In 1609, Sir 
 George Sommers, an Englishman, who was 
 wrecked here, founded the first settlement. 
 Many are so unimportant as to have no name, 
 but the principal islands are St. George, 
 St. David, Cooper, Ireland, Somerset, Long 
 Island, Bird Island, and Nonesuch. The air 
 is healthy and invigorating to invalids, the 
 winter being hardly apparent. The islands, 
 however, are subject to frequent storms. 
 The soil is generally rich and fertile. Ship- 
 building is the principal occupation of the 
 islanders. The whole shore is surrounded 
 by rocks, dry at low water, but covered at 
 
 high tide. The Bermudas lie about five 
 hundred and thirty miles easterly from Cape 
 Hatteras. They are a British colony, and 
 have a population of 14,000. A small con- 
 vict station is maintained here. During the 
 wars between parliament and the crown, 
 many Englishmen of character and opu- 
 lence sought refuge in the “ still vexed Ber- 
 moothes;” among others the poet Waller, 
 who sang of their beauty in “ The Battle of 
 the Summer Islands.” 
 
 BERNADOTTE, Charles John, was born 
 1764. From a sergeantcy in the French army 
 he rose under Napoleon to the rank of mar- 
 shal of the empire and Prince of Ponte 
 Corvo. In 1810 he was chosen crown-prince 
 of Sweden. Sweden joined the allies against 
 France, and Bernadotte led her forces against 
 his former master. He defeated Ney at Den- 
 newitz in 1813. In 1818 he ascended the 
 Swedish throne, whereon he reigned till his 
 death in 1844. He was succeeded by his 
 son Oscar. Bernadotte had a singular aver- 
 sion to dogs, and could not bear the smell of 
 tobacco. 
 
 BERNARD, St., Abbot of Clairvaux, born 
 of noble family at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 
 1091. He was austere, eloquent, and bold, 
 and had the reputation of being a prophet. 
 He was called a honeyed teacher. Bernard 
 was the principal promoter of the crusade of 
 1146. Luther says of him, “If there ever 
 has been a pious monk who feared God, it 
 was St. Bernard; whom I hold in much 
 higher esteem than I do all other monks and 
 priests throughout the globe.” Bernard died 
 in 1153, and was canonized in 1174. 
 
 BERNARD, Great St., a mountain of the 
 Alps, 11,006 feet high, between the Swiss 
 Valais and the valley of Aosta, in Piedmont. 
 The two hospices, on the Great and Little 
 St. Bernard were built by Bernard de Men- 
 thon, a pious Savoyard nobleman, in 962. 
 They were under the care of Augustine 
 monks, indefatigable in the discharge of their 
 hospitality to wayfarers. The monks were 
 assisted in their search for lost travelers, by 
 great dogs, of whom many interesting tales 
 are told. Owing to the severity of the 
 weather, the dead bodies in the vault de- 
 cayed so slowly, that their features were 
 frequently recognized by friends, after *the 
 lapse of years. The monastery of Great St. 
 
 BER 
 
120 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Bernard is the most elevated fixed habita- 
 tion in Europe, and close upon the limits of 
 perpetual snow. After the revolution of 1847 
 in Switzerland, the monks were expelled from 
 these hospices, and they are now managed 
 by the government. It was by the pass of 
 the Great St. Bernard that Hannibal crossed 
 the Alps, and that Napoleon led his*troops to 
 the plains of Lombardy and the contest of 
 Marengo. Charlemagne and Barbarossa also 
 led armies over the Alps by this pass. In 
 the chapel of the hospice of Great St. Ber- 
 nard, is the monument of General Desaix, 
 who fell at Marengo. He was embalmed by 
 order of the first consul. The sculptor has 
 represented the warrior wounded, and sink- 
 ing from his horse into the arms of his aid. 
 On the stairs of the convent stands the statue 
 of Desaix in marble. 
 
 BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, born at 
 Naples, in 1598. He has been called another 
 Michael Angelo, on account of his success as 
 a painter, statuary, and architect. He was 
 patronized by several popes, and died, ex- 
 hausted by his labors, November 28th, 1680. 
 He left a fortune of about 3,300,000 francs 
 to his children. So early did his talents 
 shine forth, that at the age of eight years, 
 he executed the head of a child in marble, 
 which was thought a fine production. He 
 was not eighteen years old when he completed 
 his “Apollo and Daphne,” a work which he 
 examined at the close of life, and declared 
 that he had made little progress since that 
 time. So true it is that genuine enthusiasm 
 often supplies the place of experience. 
 
 BERRI, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of, 
 second son of Charles X. of France, born at 
 Versailles, Jan. 24th, 1778. Fie fled from 
 the revolutionary tempest, but was actively 
 engaged in the scenes at Paris, in 1814, on 
 the return of the Bourbons, and vainly en- 
 deavored to secure the fidelity of the troops 
 in and about Paris, when Napoleon returned 
 from Elba. He was assassinated in 1820, by 
 Louvel, who had long sought to extirpate the 
 house of Bourbon, and met his death with 
 .great firmness. Fie was- father of the Duke 
 of Bordeaux, one of the claimants of the 
 French crown. 
 
 BERRY, Mary, died in 1854, at the ad- 
 vanced age of almost ninety. She and her 
 sister, whose death preceded hers by eighteen 
 
 months, were known in the literary circles of 
 London, from the time of Dr. Johnson to that 
 of Macaula} 7- . They had read Miss Burney’s 
 “Evelina” when fresh from the press, and 
 lived to weep in sympathy with the world 
 over Dickens’s pathetic story of Little Nell 
 The two sisters were left, with their father, 
 the literary executors of Horace Walpole. 
 Both of them had received the offer of the 
 hand of that male gossip. Both had re- 
 jected it. 
 
 BERSERKER, in Scandinavian mythol- 
 ogy, a descendant of the eight-handed Star- 
 kader and the beautiful Alfhilde. Dis- 
 daining the protection of mail in battle, 
 he obtained his name, which signifies 4 the 
 armorless.’ In battle, his rage was un- 
 governable. He married the daughter of 
 Swafurlam, whom he had slain, and had 
 twelve sons who equaled him in fierce- 
 ness. 
 
 BERTIFIER, Alexander, Prince of Neuf- 
 chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-constable 
 of France, &c., born at Paris, 1753. At an 
 early age, he served under La Fayette, in 
 America. He was a great favorite of Napo- 
 leon, under whom he acted as chief of his 
 staff, assisting in those great victories which 
 made France master of Italy, Germany, and 
 Prussia. At the downfall of Napoleon in 
 1814, Berthier professed allegiance to the 
 Bourbons, showing more zeal for them than 
 became the favored friend and well paid serv- 
 ant of the fallen emperor. When Napoleon 
 returned from Elba, Berthier left France with 
 the Bourbon princes, and soon ended his life 
 by suicide. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, born in 
 Savoy, December 9th, 1748, died at Paris, 
 November 6th, 1822, one of the most illustri- 
 ous of chemists. He wrote a valuable work 
 on dyeing, was the first to use in bleaching 
 the decolorizing properties of chlorine gas, 
 and discovered the chlorate of potash, a salt 
 which not only, as an indispensable ingredient 
 in the lucifer match, administers to the con- 
 venience of every one, but enables many a 
 shivering outcast to supply his daily wants. 
 He was aided by the friendship of Napoleon. 
 Upon the restoration he fell into reduced cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 BERTRAND, Henri Gratien, count, gen- 
 eral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon, 
 
 BER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 121 
 
 grand marshal of the palace, &c. He early- 
 distinguished himself in the engineer corps. 
 He served near the person of Napoleon, par- 
 ticularly at Austerlitz, where he was the em- 
 peror’s aid-de-camp. He and his family 
 shared the last residence of Napoleon, after 
 his fall. He died in 1844, aged seventy -four. 
 
 BERWICK, James Fitz-James, Duke of, 
 was born in 1670. He distinguished himself 
 as a general in the Bourbon cause in Spain, 
 where he won the battle of Almansa, and 
 
 Testament was divided into twenty-two books 
 by the Jews, according to the number of let- 
 ters in the Hebrew alphabet. The Christians 
 divided it into thirty -nine. The Hebrew di- 
 vision into chapters was made by the Rabbi 
 Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided 
 into chapters, and partly into verses, by Arch- 
 bishop Langton, who died 1228 ; and the latter 
 division was perfected by Robert Stephens, 
 the eminent French printer, about 1534. The 
 following are curious computations : 
 
 captured Barcelona, after a resistance, by the 
 citizens, of fifteen months. He was a natural 
 son of James II. of England, nephew of the 
 great Marlborough, and a marshal of France. 
 He was killed at Phillipsburg, 1734. 
 
 BESSIERES, John Baptist, Duke of Istria, 
 one of Napoleon’s generals, marshal of France, 
 born Aug. 6th, 1768, killed at Rippach, May 
 1st, 1813. 
 
 BEZA, Theodore, after Calvin, the most 
 distinguished among the Calvinistic preachers 
 of the sixteenth century, born in 1519. At 
 the age of twenty, he published his Latin 
 poems, collected under the title of “Juvenilia,” 
 a work of which he was afterward ashamed. 
 
 At an early age he was dissipated, but re- 
 formed by marriage, and a dangerous illness. 
 He distinguished himself in the service of the 
 reformed church, and, in 1564, became Cal- 
 vin’s successor. Vain were the efforts of his 
 adversaries to gain an advantage over him. 
 His truth and wit were a splendid defense, 
 and at the age of seventy-eight years, his in- 
 tellectual faculties appeared as clear as ever. 
 The pope made him brilliant offers, but he 
 nobly rejected them. He died Oct. 13th, 
 1605, of old age. He wTis a great Greek 
 scholar, and his edition of the New Testament 
 was taken as the basis of the English version. 
 
 BIBLE. The first translation of the Old 
 Testament from the Hebrew into the Greek 
 was made by seventy-two interpreters, by or- 
 der of Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Alexandria, 
 277 b.c., or according to others 284 b.c. From 
 the number of translators this is called the 
 Septuagint. The oldest version of the Old 
 and New Testaments is that in the Vatican, 
 which was written in the fourth or fifth cen- 
 tury. The next in age is the Alexandrian 
 MS. in the British Museum, presented by the 
 Greek patriarch to Charles I., said to have 
 been copied about the same time. The Old 
 
 BIB 
 
 In the Old Testament. 
 
 Books, 
 
 Chapters, 
 
 Verses, 
 
 Words, 
 
 39 
 
 929 
 
 23,214 
 
 592,493 
 
 Letters, 2,728,100 
 
 In the New. 
 
 27 
 260 
 7,959 
 181,253 
 838,380 
 
 Total. 
 66 
 1,189 
 31,173 
 773,746 
 3,566,480 
 
 The Apocrypha has 183 chapters, 6,081 
 verses, and 125,185 words. The middle 
 chapter, and the least in the Bible, is the 
 117th Psalm ; the middle verse is the 8th of 
 the 118th Psalm; the middle line is the 2d 
 book of the Chronicles, 4th chapter, and 15th 
 \rerse. The word ‘and’ occurs in the Old 
 Testament 35,535 times ; the same word in 
 the New Testament occurs 10,684 times ; the 
 word ‘Jehovah’ occurs in the Old Testament 
 6,855 times. The middle book of the Old 
 Testament is Proverbs ; the middle chapter is 
 the 29th of Job ; the middle verse is in the 2d 
 book of Chronicles, 20th chapter and 13th 
 verse ; the least verse is the 1st book of Chron- 
 icles, 1st chapter, and 1st verse. The middle 
 book of the New Testament is the second 
 epistle to the Thessalonians ; the middle chap- 
 ter is between the 13th and 14th of the Ro- 
 mans; the middle verse is the 17th of the 
 17th chapter of the Acts ; the least verse is 
 the 35th verse of the 11th chapter of the Gos- 
 pel by St. John. The 21st verse of the 7th 
 chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the al- 
 phabet in it. The 19th chapter of the 2d book 
 of Kings, and the 37th chapter of Isaiah, are 
 alike. The book of Esther has 10 chapters, 
 but neither the words Lord nor God in it. 
 
 The Bible was translated into Saxon in 939. 
 The Vulgate version in Latin was made by 
 St. Jerome, and is that acknowledged by the 
 Roman Catholic church as authentic : it was 
 first printed in 1462. In 1604, a great con- 
 ference was held at Hampton Court, between 
 
122 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the established and the puritan clergy. The 
 existing English version was condemned. 
 James I. therefore appointed fifty-four men, 
 many of whom were eminent as Hebrew and 
 Greek scholars, to commence a new transla- 
 tion. In 1607, forty-seven of these met, in 
 six parties, at Oxford, Cambridge, and West- 
 minster, and proceeded to their task, a certain 
 portion of Scripture being assigned to each. 
 Every individual of each division, in the first 
 place, translated the portion given to the di- 
 vision, all of which translations were collated ; 
 and when each party had determined on the 
 construction of its part, it was proposed to 
 the other divisions for their examination. 
 When they met together one read the new 
 version, whilst all the rest held in their hands 
 either copies of the original, or some valuable 
 version, and on any one objecting to a passage 
 the reader stopped till it was agreed upon. 
 The result, known as King James’s version, 
 was published in 1611, and is that still in use 
 throughout Great Britain and the United 
 States. It is an excellent specimen of the 
 language of the time, and being universally 
 read by all classes of the people, it has con- 
 tributed most essentially to give stability And 
 uniformity to the English tongue. Martin 
 Luther’s translation of the Bible made the di- 
 alect of Upper Saxony the language of all 
 Germany. The Holland tongue or Low Dutch, 
 as now spoken, has for its basis the German 
 language in use before this time. 
 
 The Bible was printed in Spanish, 1478 ; 
 in German, 1522 ; in French, 1535 ; in Swed- 
 ish, 1541 ; in Danish, 1550 ; in Dutch, 1560 ; 
 in Russian, 1581; in Hungarian, 1589; in 
 Polish, 1596; in modern Greek, 1638; in 
 Turkish, 1666; in' Irish, 1685; in Portuguese, 
 1748; in Manx, 1771; in Italian, 1776; in 
 Bengalee, 1801; in Tartar, 1813; in Persian, 
 1815; in African, 1816; in Chinese, 1820. 
 A polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, Bishop 
 of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, 
 Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek 
 and Latin languages, was printed in 1657. 
 The books known as the Apocrjrpha, in an 
 old preface to which it is said, “These books 
 are neyther found in the Ilebrue nor in the 
 Chalde,” were not in the Jewish canon, but 
 were received as canonical by the Romish 
 church at the council of Trent in 1545. 
 
 We present a succinct sketch of the history 
 
 of our English Bible. The English version of 
 the Scriptures now in use, is itself the result 
 of repeated revisions. In the preface to the 
 Bishop’s Bible (a.d. 1568) a distinct reference 
 is made to early Saxon versions, and there 
 are still extant, parts of the Bible in Saxon, 
 translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and 
 by iElfric of Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. 
 of the Gospels are still preserved in the libra- 
 ries of the British Museum, and Corpus Christi 
 College, Cambridge. The first complete 
 translation of the Bible was made by Wick- 
 liffe, about a.d. 1380. It existed only in 
 manuscript for many years, but the whole is 
 now in print (New Testament 1731 ; Old Tes- 
 tament, 1848). The work was regarded with 
 grave suspicion ; and a bill was introduced 
 into the House of Lords for suppressing it ; 
 but through the influence of John of Gaunt, 
 this was rejected. In 1408, however, in a 
 convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved 
 that no one should translate any text of Scrip- 
 ture into English, as a book or tract, and that 
 no book of the kind should be read. This 
 resolution led to great persecution, though 
 there is reason to believe, that notwithstand- 
 ing, many manuscripts of Scripture were at 
 that time in extensive circulation throughout 
 England. The first printed edition of the 
 Bible in English, was published by Tyndale, 
 the New Testament in 1526, and the Bible in 
 part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop of London, 
 and Sir Thomas More took great pains to 
 buy up and burn the impression, but with 
 the effect thereby, of enabling the* translator 
 to publish a larger and improved edition. On 
 the death of Tyndale (who died a martyr to 
 the truth), Miles Coverdale revised the whole, 
 and dedicated it to Henry VIII., 1535, and in 
 1537, John Rogers, who had assisted Tyn- 
 dale, and was then residing at Antwerp, re- 
 printed an edition, taken from Tyndale and 
 Coverdale. This edition was published under 
 the assumed name of Thomas Matthews. A 
 revision of this edition again was published 
 (a.d. 1539) by Richard Taverner. The Great 
 Bible appeared in 1539. It was Coverdale’s, 
 revised by the translator, under the sanction 
 of Cranmer. It was printed in large folio. 
 For the edition of 1540, Cranmer wrote a pre- 
 face, and it is hence called Cranmer’s Bible. 
 
 It was published “by authority,” and was 
 ordered in 1549 to be read in the churches. 
 
 BIB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 123 
 
 READING THE BIBLE TO THE PEOPLE. 
 
 During the seven years of the reign of Edward 
 VI., eleven editions of the Scriptures were 
 printed : but no new version or revision was 
 attempted. During the reign of Mary, was 
 published the Geneva Bible, a.d. 1557-60. 
 Coverdale and others who had taken refuge 
 in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal an- 
 notations. Archbishop Parker obtained au- 
 thority from Queen Elizabeth, to revise the 
 existing translations, and with' the help of va- 
 rious bishops and others, published in 1568 
 what was called the Bishops’ Bible. It con- 
 tains short annotations, and in the smaller 
 editions (from 1589) the text is divided, like 
 the Genevan, into verses. The same text 
 was afterward printed, in 1572, in a larger 
 size, and with various prefaces, under the 
 name of Matthew Parker’s Bible. It contin- 
 ued in common use in the churches for forty 
 years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps 
 more read in private. The Rhemish New 
 Testament; and the Douay Old Testament, 
 form the English Bible of the Romanists. The 
 former was printed at Rheims (a.d. 1582), 
 
 and the latter, at Douay (a.d. 1609-10). In 
 1 603, # King James resolved on a revision of 
 the translation, and for this purpose appointed 
 fifty-four men of learning and piety. Forty- 
 seven only undertook the work, and in four 
 years (from 1607-11) it was completed. The 
 text as thus prepared and printed in 1611, is 
 the authorized version. 
 
 The first Bible printed on the continent of 
 America was in native Indian ; the New Tes- 
 tament in 1661, and the Old in 1668; both 
 translated by Rev. John Eliot, and printed at 
 Cambridge, Mass. As the title records, it 
 was “ translated into the Indian language, and 
 ordered to be printed by the Commissioners 
 of the United Colonies .in New England, at 
 the charge and with the consent of the Cor- 
 poration in England for the Propagation of 
 the Gospel among the Indians in New Eng- 
 land.” Printed by Samuel Green and Mar- 
 maduke Johnston. In the emphatic words of 
 Dr. Cotton Mather, this was then “the only 
 Bible that ever was printed in all America 
 from the very foundation of all the world.” 
 
124 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 The second was in German, a quarto edition 
 published at Germantown near Philadelphia, 
 by Christopher Sower, in 1676. The first 
 edition in English was printed by Kneeland 
 and Green, at Boston in 1752, in small quarto. 
 It was published by Henchman, a bookseller ; 
 but to avoid prosecution from those who had 
 a royal patent, the title-page of the English 
 copy, London imprint and all, was reprinted. 
 The next edition was issued by Robert Aitken, 
 of Philadelphia, in 1781-2. He sent a memo- 
 rial to Congress, praying for their patronage. 
 His memorial was referred to a committee, 
 who obtained the opinion of the chaplains of 
 Congress as to the general typographical ac- 
 curacy of his impression; and thereupon a 
 resolution was passed Sept. 12th, 1782, rec- 
 ommending this edition of the Bible to the 
 people of the United States. 
 
 BIDDLE, James, commodore in the navy 
 of the United States, was born in Philadel- 
 phia in 1788. He distinguished himself in 
 the war of 1812, and was an officer on the 
 Wasp when she took the British brig Frolic. 
 March 23d, 1815, Biddle, then in command of 
 the sloop Hornet, met with the British brig- 
 of-war Penguin, off Tristan d’Acunha, and 
 captured her after an action of only twenty- 
 two minutes. He served as a diplomatist, 
 and signed the commercial treaty with Turkey 
 in 1832. In 1845 he was interim commis- 
 sioner to China in the place of A. H. Everett. 
 He died in 1848. 
 
 BIDDLE, Nicholas, captain in the United 
 States navy, was born at Philadelphia in 1750, 
 and was a midshipman in the British service. 
 He served in the infant navy of his country 
 during the war for independence, and was 
 very successful, till March 7th, 1778, when, 
 in action in the West Indies with the Yar- 
 mouth, the Randolph, which he commanded, 
 blew up. His crew numbered three hundred 
 and fifteen. But four escaped, and Capt. Bid- 
 dle was among the lost. 
 
 BIDDLE, Nicholas, an eminent financier, 
 was born in Philadelphia, Jan. 8th, 1786. 
 His father was a strong patriot during the 
 Revolution. Nicholas graduated at Princeton 
 College in 1801 with high honor, studied law, 
 and accompanied Gen. Armstrong, minister 
 to France, as private secretary in 1804, and 
 was afterward secretary to Mr. Monroe at the 
 court of St. James. Returning from foreign 
 
 travel, he commenced practice at Philadelphia 
 in 1807, and also engaged in literary occupa- 
 tions, preparing the account of Lewis and 
 Clarke’s expedition to the Pacific shore. In 
 1823 he was chosen president of the United 
 States Bank, and was active in defense of that 
 institution against the hot war that was waged 
 upon it. After its bankruptcy, he retired in 
 1839 to his estate of Andalusia, on the Dela- 
 ware near Philadelphia, where he died in 1844. 
 
 BIEVRE, Marquis de, marshal, born in 
 1747, died in 1789. He was much celebrated 
 for ready repartees and puns. When pre- 
 sented to Louis XV., the following dialogue 
 took place. Louis. Give me a specimen of 
 your wit. B. Give me a subject, sire. Louis. 
 Take me. B. Sire, the king is no subject. 
 
 BINGEN ; a town in Hesse Darmstadt, on 
 the left bank of the Rhine ; population, 5,000. 
 In its vicinity is the famous Mouse Tower, 
 connected with which is the following tale. 
 In a time of great famine, Bishop Hatto played 
 the usurer, to the distress and ruin of many 
 poor people. For this he is said to have met 
 a dreadful punishment. Thousands on thou- 
 sands of mice pouring into his dwelling, com- 
 pelled him to seek refuge in his tower on the 
 Rhine. But here he enjoyed but a brief 
 interval of rest. The army of mice swam 
 the river, scaled the rocky precipice, and 
 leaped into the tower, at every cranny, grate, 
 and loop-hole. The bishop attempted to 
 pray, but his utterance failed; he listened 
 to the noise of the mice as they swiftly 
 approached his turret-chamber. At length 
 they gained an entrance, and devoured the 
 prelate, tearing the flesh from his bones, and 
 leaving him a mere skeleton. 
 
 BIRD, William, 1540-1623, an admired 
 English musician, the composer of the great 
 canon, “ Non Nobis Domine.” 
 
 BIREN, Ernst John von, Duke of Cour- 
 land, born 1687, died 1772. He is said to 
 have been the son of Buhren, a peasant of 
 Courland. He gained the favor of Anna, 
 Duchess of Courland, afterward Empress of 
 Russia, by his beauty and accomplishments, 
 and when his mistress was raised to the 
 throne, was not forgotten by her. While 
 in power, he was fierce, resentful, and am- 
 bitious, and caused the death of thousands. 
 After the death of Anna, a conspiracy was 
 formed against him, and he was banished to 
 
 BIR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 125 
 
 Siberia. But he was recalled on the acces- 
 sion of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the 
 Great, to the throne. After another exile of 
 twenty-five years, he was again recalled by 
 Peter III., and, during the reign of Cathe- 
 rine II., continued to enjoy the royal favor 
 until his death. 
 
 BIRMA, or the Birman empire, extends 
 over more than a fourth of the peninsula be- 
 yond the Ganges, having an area of about 
 184,000 square miles, and a population of 
 three millions. The Birmans of Ava made 
 themselves independent of Pegu, ih the six- 
 teenth century, but were reconquered in the 
 eighteenth. The spirit of independence, 
 however, was abroad, and Alompra, one of 
 the leaders of the Birmans, kindled anew the 
 flame of revolt in 1753, and recovered the 
 city of Ava. Various fortunes followed, till 
 Alompra finally made himself master of the 
 city of Pegu. This monarch, whose abilities 
 were devoted to the good of his subjects, died 
 in 1760, at the age of fifty years, leaving his 
 throne to his son Namdogee, who inherited 
 his father’s spirit and talent, and died in 
 1764. Shambuan, his brother, was victorious 
 in a war with China, during which Siam, 
 which he had previously conquered, regained 
 its independence. In 1776, this prince left 
 his empire, greatly extended, to his son 
 Chengenza, who in consequence of excessive 
 debauchery, was dethroned and put to death 
 in 1782. Shembuan Menderagan, the fourth 
 son of Alompra, was placed by the revolution 
 on the throne. In 1783, he subdued Arra- 
 can. A war with Siam, in which he next 
 engaged, resulted, in 1793, in the submis- 
 sion of that kingdom upon certain terms. 
 The refusal of the East India Company to 
 deliver up some Birman refugees, who were 
 robbers, brought on a war with Shembuan, 
 which was soon amicably concluded. Shem- 
 buan’s grandson ascended the throne in 
 1819. In 1826, a war which had broken 
 out between the Burmese and English, ended 
 in a treaty, by which the king of the white 
 elephant and the golden feet (titles of the 
 monarchs of Birmah) ceded to the East In- 
 dia Company large tracts on the western 
 coast of his empire, including Arracan, Mer- 
 guy, Tavay, and Yea. Assam became inde- 
 pendent, and Rangoon was declared a free 
 port. The Birmese also paid a million 
 
 sterling as indemnity. In 1852, further hos- 
 tilities were ended by the British conquest 
 of Pegu. The Birmans are gay, irritable, 
 active, and fond of show. No man is per- 
 mitted to have more than one wife, and 
 capital punishment is extended to confirmed 
 opium eaters and drunkards in general. The 
 bodies of the dead are burned. The com- 
 merce of the Birmese is extensive, and the 
 merchants make use of bars of gold, silver, 
 and lead in the place of coin. • The people 
 are fond of amusements, particularly dramatic 
 spectacles. Education is not wholly neg- 
 lected among them, every one learning arith- 
 metic, reading, and writing. They have 
 uncleanly fashions in eating, gormandizing 
 on reptiles, lizards, iguanas, and snakes. 
 Fried worms and ants are choice dishes. 
 Their faith forbids the killing of animals 
 for food; hence they eat those that die of 
 disease. They are Buddhists in religion. 
 
 BIRON, Charles de Gontaut, Duke of; 
 an intriguing nobleman in the reign of 
 Henry IV. of France, tried on a charge of 
 treason, and beheaded July 31st, 1602. 
 
 BITHYNIA, an ancient country of Asia 
 Minor, also called Bebrycia. It lay on the 
 Pontus Euxinus, the Thracian Bosphorus, 
 and the Propontis, and was bounded on the 
 south by Phrygia. It was held successively 
 by the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and 
 Macedonians. It afforded for some time an 
 asylum to Hannibal, who was at last delivered 
 up. Nicomedes III., the last king, be- 
 queathed the kingdom to the Romans, b.c. 75. 
 In 1298, the Ottoman Turks founded their 
 empire here ; previous to which, the Seljuks 
 had conquered it in the eleventh century. 
 
 BLACK HOLE. One hundred and forty- 
 six British gentlemen, merchants and others, 
 in the service of the East India Company, 
 were seized by order of Surajah Dowlah, 
 June 20th, 1756, and thrust into a dungeon at 
 Calcutta, called the Black Hole, in the fort, 
 by his soldiers. These latter saw that the 
 place was too small for such a number, but 
 they feared to awaken the nabob, then asleep, 
 for further orders. One hundred and twenty- 
 three of the sufferers died before morning, 
 having been suffocated by the heat, crushing, 
 and stench of a dungeon only eighteen feet 
 square. 
 
 BLACK SEA, the Euxine of the ancients, 
 
 BLA 
 
126 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 an inland sea between Europe and Asia 
 Minor, covering about 170,000 square miles. 
 It is connected with the Sea of Azof by the 
 Strait of Yenikale, or Kertsch, and with the 
 Mediterranean through the Bosphorus, Sea 
 of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. This sea 
 was navigated early by the .Greeks, and well 
 frequented by the Romans. It was also 
 much visited by the Genoese, till it was closed 
 to all nations by the Turks from the fifteenth 
 to the eighteenth centuries. The Russians 
 gained admission by treaty in 1774. In 1779, 
 it was partially opened to British and other 
 traders. It was entered by the British and 
 French fleets, Jan. 3d, 1854, at the requisi- 
 tion of the Porte, after, the destruction of 
 the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 
 Nov. 30th, 1853. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, Thomas, a poet and cler- 
 gyman, born at Annan, in 1721. Although 
 deprived of sight in infancy, he became 
 famous for his acquirements, and took a high 
 station among the literati of Scotland. He 
 died July, 1791. 
 
 BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, an inferior 
 English poet and superior physician, born 
 1650, and died October 8th, 1729. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Sir William, an English 
 lawyer of great celebrity, and a writer on the 
 British constitution, was born in London, 
 in 1723. He was the son of a silk mercer, 
 but being left an orphan, was brought up 
 and educated by Mr. Thomas Bigg, his uncle, 
 a surgeon. He left Pembroke College, Ox- 
 ford, with a high reputation, and, in 1746, 
 after faithful preparatory study, was admitted 
 to the bar and commenced practice. His 
 progress was slow, owing to his deficiency 
 in elocution ; and he accordingly determined 
 to forsake the practice of the law, and retire 
 to his fellowship at Oxford. In 1759, when 
 several of his legal works had attracted the 
 attention of the public, he resumed practice, 
 and honors and emoluments poured in upon 
 him. In 1761, he was chosen member of 
 parliament from Hindon, made king’s coun- 
 sel, and solicitor-general to the queen ; about 
 this time, also, he married. In 1765, the 
 first volume of his “ Commentaries on the 
 Laws of England” appeared, and was pro- 
 nounced superior to any work upon the same 
 subject which had before been published. 
 In 1770 he was made one of the justices of 
 
 common pleas, and he died in his fifty-seventh 
 year, 1780. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, William, the first white 
 inhabitant of Boston, was a clergyman of 
 the church of England, and had built his 
 cottage among the Indians five years before 
 the arrival of Winthrop in 1630. He did not 
 relish the neighborhood of the Puritans. “ I 
 came,” said he, “from England’because I did 
 not like the lord bishops, but I can not join 
 with you, because I would not be under the 
 lord brethren,” and in 1634 he removed to 
 the bank of the Pawtucket or Blackstone 
 River, near Providence, where he died in 
 1675. 
 
 BLADENSBURG, Md., six miles north- 
 east of Washington, is memorable for a severe 
 skirmish, Aug. 24th, 1814, between a small 
 force of Americans and a portion of the Brit- 
 ish army marching to destroy the capital. 
 Bladensburg was formerly much resorted to 
 as a dueling ground. Decatur and Barron 
 met here. 
 
 BLAIR, James, was born in Scotland, about 
 1660. In 1683, he was sent out to America, 
 as a missionary, by Dr. Compton, Bishop of 
 London ; and by the same prelate, was ap- 
 pointed in 1685, his commissary in Virginia. 
 It was at the latter epoch, that he conceived 
 the plan, and by unwearied exertions, suc- 
 ceeded in founding a college at Williams- 
 burg. The patent for the college was granted 
 by William and Mary, about 1693, and from 
 its founders the institution was named Wil- 
 liam and Mary College. Mr. Blair was first 
 president; and having filled the ministry 
 sixty, and the presidency of the college fifty 
 years, he died in 1743. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, an eloquent divine, was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1718, and made preach- 
 er of the High Church in that city in 1758. 
 Having acquired a high reputation by his lec- 
 tures on composition, he was made professor 
 of rhetoric and belles-lettres at Edinburgh, 
 in 1762. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch clergyman, 
 author of “ The Grave.” Born at Edinburgh 
 in 1699, he died in 1746. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, one of the most renowned 
 of England’s naval heroes, was born at 
 Bridgewater, in August, 1599. At Oxford 
 where he was educated, he was noted for his 
 strictness in religion, and his liberality in 
 
 BLA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 127 
 
 politics. At the outbreak of the civil war he 
 raised one of the first troops, and was among 
 the ablest of the soldiers who fought for the 
 parliament. He held Taunton during a long 
 siege, and successfully defended it' against a 
 large body of royalists under Goring. When 
 the war was over, he was put in command 
 of the ships that were sent against Prince 
 Rupert’s piratical squadron. The navy was 
 not then the separate branch of defense that 
 it now is. A successful general was thought 
 competent to command a. fleet. Blake was 
 fifty years of age, but he adapted himself at 
 once to the element on which he was to sur- 
 pass all his former prowess. W ar broke but 
 between the English and Dutch in 1652. 
 Desperate naval battles ensued. Once, and 
 once only, was he beaten by Van Tromp, 
 but then the Dutch force was twice the 
 English. He nearly destroyed the Dutch 
 navy in two years, and Holland sued for 
 peace. Cromwell sent him to the Mediter- 
 ranean. He forced Algiers "and Tunis to 
 surrender their English captives. He com- 
 pelled the knights of Malta and the Tuscan 
 government to pay for the seizure of English 
 merchantmen, and made the pope smart for 
 having allowed them to be sold in his ports. 
 When the Spanish war began, he blockaded 
 Cadiz. His last and most daring exploit was 
 at Santa Cruz in Teneriffe in April, 1657. 
 Here he destroyed sixteen Spanish ships, 
 secured with great nautical skill, and pro- 
 tected by the castle and forts on the shore. 
 Lord Clarendon said, “It was so miracu- 
 lous, that all who knew the place wondered 
 any sober man, with what courage soever 
 endowed, would have undertaken it ; and the 
 victors could hardly persuade themselves to 
 believe what they had done ; whilst the sur- 
 viving Spaniards thought that they were 
 devils and not men, who had destroyed their 
 ships in such a manner.” The terror of 
 Blake’s name was so great, that it was used 
 by the Dutch and Spaniards to quell their 
 children. The great admiral sickened upon 
 his return to England, and died in sight 
 of the shores he had so stoutly defended. 
 Cromwell caused him to be buried with 
 fitting pomp in Westminster Abbey, but 
 after the restoration his body was torn from 
 its vault and coffin, and thrown into a pit in 
 the neighboring church-yard of St. Margaret’s. 
 
 BLAKELEY, Johnston, born in Ireland 
 1781, was a distinguished naval officer in the 
 service of the United States. In 1800 he 
 received a midshipman’s warrant, and in 
 1813 was appointed to the command of the 
 Wasp. In an action with the Reindeer in 
 1814, he took her in nineteen minutes, but 
 was forced to abandon her, as she was so 
 completely cut up. The loss of the Ameri- 
 cans in killed and wounded was twenty-one ; 
 that of the British sixty-seven. After an 
 engagement with the brig Avon, which was 
 forced to strike, although three other Eng- 
 lish vessels were in sight, the Wasp was 
 spoken by a vessel off the Western Isles, 
 since which time she has not been heard of. 
 Blakeley left an only daughter, who was edu- 
 cated by the state of North Carolina. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Francois, one of the ear- 
 liest aeronauts, born at Andelys, in France, 
 in 1738. He showed an early fondness for 
 mechanics, and in his sixteenth year, in- 
 vented a self-moving carriage, which carried 
 him eighteen miles. In his nineteenth year 
 he invented a hydraulic machine, and soon 
 afterward a sort of flying ship. When the 
 Montgolfiers made their discoveries, Blan- 
 chard eagerly made use of them. In 1785, 
 he crossed the channel from Dover to Calais, 
 with Doctor Jeffries, a gentleman of Boston, 
 Mass. At one time the balloon sank so rap- 
 idly, that although the aeronauts had light- 
 ened the car by throwing over all superfluous 
 articles, even their clothes, they were in 
 danger of losing their lives. However, the 
 voyage was finally accomplished in safety, 
 and Blanchard was presented by the King of 
 France with 12,000 francs, and a pension of 
 1,200. In the same year he made use of a 
 parachute in London. His forty-sixth ascent 
 was made in the city of New York, 1796. 
 In 1798 he went up from Rouen in a large 
 balloon with sixteen persons. He died in 
 1809, after having made more than sixty-six 
 aeronautic voyages. Madame Blanchard, 
 after his death, continued to make voyages 
 in the air. In June, 1819, she ascended from 
 Paris, and was thought to be in safety, when 
 her balloon took fire from some fireworks 
 which she carried with her ; she fell from an 
 immense height, and was dashed to pieces in 
 the Rue de Provence. 
 
 BLENHEIM, a village in Bavaria, on the 
 
 BLE 
 
128 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Danube, is celebrated for the important vic- 
 tory obtained there by the allies under the 
 Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 
 over the French, commanded by Marshals 
 Tallard and Marsin, and the Elector of Bava- 
 ria. In the war of the Spanish succession, 
 Louis XIV., with the Elector of Bavaria for 
 his only ally, was forced to contend against 
 the strength of Holland, England, Austria, 
 Savoy, Portugal, and the German empire. 
 At the battle of Blenheim, which was fought 
 August 13th, 1704, the allied forces amounted 
 to about 52,000, and the French to 56,000, 
 with great advantage of situation ; the latter, 
 however, were completely beaten, with the 
 loss of 27,000 killed, and 13,000 prisoners, 
 Tallard being among the latter. 
 
 BLOOD, circulation of, through the lungs, 
 first made public by Michael Servetus, a 
 Spanish physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus 
 published an account of the general circula- 
 tion, of which he had some confused ideas, 
 and improved it afterward by experiments, 
 1569 ; but it was fully confirmed by Harvey, 
 1628. 
 
 BLOOD, Thomas, commonly called Col. 
 Blood, a disbanded officer of Oliver Crom- 
 well’s household. With confederates he 
 seized the Duke of Ormond in his coach, and 
 had got him as far as Tyburn, intending to 
 hang him, when he was rescued. Blood was 
 •afterward notorious for his attempt to steal 
 the crown and regalia from the Tower, in the 
 disguise of a. clergyman. Charles II. par- 
 doned him, and even bestowed an estate 
 of £500 per annum on him, while poor 
 Edwards, keeper of the regalia, who was 
 severely wounded in defending them, was 
 passed by unnoticed. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an English poet, 
 born at Honington, in 1766. He was the son 
 of a tailor, and, in 1781, he was sent to 
 London, with his brother, to learn the shoe- 
 making trade. He visited various places of 
 public worship, the theatre, and a debating 
 society, and found his faculties developed in 
 a striking manner. His brother, hearing him 
 one day repeat a song which he had com- 
 posed, induced him to offer it to the editor 
 of the London Magazine , by whom it was 
 accepted and published. His poem of the 
 “Farmer’s Boy,” composed in his London 
 garret, was published by Capel Lofft, to 
 
 whom it was first shown. The versification 
 in this, as well as in the other poems of 
 Bloomfield, is easy and correct. He was 
 made by the Duke of Grafton under-sealer 
 for the seal office, but ill health compelled 
 him to relinquish this situation. He after- 
 ward worked at his trade, and engaged in the 
 book-trade, but he became bankrupt. He 
 died in August, 1823. 
 
 BLUCHER, Gebhart Lebrecht von, a cel- 
 ebrated Prussian general, who distinguished 
 himself in the wars with France, particularly 
 in 1813, 1814, and 1815, and who, by his 
 timely arrival on the field of Waterloo, de- 
 cided the victory. The soldiers, in allusion 
 to his promptitude in attack, called him 
 Marshal Forward. He died Sept. 12th, 1819, 
 aged seventy-seven. 
 
 BLUM, Robert, a martyr for liberty in the 
 German revolution of 1848. An obscure ar- 
 tisan in Cologne, his native city, he attracted 
 the attention of friends of freedom by his 
 contributions to the press, and especially his 
 exposure of the Romish humbug called “ The 
 Holy Coat of Treves.” In the revolution of 
 1848 he was foremost for action, and full of 
 fiery eloquence. Mixed up with the out- 
 break in Vienna, he was seized by the Aus- 
 trian government, and shot November 9th, 
 1848, in the forty -first year of life. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, Jean Frederick, a cele- 
 brated comparative anatomist, physiologist, 
 and naturalist, born at Gotha, 1752, died at 
 Gottingen, 1840. He was the first to estab- 
 lish the division of the human race into five 
 varieties, the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethio- 
 pian, American, and Malay. His great desire 
 was to prove the unity of the human species. 
 
 BOADICEA, a British heroine, Queen of 
 the Iceni. Her husband, for the security of 
 his family, had made the Roman emperor 
 co-heir with his daughters. But the Roman 
 officers took possession of her palace, exposed 
 the princesses to the brutality of the soldiers, 
 and scourged the queen in public. Boadicea, 
 urged to revenge by this usage, assembled 
 her countrymen, and, in a masculine har- 
 angue, roused them to madness, by describ- 
 ing her own, her daughters’, and her country’s 
 injuries. London was stormed, and 70,000 
 strangers were put to the sword. Suetonius 
 Paulinus defeated the Britons, and Boadicea 
 poisoned herself in despair, a.d. 60. 
 
 •BOA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 129 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, a famous Italian 
 author, born at Florence or Paris, 1313. His 
 “Decameron” fixed his reputation, and the 
 name of Boccaccio, according to Mazzuchelli, 
 is equivalent to a thousand encomiums. The 
 death of his friend and instructor, Petrarch, 
 was a severe shock to him, and he died not 
 more than a year after, at Certaldo in Tus- 
 cany, Dec. 21st, 1375. 
 
 BOEOTIA, a state of ancient Greece, lying 
 north of Attica. Thebes, its capital, was 
 equally celebrated for its antiquity, its gran- 
 deur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its 
 heroes and kings. The country was known 
 successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
 Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. From the 
 general character of the inhabitants, the term 
 Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a 
 synonym for dullness ; but unjustly, since 
 Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epam- 
 inondas, and the accomplished and beautiful 
 Corinna, were natives of Boeotia. The gov- 
 ernment was an oligarchy. Boeotia was 
 frequently at war with Attica and Sparta. 
 By the valor of Epaminondas it became the 
 leading power in Greece, but soon after his 
 death, it fell with its sister states under the 
 rule of Philip of Macedon. 
 
 BOER HAVE, Hermann, one of the most 
 famous physicians of the eighteenth century, 
 born at Woorhout, near Leyden, December, 
 1668, died in 1738. People came to him 
 from all parts of Europe for advice, and a 
 Chinese mandarin wrote to him with the 
 address, “ To Boerhave, the celebrated phy- 
 sician of Europe.” His property amounted, 
 at his death, to two million florins. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus 
 Severinus, a man whose services, rewards, 
 virtues, and unhappy end have made him 
 famous, was born at Rome or Milan, about 
 a.d. 470. Having received an admirable 
 education and improved himself by travel, 
 he was taken into favor by Theodoric, King 
 of the Ostrogoths, and rapidly raised to the 
 highest offices of the empire. His strict jus- 
 tice and uncompromising integrity acquired 
 for him the hatred of the rapacious and 
 unprincipled Goths ; the king became preju- 
 diced against him, and had him arrested, 
 imprisoned, and executed, a.d. 526 or 527. 
 His most celebrated work, on “The Conso- 
 lations of Philosophy,” consisting of prose 
 
 9 
 
 and verse, was composed by him in prison. 
 Alfred the Great of England translated it 
 for the benefit of his people. 
 
 BOGOTA, at the time the Spaniards con- 
 quered South America, was one of the most 
 civilized states of the country, and inhabited 
 by the Muisca Indians. The valley of Bo- 
 gota, famous for its fertility, was filled with 
 Indians who rivaled in civilization the in- 
 habitants of Cuzco. They traced their 
 prosperity to the instructions of Bochica. 
 Gonzalo Ximenes di Quesada effected their 
 conquest. 
 
 BOHEMIA, a kingdom now forming a part 
 of the Austrian empire ; area 20,013 square 
 miles; population in 1851, 4,409,900. Bo- 
 hemia is surrounded by mountains and cov- 
 ered with forests. All kinds of grain and 
 fruits are exported. The mines yield silver, 
 copper, tin, garnets, and other precious stones, 
 iron, arsenic, alum, antimony, sulphur, &c. 
 The kingdom derives its name from the Boii, 
 a Celtic nation, who settled there about 600 
 b.c. About the middle of the sixth century 
 it was inhabited by Slavonians, who were 
 governed by their own dukes. Charlemagne 
 made Bohemia tributary, but it did not long 
 remain so. The first king received his title 
 from the Emperor Henry IV., and in 1310 
 the house of Luxemburg succeeded to the 
 throne. In 1526, Bohemia reverted to the 
 house of Austria, by whom it has been ever 
 since held. Bohemia produced the first re- 
 formers, among whom were John Huss and 
 Jerome of Prague, but at the present day 
 almost all the people are Catholics. The 
 land is divided into estates of vast magnitude, 
 and the peasantry are held in servitude. It 
 is one of the most manufacturing districts of 
 Austria. Bohemian glass has been noted since 
 the thirteenth century. Many parts of the 
 districts adjoining the northern and eastern 
 ranges of mountains form one continued 
 manufactory of linens, and thousands of 
 humble cabins resound with the noise of the 
 jenny or the loom. With the exception of 
 Pragfie, the ancient capital, there are no large 
 towns. 
 
 BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicholas, born 
 at Crosne, near Paris, in 1636. The future 
 satirist was dull and sickly in youth, and 
 described by his father as a good-natured 
 boy, who would never speak ill of any one. 
 
 BOI 
 
130 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 r 
 
 After having studied diligently at the colleges 
 of Harcourt and Beauvais, he entered upon 
 the career of the law, which he soon relin- 
 quished for the more congenial pursuit of 
 belles-lettres. His satire, “Les Adieux a 
 Paris,” first displayed his talents. He pub- 
 lished many works, his “Art Poetique” 
 being the most popular. He was opposed by 
 many writers, to confound whom he wrote his 
 unrivaled mock-heroic poem, the “Lutrin.” 
 He died of the dropsy in 1711, bequeathing 
 almost all his property to the poor. 
 
 BOKHARA, a country in the interior of 
 Asia, the Sogdiana and Bactria of antiquity. 
 It is the south-eastern part of Independent 
 Tartary, or Turkistan. The city of Bokhara 
 has a population of about 150,000, and is the 
 most commercial town of central Asia. Some 
 centuries ago this and the neighboring city 
 of Samarcand were famous as seats of learn- 
 ing, and were sought by students from all 
 the Mohammedan countries of Asia. Balkh, 
 in the ancient Bactria, is one of the most 
 celebrated cities of the eastern world. An- 
 ciently it was famed for its splendor, ex- 
 tent, and magnificence. Alexander the Great, 
 in his eastern campaign, married the daugh- 
 ter of a Bactrian chief. This chief, who 
 defended himself bravely against the Mace- 
 donians, while his family was placed upon a 
 precipitous rock, was named Oxyartes. The 
 garrison of the rocky fortress, when sum- 
 moned to surrender, answered Alexander 
 contemptuously that if his men were winged, 
 he might intimidate them, but as it was, their 
 position was impregnable. Alexander offered 
 rewards to those who would attempt to 
 ascend the rock, and three hundred of the 
 most expert that volunteered were selected. 
 In the interstices of the rock, and in the ice 
 upon its face, the climbers stuck iron pegs, 
 and ascended the most precipitous parts in the 
 night-time. Some of the first who ventured, 
 fell headlong, but the summit was gained by 
 a determined band. By order of Alexander, 
 the Macedonians shook before the eyes of the 
 barbarians long strips of linen, intimating 
 that they had found wings. The garrison 
 immediately surrendered, tacitly proving the 
 correctness of Alexander’s favorite maxim, 
 that no place was impregnable to the brave, 
 or secure to the timorous. 
 
 The Bactrians were a race holding a middle 
 
 station between the Persians and Scythians, 
 with much of the polish of the former, and 
 little of the ferocity of the latter. Their de- 
 scendants still retain many of the character- 
 istics of the Bactrians of former days. Their 
 women were famed for the brilliancy of their 
 dark, shining eyes, the delicate and correct 
 formation of their features, and the richness 
 and transparency of their complexions. Rox- 
 ana, the daughter of Oxyartes, was not only 
 distinguished above those of her nation in 
 beauty, but, with the single exception of the 
 wife of Darius, was the loveliest of Asiatic 
 women. The conduct of Alexander toward 
 his dazzling captive was honorable ; having 
 conceived a warm attachment to her, he mar- 
 ried her, pursuant to the wishes of his friend 
 Hephasstion, but contrary to the advice of 
 Craterus. The fears of Oxyartes were ban- 
 ished by Alexander’s avowal of his attach- 
 ment to his child. He came into the Mace- 
 donian camp, and was received with every 
 mark of attention and respect. Thus ties of 
 friendship bound the Bactrians and Macedo- 
 nians together. Alexander, according to 
 Strabo, founded no fewer than eight cities in 
 Sogdiana and Bactria. The city of Anderab 
 retains still a part of Alexander’s name. 
 The Alexandria which the Macedonian mon- 
 arch is said to have founded, was probably 
 either Cabul, or else at no great distance from 
 it. To return to Balk. In 1221 it was 
 taken by Genghis Khan, who put to the sword 
 nearly all its inhabitants. 
 
 BOLEYN, Anne, second wife of Henry 
 VIII. of England, was probably born about 
 1500. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas 
 Boleyn. Her early years were spent in 
 attendance on Henry’s sister, the wife of 
 Louis XII. of France, on whose death she 
 became maid of honor to Queen Catherine. 
 Henry having procured a divorce from the 
 latter, married Anne privately, and when she 
 became a mother publicly acknowledged her 
 as queen. Her child was the famous Eliza- 
 beth. The tyrant conceiving a passion for 
 Jane Seymour, caused Anne to be tried for 
 high treason and infidelity. She suffered on 
 the scaffold, May 19th, 1536, Henry consid- 
 ering it an act of great clemency to save her 
 from the stake. She was beautiful, gay, and 
 witty, and in her last moments self-possessed. 
 “ She sent her last message to the king,” says 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 131 
 
 Hume, “and acknowledged the obligations 
 which she owed him in uniformly continuing 
 her advancement. From a private gentle- 
 woman, you have made me, first a marchion- 
 ess, then a queen ; and as you can raise me 
 no higher in this world, you are now sending 
 me to be a saint in heaven.” 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Vis- 
 count, was born at Battersea, in 1672, of an 
 ancient and distinguished family. His bril- 
 liant talents, elegant manners, and personal 
 attractions secured him a warm welcome in 
 society ; but, unhappily, until his twenty- 
 third year his career was stained with those 
 vices which spring from the impetuous tem- 
 per of youth. His marriage with a beautiful 
 heiress did not produce the happiness which 
 his parents had looked for, and the young 
 couple separated forever after a short connec- 
 tion. The moment he obtained a seat in the 
 House of Commons, he distinguished himself 
 by industry, activity, eloquence, and strong 
 judgment. In 1704 he was made secretary 
 of war, but when the Whigs came into place, 
 he sent in his resignation. The Whig party 
 being prostrated, Bolingbroke received the 
 department of foreign affairs, and concluded 
 the peace of Utrecht. During the height of 
 party contention between the Whigs and To- 
 ries, immediately after the conclusion of 
 peace, a quarrel occurred between Boling- 
 broke and Harley, then lord high treasurer, 
 and Queen Anne, provoked with the latter, 
 dismissed him four days before her death, 
 and made Bolingbroke prime minister. The 
 scene was speedily reversed by the death of 
 Anne. George I. ascended the throne, the 
 Whigs triumphed, and Bolingbroke, learn- 
 ing that his enemies intended to impeach 
 him, fled to Lorraine, and was made secre- 
 tary of state by the Pretender, who, however, 
 becoming displeased with him, deprived him 
 of this dignity and conferred it on the Duke 
 of Ormond. His attainder having been 
 partly reversed, he returned to England in 
 1723, opposed the ministry for eight years, 
 and again went to France. In France, in 
 1735, he published his “Letters upon Histo- 
 ry,” which, however admirable, were blamed 
 for attacking revealed religion. In 1738, he 
 returned to his country, where he died of a 
 lingering and painful disease -in 1751. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Simon, the most prominent 
 
 actor in the events which produced the inde- 
 pendence of a large portion of South America, 
 was born in the city of Caraccas, July 24th, 
 1783, of a distinguished and noble Venezue- 
 lan family. After acquiring the elements of 
 a liberal education in South America, he 
 visited Spain, and spent some time in travel- 
 ing in Europe, chiefly in the south of France. 
 Returning for a while to Madrid, he married, 
 and carried his wife to his native land, where 
 he thought to enjoy in peace the comforts of 
 domestic life. The death of his wife put an 
 end to his blissful visions, and he again went 
 to Europe, partly to dissipate his grief. On 
 his return, he traveled through the . United 
 States, where his love of liberty settled into 
 an indelible passion, and we find him actively 
 engaged in promoting the early movement in 
 Caraccas, April, 1810, and receiving a colo- 
 nel’s commission from the supreme junta then 
 established. He sided with the patriots of 
 Venezuela, and, after the declaration of inde- 
 pendence, July 5th, 1811, served under Gen- 
 eral Miranda, against a party in Valencia 
 who declared against the principles and meas- 
 ures of the revolutionists. 
 
 After some ill success in Venezuela, which 
 is attributable to treachery of others rather 
 than a want of talent on his part, Bolivar 
 escaped to Cura^oa. He could not, however, 
 content himself with being a cold spectator of 
 events in which the live3 and fortunes of his 
 countrymen were risked, and accordingly he 
 came to Carthagena in 1812, and entered into 
 the service of the patriots of New Grenada. 
 His expedition against Teneriffe, on the 
 river Magdalena, was successful, he drove the 
 Spaniards before him in his triumphant ad- 
 vance, and entered the city of Ocana in 
 triumph, thus inspiring general confidence in 
 the patriot cause, and attracting the attention 
 of all to it and to himself. He next expelled 
 the Spanish forces from Cucuta, and con- 
 ceived the plan of freeing Venezuela from the 
 Spaniards, a task which he accomplished by 
 the 4th of August, 1813. At the assembly 
 of Caraccas, Jan. 2d, 1814, the power which 
 was vested in the hands of Bolivar as com- 
 mander of the liberating army, was con- 
 firmed. If we carefully trace the military 
 career of Bolivar, we shall find him alter- 
 nately meeting with success, and struggling 
 with reverse; displaying, both in triumph 
 
 BOL 
 
132 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and defeat, the noble daring of a gallant war. 
 rior, the rare talents of a military chieftain, 
 and the unyielding perseverance of a true 
 patriot. At length he had the satisfaction of 
 beholding the arms of the patriots triumph- 
 ant in every quarter, their banners moving 
 onward in pride and splendor, and the pha- 
 lanx of opposition becoming daily more and 
 more feeble. 
 
 In May, 1826, Bolivar presented to the 
 congress of Upper Peru, which had formed 
 the independent state of Bolivia, the consti- 
 tution, which, at their request, he had pre- 
 pared. Meanwhile a rebellion had broken 
 out in Venezuela, headed by Paez, who con- 
 sidered himself aggrieved, and the fair fruits 
 of liberty, won with many a day of bloody 
 toil, appeared in danger of being lost. It 
 was Bolivar alone who could and did quell 
 this insurrection. The Bolivian code, which, 
 among its prominent features, provided that 
 the executive authority should be vested in 
 the hands of the president for life, was adopted 
 as the constitution of Bolivia, Dec. 9th, 1826, 
 and Bolivar, then absent, was declared its 
 president. If the provisions of the Boli- 
 vian code had alarmed the friends of liberty, 
 what was their terror when they beheld 
 Bolivar, whom they suspected of ambitious 
 designs, placed for life at the head of the 
 government. The Colombian auxiliarjr army, 
 then in Peru, rapidly revolutionized the 
 government, and induced the Peruvians to 
 renounce the Bolivian code. Strenuous op- 
 position to Bolivar was made in Colombia by 
 the republicans, who imagined that he was 
 ready to emulate the career of Napoleon, 
 although he had repeatedly expressed a wish 
 to retire from the presidency. However, in 
 1828, a decree, dated Bogota, Aug. 27th, 
 gave him the supreme power in Colombia. 
 The authority reposed in him gave the repub- 
 licans no little alarm, but Bolivar did not 
 live long to exercise it. Looking back upon 
 his career, if there appear occasionally a 
 desire to exalt himself above his fellows, we 
 must grant him that rare union of civil 
 and military abilities, that courage in adver- 
 sity and moderation in prosperity, which were 
 alone capable of achieving the regeneration 
 of his country. He died Dec. 17th, 1830. 
 
 BOLIVIA, a republic of South America, 
 Comprising 374,480 square miles, and contain- 
 
 ing about 1,650,000 inhabitants. It was ori 
 ginally called Upper Peru, and belonged to 
 the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres. 
 Its independence of Spain was declared Aug. 
 6th, 1824, and the following year the name of 
 Bolivia was assumed in honor of General Bol- 
 ivar. Its mountains contain rich silver mines, 
 but they are now little worked. Like its sis- 
 ter republics Bolivia has been sadly distressed 
 by intestine wars. Chuquisaca is the capital ; 
 population 26,000. It was founded by one of 
 Pizarro’s officers on the site of an old Peruvian 
 town called Choque Chaka, or ‘bridge of 
 gold the treasures of the incas having passed 
 through it on their way to Cuzco. A hun- 
 dred years ago Potosi had a hundred thousand 
 dwellers. Its silver mines were then indus- 
 triously worked. Now there are hardly 
 30,000 inhabitants, half of whom are Peruvian 
 Indians. 
 
 BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of 
 the Aland Isles, in the Baltic. It was bom- 
 barded by the French and English in August, 
 1854, and the Russians surrendered on the 
 16th. The fortifications were demolished. 
 
 BONAPARTE. Charles Buonaparte, a 
 young lawyer of Ajaccio, in Corsica, wedded 
 Letitia Ramolini, one of the most beautiful 
 and accomplished girls of the island. Thir- 
 teen children were the offspring of this union, 
 eight of whom survived to maturity : Joseph, 
 Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, Jerome, Eliza, Pau- 
 line, and Caroline. The father died early. 
 The mother lived to witness the grandeur of 
 her great son, and to mourn his death in the 
 sea-girt isle which injustice made his prison. 
 She died at Rome, in October, 1832, aged 
 eighty -two. She was a woman of great beau- 
 ty, great courage, and great mind. In her 
 nineteenth year, Aug. 15th, 1769, upon a 
 couch whose tapestry was embroidered with 
 the heroes and battles of the “ Iliad,” she gave 
 birth to Napoleon, one of the most extraor- 
 dinary characters recorded in history, distin- 
 guished alike for his extraordinary fortunes, 
 his civil talents, and his military genius. Af- 
 ter receiving the rudiments of a classical ed- 
 ucation, he entered the military school at 
 Brienne, where he was distinguished by the 
 gravity of his character, and his sedulous 
 study of the mathematics. Even his sports 
 partook of his 'graver pursuits. On the oc- 
 currence of a day which was commonly con- 
 
 BON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 183 
 
 sidered a holiday, Bonaparte’s instructors con- 
 fined him and his companions to the school 
 grounds. The jmung engineer constructed a 
 mine with great ingenuity, which in exploding 
 blew down the walls and enabled the juvenile 
 rebels to escape. When he could enlist no 
 young recruits in his mimic armies, Napoleon 
 would use flints as substitutes for soldiers, 
 and marshal them with great care. A boy 
 who disturbed his array was severely pun- 
 ished by Napoleon. Many years after, when 
 the imperial diadem was on his head, Napo- 
 leon was informed that one of his old school- 
 mates desired an interview. He assured the 
 chamberlain that the emperor would recollect 
 him if he mentioned that there was a deep 
 scar on his forehead. When the emperor 
 was informed of this, he said, u I do not forget 
 how he got that scar. I threw a general at 
 his head at Brienne.” 
 
 At sixteen, he received the commission of 
 second lieutenant in the regiment of Lafere, 
 which he joined at Valence. At twenty he 
 was promoted to a captaincy, and in Decem- 
 ber, 1793, had obtained the command of the 
 artillery train in the attack on Toulon, then 
 occupied by the English. The originality of 
 his plans won the siege for the French. One 
 of the deputies of the convention wrote to 
 Carnot: “I send you a young man who dis- 
 tinguished himself very much during the 
 siege, and earnestly recommend to you to ad- 
 vance him speedily. If you do not, he will 
 most assuredly advance himself.” But with 
 the exception of a brief service the next 
 spring as commandant of the artillery in the 
 army of Italy, he was for some time left inac- 
 tive. Want pinched him. He dreamed of 
 the orient, and thought of offering his sword 
 to the grand seignior. “ How odd it would 
 be.” said he, “were a little Corsican officer to 
 become king of Jerusalem.” Stranger hap- 
 penings than that were to be. Once he was 
 on the brink of suicide, when a timely loan 
 from an old comrade gave him the means of 
 life. 
 
 In 1795, when some of the sections of Paris 
 rose in insurrection against the national con- 
 vention, the command of the troops was in- 
 trusted to him. His cannon dispersed the 
 mob, the Directory was established, and Na- 
 poleon made military governor of the metrop- 
 olis. He was at that time very thin, although 
 
 distinguished for corpulency ip the latter part 
 of his life. On one occasion he gained a blood- 
 less victory over a rabble whose exertions 
 were stimulated by a very fat old woman. 
 “There,” cried she, “look at the soldiers! 
 they’re the wretches that fatten in idleness 
 while we starve.” “Look at her and look at 
 me,” said Napoleon, “ and tell us which is the 
 fattest.” This raised a laugh, and the popu- 
 lace dispersed quietly. On this, as on many 
 other occasions, his knowledge of human na- 
 ture was apparent. 
 
 The 6th of March, 1796, Napoleon was mar- 
 ried to Josephine Tascher Beauharnais, and 
 just before, through the influence of Barras, 
 their mutual friend, and one of the directory, 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 army in Italy. The French lay on the cold 
 slopes of the maritime Alps. Their foes were 
 snug upon the warm plains of Italy. The 
 French soldiers were ragged, hungered, and 
 dispirited. The glowing vigor of their young 
 general gave them new nerve and hope. He 
 led them into Sardinia at once, and defeated 
 the surprised Austrians at Montenotte, the 
 11th of April. “ My patent of nobility,” said 
 he afterward to the Emperor of Austria, 
 “dates from the field of Montenotte.” He 
 astounded the veteran warriors with whom he 
 coped, by the rapidity of his maneuvres and 
 his defiance of ancient tactics. “War,” said 
 he, “is the science of barbarians. He who 
 has the heaviest battalions will conquer.” 
 The troops of his foes far outnumbered his 
 own ; he attacked them in detached portions, 
 and conquered them by piecemeal. The bat- 
 tles of Millesimo, Mondovi, and Lodi followed 
 in a month, and he entered Milan in triumph. 
 Sardinia had been cowed into peace. It was 
 after the hot contest of Lodi, that Napoleon’s 
 veterans dubbed him with the pet name he 
 never lost, “the little corporal.” Napoleon 
 has said, “It was not till after the terrible 
 passage of the bridge of Lbdi, that the thought 
 shot across my mind that I might become a 
 decisive actor in the political arena. Then 
 arose, for the first time, the spark of great 
 ambition.” More soldiers, from Austria: 
 more battles. At Castiglione, Roveredo, Bas- 
 sano, Areola, and Rivoli, the French were 
 victorious, and the stubborn Wurmser at last 
 yielded Mantua. The Austrians were driven 
 from Italy. In ten months, Napoleon, with 
 
 BON 
 
134 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 55.000 men, including all recruits, had con- 
 quered five grand armies, composed of over 
 
 200.000 highly disciplined Austrian troops, 
 and headed by such veterans as Beaulieu, 
 Wurmser, and Alvinzi. At times it had 
 seemed as if the handful of French must be 
 overwhelmed, but the genius of their leader 
 had brought them through. They had taken 
 a hundred thousand prisoners, and killed and 
 wounded thirty -five thousand men. Napoleon 
 crossed the Carnic Alps, threatened Vienna, 
 defeated a fresh army under the gallant Arch- 
 duke Charles, and forced Austria to the hu- 
 miliating treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17th, 
 
 1797. One term of this treaty was the release 
 of Lafayette from the dungeon of Olmutz. 
 
 In Paris, the young conqueror of Italy was 
 received with an enthusiasm that excited the 
 greatest terror and jealousy in the govern- 
 ment. To be rid of his presence they detailed 
 him upon distant and difficult service. In 
 
 1798, he took the command of the army des- 
 tined against Egypt, and on his passage from 
 Toulon, captured Malta. He landed at Alex- 
 andria, and after the capture of that city 
 pushed on toward Cairo. The French formed 
 in squares to receive the furious onsets of the 
 Mamelukes. A corps of scientific men, who 
 had been mounted on donkeys, accompanied 
 the expedition. Whenever a body of Mame- 
 lukes approached, the order, “Form square, 
 savansandassesin the centre,” was greeted with 
 jocund uproar by the soldiery. At the battle 
 waged in sight of the pyramids, Napoleon said 
 to his men, “Soldiers! from those summits 
 forty centuries gaze upon you ! ” The gazing 
 centuries saw the rout of the Mamelukes, and 
 the invaders masters of Cairo. Nelson's vic- 
 tory in the Bay of Aboukir cut the expedition 
 off from all supplies and reenforcements, yet 
 in Egypt and Syria Napoleon was everywhere 
 victorious except at Acre ; where,. for want of 
 besieging artillery, he was repulsed by Sir 
 Sydney Smith. In* October, 1799, the mis- 
 government of France, and the disasters which 
 had befallen the French troops, induced him 
 to return, leaving Kleber in command inEgypt. 
 He was received as a savior by the French 
 nation, and on the 9th of November he de- 
 posed the directory, and was proclaimed first 
 consul of the republic. 
 
 To England and Austria he made proffers 
 of peace which were rejected. The hosts of 
 
 the confederates threatened an invasion of the 
 republic, and English fleets bloqkaded her 
 coasts. Napoleon led a rapidly gathered army 
 over the crags of the Great St. Bernard, and 
 descended like an avalanche upon the forces 
 of Marshal Melas. The campaign opened at 
 Montebello, where Lannes with eight thousand 
 men defeated eighteen thousand Austrians, 
 though the latter were protected by the deadly 
 fire of strong and commanding batteries. “ I 
 could hear the bones crash in my division, 
 like glass in a hail-storm,” said Lannes. The 
 terrible victory of Marengo followed, on the 
 14th of June, 1800: Melas, with his army of 
 
 120,000 was now utterly discomfited, by half 
 that number, and Napoleon was once more 
 master of Italy. An armistice was concluded. 
 The conqueror left Massena in command of 
 the triumphant army, and returned to Paris, 
 where he again sought a fair peace with Aus- 
 tria, and again unsuccessfully. Moreau, who 
 commanded the grand army of the Rhine, ad- 
 vanced and won the field of Hohenlinden, and 
 chased the fleeing Austrians within thirty 
 miles of Vienna. Another armistice was had, 
 and Feb. 9th, 1801, the peace of Luneville 
 was completed, and the continent thus quieted. 
 About this time many attempts were made to 
 assassinate Napoleon. On Christmas eve, as 
 he was on his way to the opera, the famous 
 ‘ infernal machine,’ a cart laden with gunpow- 
 der and deadly missiles, was fired. He es- 
 caped by an accidental moment of time. Eight 
 persons were killed, and sixty wounded, of 
 whom twenty afterward died. On both sides 
 the way the houses were sadly shattered. 
 
 Napoleon employed his leisure of peace in 
 developing the resources of France. He 
 planned and executed vast internal improve- 
 ments, commenced the compilation of the civil 
 code, and restored the observances of religion. 
 He formed a great coalition against England, 
 which was broken by the death of Paul, the 
 Czar of Russia. The great antagonist nations 
 paused for a breathing spell, and the peace cf 
 Amiens was concluded in March, 1802. About 
 this time the Italian or Cisalpine republic, 
 which he had founded in the north of Italy, 
 chose Napoleon their president ; a few months 
 after, the people of France elected him consul 
 for life ; in May, 1804, he assumed the title 
 of Napoleon I., Emperor of the French, and 
 Dec. 2d was crowned at Paris by the 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 135 
 
 pope. In March, 1805, he was declared King 
 of Italy, and in May crowned at Milan. He 
 had previously established his military order 
 of the legion of honor and distributed the 
 crosses which were the distinguishing badges. 
 Of all to whom the cross of the legion of honor 
 was tendered, Lafayette alone declined it. 
 Napoleon, either from want of true perception 
 of moral greatness, or because the detestable 
 servility of returning emigrants had taught 
 him to think there was no such thing as honor 
 or independence in man, exclaimed, when they 
 told him that Lafayette refused the decoration, 
 
 What, will nothing satisfy that man, but 
 the chief command of the national guard of 
 the empire?” Yes, much less abundantly 
 satisfied him ; the quiet possession of the poor 
 remnants of his estate, enjoyed without sacri- 
 ficing his principles. 
 
 England had previously renewed maritime 
 hostilities with France, and in the fall of 1805, 
 a mighty coalition reared itself against the 
 new empire ; England, Austria, Russia, and 
 Sweden. Afterward Prussia joined them. 
 Five hundred thousand men menaced Napo- 
 leon and France. The emperor broke up the 
 powerful armament he had gathered at Bou- 
 lognefor theinvasion of Great Britain, marched 
 into Germany with his accustomed rapidity, 
 and at Ulm captured 30,000 Austrians. In 
 November, he entered Vienna, and on the 2d 
 of December, gained the battle of Austerlitz, 
 over the Emperors of Russia and Austria, after 
 which he concluded peace with Austria, cre- 
 ated the Electors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg 
 kings, and made his brother Joseph King of 
 Naples, and Louis King of Holland. 
 
 The next year England, Prussia, and Rus- 
 sia entered into a new coalition. Napoleon 
 invaded Prussia, and on the 14th of October, 
 gained a decisive victory at Jena and Auer- 
 stadt, by which the whole Prussian monarchy, 
 and Germany to the Baltic, came under his 
 authority. The man of destiny had now filled 
 Europe with the terror of his name, the bare 
 mention of which shook the crowned heads of 
 the oldest monarchies of the continent with 
 palsied apprehension. In vain the dagger, 
 the*mine, and the bowl had been prepared for 
 him. His star had not yet begun to decline 
 from the zenith. Napoleon was almost mirac 
 ulously preserved from poison. It is well 
 known that he was an inveterate snuff-taker. 
 
 When his mind was deeply engaged, his 
 snuff-box was in constant requisition. He 
 once left his apartment for a few moments, 
 and returned to take his box from the mantle- 
 piece. He thought the snuff felt somewhat 
 strangely, and calling to a dog that was lying 
 near him, administered a pinch. The poor 
 animal soon rolled over in the agonies of 
 death ; and Napoleon thenceforth kept his 
 snuff in his waistcoat pockets, which he had 
 sheathed with tin. 
 
 From the royal palace at Berlin, Napoleon 
 promulgated in retaliation the famous decree 
 by which he proposed to exclude the trade of 
 Britain from all the ports of the continent. 
 In June, 1807, having overrun Poland, he to- 
 tally defeated the Emperor of Russia at Eylau 
 and Friedland, after which an interview took 
 place between them on a raft in the Niemen, 
 followed by the treaty of Tilsit. In November 
 of that year, he sent an army into Lisbon, 
 thus annihilating the British supremacy in 
 Portugal, and driving the Portuguese court to 
 the Brazils. On the 5th of May, 1808, was 
 concluded the treaty by which Charles IV. 
 ceded all his rights in the crown of Spain. 
 Joseph, brother of the emperor, wasproclaimed 
 King of Spain, on the 6th of June. Hence 
 arose the Peninsular war. 
 
 On the 27th of September, in the same year, 
 Napoleon had an amicable interview with the 
 Emperor of Russia at Erfurt, and they jointly 
 proposed peace with England, which was re- 
 jected. On the 29th of October the emperor 
 departed from Paris and placed himself at the 
 head of the army in Spain, the right wing of 
 which pursued Sir John Moore to Corunna, 
 while he marched to Madrid and seated his 
 brother on the Spanish throne. In the mean 
 time, the Austrians took the field; Napoleon 
 hastened to oppose them, gained successive 
 victories at Eckmuhl and Wagram, and in 
 the latter battle a treaty of peace. On the 
 16th of December, 1809, he divorced Jose- 
 phine, and on the 2d of April, 1810, married 
 Maria Louisa, Archduchess of Austria. The 
 20th of March, 1811, was signalized by the 
 birth of his son, who was crowned King of 
 Rome. In the divorce of Josephine, Napoleon 
 said at St. Helena, he stepped upon an abyss 
 covered with flowers. 
 
 The amitvbetween Napoleon and Alexander 
 cooled, and at last was wholly ruptured. In 
 
 BON 
 
136 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 1812, Napoleon assembled a great army in 
 Poland, and invaded Russia, and having at 
 the Borodino and at Moskwa gained bloody 
 victories, he entered Moscow on the 14th of 
 September. That city became untenable, and 
 the French retreated for winter quarters to- 
 ward Poland, but an early and unusual frost 
 setting in during their march, they lost their 
 horses, were compelled to abandon their ar- 
 tillery, and three-fourths of the army perished 
 or were made prisoners. Napoleon returned 
 to Paris, and Poland and Prussia were occu- 
 pied by the Russians. 
 
 In April, 1813, Napoleon again took the 
 field against the Prussians, and gained the 
 victories of Lutzen, Bautzen, Wurtzchen, and 
 Dresden ; but the Austrians and Bavarians 
 joined the confederacy against him, and he 
 was attacked at Leipsic by the combined ar- 
 mies of the European nations ; being forced 
 to abandon that city with immense loss, and 
 retreat to Metz, thereby abandoning his Ger- 
 man conquests. In 1814, the confederates 
 having passed the Rhine, penetrated, after 
 various battles, to Paris, which, being sur- 
 rendered by Marshals Marmont and Mortier, 
 Napoleon concluded a treaty with the allies, 
 at Fontainebleau, by which he agreed to retire 
 to the island of Elba, with provision for him- 
 self and family. 
 
 In March, 1815, Napoleon embarked with 
 600 of his old guard, and made a sudden de- 
 scent in Provence. On the 10th, he entered 
 Lyons, on the 20th Paris in triumph. His 
 banners flew from steeple to steeple, until they 
 finally waved in the wind from the pinnacles 
 of Notre Dame. He assumed the throne once 
 more, and soon joined the army on the Belgian 
 frontier, where on the 16th of June, he de- 
 feated Blucher at Ligny with a loss of 22,000 
 men. On the 18th, was fought the bloody 
 battle of W aterloo, in which the French army 
 was completely defeated. 
 
 When, after the disaster at Waterloo, Na- 
 poleon came back in desperation to Paris, and 
 began to scatter dark hints of dissolving the 
 representatives’ chamber, repeating at Paris 
 the catastrophe of Moscow, and thereby en- 
 deavoring to rouse the people of France to 
 one universal and frantic crusade of resistance, 
 Lafayette was the first to denounce the wild 
 suggestion. He proposed a series of resolu- 
 tions, announcing that the independence of 
 
 the nation was threatened, declaring the 
 chambers a permanent body, and denouncing 
 the instant penalties of high treason against 
 all attempts to dissolve it. The same evening 
 he proposed, in the secret assembly of the 
 council of state, the abdication of Napoleon. 
 The subject was again pressed the following 
 day; but the voluntary act of the emperor 
 anticipated the decision. 
 
 On the 8th of July, Louis XVIII. returned 
 to Paris, and on the 15th, Napoleon surren- 
 dered himself to the English at Rochefort. 
 He only asked permission to pass the remain- 
 der of his days in England, under an assumed 
 name, and in a private character, but he was 
 conveyed to St. Helena, as a prisoner of state. 
 A few officers of his suite accompanied him. 
 In the island he was treated with indignity 
 and meanness until his death, which was the 
 result of an intestine disorder, and took place 
 May 5th, 1821. In his last moments, he was 
 delirious, and his last words, “ Tete d'armee ,” 
 proved that he fancied himself at the head of 
 his troops, watching the fluctuating current 
 of a battle. He was buried in a little valley ; 
 a simple slab marked the place of his repose ; 
 two weeping-willows waved over it, and an 
 iron railing encircled that spot of ground so 
 dear to millions. 
 
 Napoleon, in person, was below the middle 
 size ; and, in the latter part of his life, quite 
 corpulent. His straight brown hair fell over 
 a broad high forehead ; his complexion was 
 clear olive, and his features regular and class- 
 ical. An air of subdued melancholy was the 
 prevailing characteristic of his countenance in 
 repose ; but he had the power of dismissing 
 all expression from his features, when he 
 chose to baffle scrutiny. At such times the 
 curious observer might gaze upon his still gray 
 eye and quiet lip without finding any indica- 
 tion of the thoughts which were passing 
 within. 
 
 Though Napoleon was ambitious, his de- 
 sire was not for mere self-aggrandizement, 
 for he sought the advancement of France. 
 He contended in self-defense and defense of 
 France, against the crowns of Europe, who 
 hated him as the monarch of the people. 
 These wars drenched the sands of Egypt, the 
 snows of Russia, and the plains of Germany, 
 and Italy, and Spain, with the best blood of 
 France and the best of Europe : yet he was 
 
 BON 
 
HISTORY AND 
 
 not destitute of the feelings of humanitj 7 ", and, 
 as he rode over a field heaped with the dead 
 and dying victims of his ambition, his fine 
 eye would fill with tears. But feeling with- 
 out repentance is of no avail. Yet if Napo- 
 leon was lavish of the lives of others, he was 
 no less prodigal of his own, amidst the hot 
 test fire of the enemy. If he laid his grasp 
 upon nations, — 
 
 “Their ransom did the general coffers fill.” 
 
 He often pardoned, but he never failed to 
 reward. It was thus that he attached his 
 soldiers to him with indissoluble bonds. A 
 thousand proofs may be given of their attach- 
 ment to their emperor. At Waterloo, one man 
 whose left arm was shattered by a cannon- 
 ball, wrenched it off with the other, and 
 throwing it up in the air, he exclaimed to his 
 comrades, “Vive l’empereur, jusqu’ k la 
 mort! ” When Napoleon took his final fare- 
 well of France, all wept, but particularly 
 Savary, and a Polish officer who had been 
 exalted from the ranks by Bonaparte. He 
 clung to his master’s knees, wrote a letter to 
 Lord Keith, entreated permission to accom- 
 pany him, even in the most menial capacity, 
 which could not be admitted. 
 
 Napoleon was a statesman as well as a war- 
 rior. What he would have accomplished, 
 had he been left to govern France in peace, 
 may be judged from the great benefits which 
 he wrought while engaged by almost inces- 
 sant hostilities. The Code Napoleon was an 
 inestimable boon to the jurisprudence of 
 France and Europe ; and throughout the 
 empire, magnificent public edifices, fortifica- 
 tions, harbors, docks, canals, roads, bridges, 
 columns, and schools still speak of the en- 
 ergy with which he improved and embel- 
 lished the land whose throne he occupied, 
 and in the hearts of whose people his memory 
 is still warmly enshrined. 
 
 In 1840, Louis Philippe, after obtaining the 
 consent of England, sent a frigate commanded 
 by his son, the Prince de Joinville, to St. 
 Helena, to convey the remains of Napoleon 
 to France. On the 30th of November, they 
 reached Cherbourg, whence they were con- 
 veyed with great pomp to Paris, and depos- 
 ited beneath the dome of the Hospital des 
 Invalides, on the 15th of December, where 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 137 
 
 they lie beside the bones of Turenne and 
 Vauban. 
 
 Napoleon Charles Francis Joseph, son 
 of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, was born at 
 Paris, March 20th, 1811. He received the 
 title of King of Rome. The downfall of his 
 illustrious father ehanged his condition and 
 prospects. His grandfather, the Emperor of 
 Austria, was appointed his guardian. He 
 received the title of the Duke of Reichstadt. 
 He died at the palace of Schonbrunn, near 
 Vienna, of consumption, July 22d, 1832. 
 
 Joseph, the elder brother of Napoleon, was 
 born in 1768. He shared the fortune of his 
 eminent brother, and was of great service to 
 him in a diplomatic capacity. In 1806 Na- 
 poleon placed him upon the throne of Naples. 
 His brief reign was a succession of benefits 
 to a people who had been long degraded by 
 oppressive despotism. He founded civil and 
 military schools, overthrew feudal privileges, 
 suppressed the convents, opened new roads, 
 set the lazzaroni at work, and everywhere 
 animated the abject people with new life and 
 hope. From 1808 to 1813, he wore the 
 crown of Spain, and but for the intervention 
 of the British, and the desolation of war, 
 would have opened a happy path for that 
 unfortunate kingdom. After the fall of Na- 
 poleon, Joseph resided some years at Borden- 
 town, N. J. He died in Europe in 1844. In 
 his later years he bore the title of Comte de 
 Survilliers. 
 
 Lucien was born at Ajaccio in 1775. He 
 was president of the council of five hundred, 
 and aided in raising Napoleon to the con- 
 sulship. A partial estrangement occurred 
 between the brothers, and Lucien exiled him- 
 self to Italy, whence he refused to return and 
 accept a throne. He was a man of high 
 spirit and independence. The pope made 
 him Prince of Canino. When Napoleon was 
 pent up in Elba, a reconciliation was effected 
 between the two brothers, and Lucien was 
 more devoted to the empire in its decline 
 than he had been in its day of prosperity. 
 He wished to share the emperor’s imprison- 
 ment at St. Helena, but it was not permitted. 
 He spent his latter years in the Roman states, 
 and died in 1840. 
 
 Louis was horn in 1778. He shared in 
 Napoleon’s Italian campaigns, and accompa- 
 
 BON 
 
138 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 rued the expedition to Egypt. In 1806 he 
 was placed upon the throne of Holland. The 
 post was reluctantly accepted, but he devoted 
 himself with enthusiasm to the duties it in- 
 volved. The policy maintained by Napoleon 
 against the commerce of Great Britain, would 
 cripple the traffic of Holland. Louis was 
 placed in an embarrassing and humiliating 
 position between the power of his brother 
 and the interests of his people. He abdicated 
 
 in 1810. Louis was of a melancholy temper- 
 ament, studious and retiring. When Na- 
 poleon was just entering upon his brilliant 
 career, his musing brother became deeply 
 enamored of a beautiful scion of the ancient 
 nobility. Their union was impeded, and 
 Louis forced to wed the daughter of Jose- 
 phine, Hortense, who loved and was beloved 
 by Duroc. They separated after a few years 
 of dejection. The eldest of their children 
 shattered by an early death Napoleon’s plan 
 that he should inherit the imperial crown ; 
 the second died in youthful manhood ; the 
 third now sits on the throne of France. 
 Louis, after his abdication, lived gloomily a 
 retired and scholastic life till 1846, in which 
 year he died at Leghorn. 
 
 Jerome was born at Ajaccio in 1784. In his 
 youth he served in the French navy, and dur- 
 ing a visit to America, in one of his cruises, mar- 
 ried Miss Elizabeth Patterson, the daughter of 
 a rich merchant of Baltimore. Napoleon was 
 
 much annoyed at his idle and dissolute ways. 
 
 He finally exchanged the sea for land service. 
 
 In 1807, he obeyed his brother in the repu- 
 diation of his American wife, espoused the 
 daughter of the King of Wurtemberg, and 
 was made King of Westphalia. He was the 
 scapegrace of the Bonaparte family, weak, 
 mean. Napoleon said to him, “ If the majesty 
 of kings is imprinted on the countenance, 
 you may safely travel incognito.” The fall 
 of the empire deprived Jerome of the crown 
 he wore so ill. He lives to see a second em- 
 pire and another Napoleon on its throne. 
 
 Marie Ann Elise, the eldest of Napoleon’s 
 sisters, was born Jan. 8th, 1777. In May, 
 1797, she was married to Felix Bacciochi, a. 
 Corsican. Napoleon gave her the grand-duchy 
 of Tuscany, with the principalities of Lucca 
 and Tioinbino, in whose government she dis- 
 played much energy and ability. Her sway 
 
 BON 
 
 ended in 1814, and she died at Trieste, Aug. 
 9th, 1820. 
 
 Marie Pauline, the favorite sister of Na- 
 poleon, was born at Ajaccio, Oct. 20th, 1780. 
 After becoming the widow of General Le- 
 clerc, she married Prince Camille Borghese, 
 with whom she did not live on good terms 
 She died in 1825. Her whole property 
 amounted to 2,000,000 francs. She was un- 
 commonly beautiful, and Canova represented 
 her as the goddess of beauty, a Venus which 
 almost rivaled the antique. 
 
 Caroline Marie Annonciade, the young- 
 est of Napoleon’s sisters, wrns born March 
 26th, 1782. In January, 1800, she w T as mar- 
 ried to Murat. She w' as a ver}’’ pretty and 
 a very clever woman. When the rule of her 
 husband was overthrown in 1815, by the re- 
 verses of the French and the advance of the 
 Austrian army, and the city of Naples w T as on 
 the brink of anarchy, she took prompt, w-ise, 
 and energetic measures for maintaining order. 
 She died at Florence, May 18tli, 1839. 
 
 BONIFACE, the name of several popes. 
 Boniface I. succeeded Zosimus in 418, and 
 was maintained in the pontifical chair by the 
 Emperor Honorius against his rival Eulalius. 
 He died in 422. Boniface II. succeeded Felix 
 IV. in 530. He w*as born at Rome, but his 
 father w r as a Goth. He compelled the bish- 
 ops in a council to allow him to nominate 
 his successor, and accordingly he selected 
 Vigil; but a second council disavowed the 
 proceedings of the first. Boniface VI. came 
 to the chair 806, and died of the gout a fort- 
 night after. Boniface VII. assumed the chair 
 after having murdered Benedict VI. and John 
 XIV. He was acknowdedged sovereign pon- 
 tiff in 974, and died a few months after. 
 Boniface VIII., after the resignation of Celes- 
 tine, was elected 1294. He commenced his 
 pontificate by imprisoning his predecessor, 
 and laying Denmark under an interdict. He 
 also excommunicated the Colonnas as here- 
 tics, and preached a crusade against them. 
 He excited the princes of Germany to revolt 
 against Albert, and laid France under an 
 interdict. Philip appealed to a general coun- 
 cil and sent his army into Italy, and took 
 the pope prisoner. He died at Rome a few 
 months afterward. 
 
 BONIFACE, St., first spread Christianity 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 139 
 
 and civilization among the Germans. His 
 original name was Winifred, and he was born 
 in England in 680. In 732 he was made 
 archbishop and primate of all Germany. He 
 was killed by barbarians at Dockum, in W est 
 Friesland, in 755. 
 
 BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate, 
 who received several preferments from Car- 
 dinal Wolsey. Henry VIII. made him one 
 of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to 
 obtain from the pope a divorce from Catha- 
 rine. There he was so insolent that the 
 pontiff -threatened to throw him into a cal- 
 dj’on of boiling lead, and thus compelled him 
 to quit Rome. He persecuted the Protest- 
 ants with great cruelty, and Elizabeth im- 
 prisoned him in the Marshalsea, where he 
 died in 1569. 
 
 BONEVAL, Claude Alexander, Count 
 de, known also by the name of Achmet Pa- 
 cha, was born in 1672. He was descended 
 from an illustrious family in France, and 
 married the daughter of the Marshal de 
 Biron. He was disgraced, however, by his 
 incessant pursuit of sensual pleasure. He 
 quitted the French army to serve under 
 Prince Eugene ; but having quarreled with 
 the general, he deserted to the service of the 
 Turks, among whom he obtained a military 
 command, and the rank of pacha with three 
 tails. He won a great victory over the 
 imperial army on the banks of the Danube. 
 He died in 1747. 
 
 BOOKS. The first books were boards, or 
 the-inner bark of trees; and bark is still 
 used by some nations, as are also skins, for 
 which latter parchment was substituted. 
 Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in 
 that country. Books whose leaves were vel- 
 lum, were invented by Attalus, King of 
 Pergamus, about 178 b.o., at which time 
 books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. 
 found at Herculaneum consist of rolls of 
 papyrus, charred and matted together by the 
 fire, about nine inches long, and one, two, 
 or three inches in diameter, each being a 
 separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, 
 and the history of Job, are the most ancient 
 books in the world ; and in profane litera- 
 ture the poems of Homer, though the names 
 of others yet older are preserved. Before the 
 day of printing, books commanded prices 
 only within reach of the wealthy. Jerome 
 
 states that he had ruined himself by buying a 
 copy of the works of Origen. King Alfred 
 gave a large estate for a work on cosmog- 
 raphy, about a.d. 872. A homily was ex- 
 changed for two hundred sheep and five 
 quarters of wheat ; and such books were 
 usually sold for double or treble their weight 
 in gold. The book of St. Cuthbert, the ear- 
 liest ornamented book, is supposed to have 
 been bound about a.d. 650. A Latin Psalter 
 in oak boards was bound in the ninth cen- 
 tury. A MS. copy of the Four Gospels, the 
 book on which the Kings of England, from 
 Henry I. to Edward VI., took their corona- 
 tion oath, was bound in oaken boards nearly 
 an inch thick, a.d. 1100. Velvet was the 
 covering used in the fourth century, and silk 
 soon after. Vellum was introduced early in 
 the fifteenth century, and was stamped and 
 ornamented about 1510. Leather came into 
 use about the same time. Cloth binding 
 began to supersede the common boards about 
 1830. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, a native of Virginia, was 
 one of the first to penetrate the savage wilds 
 of Kentucky, on an expedition to explore 
 which, he departed with five companions, 
 May 1st, 1769. Boone, with John Stewart, 
 was captured by the Indians, not long after 
 their arrival in Kentucky, but soon managed 
 to escape. Their companions had returned 
 home, whither they would have followedthem, 
 but for the timely arrival of Squire Boone, 
 Daniel’s brother, with refreshments. Stewart 
 being soon after slain, the two Boones re- 
 mained the only white men in the wilderness. 
 In 1773, Boone with his own and five other 
 families, a body of forty men, took up the 
 march of emigration from Virginia to Ken- 
 tucky ; but in consequence of the hostility of 
 the Indians, they returned to the settlements 
 on Clinch River. In 1775, Boone built a fort 
 at Salt Spring, on the southern bank of the 
 Kentucky, on the site of Boonesborough. 
 After sustaining several sieges, he was taken 
 by the savages, Feb. 7th, 1778, while hunting 
 with some cf his men. The Indians soon 
 learned to respect and value Boone, who was 
 adopted by one of the chiefs of Chillicothe, 
 but the thoughts of his wife and children in- 
 duced our adventurer to attempt an escape. 
 After traveling for four days, taking but one 
 meal, he arrived at Boonesborough, which 
 
 BOO 
 
140 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was a hundred and sixty miles from the place 
 of his captivity. On the 8th of August an 
 attack on the fort was commenced by a body 
 of Indians and Canadian French, which con- 
 tinued till the 20th, when the siege was aban- 
 doned. This was the last attempt made upon 
 Boonesborough. 
 
 From 1782 till 1798, Boone lived alternately 
 in Kentucky and Virginia. In 1798, having 
 obtained from the Spanish government a grant 
 of land in Upper Louisiana, he removed 
 thither with his children and friends, who 
 were also presented with land. He settled on 
 the Missouri, beyond the limits of other set- 
 tlements, and employed himself in the wild 
 life of the forest, hunting and trapping, until 
 1820, when he expired, aged nearly ninet} 7- . 
 He had for a long time been sensible of the 
 * approach of death, and had a coffin made out 
 of a favorite cherry-tree, which he brought to 
 a high degree of polish by continual rubbing. 
 
 BORGIA, Caesar, son of Pope Alexander 
 VI., an infamous character. On his father’s 
 accession to the papacy in 1492, he was in- 
 vested with the purple. Being jealous of his 
 brother Francis, he contrived to have him 
 drowned. Having renounced the cardinal- 
 ship, he was made Duke of Romagna in 1501, 
 and leagued with Louis XII. of France. On 
 the death of his father, he was sent prisoner 
 to Spain, but made his escape, and died fight- 
 ing under the walls of Biano, in 1507. 
 
 BORNEO, next to Australia, the largest 
 island in the world, is about 850 miles long, 
 and 700 broad. Lon. 109° to 119° E. ; lat. 
 7 ° N. to 4 3 20' S. The insalubrity of the 
 climate has restrained Europeans from explor- 
 ing it. Earthquakes and volcanoes are fre- 
 quent in the island. The mountain breezes 
 and the rains moderate the heat, which is ex- 
 cessive. Gold, diamonds, pearl, iron, copper, 
 tin, antimony, and other minerals are found 
 here. The fruits are fine and abundant. The 
 native inhabitants are Malays, Chinese, Bujis 
 or natives of Celebes, and a few descendants 
 of Arabs. The Dutch have permanent settle- 
 ments on the island, and derive their chief 
 profit from gold, pepper, and diamonds. Bor- 
 neo was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. 
 
 BORODINO. This battle, one of the most 
 sanguinary in the world, was fought Sept. 7th, 
 1812, between the French and Russians, com- 
 manded on the one side by Napoleon, and on 
 
 the other by KutusofF, 240,000 men being en- 
 gaged. The retreat of the Russians left Mos- 
 cow open to Napoleon. This is sometimes 
 called the battle of the Moskwa. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, Edward, a British admiral, 
 particularly distinguished himself at the tak- 
 ing of Porto Bello and the siege of Carthagena. 
 He also signalized himself under Anson, off 
 Cape Finisterre, and at the taking of Madras, 
 Cape Breton, and Louisburg. He died in 
 1761, having received in succession all the 
 honors of his profession. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, Bishop of 
 Meaux, born at Dijon, 1627, became one of 
 the most celebrated ecclesiastics of the eight- 
 eenth century. He was pious, severe in doc- 
 trine and practice, eloquent, and learned. He 
 died in 1704. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, the friend and biogra- 
 pher of Dr. Johnson, was a native of Scotland, 
 and studied at the universities of Glasgow and 
 Utrecht. Fie was born at Edinburgh, in 1740, 
 and died in 1795. He was acquainted with 
 many eminent literary men, and his introduc- 
 tion to Johnson he calls the most important 
 event of his life. His life of Johnson is accu- 
 rate and minute, abounding with literary an- 
 ecdote and personal detail. It was first pub- 
 lished in 1790, and has since been repeatedly 
 re-printed. 
 
 BOS WORTH, a small town of Leicester- 
 shire, England, in the vicinity of which is 
 Bosworth Field, memorable for the battle 
 fought here, Aug. 22d, 1485, between Richard 
 III. and the Earl of Richmond, afteraiard 
 Henry VII., in which the latter was victori- 
 ous, and Richard, after having performed 
 prodigies of valor, and cloven from helm to 
 heel two of Richmond’s standard-bearers, thus 
 disproving the tale of his withered arm, was 
 finally slain. The brows of Richmond were 
 encircled on the field of battle with the diadem 
 which was stricken from the casque of Rich- 
 ard. This battle ended the bloody contentions 
 of the rival roses, the red and white badges of 
 York and Lancaster. 
 
 BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, re- 
 markable in the history of Scotland for his 
 connection with Queen Mary and his su] - 
 posed share in the murder of Henry Darnley, 
 her husband. When that unfortunate prince 
 was blown up in the house where he slept, 
 suspicion fell strongly on Bothwcll and the 
 
 BOT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 141 
 
 queen. Bothwell was tried, but nothing could 
 be fixed on him, and he was acquitted. After 
 this he seized Mary near Edinburgh, and car- 
 ried her prisoner to Dunbar Castle, where 
 they were married. During these iniquitous 
 proceedings, Bothwell procured a divorce from 
 his first wife. Mary soon after created him 
 Earl of Orkney. But a confederacy among 
 the lords being formed against him, he retired 
 to the Orkneys, and from thence to Denmark, 
 where he died in 1577, confessing it is said 
 his own guilt, and the queen’s innocence of 
 Darnley’s murder. 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, was born at Philadel- 
 phia, May 2d, 1740. He became eminent at 
 the bar, was chosen member of the continental 
 congress in 1777, and its president in 1782. 
 For six years he was in the house of repre- 
 sentatives, and for a few years director of the 
 mint. He made munificent donations to the 
 American Bible Society, of which he was the 
 first president. He died in 1821. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, Marshal de, was born in 
 1644, and died in 1711. His defense of Na- 
 mur, in 1695, cost the allies 20,000 men. 
 Louis XIV. sent him an order commanding 
 him to surrender, but he concealed it till he 
 had no longer the means of defense. 
 
 BOUILLE, Francois Claude Amour, Mar- 
 quis de, a French loyalist general, who, among 
 other services, suppressed a dangerous insur- 
 rection at Metz, and assisted Louis XVI. in 
 his attempt to escape from France. For his 
 avowal of this transaction, a price was set 
 upon his head, whereupon he took a commis- 
 sion in the Swedish service. He died in 1800, 
 aged sixty-one. 
 
 BOURBONS. This family ascended the 
 throne of France in the person of Henry IV., 
 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a 
 younger branch, and guaranteed by the peace 
 of Utrecht, 1713, after a long and bloody dis- 
 pute called the war for the Spanish succession. 
 The reigning family of Naples is a branch of 
 the Bourbons of Spain. The Bourbons were 
 expelled from France in 1791, and were re- 
 stored in 1814. The elder branch was ex- 
 pelled in 1830, and Louis Philippe, of the Or- 
 leans line, reigned till 1^48, when he also was 
 deposed. 
 
 J3OURB0N, Charles, Duke of, or Consta- 
 ble of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, Count of Mont- 
 pensier, and Clara of Gonzaga, born in 1489. 
 
 At the age of twenty-six, he received the 
 sword of constable from Francis I., and dis- 
 tinguished himself at Marignano, but soon 
 after fell into disgrace. On this, he associated 
 with Charles V., and Henry VIII. of England, 
 against his sovereign. The plot being discov- 
 ered, he fled into Italy, and was beyond the 
 territories of France, when Francis sent to 
 demand the sword which he wore as consta- 
 ble, and the badge of his order. In the words 
 of his reply, we may trace the deep anguish 
 of his heart: “ The king deprived me of my 
 sword at Valenciennes when he gave the com- 
 mand of the vanguard to D’Alen^on : the 
 badge of my order I left under my pillow at 
 Chantelles.” He became commander-in-chief 
 of the imperial troops in Italy, but was killed 
 in the successful assault on Rome, May 2d, 
 1527. He fell, it is said, by a shot fired by* 
 Benvenuto Cellini. He died excommunicated. 
 
 BOURBON, Isle of, an island about 400 
 miles east of Madagascar. Its origin is sup- 
 posed to be volcanic. Le Piton de Neige, or 
 the Snowy Spike, is a mountain which rises 
 to the height of about 10,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. The isle of Bourbon, which 
 is 48 miles long, and 36 broad, was discovered 
 by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1545, and 
 called after his name ; but the French, who 
 gained possession of it in 1649, changed its 
 name. After remaining for a time in the 
 hands of the English, it was restored to the 
 French in 1815. After the revolution of 1848, 
 it received the name of Reunion. 
 
 BOURRIENNE, L. A. Fauvelt de, the 
 schoolmate and secretary of Napoleon, and 
 afterward a partisan of the Bourbons, 1769— 
 1824. 
 
 BOWDITCH, Nathaniel, LL.D., born at 
 Salem, Mass., March 26th, 1773, died at Bos- 
 ton, March IrGth, 1838. His translation of 
 the “Mecanique Celeste” of Laplace, with 
 the elaborate additions that he made, gave 
 him high rank as a writer in the pure mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, governor of Massachu- 
 setts, was born at Boston, in 1727, graduated 
 at Cambridge, 1745, elected member of the 
 general court in 1753, and a member of the 
 council in 1756. In 1778, he was chosen 
 president of the convention which framed the 
 Massachusetts constitution. In 1785, being 
 chosen governor of Massachusetts, he had 
 
 BOW 
 
142 
 
 Cottage cyclopedia of 
 
 Shay’s insurrection to quell. He died at Bos- 
 ton, in 1790. Such was his reputation for 
 learning, that he was honored with the degree 
 of LL.D. by the university of Edinburgh, 
 and admitted member of the royal societies of 
 Dublin, London, and other places. 
 
 BOWLES, William Lisle, a writer of ex- 
 cellent sonnets and other more mediocre 
 poetry, enjoys the distinction of having ‘ de- 
 lighted and inspired’ the genius of Coleridge, 
 who while yet a youth was a warm admirer 
 of his sonnets. Mr. Bowles was born at 
 King’s Sutton in Northamptonshire, Sept. 
 24th, 1762, was educated at Winchester and 
 Oxford, and was for many years rector of 
 Bremhill in Wiltshire, where he died in his 
 eighty-eighth year. He is chiefly famous for 
 the controversy concerning the poetry of 
 Pope, in which Campbell and Byron were 
 among his antagonists. 
 
 His absence of mind was very great, and it 
 is said that when his coachman drove him 
 anywhere he had to practice all kinds of cau- 
 tions to keep his master to time and place. The 
 poet once walked out in company with an an- 
 tiquary, as absent of mind as himself. His 
 servant coming to look for him, and learning 
 this, exclaimed in ludicrous distress, “What! 
 those wandered away together ? then they’ll 
 never be found any more ! ” His handwriting 
 was one of the worst that ever man wrote ; 
 insomuch that frequently he could not read 
 that which he had written the day before ; 
 and the printers had tough work in getting 
 his scrawls into type. At the office where 
 his works were printed, there was one com- 
 positor who had a sort of knack in making 
 out the blind hieroglyphics ; and he was once 
 actually sent for by Mr. Bowles into Wilt- 
 shire to copy some manuscript written a year 
 or two before, which the author had himself 
 vainly endeavored to decipher. 
 
 BOYDELL, John, patron of the arts and 
 engraver by profession ; born at Donington, 
 England, January 19th, 1719 ; came to Lon- 
 don on foot, bound himself an apprentice to 
 an engraver; began to publish 1745-6, and 
 in 1790, had expended in the promotion of 
 the arts in general, and the “Shakespeare 
 Gallery” in particular, £350,000 sterling. 
 He died in London, Dec. 17th, 1804, having 
 nearly reached the age of eighty-six years. 
 
 BOYER, Jean Pierre, a mulatto, president 
 
 of the island of Hayti, was born in Port au 
 Prince, about 1780. After the death of Le- 
 clerc, he joined the party of Petion, and was 
 finally named by him his successor in the 
 presidency. When the revolution broke out 
 in 1820, in the northern part of the island, he 
 was invited to command the insurgents, and 
 upon the union of the northern and southern 
 parts of the island on the death of Christophe, 
 and the revolution in the eastern part, he 
 became master of the whole island. 
 
 BOYLE, Charles, fourth Earl of Orrery, 
 generally supposed the inventor of the astro- 
 nomical instrument which bears his title, born 
 1676, died in 1731. He patronized Rowley, 
 the real inventor of the planetarium, called 
 the orrery. 
 
 BOYLE, Robert, born at Lismore, in Ire- 
 land, 1627, was seventh son of Richard, the 
 great Earl of Cork. He was one of the first 
 members of the learned society formed in 
 1645, under the name of the Philosophical 
 College, and afterward continued under the 
 name of the Royal Society. He made nu- 
 merous experiments in various branches of 
 natural philosophy, which led to some im- 
 portant results. But it is chiefly as a pious 
 and benevolent man that he is interesting to 
 us. Having conceived doubts of the authen- 
 ticity of revealed religion, he devoted him- 
 self to a severe course of study, until he was 
 fully convinced of its truth. He endowed 
 public lectures for the defense of Christianity 
 (which are yet delivered), and, at his own 
 expense, printed Irish and Gaelic transla- 
 tions of the Bible. He died in London, in 
 1691. 
 
 BOYNE, Battle of the, was fought on the 
 1st of July, 1690, between William III., at 
 the head of a Protestant army, and James II., 
 at the head of a Catholic and French force. 
 The latter were totally defeated. The Duke 
 of Schomberg, William’s ablest general, was 
 shot by mistake by his own soldiers, as he 
 was crossing the Boyne. After this battle 
 James re-embarked for France, and William 
 completed the reduction of Ireland, by the 
 capture of Limerick, after a protracted siege. 
 The impetuous imbecility of the unfortunate 
 bigot James II., served only to hasten the 
 ruin which public opinion had so deservedly 
 prepared for himself and his family. It was 
 the Irish who, during the dark fortunes of 
 
 BOY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 143 
 
 this last of the royal Stuarts, clung to him 
 when all else deserted him. They manned 
 his navy, recruited his army, replenished his 
 coffers, and took their stand around his per- 
 son on their native soil ; and when they saw 
 him the first to fly, they still erected his torn 
 standard, and rallied in his cause, paying the 
 penalty of their generous but misapplied 
 devotion to a bigot and a tyrant, by utter 
 ruin and eternal exile. Yet when James, in 
 his flight from the battle, arrived in Dublin, 
 he had the ingratitude and ungraciousness to 
 reflect upon the cowardice of the Irish. He 
 reached the castle late at night, and was met 
 at its gates by the beautiful Duchess of Tyr- 
 connel, “ La Belle Jennings ” of Grammont’s 
 Memoirs. In return for the sympathizing 
 respect which marked her reception, the king 
 is said to have sarcastically complimented 
 her upon the “alertness of her husband’s 
 countrymen.” The high-spirited beauty re- 
 plied, “In that, however, your majest} 7 has 
 had the advantage of them all.” The king, 
 in fact, was among the first to arrive in the 
 capital with the news of his own defeat. 
 
 BOZZARIS, Marco, one of the gallant de- 
 fenders of liberty in modern Greece, was born 
 in Albania, in 1780, and is said to have been, at 
 an early period of his life, in the French ser- 
 vice. When the Greeks rose to throw off the 
 Ottoman yoke, he ardently espoused the cause 
 of his country, and was chosen stratarch of 
 Western Greece. The Turks having invaded 
 Etolia with a large army, at the head of two 
 hundred and fifty volunteers he made a noc- 
 turnal attack on the enemy’s camp, and put 
 great numbers of them to the sword ; but 
 toward the close of the contest he received a 
 mortal wound. His companions in arms, by 
 a desperate effort, succeeded in bearing him 
 from the field, and he expired at Missolonghi 
 on the following day, August 23d, 1823. 
 
 BRABANT. North Brabant, in the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands, contains 403,687 in- 
 habitants, and South Brabant, in Belgium, 
 711,332. Brabant formed a duchy in the 
 seventh century. For some ages it belonged 
 to the Frankish monarch} 7 , and then was a 
 German fief. In 1005, the last duke dying, 
 the duchy devolved on his brother-in-law, 
 Lambert I., Count of Louvain. From him it 
 came to Philip II., Duke of Burgundy, and 
 afterward to the Emperor Charles Y. In the 
 
 seventeenth century, the republic of Holland 
 took possession of the northern part, which 
 was thence called Dutch Brabant. The other 
 part, belonging to Austria, was seized upon 
 by France in 1746. The peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle restored it, but, after falling again 
 into the hands of the French, it was ceded to 
 France by the treaties of Campo Formio and 
 Luneville, in 1791 and 1801. 
 
 BRADDOCK, Edward, major-general and 
 commander in the British army, who in 1755 
 marched against Fort du Quesne on the 
 Ohio, fell into an ambuscade of Indians and 
 French, was defeated and slain. AYashing- 
 ton, who had cautioned him in vain, con- 
 ducted the retreat in a masterly manner. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, eminent lawyer 
 of Pennsylvania ; born in Philadelphia, Sept. 
 14th, 1755, died August 23d, 1795. Wash- 
 ington appointed him attorney-general of the 
 United States. 
 
 BRADFORD, AYilliam, one of the first 
 printers in English America, born in 1658, 
 died in 1752. In 1725, the New York Ga- 
 zette, the first newspaper published in that 
 city, was commenced by him. He also 
 started the manufacture of paper at Eliza- 
 bethtown, N. J. He was first established at 
 Philadelphia, where his son Andrew contin- 
 ued the American Mercury , the first news- 
 paper of that town, commenced in 1719. 
 
 BRADFORD, AYilliam, grandson of the 
 preceding, was a printer and bookseller in 
 Philadelphia. In 1742, he published the first 
 number of the Pennsylvania Journal , which 
 was continued through the century. The 
 day preceding that on which the stamp-act 
 was to go into force, the Journal appeared 
 in the blackest mourning, with its head sur- 
 mounted by a skull and cross-bones. In the 
 upper right-hand corner, was a death’s head, 
 entitled “ An Emblem of the Effects of the 
 Stamp. O ! the Fatal Stamp.” In the op- 
 posite corner was the quaint announcement, 
 “The Times are Dreadful, Doleful, Dismal, 
 Dolorous, and Dollar-less.” On the margin 
 was the cry, “ Adieu, adieu to the Liberty of 
 the Press.” The first page read thus : “ Thurs- 
 day, October 31, 1765. Numb. 1195. The 
 Pennsylvania Journal, and AYeekly Advertis- 
 er. Expiring : In Hopes of a Resurrection to 
 Life again.” “Tam sorry to be obliged to ac- 
 quaint my readers that as the Stamp Act is 
 
144 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 feared to be obligatory upon us after the first 
 of November ensuing (The Fatal To-morrow), 
 the publisher of this paper, unable to bear 
 the Burthen, has thought it expedient to stop 
 awhile, in order to deliberate, whether any 
 methods can be found to elude the chains 
 forged for us, and escape the insupportable 
 slavery, which it is hoped, from the last 
 representation now made against that act, 
 may be effected. Meanwhile I must ear- 
 nestly. Request every individual of my sub- 
 scribers, many of whom have been long 
 behind Hand, that they would immediately 
 discharge their respective Arrears, that I 
 may be able not only to support myself dur- 
 ing the Interval, but be better prepared to 
 proceed again with this Paper whenever an 
 opening for that purpose appears, which I 
 hop** will be soon. William Bradford.” 
 The sturdy republican fought as major and 
 colonel in the Pennsylvania militia at Tren- 
 ton and Princeton. His constitution broke 
 and his fortune was shattered. He died 
 Sept. 25th, 1791, aged seventy-two. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, was born in the 
 north of England in 1588. While a youth 
 he was denounced as a separatist. He fled 
 to Holland, and came over in the Mayflower. 
 While with others he was seeking a spot 
 whereat to land, his wife fell overboard and 
 was drowned. He was made governor upon 
 the death of Carver in 1621, and annually 
 elected so long as he lived, except now and 
 then that “ by importuning, he got off,” as 
 Winslow says, and another filled the place 
 for the nonce. Gov. Bradford died in May, 
 1657. 
 
 BRADLEY, James, an eminent English 
 astronomer, born 1692; succeeded Dr. John 
 Keil, as Savillian professor of astronomy, at 
 Oxford, in 1721 ; discovered the aberration of 
 the fixed stars, and mutation of the earth’s 
 axis ; was appointed astronomer roj^al, Feb- 
 ruary, 1741-2; died July 13th, 1762. 
 
 BRADSTREET, Anne, author of the first 
 volume of poems written in America, was the 
 daughter of Dudley, and the wife of Brad- 
 street, both governors of Massachusetts. 
 She was born in England in 1614, and died in 
 1 672. Her poems were printed at Cambridge 
 in 1640, treating of “the four elements, con- 
 stitutions, ages of man, seasons of the year, 
 the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman 
 
 monarchies.” Cotton Mather said that “her 
 poems, eleven times printed, have afforded a 
 plentiful entertainment unto the ingenious, 
 and a monument for her memory beyond the 
 stateliest marbles.” 
 
 BRAGANZA, a town of Portugal, made a 
 duchy in 1 442. It gives its name to the royal 
 house of Portugal, of whom the first was 
 John IV., Duke of Braganza, who led the 
 Portuguese people in rendering themselves 
 independent of Spain, in 1640. A branch 
 of the house of Braganza is seated on the 
 throne of Brazil. 
 
 BRAHE, Tycho, eminent astronomer, born 
 in Sweden, December 19th, 1546, died at 
 Prague, October 24th, 1601, aged fifty -five. 
 
 BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers 
 and priests, reputed so ancient that Pythago- 
 ras is said to have received from them his 
 doctrine of metempsychosis, and it is affirmed 
 that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
 India on purpose to converse with them. 
 They never eat flesh, and profess to abstain 
 from wine and all carnal enjoyments. The 
 modern Brahmins derive their name from 
 Brahma, the first person in the Trinity, or 
 Trimurti, of the Hindoos. Brahma is the 
 creator, Vishnu, the preserver, or redeemer, 
 and Siva, the destroyer. Brahma is repre- 
 sented with four heads and four arms. He 
 is gifted with great power, but is himself 
 created by the Eternal One. Some believe 
 that he dies annually, and rises again. He 
 is considered as the lawgiver and teacher of 
 India. 
 
 BRAINERD, David, a devoted missionary 
 among the Indians in New York, New Jer- 
 sey, and Pennsylvania, was born in Haddam, 
 Conn., in 1718. His labors exhausted his 
 strength, and he died at the house of Rev. 
 Jonathan Edwards, Northampton, Mass., 
 Oct. 10 th, 1747. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, an ancient mark or 
 marquisate of Germany, and now the metro- 
 politan province of Prussia. The Suevi first, 
 and then the Sclavonians, inhabited it. The 
 latter barbarians, in the tenth centur}', were 
 conquered by Henry I., and converted to 
 Christianity. The mark passed through 
 various hands, till in the fifteenth century it 
 came into those of the ancestors of the pres- 
 ent royal famil)’- of Prussia. The Elector 
 Frederic William, enlarged it by the annex- 
 LA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 145 
 
 ation of several towns and districts. The old 
 mark, having been ceded to Napoleon, in 
 1807, formed a part of the kingdom of West- 
 phalia, until 1814, when it was restored to 
 Prussia. 
 
 BRANDYWINE, a small river taking its 
 rise in Pennsylvania, which, after a course of 
 forty-fWe miles, flowing through the state of 
 Delaware, joins the Christiana, two miles 
 below Wilmington. The river is known in 
 history for a battle fought in its vicinity, 
 Sept. 11th, 1777, between the British and 
 Americans, in which the latter sustained 
 a defeat with a loss of 900 in killed and 
 wounded. Howe had 17,000 effective troops, 
 while Washington’s force did not exceed 
 11,000, many of whom were raw militia. La- 
 fayette was wounded in the leg by a musket 
 ball. 
 
 BRANT, Joseph, a celebrated Mohawk 
 chief, at the head of the Six Nations during 
 our Revolution, was born on the banks of the 
 Ohio in 1742. His Indian name was Thay- 
 endanegea, ‘a bundle of sticks,’ or ‘strength.’ 
 Sir William Johnson had him well educated 
 at Dr. Wheelock’s Indian school in Colum- 
 bia, Conn. He attached himself to the royal 
 cause, and throughout the war he was en- 
 gaged in attacks upon the border settlements 
 of New York and Pennsylvania. He was 
 far more humane than the Tory leaders with 
 whom he was associated. After the termina- 
 tion of hostilities, he procured a domain for 
 his tribe in Upper Canada, and devoted him- 
 self to the social and religious betterment of 
 his people. He rendered the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer, and the Gospel of St. Mark, into 
 the Mohawk tongue. He died Nov. 24th, 
 1807. 
 
 BRAXTON, Carter, a signer of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, was born in New- 
 ington, Va., Sept. 10th, 1736. After grad- 
 uating at William and Mary College, he 
 visited England, where he tarried until 1760. 
 In 1765, he was chosen to a seat in the Vir- 
 ginia house of burgesses. In 1775, he was 
 elected to Congress. He was afterward a rep- 
 resentative in the legislature of Virginia. 
 He was a graceful speaker, and a man of 
 respectable attainments. Pecuniary embar- 
 rassments clouded the last years of his life, 
 and he died Oct. 10th, 1797. 
 
 BRAY, the Vicar of. Bray, a quiet vil- 
 
 10 B 
 
 lage in Berkshire, England, is famous for its 
 vicar, the Rev. Symond Symonds, who was 
 twice a papist, and twice a protestant, be- 
 tween the years 1533 and 1558, in the reigns 
 of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth. Being called a turncoat, he said 
 he kept to his principle, that of “ living and 
 dying the vicar of Bray.” 
 
 BRAZIL, the empire of, comprehends the 
 eastern portion of South America. Its extent, 
 from north to south, is about 2,600 miles, and 
 from east to west, nearly 2,400 miles. With 
 a territory of 2,300,000 square miles, possess- 
 ing extraordinary wealth and fertility, it is 
 inhabited by but seven and a half millions of 
 people. Brazil contains some of the largest 
 rivers in the world ; the Amazon, Tocantin, 
 and San Francisco being the most prominent. 
 There is much variety of climate, but gener- 
 ally it is healthy ; and the salubrity of the 
 vast elevated plains is unequaled by that of 
 any other region on the face of the globe. 
 The richness of its precious woods, the abun- 
 dance of its streams, the profusion of its dia- 
 monds and gold, and its general healthiness, 
 might in the hands of thrift and enterprise 
 make it the El Dorado of the imagination. In 
 the beds of the rivers are found diamonds, to- 
 pazes, chrysoberyls, other precious stones, 
 and gold. The trees are of every description, 
 adapted to cabinet-work, ship-building, and 
 dyeing ; while coffee, oranges, sugar, tobacco, 
 indigo, and rice are easily raised. Brazil, at 
 the time of its discovery, was inhabited by 
 roving Indians. These Indians are still in 
 some regions in as savage a state as when 
 South America was first discovered. The 
 foreign population consists of Portuguese and 
 Africans. The Indians were first used as 
 slaves, but this order of things has passed 
 away, and their place in servitude is filled by 
 the negroes. Of the 7,600,000 inhabitants, 
 perhaps 2,000,000 are whites. Many of the 
 first men in the country evidently have an 
 admixture of African blood in them. 
 
 Brazil was discovered, April 24th, 1500, by 
 Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who at first named 
 it Santa Cruz, but Emanuel, the Portuguese 
 sovereign, called it Brazil, from the quantity 
 of red wood which it produced. The Portu- 
 guese at first undervalued this country, and 
 sent thither only criminals, and the refuse of 
 their population, but the Jews, who had been 
 
140 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 DIAMOND WASHING IN BRAZIL. 
 
 banished to Brazil in 1548, having successfully- 
 introduced the culture of the sugar-cane, 
 Thomas de Souza was sent over by the court 
 of Lisbon, and began to find some good points 
 about the country, although it had not yielded 
 the desired gold. After temporary misfor- 
 tunes, the colonists prospered, but the Portu- 
 guese had to contend against France, Spain, 
 and the United Provinces, whose jealousy 
 tfas aroused by the accounts they heard of 
 the richness and fertility of the Portuguese 
 possessions. The Dutch met with great suc- 
 cess in Brazil, but became the friends of the 
 Portuguese, when the latter shook off the 
 Spanish yoke and gained their independence. 
 They still retained the seven provinces they 
 had conquered, and hence arose the division 
 of the country into the Brazils ; but a pecu- 
 niary compensation induced them to resign 
 their claims to the Portuguese. The diamond 
 mines were not discovered till 1728. The 
 prosperity of Brazil has not been what it 
 might be made under an enlightened govern- 
 ment. The conflicting interests of various 
 bodies of its inhabitants, the unequal pressure 
 
 of state burthens, and other causes, tended to 
 weaken and distract it. In 1808, the court 
 of Portugal removed here, fleeing from Napo- 
 leon, but in 1821, the king returned to Lis- 
 bon. Dom Pedro, his eldest son, then gov- 
 erned Brazil under the title of prince-regent. 
 The Brazilians declared themselves indepen- 
 dent of Portugal, Oct. 12th, 1822, and Dom 
 Pedro was crowned emperpr. In 1831 he ab- 
 dicated in favor of his son Pedro II., then a 
 lad of six years, and returned to Portugal. 
 The empire was governed by a regency till 
 the coronation of the youthful monarch in 
 1841. The government is a hereditary mon- 
 archy, limited by an elective legislature. The 
 empire is divided into nineteen provinces, each 
 of which manages its local affairs. Each has 
 a president, appointed by the crown, and its 
 provincial assembly, chosen by the people. 
 Brazil has been the most favored of the South 
 American states in its freedom from anarchy 
 and intestine conflicts. The most cultivated 
 part of the population are the merchants of 
 the maritime ports, the Europeans and Creoles 
 forming the aristocracy of the country. The 
 
 BRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 147 
 
 inhabitants are Roman Catholics, with the 
 exception of the independent native tribes, in 
 the vast and obscure regions of the interior. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, situated on a bay which affords 
 it one of the finest, safest, and most roomy 
 harbors in the world, is the capital of the em- 
 pire. An amphitheatre of hills and mountains 
 springing up one behind another, and separ- 
 ated by fertile valleys that enjoy a perpetual 
 spring and yield the choicest fruits and flow- 
 ers, rises round the bay. Rio has a popula- 
 tion of over 300,000, and is a mart of great 
 and increasing commerce. It exports more 
 coffee than all other ports in the world. Ba- 
 hia, or San Salvador, farther north on the 
 coast, was formerly the capital. Of its 160,000 
 inhabitants the majority are negroes. It too 
 has a capacious harbor and a thriving trade. 
 Pernambuco, a seaport <?till to the north, of 
 increasing trade, has 95,000 inhabitants. 
 
 BREDA, a fortified town in Dutch Brabant, 
 formerly of immense importance. It has sus- 
 tained several memorable sieges. In 1590, it 
 was taken by Prince Maurice of Nassau, and 
 retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, in 
 1625, after a siege of ten months. The French, 
 during the revolution, gained possession of it, 
 but it was abandoned by them in 1813. 
 Charles II. of England dwelt here during part 
 of his exile. 
 
 BREMEN, one of the free cities of Germany, 
 stands upon the Weser, fifty miles from the 
 sea. It was conspicuous in the Hanseatic 
 league, and is now the capital of a little re- 
 public, whose territory amounts to 112 square 
 miles, and whose population in 1855 was 
 88,856. Bremen is a place of great resort for 
 the warehousing and transit of German and 
 foreign goods. It has been a prominent point 
 for the debarcation of German emigrants to 
 America. Bremen first rose into notice in 
 788. 
 
 BRENNUS. Several chieftains of ancient 
 Gaul bore this name, which is said to have 
 been a title of dignity and honor. One, hav- 
 ing ravaged Lombardy and Tuscany, marched 
 to Rome, which he surrendered to plunder. 
 The garrison held out in the citadel, which 
 _ would have been taken at midnight by the 
 foe, but for the noise made by the sacred geese 
 of Juno, that were watchful even while the 
 dogs slept. Brennus was then offered a thou- 
 sand pounds weight of gold to spare the capi- 
 
 tal, and quit the territories of the republic. 
 He threw into the scale which held the 
 weights, his sword and helmet, haughtily ex- 
 claiming, “Wo to the vanquished.” The 
 treaty was ended by the timely arrival of the 
 exiled Camillus, who refuged the payment of 
 even a pound of gold as ransom. “ Rome,” 
 said he proudly, “ is to liberate herself with 
 iron and not with gold.” He gave battle to 
 the Gauls, and routed them, about 390 b.c. 
 
 BRESCIA, a province of Austrian Italy. 
 Its manufactures are and have long been ex- 
 tensive, and its soil is remarkable for fertility. 
 From the hands of the Venetians, it fell into 
 those of the French, and finally the Austrians. 
 Under the sway of the Venetian republic, the 
 inhabitants were unruly, although particularly 
 favored by government. The city of Brescia 
 has 40,000 inhabitants. In 1512, it was 
 stormed by Gaston de Foix, after a stubborn 
 resistance by the Venetian garrison. Forty- 
 six thousand Brescians, it is said, perished in 
 the indiscriminate slaughter that followed the 
 entry of the French, to whose lawless rapaci- 
 ty, rampant lust, and ferocious cruelty, the 
 gallantry of Bayard formed but a feeble coun- 
 terpoise. In 1796, as Bonaparte was quitting 
 Brescia, the municipal officers, who accompa- 
 nied him to the gate of the city, said that the 
 Brescians loved liberty more than the rest of 
 the Italians. “Yes,” said the general, sarcas- 
 tically, “they love to talk of it to their 
 women.” This slur nevertheless, Brescia re- 
 volted against the Austrians in 1849, and was 
 bombarded and stormed by Haynau. 
 
 BRESLAU, capital of the Prussian province 
 of Silesia, is situated at the junction of the 
 Ohlau and Oder ; population, 127,000. The 
 architectural beauty of the city has been cel- 
 ebrated. Its commerce is considerable. Here 
 the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians, 
 Nov. 22d, 1757. Breslau was besieged and 
 taken by the French in 1807 and in 1813. 
 
 BREST, anciently Brivates Portus, is one 
 of the chief naval stations of France. Its fine 
 harbor was constructed by Cardinal Richelieu, 
 in 1631. It is well fortified, its dock-yards 
 and magazines command admiration, and it is 
 considered impregnable. It contains 61,168 
 inhabitants. It was attacked in 1694 by a 
 British fleet and army, which were repulsed 
 with a loss of 1,300 men and their commander. 
 Lord Berkeley. 
 
 BRE 
 
148 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. 
 
 BRETKxNY, Peace of, concluded between 
 England and France, May 8th, 1360. England 
 retained Gasconry and Guienne, acquired 
 Sainton ge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, 
 Bigorre, Angoumois, and Rovergne, and re- 
 nounced her claims to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, 
 and Normandy. England was to receive three 
 million crowns, and to release King John of 
 France, who had long been a captive in 
 London. 
 
 BREWSTER, William, born in England in 
 1550, came over in the Mayflower, and as 
 ruling elder preached at Plymouth till his 
 death in 1644. 
 
 BRIDGES were so early and general, and 
 the expedients for their construction so vari- 
 ous, that their origin can not be traced. They 
 were first of wood. In China there are an- 
 cient bridges of great magnitude, built of stone. 
 Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats that 
 Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan’s 
 magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 
 4,770 feet in length, was built in a.d. 103. 
 The Devil’s Bridge in the Swiss canton of Uri, 
 so called from its frightful situation, was built 
 resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
 scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and 
 
 many fabulous stories were invented to ao 
 count for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordi- 
 nary bridge was built over the Rhine, which 
 is there four hundred feet wide. There was 
 a pier midway in the river, but it is doubtful 
 whether the bridge rested upon it : a man of 
 the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under 
 him ; yet wagons heavily laden passed over 
 without danger. This bridge was destroyed 
 by the French in 1799. The first stone bridge 
 in England was built at Bow near Stratford, 
 a.d. 1087. The finest suspension bridge in 
 Great Britain is that erected by Mr. Telford 
 (1818-1825) over the Menai straits, which is 
 one hundred feet above the level of spring 
 tides, with five hundred and sixty feet between 
 the points of suspension. This was considered 
 one of the most surprising works of modern 
 times ; but it has been thrown in the shade 
 by the Britannia Tubular Bridge, by which 
 the railway from Chester to Holyhead crosses 
 the strait. About a mile south of the suspen- 
 sion bridge is a rock called the Britannia rock, 
 near the centre of the strait, the surface of 
 which is about ten feet above low water level. 
 Without this rock the tubular bridge would 
 not have been feasible, and from it therefore 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 149 
 
 the bridge fitly takes its name. On this rock 
 is built a tower two hundred feet above high 
 water (commenced in May, 1846), on which 
 rest two lines of tubes or hollow girders, the 
 ends resting on abutments on each shore, each 
 tube being more than a quarter of a mile in 
 length. The height of the tube within is thirty 
 feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to 
 twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lift- 
 ing of the tubes to their places from their po- 
 sition afloat on the water, is regarded as the 
 most gigantic operation ever successfully per- 
 formed. They were raised by Brahmah hy- 
 draulic presses, into which 'the water was in- 
 jected by powerful steam-engines. A locomo- 
 tive first passed through these grand corridors 
 of iron in March, 1850. .Robert Stephenson 
 was the engineer. A similar bridge over the 
 St. Lawrence at Montreal, called the Victo- 
 ria bridge, two miles in length, was begun on 
 the 19th of June, 1854, and the first train 
 passed over Dec. 17, 1859. The greatest and 
 oldest suspension bridge in the world, is said 
 to be in China, near Kingtung ; it is formed 
 of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
 rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. 
 One of the finest suspension bridges in the 
 world crosses the Niagara River, about two 
 miles and a half below the falls, by a single 
 span of eight hundred and thirty-four feet, at 
 a height of two hundred and thirty feet above 
 the water. Three railways and a carriage 
 road pass the river by this structure. Nature 
 also has thrown wonderful bridges of rock 
 across mountainous chasms. Of these, those 
 of Icononzo, over fissures in the Cordilleras 
 on the road from Bogota to Quito, the stupen- 
 dous limestone arch over Cedar Creek in Vir- 
 ginia, and one with a span of a hundred and 
 ninety-five feet in Carter county, Kentucky, 
 are remarkable. The famous bridge by which 
 the army of Xerxes crossed the Hellespont, 
 (480 b.c.), was formed by connecting together 
 ships of different kinds, some long vessels of 
 fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the 
 number of almost seven hundred. They were 
 moored fast by anchors and cables of great 
 strength. On extended cables between the 
 lines of shipping were laid fast-bound rafters, 
 over these a layer of boughs, and on the latter 
 earth was thrown. On each side was a fence 
 to prevent the horses and beasts of burthen 
 from being terrified by the sea in their passage 
 
 from shore to shore. It is said that this won- 
 derful work was completed in one week. 
 
 BRIENNE, a town in the French depart- 
 ment of the Aube, at the academy of which 
 Napoleon learned the first principles of the 
 military art. Here on the 1st and 2d of 
 February, the allied Russians and Prussians 
 were defeated severely by the French. This 
 was among the last of Napoleon’s victories. 
 
 BRIGALIER, Abbe, lived during the 
 reign of Louis XII. The superstitions of his 
 time are displayed by 'some passages in his 
 life. He was almoner to Mademoiselle de 
 Montauban, and spent 30,000 crowns to be- 
 come an adept in the magic art, without 
 accomplishing his end. Being with the court 
 at Compiegne, a lady who had purchased a 
 piece of red silk, instead of green, begged the 
 abbe to change it to the color she wished. 
 Rather than lose his reputation as a magician, 
 Brigalier bought a piece of green silk and 
 gave it to the lady, who was astonished at his 
 success, and forthwith circulated the tale. 
 By various tricks of legerdemain, he main- 
 tained his credit as a sorcerer, so that the 
 Archbishop of Paris gravely commanded him 
 to desist from his unhallowed occupations. 
 
 BRINDLEY, James, was born in Derby- 
 shire, 1716, and reared as a clodhopper till 
 his seventeenth year, without the advantages 
 of even the most ordinary education. An 
 apprenticeship to a millwright brought out his 
 inventive faculties, and the untutored rustic be- 
 came an ingenious mechanician and successful 
 civil engineer. About 1757 he was consulted 
 by the Duke of Bridgewater as to the prac- 
 ticability of constructing a canal from Worsley 
 to Manchester, a distance of twenty-nine miles. 
 Had a man of inferior genius or less dauntless 
 courage undertaken this work, very probably 
 a failure would have ensued, and the develop- 
 ment of British inland navigation might have 
 been deferred for some years longer. When 
 the canal was completed as far as Barton, 
 where the Irwell is navigable for large ves- 
 sels, Brindley proposed to carry it over the 
 river by an aqueduct thirty-nine feet above 
 the water ! This project was ridiculed by the 
 practical men of the day. One much re- 
 spected individual would not discount the 
 Duke of Bridgewater’s bill for five hundred 
 pounds, and when the dimensions of the 
 aqueduct were communicated to him, he 
 
 BRI 
 
150 
 
 COTTA G-E CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 exclaimed, “I have often heard of castles in 
 the air, but never before was shown where 
 any of them were to be erected.” The canal 
 was completed in 1761, and in less than 
 fifty years, application had been made to 
 parliament for one hundred and sixty-five 
 acts for making canals in Great Britain at an 
 expense of thirteen million pounds. Many 
 of these great channelings were engineered 
 by Brindley. He died in 1772, the victim of 
 intense application to his profession. He is 
 said to have answered a committee of the 
 House of Commons, when asked for what 
 object rivers were created, “ To feed naviga- 
 ble canals.” Brindley could neither read nor 
 write until late in life, and then but poorly. 
 
 BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, Jean Pierre, 
 a prominent character in the history of the 
 French revolution, whose writings tended 
 greatly to bring monarchical power into dis- 
 repute. He was the son of a pastry-cook, 
 and was born in 1754. At the age of thirty, 
 he was imprisoned in the Bastile, for a work 
 which treated of prohibited subjects. After 
 numerous changes of action and residence, 
 which the nature of his works and the fluc- 
 tuating state of his popularity rendered ne- 
 cessary, having been engaged for some time 
 in England, some time with the Duke of Or- 
 leans, and some time in America, he was at 
 last guillotined with his friends, by the fac- 
 tion of Robespierre, in 1793. He was the 
 leader of the Girondists, and editor of the 
 Moniteur. 
 
 BRITANNICUS. Tiberius Claudius Ger- 
 manicus was called, after the return of his 
 father, the Emperor Claudius, from Britain, 
 Britannicus. His mother was the infamous 
 Messalina. By the intrigues of Agrippina, 
 the second wife of Claudius, he was poisoned, 
 after having been excluded from the succes- 
 sion, a.d. 55. 
 
 BROOKS, John, a revolutionary officer 
 and eminent physician, born in Medford, 
 Mass., 1752. His father was a farmer. After 
 completing his professional studies, he joined 
 with ardor the army, and was among the first 
 to fight for the freedom of America. On the 
 retreat of the British from Lexington, the 
 company which he commanded had no small 
 share in contributing to the annoyances of 
 that humiliating flight. Brooks enjoyed the 
 
 confidence and esteem of Washington, and 
 had a colonel’s commisson when the army 
 was disbanded. He retired to the practice of 
 his profession. He was governor of Massa- 
 chusetts from 1816 to 1823, and died highly 
 respected and esteemed, March, 18.25. 
 
 BROUGHAM, Henry, Baron of Brough- 
 am and Yaux late Lord Chancellor of Eng- 
 land. He was born in Edinburgh, Sept. 19, 
 1798. He was descended from a Westmoreland 
 family, and through his mother was grand 
 nephew of Wm. Robertson the historian. He 
 was educated at the high school and univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh and was distinguished for 
 his attainments in mathematics and the physi- 
 cal sciences. He assisted in the establishment 
 of the “ Edinburgh Review,” in 1802, and was 
 for a long time a contributor to its pages. He 
 was called to the bar in 1808, at Lincoln’s 
 Inn, and chose the common law court. He 
 entered parliament in 1810, and was distin- 
 guished for his speeches on law reform, cath- 
 olic relief, colonial slavery, corporation and 
 test acts, and the repeal of the common law. In 
 1825 he was elected lord rector of the Glas- 
 gow University. He was the author of many 
 books and political pamphlets. He died at 
 Cannes, France, May 7tli, 1868. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, born in 
 Philadelphia, in 1771, was the author of 
 several novels ; “Arthur Mervyn” and “ Ed- 
 gar Huntley ” are perhaps the best. He ed- 
 ited several periodicals, and his literary labors 
 hastened the progress of the consumption of 
 which he died in 1809. 
 
 BROWN, Jacob, was born in Pennsylva- 
 nia in 1775. In 1812 he entered the service 
 of Iifs country as a militia officer. In 1814 
 he was made brigadier, and soon after a ma- 
 jor-general in the regular army. He com- 
 manded at the battles of Chippewa and Ni- 
 agara. He died at Washington in 1 828. 
 
 BROWN, William, a native of Ireland, 
 who came to the United States at the age of 
 fourteen, in 1793, and was for a long time 
 eno-a^ed at sea in the merchant service. He 
 
 o o _ 
 
 finally joined the republican navy, and gained 
 great fame by his various daring exploits. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, a quaint, learned, 
 and eloquent author, tvas horn at London in 
 1605, educated at Winchester and Oxford, 
 and took his medical degree at Leyden. His 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 151 
 
 principal works are “Religio Medici,” Treat- 
 ise on Vulgar Errors,” and “Urn Burial.” 
 He died in 1682. 
 
 BRUCE, James, a native of Scotland, born 
 1730, distinguished himself by his travels in 
 Africa. He died in 1794. His veracity has 
 been often doubted, but his accounts have 
 been confirmed by more recent travelers. He 
 penetrated to the sources of the Abyssinian 
 branch of the Nile. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, was the grandson of the 
 competitor of Baliol for the crown of Scot- 
 land. It was left for him to accomplish the 
 deliverance of his country, which Wallace 
 had so nobly attempted. In his youth he had 
 acted upon apparently no regular plan ; and 
 although he had at times served against Ed- 
 ward, when the Scottish forces were able to 
 make a successful resistance, he soon made 
 submission after their defeat, and thus avoided 
 drawing down upon himself the implacable 
 resentment of Edward. He appeared to have 
 stifled his pretensions to the crown ; but 
 immediately after the death of Wallace he 
 determined at once to assert his own rights 
 and his country’s independence. Arriving 
 at Dumfries, from England, in February, 1306, 
 he had a quarrel with Comyn of Badenoch, 
 and stabbed him in the church of the Minor- 
 ites, because he opposed his views. He now 
 claimed the crown ; and resentment of the 
 treachery of Edward, and of the death of 
 Wallace, procured him numerous followers. 
 He was accordingly crowned King of Scot- 
 land, at Scone, on the 27th of March, the 
 same year. An army sent by Edward soon 
 arrived at Perth ; and in a battle fought on 
 the 19th of June, Bruce was defeated. He 
 took refuge at Aberdeen, and afterward went 
 toward Argyle, and was so hard pressed by 
 the English and their adherents, that he re- 
 tired to the island of Rathlin on the north-west 
 of Ireland, and was supposed to be dead ; but 
 early in the next spring, he again displayed 
 his banner in the west of Scotland, and gained 
 many advantages over the English, of which 
 the victory at Loudon Hill was the most re- 
 markable; whilst his brother, Sir Edward, 
 and Sir James Douglas, were equally active 
 and successful. Bruce came north in the 
 end of the same year, and on account of the 
 unfavorable state of his health, which had 
 been injured by unceasing hardships and pri- 
 
 vations, he remained some time inactive. On 
 the 22d of May, 1308, he gained the battle of 
 Inverary, over the Earl of Buchan and Sir 
 John Mowbray, which was the commencement 
 of a career of success which established him 
 as King of Scotland. The whole of the 
 fortresses • of the kingdom were recovered 
 excepting Stirling, which was beleaguered by 
 his brother Edward, who entered into a treaty 
 with the governor, by which it was agreed it 
 should be surrendered if not relieved before 
 the 24th of June, 1314. This led to the 
 attempt of Edward II. to relieve it by a pow- 
 erful army, and brought on the battle of 
 Bannockburn. Bruce’s army consisted of 
 thirty thousand veterans, distinguished by 
 their valor, the skill of their leaders, and an- 
 imated by every motive which can promote 
 heroic enterprise. He drew them up with a 
 hill on his right flank, and a morass on his 
 left, to prevent being surrounded by the 
 numerous army of Edward. Having a rivu 
 let in front, he commanded deep pits to be 
 dug along its banks, and sharp stakes to be 
 planted in them, and caused the whole to be 
 carefully covered with turf. The English 
 arrived in the evening, when Bruce was riding 
 in the front of his army. Sir Henry Bohun, 
 who rode up to charge him with his spear, 
 was brought to the ground by his battle-axe. 
 Early next morning the action commenced. 
 Sir Robert Keith, at the head of the men-at- 
 arms, destroyed the English archers. The 
 English horse, under the Earl of Gloucester, 
 rushing on to the charge, fell into the pits 
 Bruce had prepared for them. Sir James 
 Douglas, who commanded the Scottish cav- 
 alry, gave them no time to rally, but pushed 
 them off the field. Whilst the infantry con- 
 tinued the fight, discouraged by these unfav- 
 orable events, they were thrown into a panic 
 by the appearance of what they supposed 
 another army advancing to surround them. 
 This was a number of wagoners and sumpter 
 boys, whom King Robert had collected and 
 supplied with military standards, which gave 
 them the appearance of an army at a distance. 
 The stratagem was decisive, and an universal 
 rout and immense slaughter ensued. This 
 great and decisive battle secured the inde- 
 pendence of Scotland, and fixed Bruce on the 
 throne. He afterward invaded England, and 
 laid waste the northern counties. He also 
 
 BRU 
 
152 
 
 COTTA G’E CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 led an expedition into Ireland, in support of 
 his brother Edward, who had been crowned 
 king of that country, in the course of which 
 he gained several victories. Peace was at 
 last concluded between England and Scotland, 
 at Northampton, in 1328, and on the 7th of 
 June, 1329, Robert died, in the fifty -fifth 
 year of his age, and was buried in the ab- 
 bey of Dumfermline. His grand-daughter 
 was the wife of Robert II., the first king 
 of the house of Stuart, and from the issue of 
 that marriage the present royal family is 
 descended. 
 
 BRUMMELL, George Bryan, best known 
 as Beau Brummell, was born in June, 1778, 
 and educated at Eton and Oxford. He be- 
 came the leader of English fashion ; by no 
 means a mere dandy, but the best-dressed 
 gentleman of the day. Neckcloths were his 
 greatest victories. At his beck they were 
 starched. He was fastidious in tying them. 
 “These,” solemnly said his valet, bearing 
 forth a pile of crumpled linen, “ these are our 
 failures.” So arbitrary was the king of 
 fashion’s power, that he could snub the Prince 
 of Wales, who aspired to be the first gentle- 
 man in Europe. Coolness sprang up in the 
 intimacy of the two, and the prince cut the 
 beau. Brummell had full revenge, when he 
 asked in St. James’s street, just as George was 
 stepping off, “Alvanley, pray who is your 
 fat friend?” But the contest was unequal. 
 Beau B. ran through his fortune, and had 
 no nation to furnish the sinews of war. One 
 day he wrote thus to Scrope Davies : 
 
 “My Dear Scrope : Lend me two hundred 
 pounds ; the banks are shut, and all my mo- 
 ney is in the three per cents. It shall be 
 repaid to-morrow morning. 
 
 “ Yours, George Brummell.” 
 
 The answer was prompt. 
 
 “ My Dear George : ’Tis very unfortunate ; 
 but all my money is in the three per cents. 
 
 “ Yours, S. Davies.” 
 
 That night Mr. Brummell ran away to 
 Calais. England and his creditors saw him 
 no more. In France he dragged out a mis- 
 erable existence, sinking from the admired of 
 fashion to the shabby genteel; thence still 
 lower ; till at last he died at Caen in beggary 
 and imbecility March 29th, 1840. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, the duchy of, lies in the 
 north-west of Germany, between Hanover and 
 Prussia, comprising 1,524 square miles, and 
 in 1857, 269,915 people. Brunswick, its 
 capital, has 42,000 inhabitants, and was for- 
 merly one of the Hanse Towns. The house 
 of Brunswick was founded by Henry the 
 Lion, who married Maud, daughter of Henry 
 II. of England. The younger ranch of this 
 family came into possession of Hanover, and 
 has 'given sovereigns to England since the 
 commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 Charles Frederick William, Duke of Bruns* 
 wick, fell upon the battle field of Jena, 1806, 
 and the duchy was in the power of Napoleon 
 till 1813. The three elder sons were blind, 
 and yielded their rights in favor of Frederick 
 William, who was born in 1771. He joined 
 the war against France in 1806, and con- 
 tinued, throughout his life, the determined 
 enemy of Napoleon. His Black Bruns wick- 
 ers, so called from their dress and equipments 
 being entirely black, held out upon the con- 
 tinent as long as resistance was of any avail, 
 and finally their duke retired to England. 
 In 1815, he again appeared in arms, and fell 
 at Quatre-bras, commanding Wellington’s 
 van-guard, on the 16th of June. His death 
 was atoned for by the bravery of his black 
 hussars. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, a celebrated Ro- 
 man. He was the son of Marcus Junius by a 
 daughter of Tarquin the Elder. When his 
 father and brothers were beheaded by Tar- 
 quin, Brutus saved himself by feigning idiocy, 
 whence his surname, signifying ‘ the brute,’ 
 was given him. He continued this appear- 
 ance until Lucretia killed herself in conse- 
 quence of the violence of Sextus Tarquin. 
 This was the time for Brutus to rouse the 
 Roman people to action, and display the 
 energy of his mind. By his exertions the 
 Tarquins were expelled and the monarchy 
 changed to a republic. The consulship was 
 instituted, and Brutus and Collatinus, the 
 husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first to 
 hold that dignity. When his sons joined in 
 the conspiracy to restore the Tarquins, Bru- 
 tus, convinced of their guilt, ordered their 
 execution, that this example might confirm 
 the liberty of Rome. The same year he was 
 slain at the head of his troops, fighting 
 against Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who also 
 
 BRU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 153 
 
 fell in the encounter. This took place, b.c. 
 509. Brutus was mourned by the whole 
 Roman people. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, was lineally 
 descended from the above, whose republican 
 principles he seemed to inherit. In the civil 
 wars he joined Pompey, although the latter 
 was his father’s murderer, only because he 
 looked upon him as just and patriotic in his 
 claims. After the battle of Pharsalia, Caesar 
 not only spared Brutus, but made him one 
 of his friends. He, however, forgot the favor 
 when Caesar displayed his ambition and 
 tyranny, and conspired to stab Caesar in 
 the senate-house. Brutus was forced to re- 
 tire into Greece by the excitement created 
 by Antony. Here he gained many friends, 
 but was soon pursued by Antony, accompan- 
 ied by the young Octavius. A battle was 
 fought at Philippi. Brutus, who commanded 
 the right wing of the republican army, de- 
 feated the enemy ; but Cassius, on the left, 
 was overpowered, and Brutus found himself 
 surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He, 
 however, made his escape, and soon after fell 
 upon his sword, b.c. 42. It is said that, 
 previous to this battle, a spectral figure twice 
 the size of life, appeared to Brutus, and 
 warned him of his fate. 
 
 BUCCANEERS. These French and Eng- 
 lish freebooters of America acquired great no- 
 toriety. After the assassination of Henry IY. 
 of France, many Frenchmen settled in St. 
 Christopher, an island of the Antilles. Be- 
 ing driven from this place in 1630, they 
 sought refuge on the western coast of St. 
 Domingo, and the neighboring island of Tor- 
 tugas. Their wild and solitary life possessed 
 a certain charm which induced many Eng- 
 lishmen to join them, and their numbers at 
 length became considerable. They were 
 hardy and enterprising, and, deprived of the 
 softening influence of female society, nour- 
 ished a spirit of reckless ferocity. They did 
 not, however, display at first those stern fea- 
 tures which afterward characterized them, 
 but were comparatively peaceful and indus- 
 trious. Those who were settled at St. Do- 
 mingo, used to hunt the wild cattle of the 
 island, whose hides they sold to the crews 
 that landed on their coast. They were accus- 
 tomed to boucaner (that is, to smoke) the 
 flesh of these animals before large fires, and 
 
 thence received the name of boucaneers, or 
 buccaneers. Increasing in strength and 
 spirit, they defied the attempts of the Span- 
 iards to subdue them, and soon made them- 
 selves formidable by their predatory excur- 
 sions. 
 
 The Spaniards resolved to extirpate the 
 wild cattle, and thus induce the buccaneers 
 to become farmers for support, or else to 
 join their more lawless comrades on the island 
 of Tortugas. The buccaneers nourished a 
 deep-seated hatred of the Spaniards, and it 
 was their vessels which were most frequently 
 attacked by the pirates. Sailing from the 
 American ports, laden with the most precious 
 productions of the New World, the size and 
 strength of the galleons formed no adequate 
 protection against the numbers and intrepid- 
 ity of the buccaneers, who attacked them in 
 boats, ill equipped it is true, but manned by 
 crews of iron nerve and unquailing resolution. 
 The spirit of the Spaniards became crushed 
 by the repeated successes of the buccaneers, 
 and before long they did not even attempt to 
 defend themselves. Thus when Laurent, a 
 famous buccaneer, found himself in a small 
 vessel, with a few guns, and two Spanish 
 ships each of sixty guns along-side, the des- 
 peration and fury of his resistance so over- 
 awed the Spanish officers, that they permitted 
 him to escape, although they had him com- 
 pletely in their power. 
 
 The leaders of the buccaneers were chosen 
 for superior daring, but enjoyed but few priv- 
 ileges save that of being foremost in danger. 
 In dividing the spoils, all had an equal share, 
 or, if any exception was made, it was in favor 
 of those who had received very severe wounds 
 in combat. The captain had no larger share 
 than any of his followers, unless he happened 
 to have displayed extraordinary skill and 
 valor. Previous to dividing the booty, each 
 was obliged to swear that he had kept back 
 no part of the prize, and perjury, which was 
 of rare occurrence, was punished by the exile 
 of the offender to a desert island. The share 
 of those who had fallen was appropriated to 
 relieve the necessities of their relations, or as 
 gifts to the church, in case there were no 
 surviving friends or relatives. The buc- 
 caneers were scrupulous in observing the 
 outward rites of religion, and offered up 
 prayers for the success of each enterprise 
 
 BUC 
 
154 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 before embarking in it. So formidable were 
 the operations of the buccaneers, that they 
 greatly diminished the trade between Spain 
 and America. The baleful effects of the 
 climate, and the nature of their occupation, 
 gradually diminished their numbers, till they 
 were at length extirpated by the French and 
 English governments. From them originated 
 the French settlements on the western part 
 of St. Domingo, although their piracies were 
 ended in the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Several of their leaders acquired a reputa- 
 tion for daring and enterprise which has 
 preserved their names from oblivion. One 
 of the most noted of these was Montbar, the 
 son of a gentleman of Languedoc, who early 
 imbibed a hatred for the Spaniards. While 
 at school, performing the part of a French- 
 man in a drama, in his combat with a fellow- 
 student, who represented a Spaniard, he so 
 far forgot the reality of his situation, in the 
 illusion of the moment, that he would have 
 slain his antagonist but for the intervention 
 of the more cool-headed spectators. At an 
 early age Montbar embarked for America, 
 and was highly delighted when one day a 
 Spanish galleon hove in sight. Long before 
 the vessels met, Montbar had completed his 
 preparations for the combat, and, with an 
 unsheathed sword beneath his arm, was pac- 
 ing the deck, in all the hot hurry of untried 
 valor. The moment the vessels closed, call- 
 ing to the boarders, he sprang on the deck of 
 the galleon, and carried all before him by the 
 impetuosity of his attack. While his com - 
 rades were busy in estimating and dividing 
 the booty, he was sternly gazing on the stif- 
 fened bodies of the first victims of his hatred, 
 like an eagle hovering over the slain. Ar- 
 rived at St. Domingo, the buccaneers who 
 came on board to trade, complained that the 
 Spaniards, during their absence in the chase, 
 destroyed their settlements. ‘ ‘ Mak e me }mur 
 leader,” cried Montbar, “and I will teach 
 these spoilers that there exists a power 
 greater than theirs. I seek for no emolu- 
 ments: the joys of battle are enough for 
 me.” Struck with his appearance and im- 
 petuosity, they chose him their leader, and 
 had no reason to repent having done so, for 
 he unweariedly pursued the Spaniards with 
 invariable success,, and succeeded in induc- 
 
 ing the Indians to forsake the Spaniards and 
 league against them with the buccaneers. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, Latin poet and 
 historian of Scotland, born 1506, died 1582. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Claudius, an eminent mis- 
 sionary to the East Indies, born near Glas- 
 gow, March 12th, 1766, died Feb. 9th, 1815. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James. See Ap’x, p. 971. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, a mountain pass between 
 San Luis and Saltillo in Mexico. Here, Feb. 
 23d, 1847, the Mexicans attacked the Amer- 
 icans. Santa Anna sent Taylor a summons 
 to surrender at discretion. Old “Rough and 
 Ready” immediately replied, “declining to 
 accede to the request.” Santa Anna’s force 
 was the flower ‘of the Mexican army, and 
 20,000 strong. Taylor only had 4,500 men, 
 of whom 4,000 were untried volunteers. The 
 complete success of Taylor struck terror and 
 dismay into the hearts of the Mexican nation. 
 The American loss w as 267 killed, 456 w r ound- 
 ed, and 23 missing: that of the Mexicans 
 exceeded 1,500. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, formerly a Spanish 
 province, and afterward a part of the Argen- 
 tine Confederation, is now a republic by itself. 
 The area is roughly estimated at 60,000 
 square miles ; the population probably does 
 not exceed 350,000. The western and north- 
 ern parts of the country are rough, but large 
 portions are extremely level; in the south, 
 for instance, the pampas (immense plains) 
 are more than 1200 miles long, and 500 
 broad, filled with wdld cattle, and the abode 
 of Indians hardly less wild. The fertility of 
 a large proportion of the soil is surprising, 
 although agriculture is neglected for the 
 rearing of cattle. Among the mineral pro- 
 ductions are gold, silver, copper, tin, and 
 lead. Hides, tallow, and beef are exported 
 in great quantities. The only town of much 
 importance is the capital, Buenos Ayres, 
 which w r as founded in 1535, and contains a 
 population of 120,000. A few of the public 
 buildings may well be called magnificent, but 
 generally architecture is in a low state in 
 Buenos Ayres, chiefly from the scarcity of 
 good building material, chalk and brick 
 forming but a very inferior substitute. In 
 1826, it was made the seat of government of 
 the United Provinces of La Plata. In 1806, 
 it was captured by the English, w r ho w r ere 
 shortly afterward attacked by surprise, and 
 
 BUE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 155 
 
 suffered great loss. The reinforcements which 
 came over the following year, were received 
 into the city with apparent submission, but 
 then attacked with vigor, and compelled to 
 conclude a truce, after suffering immense loss. 
 The trade of the city is very considerable. 
 
 BUFFON, George Louis Le Olerc, Comte 
 de, a famous French naturalist, born at 
 Montbard in Burgundy, in 1707, died at Paris, 
 April 16th, 1788. His “Natural History” 
 continues to be read with pleasure, and at 
 the time of its appearance differed from all 
 previous works, which were merely masses of 
 technical description, with no interesting 
 general views and details. 
 
 BULL. A papal bull is kn apostolical re- 
 script or edict, of ancient use, and generally 
 written on parchment. The bull is, properly, 
 the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has 
 been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. 
 On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; 
 on the other, the name of the pope, and year 
 of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
 bull of the Emperor Charles IV. was so 
 called because of its golden seal, and was 
 made the fundamental law of the German 
 empire at the diet of Nuremberg, 1356. 
 Papal bulls denouncing Queen Elizabeth and 
 her abettors, and consigning them to hell- 
 fire, accompanied the boastful Spanish ar- 
 mada, 1588. 
 
 BULL BAITING, a sport of Spain and 
 Portugal, somewhat equivalent in those coun- 
 tries to the fights of the gladiators among the 
 Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
 ment at Stamford in England so early as 
 1209. Bull running was a sport at Tutbury 
 in 1374. Among the sports of ‘Merrie Eng- 
 land’ were the “Easter fierce hunts, when 
 foaming boars fought for their heads and 
 lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with 
 dogs ; ” and near the Clink, London, was the 
 Paris, or bear garden, so celebrated in the 
 time of Queen Bess for the exhibition of 
 bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. 
 Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 
 1260, and abolished there, “ except for pious 
 and patriotic purposes,” in 1784. There 
 was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa 
 Anna, attended by ten thousand spectators, 
 Sunday, June 14th, 1840. 
 
 BUNKER HILL. This memorable battle 
 was fought June 17th, 1775. On the eve- 
 
 ning of June 16th, Col. Prescott received 
 orders to fortify Bunker Hill, but Gen. Put- 
 nam, who had the command of the expedition, 
 finding Breed’s Hill more suitable, the re- 
 quisite fortifications were rapidly thrown up 
 on that height. The British were uncon- 
 scious of the enterprise until morning, when 
 their ships-of-war, floating batteries, and the 
 guns of Copp’s Hill, opened a severe fire on 
 the Americans. At one o’clock, the troops 
 under Howe landed in Charlestown, and were 
 soon after reinforced which swelled their 
 number to about 5,000 men, with six field- 
 pieces. The British troops were well equip- 
 ped and officered, possessed all the advan- 
 tages of strict discipline, and were by no 
 means distrustful of the issue of the contest. 
 The American army, on the other hand, hav- 
 ing been hastily called together, was composed 
 of men who had few ideas of military com- 
 binations, and whose weapons were generally 
 fowling-pieces without bayonets, but who 
 were all animated by one spirit. Their lead- 
 ers were beloved and respected by them, and 
 were men of tried truth and nerve ; Putnam, 
 Stark, Pomeroy, Warren, and Prescott, men 
 whose names yet call a glow into the bosom of 
 every patriot. The provincial troops amount- 
 ed to perhaps 2,000 men, with two field- 
 pieces. “ Don’t fire, ” said Putnam to his men, 
 “till you can see the whites of their eyes.” 
 The British approached unmolested till within 
 close gun-shot, when the tremendous fire of 
 the provincials drove them back with great 
 slaughter. In *he second attack, Charles- 
 town was set on fire and burned to the ground, 
 adding its raging flames to the other horrors 
 of the battle scene. As the ammunition of 
 the Americans was nearly exhausted, the 
 third attack carried the redoubt, although the 
 provincials resisted the British with the butt- 
 ends of their muskets, and slowly retreated 
 from the hill. The Americans lost 115 
 killed (among them General Warren), 305 
 wounded, and 30 were made prisoners. The 
 British lost 1,054 in killed and wounded. 
 
 As the Americans retreated across Bunk- 
 er’s Hill, Gen. Putnam used every exertion to 
 rally them. He commanded, begged, cursed 
 and swore like a madman. “ Halt ! Make a 
 stand here!” he cried; “we can check them 
 yet. In God’s name form, and give them one 
 shot more.” It is said that for the torrent of 
 
156 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 profanity in which the brave old general in- 
 dulged at this time, he made a confession, after 
 the war, before the church of which he was 
 a member. “It was almost enough to make 
 an angel swear,” he said, “ to see the cowards 
 refuse to secure a victory so nearly won.” 
 But the undisciplined yeomanry were desti- 
 tute of ammunition ; thrice had they repulsed 
 a force superior in strength and skill ; and 
 whatever victory the British had gained 
 was more humiliating than defeat. A lofty 
 monument now stands upon the site of the 
 redoubt. 
 
 BUN Y AN, John, the son of a tinker, born 
 at Elston, in 1628. At an early age "he was 
 dissipated, and served as a soldier in the par- 
 liamentary army. Reflection and reformation, 
 however, brought out the bright points of his 
 character. He became a member of a society 
 of Anabaptists, and finally their teacher. As 
 a dissenter he was imprisoned in Bedford jail, 
 twelve years, and the occupation of his mind 
 during his long confinement, was the compo- 
 sition of his unrivaled “ Pilgrim’s Progress,” 
 that wonderful religious allegory, bearing the 
 impress of a strong mind and an ardent imag- 
 ination. Bunyan died in 1688. Robert, his 
 last male descendant in a direct line, died at 
 Lincoln, England, Nov. 27th, 1855, aged 
 eighty. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, John Louis, famous for 
 his travels in Africa, born at Lausanne in 
 1784. His country being oppressed by France, 
 he went to London in 1806, and was engaged 
 by the African association to explore Africa 
 from the north. To facilitate his progress in 
 Nubia and other parts of the country, he as- 
 sumed the character of a S} T rian Turk, and so 
 thoroughly Acquainted with the manners and 
 religion of the East was he, that he underwent 
 an examination by two learned jurists, and 
 was pronounced by them a learned and true 
 Mussulman. He died at Cairo, October 15th, 
 1817, and was buried in the Mussulman cem- 
 etery with great splendor. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, the natural son of Lord 
 Bingly, a general in the English army, and 
 also an agreeable dramatist. He entered the 
 army at an early age, and, in 1762, had the 
 command of a body of troops sent to Portugal 
 for the defense of that kingdom against the 
 Spaniards. He distinguished himself in the 
 American war by taking Ticonderoga, but 
 
 after severe engagements at Stillwater and 
 Saratoga, was forced to surrender, with his 
 whole army, to General Gates, in 1777. 
 Afterward he sat in parliament, and in 1781 
 he warmly advocated the discontinuance of 
 hostilities. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS, a tribe of Germans, a 
 branch of the Vandals, who occupied a part 
 of France, in the fifth century, which has since 
 been called Burgundy. It was long an inde- 
 pendent state, but was attached to France in 
 the latter part of the fifteenth century, on the 
 death of Charles the Bold. The independent 
 dukes of Burgundy rendered their name illus- 
 trious, and many of them were distinguished 
 for their bravery ’and other high qualities. 
 
 BURIAL. This was the earliest mode of 
 disposing of dead bodies, and the first idea of 
 it is said to have been formed from observing 
 a live bird covering a dead one with leaves. 
 The antiquity of the custom of burning the 
 dead rises as high as the Theban war ; it was 
 practiced among the Greeks and Romans, and 
 Homer abounds with descriptions of such ob- 
 sequies. It was very general about 1225 b.c. ; 
 it was revived by Sylla for fear the relics of 
 the dead in graves should be violated by ene- 
 mies, and was not in disuse till the time of 
 Macrobius. Among the most ancient -sepul- 
 chres were those circular mounds yet discern- 
 ible in various countries, and in Britain called 
 barrows. Several of these near Stonehenge 
 having been opened, curious remains of Celtic 
 ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
 brooches, in amber, wood, and gold, were 
 found. Places of burial were consecrated 
 under Pope Calixtus I. in 210 ; the first 
 Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; 
 burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 
 750; in churchyards, 758. Woolen shrouds 
 were used in England, 1666. The ancients 
 had not the unwise custom of crowding all 
 their dead in the midst of their towns and 
 cities, within the narrow precincts of a place 
 reputed sacred ; much less of amassing them 
 in the bosoms of their fanes and temples, as 
 has been the habit in European countries. 
 The mortuaries of the Greeks and Romans 
 were at a distance from the towns ; those of 
 the latter generally near the highways, whence 
 came the necessity for inscriptions on the 
 tombs ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
 gardens, and in fields, and among rocks and 
 
 BUR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 157 
 
 mountains. The practice of inhuming in 
 churchyards and within religious edifices was 
 introduced by the Romish clergy, who pre- 
 tended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privi- 
 leges from interment in consecrated ground. 
 It is now the custom to bury the dead in 
 cemeteries. One of the most celebrated of 
 these is Pere la Chaise. It takes its name 
 from a French Jesuit, the confessor of Louis 
 XIV. He died in 1709, and the site of his 
 house and grounds at Paris is now occupied 
 by this beautiful cemetery. The burying 
 places of the Turks are handsome and agree- 
 able, which is owing chiefly to the fine shrub- 
 bery and plants carefully, placed over the 
 dead. It was a practice of high antiquity to 
 plant herbs and flowers about the graves of 
 departed friends. The Romans strewed roses 
 upon their tombs ; the Greeks, amaranth and 
 myrtle. The women in Egypt go weekly to 
 pray and weep at the sepulchres, and throw 
 sweet basil upon them. In Asia Minor and 
 Turkey in Europe, the tombs are also adorned 
 either with palm-leaves, boughs of myrtle, or 
 cypresses planted at the head and foot. Be- 
 tween some of the tombs is put a chest of or- 
 namental stone, filled with earth, in which 
 are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. 
 These are regularly cultivated by women who 
 assemble in groups for that duty. The Athe- 
 nian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar, 
 because of the aromatic and incorruptible na- 
 ture of that wood. Coffins of marble and 
 stone were used by the Romans. Alexander 
 is said to have been buried in one of gold. 
 Glass coffins have been found in England, and 
 the earliest record of wooden coffins there is 
 in the burial of King Arthur, who was buried 
 in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a.d. 542. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, a statesman and great 
 political writer, was born at Dublin, January 
 1st, 1730. He was contemporary with Pitt 
 and Fox. After finishing his education at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, he entered his name 
 at the Middle Temple as a law student, but 
 devoted himself to literature. His political 
 career commenced by his accompanying Ham- 
 ilton, secretary of the lord-lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, to Dublin, and on his return he was 
 made private secretary to the Marquis of 
 Rockingham. On the fall of the Rockingham 
 ministry, he wrote a pamphlet on the subject, 
 and beoame an active member of tha opposi- 
 
 tion, being chosen for Bristol, in 1774, without 
 expense. His speeches in the senate eclipsed 
 even the reputation of his writings, and were 
 delivered with a vehemence which it was dif- 
 ficult to resist. He was strenuous for the 
 conciliation of the American colonies. On 
 the return of the Rockingham administration, 
 Mr. Burke for a short time filled the office of 
 paymaster-general, but he resigned the post, 
 upon the succession of Lord Shelburne to the 
 premiership. The leading features of his 
 subsequent political life, in which he held no 
 office, are his impeachment of Warren Has- 
 tings ; his opposition to the limited regency 
 in 1788; his prediction of the effects of the 
 French revolution, and his separation from 
 Mr. Fox upon those sentiments. This was 
 his last great political act, all his subsequent 
 ones being to establish and defend it. On 
 this subject he published several pamphlets, 
 the merit of which obtained him a pension, 
 and many severe reflections from his oppo- 
 nents, to which he replied in “ A Letter to a 
 Noble Lord,” replete with sarcastic irony. 
 He died July 8th, 1797. Mr. Burke had a 
 commanding oratory, to enhance which he 
 spared no incidental act .of gesticulation and 
 manner. On one occasion, he is said to have 
 drawn forth and brandished a dagger to give 
 a greater effect to his words. 
 
 BURNS, Robekt, the greatest of Scottish 
 bards, was the son of a gardener, and was 
 born near the town of Ayr, January 25th, 
 1759. He had some instruction and was fond 
 of reading. His poetical talent was first dis- 
 played in some amatory verses, and his con- 
 versational talents caused him to be sought 
 for by convivial parties, which tended to fix 
 his habits of dissipation. The publication of 
 his poems procured him a sum of money 
 larger than he anticipated, and a high literary 
 reputation. He was enabled to take a farm 
 near Dumfries, and at the same time procured 
 the office of exciseman. He married the early 
 object of his affections, the “bonnie Jean” 
 of whom he has written so tenderly in the 
 most musical of his verses. She survived the 
 poet who had immortalized her name, and died 
 in the year 1834. Burns might have pros- 
 pered and enjoyed a long life, had he but lis- 
 tened to the advice an (^remonstrances of his 
 friends, and forsaken those ruinous indulgen- 
 ces that produced or at least hastened his 
 
 BUR 
 
158 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 BIRTH-PLACE OF ROBERT BURNS. 
 
 death, which took place July 21st, 1796. 
 Burns was emphatically the poet of truth and 
 of nature. His most beautiful poems were 
 composed in the spirit of truth, and glow with 
 the fire of real feeling and passion. Full of 
 affectionate and sad remembrances, he com- 
 posed the verses “ To Mary in Heaven,” com- 
 mencing ; 
 
 “My Mary, dear departed shade, 
 
 Where is thy blissful place of rest? 
 
 Sees’t thou thy lover lowly laid, 
 
 ' Hear’st thou the groans that rend his breast?” 
 
 In this he celebrates their last meeting. 
 The Mary of Burns was a peasant-girl, whose 
 acquirements merely enabled her to read her 
 Bible and psalm-book, and who walked bare- 
 footed to their trysting-place, and yet she in- 
 spired the most enthusiastic attachment in a 
 man whose intellect cast a glory upon the 
 hills, and woods, and streams of his native 
 land, and a halo round the objects of his love, 
 which will endure as long as the human breast 
 is warmed with the glow of social and patri- 
 otic feeling. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, was born in Newark, N. J., 
 February 6th, 1756. His father was the pious 
 president of Princeton College, and his mother 
 
 the daughter of that devout divine, Jonathan 
 Edwards. But death robbed him earlv of 
 their care, and his life was in deep contrast 
 to such parentage. Brilliant talents he dis- 
 played in his youthful collegiate career, and 
 bravery in the ardor with which he threw 
 himself into the patriotic cause. He was a 
 volunteer in Arnold’s expedition against Que- 
 bec, and fought close by Montgomery when 
 that brave man fell. He reached the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel. Ill health forced him to 
 leave the army in 1779. He was soon fore- 
 most at the bar of New York, and from 1791 
 to 1797 was a member of the United States 
 Senate. In 1800, he was a candidate for the 
 presidency against Jefferson. The choice de- 
 volved upon the House of Representatives. 
 On the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson was elected 
 president, and Burr vice-president. The mur- 
 der of Alexander Hamilton by Burr in a duel 
 in 1 804, brought great hatred upon the latter. 
 In 1807 Burr was tried for treason, being ac- 
 cused of an attempt to rear an empire in the 
 south-west, but he was acquitted. His public 
 life was at an end, and he lived in comparative 
 obscurity till his death, Sept. 14th, 1886. 
 
 BURRO WS, William, born October 6th. 
 
 BUR 
 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 159 
 
 1785, a gallant officer in the United States 
 navy, who fell a victim in the moment of glory, 
 Sept. 6th, 1813, commanding the Enterprise, 
 which engaged the British brig Boxer; he 
 received a mortal wound early in the action, 
 and when the sword of the enemy was pre- 
 sented to him, he exclaimed, “lam satisfied ; 
 I die content and soon after expired. The 
 action lasted forty -five minutes. 
 
 BUSACO, a mountain ridge in Portugal, 
 celebrated for the repulse of the French under 
 Massena, by the English under Lord W elling- 
 ton, Sept. 27th, 1810. 
 
 BUTLER, Riciiakd, an officer of the Rev- 
 olutionary war, colonel of Morgan’s rifle corps, 
 shared at Saratoga, and many other places, 
 the renown of that admirable body. After a 
 life of honor, General Butler fell, in the defeat 
 of St. Clair’s army, by the Indians, Nov. 4th, 
 1791. 
 
 BUTLER, Thomas, brother of Richard, and 
 a brave officer, joined the army in 1770, was 
 at Brandywine, served through the war, and 
 was very severely wounded in the war with 
 the Indians, at the battle where his brother 
 fell. His latter years were imbittered by dis- 
 putes with General Wilkinson, -which were 
 closed by death, Sept. 7th, 1805, aged fifty- 
 one. He would not yield to the general order 
 which required officers and soldiers to cut the 
 hair close to the head. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, an English poet, the son 
 of a farmer, born in Stresham, Worcester- 
 shire, in 1612. His pungent satire of “ Hudi- 
 bras,” in which the weak points of the Puri- 
 tans are happily exposed, brought the author 
 into notice, but did not better his circumstan- 
 ces, and he. died poor in 1680. 
 
 BYLES, Mather, D.D., a clergyman of 
 Boston, born in 1706. He was for some time 
 pastor of the Hollis Street Church, but was 
 removed from his pulpit in consequence of 
 his Tory principles. His political opinions 
 subjected him to a temporary imprisonment 
 on board a guard-ship. He was however re- 
 leased, but a guard put over him in his own 
 house. The guard was removed, and then 
 replaced in consequence of further complaint 
 against him. Finally, the presence of the 
 sentinel was dispensed with. It was on this 
 occasion, that the witty doctor remarked that 
 he had been “ guarded, regarded, and disre- 
 garded.” When two selectmen stuck fast in 
 
 the slough opposite his house, he said to them, 
 “ Gentlemen, I have several times complained 
 of this nuisance, and am therefore pleased to 
 see you stirring in the matter.” Byles cor- 
 responded with Pope, Lansdowne, and AY atts, 
 and possessed some poetical talent. His es- 
 says and poems were collected, and published 
 in a volume. He died in Boston, July 5th, 
 1788. 
 
 BYNG, George, an English admiral, born 
 in 1663. He became rear-admiral in 1703. 
 In 1706, he relieved Barcelona, besieged by 
 the Duke of Anjou; and in 1708, frustrated 
 the efforts of the French to assist the Preten- 
 der by an invasion. In 1718, he defeated the 
 Spanish fleet off Sicily. For these, and other 
 services, he received many offices and honors, 
 and was made \ r iscount Torrington. He died 
 in 1733. 
 
 BYNG, John, an English admiral, son of 
 the preceding, served under his father in many 
 expeditions, and, although esteemed an able 
 seaman and a brave man, was ruined by par- 
 tisan animosity. Failing in his attempts to 
 relieve Minorca, in 1755, he was tried by a 
 court-martial, and, although recommended to 
 mercy, shot in 1757. After party fury had 
 subsided, and his conduct had been dispas- 
 sionately examined, his intentions were al- 
 lowed to have been good, his courage indis- 
 putable, and his death the consequence of 
 rancorous misrepresentation from personal 
 dislike. His conduct in his last moments con- 
 firmed no part of the evidence against him ; it 
 was cool, determined, dignified, and resigned. 
 Immediate posterity honored him as a British 
 admiral ; his connections, as a man of honor ; 
 and it was obtained from among the secrets of 
 ministerial intrigue, that he was the victim of 
 ministerial cowardice, undeserving of the dis- 
 grace of an execution, and obedient to orders 
 which the men in office had not the courage 
 to avow. 
 
 BYRON, George Gordon, Lord, one of 
 the most celebrated English poets of modern 
 days, was born in London, Jan. 22d, 1788. 
 Admiral Byron, the great voyager, was his 
 grandfather. His mother was a Scotch heir- 
 ess, only daughter of George Gordon, Esq., 
 of Aberdeenshire, and his father was Captain 
 Byron, or, as he was popularly termed, for 
 his reckless profligacy, ‘ Mad Jack Byron of 
 the Guards.’ The parents of the poet lived 
 
160 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 unhappily together, and the heartless liber- 
 tine who transmitted so many failings to his 
 son, squandered the property of the woman 
 he had married for her wealth, and reduced 
 her to comparative poverty. Economy in- 
 duced Mrs. Byron to take up her residence 
 at Aberdeen in 1790, where her son was 
 placed at school. Her management of young 
 Byron was anything but judicious, and in 
 her fits of passion, she even reproached him 
 with the lameness of one of his feet, a de- 
 formity which although trifling was severely 
 felt by the sensitive poet, and even engen- 
 dered many of his misanthropic views. It 
 was rarely that he alluded to it in a jesting 
 way. In his youth, however, he was ac- 
 quainted with a child who had a similar de- 
 fect, and used to say to his nurse, in the 
 Scotch dialect which he had acquired, “ See 
 the twa laddies wi’ the twa club feet ganging 
 up the high street.” His rambles among the 
 Highlands of Scotland had a strong effect 
 upon his imagination, and probably kindled 
 the spark which afterward brightened to a 
 flame. In one of his poems he says : 
 
 “ Long have I roamed through lands which are 
 not mine, 
 
 Adored the Alps, and loved the Appenine, 
 Revered Parnassus, and beheld the steep 
 Jove’s Ida and Olympus crown the deep ; 
 
 But ’t was not all long ages’ yore, nor all 
 Their nature held me in their thrilling thrall; 
 The infant rapture still survived the boy, 
 
 And Loch-na-gar with Ida looked o’er Troy, 
 Mixed Celtic memories with the Phrygian mount, 
 And Highland linns with Castalie’s clear fount. 
 Forgive me, Homer’s universal shade ! 
 
 Forgive me, Phoebus! that my fancy strayed; 
 The North and nature taught me to adore 
 Your scenes sublime, from those beloved before.” 
 
 To this passage the following note is append- 
 ed by the author : “ When very young, about 
 eight years of age, after an attack of the 
 scarlet fever at Aberdeen, I was removed by 
 medical advice into the Highlands. Here I 
 passed occasionally some summers, and from 
 this period I date my love of mountainous 
 countries. I can never forget the effect, a 
 few years afterward in England, of the only 
 thing I had long seen, even in miniature, of 
 a mountain, in the Malvern Hills. After I 
 returned to Cheltenham, I used to watch 
 them every afternoon at sunset, with a sen- 
 sation w’hich I can rvot describe. This was 
 boyish enough ; but T was then only thirteen 
 years of age, and it was in the holidays.” 
 
 In the year 1798, on the death of his 
 grand-uncle, he succeeded to a baronial es- 
 tate and title, and became a chancery ward 
 under the guardianship of the Earl of Carl- 
 isle, against whom he soon conceived a dis- 
 like. Placed at Harrow, he had to encounter 
 all the temptations and annoyances insepara- 
 ble from public education. School-boys are 
 not famous for feeling, and the lameness of 
 Byron was perpetually called to mind by the 
 rudest practical sarcasms. He would often 
 wake and find his lame foot plunged in a pai] 
 of water. Through Harrow, he fairly fought 
 his way. “I had,” said he, in one of his 
 conversations with Captain Medwin, “ a spirit 
 that ill brooked the restraints of school dis- 
 cipline ; for I had been encouraged by ser- 
 vants in all my violence of temper, and was 
 used to command. Eve^thing like a task 
 was repugnant to my nature, and I came 
 away a very indifferent classic, and read in 
 nothing that was useful. That subordination 
 which is the soul of all discipline, I sub- 
 mitted to with difficulty ; yet I did submit to 
 it; and I have always retained a sense of 
 Drury’s kindness, which enabled me to bear 
 it and fagging too. The Duke of Dorset was 
 my fag. I was not a very hard task-master. 
 There were times at which, if I had not consid- 
 ered it as a school, I should have been happy 
 at Harrow. There is one spot I should like 
 to see again : I was particularly delighted 
 with the view from the church-yard, and 
 used to sit for hours on the stile leading into 
 the fields ; even then I formed a wish to be 
 buried there.” “ There were two things that 
 strike me at this moment, that I did at Har- 
 row. I fought Lord Calthorpe for writing 
 atheist under my name ; and prevented the 
 school-room from being burnt during a re- 
 bellion, by pointing out to the boys the 
 names of their fathers and grandfathers on 
 the walls.” 
 
 In October, 1805, the young lord entered 
 Cambridge university, where he was little 
 distinguished for application, and showed no 
 great respect for academic honors. He even 
 evinced his contempt for them by keeping a 
 young bear in his room, which he said he 
 was training for a fellowship. Id his twen- 
 tieth year he took up his abode at Newstead 
 Abbey,' a fine old building, which he proceed- 
 ed immediately to repair. His “ Hours of 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 161 
 
 Idleness ” now appeared, a collection of poems 
 written during his minority, which was at- 
 tacked by the Edinburgh Review with a 
 degree of malignity and violence that pro- 
 voked the youthful bard to vindicate his 
 reputation in a satire entitled “ English Bards 
 and Scotch Reviewers.” This severe and 
 sweeping philippic appeared a few days after 
 he had taken his seat in the House of Lords, 
 and gained the favor of the public in a short 
 time. He soon after went abroad, traveling 
 through Portugal, Spain, and Greece. The 
 scenes through which he passed are finely 
 described in “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.” 
 In the east he swam from Sestos to Abydos, 
 and prided himself greatly on this daring- 
 feat. He returned to England in 1811, after 
 an absence of t\to years. 
 
 He hastened to Newstead, but arrived too 
 late to close the eyes of his mother. About 
 this period, the acquaintance between him- 
 self and Thomas Moore commenced, an ac- 
 quaintance which afterward rippned into the 
 warmest friendship. On the 29th of Febru- 
 ary, 1812, appeared the two first cantos of 
 “ Childe Harold,” and the success and sale of 
 the work was instantaneous. The hero, a 
 proud but melancholy wanderer, satiated with 
 sensual pleasure, was at once recognized as a 
 delineation of the noble author, notwith- 
 standing his decisive denial. The “Giaour,” 
 the “Bride of Abydos,” and the “ Corsair,” 
 poems in all of which the author displayed 
 his unrivaled talents, and accurate knowledge 
 of eastern customs and manners, followed at 
 short intervals. Of one of these, twenty 
 thousand copies were sold in one day. On 
 the 2d of January, 1815, Byron married Miss 
 Milbanke, daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke. 
 The marriage was unhappy, and after various 
 quarrels, and much distress, the parties 
 separated. Ada, the daughter of unhappy 
 parents, was taken from Byron, who, in 
 1816, left England forever. He gave in con- 
 versation the following melancholy account 
 of his situation immediately before leaving 
 England : “ In addition to all my other mor- 
 tifications, my affairs were irretrievably in- 
 volved, and almost so as to make me what 
 they wished. I was compelled to part with 
 Newstead, which I never could have ventured 
 to sell in my mother’s lifetime. As it is I 
 shall never forgive myself for having done 
 
 so ; though I am told that the estate would 
 not now bring half so much as I got for it. 
 This does not at all reconcile me to having 
 parted from the old abbey. I did not make 
 up my mind to this step but from the last 
 necessity. I had my wife’s portion to repay, 
 and was determined to add £10,000 more of 
 my own to it, which I did. I always hated 
 being in debt, and do not owe a guinea. The 
 moment I put my affairs in train, and in little 
 more than eighteen months after my mar- 
 riage, I left England, an involuntary exile, 
 intending 4t should be forever.” 
 
 After his residence in Italy, where his 
 dramas and many other poems were written, 
 and where he was alternately dissolute and 
 temperate, the revolution in Greece engaged 
 his attention, and he determined to embark 
 his person and fortune in the cause of liberty. 
 He was received in Greece with enthusiasm, 
 and proceeded to Missolonghi, where his re- 
 ception was most gratifying to his feelings. 
 He immediately formed a brigade of five 
 hundred Suliotes. He was aware of the dis- 
 sensions existing among the Greeks, but was 
 confident of their ultimate success. He was 
 urged to go to Zante, on account of the un- 
 heal thiness of Missolonghi. “I can not quit 
 Greece,” he wrote to a friend, “ while there 
 is a chance of my being even of (supposed) 
 utility. There is a stake worth millions such 
 as I am, and while I can stand at all, I must 
 stand by the cause. While I say this, I am 
 aware of the difficulties, dissensions, and 
 defects of the Greeks themselves ; but allow- 
 ance must be made for them by all reasona- 
 ble people.” 
 
 On the 9th of April, while riding on horse- 
 back, he was overtaken by a rain-storm, and 
 the feverish cold he took was the precursor 
 of a fatal malady. He died April 19th, 1824; 
 his last thoughts, as his words indicated, 
 were with his wife and child. His funeral 
 was solemnized in Missolonghi, and his death 
 publicly mourned in Greece. His body was 
 conveyed to England, and interred at Huck- 
 nall church, near Newstead Abbey. The ex- 
 terior of the coffin bore the following inscrip- 
 tion: “George Gordon Noel Byron, Lord 
 Byron of Rochdale; born in London, Jan. 
 22d, 1788. Died at Missolonghi, in Western 
 Greece, April 19th, 1824.” 
 
 Most of Lord Byron’s vices sprang from 
 
 BYR 
 
162 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 his freedom from all control at an age when | anniversaries ; people only laugh at it, who 
 he most stood in need of friendly advice and 
 friendly restraint, to guard him from those 
 
 evils which beset young men, and particu- 
 larly young men of rank, in the outset of 
 their career. Yet his reckless gallantry, and 
 laxity of morals, did not efface fine traits of 
 feeling, benevolence, and a respect for virtue. 
 His attachment to his daughter Ada was sin- 
 cere and lasting ; and he often spoke of his 
 wife with affection and respect. Medwin 
 says that his absent daughter occupied much 
 of his thoughts. u He opened his writing 
 desk, and showed me some hair, which he 
 told me was his child’s. During our ride 
 and drive this evening, he declined our usual 
 amusement of pistol-firing, without assigning 
 a cause. He hardly spoke a word during the 
 first half-hour, and it was evident that some- 
 thing weighed heavily on his mind. There 
 was a sacredness in his melancholy that I 
 dared not interrupt. At length he said: 
 “ This is Ada’s birth-day, and might have 
 been the happiest day of my life ; as it is 
 
 ! ” He stopped, seemingly ashamed of 
 
 having betrayed his feelings. He tried in 
 vain to rally his spirits by turning the con- 
 versation ; but he created a laugh in which 
 he could not join, and soon relapsed into his 
 former reverie. It lasted till we came within 
 a mile of the Argive gate. There our silence 
 was all at once interrupted by shrieks that 
 seemed to proceed from a cottage by the side 
 of the road. We pulled up our horses, to 
 inquire of a contadino standing at the little 
 garden-wicket. He told us that a widow had 
 just lost her only child, and that the sounds 
 proceeded from the wailings of some women 
 over the corpse. Lord Byron was much 
 affected, and his superstition, acted upon by 
 a sadness that seemed to be presentiment, 
 led him to augur some disaster. “I shall 
 not be happy,” said he, “till I hear that my 
 daughter is well. I have a great horror of 
 
 have never kept a register of them. I always 
 write to my sister on Ada’s birthday. I did 
 so last year ; and, what was very remarkable, 
 my letter reached her on my wedding-day, 
 and her answer reached me at Ravenna on 
 my birthday. Several extraordinary things 
 have happened to me on my birthday ; so 
 they did to Napoleon ; and a more won- 
 derful circumstance still occurred to Marie 
 Antoinette.” That Lord Byron should have 
 joined to his religious skepticism some super- 
 stitious weaknesses, will surprise many ; yet 
 it should seem no incompatibility. There is 
 little or no connection between reason and 
 sentiment, and all imaginative persons are 
 liable to this disease : for superstition is the 
 malady of man himself, only as he is an 
 imaginative animal. Byron once consulted 
 a conjurer, more out of sport than curiosity. 
 He was told that two years would be fatal 
 to him, his twenty-seventh and his thirty- 
 seventh. In the first he married, in the 
 second he died. 
 
 BYZANTIUM, named from Byzas , its 
 founder, was situated on the site of the pres- 
 ent city of Constantinople. It was founded 
 by a Greek colony, b.c. 667. Philip of Mace- 
 don laid siege to it. One dark night his 
 soldiers had almost gained the town, when 
 a light shone suddenly from the north, and 
 revealed to the inhabitants their danger. 
 The thankful Byzantines built an altar to 
 Diana, and assumed the crescent as the em- 
 blem of their city. When the Turks con- 
 quered Constantinople, they adopted it as 
 their own device. From the Thracians, 
 Scythians, and Gauls, and under the Roman 
 emperors Severus and Gallienus, Byzantium 
 suffered severely. During the reign of Con- 
 stantine the Great, it was rebuilt and made 
 the capital of the empire. The B} r zantine 
 empire is a name given to the Eastern Roman 
 empire. 
 
 BYZ 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 163 
 
 c. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, a celebrated navigator, 
 son of John Cabot, was born at Bristol, in 
 1467, Ho was the discoverer of Florida. He 
 visited the eastern side of the island of New- 
 foundlanl John Cabot and his son Sebas- 
 tian discovered, on the 24th of June, 1497, 
 the shores of Newfoundland. The neighbor- 
 ing island received the name of St. John, 
 because it was discovered upon the festival 
 of that saint. After having sailed in the 
 English service, Sebastian went to Spain in 
 1526, where he was furnished with vessels 
 with which he ascended the river La Plata. 
 He made other voyages also in Spanish ves- 
 sels. He returned to England, however, and 
 was graced with various dignities, and in- 
 trusted with the direction of the Merchants’ 
 Company, formed for the purpose of making 
 discoveries. He superintended Willoughby’s 
 expedition in 1553, and an act of Edward 
 VI., dated 1549, grants him a pension of 
 £166, a considerable sum if we consider the 
 value of money at that period. He is sup- 
 posed to have died in 1557. 
 
 CADE, John, a native of Ireland, who, 
 having been compelled to fly to France, re- 
 turned to England in 1450, assumed the pop- 
 ular name of John Mortimer, and raised a 
 formidable force in Kent, at the head of which 
 he placed himself. He promised to lay down 
 his arms, if the grievances of which he com- 
 plained were redressed; but losing his au- 
 thority over his followers they committed 
 various outrages which were resented by the 
 well-disposed part of the community. The 
 rebels were defeated, a price was set on Cade’s 
 head, and he was killed by one Iden, a gen- 
 tleman of Sussex, 1451. 
 
 CADMUS. This name belongs to several 
 characters of mythology and history. One, 
 a Phoenician, brought a colony of his coun- 
 trymen to Greece, and introduced letters 
 there, b.c. 1550. 
 
 CADOUDAL, George, a Chouan chief, 
 who with Gen. Pichegru, was concerned in a 
 conspiracy to take the life of Bonaparte when 
 first consul. He was brought over to France 
 in a British government vessel, but was seized 
 
 by the police, tried, condemned, and executed 
 June 24th, 1804, aged thirty-five years. 
 
 CADWALLADER, John, a distinguished 
 military officer, born in Philadelphia. He 
 commanded the Pennsylvania troops in the 
 winter of 1777, and enjoyed the confidence of 
 General W ashington. At the battles of Prince- 
 ton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon- 
 mouth, he served as a volunteer or acted in 
 his command, and died in 1786. 
 
 CiESAR, Caius Julius, descended from 
 the illustrious family of Julia, which traced 
 its origin toiEneas and Venus, was born 100 
 b.c. In his infancy he witnessed the civil 
 wars of Sylla and his maternal uncle, Marius. 
 When Caesar had arrived at man’s estate, 
 Sylla, then at the height of power, could not 
 excuse his crime in being the nephew of Ma- 
 rius, and the son-in-law of Cinna. He was 
 proscribed, and his sentence was revoked only 
 by means of the earnest solicitations of the 
 vestals, and the credit of his family. Sylla 
 is said to have declared, in yielding to their 
 urgency, that they would one day repent 
 having saved the life of a young man in 
 whom he beheld the spirit of more than one 
 Marius. Young Caesar commenced his mil- 
 itary career in Asia. Returning to Rome 
 after the death of Sylla, he gained applause 
 and popularity by his eloquence, an art in 
 which Appollonius of Rhodes was his instruc- 
 tor. While absent from Rome, pursuing his 
 studies, he learned that Mithridates had at- 
 tacked the provinces of the allies of Rome, 
 and accordingly, leaving Rhodes for the con- 
 tinent, he assembled troops and led them 
 against the king of Pontus. 
 
 On his return to Rome, finding Pompey at 
 the head of the senate and the republic, and 
 fearing that his connection with the partisans 
 of Marius might prove disadvantageous to 
 him, he joined the Pompeian party. The 
 office of military tribune, and afterward that 
 of questor, were conferred upon Caesar. Upon 
 pronouncing the funeral eulogium on his aunt 
 Julia, while enjoying the latter dignity, he 
 produced the images of Marius, which had 
 not seen the light since the dictatorship of 
 
 C.ES 
 
164 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Sylla. When promoted to the dignity of 
 aedile, he caused the statues and trophies 
 of Marius to be replaced. At this period he 
 was accused of aiming at the supreme power, 
 but the people, whose tastes he flattered, 
 vaunted his devotion and courage, and the 
 zeal with which he had discharged his official 
 duties ; and the multitude did not forget the 
 magnificent spectacles for which they were 
 indebted to him, and the ample arrange- 
 ments which he had made for the accommo- 
 dation of the spectators at the public shows. 
 When the conspiracy of Cataline was discov- 
 ered, Caesar had the hardihood to recommend 
 the conspirators to mercy, and sustained his 
 opinion with a warmth which gave rise to a 
 suspicion that he was not altogether a stran- 
 ger to the plot. So strongly did the tide of 
 indignation set against him, that the knights 
 who composed the guard on that day, waited 
 only for a sign from Cicero to kill him ; but 
 the latter, fearing that it would be impossi- 
 ble to substantiate his guilt, saved him from 
 their fury. Caesar, while engaged in ambi- 
 tious schemes, mingled in the dissipation of 
 the day, and concealed under the exterior of 
 a man of pleasure the traits of a determined 
 foe to liberty. 
 
 On the death of Metellus, Caesar obtained 
 the office of pontifex maximus, although two 
 powerful men were his competitors. He had 
 so plunged himself in debt by his heavy brib- 
 ery, that on the day of the election, seeing his 
 mother in tears, he embraced her, and said, 
 
 “ To-day you will see me a high-priest or an 
 exile.” Shortly after this, Clodius having 
 been accused of attempting to corrupt the 
 fidelity of Caesar’s wife, he divorced her, and 
 said, “The wife of Caesar must not even be 
 suspected.” He was then praetor ; after- 
 ward the government of Spain fell to his lot. 
 A saying of his at this time proved that he 
 then entertained the most ambitious ideas. 
 At a poor village in the Alps, some of his 
 friends asked if, in that miserable place, 
 power and rank occasioned discussion. “ I 
 had rather,” said he to them, “ be the first 
 even in this place, than the second in Rome.” 
 lie was b} r no means idle in his government, 
 but made many conquests, while he did not 
 neglect his private interests, for he extorted 
 money enough to pay his enormous debts, 
 
 Cl 
 
 and enable him to purchase a vast number 
 of creatures. 
 
 To obtain the consulate, he reconciled Cras- 
 sus and Pompey, and made use of both, form- 
 ing with them the first triumvirate. Al- 
 though he had a colleague, he governed with 
 absolute authority. Bibulus, who was 'asso- 
 ciated with him, and vainly opposed his 
 wishes, wittily declared that the Romans were 
 not under the consulate of Caesar and Bibu- 
 lus, but under the consulate of Julius and 
 Caesar. Caesar gained popularity by procur- 
 ing the distribution of the lands of Campania. 
 
 Shortly after the union of Pompey with 
 Julia, the daughter of Caesar, the latter ob- 
 tained the government of the Gauls and Illy- 
 ria for five years, with the command of four 
 legions. He triumphed over the Gauls, the 
 Helvetians, the brave Belgians, and others, 
 carried his arms beyond the Rhine, and 
 raised the Roman eagles in hitherto uncon- 
 quered Britain. During the ten years of the 
 Gallic war, Caesar is said to have possessed 
 himself of eight hundred towns, and to have 
 triumphed in arms over three million men. 
 In the midst of his victories, he was mindful 
 of his own interests, and robbed even altars 
 and temples to increase his wealth. He is 
 said to have quoted with approbation this 
 sentence of Euripides, “Violate justice only 
 for the sake of ruling.” The soldiers were 
 gained by liberal presents, and it seemed as 
 if the army was the depositary of the im- 
 mense wealth which Caesar was accumulat- 
 ing. Thus the troops were the soldiers of 
 Caesar, and not of the republic. Rome had 
 become venal : everything was for sale, and 
 Caesar was the purchaser of everything. 
 
 Crassus had been slain in a campaign 
 against the Parthians, and Julia, the link that 
 bound Caesar and Pompey together, as the 
 daughter of one and the wife of the other, 
 was no more. The predominant party in the 
 senate was favorable to Pompey, and the in- 
 creasing power of the conqueror of Gaul was 
 jealously seen. Although the term of Cae- 
 sar’s command had not yet expired, the 
 senate sent him a decree, the purport of which 
 was, that if in a limited time Caesar did not 
 relinquish his command, he should be treated 
 as the enemy of the commonwealth. Three 
 tribunes of Caesar’s party, among them Mark 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 165 
 
 Antony, having been expelled from the sen- 
 ate for opposing this decree, fled to the camp 
 of Caesar in the garb of slaves. War was 
 practically declared. The senate commanded 
 the consuls to look to the safety of the repub- 
 lic, and Caesar ordered his troops to advance 
 to the Rubicon, a small river separating Cis- 
 alpine Gaul from Italy. The republic, which 
 both parties invoked, was no more than a 
 name ; Caesar and Pompey were both heads 
 of factions, that sought to elevate themselves 
 above the laws. Learning the decree of the 
 senate, Caesar marched directly to the Rubi- 
 con. There, the risks he was about to incur, 
 and the evils he was about to bring upon his 
 country, held his mind in suspense for a long 
 time; but, after having reflected upon the 
 hate and animosity of his enemies, and upon 
 his own strength, he dashed forward, ex- 
 claiming, “The die is cast.” His soldiers 
 followed him. Arrived at Rimini, the terror 
 of his arms spread to Rome, where disorder 
 prevailed. Conflicting opinions distracted 
 the city, and all energy seemed sunk in the 
 consideration of the greatness of the danger, 
 and the insufficiency of the means of defense. 
 
 Pompey left Rome, with the consuls, prin- 
 cipal senators, &c., and from Capua went to 
 Dyrrachium, to which last place he escaped 
 under cover of night, leaving the whole of 
 Italy in the power of Caesar. The latter, 
 sending his lieutenants to take possession of 
 Sardinia and Sicily, advanced to Rome. The 
 only act of violence which he committed, was 
 the seizure of the public treasure deposited 
 in the temple of Saturn. Pompey’s party 
 had idly imagined that the removal of the key 
 was a sufficient safeguard. The tribune Me- 
 tellus opposed the passage of Caesar, who 
 threatened him with death, sternly adding, 
 “ This is an act easier for me to do than to 
 name.” The tribune retired, and Caesar took 
 out all the treasure, even the most sacred 
 deposits. Having subdued Pompey’s lieu- 
 tenants in Spain, Caesar was named dicta- 
 tor. He then went to Greece for the purpose 
 of crushing Pompey. Crossing the sea in a 
 mere fishing-boat, he was exposed to great 
 danger, and animated the pilot by the memo- 
 rable exclamation, “ Fear nothing ! you carry 
 Caesar and his fortunes ! ” The fate of Pom- 
 pey and of the republic was decided by the 
 battle of Pharsalia, fought 48 b.c., in which 
 
 Caesar was completely victorious. He pur- 
 sued Pompey to Egypt, but was indignant 
 when the head of his unfortunate rival was 
 brought him by his assassins. 
 
 While he was in Alexandria, detained by 
 the charms of Cleopatra, and the differences 
 existing between the members of the family 
 of Ptolemy, he witnessed the breaking out of 
 a sedition which shortly became an open 
 war, and called for the exertion of all his 
 energy. After remaining some months in 
 Egypt, he marched against Pharnaces, king 
 of Pontus, whom he defeated with a celerity 
 well expressed in his own words, “ Veni , 
 vidi , vici “I came, I saw, I conquered.” 
 There still remained to be conquered some 
 formidable enemies ; Scipio, Labienus, Cato, 
 and Juba, the king of Mauritania, had pow- 
 erful armies in Africa. After a campaign in 
 which Caesar displayed all his skill, Africa 
 no longer sheltered a Roman opposed to him, 
 except Cato, who shut himself up in Utica, 
 and preferred death to submission. Caesar, 
 who admired elevation of soul, envied Cato 
 the glory of his death, and wept for his fate, 
 as he had shed tears at that of Pompey. The 
 conqueror, after having subjected Africa, and 
 ordered the rebuilding of Carthage, returned 
 to Italy, where he was received with the 
 acclamations of the senate and Roman peo- 
 ple. Four triumphs were decreed to him. 
 His liberality was felt by the people, for 
 whose amusements he prepared festivals and 
 shows. 
 
 The two sons of Pompey mustered a strong 
 force in Spain, but were attacked in the 
 plains of Munda, by Caesar, and signally de- 
 feated. So obstinate was the battle, that 
 Caesar himself declared that he fought less 
 for victory than life, but from the moment 
 that both were secure, everything was in 
 his power. He re-entered Rome the master 
 of the world. The triumph which he then 
 obtained for having vanquished Romans ex- 
 cited secret murmurs among the people and 
 senators, but no one dared to utter a com- 
 plaint in public. The senate decreed him 
 extraordinary honors and unlimited author- 
 ity. He was declared consul for ten years, 
 and perpetual dictator; they gave him the 
 titles of emperor, and father of his country. 
 His person was declared sacred and inviolable. 
 He had the privilege of being present at 
 
166 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 spectacles in a golden chair, with a crown of 
 laurel upon his head. The decree of the 
 senate provided that, even after his death, 
 this chair and the crown of gold should be 
 conspicuously placed at all spectacles in honor 
 of his memory. There was now but one 
 thing wanting, the title of king. He is said 
 to have deliberated whether he should take it. 
 
 He preserved the republican forms in the 
 midst of an absolute government, and showed 
 himself as able to maintain power, as to gain 
 it. “ His clemency,” says Montesquieu, “ was 
 insulting. It was considered that he did not 
 pardon, but disdained to punish.” Having 
 by victory obtained the highest power, he 
 wished to enjoy it as if it had been transmit- 
 ted to him, and sought too soon to banish the 
 inquietudes which almost invariably trouh 2 
 a power of recent growth. “ I had rather,” 
 said he, “ die at once, than live always in 
 fear.” He sent away his Spanish guard, 
 contrary to the advice of his best friends, and 
 trusting too readily the assertions of his flat- 
 terers, who declared, that after having put 
 an end to the civil wars, the republic was 
 more interested than he was, in his safety. 
 His death was caused by this want of caution. 
 
 He had formed a plan for conquering the 
 Parthians, and was on the eve of departing 
 for Asia. His partisans, to reconcile the Ro- 
 mans to his assumption of the title of king, 
 circulated a report that the books of the 
 Sibyls declared, that the Parthians could only 
 be subjugated by the Romans when their 
 leader was a king. The rumor gave the ene- 
 mies of Caesar a pretext for seeking his death. 
 A conspiracy was formed against him, at the 
 head of which were Brutus and Cassius, 
 whom he had made praetors. The assassin- 
 ation was to take place on the ides of March, 
 the day on which Caesar, according to report, 
 was to assume the royal title. The conspir- 
 acy was not so secret as to prevent the circu- 
 lation of some reports with regard to it, 
 but Caesar refused to take any precaution. 
 Moved, however, by the tears and entreaties 
 of his wife Calphurnia, he had made up his 
 mind to remain at home, when Decimus Bru- 
 tus, by representing to him the importance 
 of presenting himself at the senate-house, 
 changed his resolution. As he was leaving 
 his house, a certain Artemidorus placed in 
 his hand a paper, containing an exposure of 
 
 the whole plot. Being unable to read this 
 and other letters from the pressure of the 
 crowd about him, Caesar gave them to his 
 secretaries. He had no sooner entered the 
 senate-house, than he was surrounded by the 
 conspirators. Cimber, under pretext of re- 
 spect, seized the skirt of his robe, a signal 
 which Casca responded to by stabbing Caesar 
 in the shoulder. The weapon was caught 
 by the intrepid victim, who exclaimed, 
 “Wretch! what art thou doing?” Caesar, 
 though repeatedly wounded, defended him- 
 self against his assassins, until Brutus struck 
 him, when, fixing his eyes upon him, he 
 mournfully exclaimed, “ And thou, too, Bru- 
 tus?” Then, folding his head in his mantle, 
 he fell, pierced with thirty-three wounds, at 
 the base of Pompey’s statue, March 15th, 44 
 b.c. He was then fifty-six years old. The 
 body of Caesar, abandoned by all, was car- 
 ried home by three slaves. When his will 
 was read from the tribune by Antony, the 
 people made the air ring with their cries 
 of grief and anger. The funeral ceremonies 
 were distinguished by uncommon magnifi- 
 cence. The senate, who dared not defend 
 him in his hour of need, placed him among 
 the gods, and ordered that his laws should be 
 immutable. 
 
 The results of this assassination were de- 
 plorable, for jealousy, ambition, and personal 
 anger armed the greater part of the murder- 
 ers, and but few among them were animated 
 by a love of liberty. Caesar, with many 
 faults and foibles, possessed many fine traits, 
 and was fitted by nature to command. His 
 erudition was considerable, and his “ Com- 
 mentaries ” are models of good writing. He 
 has been pronounced the greatest man that 
 Rome ever beheld. Clement, generous, and 
 magnanimous, he was also insatiably ambi- 
 tious. He was an orator, statesman, and 
 scholar, as well as a successful general. 
 
 CAILLIE, Rene, a native of France, cele- 
 brated for his travels in Africa. He won the 
 prize offered by the geographical society of 
 Paris to the man who should first reach Tim- 
 buctoo (1827-8) ; and, besides other rewards, 
 was presented with the cross of the legion of 
 honor. 
 
 CALAIS, a seaport of France, in the British 
 Channel, opposite to Dover. It is strongly 
 fortified, and contains about 13,000 inhabit- 
 
 CAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 167 
 
 ants. In 1346, Edward III. of England, after 
 his great victory of Cressy, laid siege to it, 
 and concerted his measures so well, that his 
 adversaries could not throw succors into the 
 place. Nearly two thousand of the wretched 
 inhabitants, who had been sent out of the 
 place to lessen the consumption of provisions, 
 came to the camp of the besiegers. Edward 
 gave each of them a hearty meal and two shil- 
 lings, and provided for their future safety. 
 Calais was obliged to surrender to the Eng- 
 lish, after holding out a year, and remained in 
 their possession until 1558, when it was in- 
 vested and attacked by the Duke of Guise, 
 and, after a siege of eight days, was obliged 
 to capitulate. During the operations of Fran- 
 cis I. and the Duke of Bourbon against the 
 Emperor Charles V., a congress was held at 
 Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIII., 
 of England, which proved unsuccessful. Ca- 
 lais was the last possession of England, in 
 France, and its loss deeply mortified Queen 
 Mary. “ When I am dead,” she said, “ Calais 
 will be found written on my heart.” 
 
 CALDERON. Don Pedro Calderon de la 
 Barca Henao y Riano, a Spanish poet and 
 dramatist, born at Madrid, 1600, and died 
 1681. He served in a military capacity, but 
 afterward embraced the clerical profession. 
 He was the author of three hundred plays. 
 
 CALHOUN, John Caldwell, was born at 
 Long Cane, in Abbeville district, S. C., March 
 18th, 1782, of Irish parentage. He was edu- 
 cated at Yale College and the law school in 
 Litchfield, Conn. In 1811, he entered the 
 lower house of Congress, whence in 1817 Mon- 
 roe called him to the head of the department 
 of war. In 1825, he was chosen vice-presi- 
 dent. From 1831 to 1843 he represented his 
 native state in the federal senate. In the lat- 
 ter year he was appointed secretary of state 
 by Mr. Tyler, and in 1845 returned to the 
 senate, in which he continued till his death, 
 March 31st, 1850. Mr. Calhoun was one of 
 the ablest statesmen and most forcible orators 
 that have mingled in the public counsels of 
 the country. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. This state on the shores 
 of the Pacific, is a portion of the territory ob- 
 tained from Mexico. It has an area of 188,982 
 square miles, and the population in 1870 was 
 560,247. It is traversed by two great ranges 
 of mountains, the Sierra Nevada and the Coast 
 range, having between them the splendid val- 
 ley of the Sacramento and the Joaquin ; on 
 the eastern side wide sandy plains, and on 
 the western the narrow slip of coast. 
 
 most important rivers are the Sacramento and 
 the San Joaquin. California has a dry and 
 a wet season ; the first lasting from about the 
 middle of May to September or October ; the 
 wet season setting in early in November, and 
 lasting till May. To its dry season it owes 
 its name, which is from the Spanish caliente 
 . fornalla , ‘ hot furnace.’ In the great interior 
 valley, the soil is of great fertility, and one 
 day the state will be as rich in its agriculture 
 
 Its 
 
 CAL 
 
168 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 as in its mines. The country was discovered | 
 by the Spaniards in 1542, but they did not 
 colonize it till 1768. Up to the great discov- 
 ery of gold it was a scantily peopled tract. 
 Sir Francis Drake, who visited it in 1578, re- 
 ceived such reports of the existence of gold 
 from the natives that he declared it to be his 
 conviction that there was “no part of this 
 country wherein there is not some special 
 likelihood of gold.” Yet little or no search 
 seems to have been made for the precious 
 metal. The shining scales of virgin gold were 
 accidentally discovered in September, 1847, 
 upon the estate of Captain Sutter. It soon 
 became known, and emigration flowed toward 
 the golden country from all Christendom. 
 The scene was unparalleled in history. Towns 
 and cities sprang up as if by magic. The fa- 
 ble of the Argonauts was revived and im- 
 proved upon. The colonists formed them- 
 selves into a sovereign state, and California 
 was received into the Union in September, 
 1850. Society was for a time very unsettled, 
 but the disorders which bad men introduced 
 culminated and met with a terrible and de- 
 cisive check in the Vigilance Committee of 
 San Francisco during 1856, and the law- 
 abiding Anglo Saxon character has since 
 been creditably maintained. California con- 
 tained in 1870, 49,310 Chinese, attracted by 
 the gold mining. 
 
 San Francisco, the largest city of Califor- 
 nia, is said to Iiave been a Spanish mission 
 settlement in 17 76. In 1845 it had only 150 
 inhabitants. In 1870 it had 149,473 inhab- 
 itants, consisting of 136,059 whites, 1,330 col- 
 ored, 12,022 Chinese, and 54 Indians. The 
 city has suffered from conflagrations, but it 
 has of late been free from severe fires. Sacra- 
 mento is the capital. It was founded is 1849, 
 and in 1870 had 16,283 inhabitants, consist- 
 ing of 14,485 whites, 418 colored, 1,370 Chi- 
 nese, and 9 Indians. 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius Caesar Augustus Ger- 
 manicus, a Roman emperor, was the son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina, and born a.d. 12. 
 He received its surname from th ecaligce (half 
 boots) which he wore. His life, with a single 
 exception, presented only a series of acts of 
 horrible cruelty, disgusting absurdity, and 
 daring impiety. The reputation of his father 
 at first disposed the Romans to think favora- 
 bly of the son, but after a few hollow displays 
 
 of clemency and liberality, he showed himself 
 in his true light, and, even while a boy, com- 
 mitted incest. He married and repudiated 
 several wives, the last of whom, Caesonia, re- 
 tained a firm hold upon his affections. His 
 murders were numerous, and rendered memo- 
 rable by the rank of the victims and the rela- 
 tion which they bore to him. It was Caligula 
 who wished that the people of Rome had but 
 one head, that he might sever it at a blow. 
 If the cruelties of the tyrant call forth our in- 
 dignation, his unmanly follies excite our con- 
 tempt. His treatment of his horse Incitatus 
 exhibited the ridiculous part of his character. 
 This animal had a gorgeous stable, a house to 
 entertain visitors, and frequently dined at the 
 emperor’s table, when he was presented with 
 wine and gilded oats. His master even med- 
 itated elevating him to the consulship. Cali- 
 gula appeared in public in the attributes of 
 various divinities, male as well as female, and 
 claimed homage as a Venus and a Mars. 
 Among his absurdities may be reckoned the 
 bridge of boats built from Baioe to Puteoli ; 
 his expedition against Britain, when the sol- 
 diers gathered cockle-shells for spoils, and 
 lastly, his design of decimating the German 
 army for a revolt. To this last act the world 
 owed its deliverance from the monster, who 
 was murdered by Choerea and Cornelius Sa- 
 binus, military tribunes, a.d. 41, after a reign 
 of four years. 
 
 CALONNE, Charles Alexander de, an 
 eminent French statesman, born at Douai in 
 1734, succeeded to the management of an 
 empty treasury in 1783, and skillfully met 
 the claims upon it, without adding to the 
 burthens of the people. He advised the abo- 
 lition of the pecuniary exemptions enjoyed 
 by the nobility, clergy, and magistracy. He 
 was, however, obliged to retire from the ven- 
 geance of those bodies. He died in 1802. 
 
 CALVERT, George, Lord Baltimore, 
 founder of Maryland, was of Flemish descent, 
 born at Kipling, in Yorkshire, England, 1582, 
 and educated at Oxford; in 1619, he was 
 made by Charles I. one of the principal sec- 
 retaries of state; resigned that office, 1624; 
 made Baron of Baltimore, 1625; obtained a 
 patent for Maryland, June 20th, 1632, and 
 died at London the same year. 
 
 CALVIN, John, a leader of the Reforma- 
 tion in the sixteenth century, was born at 
 
 CAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 169 
 
 Noyon, in Picardy, July 15th, 1509, and was 
 destined for the church at an early age, being 
 presented with a benefice in the cathedral of 
 his native place when he was but twelve 
 years old. His progress was rapid, but it 
 was not long before he received the seeds of 
 the new doctrines. In 1533, he was involved 
 in a persecution with his friend Michael Cop, 
 who had defended the reformed doctrines in 
 a public discourse. Obliged to quit France, 
 he repaired to Bale, in 1534, where he com- 
 posed his famous “Institutes of Christianity.” 
 He was induced to write this by the persecu- 
 tions of Protestants, which disgraced the 
 reign of Francis I. of France. Although 
 received in different places with marks of 
 respect, Calvin found the warmest welcome 
 and the safest asylum in Geneva. After some 
 agitation, the new doctrine was generally re- 
 ceived at Geneva. On the refusal of Calvin 
 and Farel to comply with the decrees of the 
 council of Lausanne, the magistrates com- 
 pelled them to leave the city in 1538. At 
 Strasburg, Calvin’s reception was favorable, 
 but he turned a longing look upon Geneva. 
 He was finally invited to return, and he 
 gained a great ascendency over the Genevese. 
 The rigor of Calvin was excessive. Thus, a 
 magistrate was deprived of his office, and im- 
 prisoned for two months, because “ his habits 
 were irregular, and he had leagued with the 
 enemies of Calvin.” James Gruet was be- 
 headed, for having written “impious letters 
 and libertine verses,” and for having “labored 
 to destroy. ecclesiastical regulations.” Geneva, 
 in becoming the metropolis of the reformed 
 worship, became the centre of a prodigious 
 book-trade, and the city of all Europe in 
 which the arts and sciences were cultivated 
 with the greatest success. 
 
 Calvin died in Geneva, May 27th, 1564, in 
 the fifty-fifth year of his age. His constitu- 
 tion was weak, and throughout life he had 
 suffered much from disease. In 1539 he 
 married a widow, by whom he had one son, 
 who died young. She died in 1549, and he 
 never married again. He was sombre and 
 austere in his manners, of a melancholy dispo- 
 sition. He never knew the sweets of friend- 
 ship, and his sole joy, if joy it was, was in 
 ruling, and beholding the triumph of his 
 opinions. Calvin never had any other title 
 in the church of Geneva, than that of pastor. 
 
 His temper, according to his own confession, 
 was impatient and opposed to all contradic- 
 tion. Thus the tone of his polemical wri- 
 tings is almost always harsh and insulting. 
 As a theologian, Calvin gained the highest 
 rank among the men of his century, by his 
 profound knowledge, by his tact, and, as he 
 himself boasted, by his art in pressing an 
 argument. As a writer he merits high 
 praise. His mode of worship, bare and stern, 
 appeared, in the eyes of many, to have ele- 
 vated religion above all sublunary things, by 
 stripping it of every object which had an 
 attraction for the senses. 
 
 CALYPSO, a daughter of Atlas, who dwelt 
 upon the island of Ogygia, where Ulysses 
 was shipwrecked. He refused to marry the 
 goddess, although immortality was the prom- 
 ised reward, preferring to revisit Ithaca and 
 again behold his wife. He remained seven 
 years on the island, and grief at his depart- 
 ure destroyed the enamored goddess. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, was 
 Duke of Parma, prince and arch-chancellor 
 of the French empire, dignities which he en- 
 joyed during the ascendency of Napoleon, of 
 whom he was a colleague in the consulate in 
 1799. His plan of a civil code, drawn up in 
 1796, was the basis of the celebrated Code 
 Napoleon. He left France on the downfall 
 of the emperor, and died in Paris, March 8th, 
 1824, aged seventy-one. 
 
 CAMBRAY, a strongly fortified town of the 
 French department of the North, containing 
 20,000 inhabitants, celebrated in diplomatic 
 history for several important treaties nego- 
 tiated there. Its manufactures are extensive, 
 one of the principal articles being cambric, 
 which takes its name from this town. The 
 town was taken by Charles Y. in 1544; by 
 the Spaniards in 1596 ; and by Louis XIY. 
 in person, in 1677. In August, 1793, it was 
 unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians, 
 when the republican general, Declay, replied 
 to the imperial summons to surrender, that 
 “ he knew not how to do that, but his sol- 
 diers knew how to fight ; ” and in the cam- 
 paign of 1815 it was taken by the British, 
 and made the head-quarters of the allied 
 armies. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, 
 baron, general, commander of the legion of 
 honor, and distinguished for his personal 
 
 CAM 
 
170 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 bravery, was born Dec. 26th, 1770. He 
 commanded the small band which Napoleon 
 led from Elba. At Waterloo, he was severely 
 wounded, and taken prisoner. In that battle 
 he commanded the old guard, and when he 
 heard the British demand for capitulation, he 
 answered nobly, “The guard dies; but does 
 not surrender.” He died in 1842. 
 
 CAMBYSES, a king of Persia, and son of 
 Cyrus the Great, ascended the throne b.c. 
 530. He conquered and devastated Egypt. 
 Offended at the superstitions of the Egyp- 
 tians, he killed their god Apis, whose flesh 
 was eaten by his soldiers, and plundered their 
 temples. On mounting his horse at a subse- 
 quent period, his sword gave him a fatal 
 wound in the thigh, the place where he had 
 injured the bull, and the Egyptians looked 
 upon this event as the retributive vengeance 
 of the gods. He was dissolute, and destitute 
 of moral principles. In his fits of intoxica- 
 tion, his brutality was feared even by those 
 who had the greatest claims upon his for- 
 bearance. In a fit of drunken rage he gave 
 his wife a kick which killed her. His throne 
 was usurped by one of the Magi, who as- 
 sumed the name of Smerdis, a brother of the 
 king, who had been secretly murdered on 
 account of a dream which prognosticated to 
 the tyrant future troubles, and warned him 
 to save himself by the death of his brother. 
 
 CAMDEN, in South Carolina, was the 
 scene of two contests in the Devolution, in 
 both of which the British were victors. The 
 first was fought between Gen. Gates and 
 Lord Cornwallis, Aug. 16th, 1780; the second 
 between Gen. Greene and Lord Rawdon, 
 April 25th, 1781. The British evacuated 
 and burned Camden, May 13th, 1781. In 
 the first of these battles the brave Baron de 
 Kalb fell, pierced with seven wounds. 
 
 CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, an illustrious 
 Roman, who obtained four triumphs and five 
 times filled the office of dictator, but, being 
 prosecuted on a charge of peculation, went 
 into voluntary banishment. While he was 
 absent, Brennus, at the head of an army of 
 Gauls, took Rome, and besieged the senate in 
 the capitol. Camillus, forgetting his wrongs, 
 hastened to the relief of his country, defeated 
 the barbarians, and was created dictator. 
 He died b.c. 365, of the plague. He was 
 generally honored and respected, although 
 
 Cl 
 
 party and personal prejudices more than once 
 involved him in persecution. In the siege of 
 Falerii, the schoolmaster of the town, who 
 had the children of the senators under his 
 care, led them out of the city under pretext 
 of recreation, carried them to the Roman 
 camp, and surrendered them to the Roman 
 general, telling him that he might now pro- 
 pose to the besieged what terms he chose, 
 since the treasures they valued most were in 
 his hands. Camillus, indignant at this treach- 
 ery, answered that the Romans warred with 
 men, not with boys ; and that, in the conduct 
 of hostilities, integrity, as well as courage, 
 should be prized. He ordered the school- 
 master to be stripped, and, with his hands 
 bound behind his back, to be delivered to 
 the boys to be lashed back to the town. The 
 Falerians, before obstinate in their resistance, 
 struck with this noble act, delivered them- 
 selves up to the Romans, convinced that it 
 would be better to have such men for friends 
 than foes. 
 
 CAMOENS, Luis de, the most celebrated 
 of Portuguese poets, was born in Lisbon, in 
 1517. His father was of a noble family, and 
 his mother of the illustrious house of Sa. 
 Camoens studied at Coimbra, where his in- 
 structors valued no literature but that which 
 was written in imitation of the ancients. 
 But the genius of Camoens was animated by 
 the history of his country and the manners 
 of his age ; and his lyric poems belong, like 
 the works of Dante, of Petrarch, Ariosto, and 
 Tasso, to that literature which was renewed 
 by Christianity, and to the spirit of chivalry, 
 rather than to a purely classical style of 
 writing. For this reason, the numerous par- 
 tisans of the classic school did not applaud 
 the performances of Camoens in the early 
 part of his career. On the completion of his 
 studies, he returned to Lisbon, where he 
 became warmly attached to Catharine d’At- 
 tayde, a lady of the court. Ardent passions 
 are often united to great genius, and the life 
 of Camoens was alternately consumed by his 
 feelings and his genius. 
 
 He was exiled to Santarem on account of 
 the quarrels which his attachment to Catha- 
 rine brought upon him. There, in his seclu- 
 sion, he composed detached poems, which 
 distinctly portray the state of his feelings at 
 the time of their composition. The hope- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 171 
 
 lessness of his situation led him to embark 
 as a soldier in the Portuguese fleet sent 
 against Morocco. In the midst of battles he 
 composed poems, the glories and the dangers 
 of war kindling his poetic spirit, and his 
 poetic imagination in turn urging him on- 
 ward to exploits. He lost his right eye by 
 an arrow before Ceuta. On his return to 
 Lisbon, he hoped that his wounds would en- 
 title him to some favor, even if his talents 
 were despised ; but, although he had a double 
 claim upon the notice of government, he en- 
 countered unexpected obstacles. Justly in- 
 dignant at this neglect, he embarked for the 
 Indies in 1553, and like Scipio bade farewell 
 to his country, declaring that even his ashes 
 should not repose there. 
 
 He landed at Goa, the principal Portuguese 
 establishment in India ; here his imagination 
 was excited by the exploits of his country- 
 men in this part of the world, and, great as 
 were his inducements to complain of them, 
 he thought to consecrate their glory in an 
 epic. But, incensed at the abuses which were 
 committed by the government, he composed 
 so severe a satire upon the subject, that the 
 enraged viceroy of Goa banished him to 
 Macao, where he lived several years, sur- 
 rounded by the most glorious scenes which 
 the fairy regions of the east can boast. Here 
 he composed his “Lusiad.” The expedition 
 of Yasco da Gama to the Indies is the sub- 
 ject of this work, which is sustained by the 
 skill of Camoens in mingling details of Por- 
 tuguese history with the splendors of poetry, 
 and Christian piety with pagan fable. 
 
 Camoens, on being recalled from his ban- 
 ishment, was shipwrecked at the mouth of 
 the river Mecon, in Cochin China, and saved 
 himself by swimming with one hand, while 
 in the other he held the leaves of his immor- 
 tal poem, the only treasure that he saved, 
 above the reach of the greedy waves. Ca- 
 moens was persecuted by a new viceroy at 
 Goa, and imprisoned for debt, but some of 
 his friends becoming security for him, he 
 embarked for Lisbon in 1569, sixteen years 
 after having quitted Europe. The young 
 king Sebastian took an interest in Camoens, 
 accepted the dedication of his epic poem, 
 and, on the eve of departing on his unfortu- 
 nate expedition against the Moors in Africa, 
 felt more than any one else the genius of the 
 
 poet, who like himself gloried in dangers 
 when they led the way to fame. But Sebas- 
 tian was killed in the battle of Alcazar, in 
 1578 ; the royal line became extinct, and 
 Portugal lost her independence. The unfor- 
 tunate Camoens was reduced by this event 
 to such extremes, that, during the night, a 
 slave, whom he had brought from India, 
 begged in the streets to obtain food for his 
 master. In this wretched state, he still com- 
 posed lyric poems, and the finest of his de- 
 tached pieces are those which contain com- 
 plaints of his misfortunes. How brilliant 
 was that genius which could extort inspiration 
 from the very calamities which finally extin- 
 guished it. This hero of Portuguese literature, 
 the only one whose glory belongs alike to his 
 nation and to Europe, died in a hospital in 
 1579, aged sixty-two years. After his death, 
 a monument was erected to his memory, and 
 thousands, who would have denied succor 
 while he was living, crowded to do homage 
 to his inanimate remains. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born in Glas- 
 gow, July 27th, 1777. At the age of twenty- 
 two, ‘'The Pleasures of Hope” gained him 
 instant fame as a poet ; it went through 
 four editions at Edinburgh in a year. It 
 is a curious fact that the first fourteen lines 
 were the last that were written. Campbell’s 
 friend and critic, Dr. Anderson, had always 
 urged the want of a good beginning, and, 
 when the poem was on its way to the printer, 
 again pressed the necessity of starting with 
 a picture complete in itself. Campbell all 
 along admitted the justice of the criticism, 
 but never could please himself with what 
 he did. The last remark of Dr. Anderson’s 
 roused the full swing of his genius within 
 him, and he returned the next day to the 
 delighted doctor, with that fine comparison 
 between the beauty of remote objects in a 
 landscape, and those ideal scenes of happi- 
 ness which imaginative minds promise to 
 themselves with all the certainty of hope ful- 
 filled. Anderson was more than pleased, and 
 the new comparison was made the opening 
 of the new poem. 
 
 “ At summer eve, when Heaven’s ethereal bow 
 Spans with bright arch the glittering hills below, 
 Why to yon mountain turns the musing eye, 
 Whose sunbright summit mingles with the sky? 
 Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
 More sweet than all the landscape smiling near f 
 
172 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ’T is distance lends enchantment to the view, 
 
 And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 
 
 Thus, with delight we linger to survey 
 The promised joys of life’s unmeasured way ; 
 Thus from afar, each dim-discovered scene 
 More pleasing seems than all the past hath been ; 
 And every form that Fancy can repair 
 From dark oblivion, glows divinely there.” 
 
 The poem had put some money in the 
 poet’s pocket, and he gratified an early long- 
 ing in a visit to Germany. At Hamburgh, 
 the sight of the many Irish exiles inspired 
 him to that touching lament, “The Exiles of 
 Erin.” During this journey, also, he wrote 
 “The Mariners of England.” On his road 
 from Munich to Linz, he witnessed from the 
 walls of a convent the bloody field of Hohen- 
 linden, and saw the triumphant French cav- 
 alry, under Moreau, enter the nearest town, 
 wiping their bloody swords on their horses’ 
 manes. His lyric has enshrined the conflict 
 forever. “John Leyden,” says Sir Walter 
 Scott, “introduced me to Tom Campbell. 
 They afterward quarreled. When I repeated 
 ‘ Hohenlinden ’ to Leyden, he said, 4 Dash it, 
 man, tell the fellow I hate him ; but, dash 
 him, he has written the finest verses that 
 have been published these fifty years.’ I did 
 mine errand as faithfully as one of Homer’s 
 messengers, and had for answer, 4 Tell Ley- 
 den that I detest him ; but I know the value 
 of his critical approbation.’” Scott knew 
 
 “Hohenlinden” by heart; and when Sir 
 Walter dined at Murray’s in 1809, he repeated 
 at the table, as Wilkie tells us, Campbell’s 
 poem of “ Lochiel.” He had it by heart after 
 hearing it once, and once reading it. 
 
 Campbell sustained his reputation by 
 “Gertrude of Wyoming” in 1809. His life 
 was passed in literary labor, but his other pro- 
 ductions were inferior. He was extremely 
 sensitive to criticism. “I often wonder,” 
 said Sir Walter Scott in 1826, 44 how Tom 
 Campbell, with so much real genius, has not 
 maintained a greater figure in the public eye 
 than he has done of late. The author not 
 only of 4 The Pleasures of Hope,’ but 4 Ho- 
 henlinden,’ 4 Lochicl,’ &c., should have been 
 at the very top of the tree. Somehow he 
 wants audacity, fears the public, and what is 
 worse, fears the shadow of his own reputa- 
 tion.” * * * “What a pity it is,” said Sir 
 Walter to Washington Irving, 44 that Camp- 
 bell does not write more and oftener, and give 
 
 full sweep to his genius ! He has wings that 
 would bear him to the skies, and he does, 
 now and then, spread them grandly, but 
 folds them up again, and resumes his perch, 
 as if he was afraid to launch away. The 
 fact is, Campbell is in a manner a bugbear to 
 himself ; the brightness of his early success 
 is a detriment to all his further efforts. He 
 is afraid of the shadow that his own fame casts 
 before him.” 
 
 In 1827, he was elected lord-rector of his 
 own mother university at Glasgow, by the 
 free and unanimous choice of the students, 
 and was justly proud of his election. “It 
 was a deep snow,” writes Allan Cunningham, 
 “when he reached the college-green; the 
 students were drawn up in parties, pelting 
 one another: the poet ran into the ranks, 
 threw several snowballs with unerring aim, 
 then summoning the scholars around him in 
 the hall, delivered a speech replete with phi- 
 losophy and eloquence. It is needless to say 
 how this was welcomed.” When his year 
 had expired, he was unanimously re-elected, 
 the students presenting him at the same time 
 with a handsome silver punch-bowl, described 
 by the poet in his will as one of the great 
 ewels of his property. 
 
 Campbell w T as passionately fond of chil- 
 dren. This once led to a ludicrous circum- 
 stance. He saw a fine child, about four 
 years old, one day walking with her nurse in 
 the park ; and on his return home he could 
 not rest for thinking of his child sweetheart, 
 as he called her, and actually sent an adver- 
 tisement to the Morning Chronicle , mak- 
 ing inquiries after his juvenile fascinator^ 
 giving his own address, and stating his age 
 to be sixty-two ! The incident illustrates the 
 intensity of his affections, as well as the live- 
 liness of his fancy ; for, alas ! the poet had 
 then no home-object to dwell upon, to con- 
 centrate his hopes and his admiration. His 
 wife had long been dead, and his only son was 
 a helpless imbecile. Several hoaxes were 
 played off on the susceptible poet in conse- 
 quence of this singular advertisement. One 
 letter directed him to the house of an old 
 maid, by whom he was received very cava- 
 lierly. He told his story, but “the wretch,” 
 as he used to say with a sort of peevish 
 humor, 44 had never heard either of him or 
 his poetry ! ” In his last years the poet him- 
 
 CAM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 178 
 
 self sank into a state of comparative mental 
 and bodily feebleness. He died at Boulogne, 
 and was buried in the poet’s corner at West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Campbell told a story with much humor. 
 At a meeting of authors he once proposed 
 Napoleon’s health because he had murdered 
 a publisher, Palm! He liked “Gertrude” 
 the best of his poems, and once said, “I never 
 like to see my name before “ The Pleasures of 
 Hope ; ” why, I can not tell you, unless it was 
 that, when young, I was always greeted among 
 my friends as Mr. Campbell, author of ‘ The 
 Pleasures of Hope.’ Good morning to you, Mr. 
 Campbell, author of ‘The Pleasures of Hope.’ 
 When I got married, I was married as the 
 author of ‘ The Pleasures of Hope ; ’ and when 
 I became a father, my son was the son of the 
 author of ‘ The Pleasures of Hope.’ ” The 
 phrase followed him out of life, for the in- 
 scription on his coffin was : 
 
 “ Thomas Campbell, LL.D. 
 
 Author of the ‘Pleasures of Hope.’ 
 
 Died June 15, 1844. 
 
 Aged 67 .” 
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO, a village of Udine in 
 Friuli, a province of Venice, belonging to the 
 Austrians, famous for the treaty signed here 
 Oct. 17th, 1797, by which the Emperor of 
 Austria ceded to the French republic the 
 whole of the Austrian Netherlands, and con- 
 sented to their remaining in possession of the 
 islands of Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, and all 
 the islands in the Adriatic, together with the 
 Venetian territories in Albania. He also 
 acknowledged the Cisalpine republic as an 
 independent state ; ceded to it the countries 
 in Lombardy which had formerly belonged 
 to Austria, and consented that it should pos- 
 sess Bergamo, Brescia, and other Venetian 
 territories, together with the duchies of Man- 
 tua and Modena, the principalities of Carrara 
 and Massa, and the cities of Romagna, Fer- 
 rara, and Bologna, belonging to the pope. 
 France yielded up to Austria, Istria, Dalma- 
 tia, the city of Venice, with a large portion 
 of the dominions of that republic, and the 
 Venetian islands in the Adriatic, lying to the 
 north-east of the Gulf of Lodrino. 
 
 CANADA, The Dominion of, in North 
 America, belonging to Britain, was formerly 
 divided into the Provinces of Canada East, 
 now Quebec, and Canada West, now Ontario., 
 
 The population of the two Provinces are 
 estimated (1870) at 3,435,218, and the area 
 331,280 square miles. Quebec, late Canada 
 East, has an area of 210,000 square miles, 
 and contains 1,111,566 inhabitants, of whom 
 the greater portion are French Canadians, 
 the remainder being English, Scotch, Irish, 
 and Americans. It is divided into thirty- 
 six counties. Seigniories, or grants of the 
 French government, and townships, or 
 grants, of the English, are the minor sub- 
 divisions. A Lieutenant Governor, whose 
 residence is at Quebec, is at the head of 
 the Provincial Government. The houses 
 of the Canadians are generally low, and 
 built of stone, with little finish. Educa- 
 tion is generally at a low ebb among them, 
 although Quebec and Montreal sustain some 
 highly reputable seminaries. The commerce 
 of the province has gradually increased 
 under the fostering spirit of the British gov- 
 ernment. The fur trade, of which Montreal 
 is the depot, is considerable, and timber, pot 
 and pearl ashes, grain, &c., are exported in 
 great quantities. Grass, wheat, barley, rye, 
 &c., are the principal productions of the soil. 
 The majestic St. Lawrence is the main river 
 of the Canadas, but there are also others of 
 great importance. 
 
 The French Canadians possess the charac- 
 teristics which distinguish the volatile inhab- 
 itants of France. The passionate vivacity, 
 the eagerness in pursuit of pleasure, the 
 levity, and, it must be added, laxity of prin- 
 ciple, exhibit the connection between the 
 parent stock and the transplanted race. 
 Their amusements in winter consist of sleigh- 
 ing expeditions, in which the spirited little 
 Canadian horses prove their worth, varied 
 by dancing, and social gayeties. Where the 
 females are distinguished for their temper- 
 ance, the men are unfortunately addicted to 
 the use of spirituous liquors, and can scarcely 
 be persuaded to abandon them in winter, 
 alleging the severity of the weather, which 
 frequently depresses the mercury in the ther- 
 mometer to forty degrees below zero, as an 
 excuse. 
 
 Canada West, now Ontario, is principally 
 settled by emigrants from Great Britain and 
 Ireland, and their descendants. Population 
 (1870), 2,047,334. Area, 121,260 square 
 miles. 
 
 CAN 
 
174 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 A large proportion of the emigrants to Can- 
 ada now settle in this province, induced by 
 the very great fertility of the soil, and the 
 value and abundance of the timber. The 
 forests increase in extent as they spread to 
 the regions of the north. In these wooded 
 districts, vast sheets of water expand in sol- 
 itary splendor, haunted only by the beasts of 
 prey, or Indians hardly less wild. The es- 
 tablished religion of the Canadas is that of 
 the Church of England, but a large portion 
 of the inhabitants are Catholics. The Brit- 
 ish constitution forms the basis of that of 
 British America. 
 
 The French, at a very early period, seemed 
 to be aware of the importance of the discov- 
 ery of Canada by Cabot, and the cod-fishery 
 began to employ their men as early as the 
 commencement of the sixteenth century. In 
 the early part of that century a Frenchman 
 is said to have made a chart of the entrance 
 of the St. Lawrence. In 1524, Francis I. of 
 France sent four ships, under Yerazzani, a 
 Florentine, to prosecute discoveries in this 
 country. In 1535, James Cartier, of St. Ma- 
 loes, sailed up the St. Lawrence, formed 
 alliances with the natives, took possession of 
 the territory, built a fort, and wintered in the 
 country. Henry IY. appointed the Marquis 
 de la Roche lieutenant-general of Canada and 
 the neighboring countries. In 1608, the city 
 of Quebec was founded, and from that period 
 the establishment of a permanent French 
 colony commenced. In 1629, an English 
 expedition took possession of Quebec, but it 
 was surrendered again to the French by’ the 
 treaty of St. Germain. This expedition was 
 headed by Sir David Keith. In 1690, a bold 
 attempt was made, but without success, to 
 subject Canada to the English crown. The 
 attempt was renewed in 1711, but equally in 
 vain. Canada continued in the occupation of 
 the French till the breaking out of the war 
 between France and England in 1756. In 
 1759 the British government formed the pro- 
 ject of attempting its conquest, and the Eng- 
 lish took possession of Quebec after a gallant 
 resistance on the part of the French ; in 
 which the English general Wolfe, and Mont- 
 calm the French commander, both per- 
 ished. The latter, on being told that his 
 wound was mortal, nobly exclaimed, “ Then 
 I shall not live to see the city surrendered to 
 
 the British ! ” The whole province of Can- 
 ada was soon after subdued by the English, 
 and was confirmed to Great Britain by the 
 treaty of 1763. In 1775, Canada was in- 
 vaded by a body of continental troops, led 
 by Montgomery ; Montreal was taken, but 
 the gallant general perished in the unsuc- 
 cessful attempt upon Quebec. During our 
 last war with Great Britain, Upper Canada 
 became the theatre of a sanguinary struggle. 
 During 1837 and 1838 insurrections broke 
 out against the government, and some small 
 battles were fought. From 1791 till 1840, 
 the two provinces had distinct governments. 
 In the latter year they were united. The 
 act of unioh provides for the appointment of 
 a legislative council by the crown, and an 
 assembly chosen by the people. The royal 
 governor of Canada is governor-general of 
 British North America. Quebec and Toronto, 
 which were the capitals of the separate prov- 
 inces, were made joint seats of government. 
 
 Ottawa, formerly Bytown, a thriving city 
 in Ontario, on the Ottawa river, was desig- 
 nated in 1858 as the capital of the Canadas, 
 and in 1867 as the capital of the Domin- 
 ion of Canada. The population, in 1870, is 
 25,550. 
 
 Quebec stands on a promontory, on the 
 north-west side of the St. Lawrence, 400 
 miles from its mouth, containing about 60,000 
 inhabitants. It is divided into two parts, 
 the Upper and the Lower Town. The Upper 
 Town is built on a bold precipice of naked 
 rock, rising to the height of 345 feet. Que- 
 bec, for an American city, is certainly a 
 peculiar town : a military town, most com- 
 pactly and permanently built, stone its sole 
 material ; environed, as to its important parts, 
 by w'alls and gates, and defended by numer- 
 ous heavy cannon; garrisoned by troops, 
 having the arms, the costume, the music, the 
 discipline, of Europe, foreign in language, 
 features, and origin, from most of those whom 
 they are sent to defend; founded upon a 
 rock, and its higher parts overlooking a great 
 extent of country; between three and four 
 hundred miles from the ocean, in the midst 
 of a great continent, and yet displaying fleet* 
 of foreign merchantmen in its fine capacious 
 bay, and showing all the bustle of a crowded 
 seaport; its streets narrow, populous, and 
 winding up and down almost mountain de- 
 
 CAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 175 
 
 PEAK OF TENERIFFE. 
 
 divides. Its siege and capture in 1759, by 
 Gen. Wolfe, was fatal both to the English 
 and French commanders. In 1776, Generals 
 Montgomery and Arnold attempted to take 
 Quebec by storm, but Montgomery fell, and 
 Arnold was compelled to retreat. 
 
 Toronto, on Lake Ontario, has an excellent 
 harbor, and is the centre of trade for a broad 
 back country; population in 1870, 47,019. 
 Montreal, on an island in the St. Lawrence, 
 180 miles above Quebec, and 200‘ below Lake 
 Ontario, is at the head of ship navigation. 
 The streets are regular, the houses are built 
 of gray stone, and present a singular appear- 
 ance from being covered with tin. Magill 
 College is a very flourishing institution. Pop- 
 ulation of city and suburbs (1870), 160,000. 
 
 In July, 1867, England’s North American 
 Colonies, Canada, (Upper and Lower,) Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward’s Is- 
 land, were confederated into one Govern- 
 ment, under the name of Dominion of Cana- 
 da. The legislative authority is vested in 
 a Parliament of two houses, the Senate and 
 House of Assembly. Area of the Dominion, 
 376,988 square miles; population, 3,464,766 ; 
 capital, Ottawa. 
 
 CANALS. The first regular chain of arti- 
 
 ficial water intercommunication, of which 
 history has transmitted to us the record, 
 was that between the Nile and the Red Sea. 
 This canal route was examined with great 
 care by the French engineers, and several 
 portions found in 1798 in such a state of 
 preservation as only to demand cleansing. 
 The system of modern canal improvement 
 may be stated to have commenced in Italy, 
 at Viterbo, 1481, when sluices with double 
 doors were invented, and first used on a large 
 scale, near Milan, by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 The canals of the delta of the Rhine com- 
 menced, it is true, in the dark ages, but it 
 was not before the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, that they were planned and constructed 
 with scientific regularity of design. The 
 most stupendous canal in the world is one 
 in China, which passes over two thousand 
 miles, and to forty-one cities ; it was com- 
 menced in the tenth century. The Erie 
 canal in New York, three hundred and thirty 
 miles in length, was begun in 1817. The 
 Bridgewater canal, the first great work of the 
 kind in Englani, was begun by the Duke of 
 Bridgewater, in 1758. Brindley was the 
 architect. [See Brindley.] 
 
 CANARIES, a group of seven islands in 
 
 CAN 
 
 i 
 
176 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the Atlantic, off the coast of Africa, belong- 
 ing to Spain. Ter.eriffe is the largest and 
 most important. The Peak rises 11,946 feet 
 above the sea. These are supposed to be 
 the Fortunate Isles of the ancients. In 
 1330 a French ship, driven among them by 
 stress of weather, made them known to the 
 modern world. They were seized by the 
 Spaniards, who planted the vine, which still 
 flourishes, about 1420. The canary-bird is a 
 native of these isles. It was brought into 
 England in 1500. 
 
 C AND I A, the ancient Crete, a large island 
 in the Mediterranean, lying about eighty 
 miles south of the Morea. The climate is 
 mild, and the soil productive, capable, as 
 was proved in ancient times, of supporting 
 
 1.200.000 inhabitants, a population which 
 Turkish tyranny and indolence have dimin- 
 ished to 159,000. It was, in mythological 
 accounts, the kingdom of Saturn. After 
 becoming a republic, and a pirate isle, it was 
 conquered by the Romans, and then by the 
 Saracens in 823. In 962, the Greeks re- 
 gained possession of it. It was sold to the 
 Venetians in 1204, and was fiercely contended 
 for by the troops of the Porte and the re- 
 public. Hither the Christian chivalry of 
 Europe rushed to display their valor against 
 the infidels, and the capital was only surren- 
 dered after a siege of twenty-five years, Sept. 
 27th, 1669. Candia continued in the hands 
 of the Turks, until its cession to Mehemet 
 Ali in 1830. In 1840 it was restored to the 
 sultan. The wild goat of Crete is the sup- 
 posed origin of all the domestic varieties. 
 
 CANNiE, a city on the Adriatic, at the 
 mouth of the Aufidus, where the Romans 
 were defeated by the Carthaginians, under 
 Hannibal, May 21st, 216 b.c. Hannibal had 
 
 10.000 horse and 40,000 foot, while the Ro- 
 man troops, headed by iEmilius Paulus and 
 Terentius Varro, amounted to 87,000 men. 
 The opponents of Hannibal had two to one 
 against him in infantry, while Hannibal had 
 five to one against them in cavalry. The 
 light-horse and slingers began to skirmish, 
 after whom Hasdrubal charged the troops 
 of horse that were led by iEmilius, and broke 
 their ranks. The last blow that ended all 
 resistance was given by the same hand tfhat 
 aimed the first. Hasdrubal, having cut in 
 pieces all the Roman horse that opposed him, 
 
 fell back upon the rear, and came up to the 
 Numidians, with whom he joined and made 
 a charge upon Varro. The Romans whom 
 they charged appeared incapable of resist- 
 ance, and were completely routed. Livy 
 says that 40,000 foot and above 2,700 horse 
 were slain ; Polybius accounts the loss much 
 greater. The prisoners taken amounted to 
 
 3.000 foot and 300 horse, according to Livyq 
 according to others, to 8,000. Hannibal col- 
 lected the rings, the badges of the fallen Ro- 
 man knights, and sent many bushels of them 
 to Carthage, as tokens of his triumph. He lost 
 
 4.000 Gauls, 1,500 Spaniards and Africans, 
 and 200 horse. Had he pursued his victory 
 and marched forthwith to Rome, instead of 
 quartering his troops in the seductive Capua, 
 he might probably have ended the war ; but 
 he did not trust his own good fortune to such 
 a length. Varro, the consul whose impru- 
 dence brought on the defeat, saved himself 
 by flight, while his brave colleague, AEmilius, 
 perished on the field of battle. 
 
 CANNING, George, a brilliant English 
 statesman, born April 11th, 1770. His life 
 was spent on the political arena, and he suc- 
 ceeded Lord Liverpool as premier in February, 
 1827 ; but worn by his toils, both in body 
 and mind, he died August 8th, 1827. 
 
 CANOVA, Antonio, the most celebrated 
 and successful sculptor of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, was born in the Venetian territory, at 
 Possagno, Nov. 1st, 1757, and from his twelfth 
 year devoted himself to the art in which he 
 became so celebrated. When quite young he 
 modeled the figure of a lion in butter with 
 exquisite skill. This was placed upon the 
 table of the seigneur of the place, Falieri, 
 whose attention it attracted. The ingenious 
 artist was sought for, found, and placed with a 
 statuary. At seventeen, his statue of Euryd- 
 ice was sculptured, and highly praised. In 
 1779 he went to Rome under the patronage 
 of the Venetian senate. His works are nu- 
 merous, and his subjects various ; the female 
 figures being the most perfect and beautiful. 
 Canova had a method of finishing his statues, 
 by applying to the marble a peculiar prepara- 
 tion, which destroyed the glare and glitter of 
 the stone, and imparted to it the soft and 
 mellow lustre of wax. Modest, moral, and 
 amiable, Canova was free from professional 
 jealousy, and liberally patronized young art- 
 
 CAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 177 
 
 ists of merit, removing many of the obstacles 
 which oppose the early steps of devotees to 
 the fine arts. He was created Marquis of Is- 
 chia, with a large pension, by Pope Pius VII., 
 who was by no means backward in acknowl- 
 edging his merit. The amiable artist died at 
 Venice, Oct. 13th, 1822, leaving behind him 
 many monuments of his talents, industry, 
 goodness, and liberality. A writer, speaking 
 of the comparative merits of the Medicean and 
 the Canova Venus, says, “I am by no means 
 convinced of the great superiority of the an- 
 cient over the modern work. It is certain the 
 general attitude and aspect are copied in the 
 latter, which deprives the artist of a great 
 share of the merit of originality ; but if we 
 were to regard the works alone, without any 
 reference to their formation, I am not sure 
 that the palm would not be given to Canova. 
 As a friend of mine, no mean judge, said to 
 me, 4 If they were both dug out of the earth 
 now, and nobody knew anything about either, 
 the Canova statue would be preferred.’ ” 
 CANUTE, the Great, King of Denmark and 
 England, succeeded his father Sweyn in the 
 former kingdom, about the year 1015. He 
 commenced his reign by an expedition against 
 England, but hearing that the King of Norway 
 had invaded Denmark, he was obliged to make 
 a precipitate return. Having repulsed the 
 invader, he resumed his enterprise, and land- 
 ing on the southern coast, committed dreadful 
 ravages ; but Edmund Ironsides opposed him 
 with such bravery, that Canute agreed to di- 
 vide the kingdom with him. On the murder 
 of Edmund by Edric in 1017, Canute obtained 
 the whole kingdom in an assembly of the 
 states, and put to death Edric, and several of 
 the English nobility who had basely deserted 
 their sovereign. He likewise levied heavy 
 taxes on the people, and particularly on the 
 inhabitants of London. The King of Sweden 
 having attacked Denmark, he went thither 
 and slew the Swedish monarch in battle. 
 Canute built churches, made a pilgrimage to 
 Rome, cherished the interests of learnings and 
 distinguished himself by his piety. Canute’s 
 reproof of his courtiers is well known. These 
 flatterers having assured him he had power 
 over all things, he seated himself upon the 
 sea-shore, and commanded the waves not to 
 approach his feet. The element advanced 
 with its usual rapidity, and Canute, rising, 
 12 
 
 said to his courtiers in a tone of great solem- 
 nity : 44 lie alone can rule the waves, who has 
 said to them, Thus far shall ye go, and no 
 farther.” Canute died at Shaftesbury, 1036. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The Cape, nearly 
 at the southern extremity of Africa, long in 
 the hands of the Dutch, was found, on the 
 conquest by the English, in the year 1795, to 
 be 550 English miles in length, and 233 in 
 breadth. This flourishing colony was origin- 
 ally founded by the Dutch. Van Riebeck, 
 surgeon of one of the Dutch company’s ships, 
 having touched at the Cape, was struck with 
 the extent of the bay, capable of containing 
 more than one hundred vessels ; its situation, 
 half-way between Europe and India ; and the 
 nature of the soil, which seemed proper for 
 every kind of cultivation. On his return, ho 
 communicated his ideas to the company, who 
 approved of his plan and gave him full powers 
 to carry it into execution. Van Riebeck ac- 
 cordingly embarked with four vessels, and, 
 after arriving at the Cape, purchased from the 
 inhabitants land for an establishment, for 
 which he gave them merchandise, to be se- 
 lected at then own choice, to the value of 
 50,000 florins, 1651. The possession of this 
 region was for a long time a source of contest 
 between the Dutch and English. It was taken 
 by the English in 1797, and, after having been 
 surrendered to the Dutch in 1802, was again 
 occupied by the former in 1806, and has since 
 remained in their possession. Cape Town is 
 resorted to by ships bound to the Indian 
 Ocean, for supplies of water and provision. 
 The Hottentots, or Bushmen, are a degraded 
 race, but instead of endeavoring to better their 
 condition, the Europeans have contributed to 
 prolong, and in fact consolidate, their evil 
 habits, furnishing them with spirituous li- 
 quors, the agency of which insures their de- 
 struction, or reduces them to an abject state 
 which is far worse than death itself. The 
 cruelty practiced on the natives by the Dutch 
 almost exceeds belief. When a party of 
 Dutch wished to settle in any spot, they pro- 
 ceeded to clear it by the death of the natives, 
 with as much coolness as an American squat- 
 ter would exhibit, in hewing down the forest- 
 trees to open a place for the erection of his 
 log-house, or in picking off with his rifle a few 
 of the wild animals which threatened to be 
 troublesome. The Dutch manner of proceed- 
 
 CAP 
 
178 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Ing was summary. Having selected the liut 
 of some poor wretch as an object of destruc- 
 tion, they first set fire to it. Let us imagine 
 the dismay and horror of a poor family at 
 finding flames breaking forth around, above 
 them, in every direction. Rushing forth, the 
 wretched owners of the miserable dwelling 
 would implore pity from their cruel enemies. 
 The Dutch boors would be too much engaged 
 in loading their pieces and discharging them 
 upon the males, to heed the cries of the fe- 
 males, who, with their children, were gener- 
 ally saved. The indifference with which the 
 boors regarded the death of the Bushmen, is 
 strikingly illustrated in the followinganecdote. 
 A boor, presenting himself at the secretary’s 
 office at Cape Town, after having traversed a 
 lonely tract, was asked if he had not found 
 the Bushmen troublesome ? “ Not very,” re- 
 
 plied he, with great coolness, “I only shot 
 four.” 
 
 In 1848, the population was 200,546. Cape 
 Town, the capital of the British possessions in 
 this region, was the first settlement of the 
 Dutch. 
 
 CAPE YERDE ISLANDS, a group of 
 islands, in the Atlantic, opposite to and 890 
 miles from Cape Verde, belonging to Portugal. 
 Their number has been variously stated from 
 ten to fourteen. The air is unwholesome, but 
 some portion of the soil is fertile. Rain is 
 unfrequent, and the drought has been so se- 
 vere that numbers of the inhabitants have 
 perished from the consequent famine. The 
 salt manufactured at Mayo, a small island, is 
 exchanged for flour, and this trade is chiefly 
 carried on by means of American vessels. 
 The inhabitants, who are mostly negroes, 
 numbered 86,738 in 1850. These isles were 
 known to the ancients as the Gorgades, but 
 were not visited by the moderns till 1446. 
 
 CAPET. The family name of a royal race, 
 thirty-six members of which have reigned in 
 France, and eighty -two in other European 
 states. The word signifies ‘broad-head,’ or 
 perhaps ‘broad-hat,’ and was first given to 
 Hugo, son of Hugo the Great, Duke of France 
 and Count of Paris, b} r his adnerents, in the 
 tenth century. He seized the throne on the 
 death of Louis V., the Indolent, the last of the 
 Carlovingian race, a.d. 987. Louis had 
 reigned but one year, and was poisoned by 
 bis queen, who loved him not 
 
 CAPO DTSTRIA, John, Count of, a native 
 of Greece, was born at Corfu, in 1780. He 
 entered the diplomatic service of Russia, was 
 intrusted with several important missions, 
 and assisted to manage the intrigues by which 
 that power fomented the disaffection of the 
 Greeks toward the Turks. In 1827, he was 
 elected president of the Greek republic. In 
 this responsible station, his talents appear to 
 have been of a high order, although the weak- 
 ness of the state, and the disorders which 
 reigned throughout Greece, embarrassed his 
 abilities. He was assassinated in 1831, his 
 leaning toward Russian policy gaining him 
 enemies. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, a province of Asia, once of 
 great importance as an independent kingdom, 
 at times, although nominally dependent upon 
 Persia, whose satraps governed it. The Pon- 
 tus Euxinus lay upon the north, Armenia on 
 the east, Cilicia and Syria on the south, and 
 Lycaonia on the west. It was divided into 
 Cappadocia Magna, and Cappadocia Minor, 
 afterward Cappadocia Proper, and Pontus. 
 The kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 
 b.c. The people are said to have been addict- 
 ed to every vice that man is capable of com- 
 mitting. They worshiped the sun. Arche- 
 laus, the last king, bequeathed the country to 
 the Romans, a.d. 17. 
 
 CAPRI, the ancient Capreae, a beautiful 
 rocky island in the Gulf of Naples, whose in- 
 habitants are 6,000 in number. Besides being 
 valuable on account of its oil and wine, it is 
 enriched by quails, which come hither in great 
 numbers from Africa, and are caught with 
 ease. The charms of this island induced Ti- 
 berius to select it for his retreat when he 
 chose to retire from the active administration 
 of government, and give himself up to the 
 most revolting debauchery, occasionally re- 
 minding his subjects of his existence by or- 
 dering the execution of Rome’s best citizens. 
 
 CAPUCHIN FRIARS, a sort of Francis- 
 cans, to whom this name was given from their 
 wearing a great capuehon, or cowl, an odd 
 kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and 
 hanging down upon their backs. They were 
 founded by Matthew Baschi, about 1525. Al- 
 though the rigors of this order have abated, 
 still the brethren are marked for their extreme 
 poverty and privations. 
 
 CARABOBO, a province of Venezuela, in 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 179 
 
 South America. The famous battle of Cara- 
 bobo, which decided the independence of Ven- 
 ezuela, was fought between Bolivar and La 
 Torre, the Spanish general, June 24th, 1821. 
 
 CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, the 
 eldest son of the Emperor Severus, born a.d. 
 188, and associated with his father in the 
 government at the age of thirteen years. Af- 
 ter his father’s death, he assassinated his 
 brother Geta, who shared the throne with 
 him, in 212. Caracalla received the surname 
 of Alemannicus, for basely murdering a tribe 
 of the Germans whom he pretended to assist. 
 He visited Egypt, and displayed every where 
 the greatest cruelty. He was finally assassin- 
 ated at Edessa, a.d. 217, by Macrinus, the 
 praetorian prefect. 
 
 CARACTACUS, king of the Silures, a Brit- 
 ish tribe of Wales, who, being taken prisoner 
 by the Romans, was led before the Emperor 
 Claudius, a.d. 62. He was unawed by the 
 power and splendor which surrounded him, 
 but was surprised, as he told the emperor, 
 that the possessors of so much wealth and 
 grandeur could envy him his humble cottage. 
 The magnanimity of his bearing, and the can- 
 dor and moderation of his remarks, so moved 
 the emperor, that he gave orders to have the 
 captive monarch set at liberty. This was the 
 only good action performed by Claudius that 
 is extant. 
 
 CARBONARI (‘colliers’), the name of a 
 secret political society of Italy which existed 
 for many years, but the origin of which is 
 doubtful. The Carbonari were sworn foes of 
 oppression, “Hatred to tyrants!” being the 
 initiatory oath. The places where they met 
 were called huts ; the interior the colliery, and 
 the exterior the wood. Tolerance in religious 
 matters was secured by their principles. In 
 1820, when Italy was disturbed by plots, 
 650,000 new members were admitted, in the 
 month of March. In that year the society 
 was suppressed by the Austrian government ; 
 though there is reason to think it yet exists. 
 
 CARDINALS were originally the parish 
 priests at Rome ; title began to be used, 308 ; 
 college of, founded by Pope Pascal I., 817; 
 did not elect the popes till 1160; wore the 
 red hat, to remind them that they ought to 
 shed their blood, if required, for religion, and 
 were declared princes of the church, 1243 ; 
 the cardinals set fire to the conclave, and sep- 
 
 arated, and a vacancy in the papal chair for 
 two years, 1314 ; Cardinal Carassa was hanged 
 by order of Pius IV., 1560 ; as was Cardinal 
 Poli, under Leo X. ; the title of eminence first 
 given them by Pope Urban VIII., about 1630. 
 Paul II. gave them the scarlet habit, 1464. 
 The cardinals are now ecclesiastical princes in 
 the Church of Rome. They are the council 
 of the pope, and constitute the conclave or 
 sacred college. 
 
 CAREY, William, D.D. of the English 
 Baptist mission at Serampore, was born Aug. 
 17th, 1761. He was the son of a poor man, 
 and commenced business in life as a shoe- 
 maker. By industry and application he ac- 
 quainted himself with Hebrew and various 
 other languages. In 1793, he left England 
 for India. He translated the Scriptures into 
 Bengalee, and into all the principal languages 
 of northern Ilindostan, and compiled also a 
 voluminous Bengalee dictionary. He died in 
 1834. 
 
 CARLOS, commonly known as Don Carlos, 
 son of Philip I. of Spain by his first wife, 
 Mary of Portugal, was born at Valladolid, 
 Jan. 8th, 1544. Four days after, his mother 
 died in the midst of preparations for the cel- 
 ebration of the birth of the prince. Carlos 
 was naturally feeble, and had one leg shorter 
 than the other. The excessive indulgence 
 with which he was treated in youth, fostered 
 his strong passions, and rendered him vindic- 
 tive and obstinate. In 1560, Philip caused 
 the states, assembled at Toledo, solemnly to 
 recognize Don Carlos as heir to the crown. 
 A headlong fall down the staircase of the 
 palace of the Cardinal Ximenes at Alcald, in 
 1562, nearly deprived the young prince of 
 life. His skull was fractured, and trepanning 
 was necessary. Of course a royal prince of 
 Spain could not be restored without a mira- 
 cle, and the credit of Carlos’s recovery was 
 divided between the bones' of a holy friar 
 and the image of Our Lady of Atocha. 
 These sanctified instrumentalities did not 
 work a radical cure, for the brain of their 
 patient had received a permanent injury. 
 
 Writers vary greatly in the portraits which 
 they draw of Don Carlos. According to 
 some, he was born with those qualities which 
 adorn a hero, with a love of glory joined to 
 high courage, a proud disdain of opposition, 
 and a desire of extended power. According 
 
 CAR 
 
180 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to others, his actions were those of a mad- 
 man, whom accident and opposition irritate, 
 but address or submission calms. It is cer- 
 tain that after this accident he displayed 
 much eccentricity of conduct, and gave him- 
 self to reckless gratification of his passions. 
 
 One night, as he was traversing the streets 
 of Madrid, some one accidentally threw a 
 little water on his head. Instantly stopping, 
 Don Carlos ordered his attendants to set fire 
 to the house, and cut the throats of its inmates. 
 They parted, as if to execute his commands, 
 but returning immediately, assured him that 
 it was impossible to obey him, because the 
 holy sacrament was on the point of being 
 administered to a sick person in the offensive 
 dwelling. This reply pacified the prince. 
 
 Cardinal Epinosa, president of the council 
 of Castile, and afterward grand-inquisitor, 
 banished a comedian named Cisneros from 
 the place, where he was to have performed 
 that night for the prince’s diversion. It was 
 probably by Philip’s order. Carlos, meeting 
 the cardinal, seized him roughly by the col- 
 lar, and, laying his hand on his poniard, ex- 
 claimed, “ You scurvy priest, do you dare to 
 prevent Cisneros from playing before me? 
 By the life of my father, I will kill you ! ” 
 The trembling prelate, throwing himself upon 
 his knees, was too happy to escape with his 
 life from the hands of the infuriated prince. 
 
 An unfortunate money-lender, one Grim- 
 aldo, after having supplied the prince with 
 some money he had asked, added in the usual 
 high-flown style of Castilian politeness, that 
 all that he had was at his disposal. Carlos 
 took him at his word, and instantly demand- 
 ed a hundred thousand ducats. In vain 
 Grimaldo protested that he had only used 
 a form of speech current in all good society. 
 The best bargain he could make was to be 
 let off with sixty thousand, to be furnished 
 within twenty-four hours. 
 
 A shoemaker having made a pair of boots 
 much too tight for the prince, the latter 
 ordered them to be cut to pieces and stewed. 
 “Villain!” exclaimed he, to the terrified 
 tradesman, “ thou must eat these or die ! ” 
 In vain the unfortunate man represented the 
 cruelty of the sentence, and the trivial nature 
 of his offense. He was not permitted to de- 
 part until he had eaten up his boots. 
 
 Don Alonzo de Cordova, brother of the 
 
 Marquis of Las Nevas, having failed to repair 
 instantly to the prince’s chamber, at the 
 summons of his bell, the furious prince seized 
 him by the waist, and, but for the cries of 
 the sufferer, which procured the assistance 
 of servants, would have dashed the chamber- 
 lain through the window into the moat. 
 
 Yet Carlos at other times behaved in a 
 most generous manner, and he obtained the 
 affections of those members of the ro} r al 
 family who approached him most nearly. 
 One of these, romance has closely linked 
 with his unfortunate fate. In 1559, a mar- 
 riage had been proposed between Don Carlos 
 and Isabella, daughter of Henry II. and 
 Catharine de Medici of France. Philip 
 judged proper to substitute himself for his 
 son. It has been said that Carlos loved 
 Isabella, that their passion was mutual, and 
 that he never forgave his father for having 
 deprived him of his bride. 
 
 Carlos may have cherished such a senti- 
 ment, no doubt, but that Isabella loved the 
 sallow and sickly boy is hardly probable. 
 She was kind to him, and always befriended 
 him, but it was the kindness of an amiable 
 woman and a relative. She appears to have 
 possessed a complete control over him, so 
 that his conduct in her presence was never 
 extravagant. 
 
 Philip served Carlos a second trick of this 
 kind. He was led, in 1565, to hope for a 
 union with the Archduchess Anne, his cousin, 
 and daughter of the Emperor Maximilian, but 
 Philip shortly afterward opposed the match, 
 and, on the death of Don Carlos, married 
 the lady himself. Thus he successively de- 
 prived his son of two females, whose attrac- 
 tions might have bound him to domestic life, 
 and softened the wilder and more obdurate 
 portions of his character. 
 
 In 1653, Philip, who had no heir but Don 
 Carlos, whom he doubtless judged incapable 
 of governing, sent for his nephews, the Arch- 
 dukes Rodolphus and Ernest, whom he re- 
 ceived in person, for the purpose of securing 
 the succession to them. The following year, 
 Don Carlos, who was discontented, and at 
 variance with his father, projected his escape 
 from Spain under the pretext of going to the 
 relief of Malta, then besieged by the troops 
 of Solyman. He collected fifty thousand 
 ducats, and was on the eve of departing, 
 
 CAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 181 
 
 when a forged letter of the viceroy of Naples, 
 urging his stay in Spain, induced him to 
 change his resolution. It is unnecessary to 
 dwell upon the various projects of Don Car- 
 los for securing fame and distinction in other 
 countries, all of which were crossed by his 
 stern parent, who regarded him with a jeal- 
 ous eye, and punished several of his confi- 
 dants and friends. 
 
 Philip appeared to repose implicit confi- 
 dence in the Duke of Alva, Ruy Gomez de 
 Sylva, and Espinosa. Don Carlos had an 
 invincible repugnance to these men, either 
 from jealousy of the confidence they enjoyed, 
 or from considering them as authorized and 
 privileged spies upon his conduct. He could 
 not bear to dwell upon the thought that the 
 Duke of Alva had obtained the government 
 of Flanders, which he had solicited for himself. 
 When Alva came to pay his respects to 
 him previous to his departure for the Nether- 
 lands, the prince fiercely said, “You are not 
 to go to Flanders ; I will go there myself.” 
 Alva endeavored to pacify him, saying that it 
 was too dangerous a mission for the heir to 
 the throne ; that he w'as going to quiet the ; 
 troubles of the country, and prepare it for j 
 the coming of the king, when the prince j 
 could accompany his father, if his presence j 
 could be spared in Castile. But this expla- 
 nation only served to irritate Carlos the more ; 
 and, drawing his dagger, he turned suddenly | 
 on the duke, exclaiming, * You shall not go ; 
 if you do, 1 will kill you.’ A struggle en- j 
 sued ; an awkward one for Alva, as to injure I 
 the heir-apparent might be construed into 
 treason. Fortunately, being much the strong- 
 er of the two, he grappled with Carlos and 
 held him tight, while the latter exhausted 
 his strength in ineffectual efforts to escape. 
 But no sooner was the prince released than i 
 he turned again, with the fury of a madman, 
 on the duke, who again closed with him, 
 when the noise of the fray brought in one 
 of the chamberlains from an adjoining room ; 
 and Carlos, extricating himself from the iron 
 grasp of his adversary, withdrew to his own 
 apartment. 
 
 “I’ll kill you” seems to have been his 
 favorite threat. Louis de Foix, a French en- 
 gineer, the celebrated architect who built 
 the Escurial, is said to have been commanded 
 by Don Carlos to make him a book heavy 
 
 enough to kill a man at one blow. De Thou, 
 the historian who relates this, says, “This 
 prince desired the book, after having read in 
 the annals of Spain that an imprisoned arch- 
 bishop had made a leather cover to a brick 
 of the size of his breviary, and used it to kill 
 his jailer, whom he struck dead.” De Foix 
 told the historian that he made the prince a 
 book, composed of ten tablets of a blue stone, 
 covered with plates of steel, concealed under 
 plates of gilt, and this book, six inches by 
 four, weighed more than fourteen pounds. 
 He said also that Don Carlos, wishing to be 
 alone in his chamber, employed him to make 
 him a machine, with which by means of pul- 
 leys he could fasten and unfasten his door 
 without rising from his bed. The prince had 
 always under his pillow two drawn swords, 
 a brace of loaded pistols, and at the bedside, 
 half a dozen arquebusses and an arm-chest. 
 
 These precautions and preparations alarmed 
 Philip. Don Carlos was often heard mutter- 
 ing against the conduct of his father. He 
 went about frequently repeating that there 
 was a man with whom he had quarreled; 
 whom he desired to kill. At Christmas time 
 it was the custom of the royal family to take 
 the sacrament together in public ; and to pre- 
 pare himself for this sacred ceremony, Carlos 
 went to confession. He confessed that he 
 was meditating murder, without revealing his 
 intended victim. The confession being re- 
 vealed tc Philip, he exclaimed, “I am the 
 man whose life he- seeks ! but I will take care 
 to prevent the execution of his designs.” 
 
 The dark surmise of the father was con- 
 firmed. Don Carlos’s confessor refused him 
 absolution. Several learned divines were got 
 together to give their opinions on the case. 
 One of the number, wishing to draw from 
 Carlos the name of his enemy, told him that 
 this intelligence might possibly have some in- 
 fluence on their judgment. The prince replied 
 that “ his father was the person, and that he 
 wished to have his life ! ” What more palpa- 
 ble proof of insanity could be put on record! 
 At the same time that he was brooding over 
 this assassination, he was also projecting 
 schemes to fly from the palace and his father. 
 Both designs were of course revealed to the 
 king, who now took prompt measures for his 
 arrest. De Foix was ordered to arrest the 
 action of the pulleys which closed the door of 
 
 CAR 
 
182 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 the prince’s chamber. This was done private- 
 ly, and with so much skill that the prince nev- 
 er perceived it. He slept soundly on the night 
 of the 18th of January, 1568, when the Count 
 of Lerma first entered his apartment, silently 
 removed all separate weapons, and sat down 
 upon the chest which contained theremainder. 
 The king then entered, preceded by Ruy Go- 
 mez de Sylva, the Duke of Feria, several other 
 noblemen, and guards, Don Carlos being still 
 buried in sleep. Being awaked, and seeing 
 his father, he exclaimed, “I am lost,” and 
 mingled prayers for death with loud cries and 
 menaces. Philip coldly replied that bis life 
 was not in danger ; ordered him to rise ; re- 
 moved his attendants, seized a casket filled 
 with papers, which was under the bed, 
 charged those whom he intrusted with the 
 care of the prince not to lose sight of him, and 
 to prevent his writing or communicating with 
 any one, and withdrew. Out of that room 
 Don Carlos never again passed. The windows 
 were barred up, the door secured, a guard of 
 twelve halberdiers were constantly stationed 
 in the passages leading to it, and night and 
 day there were noblemen appointed to keep 
 watch over the prisoner himself. All com- 
 munication with the outer w r orld was cut off. 
 He was as one buried alive. 
 
 The guards dressed him in black. They 
 removed the bed itself, leaving only a small 
 trundle-bed in its place. The confinement 
 soon told upon his health ; and the unhappy 
 prisoner seems to have hastened his end by 
 his own wild behavior. At one time he 
 would abstain from food for days together ; 
 then he would eat enormously. He w r ould 
 also deluge the floor w r ith water; then walk 
 about half-naked with bare feet on the cold 
 pavement. He caused a warming-pan filled 
 with ice and snow to be introduced several 
 times in a night into his bed. But Mr. Pres- 
 cott tells us that for this last practice he might 
 have pleaded the medical authorities of his 
 time, and that it was only the hydropathic 
 treatment of that day. He caused a large fire 
 to be built, under pretense of cold, and threw 
 himself into it, to perish in the flames. It 
 required the utmost exertions of his guards to 
 save him. He endeavored to choke himself 
 by swallowing a large diamond which he wore 
 about him. 
 
 Philip is said to have discovered in the cask- 
 
 et which was found concealed under the bed 
 of Don Carlos, communications with the reb- 
 els of the Netherlands. The excessive pre- 
 cautions which Philip took to justify his con- 
 duct, have disposed posterity to judge favor- 
 ably of Don Carlos. It is certain that many 
 of the most influential grandees of Spain 
 vainly petitioned for his liberation. 
 
 Some historians are of opinion that Carlos 
 was condemned to death by the inquisition, 
 that the sentence was secretly executed, that 
 the prince partook of some poisoned broth, 
 and died a few hours afterward. Some be- 
 lieve that his veins were opened in the bath, 
 others that he w T as strangled ; while Ferreras, 
 and the Spanish historians in general, declare 
 that he died of a malignant fever, occasioned 
 by an improper regimen and by violent fits 
 of passion; that he received the last sacra- 
 ments with piety, and wished to have the 
 blessing of his father. It is difficult to deter- 
 mine the manner or date of the prince’s death, 
 but we incline to refer it to the 24th of July, 
 1568. The same year Isabella died, aged 
 twenty -three, but her death was natural and 
 had no connection w r ith the fate of Don Carlos. 
 We do not know how much faith to repose in 
 the Spanish historians who defend the mem- 
 ory of Philip as the protector of religion, and 
 represent his son as a languid member of the 
 church, a partisan of the revolted Calvinists 
 of the Netherlands, and, above all, a determ- 
 ined opponent of the inquisition. Whether 
 or not Philip adopted any measures to hasten 
 the death of his son, beyond the close confine- 
 ment we have mentioned, it is clear that he 
 sternly intended that Don Carlos should not 
 survive him. 
 
 CARLSBAD, an aristocratic watering-place 
 in Europe, is in Bohemia. The arrival of dis- 
 tinguished strangers is heralded by trumpet- 
 ers stationed on a tall tower near the market- 
 place ; the tone and length of the blasts de- 
 pending on the character of the equipage. 
 The popular spirit manifested throughout Eu- 
 rope against despotic governments, induced 
 the congress of Carlsbad, Aug. 1st, 1819; 
 whereat the great continental powers decreed 
 measures to repress the rage for free institu- 
 tions, and denounced liberal opinions and the 
 liberty of the press. 
 
 CARMELITES, or White Friars, one of 
 the four mendicant orders, and bound by 
 
 CAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 183 
 
 austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor 
 was moderated about 1540. They claim their 
 descent in uninterrupted succession from the 
 prophet Elijah, and take their name from Mt. 
 Carmel, on which mountain they have a mon- 
 astery, built, they say, on the spot where the 
 Tishbite and his pupil Elisha had their abode. 
 
 CARNOT, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, 
 born in Burgundy, 1753. He was distin- 
 guished for his mathematical abilities, and in 
 the revolution commenced his career as cap- 
 tain of a corps of engineers. He voted for the 
 death of the king. Carnot distinguished him- 
 self in a military and civil capacity, but was 
 obliged to leave Paris, June 18th, 1799 ; be- 
 ing soon after recalled, he was made, in April, 
 1800, minister of war. He was a firm repub- 
 lican, opposed the ambitious views of Napo- 
 leon, and equally so the attempts of the royal- 
 ists. He died at Magdeburg, August 3d, 1823. 
 Carnot was a man of integrity and talents, 
 brave, learned, and patriotic, and honored by 
 all parties. 
 
 CAROLINE, wife of George IV. of England, 
 was born in May, 1768. She was the daugh- 
 ter of the Duke of Brunswick, and in 1795 
 became the bride of the Prince of W ales. Her 
 daughter, the Princess Charlotte, died at an 
 early age, regretted by all. The prince aban- 
 doned Caroline, and, in order to procure her 
 ruin, accused her of infidelity. The trial of 
 the unhappy queen reflects disgrace upon the 
 profligate prince. She refused the offers 
 which were made to induce her to quit Eng- 
 land with the empty name of queen, and as- 
 serted her rights with dignity and firmness. 
 She finally succumbed under the persecution 
 of her enemies, and died Aug. 7th, 1821. 
 
 CARRIER, John Baptist, born in 1756, 
 originally an obscure attorney, rose to infa- 
 mous notoriety in the French revolution. Un- 
 der his direction, the greatest cruelties were 
 perpetrated, and 15,000 individuals perished 
 in little more than a month. He was finally 
 apprehended and condemned to death by the 
 revolutionary tribunal, Dec. 16th, 1794. 
 
 CARROLL, Charles, of Carrollton, one of 
 the signers of the Declaration of Independence, 
 survived all his associates in that momentous 
 act. He was a native of Annapolis, Md., and 
 was born Sept. 20th, 1737. His parents were 
 of Irish descent and of the Roman Catholic 
 religion, and he was sent to France to be ed- 
 
 ucated in that faith. After studying civil law 
 in France, he repaired to England to acquire 
 a knowledge of the common law. He returned 
 to his native land in 1765, a finished scholar, 
 and soon distinguished himself by able politi- 
 cal writing and active opposition to the arbi- 
 trary aggressions of the British ministry. He 
 was elected to the congress of 1776, and placed 
 his name to the Declaration of Independence. 
 He was possessed of a large estate, and as he 
 advanced to sign the immortal document, a 
 member sportively remarked, “There goes 
 half a million at the dash of a pen.” But his 
 wealth vanished from his view, when he looked 
 upon the interests of his country. 
 
 He retired from Congress in 1778, and was 
 thereafter a member of the state legislature 
 till 1789, when he entered the first federal 
 congress as senator from his native state. In 
 the senate he remained till 1792. His latter 
 days were spent amid honoring friends and in 
 the tranquil enjoyment of study and literature. 
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last on earth 
 of those who signed the charter of our liber- 
 ties, died Nov. 14th, 1832, at the ripe ago of 
 ninety-four. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, an English literary 
 lady, daughter of a clergyman of Kent, born 
 in 1717. She was acquainted with Latin, 
 Greek, French, German, Italian, Spanish, 
 Portuguese, Hebrew, and Arabic. In 1749, 
 her translation of Epictetus was commenced. 
 She died in 1806, having enjoyed a high 
 literary reputation, and the esteem of all who 
 knew her. 
 
 CARTHAGE, the rival of Rome, and long 
 the mistress of Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia, 
 w r as a colony of the Tyrians, and one of the 
 latest Phoenician settlements on the African 
 coast of the Mediterranean. The precise time 
 of its foundation is unknown ; yet most wri- 
 ters agree that it was built by Dido about 
 869 b.c., or according to others 72 or 93 years 
 before the foundation of Rome. The tradi- 
 tion is that Dido was a Tyrian princess, who 
 fled to Africa to avoid the persecutions of her 
 brother Pygmalion. She outwitted the na- 
 tives in making purchase of a piece of land 
 whereon to build her citadel. They agreed 
 for a certain sum to give her as much land 
 as she could encompass with a bull’s hide 
 (byrsa). When the money was paid, the 
 artful princess cut the hide into narrow 
 
 CAR 
 
184 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 thongs, with which she found herself able to 
 inclose a very large space. The citadel 
 which she subsequently erected on this spot, 
 was called, in memory of the transaction, 
 Byrsa. 
 
 Carthage flourished for several centuries, 
 attaining the zenith of its glory under Han- 
 nibal and Hamilcar. At one time the city 
 contained 700,000 inhabitants. Its power 
 excited the jealousy of the Romans. The 
 latter, proud and strong, determined on the 
 conquest and ruin of their wealthy rivals. 
 The three famous wars between Rome and 
 Carthage are known as the Punic wars. They 
 brought forth all the energies of the hostile 
 parties. The Carthaginians confided in their 
 inexhaustible wealth and the superiority of 
 their navy the Romans in their superior 
 hardihood and energy. The Romans were 
 ultimately victorious, and, above all others 
 of their leaders, Scipio acquired the greatest 
 renown. For his successes and his struggles 
 in Africa, he obtained the name of Africanus^ 
 It must not be supposed that the Carthagin- 
 ians tamely submitted to the Roman arms : 
 on the contrary, even to the last, they de- 
 fended their city against the invaders, with 
 unequaled bravery. Gold and silver vessels 
 were surrendered by the luxurious Africans 
 to procure the means of carrying on the war ; 
 and the women, with patriotic devotion, cut 
 off their fine long hair, and twisted it into 
 bow strings. All their exertions were un- 
 availing. The skill and bravery of the Ro- 
 mans, who fought under the eye and example 
 of Scipio, prevailed, and in the third Punic 
 war, Carthage was totally demolished, b.c. 
 146. The siege was wondrous for its horrors, 
 for the desperate resistance of the Carthagin- 
 ians, and the self-devotedness of their women. 
 As the Roman troops drove the Carthagin- 
 ians before them in every quarter, a few firm 
 heroines, among whom was the wife of As- 
 drubal, the Carthaginian general, with her 
 children, endeavored to maintain their posi- 
 tion in the temple in which they had sought 
 refuge. Finding it impossible to defend this, 
 the wife of Asdrubal determined to set fire to 
 it and perish. She dressed herself accord- 
 ingly in a splendid garb, and having fired the 
 building, first stabbed her children and then 
 plunged into the flames. The city was thirty- 
 six miles in circumference, and when it was 
 
 fired by the Romans, it burned incessantly 
 for seventeen days. Thousands perished in 
 the conflagration, rather than yield, so that 
 out of the great population, only fifty thou- 
 sand surrendered themselves to Scipio and 
 w ere saved. Caesar planted a small colony on 
 the ruins of Carthage, and Augustus sent 
 thither three thousand men. Adrian, after 
 the example of his imperial predecessors, re- 
 built a portion of it, and gave it the name of 
 Adrianopolis. This new Carthage w r as con- 
 quered from the Romans by the arms of 
 Genseric, a.d. 439, was for more than a 
 century the seat of the Vandal empire in 
 Africa, fell into the hands of the Saracens in 
 697, and was utterly destroyed. 
 
 The riches and commerce of the Carthagin- 
 ians were immense, and their naval power, at 
 one time, supreme. They bore the charac- 
 ter of a faithless and treacherous people, and 
 the proverb Punicafides (Carthaginian faith), 
 is w T ell known. Their religion was gloomy 
 and cruel. Human victims were offered to 
 the gods to appease their v r rath : these sac- 
 rifices were usually their own children, w r hose 
 mothers, unmoved by their cries and agonies, 
 gave them to the glowing, red-hot Moloch. 
 Captives also w^ere thus immolated. Crim- 
 inals were executed by crucifixion, to w r hich 
 other aggravated tortures v'ere frequently 
 addeTI. The government w^as oligarchical, 
 and centered in the city, which ruled all the 
 other territory. The boundaries coincided 
 nearly wuth those of the present state of 
 Tunis. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS, a religious order founded 
 by Bruno of Cologne, W'ho in 1084 retired 
 from the world to Chartreuse in the moun- 
 tains of Dauphiny. Their austere rules 
 were formed by Basil VII., general of the 
 order. The monks could neither leave their 
 cells nor speak, without express leave ; and 
 their clothing w r as two hair-cloths, tw^ o cowls, 
 tw T o pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. 
 The general takes the title of prior of the 
 Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from 
 which the order is named, and whose monks 
 in these degenerate days are famous for a 
 generous liqueur they have the secret of com- 
 pounding. Bruno the founder died in 1101, 
 aged seventy-four. 
 
 CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman em- 
 peror, w r as born at Narbonne, about the year 
 
 CAR 
 
 m 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 185 
 
 230. He rose to a military command by his 
 virtues, and was elected emperor in 283. 
 
 CARVER, John, the first governor of 
 Plymouth colony, died from a sun-stroke, 
 April 3d, 1621. He was of Mr. Robinson’s 
 flock, who went from England to Leyden. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Canter- 
 bury, Ct., in 1732. He served in the expe- 
 dition against Canada, and on the conclusion 
 of peace in 1763, attempted to explore the 
 territory acquired by Gt. Britain, beyond the 
 Mississippi. He hoped to reach the Pacific 
 in the latitude of the great lakes, and open a 
 shorter route to the East Indies. Failing of 
 this, yet he explored the borders of Lake Su- 
 perior, then comparatively unknown. He 
 went to England, but was obliged to deliver 
 up his maps and papers to the plantation 
 office. He died in want at Boston in 1780. 
 
 CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish 
 prelate, the apostle of the Indians. His life 
 was passed in laboring to improve the natives 
 of the New World, and he received the grate- 
 ful title of protector of the Indians. He came 
 to Hispaniola in 1502, returned to Spain in 
 1551, and died at Madrid in 1566, aged 92. 
 
 CASHMERE, the most extensive of the 
 alpine valleys of the Himalaya range is 75 
 miles in length by 40 in breadth, and lies 
 imbedded in high mountains. The costly 
 shawls of Cashmere, which can be woven of 
 no other wool than that of Thibet, were first 
 brought to England in 1666. 
 
 CASIMIR, the name of several kings of 
 Poland. Casirnir III., called the Great, suc- 
 ceeded Ladislaus in 1333. He united to his 
 warlike qualities, the virtues of a great mon- 
 arch, and from his devotion to their welfare, 
 was called the peasants’ king. He was killed 
 by a fall from his horse, in 1370, aged 61. 
 
 CASS, Lewis, born in Exeter, N. H., Oct. 
 9, 1782, was educated at Exeter Academy 
 from his tenth year. Removing with his 
 parents to Wilmington, Del., he became a 
 teacher. Seeking his fortune in the West, 
 he crossed the Alleghanies on foot, when 17 
 years old, and settling in Marietta, O., stud- 
 ied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802, 
 became member of the legislature in 1806, 
 and marshall of the State 1807-11. — Vol 
 unteering to repel Indian aggressions, he 
 was elected Col. of the 3d Reg. O. Vols., and 
 entered the service of the U. S. at the begin- 
 
 ning of the war of 1812. Reaching Detroit 
 with the advance force, he urged the immedi- 
 ate invasion of Canada, was the author of 
 the proclamation of that event, and the first 
 to land on the enemy’s shore, winning the 
 first battle, that of Tarontoe. He rose in 
 the regular army to the rank of Brig. Gen., 
 and was Maj. Gen. of Ohio Vols. He was 
 Gov. of Michigan Territory 1813-31, Sec. of 
 War in Gen. Jackson’s Cabinet, 1831-6, Min- 
 ister to France 1836-42, and U. S. Senator 
 1845-48. In May, 1848, he received the 
 Democratic nomination for the Presidency, 
 but was defeated by Gen. Taylor. He was 
 re-elected U. S. Senator in 1849, and became 
 Sec. of State in Pres. Buchanan’s Cabinet 
 in 1857. His various trusts he discharged 
 with marked ability. His writings, speeches 
 and state papers would fill several volumes. 
 He had great abilities, with remarkable pru- 
 dence and judgment. It is said that he never 
 even tasted of spirituous liquors. He died 
 June 17, 1866, aged 84 years. 
 
 C ASSANDER, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great. After his death, Cassander 
 murdered Roxana and her son, seized Mace- 
 don for his share of the empire, and founded 
 a new kingdom. He died 298 b. c. 
 
 CASSANDRA (Alexandria). According 
 to the ancients, she received the gift of proph- 
 ecy from Apollo, who loved her, but as she 
 refused to fulfill the conditions upon which 
 the knowledge was imparted, the offended 
 deity deprived her predictions of the power of 
 commanding belief. Thus, when she foretold 
 the fall of Troy, her words were discredited. 
 Troy was taken, Cassandra dishonored at, the 
 altar by Ajax, and then dragged away as the 
 slave and companion of Agamemnon with 
 whom she was slain by Clytemnestra. 
 
 CASSINI DE THURY, Cesar Francois, 
 director of the royal observatory after his 
 father James, was born at Paris, June 17th, 
 1714. He died Sept. 4th, 1784, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Count John Dominic, 
 with whom ended this family of astronomers, 
 who had been at the head of the royal observ- 
 atory in Paris since its foundation in 1670. 
 
 CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, was the friend 
 of Brutus, and opposed to the interests of 
 Caesar, to whom, however, he surrendered 
 after the battle of Pharsalia. When he per- 
 ceived that Caesar aimed at supreme power, 
 
 CAS 
 
 * 
 
186 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ho conspired against him. “ The lean and 
 hungry Cassius,” as Shakspeare calls him, 
 was among the first to strike the master of 
 the world with his dagger. He married the 
 sister of Brutus, and in the distribution of 
 the provinces, obtained Africa as his share. 
 He was defeated with Brutus at Philippi, b.c. 
 42, and ordered his freedman to run him 
 through the body. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, one of the most brilliant 
 victories of the French arms under Gen. Bo- 
 naparte, fought in Italy against the main 
 body of Austrians commanded by Wurmser. 
 The battle lasted from the 2d to the 6th of 
 July, 1796. The Austrian loss in this obsti- 
 nate conflict was seventy field-pieces, between 
 12,000 and 15,000 prisoners, and 6,000 killed 
 and wounded. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH. Robert Stewart, Bar- 
 on Castlereagh, and Marquis of Londonderry, 
 was born in Ireland, June 18th, 1769. He 
 was a prominent statesman of the Tory party, 
 and represented England at the congresses of 
 Vienna in 1814 and 1815. He was a man of 
 fine person, and an industrious minister, but 
 as an orator he signally failed. He mixed 
 his metaphors sadly. Here is one of them 
 which Moore versified: 
 
 “The level of obedience slopes 
 
 Upward and downward, as the stream 
 
 Of hydra faction kicks the beam.” 
 
 Lord Castlereagh, in a fit of excitement re- 
 sulting from over-exertion, cut his throat, 
 Aug. 12 th, 1822.* 
 
 CAT ALINE, Lucius Sergius, a celebrated 
 Roman, descended from a noble family. 
 When he had squandered away his fortune 
 by his debaucheries and extravagance, and 
 had been refused the consulship, he secretly 
 meditated the ruin of his country, and con- 
 spired with many high-born Romans as dis- 
 solute as himself, to murder the senate, plun- 
 der the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This 
 conspiracy was timely discovered by the 
 consul Cicero, whose eloquence at this crisis 
 will never be forgotten. Cataline, after he 
 had declared his intentions in full senate, and 
 attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing 
 five of his accomplices arrested, fled to Gaul, 
 where his friends were raising a powerful 
 army to support him. The remaining con- 
 spirators were punished. Petreius, at the 
 head of the consular troops, defeated the 
 
 rebels in Etruria, Jan. 5th, b.c. 62, in a hotly 
 contested battle which cost Cataline his life. 
 The crimes of this man were of the blackest 
 dye, murder and licentiousness marking every 
 stage of his career. 
 
 CATHARINE of Arragon, youngest daugh- 
 ter of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of 
 Arragon and Castile, was born in 1483. In 
 1501 she was married to Arthur, eldest son 
 of Henry VII., and after his death to his 
 brother, afterward Henry VIII. By him she 
 had several children, who died young, with 
 the exception of Mary, afterward Queen of 
 England. Henry repudiated her in 1533, on 
 pretense of religious scruples grounded on 
 her marriage to his brother. She maintained 
 her rights with dignity, and died at Kimbol- 
 ton Castle, in 1536. 
 
 CATHARINE, the only daughter of Lo- 
 renzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino, and wife 
 of Henry, Duke of Orleans, afterward Henry 
 II. of France, was born in 1510. She was 
 the mother of three successive kings of 
 France, and one queen of Navarre. In 1559, 
 she became a widow, and her son Francis 
 succeeded to the throne, during whose reign 
 her influence was supplanted by the Guises. 
 On the accession of her second son, Charles 
 IX., in his eleventh year, she acquired the 
 regency, and brought eternal infamy on her 
 name by the horrible treachery to the Hugue- 
 nots, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s 
 day. She died in 1589. She was very ex- 
 travagant, seemingly incapable of setting 
 bounds to her expenditures. When upbraid- 
 ed with her prodigality she would exclaim, 
 
 “ One must live ! ” Her talents were as com- 
 manding as were her vices odious. 
 
 CATHARINE I. and II. of Russia. [Se* 
 Romanoff.] 
 
 CATO, Marcus Portius, commonly called 
 the Censor, was born at Tusculum, 232 b.c. 
 He distinguished himself in the army at the 
 age of seventeen, and was remarkable for his 
 temperance and abstinence. In Sicily and 
 Africa, as military tribune and quaestor, he 
 was noted for the fidelity with which he dis- 
 charged his duties. The censors were two 
 magistrates whose duty was to survey and 
 rate, and correct the manners of the people. 
 Their power was also extended over private 
 families, and they restrained extravagance. 
 The office was established 443 b.c., and abol 
 
 CAT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 187 
 
 ished by the emperors. When Cato was made 
 a censor, he opposed Valerius Flaccus, his col- 
 league, in his attempt to repeal the Oppian law, 
 which was once passed for the suppression of 
 luxury. He conducted the war in further 
 Spain with great success, and took no part of 
 the spoils to his own share. On his arrival 
 at Rome he was honored with a triumph. 
 As consul he manifested his dislike to luxury, 
 in whatever shape it was presented. He also 
 distinguished himself by his hatred to Car- 
 thage, always concluding his speeches in the 
 senate with the expression, “ Preterea censeo 
 Carthayinem esse delendam ” (Besides I think 
 it necessary to destroy Carthage). He died 
 b.c. 147. In his old age he gave himself up 
 to scholastic enjoyments. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Poktius, surnamed JJticen- 
 sis from the place of his death (Utica), was 
 the great-grandson of the preceding, and born 
 about 95 b.c. The virtues he displayed in 
 his early childhood seemed to prognosticate 
 his future greatness. At the age of fourteen, 
 he earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword 
 to stab the tyrant Sylla. He served in the 
 army against the insurgent gladiator Sparta- 
 cus, and though his services entitled him to 
 the office of tribune, he never applied for it till 
 he saw it in danger of being filled unworthily. 
 He was very jealous of the safety and liberty 
 of the republic, and watched carefully over the 
 conduct of Pompey, whose power and influ- 
 ence were great. In the conspiracy of Cata- 
 line he supported Cicero, and was instru- 
 mental in procuring the capital punishment 
 of the conspirators. When the provinces of 
 Gaul were decreed for five years to Caesar, 
 Cato observed to the senators that they had 
 introduced a tyrant into the capitol. Being 
 sent to Cyprus against Ptolemy, by the influ- 
 ence of his enemies, who hoped to injure his 
 reputation, his prudence extricated him from 
 
 the Rubicon, Cato advised the Roman senate 
 to deliver the care of the republic into the 
 hands of Pompey, and when his advice had 
 been complied with, followed him with his 
 son to Dyrrachium, where after some incon- 
 siderable success there, he was intrusted with 
 the care of the ammunition, and the command 
 of fifteen cohorts. After the battle of Phar- 
 salia, Cato took command of the fleet, and 
 when he heard of Pompey’s death on the 
 coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of 
 Libya, to join himself to Scipio. He, how- 
 ever, refused to take the command in Africa, 
 but when he heard of Scipio’s defeat, fortified 
 himself in Utica. Caesar approached the 
 city, but Cato disdained to fly, and strength- 
 ening his resolution by reading Plato’s trea- 
 tise on the immortality of the soul, gave 
 himself the fatal wound, Feb. 5th, b.c. 45. 
 Caesar, on hearing of his fate, exclaimed, “I 
 envy thee thy death, since thou couldst be- 
 grudge me the pleasure of saving thy life.” 
 
 The suicide of Cato was termed the era 
 destructive of the liberties of Rome. The 
 patriot and philosopher considered freedom 
 as that which alone sustains the name and 
 dignity of man, and would not survive the 
 independence of his country. Yet by this 
 rash act of suicide, as Montesquieu has said, 
 Cato carried his patriotism to the highest 
 degree of political frenzy, leaving aside all 
 moral considerations ; for Cato dead could be 
 of no use to his country ; while had he pre- 
 served his life, his counsels might have mod- 
 erated Caesar’s ambition, and have given a 
 different turn to public affairs. 
 
 CAUCASUS, a chain of mountains inhab- 
 ited by a great number of tribes, and of vast 
 extent, lying between the Black and Caspian 
 seas, and covering 127,140 square miles, 
 being about seven hundred miles long, and, 
 t the widest, a hundred and fifty miles broad. 
 
 every danger. That prince submitted to According to the ancients, Prometheus was 
 
 tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and 
 continually devoured by vultures. As great 
 perfection of form and an ancient origin were 
 attributed to the inhabitants of this region, 
 the highest rank in ethnological classification 
 has been termed the Caucasian race. 
 
 CAULAINCOURT, Armand Augustine 
 Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, an eminent min- 
 ister of the French empire under Bonaparte, 
 died in 1827 at the age of fifty-four. 
 
 him, and, after a successful campaign, Cato 
 was received at Rome with the most distin- 
 guished honors, which he, however, modestly 
 declined. He strenuously opposed the first 
 triumvirate between Caesar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus, and foretold to the Roman people 
 all the misfortunes that soon after followed. 
 After repeated applications he was made 
 praetor, but unsuccessfully applied for the 
 office of consul. When Caesar had passed 
 
 CAU 
 
188 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, Eugene, was born in Paris, 
 Dec. 15th, 1802. After a regular course of 
 study at the Potytechnic school, he entered 
 the army, and in 1830 was sent to Africa for 
 refusing to fire upon the inhabitants of Metz, 
 in case of an insurrection. He distinguished 
 himself greatly in 1836 by holding the cita- 
 del of Tlemcen with a small body of troops, 
 against repeated assaults by the Arabs under 
 Abd-el-Kader. From this period he was 
 actively and creditably engaged in the Al- 
 gerine war, and rose so rapidly in the service, 
 that in 1847, he was a general of brigade, 
 succeeding Lamoriciere in the command of 
 the province of Oran, and in February, 1848, 
 was appointed by the provisional government, 
 general of division and governor-general of 
 Algeria. During the few weeks he held this 
 office lie showed administrative abilities of a 
 high order. Having been elected a member 
 of the national assembty, he left Algiers and 
 arrived in Paris just after the disturbances 
 of the 15th of May, 1848. He was immedi- 
 ately appointed minister of war and put in 
 command of the troops, which, in anticipa- 
 tion of the impending insurrection, were 
 rapidly concentrating in Paris. By the mid- 
 dle of June 75,000 troops of the line were at 
 hand to support the 190,000 national guards 
 already on the ground. On the 22d of June 
 the disaffected began to throw up barricades, 
 and in twenty-four hours one of the most 
 formidable insurrections ever organized in 
 Paris was in full progress. In this emer- 
 gency, Cavaignac, who had been appointed 
 dictator, acted with coolness and sagacity. 
 The contest lasted four days, and resulted 
 in the total defeat of the rebels. Cavaignac, 
 immediately resigned his dictatorship and was 
 appointed president of the council, with power 
 to nominate his ministry. He chose it from 
 among the more reasonable and moderate of 
 the pure republicans, afterward admitting 
 several members of the old dynastic opposi- 
 tion. He resolutely removed from office the 
 Socialists, the “ Montague ” and the Red Re- 
 publicans of every shade or sect. 
 
 In the election for president, Cavaignac was 
 the leading candidate against Louis Napoleon. 
 He retired into private life without a mur- 
 mur, after an administration reflecting great 
 credit upon his integrity and his civil and mil- 
 itary ability. For several years afterward he 
 
 was less in public life, but he was deemed, on 
 account of his staunch republicanism, so for- 
 midable an opponent to the autocratic schemes 
 of Louis Napoleon, that after the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1851, he was one of the num- 
 ber selected for arrest. He was released on 
 condition of leaving the country, and spent 
 several years in Brussels. Within a year or 
 two before his death, he was permitted to 
 return to France. At the elections in 1857, 
 Gen. Cavaignac was one of the few successful 
 republican candidates, being chosen to repre- 
 sent one of the constituencies of Paris in the 
 legislature of the empire. His course was 
 looked forward to with much interest. But 
 on the 28th of October, 1857, while out 
 shooting, he died suddenly from aneurism of 
 the heart. 
 
 CAVE, Edward, a bookseller at St. 
 John’s Gate in London, who in 1731 founded 
 the Gentleman's Magazine , the first periodical 
 of the sort in England, was born in 1691, and 
 died in 1754. 
 
 CAVENDISH, William, the first Duke 
 of Devonshire, was born in 1640. He distin- 
 guished himself in the House of Commons 
 against the court, and was a witness in favor 
 of Lord Russell. In 1684 he succeded to the 
 title of Earl of Devonshire, and about the 
 same time was fined £30,000 and imprisoned 
 for assaulting Col. Culpepper, who had in- 
 sulted him. He gave bond for the payment 
 of the fine, which, however, he saved by the 
 arrival of the Prince of Orange. In 1689, 
 he was made a privy counselor, and at the 
 coronation of William he served as lord high 
 steward. He was rewarded with the title of 
 Duke of Devonshire, and during the king’s ab- 
 sence, after the death of the queen, was ap- 
 pointed one of the regency. He died in 1707. 
 
 CAVOUR, Camillo de Count, a Sardin- 
 ian statesman, born at Turin, Aug. 10, 1810. 
 Ffe had a large fortune left him by his father, 
 and held many offices under the Sardinian 
 government. He first appeared in public life 
 in 1847, and was connected with a newspaper 
 of free trade principles. He was a member 
 of the chamber of deputies in 1849, and in 
 18ol was appointed minister of agriculture 
 and commerce. In 1852 he was elected pres- 
 ident of the council, and represented Sardinia 
 in the peace conference at Paris in 1856. He 
 
189 
 
 HISTORY AND 
 
 was distinguished as a statesman, and Sar- 
 dinia and Italy are indebted to him for par- 
 liamentary government, religious liberty, and 
 the free press on the south side of the Alps. 
 He died June 2d, 1861. 
 
 CAXTON, William, the first English 
 printer, was born in the county of Kent, in 
 the latter part of the reign of Henry IV., was 
 apprenticed to a worthy London mercer, and 
 dwelt in Holland a score and a half of years, 
 as agent for English merchants. There he 
 became acquainted with the new mystery of 
 printing. Under the patronage of Lady Mar- 
 garet, sister of Edward IV., and bride of the 
 Duke of Burgundy, Caxton translated a 
 French book, titled “ The Recuyell of the 
 Ilistoreys of Troy e,” and printed it at Ghent in 
 14TL This was the first book ever printed in 
 the English language. In a note the printer 
 said of the work: It “is not wretton with 
 penne and ynke as other books ben to thende 
 that all men may have them att ones, for all 
 the bookes of this storye named The Recule 
 of the Historys of Trove then emprynted as 
 ye here see, were begonne in oon day and 
 fynyshed in oon day.” A few years later he 
 established a printing-office at Westminster, 
 and in 1474 produced “The Game of Chess,” 
 the first book printed in Britain. Caxton 
 wrote or translated about sixty different 
 books, all of which passed through his own 
 press, before his death in 1491. 
 
 CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, a cele- 
 brated English statesman, born in 1521. He 
 was dismissed from the office which he held 
 under Henry VIII., upon the accession of 
 Mary, but was the chief counselor of Elizabeth. 
 After being privy counselor, secretary of 
 state, and master of the court of wards, he 
 was chosen chancellor of Cambridge, and 
 raised to the peerage. He died in 1598. As 
 a minister, Burleigh was noted for wariness, 
 application, sagacity, calmness, and a degree 
 of closeness which sometimes degenerated into 
 hypocrisy. 
 
 CECIL, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, son of 
 the preceding, on account of his deformity 
 and weak constitution, received the rudiments 
 of his education at home. In 1588 he served 
 in the fleet against the Armada, and in 1591 
 was knighted, and sworn of the privy council. 
 In 1596 he was appointed secretary of state, 
 to the great disgust of the Earl of Essex. The 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 year following he was ambassador in France, 
 and in 1599 succeeded his father in the court 
 of wards. He kept up a secret correspond- 
 ence with James of Scotland, whom he pro- 
 claimed on the death of Elizabeth, in conse- 
 quence of which he became the favorite of that 
 monarch. On the death of Lord Dorset, in 
 1608, he became lord high treasurer, discharg- 
 ing the duties of the office with fidelity, and 
 dying from excessive exertion in 1612, aged 
 forty-nine. 
 
 CECROPS, a native of Sais, in Egypt, came 
 to Attica 1556 b.c., founded the city of Ath- 
 ens, instructed the uncivilized Greeks, intro- 
 duced the worship of Minerva, and laid the 
 foundation of the future prosperity of Greece. 
 He died after a reign of fifty years. 
 
 CELEBES, an island in the East Indian 
 seas, separated from Borneo by the Strait of 
 Macassar, having an area of 70,000 square 
 miles, and containing several separate states. 
 The fruits and flowers of this island are abun- 
 dant, and numbers of wild animals are found 
 here. The Dutch, who possess a part of the 
 island, obtain here gold, ivory, sandal wood, 
 rice, cotton, camphor, ginger, long pepper, 
 and pearls. The population is estimated at 
 between two and three millions. 
 
 CELLINI, Benvenuto, united the talents 
 and skill of a sculptor, engraver, and gold- 
 smith. He was born in Florence in 1500, and 
 enriched his native city with his works. 
 Wild, fiery, and impetuous, although honest, 
 he was frequently involved in quarrels in 
 which he entirely disregarded the rank and 
 strength of his opponents. At the siege of 
 Rome, in 1527, according to his own account, 
 he killed the Constable of Bourbon. Although 
 he behaved with gallantry during the siege, 
 he was accused of secreting the Roman crown 
 jewels, and imprisoned. Francis I., having 
 procured his release, invited him to the French 
 court, but Florence was not to be forgotten 
 by the sculptor, and thither he returned, and 
 died Feb. 13th, 1570. 
 
 CELSUS, Augustus Cornelius, a celebrated 
 physician and medical writer of Rome, who 
 flourished about a.d. 37. 
 
 CELTiE, one of the ancient nations of Gal- 
 lia, whose country extended from Brittany to 
 the Alps and Rhine. Their government was 
 aristocratical, and their aptitude for warlike 
 pursuits great. 
 
 CEL 
 
190 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 CELTIBERIA, an ancient country in the 
 north-east of Spain, along the Iberus. The 
 Celtiberians were completely subdued by the 
 Romans in the Sertorian war. 
 
 CENTAURS, an ancient people of Thessaly, 
 about Mount Pelion. As little was known 
 with regard to their actual history, they 
 formed the favorite theme of writers of fable 
 and traditionary tales, being represented as 
 half horse and half man, and being, according 
 to some, the offspring of an intermixture of 
 the human and brute races, or, according to 
 others, the children of Ixion and the Cloud. 
 They were probably young men who, having 
 learned to break and ride horses, hunted the 
 wild bulls that ravaged the neighborhood of 
 Mount Pelion, during the reign of Ixion. 
 Hence they were called Centaurs. In fables, 
 Hercules, Theseus, and Pirithous are said to 
 have contended against them. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, the central portion 
 of the long isthmus that unites North and 
 South America, has an area of about 150,000 
 square miles. Under the Spanish rule it 
 formed the kingdom of Guatemala. For a 
 short time after the revolt from Spain it was 
 
 leaving over a thousand killed and wounded 
 on the field of battle, scampered off on the 
 road, and were pursued as far as Jalapa. 
 This brilliant victory, which destroyed the 
 Mexican army, cost Scott 63 killed and 368 
 wounded, out of a total force of 8,500. 
 
 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel de, 
 was born of a noble family, at Alcala de Hc- 
 nares, in New Castile, in 1547. He early cul- 
 tivated poetry, and preserved throughout his 
 life a strong inclination for the muses. In 
 1569, Cervantes, in the flower of his age, went 
 to seek in Italy glory or fortune. He first 
 entered the service of Cardinal Acquaviva, in 
 the capacity of page. The war between the 
 Turks and the Venetians offered him a field 
 more worthy of his birth and courage. He 
 was enrolled beneath the banners of the Duke 
 of Paliano, Mark Antony Colonna, general of 
 the naval force sent to succor the island of 
 Cyprus. This expedition was unfortunate; 
 but, in the- following year, the victory of Lc- 
 panto established the naval honor of Chris- 
 tendom, and in this engagement, whose glory 
 he shared, the left hand of Cervantes was 
 maimed for life. In 1575 he was taken by a 
 
 united to the Mexican empire of Iturbide. 1 corsair and carried to Algiers, where he suf- 
 
 In 1821 its independence was declared, and 
 after some sanguinary struggles, a federal re- 
 public was established. This has since been 
 dissolved, and the country is now divided into 
 the distinct republics of Guatemala, San Sal- 
 vador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras ; 
 under which heads further mention will be 
 found. The country is mountainous, contain- 
 ing numerous volcanic summits, the soil fer- 
 tile, and the products various. The original 
 inhabitants were the Toltecas Indians from 
 Mexico, whom it was found no easy task by 
 the Spaniards to expel. These people, like 
 the Mexicans, had made considerable advan- 
 ces in the arts, as their buildings of various 
 descriptions proved. 
 
 CERRO GORDO, a mountain pass on the 
 road from Vera Cruz to Mexico. It was 
 stormed by Scott’s army, April 18th, 1847, 
 and the Mexicans under Santa Anna driven 
 from their strong position. There were 12,000 
 of the Mexicans, horse and foot, besides pow- 
 erful batteries of artillery. Three thousand, 
 including five generals, surrendered as pris- 
 oners of war; Santa Anna fled by a defile on 
 a baggage mule; the remnant of his army, 
 
 fered the evils of slavery for six years. The 
 tale of “The Captive,” inserted in his novel 
 of “ Don Quixote,” describes vividly the scenes 
 through which he passed. His marriage fol- 
 lowed close upon the publication of “ Galatea,” 
 in 1584. This novel celebrates his mistress 
 Catharine Salazer y Palacios. His pen then 
 became the only support of Cervantes. The 
 gloomy reign of Philip II., and that of his 
 successor Philip III., were unfavorable to the 
 efforts of genius, but while the latter of these 
 monarchs filled the throne, the inimitable 
 novel of “ Don Quixote ” made its appearance. 
 The first part appeared at Madrid in 1605, 
 and the second in 1615. The other works of 
 Cervantes are forgotten in the contemplation 
 of this. One day, as Philip III. was standing 
 in a balcony of his palace at Madrid, he ob- 
 served a student reading on the banks of the 
 river Manzanares, who seemed to be repeat- 
 edly interrupted in his occupation by the ex- 
 cess of his delight, striking his forehead and 
 showing other tokens of the extraordinary 
 amusement his book afforded him. “Either 
 that fellow is mad,” said the king, “ or he is 
 reading ‘ Don Quixote.’ ” Inquiry proved 
 
 CER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 191 
 
 Philip right in his conjecture, for the student 
 was reading Cervantes’ matchless tale of 
 chivalry. 
 
 The history of the knight of La Mancha 
 still excites the interest of people of all coun- 
 tries, of all ranks, and of all ages. Who de- 
 lights not to recall his principal adventures, 
 the attack on the windmills, the affair of the 
 puppets, the affray with the wine-skiris, the 
 vigil of arms, the scene of his studies ? This 
 celebrated work was written in prison, Cer- 
 vantes having become obnoxious to the au- 
 thorities of La Mancha, who procured liis im- 
 prisonment by the employment of one of the 
 thousand arts known to the civil functionaries 
 of Spain. He revenged himself by making 
 his hero a townsman of his judges, and in 
 choosing their country for the theatre of his 
 exploits. Cervantes died at Madrid, on the 
 23d of April, 1 G1 6, in his sixty-ninth year. 
 It is a coincidence worth noting, that on the 
 same day, Shakespeare expired. He was in- 
 terred pursuant to his own directions, in the 
 church of the fraternity of the Trinity in that 
 city. His intimate friends mourned for the 
 virtuous citizen and the man of worth. The 
 wits of his day, who had decried his talents, 
 did not consider his loss an irreparable one, 
 and were far enough from believing that Spain 
 would one day have only the romance of 
 “Don Quixote” to oppose to the master- 
 works of other nations. 
 
 CEVENNES, a chain of mountains in the 
 south of France, forming a branch of the 
 Alps; the highest summits are 6,500 feet 
 high. Their fastnesses afforded an asylum 
 to the Huguenots in the religious wars of 
 France. 
 
 CEYLON, an island off the Coromandel 
 coast of Hindostan. Tt is a little less in 
 size than Ireland. The climate is generally 
 healthy, the soil fertile, and the variety of its 
 productions surprising. In the bosom of the 
 earth are found precious metals ; the rocks are 
 enriched with valuable gems, and the tropi- 
 cal fruits grow wild here. Ceylon yields the 
 chief supply of cinnamon to the world. 
 Among the ancients the elephants of Ceylon 
 were noted for their size and beauty. They 
 often make predatory incursions in troops, 
 and do great injury to the crops. In the 
 recosscs of the forests are also found leopards, 
 jackals, monkeys, hyenas, bears, and rac- 
 
 coons. The number of inhabitants exceeds 
 1,500,000. The Cingalese, who form a portion, 
 are divided into castes like the Hindoos, and 
 profess the religion of Buddha. “Ceylon,” 
 says Bishop Heber, “might be one of the 
 happiest, as it is one of the loveliest, spots in 
 the universe, if some of the old Dutch laws 
 were done away ; among which, in my judg- 
 ment, the most obnoxious are the monopoly 
 of cinnamon, and the compulsory labor of the 
 peasants on the high roads, and other species 
 of corvees” These restraints have since 
 been removed by the British. The natives 
 of Ceylon claim that their island was the 
 seat of Paradise. 
 
 Ceylon was known to the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans. The Arabs called it Serendib. There 
 is a tradition that St. Thomas, the apostle, 
 preached the gospel here, but it is more gen- 
 erally believed that Nestorian missionaries 
 accompanying Persian merchants were the 
 first to introduce Christianity. Churches • 
 were founded here about the middle of the 
 sixth century, but none were existing when 
 the Portuguese discovered the island in 1505. 
 Xavier soon after made many Catholic con- 
 verts. The Portuguese so exasperated the 
 natives, that the Cingalese took part with the 
 Dutch, who succeeded in expelling them in 
 1056. The Dutch, being regarded in the 
 light of benefactors, were rewarded with lav- 
 ish grants of territory, but repaid kindness by 
 ingratitude, and bloody wars arose, in which 
 the Europeans ■were invariably victorious. 
 
 In 1795, the English took possession of this 
 island, which was formally ceded to them in 
 1802, and completely subjected in 1815. 
 
 CILTSRONEA, an old city of Boeotia, where 
 were fought two battles of note in ancient 
 history. In the first, Aug. 2d, b.c. 338, Philip 
 of Macedon defeated the United armies of 
 Athens and Thebes, thus mastering the lib- 
 erties of Greece. In the second, b.c. 86, 
 Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was 
 defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians 
 slain. Chaeronea was the birthplace of 
 Plutarch. 
 
 CHAISE, Francis de la, a French Jesuit, 
 and confessor to Louis XIV. of France, from 
 1675, to his death, 1709. It is supposed with 
 every rational probability that Father de la 
 Chaise instigated the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantz. The beautiful cemetery of Pere la 
 A 
 
192 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Chaise at Paris occupies the site of his house 
 and grounds. 
 
 CHALDiEA, an ancient country of Asia, 
 near the junction of the Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates ; it was the southerly part of Baby- 
 lonia, and was extremely fertile. The Chal- 
 deans were an Asiatic tribe originally, and 
 possessed great astronomical knowledge. It 
 was they who founded the mighty empires 
 of Babylon and Assyria. The knowledge of 
 which they boasted was eventually confined 
 to the priests, who added to their sciences 
 the arts of prophecy, magic, &c. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., foremost 
 among the divines and preachers of Scotland, 
 was born March 17th, 1780, at Anstruther 
 in Fife. From the country parish of Kilmany 
 the fame of his eloquence and zeal was bruited 
 abroad, and in 1815 he was transferred to 
 Glasgow. Crowds thronged the Tron church, 
 not only on the Sabbath, but on week days. 
 A series of Thursday discourses on astrono- 
 my, displaying, amid the glow of blazing 
 eloquence, the sublime poetry and religion of 
 the heavens, were published about the same 
 time as the “Tales of My Landlord.” The 
 sermons rivaled even the rapid sale of the 
 magic pages of Scott. In 1827, Dr. Chalmers 
 was appointed to the chair of divinity in the 
 university of Edinburgh. His reputation as 
 a divine was enhanced by the works of his 
 pen. He headed the secession of 1843 from 
 the established church of Scotland, and was 
 one of the founders of the Free Church. His 
 health was undermined by his great labors, 
 and he died in 1847. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Ephraim, the first person in 
 England who undertook a work in the form 
 now known as a cyclopoedia, or encyclopcedia. 
 His dictionary published in 1728, in two folio 
 volumes, was the origin of what is now termed 
 Rees’ Cyclopoedia. He was born about 1680, 
 and died May 15th, 1740. 
 
 CHAMPE, John, a native of Loudon coun- 
 ty, Ya. At the age of twenty-four, in the 
 year 1776, he entered the Revolutionary army 
 with the rank of sergeant-major, in Lee’s 
 cavalry. His reputation for resolution and 
 address was such, that he was selected to 
 attempt the seizure of Arnold, that the execu- 
 tion of the traitor might save the life of 
 Andre. His orders were given him, he left 
 the American camp as a deserter, arrived at 
 
 New York after a perilous journey, and, after 
 being closely examined by Sir Henry Clinton, 
 was admitted to serve under him. He failed 
 in the attempt to accomplish his object, and 
 went to Virginia with the royal troops. 
 Escaping, he rejoined his friends, after many 
 hardships. When Washington took com- 
 mand of the army, during the administra- 
 tion of President Adams, it was his intention 
 to bring Champe into the field at the head of 
 a company, but he learned to his grief that 
 the gallant fellow had died in Kentucky. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, a lake of the United States, 
 lying between New York and Vermont, 130 
 miles long, and from 1 to 15 miles broad. 
 The river Chambly, or Sorelle, forms the out- 
 let by which its waters are discharged into 
 the St. Lawrence. The lake takes its name 
 from Samuel de Champlain, a French naval 
 officer who founded Quebec and Montreal in 
 Canada, of which he was governor-general, 
 in the seventeenth century. On its waters, 
 near Plattsburg, a naval engagement was 
 fought the 11th of September, 1814, in 
 which Macdonough, the commander of an 
 American fleet, gained a complete victory 
 over the British. \See Plattsburg.] 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, J. F., a French archeol- 
 ogist, who did more than any other man of 
 science toward explaining the hieroglyphics 
 1 of Egypt. His death in 1832, at the age of 
 forty-one, in the midst of his triumphant 
 researches, was regretted as an almost irre- 
 parable loss. 
 
 CIIANNING, William Ellery, an eminent 
 Unitarian divine, was a native of Newport, 
 R. I., April 7th, 1780. He died in 1842. 
 
 CHANTREY, Sir Francis, was born at 
 Norton in Derbyshire, April 7th, 1781, and 
 was apprenticed to a wood carver. His own 
 force and talent raised him to good success 
 among modern sculptors. He was knighted 
 by the queen in 1837. tie died Nov. 25th, 
 1841. 
 
 CHAPULTEPEC, a castle commanding 
 one of the approaches to the city of Mexico. 
 It was stormed by the American army, Sept. 
 12th, 1847, and two days after, Scott entered 
 the city in triumph. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE (a compound word sig- 
 nifying Charles the Great), King of France, 
 Emperor of the West, was born in 742, at 
 the chateau of Saltzburg, in Upper Bavaria. 
 
 CHA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 193 
 
 He was the grandson of Charles Martel, and 
 the son of Queen Bertrade and Pepin the 
 Short, on the death of whom, in 768, he was 
 crowned king, sharing France with Carloman, 
 his younger brother ; but the conditions of the 
 partition were frequently changed without 
 ever giving mutual satisfaction, and the no- 
 bles, who had long sought to weaken the 
 royal authority, would without doubt have 
 profited by the animosity which existed be- 
 tween these two princes, if the death of 
 Carloman, which took place in 771, had not 
 given Charlemagne an opportunity of becom- 
 ing sole king of France by refusing to share 
 the rule with his nephews. Their mother 
 fled with them to Italy, and found a protector 
 in Desidcrius, King of the Lombards. They 
 fell into the hands of Charlemagne, on the 
 taking of Yerona, and of their future fate, 
 history says nothing. If Pepin had need of 
 courage, activity, and. extreme prudence to 
 found a new dominion, Charlemagne found it 
 necessary to enchain the minds of men by 
 fear and admiration, for the means employed 
 to effect usurpation had enfeebled the sover- 
 eign power. 
 
 The people of Aquitania were the first who 
 tried to aim at independence. Charlemagne 
 marched against them with a small force, but 
 he relied upon Carloman, his brother, to 
 whom a part of Aquitania belonged, and who 
 in consequence was compelled to unite with 
 him. Carloman found him at the appointed 
 spot, at the head of his troops, but fearing 
 to fall before the power of his brother, Carlo- 
 man hastily retraced his steps. Abandoned 
 thus unexpectedly, in a manner which could 
 not fail to encourage the rebels, Charlemagne 
 did not hesitate for a moment : without con- 
 sidering the number of his followers, or that 
 of his enemies, he pursued his way, gained a 
 brilliant victory (770), arranged the affairs 
 of Aquitania with a promptitude and fore- 
 sight which displayed the energy of a great 
 man and the skill of a politician, and dis- 
 concerted the tributary princes of France, 
 who thought to profit by the youth of the 
 monarch. When Charlemagne found himself 
 sole master of France, he formed the project 
 of subjugating the Saxons. These people, 
 who were still pagans, occupied a large por- 
 tion of Germany ; like all barbarous nations, 
 they preferred plunder to fixed establish- 
 
 13 Cl 
 
 ments, and they were divided into many 
 tribes, whom it was difficult to unite in the 
 same interest. Charlemagne began to wage 
 war upon them in 772, and did not complete 
 their subjugation until 804; so obstinately 
 did they resist, for thirty-two years, the con- 
 queror, who, sometimes indulgent to impru- 
 dence, and often severe to cruelty, as eager 
 to convert as to conquer them, was in reality 
 master of their country only when he had 
 reduced it to a desert. The two most cele- 
 brated chiefs of the Saxons were Witikind 
 and Alboin, who finally embraced Christian- 
 ity in 783. The cruelties of Charlemagne 
 to the Saxons, resembled despair ; and his 
 indulgence to them proved that, pressed by 
 other affairs, he was willing to make any 
 concession which could bring him off with 
 honor. 
 
 While he was fighting on the banks of the 
 Weser, Pope Adrian implored his succors 
 against Desiderius, King of the Lombards, 
 who sought to possess himself of Ravenna, 
 and urged, the pope to crown the sons of Car- 
 loman, in order to display Charlemagne in 
 the light of an usurper of the throne of his 
 nephews, and thus stir up a large portion of 
 France against him. Flying to the scene of 
 action with the rapidity which the danger 
 rendered necessary, Charlemagne seized the 
 person of Desidcrius, sent him to end his 
 days in a monastery, and caused himself to 
 be crowned King of Lombardy, in 774. 
 Thus ended that kingdom, which shortly after- 
 ward took its ancient name of Italy, but 
 preserved the laws it had received from the 
 Lombards. 
 
 Charlemagne passed into Spain in 778, be- 
 sieged and took Pampeluna, and made him- 
 self master of the country of Barcelona ; but 
 his troops, on their return, were defeated in 
 the pass of Roncesvalles, by a part of the 
 Saracens, and the mountain Gascons, the un- 
 ruly tributaries of Charlemagne, who were 
 so intractable, that more than thirty years 
 afterward, strong forces were required to op- 
 pose them. At this battle fell the famous 
 Roland, his nephew, whose fate has been 
 celebrated by romance writers and poets. 
 The disaffection of the inhabitants of Aqui- 
 tania having induced Charlemagne to give 
 them a separate monarch, he chose the young- 
 est of his sons, we 1 ! known as Louis the Mild, 
 
194 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 778. At the same time the continual efforts 
 of the Lombards and Greeks to reconquer 
 Italy, and the want of fidelity in his nobles, 
 made him feel the necessity of rallying them 
 about the throne, and he gave them for a 
 king, Pepin, the second of his sons ; the 
 eldest, who bore the name of Charles, re- 
 mained with him to assist him in his expedi- 
 tions. He had another son, Pepin, whose 
 mother he had repudiated. This son, hav- 
 ing been convicted of taking part in a 
 conspiracy against him, was devoted to the 
 monastic life. 
 
 On his return from Spain, Charlemagne 
 found himself obliged to march against the 
 Saxons, and each year renewed the necessity 
 of a warlike expedition. He caused 4,500 of 
 them to be put to death ; a ferocious revenge 
 which only served to prolong and invigorate 
 their resistance. Thence he went to Rome to 
 have his two sons, Pepin and Louis, crowned 
 b}^ the pope, thus confirming the people in the 
 belief that the head of religion could alone 
 render the royal power legitimate and sacred. 
 The year 790, the twenty-seventh of his 
 reign, was the first which he passed without 
 taking up arms, and this peace lasted only 
 until the spring of the following year. Char- 
 lemagne had formed the project of re-estab- 
 lishing the empire of the west. Irene, who 
 reigned as empress at Constantinople, in 
 order to prevent the dismemberment of the 
 empire, proposed to Charlemagne to unite 
 their children, which would have placed Eu- 
 rope under one government. Her proposal 
 was accepted, but ambition impelled Irene to 
 dethrone her son in order to seize the power 
 herself, and she offered her hand to Charle- 
 magne. This singular union, which ambi- 
 tion alone could suggest and carry into effect, 
 would have presented a new spectacle to the 
 world, had not the empress been hurled from 
 her throne. Charlemagne was crowned em- 
 peror of the west, by Pope Leo III., in the 
 year 800 ; and, although his journey to Rome 
 had no other object, he affected to be much 
 surprised at the honors which were heaped 
 upon him. He was declared Caesar and Au- 
 gustus ; the ornaments of the ancient Roman 
 emperors were decreed to him ; all the con- 
 secrated forms were followed; nothing was 
 forgotten but the fact that it was impossible 
 that an empire should subsist, the power of 
 
 which was shared by the children of the de- 
 ceased monarch. Charlemagne, after having 
 made one of his sons a monk, had the mis- 
 fortune to lose, in 810, Pepin, whom he had 
 created King of Italy ; the year following 
 Charles, the eldest, followed his brother to 
 the grave ; there only remained, of his legiti- 
 mate children, Louis, King of Aquitania, 
 whom he associated wun him in the empire 
 in 813, his great age and his infirmities mak- 
 ing him feel that he was approaching the 
 termination of his career. He died the 28th 
 of January, 814, in the seventy-first year of 
 his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign. 
 By his will, made in 806, confirmed by the 
 French lords assembled at Thionville, and 
 signed by Pope Leo, Charlemagne divided 
 his estates among his three sons. He left his 
 subjects the power of choosing a successor, 
 after the death of the princes, provided he 
 was of the blood royal. He provided that 
 they should not have recourse to the trial by 
 battle, in the case of dispute, but to that 
 of the cross. This judgment consisted, in 
 doubtful circumstances, in conducting to the 
 church two men, who stood upright with 
 their elevated arms crossed, during the cele- 
 bration of divine service, and the victory was 
 gained by the party whose champion remained 
 motionless the longest. 
 
 Charlemagne was buried at Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle. His body is said to have been disposed 
 in the following manner. He was seated 
 upon a throne of gold, clad in his imperial 
 habits. „ He had a crown upon his head, and 
 was girt with his sword. He held a chalice 
 in his hand, the book of the Evangelists upon 
 his knees, his sceptre and gold buckler at his 
 feet. The sepulchre was filled with pieces of 
 gold, perfumed and sealed, and above, a su- 
 perb triumphal arch was raised, with this 
 epitaph : “ Here rests the body of Charles, the 
 great and orthodox emperor, who gloriou'sly 
 enlarged the kingdom of the French, and 
 governed it happily for forty-seven years.” 
 Charlemagne was a friend of letters and of 
 learned men. He was marked by his plainness 
 and frugality of costume. He was the tallest 
 and the strongest man of his time. Force he 
 used to conquer, but he instituted wholesome 
 laws to govern. 
 
 CHARLES I. and II., of England. [See 
 Stuart, House of.] 
 
 CHA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 195 
 
 CHARLES GUSTAVUS, son of John Cas- 
 imir, Count Palatine of the Rhine, ascended 
 the throne of Sweden on the abdication of 
 his cousin Christina in 1654. He obtained 
 over the Poles the famous victory of Warsaw, 
 besides taking a number of important places. 
 The Poles, calling to their assistance Mus- 
 covy, England, and Denmark, obliged Sweden 
 to conclude a peace ; but the war breaking 
 out again, Charles took Cronenburgh, and laid 
 seige to Copenhagen ; his navy having been 
 
 defeated, he was obliged to return home, and 
 died in 1660. 
 
 CHARLES XT of Sweden, son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1655. On his acces- 
 sion a peace was concluded with Denmark, 
 but in 1674, in the war with that power, he 
 lost several places, which were restored at 
 the peace of Nimeguen. He married the 
 sister of the King of Denmark, and died in 
 1697. In his reign the arts and sciences 
 began to flourish in Sweden. 
 
 CHARLES XII. of Sweden, son and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, was born in 1682. 
 He came to the throne at the age of fifteen, 
 and at his coronation snatched the crown 
 from the hands of the Archbishop of Upsal, 
 and placed it on his own head. He was well 
 educated, and very fond of bodily exercises. 
 The commencement of his reign gave no 
 splendid proof of genius or talent. On the 
 formation of a confederacy against him by 
 Russia, Denmark, and Poland, he seemfed to 
 arouse from his slumber. He gave the cast- 
 ing voice in the council for the most vigorous 
 measures, and immediately prepared to carry 
 them into effect. He renounced at once even 
 limited enjoyments, and bent all his energies 
 to support the character he had marked out 
 for himself. Of the confederated powers, he 
 attacked each in turn, beginning with Den- 
 mark, which produced a peace with that 
 power. Nov. 80th, 1700, he obtained a brill- 
 iant victory over the Russians at Narva; 
 
 although his force consisted of only 8,000 
 men, he attacked them in their intrenchments, 
 slew 30,000 and took 20,000 prisoners. His 
 next enterprise was against Poland, and after 
 several battles he dethroned Augustus, and 
 placed Stanislaus upon the throne. He re- 
 turned to the invasion of Russia, and obtained 
 some signal advantages over Peter the Great, 
 but at length experienced a terrible defeat at 
 Pultowa, July 8th, 1709. Almost all his 
 troops were either slain- or taken prisoners ; 
 he himself was wounded in the leg, and car- 
 ried off on a litter. Charles sought an asylum 
 in Turkey, where he was hospitably received 
 by the grand seignior, who provided for him 
 a residence at Bender. He availed himself 
 of his asylum to persuade the grand seignior 
 to enter into a war with Russia, and employ- 
 ed much money, much time, and many men- 
 aces to induce it. His conduct was at length 
 so violent, that he was ordered to leave the 
 Turkish territories. He refused to obey. 
 
 CHA 
 
196 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 The sultan directed that he should be forced 
 away ; but Charles, with his retinue, resisted 
 the attack of the janizaries, till superiority 
 of numbers obliged him to take shelter in his 
 house, which he defended with great spirit, 
 and did not yield till the premises were in 
 flames. He then sallied out, sword in hand, 
 but being entangled by his long spurs, he fell 
 and was taken prisoner. After having been 
 confined as a prisoner six months, he finally 
 set out on his return to his own dominions. In 
 1716, he invaded Norway, but after penetra- 
 ting to Christiana, was obliged to return to 
 Sweden. He resumed the attack in the win- 
 ter of 1718, but was killed by a cannon-shot 
 at the siege of Frederickshall, Dec. 11th, 
 aged thirty-six years, having reigned twenty- 
 one. Charles was liberal, active, and firm, 
 but rash, obstinate, and cruel. At the battle 
 of Narva, he had several horses shot under 
 him, and as he was mounting upon a fresh 
 one, he said, “These people find me exer- 
 cise.” When he was besieged at Stralsund, 
 a bomb fell into the house while he was dic- 
 tating to his secretary, who immediately 
 dropped his pen, and started up in a fright. 
 “ What is the matter ? ” said the king, calmly. 
 “ The bomb ! the bomb ! sire,” said the agita- 
 ted secretary. “ Well, sir,” resumed Charles, 
 “ what has the bomb to do with what I was 
 dictating to you ? Go on.” When struck 
 by the ball that caused his death, he instinc- 
 tively grasped his sword-hilt, as if seeking 
 for revenge. Charles was exceedingly tem- 
 perate, abjuring wine, and living frequently 
 upon the coarsest bread. No woman ever 
 exerted any influence over him. His dress 
 consisted of an old cloak, a blue coat with 
 brass buttons, a plain waistcoat and breeches 
 of leather, high boots with spurs, and long 
 leather gloves. His wild career of war 
 gained him the name of ‘ the madman of the 
 north.’ 
 
 CHARLES I , King of Sicily and Naples, 
 born in 1220, was the son of Louis VIII. of 
 France. Having married the daughter of the 
 Count of Provence, he thereby became his 
 successor, and added to his dominions the 
 counties of Anjou and Maine. He was taken 
 prisoner with his brother Louis, in Egypt, in 
 1248. On his return he defeated Manfred, 
 the usurper of the Sicilian crown, and as- 
 sumed the title of King of Naples. He 
 
 also defeated his rival, Conradin, Duke of 
 Suabia, and took him and the Duke of Aus- 
 tria prisoners. Charles brought infamy on 
 his name, by causing his royal captives to bo 
 put to death, at Naples, on a public scaffold. 
 After this he laid Tunis under tribute, and 
 quelled the Ghibellines. In 1276, he gained 
 the title of King of Jerusalem, and meditated 
 an expedition against Constantinople. But 
 his arbitrary conduct occasioned a general 
 insurrection in Sicily, where 8,000 of the 
 French were massacred on Easter Monday, 
 1282. This massacre is known by the name 
 of the “ Sicilian vespers,” the bell for evening 
 prayers being the signal of revolt. The 
 Sicilians chose Peter of Arragon for their 
 king. Charles died in 1285. 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL, son of Pepin Heris- 
 tel, and mayor of the palace under Chilperic 
 and Thierry IV., kings of France. He gained 
 many victories, the principal of which was 
 over the Saracen general, Abdalrahman, in 
 732. On the death of Thierry, in 737, no 
 successor was appointed, and Charles con- 
 ducted the government. He died in 741, and 
 left his dominions between his sons Carloman 
 and Pepin ; the latter of whom became the 
 first king of the Carlovingian race, which 
 name was taken from the founder, Charles 
 Martel. 
 
 CHARLES IV., Emperor of Germany, 
 was the son of John of Luxemburg, and 
 grandson of the Emperor Henry VII. He 
 ascended the throne in 1347. In his reign 
 the golden bull was given at the diet of Nu- 
 remberg, 1356, which established the Ger- 
 manic constitution. Charles died in 1378. 
 He was a learned man and a great patron of 
 letters. 
 
 CHARLES V., Emperor of Germany, and 
 King of Spain (in the latter capacity, Charles 
 I.), was born at Ghent, in 1500. He suc- 
 ceeded to the kingdom of Spain in 1516, and 
 to the empire on the death of Maximilian in 
 1519. Francis I. of France disputed with 
 him the latter title, and their rivalry occa- 
 sioned a violent war in 1521. Charles was 
 joined by Henry VIII. of England, and after 
 several important actions, took Francis pris- 
 oner at the battle of Pavia. A peace having 
 been concluded in 1529, Charles turned his 
 arms against Africa, where he defeated Bar- 
 | barossa, entered Tunis, and re-established 
 CHA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 197 
 
 Muley Hassan on the throne. Soon after this 
 he renewed hostilities against France, rav- 
 aging Champagne and Picardy, till he was 
 at length obliged to retire, and peace was 
 restored in 1538. In 1541 he attempted the 
 conquest of Algiers, but his fleet was dis- 
 persed by a storm, and the emperor was 
 obliged to return in disgrace. He again 
 leagued with England against France, but 
 Fortune was not so favorable to him as she 
 had formerly been, and he was glad to enter 
 into a treaty in 1545. The Protestant princes 
 of Germany confederated against him, and 
 obtained liberty of conscience for those of 
 their religion. In 1556, he resigned the 
 crown to his son Philip, and retired into a 
 monastery in Estremadura, where he passed 
 the remainder of his days in religious exer- 
 cises, mechanical pursuits, and gardening. 
 He died in 1558. He encouraged artists, and 
 once picked up a pencil which Titian had 
 dropped, and presented it to him, saying, that 
 Titian was worthy of being served by an 
 emperor. 
 
 CHARLES the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 
 the son of Philip the Good, was born in 1433. 
 There were constant wars between him and 
 Louis XI. of France, who instigated Charles’s 
 subjects, the Liegois, to revolt against him. 
 Charles siezed on Guelderland and Zutphen, 
 and afterward invaded Switzerland, but his 
 army was put to rout and his baggage 
 taken by the Swiss. He collected another 
 army, but was again defeated, and slain while 
 besieging Nancy, in 1477. As he was that 
 day putting on his helmet, the golden lion 
 which formed the crest, fell to the ground, 
 and he exclaimed, “Ecce magnum signum 
 Dei ! ” (Behold the great sign of God !) 
 
 CHARLES IX., of France, son of Henry 
 II., and Catharine de Medici, was born in 
 1550, and succeeded to the throne in 1560 ; 
 his mother conducted the government ; but 
 she so abused her trust that the Huguenots 
 revolted, and a civil war ensued, in which the 
 insurgents were unsuccessful. The massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew’s ensued. It is said that 
 Charles repented of this horrid crime on his 
 death-bed, in 1574. 
 
 CHARLES X. of France and Navarre, as- 
 cended the throne which had been filled by 
 his brothers, the unfortunate Louis XVI. and 
 Louis XVIII., in September, 1824. He bore 
 
 for some time the title of Count of Artois, and 
 afterward that of Monsieur. He was fond of 
 expensive pleasures, and distinguished for 
 his mild manners. Charles was crowned at 
 Rheims, being anointed with the holy oil, 
 which it was absurdly pretended had been 
 brought from heaven by a dove. He swore 
 to maintain the charter, but he had not been 
 long seated on the throne, before he began to 
 play those fantastic tricks which seem to be- 
 long peculiarly to the province of legitimacy. 
 The press, that vast moral engine at which 
 tyrants tremble, became obnoxious to the 
 monarch, and a censorship was established in 
 1 827. The king showed himself rather favor- 
 ably disposed to the Greeks, which produced 
 him a temporary popularity. The ministry 
 of Prince Polignac, however, caused great in- 
 dignation, on account of the arbitrary tone of 
 the measures adopted ; and the unwarrantable 
 prosecution of the liberal press hastened the 
 revolution of 1830, when the Parisians over- 
 came the royal troops, and the French legis- 
 lature exiled Charles X., imprisoned the min- 
 isters for life, and seated Louis Philippe on 
 the throne. Charles was born Oct. 9th, 1757. 
 He died at Gratz in Hungary, NoV. 6th, 1836. 
 
 CHARLES EMMANUEL I., Dukeof Savoy, 
 surnamed the Great, was born in 1562. 
 Though of a weak constitution, he was of an 
 enterprising spirit, and, taking advantage of 
 the internal commotions of France in the 
 reign of Henry III., he seized part of Dau- 
 phiny and Provence ; and on the death of that 
 monarch, he aspired to the crown, but was 
 disappointed. A war broke out, and the 
 French troops took possession of part of Sa- 
 voy. By the mediation of the pope, however, 
 peace was concluded. The duke made a 
 treacherous attempt to seize Geneva, but his 
 troops were repulsed, and the prisoners that 
 were taken were hung up by the Genevans as 
 robbers. On the death of Francis, Duke of 
 Mantua, in 1613, this restless prince laid claim 
 to the succession, but was obliged to relin- 
 quish it. The French persuaded him to turn 
 his arms against Genoa, and he gained some 
 advantages, but the interference of Spain ef- 
 fected a peace. He aspired to the imperial 
 crown, and made an attempt on the duchy of 
 Montserrat, which involved him in a war with 
 France and Spain. He died in 1630, it is sup- 
 posed of grief for the loss of Pignerol. 
 
 CHA 
 
198 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 CHARLESTON, a city and seaport of 
 South Carolina, had in 1870, 48,956 inhabi- 
 tants, being over 8,000 greater than in 1860. 
 It is the natural commercial emporium of 
 South Carolina, and of much of North Caro- 
 lina and Georgia also. It stands at the head 
 of a bay on the point between the mouths 
 of Cooper and Ashley rivers, seven miles 
 from the sea. It has long been a wealthy 
 commercial city. Fort Moultrie, on Sulli- 
 van’s Island, was assaulted June 28, 1776, by 
 sea and land by the British, who were se- 
 verely defeated. May 12, 1780, Gen. Lin- 
 coln with his army of over 5,000 men capitu- 
 lated to Sir Henry Clinton after a month’s 
 siege. The British evacuated the place Apr. 
 14, 1788. Charleston was a principal center 
 of the secession movement, and the scene of 
 the first rebel hostilities against the United 
 States, by the bombardment of Fort Sumter, 
 April 12, 1861, resulting in its surrender to 
 the rebels the next day. Soon after the 
 harbor was blockaded, and sea and land 
 forces were kept actively employed against the 
 place during the whole of the war. It was 
 not however taken until Sherman’s north- 
 
 ward march caused its evacuation April 18, 
 1865, when the Union troops entered it. 
 About a third of it had been destroyed. 
 
 CHARLOTTE AUGUSTA, daughter of 
 Queen Caroline and George IV. of England, 
 a beautiful, amiable, and accomplished lady, 
 became, at the age of twenty, the wife of 
 Prince Leopold of Coburg (afterward King of 
 Belgium), May r 2d, 1816. Nov. 5th, 1817, 
 the unfortunate princess, in becoming the 
 mother of a child that did not survive her, 
 lost her life. The physician who had attended 
 her, shot himself. The princess was beloved 
 by the English nation, and her death deeply 
 lamented. 
 
 CHARON, in mythology, the son of Erebus 
 and Nox. He was the ferryman of hell, being 
 supposed to carry the dead across the w r aves 
 of Acheron, Cocytus, and the Styx, receiving 
 an obolus in pay. This coin was placed in 
 the mouth of the dead, as, without it, it was 
 thought that the deceased would be con- 
 demned to long and restless wanderings on 
 the dreary banks of Acheron. Charon was 
 represented as an old man, of a forbidding 
 aspect, dressed in rags. 
 
 THE CHARTER OAK. 
 
 CHARTER OAK, a stately tree in a cavity 
 of whose trunk the royal charter of Connecti- 
 cut was hidden by Capt. Wadsworth, when 
 demanded by Andross, Oct. 31st, 1687. The 
 story is that the debate of the assembly upon 
 obeying Sir Edmund’s demand was prolonged 
 until evening ; when suddenly the lights w r ere 
 
 extinguished, the parchment snatched from 
 the table, and borne off to its hiding-place. 
 This oak was an ancient forest-monarch at 
 the first settlement of Hartford. The cavity 
 in which the charter was put gradually closed, 
 but in time the heart of the tree rotted away, 
 leaving a larger opening. Before dawn, Aug. 
 
 CIIA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 199 
 
 21st, 1856, the revered tree was prostrated by 
 the wind, and only a ragged stump left stand- 
 ing. On this occasion the bells of the city 
 were knelled for an hour at twilight. A mar- 
 ble slab now marks the site of the tree. 
 
 CHARYBDIS, the rapacious daughter of 
 Neptune and Terra, whom Jupiter changed 
 into a whirlpool. The whirlpool whose origin 
 was thus related in mythology, was on the 
 coast of Sicily, opposite the formidable rock 
 called Scylla on the Italian shore. It was 
 very dangerous to mariners, and proved fatal 
 to part of the fleet of Ulysses. No whirlpool 
 is now found that corresponds to the descrip- 
 tion of the ancients. The words, Incidit in 
 Scyllam qui vult vitare Chary became 
 proverbial, to show that in our eagerness to 
 avoid an evil we often fall into a greater. 
 
 CHASE, Samuel, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born in Somerset coun- 
 ty, Maryland, April 17th, 1741. His father 
 was an Episcopal missionary and personally 
 superintended his education. Having ac- 
 quired eminence and popularity as a lawyer 
 in Annapolis, and by his resistance to the 
 stamp act, he was elected to the continental 
 Congress in 1774, and in 1776 undertook a 
 mission to Canada to excite opposition to the 
 mother country. He was a delegate to Con- 
 gress,' 1774-78 and 1784-85. In 1783, he 
 went to England as agent of the state of Mary- 
 land to recover property intrusted to the Bank 
 of England, and while there formed the ac- 
 quaintance of Pitt, Fox, and Burke. In 1791, 
 he was made chief-justice of the general court 
 of Maryland. Washington appointed him as- 
 sociate justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, vice John Blair of Virginia, 
 who had resigned. He was impeached by 
 the house of representatives in 1804, for al- 
 leged misdemeanors in political trials, but ac- 
 quitted in his trial before the senate, which, 
 after long attracting public attention, ended 
 March 5th, 1804. He died at the age of sev- 
 enty, June 19th, 1811. He was a man of in- 
 tegrity, boldness, and decision. While on the 
 bench in Maryland, in 1794, nobody being 
 willing to assist in the arrest of the ringlead- 
 ers in a riot, “Summon me,” cried Judge 
 Chase; “I’ll be the posse comitatm ;” and 
 he was as good as his word. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste, 
 Vicomte de, was born in Brittany of an an- 
 
 cient family, in 1769. During the terrors of 
 the French revolution, he resided chiefly in 
 England, paying, however, a visit to the Uni- 
 ted States, and roaming into* the backwoods. 
 When Bonaparte had restored order he re- 
 turned to France, and in 1802 gained great 
 fame by his “ Genius of Christianity.” In 
 1806 he set out on those oriental journey ings 
 recorded in his “ Itinerary from Paris to Je- 
 rusalem.” Under the Bourbons he took part 
 in public life and honors. These he aban- 
 doned when Louis Philippe was crowned, oc- 
 cupying himself thenceforth in literary labors, 
 and dying in 1848. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, was 
 the son of Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconock, in 
 Cornwall, and born Nov. 15th, 1708. On 
 quitting the university at Oxford he went into 
 the army as cornet, but soon left the military 
 life, and, in 1735, obtained a seat in parlia- 
 ment for Old Sarum. His eloquence was first 
 displayed on the Spanish convention, in 1738, 
 and, in a short time, Sir Robert Walpole found 
 him the most powerful opponent he had ever 
 encountered. The dowager Duchess of Marl- 
 borough left Mr. Pitt a legacy of £10,000 for 
 his conduct at this period. In 1746, he was 
 made vice treasurer of Ireland, and the same 
 year paymaster-general of the army. In 1755, 
 he resigned his places ; but the year following, 
 he was appointed secretary of state for the 
 southern department. In this post, however, 
 he did not remaih long, on account of some 
 difference with the king ; but such was his 
 popularity, that his majesty found it necessary 
 to recall him. In 1757, he became prime 
 minister, in which situation he gave a new 
 turn to affairs, and by the vigor of his meas- 
 ures, subverted the power of France in Eu- 
 rope, Asia, and America. In the midst of his 
 glory, George II. died, and Mr. Pitt resigned 
 the helm to Lord Bute ; when his lady was 
 created a peeress, and he himself rewarded 
 with a pension. His acceptance of a coronet 
 in 1766, when he returned to the ministry, 
 hurt his popularity, for the people had loved 
 to call him ‘ the great commoner.’ The witty 
 Lord Chesterfield called it a “fall up-stairs,” 
 and said, “ Everybody is puzzled to account 
 for this step. Such an event was, I believe, 
 never heard or read of, to withdraw, in the 
 fullness of his power and in the utmost grati- 
 fication of his ambition, from the House of 
 
 CHA 
 
200 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Commons (which procured him his power, 
 and which could alone insure it to him), and 
 to go into that hospital of incurables, the 
 House of Lords* is a measure so unaccounta- 
 ble, that nothing but proof positive could 
 make me believe it ; but so it is.” Mr. Pitt 
 took the title of Earl of Chatham, and the 
 sinecure office of the privy seal in the new 
 cabinet, which place he resigned two or three 
 years afterward. During the war of our rev- 
 olution, he opposed the ministers, and their 
 scheme of taxation ; and in a speech on the 
 subject of the independence of the colonies, 
 April 7th, 1778, he exerted himself so ener- 
 getically, as to fall exhausted into the arms 
 of those around him. He died on the 11th of 
 the following month. A public funeral and 
 monument were voted by parliament ; an an- 
 nuity of £4,000 was annexed to the earldom 
 of Chatham, and his debts were discharged. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas,- a youth whose 
 precocious talents and sad fate have excited 
 great interest, was born at Bristol, in 1752, 
 of poor parents. In his twelfth year he wrote 
 a poem of some merit, and at the age of 
 sixteen successfully imitated the style of an- 
 tique English writers, and introduced to the 
 world as works of great antiquity, the fruits 
 of his own mind. The reception he met 
 with in London, led him to form extrav- 
 agant hopes, ’which were, however, never 
 realized, for the wretchedness of his situation 
 induced him to commit suicide by poison at 
 the age of eighteen in 1770. The poems 
 which he wrote at fifteen he ascribed to a 
 monk of the fifteenth century, named Thomas 
 Rowley. For precocious talent this marvel- 
 ous boy is without a peer in English litera- 
 ture. 
 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of Eng- 
 lish poetry, was born in London, in 1828. 
 He was high in favor with Edward III., and 
 married Philippa, the sister of Lady Catha- 
 arine Swynford, afterward the wife of John 
 of Gaunt. This prince was Chaucer’s steady 
 patron. He filled several responsible offices, 
 and was sent abroad as ambassador. His for- 
 tunes varied with those of the party to which 
 he was attached, but he finally lived in pleas- 
 ant retirement at Woodstock, and completed 
 the “Canterbury Tales.” He owned a house 
 in London, in the garden of the convent of 
 Westminster, where the chapel of Henry 
 
 VII. now stands. Here he died, Oct. 25th, 
 1400, and was interred in the neighboring 
 abbey, the first of the illustrious line of poets 
 whose ashes have there been laid to rest. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Charles, was the grandson 
 of the erudite and excellent president of Har- 
 vard University, where he was educated. 
 He was born Jan. 1st, 1705, and was or- 
 dained pastor of the first church in Boston, 
 in 1727. He died in his eighty-third year, 
 Feb. 10th, 1787. His learning, independ- 
 ence, and patriotism were constantly and 
 clearly displayed. The works which he has 
 left behind bear incontrovertible proof of his 
 talents. He was the particular friend of Dr. 
 Cooper of Boston, and an anecdote which 
 regards the two gentlemen, is worthy of pre- 
 servation. It must be kept in mind that Dr. 
 Chauncy was habitually absent, like many 
 literary men, and that Dr. Cooper was famous 
 for inviting brother clergymen to officiate for 
 him ; so much so, that it was currently re- 
 ported that he used to walk out upon Boston 
 neck every Saturday afternoon, and invite 
 the first gentleman with a black coat whom 
 he saw coming into town, to preach for him. 
 A negro servant of Dr. Chauncy was in 
 want of a coat, but as he had high ideas of 
 his own importance, he wished, if possible, 
 to obtain a new garment, instead of being 
 habited in the dark, discarded vestments of 
 his worthy master. After having, one morn- 
 ing, brought the usual supply of wood into 
 Dr. Chauncy’s study, he remained standing, 
 and the doctor, although rather busy, was 
 not long in noticing him. 
 
 “Well, Sambo, wffiat do you want?” 
 
 “ Want a coat, sar. De old one so patched 
 to pieces, I ’fraid to go nowheres.” 
 
 “Very well, Sambo, go to Mrs. Chauncy, 
 and tell her to give you one of mine.” 
 
 The doctor resumed his studies, but Sambo 
 retained his position. His master observing 
 him a second time, but forgetting what had 
 just passed between them, again asked, 
 “What do you want, Sambo?” 
 
 “O! just a coat, sar. Old coat full of 
 holes.” 
 
 “Very well; go to Mrs. Chauncy, and she 
 will give you one of mine.” 
 
 A second time the doctor resumed his book, 
 but finding the black still stationary, he be- 
 gan to recall what had passed, and exclaimed, 
 
 CHA 
 
HISTORY AND 
 
 with some asperity, “Well, sir, why don’t 
 you go ? ” 
 
 “’Cause I ’fraid, Massa Chauncy.” 
 
 “ Afraid ? of what ? ” 
 
 “ Why, sar, I ’fraid to wear a black coat, 
 ’cause — no — no — it won’t do — I can’t tell you, 
 sar.” 
 
 “ I insist upon it.” 
 
 “ Well, then, if I must — sir, ’fraid, ’cause — 
 oh no ! massa, you’ll be so angry.” 
 
 “ I wish I had my cane here ! ” exclaimed 
 the doctor. 
 
 Sambo, finding, from his impatient glance 
 at the tongs, that there was a possibility of 
 seizing a substitute, cried out, “ Oh ! sar ! 
 nebber mind, de cane, I’ll tell you why I 
 ’fraid to Wear one of your coats — I ’fraid if I 
 had annoder black coat — that Dr. Cooper 
 will ask me to preach for him ! ” 
 
 The doctor burst into laughter. “ Go, go, 
 Sambo, and ask Mrs. Chauncy to buy a coat 
 of whatever color you fancy ! ” 
 
 Sambo hastened off, grinning with delight, 
 to get a scarlet coat, and Dr. Chauncy ran 
 to Dr. Cooper to tell him of the whole affair. 
 
 CHEMISTRY was introduced into Europe, 
 about 1150, by the Spanish Moors, who had 
 learned it and distillation from the African 
 Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In 
 Egypt, they had, in very early ages, extracted 
 salts from their bases, separated oils, and 
 prepared vinegar and wine ; and embalming 
 was a kind of chemical process. The Chi- 
 nese also claim an early acquaintance with 
 chemistry. The first chemical students in 
 Europe were the alchemists ; but chemistry 
 could not be said to exist as a science till the 
 seventeenth century ; during which its study 
 was promoted by the writings of Bacon, and 
 the researches of Hooke, Mayow and Boyle. 
 In the early part of the eighteenth century, 
 Dr. Stephen Hales laid the foundation of 
 pneumatic chemistry, and Boerhaave com- 
 bined the study of chemistry with medicine. 
 These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, 
 Stahl, &c. In 1772, Priestley published his 
 researches on air, and then commenced a new 
 era. He was ably seconded by Lavoisier, 
 Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The nine- 
 teenth century opened with the brilliant 
 discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, 
 Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic chemistry 
 has been very greatly advanced by the labors 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 201 
 
 of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hof- 
 mann, &c., during the last thirty years. 
 
 CHERBOURG, a French seaport on the 
 Channel, containing 24,212 inhabitants. In 
 1418, it was taken by Henry Y. of England, 
 and near it took place the famous naval battle 
 of La Hogue, between the French and Eng- 
 lish, May 19th, 1692. Cherbourg is remark- 
 able for its vast breakwater, and its extensive 
 basin and docks, constructed by the French 
 government. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- 
 hope, fourth Earl of, born in London, in 
 1694. After studying in his youth with as- 
 siduity, at Cambridge and Leyden, he entered 
 public life in 1715, soon after the accession of 
 George I. He distinguished himself in the 
 lower house of parliament as a brilliant and 
 effective debater, which reputation he sus- 
 tained in the House of Lords, after the death 
 of his father. Till 1748, when deafness com- 
 pelled him to retire, he took an active part in 
 public life. He displayed great diplomatic 
 skill in two foreign embassies, and his lord- 
 lieutenancy in Ireland, in 1745, though last- 
 ing only a few months, has been always men- 
 tioned with high praise. After a sickly and 
 melancholy old age, he died March 24th, 
 1773. The only writings of this accom- 
 plished personage that are at all remembered, 
 are his “Letters” to his natural son, remark- 
 able for their ease of style and their worldly 
 knowledge, but deficient in the loftier points 
 of morality. They were not intended for 
 publication. The character of Lord Ches- 
 terfield has been much misrepresented and 
 misunderstood. He was Unequaled in his 
 time for the solidity and variety of his attain- 
 ments, for the brilliancy of his wit, for the 
 graces of his conversation, and for the polish 
 of his style. His embassy to Holland marked 
 his skill, his dexterity, and his address as an 
 able negociater; and his administration of 
 Ireland indicated his integrity, his vigilance, 
 and his sound policy as a statesman and a pol- 
 itician. In the House of Lords his speeches 
 were more admired and extolled than any 
 others of the day. Horace Walpole had 
 heard his own father, had heard Pitt, Pul- 
 teney, Wvndham, and Carteret; yet in 1743, 
 he declared that the finest speech he had 
 ever listened to was one from Chesterfield. 
 Dr. Johnson called him a lord among wits, 
 
202 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and a wit among lords. When Lord Ches- 
 terfield arrived in Ireland, all the Catholic 
 places of worship were closed. A Mr. Fitz- 
 gerald saying mass in the obscure garret of 
 a condemned house, an immense crowd had 
 assembled, and the floor giving way, the offi- 
 ciating priest, with many of his flock, were 
 buried in the ruins, and the greater number 
 were maimed and wounded. Lord Chester- 
 field, horror struck at the event, ordered 
 that all the chapels in the capital should be 
 opened. A zealous Protestant thinking to 
 pay his court to the lord lieutenant, came to 
 inform him that one of his coachmen was a 
 Roman Catholic, and went privately to mass. 
 “Does he, indeed V ” said his lordship ; “ then I 
 shall take care that he never drives me there ! ” 
 The Bishop of Waterford related that the 
 vice-treasurer, Mr. Gardiner, a man of good 
 character and considerable fortune, waited 
 upon Lord Chesterfield one morning, and in 
 a great fright told him that he was assured 
 upon good authority that the people in the 
 province of Connaught were actually rising ; 
 upon which the viceroy looked at his watch, 
 and with great composure answered him, “ It 
 is nine o’clock and time for them to rise; I 
 believe, therefore, that your news is true.” 
 Lord Chesterfield preserved a Catholic popu- 
 lation in the most perfect peace and obedience, 
 during the whole of that rebellion which in 
 Episcopal England and Presbyterian Scot- 
 land, had nearly restored the Stuarts to the 
 throne they had forfeited by their blind and 
 bigoted attachment to papal institutions. 
 
 CHILI, a republic on the western shore 
 of South America, which has an area of 
 180,000 square miles. The eastern part of 
 Chili is mountainous, and many volcanic sum- 
 mits here elevate themselves from the lofty 
 chain of the Andes. Innumerable small and 
 rapid rivers irrigate the rich soil, and the 
 climate is remarkable for its healthiness. 
 The mineral and vegetable productions are 
 valuable and abundant. Exclusive of the 
 independent Indians, the population has been 
 estimated at 1, 6 )0,000. The Roman Catholic 
 is the established religion. 
 
 Pedro de Valdivia who was sent thither by 
 Pizarro, overcame the opposition of the abo- 
 rigines, and founded several cities in the 
 
 leader prisoner, put him to death. It was 
 many years before the Spaniards were per- 
 mitted by the Indians and Dutch to enjoy 
 quiet possession of Chili. In 1809, a revolu- 
 tionary movement took place, and the party 
 which espoused the cause of independence 
 was at first successful ; but in 1814 nearly 
 the whole country was subdued by a Spanish 
 army from Peru. Chili remained under the 
 control of the royalists until 1817, when 
 General San Martin, with a body of troops 
 from Buenos Ayres, entered the country, and 
 being joined by the people generally, de- 
 feated the royalists in several engagements. 
 The independence of the country was finally 
 achieved at the battle of Maypu, April 5th, 
 1818. The government has since experienced 
 many changes, but Chili has been perhaps 
 less disturbed than any of its sister republics. 
 
 Santiago, the capital of the republic, has 
 50,000 inhabitants. Valparaiso, the princi- 
 pal port and centre of commerce, has 80,000. 
 The southern part of Chili is inhabited by 
 the Araucanians, a powerful aboriginal nation 
 over whom the republic has only a nominal 
 authority. They maintained their independ- 
 ence through many contests with the Span- 
 iards. They subsist by cultivating the land 
 and raising cattle. A Toqui (hereditary 
 noble) is at the head of government, and he 
 strictly maintained the neutrality of his 
 people during the South American struggle 
 for independence. Among the many in- 
 teresting customs of this people, we may 
 mention that they amuse themselves with a 
 species of chess and backgammon, both of 
 which they knew previous to the arrival ol 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 CHILLING WORTH, William, a celebra- 
 ted English divine and Protestant polemic. 
 He was born at Oxford, 1602, and died in 
 1644, having been appointed chancellor of 
 Salisbury, in July, 1688. 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a phrase often 
 encountered in English political history. It 
 is an estate of the crown in Buckingham- 
 shire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal 
 office, conferred on members of parliament 
 when they wish to vacate their seats ; for by 
 accepting an office under the crown, a mem- 
 ber becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
 returned by his constituents. This custom 
 has existed time immemorial. 
 
 north and south, but the Araucanians defeat- 
 ed the Spaniards, and having taken their 
 
 CHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 203 
 
 CHINESE LADY OF RANK. 
 
 CHINA is a vast country of Asia, bounded 
 on the north by Chinese Tartary, from which 
 the famous Chinese wall separates it ; on the 
 east by the Eastern Sea ; on the south by 
 the Chinese Sea and Further India ; and on 
 the west by an extensive and sandy desert, 
 and long ridges of mountains, which divide 
 it from Western Tartary and Thibet. 
 
 Inclusive of the tributary countries, and 
 those states which have voluntarily placed 
 themselves under the protection of China, 
 the population is estimated at 353,000,000 
 inhabitants, which are scattered over a sur- 
 face of about 5,250,000 square miles. The 
 subjected countries are Mantchouria, Mon- 
 golia, and Tourfan ; the protected ones, Thi- 
 bet, Bootan, Corea, and Loo-choo. China 
 Proper is divided into eighteen provinces. 
 The Yang-tse-kiang and the Hoang-Ho, or 
 Yellow River, are the two principal rivers of 
 
 China. The former is more than 3,000 miles 
 long, the latter about 2,500. The face of the 
 country is greatly diversified ; the northern 
 and western parts being the most broken. 
 
 A distinguishing feature of the climate is 
 the unusual excess in which heat and cold 
 prevail in some parts of the empire at oppo- 
 site seasons of the year ; as well as the low 
 average of the thermometer in comparison 
 with the latitude. The soil is diligently 
 tilled, rice being the prevalent crop. But the 
 production of most importance to ‘outside 
 barbarians,’ is tea, which is the universal 
 beverage throughout China., while enough is 
 grown to supply other countries with a hun- 
 dred million pounds each year. 
 
 The commerce is very extensive ; the prin- 
 cipal articles of export being tea, silk, nan- 
 kins, porcelain, and the valuable vegetable 
 productions of the east. The imperial canal 
 
 CHI 
 
204 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and the Chinese wall are monuments of 
 Chinese skill and industry. The religion of 
 China is Buddhism, or the religion of Fo. 
 The language of the Chinese is peculiar, its 
 characters being symbols of ideas, instead 
 of sounds. The Chinese are, to a certain 
 degree, well educated, but revengeful, timid, 
 vain, and deceitful. Polygamy is permitted, 
 and the condition of females wretched in the 
 extreme. Poor parents are permitted to 
 drown their female children, and this is done 
 without remorse. 
 
 The Chinese is, on the whole, by far the 
 best native government of Asia. It is better, 
 far, than any of the Mohammedan despo- 
 tisms ; it is better than any government that 
 the Hindoos ever possessed, and it is far pre- 
 ferable to the theocracies of the Birmans, 
 Siamese, and other Chinese nations. The 
 absence of a powerful and influential priest- 
 hood, and of an hereditary and privileged 
 aristocracy, as well as of petty principalities 
 with delegated and hereditary authority, 
 may be stated as among the leading causes 
 of the prosperity of the Chinese empire. 
 
 The government of China is patriarchal; 
 the emperor has the title of “Holy Son of 
 Heaven, sole Governor of the earth, and Great 
 Father of his people.” But it is patriarchal 
 on the largest scale of which there is any 
 record, for the family consists of more than 
 three hundred million members. China may 
 be considered as a huge school-house, the 
 master having the birch constantly in his 
 hand, frequently using it, and delegating his 
 authority to thousands of ushers, who are 
 equally liberal in its application. But the rod, 
 although the chief, is not the only instrument 
 of government. There is the canque , or wooden 
 ruff*, a kind of portable stocks or pillory, very 
 convenient to the executors of the law, but 
 exceedingly inconvenient to the wearer, who 
 can neither sleep nor lie down for it. Then 
 there is imprisonment in cages ; furthermore 
 decapitation, not however very frequent ; and 
 in extreme cases their crucifixion, or as it is 
 technically called, the death by painful and 
 slow means. The grand panacea, however, 
 after all, is the rod. The general application 
 of this vigorous instrument of administra- 
 tion, is by no means confined to China, but 
 embraces the other countries of the east, 
 from Japan to Bengal, including nearly one- 
 
 third the human race. There the rod, under 
 its various appellations of bamboo, cane, 
 cudgel, or birch, is actively at work from 
 morning till night, and afterward from night 
 till morning. The grand patriarch canes his 
 first ministers ; the prime minister canes his 
 secretary of state ; the secretaries of state 
 admonish the lords of the treasury, by bela- 
 boring their backs ; these enforce their orders 
 to the first lord of the admiralty by applying 
 what is equal to the cat o’ nine tails. Gen- 
 erals cane field-officers, and field-officers the 
 captains and subalterns. Of course the com- 
 mon soldiers of the celestial empire are caned 
 by everybody. The husbands cane their 
 wives, and the wives cane their children. 
 The Chinese and their neighbors may be 
 truly described as well-flogged nations. 
 
 Whatever may be the actual antiquity of 
 the Chinese nation, no doubt seems now to 
 exist that they very early knew the art of 
 printing, the composition of gunpowder, and 
 the properties of the magnetic compass, 
 which have been considered by European 
 nations three of the most important discov- 
 eries of modern . times. To these may be 
 added two very remarkable manufactures, 
 of which they were unquestionably the first 
 inventors, and in which they yet excel, those 
 of silk and porcelain. Their mode of print- 
 ing differs from ours, but its effect in multi- 
 plying and cheapening books is the same, 
 and it was practiced by them as far back as 
 the tenth century. Gunpowder they did not 
 use in fire-arms, but for fireworks, of which 
 they are extremely fond, and with which 
 they have amused themselves from a very 
 remote date. 
 
 The empire is very ancient, and is said by 
 the Chinese to have existed forty-one thou- 
 sand years before the Christian era. We 
 give a list of the dynasties which have sat 
 upon the throne in more modern times. 
 
 The Hia dynasty, 2207 to 1767 b.c. 
 
 The Shang djmasty, 1767 to 1122 b.c. 
 
 The Chow dynasty, 1122 to 256 b.c. 
 
 The Tsin dynasty, 256 to 257 b.c. 
 
 The Hang dynasty, 207 b.c. to 220 a.d. 
 
 From 220 to 280, China was divided into 
 three kingdoms, the Shohang dynasty, 220 to 
 263 ; that of the Goei in the north, 220 to 
 265, and that of the El in the south, 220 to 
 
 280. 
 
 CHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 205 
 
 GREAT WALL OF CHINA. 
 
 The Tsin dynasty, 265 to 420. 
 
 The XJ-ta dynasties, 420 to 589. 
 
 The Sui dynasty, 589 to 61 7. 
 
 The Tang dynasty, 617 to 907. 
 
 The Hehu-u-ta dynasty, 907 to 960. 
 
 The Song dynasty, 960 to 1279. 
 
 The Mogul Khans, 1279 to 1868. 
 
 The Ming dynasty 1368 to 1644. 
 
 The Ta-tsing dynasty: 
 
 Shun-tchi, 1644 to 1669. 
 
 Kang-hi, 1669 to 1698. 
 Yong-tching,1693 to 1736. 
 
 Kien-long, 1736 to 1796. 
 
 Kia-king, 1796 to 1821. 
 
 Taou-kwang, 1821 to 1850. 
 
 Sze-hing, or Yih-Chu, 1850. 
 
 With the Chow dynasty, during whose 
 
 reign Confucius lived, authentic history may 
 be said to commence. 
 
 During the reign of Ching the first empe- 
 ror of the fourth dynasty, b.c. 256, the great 
 wall was built. Elated with his own exploits, 
 he formed the design of making posterity 
 believe that he was the first emperor that 
 filled the Chinese throne, and for this pur- 
 pose ordered all the historical books, which 
 contained the fundamental records and laws 
 of the ancient governments, to be burned, 
 and four hundred of the learned to be put to 
 death, for having attempted to save some of 
 the proscribed volumes. 
 
 In the thirteenth century the Chinese called 
 in the aid of the Mongols to beat olf the east- 
 ern Tartars. These fierce allies soon subdued 
 
 CHI 
 
200 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 not only the Tartars, but the people whom 
 they came to defend, and seized the mastery. 
 Kublai Khan (he who ‘ in Xanadu a stately 
 pleasure dome decreed ’) was a monarch of 
 eminent talents, and endeared himself to the 
 Chinese by his equity and virtues. In less 
 than a century his successors so degenerated 
 that the Chinese regained the ascendency. 
 Some of the expelled Mongols found refuge 
 among the Tartars, and from these united 
 strains came the race known astheMantchous, 
 who in 1644 expelled the last Chinese dynas- 
 ty, and founded a permanent Tartar dominion, 
 which is yet in power. 
 
 When China was sundered into two or three 
 states, the northern portion was called by the 
 neighboring nations Cathay, under which 
 name it became known to the Russians and 
 [Mongols ; whilst the inhabitants of India 
 called the southern part Chin, under which 
 name the Portuguese and other Europeans 
 became acquainted with it. Not till the 
 seventeenth century was it discovered that 
 Cathay was China. 
 
 The Chinese are passionately addicted to 
 the use of opium. The government formerly 
 prohibited its importation, and in attempts to 
 enforce this restriction came in collision with 
 the British, whose merchants were largely 
 engaged in the contraband traffic. Hostilities 
 commenced in 1839, and continued till Aug. 
 29th, 1842. By the treaty of peace, the Chi- 
 nese were to pay $21,000,000 ; the ports of 
 Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ning-po, and 
 Shanghai were thrown open to the British ; 
 and the island of Ilong-kong was ceded to the 
 British crown; a great inroad being thus 
 made upon the exclusiveness which the Chi- 
 nese had so rigorously observed. 
 
 As to the insurrection that broke out in 
 1851, conflicting accounts are given. The in- 
 surgents gained ground steadily, capturing 
 the important cities of Nanking, Amoy, 
 Shanghai, and besieged Canton ; but victory 
 afterward passed to the imperialists, and many 
 of the towns held by the rebels were retaken. 
 The following is one version of the nature of 
 this outbreak. Taou-Kwang, the last empe- 
 ror, during the latter years of his reign became 
 somewhat liberal in his views, and favored the 
 introduction of European arts. His son and 
 successor, a rash and narrow-minded prince, 
 
 quickly forsook this wise policy and adopted 
 reactionary measures. An insurrection broke 
 out in consequence, in the southern province 
 of Quang-si, August, 1850, which quickly be- 
 came of alarming importance. At first the 
 insurgents proposed only to expel the Tartar 
 dynasty. In March, 1851, a leader arose 
 among them, first by the name of Tien-teh, 
 ‘celestial virtue,’ but afterward assuming 
 other names. He is said to be a native of 
 Quang-si, of obscure origin, who obtained 
 some education at Canton, and also became 
 acquainted with the principles of Christianity 
 from a native convert, and from the missionary 
 Roberts. He announced himself as the re- 
 storer of the worship of the true God, Shang- 
 ti, and had derived many of his dogmas from 
 the Scriptures. He declared himself to be 
 the monarch of all beneath the sky, the true 
 lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
 brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, 
 and demanded universal submission. 
 
 In addition to the dangers thus besetting 
 th,e peace of China, new disturbances with 
 England broke out in 1857, and a war com- 
 menced, but the attention of the British was 
 diverted by the serious crisis in India. 
 
 Peking, the capital of the empire, has a 
 population of 2, 000, 000. The principal streets 
 vary fiom 140 to 200 feet in width, but the 
 buildings do not correspond, few of the houses 
 being above one story. Nanking was the 
 capital before the time of the Mongols, and 
 had 4,000,000 inhabitants, now dwindled to 
 300,000. It is one of the principal seats of 
 Chinese learning, and is noted for the porce- 
 lain tower attached to one of its pagodas. 
 Canton is a pla>ce of much commercial impor- 
 tance, from having formerly been the only 
 port open to American and European vessels. 
 It has a million of inhabitants. The surround- 
 ing scenery is charming, and the eastern hills 
 present a most noble prospect. The houses, 
 with the exception of those of the mandarins 
 and wealthy merchants, are low ; the streets 
 long, narrow, and well-paved, spanned, here 
 and there, by triumphal arches, and shaded 
 at the sides by continuous ranges of piazzas. 
 But the main charm of the city consists in its 
 beautiful pleasure gardens, which are studded 
 with fish-pools. The exports are tea, India 
 ink, varnish, porcelain, rhubarb, silk, nan- 
 
 CHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 207 
 
 keen, &c. The climate of Canton is consid- 
 ered healthy, although the heat of summer 
 and the warmth of winter are great. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, a town in Upper Canada, on 
 a river of the same name, two miles north-west 
 of Niagara Falls, where the British troops un- 
 der Gen. Riall were signally defeated by the 
 Americans under Gen. Brown, July 5th, 
 1814. On the 25th of the same month, a 
 second action ensued, in which the British 
 were successful, though Riall was wounded 
 and captured. 
 
 CHIV ALRY. The institution and spirit of 
 chivalry, forming a prominent and important 
 feature of history, has been regarded by wri- 
 ters and men of erudition in various points 
 of view, and while some have condemned it as 
 altogether injurious and absurd, others have 
 dignified it with the title of sublime. There 
 have been found men of modern days, and 
 those the fortunate possessors of more than 
 common abilities, who could sigh over the 
 degeneracy of the times, and lament that the 
 age of chivalry is gone. But if the material 
 and least worthy part of it has passed away, 
 its spirit still remains, still Invites men to high 
 and honorable deeds, and is indeed imperish- 
 able and immortal. The vows of knighthood, 
 the ceremonials of installation, the pomp and 
 ceremony of knightly feats, — these have gone ; 
 but the devotion of the patriot, the ardor of 
 the warrior, the warmth of the lover, the fi- 
 delity of the friend, the loyalty and truth of 
 the man of honor, do not sleep in the graves 
 of Charlemagne, Roland, and Bayard. 
 
 In seeking for the origin of chivalry, we 
 are led back to the feudal ages, and the con- 
 sideration of the condition of. the Germanic 
 tribes, when its peculiar spirit first began to 
 display itself. The tribes were composed not 
 of superiors and inferiors, but of masters and 
 slaves ; of men whose birthright was ease and 
 honor, and of others who inherited ceaseless 
 toil. By the noble-born, labor of any kind 
 was considered degrading, and the profession 
 of arms alone worthy of being followed ; so 
 that the lords of the soil were a race of inde- 
 pendent warriors, whose thirst for fame was 
 a continual excitement. The different feudal 
 sovereigns were nominally subject to a legiti- 
 mate prince, and were bound to follow his 
 banner into battle, at the head of their vas- 
 sals, and to respond to his call by bringing, 
 
 at a moment’s warning, an armed force to his 
 support. Still, when removed from the pres- 
 ence of his sovereign, the feudal lord was a 
 petty despot, whose vassals felt that he pos- 
 sessed absolute power of life and death over 
 them. 
 
 Unlimited authority gave rise to various 
 abuses, and it was well that chivalry, with 
 its high tone of honor and morality, sprang 
 up in ages of general darkness, fraud, and 
 oppression. The commencement of chivalry 
 may be ascribed to the beginning of the tenth 
 century. To the feudal sj^stem it owed its 
 origin, and with that it died out. From the 
 twelfth to the fourteenth century, it had a 
 great influence in refining the manners of 
 most of the nations of Europe. The knight 
 swore to accomplish the duties of his profes- 
 sion, as the champion of God and the ladies. 
 He devoted himself to speak the truth, to 
 maintain the right, to protect the distressed, 
 to practice courtesy, and in every peril to vin- 
 dicate his honor and character. Great enter- 
 prises contributed to bind numbers of knights 
 together, and led to the formation of various 
 societies and orders ; and when these military 
 adventurers were not leagued together in any 
 of the holy wars, a reciprocity of principle 
 and an identity of religion held them in a 
 common chain. Animated by a love of jus- 
 tice, a veneration for the fair sex, a high- 
 minded regard for truth, a thirst for military 
 glory, and a contempt for danger, the knights 
 went forth to brave peril, to rescue the unfor- 
 tunate, and to crush the oppressor. Numer- 
 ous individuals set forth with no fixed purpose 
 but that of discovering some wrong and right- 
 ing it. These wandering champions were 
 called knights errant, and their exploits were 
 sung in camp and court by the minstrels, 
 whose lays immortalized the sons of chivalry. 
 Chivalry degenerated, but not rapidly. After 
 the lapse of many years from its foundation, 
 the number of its ceremonials increased ; its 
 pageantry was disgraced by frippery and folly; 
 its vows were unobserved ; a devotion to the 
 sex was succeeded by boundless licentious- 
 ness; and the wandering spirit of knight- 
 errantry was displaced by an affectation of 
 eccentricity. In the fourteenth century the 
 honors of knighthood were restricted to the 
 nobility, and then arose the various forms and 
 ceremonies, which at length concealed the 
 
 CHI 
 
208 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 original design of chivalry, and brought on a 
 premature decline. 
 
 The knightly education of a youth generally 
 commenced with his twelfth year ; when he 
 was sent to the court of some noble pattern 
 of chivalry, to learn dancing, riding, the use 
 of his weapon, &c., and where his chief duty 
 was assiduous attention to the ladies in the 
 quality of page. According to his progress 
 in years and accomplishments, he became 
 squire to some knight ; and when he fairly 
 merited the distinction, he was himself knight- 
 ed. This honor was not conferred upon a 
 youth before his twenty-first year, unless high 
 birth, or extraordinary valor and address, 
 seemed to warrant the setting aside of the 
 usual regulation. Sometimes the honor was 
 won by many a field of bloody toil, with many 
 drops of sweat and gore ; and not unfrequent- 
 ly one daring achievement, artfully planned, 
 gallantly carried into execution, procured the 
 wished-for spurs and the anticipated accolade. 
 The ceremony of conferring knighthood was 
 often performed on the field of battle where 
 the honor had been earned ; often it required 
 and received the most imposing preparations 
 and ceremonies. The young candidate guard- 
 ed his arms for a night, and this was called 
 the vigil of arms. In the morning he bathed 
 in water, which was the emblem of the truth 
 and purity he swore to preserve sacred. Clad 
 in spotless garments, he kneeled before the 
 altar of the nearest church, and, having pre- 
 sented his sword to the officiating priest, re- 
 ceived it again with the benediction of the 
 reverend man. After taking the oath of alle- 
 giance, he knelt before his sovereign, who gave 
 him the accolade, or blow upon the neck, with 
 the flat of his sword, saluted the young war- 
 rior, and said, “ In the name of God and St. 
 Michael [or, in the name of the Father, Son, 
 and Holy Ghost], I dub thee a knight. Be 
 loyal, brave, and fortunate.” 
 
 It was customary for two knights of the 
 same age and congenial tempers to form a 
 friendship, and this brotherhood in arms last- 
 ed generally until one of the two was laid in 
 the grave. The courtesy of chivalry softened 
 the asperity of war, gave charms to victory, 
 and assuaged to the vanquished the pain of a 
 defeat. All that ingenuity could plan, and 
 wealth produce, to give splendor to knight- 
 
 Magnificent tournaments were held, where 
 even kings entered the lists and contended 
 for the prize of Valor before the e}^ of thou- 
 sands of spectators, among whom beautiful 
 ladies appeared the most deeply interested. 
 In fact, knights often contended about the 
 charms of their lady-loves, and wore their fa- 
 vors in their helmets. If the ladies of Rome 
 attended gladiatorial shows in throngs, we 
 can not wonder that the beauties of the age of 
 chivalry looked forward to a tournament with 
 great impatience, and eagerly strove for the 
 honor of filling the post of temporary queen 
 and distributor of the prizes. 
 
 Chivalry exerted a powerful influence on 
 poetry, and formed the subject of the poems 
 of the troubadours of the south of France, as 
 well as supplied themes for the poetical con- 
 troversies of the knights, which were decided 
 at the Cours dl Amour (courts of love), first 
 established in Provence. Even after chivalry 
 had died away, its influence was not unfelt by 
 poetry, which retained the tone it had impart- 
 ed for many centuries. The songs of the 
 troubadours were divided into amatory songs, 
 duets, pastorals, serenades, ballads, poetical 
 colloquies, &c. In the romances of chivalry 
 we behold paladins and peers, sorcerers, fair- 
 ies, winged and intelligent horses, invisible or 
 invulnerable men, magicians who are interest- 
 ed in the birth and education of knights, en- 
 chanted palaces ; in a word, the creation of a 
 new world which leaves our vulgar planet for 
 beneath it. Paladins never without arms, in 
 a country bristling with fortresses, find their 
 delight and honor in punishing injustice and 
 defending weakness. The chivalric romances 
 may be divided into three classes : those of 
 the Round Table ; those of Charlemagne ; and 
 lastly those of Amadis, which belong to a later 
 century. It will suffice to speak of the form- 
 er. The romances of the Round Table recount 
 tales of the cup from which Jesus Christ dr.ank 
 with Joseph of Arimathea. This cup had 
 performed such prodigies, that we are not as- 
 tonished that those valorous knights of the 
 Round Table, Lancelot, Perceval, and Perce- 
 forest, are united with the determination to 
 recover it. These preux chevaliers are the 
 perpetual heroes of these romances. Lancelot 
 is attached to Guinevre, the wife of King Ar- 
 thur, and his marvelous exploits excite the 
 admiration of contemporaries. Three centu- 
 
 hood, was displayed in the age of chivalry. 
 
 CHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 209 
 
 ries after, lords and ladies were still delighted 
 at the recital of “ the very elegant, delicious, 
 mellifluous, and very pleasant historie of the 
 very noble and very victorious Perceforest.” 
 Amidst many pages of wearisome insipidity, 
 we find some happy descriptions and situa- 
 tions detailed, and graphic portraits of feudal 
 men and manners. 
 
 The absurdities of chivalry afforded scope 
 for the satirical and comic powers of Cer- 
 vantes, and the adventures of the unfortu- 
 nate Don Quixote are read with an interest 
 which few works of a similar character in- 
 spire. Every feature of chivalry is happily 
 burlesqued, and the Knight of La Mancna 
 goes through all the ceremonials with a ludi- 
 crous gravity which is perfectly irresistible. 
 The pertinacity with which the knights 
 maintained the pre-eminence of the ladies of 
 their affections is finely satirized in the elec- 
 tion which Don Quixote makes of a hideous 
 country wench, whose charms he celebrates 
 after the most approved fashion and with 
 unceasing devotion. Few ladies of chivalric 
 romance have attained a degree of reputation 
 comparable to that of the immortal Dulcinea 
 del Toboso. [ See Knighthood, Tourna- 
 
 ments.] 
 
 CHOLERA. The severe epidemic which, 
 under the name of Cholera, Asiatic Cholera, 
 Malignant Cholera, or Cholera Asphyxia, has 
 within a few years afflicted many parts of the 
 world, is reputed to have originated in Aug- 
 ust, 1817, at Jessore, the capital of a district 
 in Bengal, lying to the north-east of Calcutta. 
 In the following September, it invaded 
 Calcutta; soon after, many other cities of 
 Hindostan ; and in a short time it extended 
 its ravages into various other countries of 
 Asia. It has been estimated that during four- 
 teen years from its commencement at Jessore, 
 it carried off no less than eighteen millions 
 of the inhabitants of Hindostan ; and its 
 ravages are said to have been still greater in 
 China. In 1830, it invaded European Russia, 
 and afterward Poland, Hungary, Germany, 
 Austria, and other countries of Europe. In 
 1831, in October, it broke out at Sunderland 
 in England ; in February, 1832, • in London ; 
 in Paris, near the last of March ; at Quebec 
 and Montreal in June ; and at New York in 
 July. The mortality was very great, and the 
 
 14 
 
 steady march of its ravages from the east to 
 the west, created a general panic. Since then, 
 medical men have become better versed in 
 its causes and its treatment, but it has raged 
 at times with much severity. It was very 
 fatal to the allied French and English army 
 at Varna in 1854. 
 
 CHRISTINA, Queen of Sweden, daughter 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, was born in 1026, and 
 died April 19th, 1689. She succeeded to the 
 throne in 1633, and in 1654 resigned it to her 
 cousin Charles Gustavus. She was remark- 
 able for acts and habits foreign to her sex ; 
 namely, learning, murder, and apostasy. Her 
 conduct was so flagrant, that she found it 
 difficult to procure an asylum in any state, 
 after having been excluded from her own. 
 She died at Rome. 
 
 CHRISTIANS. The name of Christians 
 was first applied to the followers of Jesus at 
 Antioch, about the middle of the first century. 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, Henri, King of Hayti, 
 was born Oct. 6th, 1767. In early life he 
 was a slave and passed from the hands of one 
 master to another, being successively a cook 
 and an overseer. The French were conquered 
 by the exertions of Dessalines andChristophe, 
 the latter of whom was general-in-chief of 
 the army during the short-lived imperial 
 government of the former. In 1806, an insur- 
 rection broke out in Hayti, in which Dessa- 
 lines, the emperor, was killed by the negroes ; 
 whom he had provoked by his cruelty and 
 oppression. His successor, Christophe, as- 
 sumed the humbler title of chief of the gov- 
 ernment, and in that capacity opened the 
 commerce of his dominion to neutral nations, 
 by a proclamation distinguished for its lib- 
 eral spirit and enlightened views. In 1811 
 Christophe changed the republic into a mon- 
 archy, and proclaimed himself King of Hayti. 
 A short time before his coronation he created 
 a nobilit) r consisting of princes, dukes, counts, 
 and barons, to give a greater splendor to the 
 ceremony. He created a legion of honor, 
 called the order of St. Henri, and altered the 
 name of his capital from Cape Francois to Cape 
 Henri. His troops, at this time, amounted to 
 about 10,000 men, all negroes ; and his fleet 
 consisted of one frigate, nine sloops of war, 
 and a number of schooners. In October, 
 1820, Christophe, hearing that his troops had 
 
 CHR 
 
210 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 abandoned him, shot himself through the 
 head, and the opposite party immediately 
 proclaimed a republican government. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, John, one of the fathers 
 of the church, an eloquent and pious man, 
 born at Antioch, 351 ; was Bishop of Con- 
 stantinople ; died in exile, 407. 
 
 CHURCH, Benjamin, a native of Duxbury, 
 Mass., was born in 1639, and distinguished 
 himself by his address and daring in the In- 
 dian wars. His services during King Philip’s 
 war were great, and he commanded the party 
 that killed the sachem of Mount Hope, in 
 August, 1676. He died in his seventy-eighth 
 year, Jan. 17th, 1718. A descendant, of the 
 same name, was the first traitor in our Revo- 
 lution. He was a talented phjosician in 
 Boston. For a while he was the zealous 
 coacljutor of Warren and his fellow-patriots. 
 He was detected in treasonable correspond- 
 ence with Gov. Gage, and imprisoned. His 
 health failing, he was released in 1776, and 
 lost at sea on his way to the West Indies. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Charles, an English poet, 
 born 1731, died in 1764. His political satires 
 were received with great applause, and his 
 u Prophecy of Famine,” a severe satire upon 
 
 offices of edile and praetor, and stood for the 
 consulship, at a time when Cataline was 
 making the most vigorous efforts to oppose 
 him. Cataline, with many dissolute and des- 
 perate Romans, had conspired against his 
 country, and planned the murder of Cicero 
 himself. The plot being discovered, chiefly 
 by the efforts of Cicero, he commanded Cata- 
 line to leave the city, and the desperate traitor 
 marched forth to meet the 20,000 men that 
 were assembled to support his cause. The 
 rebels were defeated, and the conspirators cap- 
 itally punished. After this memorable deliv- 
 erance, Cicero received the thanks of the 
 people, with the title of father of his country 
 and second founder of Rome. 
 
 The vehemence with which he attacked 
 Clodius, proved injurious to him ; and when 
 his enemy was made tribune, Cicero was ban- 
 ished from Rome, though 20,000 young men 
 were ready to attest his innocence. After an 
 absence of sixteen months, during which he 
 had been favorably received wherever he pre- 
 sented himself, he was recalled, and entered 
 Rome to the universal satisfaction. When 
 he was sent with the power of proconsul to 
 
 Cilicia, his integrity and prudence made him 
 the Scots, was read with eagerness, and pro- J successful against the enemy, and on his 
 cured notoriety for its author. Though at first return he was honored with a triumph, which, 
 a clergyman, the close of his life was marked ; however, the factions prevented him from 
 by gross debaucheries. I enjoying. 
 
 CHURUBUSCO, one of the brilliant victo- i During the civil wars between Caesar and 
 ries won by the Americans under Scott, in Pompey, he joined the latter, and followed 
 the advance upon the city of Mexico. The , him to Greece. When victory had declared 
 
 in favor of Caesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, 
 Cicero went to Brundusium, and was recon- 
 ciled to the conqueror, who treated him with 
 great humanity. From this time, Cicero 
 retired into the country, and seldom visited 
 Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, 
 Cicero recommended a general amnesty, and 
 was strongly in favor of having the provinces 
 decreed to Brutus and Cassius ; but finding 
 the interest of the republicans decrease, 
 and Antony come into power, he retired to 
 Athens. He soon after returned, but lived 
 in perpetual fear of assassination. The en- 
 mity of Antony finally proved fatal to him, 
 Antony, and Lepidus, to 
 destroy all causes of quarrel, and each to 
 dispatch his enemies, produced their lists of 
 proscription. Cicero was among the pro- 
 scribed. He fled, but was pursued, and 
 
 battle was fought Aug. 20th, 1847. Santa 
 Anna’s strongly posted force numbered 
 30,000 ; the assailants were not a fourth as 
 many. The American loss in killed and 
 wounded was 1,000; that of the Mexicans 
 was 10,000, one-fourth of whom were pris- 
 oners. 
 
 CIBBER, Colley, an English actor and 
 dramatist, was born in London in 1671, and 
 died in 1757. His comedy of “ The Careless 
 Husband” received the approbation of even 
 the bitter Pope. He was made poet-laureate 
 in 1730. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated 
 orator, born at Arpinum 106 b.c., was the I when Augustus, 
 son of a Roman knight. In Sicily he exer- 
 cised the quaestorship with equity and moder- 
 ation, and freed the Sicilians from the tyranny 
 and avarice of Yerres. He discharged the 
 
 CIC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 211 
 
 to death, in his sixty -fourth year, b.c. 43. 
 Cicero was a sincere patriot, and was unques- 
 tionably one of the brightest ornaments of 
 the age in which he lived. His eloquence 
 was Manning, and his pen had the power of 
 his tongue. His orations and philosophical 
 works are models of style. He possessed a 
 sparkling wit. 
 
 CID. Don Rodrigo Diaz, Count of Bivar, 
 surnamed the Cid (a Moorish word signifying 
 lord), one of the most renowned knights of 
 Spain, was born in 1026. He signalized 
 himself against the Moors, winning the es- 
 teem of his countrymen, who bestowed upon 
 him the title of Campeador (incomparable). 
 On the accession of Sancho to the throne of 
 Castile, the knight of Bivar accompanied him 
 to the siege of Zamora, whence he brought 
 back the troops and the dead body of the 
 warrior monarch, who fell by treachery. Al- 
 fonso, the brother of Sancho, was then placed 
 on the throne, after swearing that he had no 
 participation in the murder of Sancho. The 
 Cid’s last exploit was the capture of Sagun- 
 tum, and he died at Valencia, 1099. He was 
 buried at Castile, and near him lies interred 
 his beloved and faithful charger, Babieca. 
 
 CILICIA, an ancient country of Asia Minor, 
 south of Mount Taurus, and between Pam- 
 phylia and Syria, the coast of which M^as 
 inhabited by a piratical race. The Macedo- 
 nians and Syrians successively held it, and 
 it was reduced by Pompey to the Roman 
 rule. 
 
 CIMBRI, an ancient tribe of the Germans, 
 the first of that people with whom the Greeks 
 became acquainted. Their origin is doubt- 
 ful ; they were warlike, and made themselves 
 formidable to the Romans. 
 
 CIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades, 
 famous for his debaucheries in his youth, and 
 the reformation of his morals when he ar- 
 rived at years of discretion. He behaved 
 with great courage at the battle of Salamis, 
 and rendered himself popular by his munifi- 
 cence and valor. He defeated the Persian 
 fleet at Cyprus, took tM r o hundred ships, and 
 totally routed their land-army near the river 
 Eurymedon in Pamphylia, on the same day, 
 470 b.c. Cimon afterward lost his popularity, 
 and was banished by the Athenians, who 
 declared war against the Lacedemonians; 
 but having been recalled from his exile, rec- 
 
 onciled Lacedaemon and his country. He 
 was afterward appointed to carry on the war 
 against Persia, gave battle to the enemy on 
 the coast of Asia, and totally destroyed their 
 fleet. He died as he was besieging the town 
 of Citium, in Cyprus, b.c. 449, in the fifty - 
 first year of his age. 
 
 CINCINNATI, Society of the, founded in 
 1783, by the officers of the Revolutionary 
 army M r hen about disbanding. Gen. Wash- 
 ington was the first president-general, and 
 continued such till his death. His successors 
 were as follows: 1800, Gen. Alexander Ham- 
 ilton; 1804, Gen. Charles Cotes worth Pinck- 
 ney, S. C. ; 1826, Gen. Thomas Pinckney; 
 Col. Aaron Ogden, N. J. ; 1838, Gen. Mor- 
 gan LeM r is, N. Y. ; 1844, Maj. Popham, N. Y. ; 
 1848, Gen. Dearborn, Mass. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, a cele- 
 brated Roman. Having been informed, as he 
 ploughed his field, that the senate had chosen 
 him dictator, he left his farm with regret, and 
 repaired to the assistance of his countrymen, 
 M r hom he found hard pressed by the Volsci 
 and iEqui. He conquered the enemy and 
 returned to Rome in triumph ; and, sixteen 
 days after his appointment, laid doM 7 n his 
 office, and returned to his agricultural em- 
 ployments. In his eightieth year he was 
 again summoned, against Prseneste, as dicta- 
 tor, and after a successful campaign, resigned 
 the unlimited power which had been re- 
 posed in him. He flourished about 460 
 years b.c. 
 
 CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman 
 consul who leagued with Marius to deluge 
 Rome with blood. He M r as stoned to death, 
 b.c. 84. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS. They were originally 
 the five {cinque) ports of Hastings, Hythe, 
 Romney, Sandwich, and Dover, which, ac- 
 cording to the regulations of William the 
 Conqueror, were bound, at specified notice, 
 to furnish and man a certain number of 
 ships of war. Winch elsea and Rye were 
 afterM*ard added. These toM r ns M T ere, to use 
 the language of the time, compelled to “ find 
 the service they owed.” They stood to the 
 crown in the same relation that the holders 
 of great estates did, only that they were to 
 do their services on shipboard. If a resident 
 of either of the Cinque Ports served as a 
 soldier, he was released from his naval obli- 
 
 CIN 
 
212 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gations. The number of galleys these ports 
 were required to furnish, was fifty-two. The 
 lord warden appears to have had a general 
 charge of them and their naval concerns. In 
 time the institution became obsolete, but the 
 wardenship was found a comfortable place 
 for public men who had small means of 
 living, or, with ample means, had yet greater 
 avarice. Lord North filled it ; so did William 
 Pitt; and also the Duke of Wellington, it 
 being one of the many offices possessed by 
 him at the time of his death. It was while 
 residing at Walmer Castle, a place held by 
 him in virtue of the wardenship, that he died, 
 and, if medical authority can be believed, in 
 consequence of his residence there, the bleak 
 air from the British Channel and the Ger- 
 man Ocean being too rude for the soldier of 
 more than fourscore and three years. The 
 post of warden has become a complete sine- 
 cure, almost a scandalous one ; and it was 
 said to have been an understood thing among 
 men of all parties in England, that it should 
 be abolished upon the death of the great 
 W ellington ; instead of this it was bestowed 
 upon some one of the titled barnacles that 
 cluster to Britannia’s ship of state. 
 
 CIRCASSIA, a country of Asia, lying be- 
 tween the Black and Caspian Sea, on the 
 northern slope of the Caucasus. The Cir- 
 cassians are Mohammedans. They are a 
 warlike race. The females are celebrated for 
 their beauty, are sold by their parents, and 
 are esteemed the brightest ornaments of an 
 eastern seraglio. 
 
 The Russians are nominal masters of Cir- 
 cassia, but for the past twenty years the bold 
 mountaineers have carried on a war of inde- 
 pendence with great success under the lead 
 of the chief Schamyl. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. The circumnav- 
 igation of the earth, at the time it was first 
 achieved, was among the greatest and most 
 daring of human enterprises. 
 
 The first was Magellan, or rather by his 
 fleet, as he was himself slain on the vogage, 
 1519; Groalva, 1537; Alvaradi, 1537; Men- 
 dana, 1567; Sir Francis Drake, 1577; Cav- 
 endish, 15S6; Lemaire, 1615; Quiros, 1625; 
 Tasman, 1642 ; Cowley, 1683 ; Dampier, 1689 ; 
 Cooke, 1708; Clipperton and Sherlock, 1719; 
 Anson, 1740; Byron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; 
 
 Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776; his last voyage con- 
 tinued by King, 1779; Portlocke, 1788; 
 Bougainville, 1766; La Peyrouse, 1782; 
 D’Entrecasteux, 1791. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. This name 
 was given by Bonaparte to a republic which 
 received its constitution in 1797, and which 
 finally included a territory of more than 
 16,337 square miles, inhabited by three and a 
 half millions of inhabitants. It included, 
 among other districts, Austrian Lombardy, 
 the Mantua and Venetian Provinces, Berga- 
 mo, Brescia, Crema, Verona, Rovigo, the 
 duchy of Modena, the principality of Massa 
 and Carrara, Bologna, Ferrara, Messola, and 
 Romagna. It merged into the kingdom of 
 Italy in March, 1805. 
 
 CISTERCIANS, an order of monkhood 
 founded by Robert, a Benedictine, Abbot of 
 Citeaux in France, 1092. They became so 
 powerful that they governed almost all Eu- 
 rope in spiritual and temporal concerns. 
 They observed a continual silence, abstained 
 from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes 
 nor shirts, and were most austere. 
 
 CITATE. The Russian general Gortscha- 
 koff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up 
 redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which 
 were stormed by the Turks under Omar 
 Pacha, Jan. 6th, 1854. The fighting con- 
 tinued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the 
 Russians were compelled to retire to their 
 former position at Krajona, having lost 1,500 
 killed and 2,000 wounded. The loss of the 
 Turks was 338 killed and 700 wounded. 
 
 CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong for- 
 tress of Spain was invested by the French, 
 under Massena, June 11th, 1810, and jdelded 
 to them July 10th. It remained in their 
 possession until it was stormed by the Brit- 
 ish, commanded by Lord Wellington, Jan. 
 19th, 1812. The loss of the British and 
 Portuguese amounted to about 1,000 killed 
 and wounded ; the loss of the garrison was 
 the same, besides 1,700 prisoners. 
 
 CLAPPERTON, Hugh, an officer in the 
 English navy, born at Annan, in Scotland, in 
 1788. Having served with distinction, he 
 joined Oudney and Denham, in their expedi- 
 tion to Africa. After acquiring a vast fund 
 of information in regard to the interior of 
 Africa, he returned to England, but, died in 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 213 
 
 the vicinity of Soccatoo, while on a second 
 expedition of discovery, April 13th, 1827. 
 Richard Lander was his servant. 
 
 CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, Earl of, 
 lord high chancellor of England, was born 
 1608, and educated at Oxford. He became 
 chancellor of exchequer and member of the 
 privy council under Charles I., and was loaded 
 with honors by Charles II. Having, how- 
 ever, lost the royal favor, he was deprived of 
 his offices, threatened with impeachment, 
 and compelled to fly to France, where he 
 died, at Rouen, in 1674. His daughter Anne 
 was the first wife of the Duke of York, 
 afterward James II. His “History of the 
 Rebellion ” (as the royalists termed the civil 
 war), is much esteemed for the descriptions 
 of the author’s eminent contemporaries. 
 
 CLARK, Abraham, one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 at Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 15th, 1726. 
 He was a self-taught, energetic man ; in 1776 
 was elected to a seat in Congress ; was ever 
 an active public man ; and died in 1794, from 
 a stroke of the sun. 
 
 CLARK, Adam, LL.D., F.S.A., &c., a dis- 
 tinguished Methodist preacher and divine, a 
 man of great talents and extensive learning, 
 particularly in the oriental languages and 
 biblical literature, and author of a well known 
 and learned commentary on the Scriptures, 
 and various other publications. He was born 
 in 1760, in the county of Londonderry, in 
 Ireland, his father being of an English family, 
 and his mother a Scotchwoman. By invita- 
 tion of John Wesley, he became a pupil in 
 Kingswood school, then recently established, 
 and was sent out by Mr. Wesley, an itinerant 
 preacher, in 1782, at the early age of nine- 
 teen. He was greatly admired as a preacher : 
 at first his youth attracted great numbers of 
 hearers; but afterward the extent of his 
 resources, from the gifts of nature and the 
 fruits of study, commanded attention wher- 
 ever he went ; and hardly any man ever drew 
 so large congregations, or of so mixed a 
 character. To his great talents and learning 
 he united the virtues of the humble Christian ; 
 was greatly respected by all denominations ; 
 and though catholic in his feelings, he was 
 strongly attached to the body of Christians 
 with which he was connected. He died Au- 
 
 gust 26th, 1832, at Bayswater, near London, 
 of the cholera. 
 
 CLARKE, George Rogers, an American 
 officer, who was engaged against the Indians, 
 throughout the Revolutionary war, on the 
 frontiers of Virginia. In 1778, he was ap- 
 pointed to command a force for the protec- 
 tion of Illinois. He built Fort Jefferson on 
 the eastern bank of the Mississippi, and in 
 1781, received a general’s commission. He 
 died in 1818, near Louisville, Kentucky, aged 
 seventy-six. The following anecdote is re- 
 lated of him in an authentic work. 
 
 The Indians came in to the treaty of Fort 
 Washington in the most friendly manner, 
 except the Shawnees, conceited and warlike, 
 the first in at a battle, the last at a treaty. 
 Three hundred of their finest warriors set 
 off in all their paint and feathers, and filled 
 the council-house. Their number and de- 
 meanor, so unusual at an occasion of this 
 sort, was altogether unexpected and sus- 
 picious. The United States stockade mus- 
 tered seventy men. In the centre of the 
 hall, at a little table, sat the commissary- 
 general, Clarke, the indefatigable scourge of 
 these very wanderers, General Richard But- 
 ler, and Mr. Parsons. On the part of the 
 Indians, an old council-sachem and a war- 
 chief took the lead. The latter, a tall, raw- 
 boned fellow, with an impudent and villain- 
 ous look, made a boisterous and threatening 
 speech, which operated effectually on the 
 passions of the Indians, who set up a pro- 
 digious whoop at every pause. He concluded 
 by presenting a black and white wampum, 
 to signify they were prepared for either 
 event, peace or war. Clarke exhibited the 
 same unaltered and careless countenance he 
 had shown during the whole scene, his head 
 leaning on his left hand, and his elbow resting 
 on the table. He raised his little cane, and 
 pushed the sacred wampum off the table, 
 with very little ceremony. Every Indian, at 
 the same time, started from his seat with one 
 of those sudden, simultaneous, and peculiarly 
 savage sounds, which startle and disconcert 
 the stoutest heart, and can neither be de- 
 scribed nor forgotten. At this juncture, 
 Clarke arose. The scrutinizing eye cohered 
 at his glance. He stamped his foot on the 
 prostrate and insuhed symbol, and ordered 
 
 CLA 
 
214 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 them to leave the hall. They did so appa- 
 rently involuntarily. They were heard all 
 that night, debating in the bushes near the 
 fort. The raw-boned chief was for war, the 
 old sachem for peace. The latter prevailed, 
 and the next morning they came back and 
 sued for peace. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, a distinguished divine, 
 metaphysician, and scholar, was born at 
 Norwich, England, Oct. 11th, 1675, and died 
 May 17th, 1729. Sir James Mackintosh said 
 of him, that he was “ eminent at once as a 
 divine, a mathematician, a metaphysical phi- 
 losopher, and a philologer ; and, as the inter- 
 preter of Homer and Caesar, the scholar of 
 Newton, and the antagonist of Leibnitz, 
 approved himself not unworthy of corre- 
 spondence with the highest order of human 
 spirits.” 
 
 CLARKSON, Thomas, was born at Wis- 
 beach, in Cambridgeshire, March 28th, 1760, 
 and graduated at St. John’s, Cambridge, with 
 high honors of scholarship. With untiring 
 benevolence he sought the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, and his life may be said to have 
 passed in labors for its extinction. He had 
 the pleasure of seeing it declared illegal by 
 the British parliament in 1807. Mr. Clark- 
 son was a member of the society of Friends. 
 He died in September, 1846. 
 
 CLAUDE, Gelee, commonly called Claude 
 Lorraine, from the province of his birth, was 
 born in the year 1600. His parents were 
 very poor, and as Claude showed no disposi- 
 tion to learn to read or write, he was placed 
 with a pastry-cook. The cooks of Lorraine 
 were celebrated, and found good employment 
 abroad. Young Claude wandered to Rome 
 with some of them. There he engaged him- 
 self to Agostino Tassi, a good landscape 
 painter, as an ordinary domestic. He both* 
 prepared his master’s meals, and ground his 
 colors for him ; but he acquired at the same 
 time the rudiments of the art. From this 
 menial capacity his application brought him 
 to be known as one of the greatest of land- 
 scape painters. He died at Rome in 1682. 
 Claude was extremely slow and careful in his 
 execution. He often painted for a week or a 
 fortnight on one part of a picture, without 
 showing any progress. With the human 
 figure or animals he had great difficulty, and 
 in such parts of his pictures generally pro- 
 
 cured the aid of his friends. His chief 
 excellence is in aerial perspective, and the 
 management of light generally. His studies 
 are said to have been made from the banks 
 of the Tiber, and the magnificent prospects 
 afforded by the Campagna di Roma. Here 
 he might be seen at early dawn, in the brill- 
 iancy of noon-day, and at the set of sun, 
 marking the different effects produced by the 
 rays of the sun upon the surrounding objects, 
 or taking in, with an attentive and practiced 
 eye, the dreamy hues which the vapory haze 
 cast upon the various parts of the land- 
 scape as they slowly receded from his sight. 
 All these have been traced upon his canvas 
 with a fidelity and beauty which few have 
 been able to equal and none to excel. But 
 the great charm of his pictures is the exqui- 
 site poetry interwoven in them. In his pic- 
 tures of morning, the rising sun dissipates the 
 dews, and the fields and verdure brighten at 
 the approach of day ; his evening skies expand 
 a glowing splendor over the horizon ; and 
 vegetation, oppressed by a sultry aridity, 
 sinks under the heat of his noon-day suns. 
 It was his custom to preserve in a book the 
 drawings of the paintings executed by him. 
 Six of these registers, termed by him Libri 
 di Verita , were found after his decease. This 
 curious collection was sold by one of his 
 nephews for two hundred scudi, to a French- 
 man, who took them to Paris and offered 
 them to the king. The purchase being de- 
 clined, they were afterward bought by the 
 Duke of Devonshire, and now adorn the mag- 
 nificent mansion at Chatsworth. 
 
 CLAUDIUS I., Emperor of Rome, the son 
 of Drusus, and the successor of the infamous 
 Caligula. He made some conquests in Britain, 
 and built several noble structures in Rome. 
 Fie was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, who 
 wished to place her son, Nero, on the throne, 
 a.d. 54. He was then sixty-three years of 
 age. 
 
 CLAY, Henry, was born in Virginia, in 
 the neighborhood of a region known as the 
 Slashes (whence his sobriquet of ‘the mill 
 boy of the slashes’), the 12th of April, 1777. 
 The straitened circumstances of his father, 
 who was a clergyman, permitted him but the 
 humble education of a district school. At 
 an early age he acted as copyist for the clerk 
 of the court of chancery at Richmond. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGEAPI 7, 
 
 215 
 
 ASHLAND. 
 
 When nineteen, he commenced the stud} r of and the succeeding congress, till in 1814 he 
 law, and such were his assiduity in study and was appointed one of the commissioners to 
 
 the brilliancy of his progress, that he was 
 admitted to the bar within one year. In 1799, 
 he removed to Lexington, Kentucky. He 
 became an active politician as well as a popular 
 lawyer. When a convention was called for 
 
 negotiate at Ghent a treaty of peace with 
 Great Britain. He returned from Europe in 
 1815, having proved himself no less skillful 
 as a diplomatist than he was eloquent as an 
 orator and able as a debater. He was re- 
 
 the revision of the constitution of Kentucky, ! elected to Congress from 1815 to 1821 
 he incurred much unpopularity by his efforts ; (being speaker of the house during that time), 
 for the election of delegates in favor of the and in 1828. He became known as a de- 
 emancipation of the slaves. His opposition | cided advocate of a protective tariff, and took 
 to the alien and sedition laws restored him to j an active part in the passage of the Missouri 
 favor, and in 1803 he was elected by a large i compromise. In 1824, he received thirty- 
 majority to the legislature. Such was the i seven electoral votes for the presidency. His 
 repute he gained, that in 1806 he was chosen competitors, Jackson, Adams, and Crawford, 
 
 United States senator to fill a vacancy caused 
 by the resignation of Gen. Adair. After the 
 expiration of the brief term (March 3d, 1807), 
 
 each received a larger number of votes, and 
 there being no choice by the electors, their 
 names were balloted upon b) r the house of 
 
 he returned to Lexington, was again chosen j representatives, and Mr. Adams was chosen. 
 
 to the legislature, and served as speaker of 
 the assembly two sessions. In 1809 he was 
 appointed to fill another vacancy in the 
 United States senate, and served from Jan. 
 4th, 1810, till March 3d, 1811. In 1811 he 
 was elected representative in Congress from 
 Kentucky, and was chosen speaker of the 
 house ; the duties of which arduous office he 
 discharged with great ability through that 
 
 The friends of Mr. Clay, by his advice, sup- 
 ported Mr. Adams. Upon the accession of 
 the new president, Mr. Clay was made sec- 
 retary of state. In the heat of partisan 
 animosity the charge was engendered that 
 his appointment was the result of corruption, 
 and the payment in the bargain by which 
 the adherents of Clay voted for Mr. Adams. 
 Time has proved this to be malicious calumny 
 
 CLA 
 
216 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 In 1831, Clay was elected United States 
 senator from Kentucky, and in 1832 was an 
 unsuccessful competitor with Jackson for the 
 presidency. He was re-elected to the senate 
 in 1836, and served until his resignation in 
 1842. In 1844, he was nominated by the 
 Whigs for the presidency, but was defeated 
 by Mr. Polk. He returned to the senate in 
 1849, and was active in supporting the com- 
 promise measures of 1850. His health now 
 began to decline, and after a voyage to the 
 W est Indies for its restoration, he came back 
 to W ashington, where he departed from life, 
 June 29 th, 1852, at the age of seventy -five 
 years. 
 
 It was the remark of a distinguished sena- 
 tor, that Mr. Clay’s eloquence was absolutely 
 intangible to delineation; that the most la- 
 bored description could not embrace it ; and 
 that to be understood, it must be seen and 
 felt. He was an orator by nature. His eagle 
 eye burned with patriotic ardor, or flashed 
 indignation and defiance upon his foes, or 
 was suffused with tears of commiseration or 
 of pity ; and it was because he felt, that he 
 made others feel. A gentleman, after hearing | 
 one of his magnificent efforts in the senate, 
 thus described him : “ Every muscle of the 
 orator’s face was at work. His whole body 
 seemed agitated, as if each part was instinct 
 with a separate life; and his small white 
 hand, with its blue veins apparently dis- 
 tended almost to bursting, moved gracefully, 
 but with all the energy of rapid and ve- 
 hement gesture. The appearance of the 
 speaker seemed that of a pure intellect, 
 wrought up to its mightiest energies, and 
 brightly shining through the thin and trans- 
 parent vail of flesh that invested it.” 
 
 The particulars of the duel between Mr. 
 Clay and Randolph of Roanoke may be inter- 
 esting to the reader. The eccentric descend- 
 ant of Pocahontas appeared on the ground in 
 a huge morning gown. This garment had 
 such a vast circumference that the precise 
 whereabouts of the lean senator was a matter 
 of very vague conjecture. The parties ex- 
 changed shots, and the ball of Mr. Clay hit 
 the centre of the visible object, but the body 
 of Mr. Randolph was untouched. The latter 
 had fired in the air. Immediately after the 
 exchange of shots, he walked up to Mr. Clajq 
 parted the folds of his gown, pointed to the 
 
 hole where the bullet had punctured his 
 coat, and exclaimed in the shrillest tones of 
 his piercing voice, “Mr. Clay, you owe me a 
 coat — you owe me a coat ! ” To which Mr. 
 Clay replied, with slow and solemn emphasis, 
 pointing directly at Randolph’s heart, “Mr. 
 Randolph, I thank God that I am no deeper 
 in your debt ! ” 
 
 CLAYTON, John, an eminent botanist, 
 author of “ The Flora Virginica,” was born 
 in England, about 1685 ; came with his father 
 to America, and in 1722, became clerk of the 
 county of Gloucester, Virginia, which office 
 he held fifty-one years, to his death, 1773. 
 
 CLAYTON, John Middleton, was born in 
 Sussex county, Delaware, July 24th, 1796. 
 He was a learned lawyer and eloquent advo- 
 cate, represented Delaware several terms in 
 the federal senate, and was secretary of state 
 in the cabinet of President Taylor. He died 
 at Dover, Del., Nov. $th, 1856. 
 
 CLEMENT. This name has been borne 
 by several popes. Clement XIV. suppressed 
 the order of the Jesuits, and gave many proofs 
 of great liberality in religious matters. He 
 is best known by his real name, Ganganelli. 
 He died in 1775. 
 
 CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, killed 
 in a battle fought with Epaminondas at 
 Leuctra, b.c. 371. There were two others of 
 the name. 
 
 CLEOMENES. This name was borne by 
 three kings of Sparta. The first delivered 
 Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidoe, 
 but killed himself in a fit of insanity, b.c. 491. 
 
 The reign of the second was distinguished 
 for nothing but an uninterrupted tranquillity. 
 
 Cleomenes III. was the son and successor 
 of Leonidas, and began to reign b.c. 230. 
 Engaging in a war with the Achaians, he was 
 defeated, and obliged to fly into Egypt, where 
 he destroyed himself in prison, b.c. 219. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, Queen of Egypt, and one 
 of the most famous and fascinating female 
 sovereigns of antiquity, was the daughter of , 
 Ptolemy Auletes, and the sister and wife of 
 Ptolemy Dionysius, who deprived her of her 
 share in the kingdom, and drove her to seek 
 protection of the Romans. She exerted all 
 the influence of her beauty to win the heart 
 and gain the favor of Caesar, and she was 
 successful. Ptolemy was defeated and drown- 
 ed. He left the throne to his sister, who 
 
 CLE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 217 
 
 removed her younger brother by poison. 
 Cleopatra visited Rome during the lifetime 
 of Caesar, but was forced to quit it by the 
 clamors of the populace. After the battle of 
 Philippi, she was summoned by Antony to 
 appear before him to answer to the charge 
 brought against her of having assisted Brutus. 
 When she made her appearance before An- 
 tony, the charms of -her person and mind 
 ensnared him, and made him forget the at- 
 tractions of his wife. At the battle of Actium 
 she fled, and her paramour was defeated. He 
 afterward committed suicide, and died in her 
 arms. Cleopatra, to avoid gracing the tri- 
 umph of Augustus, applied an asp to her 
 breast, and died of the wound, b.c. 30. She 
 was a woman of great talents, but of a most 
 ambitious and extravagant spirit. In a con- 
 vivial contest with Antony, to see which of 
 them could expend the ‘most money on an 
 entertainment, she snatched one of her pearl 
 ornaments, valued at $50,000, and dissolving 
 it in a. cup of vinegar, swallowed the con- 
 tents. Few scenes of antiquity can have sur- 
 passed the splendor of her appointments, 
 when she floated over the waves of the river 
 Cydnus, to meet Antony. She came to judg- 
 ment, but she came in the pride of beauty 
 and anticipated triumph. Her galley glowed 
 with gold; odors filled its silken sails, and 
 the loveliest girls of Egypt performed the 
 part of mariners. Beneath an awning on the 
 deck lay the queen, in the slight drapery 
 with which painters and sculptors sometimes 
 invest the goddess of beauty. Silver oars 
 struck the water to the dulcet sound of 
 music, and beneath and about them sported 
 the fair representatives of marine deities. 
 
 CLERFAYT, Francis Sebastian Charles 
 Joseph de Croix, Count of, an Austrian gen- 
 eral. In 1792, he commanded the Austrian 
 troops against France, and after taking Long- 
 wy and Stenay, retired into the Low Coun- 
 tries. Here he lost the famous battle of 
 Jemappes ; but his retreat across the Rhine 
 was a masterpiece of skill. Under the com- 
 mand of the prince of Coburg, he gained 
 considerable advantages at Altenhaven, Quie- 
 vrain, Hausen, and Farmars, and decided the 
 victory of Nerwinden. With General Pich- 
 egru he disputed every foot of ground, till 
 the inferiority of his forces obliged him to 
 
 abandon the country. In 1795, he took the 
 command of the army of Mayence, forced the 
 French camp, and took a number of pris- 
 oners. He was following the victory with 
 ardor, when he received at Manheim an 
 order to desist. On this, he gave in his resig- 
 nation, and retired to Vienna, where he died 
 in 1798. 
 
 CLERKE, Edward, an able English naval 
 commander, the companion, friend, and suc- 
 cessor of Captain James Cook, died on the 
 coast of Kamschatka, August 22d, 1779, aged 
 thirty-nine. 
 
 CLIFFORD, George, the third Earl of 
 Cumberland, a nobleman distinguished by 
 his naval enterprises in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 He did great damage to the Spanish settle- 
 ments and trade. He died in 1605. 
 
 CLINTON, Charles, Col., was born in the 
 county of Longford, Ireland, 1690; came to 
 America, 1729 ; died Nov. 19th, 1773. 
 
 CLINTON, De Witt, the son of Gen. 
 James Clinton, was born in Orange county, N. 
 Y., in 1769. He studied law, and was elected 
 successively member of the state legislature, 
 of the senate of the union, and mayor of 
 New York. In 1817, he was chosen governor 
 of New York, on which occasion his previous 
 opponents gave him their votes, from a sense 
 of his merit; he was re-elected in 1820. 
 Clinton was one of the prime movers of the 
 great canal scheme, and having satisfied him- 
 self that there was no danger of that being 
 defeated, in 1822 he declined again entering 
 the elective lists. Having been deprived of 
 his seat in the board of canal commissioners, 
 by the animosity of his political opponents, 
 a revolution in public feeling took place 
 which enabled his friends in 1824 to elect 
 him governor over Colonel Young, by an 
 overwhelming majorit} 7 . In 1826, he was 
 again elected, but died Feb. 11th, 1828. 
 
 CLINTON, George, son of Col. Charles 
 Clinton (above), was born in Ulster county, 
 N. Y., July 15th, 1739. In the old French 
 war, and the war of independence, he dis- 
 played great gallantry. Having studied law, 
 he was admitted to practice in due time, and 
 was chosen governor of New York, in 1777, 
 and he continued in office eighteen years, 
 and then declined re-election. He was again 
 elected governor in 1801, and three years 
 
 CL1 
 
218 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 after Was chosen vice-president of the United 
 States, holding the oflice till the time of his 
 death in 1812. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, was a son of George 
 Clinton (governor of New York in 1743), 
 and grandson of the Earl of Lincoln. He 
 served on the continent during the ‘seven 
 years’ war,’ and came to America with Gen. 
 Howe ip the spring of 1775, bearing the 
 commission of a major-general. In 1778, he 
 succeeded Sir William Howe in the supreme 
 command, which he retained till 1782. He 
 was appointed governor of Gibraltar, in 1795, 
 and died Dec. 22d, the same year. 
 
 CLINTON, James, another son of Col. 
 
 Charles Clinton, was born in Ulster county, 
 N. Y., Aug. 9th, 1736. His education was ex- 
 cellent, and he served with distinction in 
 the English and French war of 1756, and in 
 the Revolutionary war as brigadier-general. 
 After the close of the war, he became a sen- 
 ator of the United States, lie died Dec. 
 22 d, 1812. 
 
 CLIYE, Robert, Baron of Plassey, was 
 born in Shropshire, September 29th, 1725. 
 Bold and reckless in his youth, he was sent 
 as a scapegrace to Madras in his eighteenth 
 year. His friends had procured him a clerk- 
 ship in the company service. Mercantile 
 drudgery he so utterly disrelished that twice 
 
 CLI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 219 
 
 he tried suicide by snapping a loaded pistol 
 at his head. Each time the pistol hung fire. 
 A friend who entered the room soon after- 
 ward fired the weapon out the window. 
 Startled at his preservation, Clive sprang up, 
 crying with an oath, “I must be reserved for 
 something great,” and abandoned his design. 
 War endangered the British possessions, and 
 Clive found more congenial employment in 
 the field, where he became eminent for his 
 successes. He assisted in the Tanjore war 
 in 1747, and in 1751 took Arcot by a coup 
 de main, and relieved Trichinopoly. He 
 afterward took Fort William in Bengal, de- 
 feated Surajah Dowlah, and placed Jaffier Ali 
 Cawn upon the throne. The victory of Plas- 
 sey, June 23d, 1757, where with little more 
 than 3,000 men he defeated Surajah Dowlah 
 at the head of 70,000, laid the foundation of 
 British power and empire in India. Honors 
 were heaped upon him in consequence of 
 these achievements, and he was made presi- 
 dent of Bengal. An attempt to weed out 
 the gross abuses in India won him many 
 foes, and on his final return home in 1767 he 
 was the mark for much obloquy. The ver- 
 dict passed by parliament, in refusing to vote 
 that he had abused his power, and resolving 
 that “Lord Clive has rendered great -and 
 meritorious services to his country,” could 
 not heal the wounds in his haughty spirit. 
 He died by his . own hand, November 22d, 
 1774. 
 
 CLOVIS, King of the Franks, born 465, 
 succeeded his father Childeric in 481. He 
 embraced Christianity and was publicly bap- 
 tized. He was the founder of the French 
 monarchy, drove out the Romans, defeated 
 the Goths, subdued several provinces, and 
 fixed the royal residence at Paris. He died 
 in 511. The Salique law was published by 
 Clovis. When he was first told of the suf- 
 ferings of Christ, he exclaimed, “Oh! had I 
 been there with my valiant Gauls, how I 
 would have avenged him ! ” 
 
 CLYMER, George, one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 at Philadelphia, in 1739. He became a mer- 
 chant under the auspices of his uncle and 
 guardian, but he preferred science and liter- 
 ture to business. He was chosen to Congress 
 in 1776, and was several years a talented and 
 patriotic delegate in that body. Mr. Clymer 
 
 was one of the projectors of the bank estab- 
 lished for the sole purpose of conveying 
 rations to the army. Perceiving the good 
 effects of a national bank, in 1780, when 
 elected a second time to Congress, he stren- 
 uously advocated its establishment. In 1784 
 he filled a se£t in the legislature of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and as a member of the convention, 
 he assisted in framing the present federal 
 constitution. He was also a member of the 
 first federal congress. When, in 1791, the 
 famous bill imposing a duty on spirits dis- 
 tilled within the United States, was passed, 
 Clymer was placed at the head of the Penn- 
 sylvania excise, and rendered efficient service 
 in putting down the whiskey insurrection. 
 He was engaged, with others, to negotiate a 
 treaty with the Cherokee Indians in 1796. 
 He was afterward appointed president of the 
 academy of fine arts, and of the Philadelphia 
 bank. He died Jan. 23d, 18i3. 
 
 CLYTEMNESTRA, daughter of Tyndarus, 
 King of Sparta, by Heda, and twin-sister of 
 Helen. In the absence of her husband Aga- 
 memnon, at the siege of Troy, TEgisthus 
 made his court to her, and publicly lived 
 with her. Her infidelity reached the ears of 
 Agamemnon, but he was prevented from car- 
 rying his schemes of vengeance into execu- 
 tion, being murdered by the traitress and her 
 paramour on his return home. After this 
 crime, Clymnestra publicly married iEgis- 
 j thus, who ascended the throne of Argos. 
 She was killed by her son Orestes. 
 
 COBBETT, William (1762-1835), a self- 
 taught man, and powerful political writer in 
 England. — r 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA, called also Anam, a 
 country of Farther India, composed of Cam- 
 I bodia, Cochin-China Proper, and Tonquin, is 
 | 1,000 miles long, and from 70 to 220 miles 
 broad. The government is a hereditary mili- 
 I tary -despotism. The inhabitants are hardy, 
 i but treacherous, and the country is fertile. 
 
 I Little attention is paid to religion, although 
 | that of Fo is professed by the lower orders, 
 j The commerce of the country is Increasing. 
 A portion of the country was conquered and 
 colonized by the Chinese b.c. 214, but the 
 Chinese yoke was afterward thrown off. 
 
 CODRUS, the son of Melanthus, and last 
 king of Athens, who, learning that the oracle 
 had assured the Heraclidae that their good 
 
 COD 
 
220 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 fortune depended on sparing his life, rushed 
 into the midst of the hostile array in dis- 
 guise. and was slain, 1070 b.c. 
 
 COFFEE. Its use as a beverage is traced 
 to the Persians. Some ascribe it to the prior 
 of a monastery, who, being told by a goat- 
 herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon 
 the tree, and that they would then wake at 
 night and sport upon the hills, became curi- 
 ous to prove its virtues. He accordingly 
 tried it upon his monks, to prevent their 
 sleeping at matins, and found that it checked 
 their siumbers. Coffee came into great re- 
 pute in Arabia Felix about 1454, passed 
 thence to Egypt and Syria, and thence in 
 1511 to Constantinople, where coffee houses 
 were opened in 1554. It was first brought 
 into England by Nathaniel Canopus, a Cre- 
 tan, who made it his common beverage, at 
 Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. The coffee- 
 tree was conveyed from Mocha to Holland, 
 in 1616; carried to the West Indies in the 
 year 1726 ; first cultivated at Surinam by 
 the Hutch, 1718; its culture encouraged in 
 the British plantations, 1732. Some affirm 
 this tree to have been originally a native of 
 Arabia Felix, and certain it is that the finest 
 specimens are from the neighborhood of 
 Mocha. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as 
 existing 1184 b.c. The invention of coin is 
 ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished com- 
 merce : their money was of gold and silver. 
 The most ancient coins known are Macedoni- 
 an, of the fifth century b.c. Money was 
 coined at Rome in the time of Servius Tullius, 
 9 bout 573 b.c. Rude scraps of copper had 
 previously been used. Brass money only 
 was in use there down to 269 b.c. (when Fa- 
 bius Pictor coined silver), a token of little in- 
 tercourse with the East, where both gold and 
 silver had been in use long before. Iron 
 money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin 
 in Britain. Julius Caesar was the first who 
 obtained the express permission of the senate 
 to place his image on the Roman coins. In 
 the more simple days of the Roman people, 
 the likeness of no living personage appeared 
 upon their money : the heads were those of 
 their deities, or of those who had received di- 
 vine honors. 
 
 English coin was of different shapes, as 
 square, oblong, and round, until the middle 
 
 ages, when round coin only was used. The 
 names of various pieces now obsolete, are met 
 with in Shakspeare and other old English 
 authors. The angel was a gold coin, so called 
 from bearing the figure of an angel, valued at 
 6s. 8 d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. 
 in 1562. It is said the coin was so named 
 and stamped, in memory of the tradition that 
 Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation 
 to the papal chair, chancing one day to pass 
 through the slave-mart at Rome, and seeing 
 a group of beautiful youth set up for sale, he 
 inquired about their origin, and finding they 
 were English, he cried, “ Non Angli, sed An- 
 geli forent, si essent Christiani ; ” that is, 
 “ They would not be English, but angels, if 
 they were Christians.” Edward IV. coined 
 angels with a figure of Michael and the dragon, 
 the original of George and the dragon. The 
 angelot was a gold coin, half the angel in value, 
 struck at Paris when that city was in the 
 hands of the English, in the reign of Henry 
 VI., 1431. It had its name from the figure 
 of an angel supporting the escutcheon of the 
 arms of England and France. “ Let it be but 
 twenty nobles,” plead the Hostess of East- 
 cheap when fat Falstaff was wheedling a loan 
 from her. The noble was first struck in the 
 reign of Edward III., and being stamped with 
 a rose, was sometimes called a rose noble. 
 Its value was 6s. 8<2. Master Slender, too, 
 complains that swaggering Pistol picked his 
 purse of seven groats in mill-sixpences. The 
 groat (meaning great coin) was so called be- 
 cause up to 1351 it was the largest silver piece. 
 Its value was 4 d. Milled sixpences and shil- 
 lings were first made in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 The guinea was so called from having been at 
 first coined of gold brought from the coast of 
 Guinea, 1673. They were then valued at 30s. 
 The original pieces bore the figure of an ele- 
 phant. In 1717, their value was fixed at 21s. 
 by act of parliament. None have been coined 
 since 1816. The ancient silver penny was 
 the first silver coin struck in England, and 
 the only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. 
 Until the reign of Edward I., it was stamped 
 with a cross, so deeply indented that it might 
 be easily parted into two for half pence, and 
 into four for farthings (fourthmgs ) ; whence 
 those names. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, was born at Mileham 
 in the county of Norfolk, Feb. 1st, 1552. He 
 
 COK 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 221 
 
 was a diligent student, from three in the morn- 
 ing till nine at night, caring for no knowledge 
 not convertible to cash, and when called to 
 the bar in 1578, brimful of law, and fortified 
 by his hard discipline of study, he rose rap- 
 idly in his profession. Before he was thirty 
 years old, the desperate money-seeker had 
 made himself master of manor upon manor, 
 and laid the foundation of the enormous pos- 
 sessions which at length alarmed the crown, 
 lest they should prove too magnificent for a 
 subject. In 1592 he was appointed solicitor- 
 general, and in 1594 attorney-general, tri- 
 umphing over Bacon, who was an aspirant for 
 that place. His perversions of criminal law, 
 as lawyer for the crown, are notorious ; his 
 brutality toward Essex, Raleigh, and the ac- 
 complices in the plot of Guy Faux, rendered 
 him infamous. He was a man of haughty 
 manners, severe spirit, and irritable temper. 
 The stand which he made in the name of the 
 people against the encroachments of the crown, 
 was productive of great benefits ; but it was 
 a soiled instrument by which they were se- 
 cured. Upon the death of Elizabeth, James 
 I. knighted him, and continued hint in office. 
 In 1606 he was made chief-justice of the 
 court of common pleas, “fatigued, if not sati- 
 ated with amassing money at the bar.” He 
 was stubborn for the rights of his office, and 
 came in direct collision with the pedantic pre- 
 sumption of the king. In 1613 he was made 
 chief-justice of the king’s bench ; a change 
 which he little liked ; for though the rank was 
 higher, the gains were much less, and in con- 
 sequence of it, his hated rival, Bacon, who 
 had come to be solicitor-general, was promoted 
 to the attorney -generalship. Coke continued 
 to display independence in his new seat, but 
 stopped short of any act that might deprive 
 him of the reversion of the chancellorship, to 
 which his great acquirements and reputation 
 well entitled him. Bacon was active in op- 
 posing this, and urged the king to his dis- 
 missal from his post as chief-justice, which 
 was effected in 1616. He heard his sentence 
 with dejection and tears. We must not forget 
 this weakness, when we reflect upon his ab- 
 ject submission to royalty during his days of 
 dependence, and as we approach the more 
 stormy times when the spirit of vengeance in- 
 cited him to grapple with kingly power in the 
 temper of a rebel. 
 
 As Coke fell, Bacon rose. While the former 
 was shedding tears for dismissal, the latter 
 was intoxicated with joy for elevation to the 
 chancellorship. Coke was afterward partially 
 restored to royal favor, through influence 
 gained by the marriage of his daughter with 
 Sir John Yilliers, eldesTbrother of the power- 
 ful Duke of Buckingham. The marriage was 
 an unhappy one ; Sir John was old enough to 
 be his wife’s father; and before long she 
 eloped with a paramour, traveling abroad in 
 man’s attire, and dying young. But it served 
 the ends of her parent, who was restored to 
 the privy council, though he got no judicial 
 promotion. In his seventieth year he was 
 chosen to parliament. Failing to obtain the 
 office of lord treasurer, he placed himself at 
 the head of the Puritans, who had been re- 
 turned to the house in great numbers. His 
 hate was gratified by procuring the impeach- 
 ment of Bacon, for taking bribes as chancellor. 
 He maintained the stand he had taken for the 
 liberties of the people, after the accession of 
 Charles I., till 1628, when his famous Petition 
 of Right was carried ; shortly after which he 
 retired from public life. He died in Septem- 
 ber, 1634, in the eighty-third year of his age 
 and in the full possession of his faculties. For 
 a profound knowledge of the common law he 
 was unrivaled. His celebrated “Institute,” 
 which grew out of a commentary upon “ Lit- 
 tleton’s Treatise on Tenures,” has made him 
 the great oracle of English law. Though so 
 devoted to money-getting, as a judge he was 
 above suspicion of corruption. His services 
 for public liberty were great : to him England 
 is greatly indebted for the movement which, 
 beginning on the 30th of January, 1621, ended 
 on that very day eight and twenty years with 
 the decapitation Of Charles I. ; but it is unde- 
 niable that the nation’s difficulties would have 
 waited some time longer for solution, had not 
 Coke been inoculated with an opposition to 
 despotism by the sudden application of the 
 royal lancet, whose sharp edge his judicious 
 self-love would never have provoked. 
 
 He owed much of his success in early life 
 to his marriages. His first wife, who brought 
 him fortune, bore him ten children and died. 
 His memorandum-book feelingly describes 
 her virtues ; yet within four months the dis- 
 consolate widower had mated again, his sec- 
 ond wife bringing him both wealth and valu- 
 
 COK 
 
222 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 able connection, and Bacon, her cousin, having 
 been a rival suitor for her hand. 
 
 COLBERT, Jean Baptiste, an eminent 
 financial minister of Louis XIY. He was 
 born at Rheims in 1617, and died in 1683, 
 neglected by the monarch whose power his 
 wise policy had so much helped to develope. 
 
 COL DEN, Cadwallader, mathematician 
 and philosopher, born at Dense, in Scotland, 
 Feb. 17th, 1688; came to America, 1708, and 
 settled in New York. From 1760 till his 
 death he was lieutenant-governor of the 
 province. He died Sept. 28th, 1776, the day 
 of the conflagration of New York. 
 
 COLE, Thomas, a distinguished painter, 
 was born in England, during a visit of his 
 parents there, and brought while a child to 
 this country. From humble beginnings he 
 rose to a high rank as a landscape and im- 
 aginative artist. He painted his best produc- 
 tions after returning from a visit to Italy, 
 fixed his abode at Catskill amid the magnifi- 
 cent scenery of the Hudson, and died there 
 much lamented in 1847 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, was a na- 
 tive of Devonshire, being born on the 20th 
 of October, 1772, at Ottery St. Mary, of 
 which place his father was vicar. He was 
 educated at Christ’s Hospital in London, 
 where he had Charles Lamb for a schoolmate. 
 
 He describes himself as being, from eight to 
 fourteen, “a playless day-dreamer, a helluo 
 librorum ,” and such he was forever. At 
 fourteen he had a stock of erudition that 
 might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of 
 ignorance of which a schoolboy would have 
 been ashamed. He had no ambition, his 
 father was dead, and he thought of appren- 
 ticing himself to a shoemaker near the school. 
 Head-master Bowyer interposed; Coleridge 
 became deputy-Grecian, or head scholar, and 
 obtained a presentation from Christ’s Hospi- 
 tal to Jesus’ College, Cambridge, where he 
 remained from 1791 to 1793. Then creditors 
 obnoxious to him, and a love of the French 
 revolution obnoxious to the ruling powers at 
 Cambridge, led him to London and to enlist 
 in the light-dragoons. On his arrival at the 
 quarters of the regiment, the general of the 
 district inspected the recruits, and looking 
 hard at Coleridge, with a military air, in- 
 quired, “What’s your name, sir?” “Com- 
 berbach.” “What do you come here for, I 
 
 COL 
 
 sir ? ” as if very doubtful whether he had any 
 business there. “ Sir,” said Coleridge, “ for 
 what most other persons come — to be made 
 a soldier.” “Do you think,” said the gen- 
 eral, “ you can run a Frenchman through the 
 body ?” “I don’t know,” replied Coleridge, 
 “ as I never tried ; but I’ll let a Frenchman 
 run me through the body before I’ll run 
 away.” “That will do,” said the general, 
 and Coleridge was turned into the ranks. 
 “Comberbach” made a poor dragoon, stick- 
 ing in the awkward squad. He was the 
 scribe for his comrades, and they cared for 
 his horse and accoutrements. A Latin sen- 
 tence that he wrote under his saddle on the 
 stable wall, “Eheu! quam infortunii miser- 
 rimum est fuisse felieem,” awoke his cap- 
 tain’s curiosity. He was discovered, dis- 
 charged, and restored to his friends. 
 
 He became acquainted with Southey and 
 Lloyd, and the trio occupied themselves at 
 Bristol in planning a scheme for social per- 
 fection in the United States, the realization 
 of which was prevented by a very prosaic 
 social imperfection, the want of funds. They 
 tried a better scheme, and married three 
 sisters Fricker of Bristol. Coleridge was at 
 this time an ardent republican and a strong 
 Unitarian. Later in life, both his political 
 faith and his religious were changed. He 
 had become acquainted with Wordsworth, 
 and went to reside at Stowey, in whose vicin- 
 ity his new acquaintance was then dwelling. 
 There he wrote some of his most beautiful 
 poetry, “Ode on the Departing Year,” the 
 first part of “ Christabel,” the “Ancient 
 Mariner,” &c. In 1798, the munificence of 
 the Messrs. Wedgewood enabled him to dwell 
 and study fourteen months in Germany. On 
 his return he went to reside with Southey 
 and Wordsworth in the lake district. He 
 won a precarious subsistence by literature. 
 His habits were desultory, and he was under 
 the thralldom of opium, to whose fascinations 
 he had been driven by illness. For the last 
 nineteen years of his life he found an asylum 
 and relief from the drug, with his friend Mr. 
 Gillman, surgeon, at Highgate. There, friends 
 clustered about him, eager listeners to the 
 rich strains of poetry and philosophy that 
 were born upon his lips. He died July 25th, 
 1834. 
 
 COLIGNY, Gaspard de, admiral of France, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 223 
 
 born in 1516. He served with distinction 
 under the gallant Francis I. and Henry II., 
 by both of whom he was honored and re- 
 warded. He was chief of the Calvinists 
 against the Guises, to wliom he continued 
 formidable even after repeated defeats. Co- 
 ligny was the first who fell in the atrocious 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew’s day, in 1572. 
 His head was sent by Catharine of Medicis to 
 the pope. 
 
 COLLING WOOD, Cuthbert, Baron, an 
 English admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne, in 1748. In 1761 he entered the 
 naval service, in which he passed through all 
 the regular steps of promotion, till he was 
 made post-captain, 1794. He bore a part 
 with Nelson, in the action off Cape St. Vin- 
 cent, Feb. 14th, 1797. In 1804 he was made 
 vice-admiral of the blue, and served with 
 Cornwallis in the tedious but important 
 blockade of Brest. At length, after many 
 and various services, Collingwood became 
 second to Nelson in the battle of Trafalgar. 
 On this occasion, his ship, the Royal Sove- 
 reign, commenced the fight in such a manner 
 as to draw from Nelson the expression, “Look 
 at that noble fellow! observe the style in 
 which he carries his ship into action ! ” By 
 the loss of Nelson, the command devolved 
 upon Collingwood at a critical period, and 
 how well he secured by his prudence what 
 had been so gloriously won, needs not here 
 be related. He was now advanced to be vice- 
 admiral of thfe red, confirmed in the command 
 of the Mediterranean fleet, and created a 
 peer of Great Britain, by the title of Baron 
 Collingwood. He died, off Minorca, March 
 7th, 1810; and his body was carried to Eng- 
 land, and interred in St. Paul’s. 
 
 COLLINS, William, an interesting Eng- 
 lish poet, was the soil of a hatter of Chiches- 
 ter, where he was born on Christmas day, 
 1720. After completing his college course, 
 he published his Oriental Eclogues, and went 
 to London in 1744. His ill fortunes having 
 driven him to the bottle and nervous imbe- 
 cility, he died in 1756. 
 
 COLLOT D’HERBOIS, Jean Marie, an 
 actor who was hissed from the stage, made 
 himself infamous during the French revolu- 
 tion by conducting the massacres at Lyons. 
 He was banished to Cayenne after the fall of 
 Robespjpre, where in 1796 he died in horri- 
 
 ble yet fitting torment from drinking a bottle 
 of brandy while ill with the yellow fever. 
 
 COLMAN, George, a dramatic writer, was 
 born at Florence, where his father was Eng- 
 lish envoy, in 1733. He was a fine scholar 
 and good comic dramatist. His death took 
 place in 1794. His son, George Colman the 
 younger, born Oct. 21st, 1762, was also the 
 author of many comedies and farces, abound- 
 ing in witty and ludicrous delineations of 
 character, interspersed with bursts of tender- 
 ness and feeling. He died Oct. 26th, 1836. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District of. This tract, 
 originally ten miles square, was ceded by 
 Maryland and Virginia, to be occupied as the 
 seat of the federal government. In 1846, the 
 portion on the right bank of the Potomac, 
 including the city of Alexandria, was retro- 
 ceded to Virginia, so that the territory is now 
 only half the original extent. The population 
 in 1870 was 131,700. The government of the 
 district is vested in Congress, the inhabitants 
 having no voice in federal affairs. Washing- 
 ton, the capital of the United States, is situ- 
 ated on the left bank of the Potomac, and 
 contained in 1870 109,199 inhabitants. Its 
 natural situation is pleasant and healthy, and 
 it is laid out on a plan, which, when com- 
 pleted, will render it one of the handsonjest 
 and most commodious cities in the world. 
 The scale of this plan has given Washington 
 the name of the ‘city of magnificent distan- 
 ces.’ Among the public edifices of the city 
 are the capitol, the president’s house, the 
 general post-office, buildings for the execu- 
 tive departments, and the Smithsonian In- 
 stitute. Washington became the seat of 
 government in 1800. The city was founded 
 by laying the corner-stone of the capitol, 
 Sept. 18th, 1793. Washington was taken by 
 the British under Gen. Ross, and the public 
 buildings destroyed by a general conflagra- 
 tion, Aug. 24th, 1814. Part of the capitol, 
 and the congressional library, were consumed 
 by fire, Dec. 24th, 1851. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher, was a native 
 of Genoa, born about 1435, of poor parents, 
 who educated him with care. At the age of 
 fourteen he went to sea, having evinced an 
 early attachment to a sailor’s life. Against 
 the Mohammedans and Venetians he fought 
 with great bravery and skill. Having con- 
 ceived the design of a western passage to 
 
224 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 India, he for a long time sought for patronage 
 without avail ; but after struggling eighteen 
 years, was at length aided by Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, and sailed with three small vessels, 
 the Pinta, Nina, and Pinzon, August 3d, 
 1492. Land was discovered on the 11th of 
 October, which proved to be the island of 
 Guanahani, named by Columbus, St. Salva- 
 dor. Cuba was discovered on the 28th of 
 October. Columbus was the first to announce 
 his, own discovery, and was received in Spain 
 with signal favor. He was created a gran- 
 dee of the realm, and loaded with other 
 honors. Sept. 25th, 1493, he sailed from 
 Cadiz, on his second voyage, with a fleet of 
 seventeen sail. He built a town called Isa- 
 bella on Hispaniola, but encountered many 
 obstacles and difficulties in his new voyage 
 of discovery. Meanwhile, that envy which 
 never fails to pursue true merit stirred up 
 clamors against Columbus, which were stifled, 
 however, by his return to Spain in 1496, 
 with valuable treasures. In 1498 he departed 
 on his third voyage. Arrived in the new 
 world, he found his enemies still exasperated 
 against him, and they scrupled not to repre- 
 sent him to his sovereigns as endeavoring to 
 make himself independent. Their stories 
 were believed. Hon Francisco de Bobadilla, 
 was sent out by the court, and invested tem- 
 porarily with the chief power, being permit- 
 ted to use his own judgment in quelling the 
 disturbances of the colonies. This person 
 scrupled not to arrest Columbus and put him 
 in irons, from which he would not suffer him- 
 
 self to be freed, when he was carried on 
 board the vessel, which was to bear him to 
 Spain. ‘‘No,” said he, when the attendants 
 offered to remove them ; “ the truth must be 
 apparent, and my patrons are too noble, too 
 generous, to overlook me. Then, if fortune 
 again smiles upon me, these will serve as 
 affecting memorials of sorrow past: I will 
 not part with them, and I even wish that, 
 when I am no more, they may be suspended 
 over my sepulchre.” In irons, he and his two 
 brothers returned to Spain. There the honor 
 and fidelity of Columbus became apparent, 
 a-nd he was nominally reinstated in his dig- 
 nities. But the disposition of the sovereigns 
 toward him was altered. Though Bobadilla 
 was recalled, Columbus in vain supplicated 
 to be restored to his government; he was 
 put off by vague promises, and the post 
 finally given to Don Nicholas Ovando, a prac- 
 tical as well as accomplished man. Thus, 
 after three momentous voyages, and the ac- 
 quisition of much fame, he found himself 
 displaced ; thwarted in a point in which he 
 conceived his honor concerned, and his 
 hard-earned authority torn from his possess- 
 ion. Columbus now sought only to obtain 
 the fulfillment of the royal promises with 
 regard to the furtherance of his expedition, 
 imagining that the continent he had discov- 
 ered was Asia, and hoping to find a way to 
 the East Indies by the isthmus of Darien. 
 With four small caravels, the largest being 
 but of seventy tons burthen, he set out on 
 his fourth voyage of discovery. Reaving 
 
 COL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 225 
 
 Cadiz on the 9 th of May, 1502, he reached Mar- 
 tinique June 15th. Having touched at Cuba, 
 he pursued a south-westerly course, until he 
 reached Guanaja, an island on the coast of 
 Honduras, whose inhabitants had attained a 
 pretty high degree of civilization. Their 
 persons were covered with cotton garments, 
 dyed with a variety of bright and pleasing 
 colors. He mentions a curious occurrence as 
 taking place here. He had been presented, 
 among other animals, with a peccary, or 
 American pig, and one of those monkeys 
 with prehensile tails, indigenous to America. 
 The peccary being thrown in the way of the 
 monkey, the latter, by a dexterous use of its 
 tail, confined the jaws of the pig in such a 
 manner as to expose it helplessly to the action 
 of the monkey’s claws. “ This appeared to 
 me so strange,” Columbus writes to his 
 patrons, “ that I thought fit to write it down 
 for the information of your majesties.” 
 
 The admiral, in his endeavors to discover a 
 strait leading to the Pacific Ocean, encoun- 
 tered great hardships and fatigues, which had 
 a baneful influence upon his health, and was 
 finally shipwrecked. Ovando was himself 
 averse to succoring Columbus, after a mes- 
 senger had acquainted him with the peril of his 
 situation ; blit the people of Hispaniola were 
 so well disposed toward the admiral, that, for 
 the sake of maintaining his own reputation, . 
 he was forced to send him relief. Columbus, 
 arrived at St. Domingo, met with a reception 
 such as to banish, for a brief space, the re- 
 membrance of his sufferings ; but his bodily 
 weakness could not be disguised. When 
 sufficiently recovered, he set sail for Spain, 
 arriving there on the 7 th day of November, 
 1504. 
 
 The services of this distinguished man were 
 indeed important. In his third voyage he 
 had discovered the continent of America ; in 
 his last, had received intelligence of the im- 
 mense wealth of Mexico, which was destined 
 to increase, to an enormous extent, the reve- 
 nue of Spain. Columbus vainly looked for 
 the reward of his services ; he had stipulated 
 that certain dignities and an income should be 
 his, but he found himself in hopeless indi- 
 gence. His kind patroness, the queen, was 
 no more, and her husband, stern and selfish, 
 disregarded the claims of the enterprising 
 navigator. He evaded the request of Colum- 
 
 15 
 
 bus to be restored to the vice-royalty of 
 which he had been deprived, and repeated 
 disappointments, in connexion with his bod- 
 ily infirmities, hastened the death of the 
 latter, which took place at Valladolid, on the 
 20th of May, 1506. His remains were after- 
 ward removed to the cathedral of Havana in 
 Cuba. 
 
 Columbus was a man of great and inventive 
 genius. The operations of his mind were 
 energetic, but irregular; bursting forth, at 
 times, with that irresistible force which char- 
 acterizes intellects of such an order. His 
 ambition was lofty and noble, inspiring him 
 with high thoughts, and an anxiety to distin- 
 guish himself by great achievements. He 
 «aimed at dignity and wealth in the same ele- 
 vated spirit with which he sought renown ; 
 they were to rise from the territories he should 
 discover, and be commensurate in importance. 
 The vast gains that he anticipated from his dis- 
 coveries, he intended to appropriate to princely 
 purposes ; to institutions for the relief of the 
 poor of his native city, to the foundation of 
 churches, and above all, to crusades for the 
 recovery of the holy sepulchre. He was tena- 
 cious of his rank and privileges, not from a 
 mere vulgar love of titles, but because he 
 prized them as testimonials and trophies of 
 his illustrious deeds. Every question of com- 
 promise concerning them he repulsed with 
 disdain. “These things,” said he, nobly, 
 “ concern my honor.” In his testament, he 
 enjoined on his son Diego, and whoever after 
 him should inherit his estates, whatever 
 other titles might be granted by the king, 
 always to sign himself simply “The Admi- 
 ral,” by way of perpetuating in the family 
 the source of its real greatness. He was 
 naturally irritable and impetuous, and keenly 
 sensible to injury and injustice; yet the 
 quickness of his temper was counteracted by 
 the benevolence and generosity of his heart. 
 The magnanimity of his nature shone forth 
 through all the troubles of his stormy career. 
 
 COMETS. The first comet that was dis- 
 covered and described accurately was by 
 Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mith- 
 ridates, 135 b.c., two large comets appeared, 
 which were seen for seventy-two days to- 
 gether, whose splendor eclipsed that of the 
 noonday sun, and which occupied forty-five 
 degrees, or a fourth part of the heavens. The 
 
 COM 
 
 > 
 
226 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 appearance of comets was supposed to be the 
 forerunner of wars, famine, pestilence, the 
 deaths of great men, earthquakes, inunda- 
 tions, and other calamities. The splendid 
 comet of 1456 was believed by Pope Calix- 
 tus to be at once the sign and instrument of 
 divine wrath, and the affrighted pontiff or- 
 dered public prayers to be raised in every 
 town, and the bells to be tolled at the noon 
 of each day, to warn the people to supplicate 
 the divine mercy. He at the same time ex- 
 communicated both the comet and the Turks, 
 whose arms had lately proved victorious over 
 the Christians. In more modern times cer- 
 tain natural effects have been Vulgarly at- 
 tributed to the influence of comets ; such as 
 tempests, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, cold 
 or hot seasons, floods, the dysentery, the 
 plague, the cholera, and other disorders. 
 Much alarm has also prevailed at times from 
 fear that a comet might encounter the earth 
 and destroy it. Tycho Brahe was the first to 
 rationally explain the phenomena of comets, 
 about 1577. Newton discovered that their 
 orbits are ellipses. A most brilliant comet, 
 moving with immense swiftness, appeared in 
 1769 ; it passed within two million miles of 
 the earth. Behind its nucleus a vast stream 
 of light, thirty-six millions of miles in length, 
 stretched across the heavens, a prodigious 
 luminous arch. A comet still more brilliant 
 appeared in 1811, and was visible to the 
 naked eye all the autumn. Ilersehel com- 
 puted the length of its tail at a hundred 
 millions of miles ! Halley was the first to 
 fix the identity of comets, and predict their 
 periodical return. He demonstrated that 
 the comet of 1682 was that which was seen 
 in 1456, 1531, and 1607. The revolution 
 of Halley’s comet is accomplished’ in about 
 76 years ; it appeared in 1759 and 1835. The 
 comet of 1680, was one of remarkable splen- 
 dor. The great comet of 1843 came within 
 60,000 miles of the sun, and at this point of 
 its orbit its heat was twenty- five times greater 
 than that of the most powerful blast furnace. 
 
 COMMODUS ANTONINUS, Lucius Mlivs 
 Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, son of Marcus 
 Aurelius, was born a.d. 161. At sixteen 
 years of age he was associated with his father 
 in the government, and in 180 ascended the 
 throne. He surpassed in profligacy and cru- 
 elty all his wicked predecessors. He maimed 
 
 and disemboweled his subjects for pleasure. 
 From his great strength, he bore a striking 
 resemblance to the statues of Hercules, in the 
 dress of whom he appeared. He debauched 
 his own sisters, and mixed with the vilest and 
 most degraded of the human race. Having 
 exhausted the treasury by his extravagance, 
 he replenished it by imposing enormous taxes 
 on the people. Habited like a slave, he drove 
 his own chariot, and fought as a gladiator, 735 
 times. He was poisoned by his favorite mis' 
 tress, Martia, in 192. 
 
 COMPASS, Mariner’s. The date of one of 
 the greatest of human discoveries is uncertain, 
 and there are as great discrepancies in the 
 accounts of its origin. Some have supposed 
 it to have been known to the Chinese in the 
 remotest ages. Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, 
 is said to have discovered it a.d. 1260. By 
 others it is claimed it w T as in use in Europe as 
 early as 1180. Roger Bacon (1294) is said to 
 have known the polarity of the loadstone ; it 
 was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and 
 it is mentioned in a French poem of 1150. 
 Until the time of Flavio Gioja, a Neapolitan 
 mariner, the needle was laid upon a couple of 
 pieces of straw, or small splinters, in a vessel 
 of water ; he suspended it on a point, as we 
 now have it. Columbus noticed the variation 
 of the compass, in 1492 ; the dip of the needle 
 was discovered in 1576. 
 
 COMTE, Auguste, a celebrated French 
 thinker, and the founder of the Positive phi- 
 losophy, was born in 1797, and died in 1857. 
 
 CONCORD, a village of Massachusetts, 
 twenty miles north-west of Boston. At Con- 
 cord and Lexington the first armed resistance 
 was made to the troops of Great Britain, 
 April 19th, 1775. [See Lexington.] 
 
 CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of, was 
 the son of Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Ven- 
 dome, and was born in 1530. He signalized 
 himself at the battle of St. Quintin, and be- 
 came leader of the discontented Huguenots. 
 He was wounded at the battle of Dreux, in 
 1562, and slain in that of Jarnac, in 1569. 
 
 CONDE, Louis, Prince of, commonly called 
 the Great, was born at Paris in 1621. At the 
 age of twenty -two he gained the battle of Ro- 
 croi against the Spaniards, and captured Thi- 
 onville and other places. He next entered 
 Germany, where he gained innumerable lau- 
 rels. Being recalled thence, he was sent into 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 227 
 
 Catalonia, but failed in his attempt to take 
 Lerida. In 1648, he defeated the Imperialists 
 in Flanders with prodigious slaughter. In 
 the civil war Conde at first adhered to the 
 court, but afterward opposed it without suc- 
 cess. He refused to accede to the peace, and 
 entered into the service of the Spaniards in 
 the Low Countries, where his military ex- 
 ploits were uncommonly splendid. At the 
 peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, he obtained 
 his pardon, and served his country with his 
 wonted activity and success. He contended 
 with the Prince of Orange in the Netherlands, 
 and was wounded in the memorable passage 
 of the Rhine. The conquest of Franche 
 Compte was also chiefly owing to him. After 
 the death of Turenne, he carried on the war 
 against Germany with advantage. He died in 
 1687 at Fontainebleau. 
 
 CONDILLAC, EtienneBonnetde, a French 
 metaphysician, died in 1780, aged sixty-five. 
 
 CONDORCET, Marie Jean Antoine, Mar- 
 quis de Caritat, an eloquent man, a good 
 mathematician, an earnest political writer 
 among the Girondins, and a victim of the reign 
 of terror. Born in Picardy in 1743, in 1794 
 he poisoned himself in prison to avoid the 
 guillotine. 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE. In 
 1806, Napoleon, determined that there should 
 not exist, on the continent, any power capable 
 of opposing his designs, contrived to dismem- 
 ber the German empire, and induce the em- 
 peror to abandon his title of Emperor of Ger- 
 many. In pursuance of these views, a new 
 union was formed by several of the German 
 princes, under the name of the Confederation 
 of the Rhine. The Kings of Bavaria and 
 Wirtemberg, the Elector of Baden, the Duke 
 of Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt, 
 and others, published at Ratisbon a declara- 
 tion, that as the Germanic constitution then 
 existing could afford no guarantee for the 
 public tranquillity, the contracting parties 
 had agreed, that their states should be forever 
 separated from the Germanic body, and united 
 by a particular confederation, under the title 
 of “The Confederate States,” of which the 
 Emperor of the French was constituted the 
 head and protector. The treaty of confeder- 
 ation was projected and drawn up at Paris, 
 and ratified at Munich, on the 25fh of July, 
 1806 : it contained forty articles relative to 
 
 the territories which each of the contracting 
 parties was to possess, and other important 
 particulars. Every continental war, in which 
 either France or any of the confederate states 
 should be engaged, was to be common to all ; 
 the contingent to be furnished by each of the 
 members, was determined in the following 
 proportion: France, 200,000 men, Bavaria 
 30,000, Wirtemberg 12,000, Baden 8,000, 
 Berg 5,000, Darmstadt 4,000, Nassau and the 
 other states 4,000. By this confederation, 
 the Germanic body was completely dissolved, 
 and a very considerable part of its members 
 ranged themselves under the banners of 
 France. Francis II., in consequence of this 
 organization, resigned his title of Emperor of 
 Germany, and took that of Emperor of Aus- 
 tria. Thus was dissolved the German, or as 
 it was stj'led in diplomatic language, the Holy 
 Roman Empire, 1006 years after Charlemagne 
 received the imperial title and crown from 
 the hands of the pope. [ See Germany.] 
 
 CONFUCIUS, the celebrated Chinese phi- 
 losopher, lived about 550 b.c. 
 
 CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, in Lower 
 Guinea, which is under the sway of the Por- 
 tuguese. It is rich and fertile. It was dis- 
 covered in 1484 by Diego Cam, a Portuguese. 
 The native government is despotic. 
 
 CONGRESS, Continental. The first met 
 in Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774; Oct. 8th, 
 resolve to support Massachusetts. Second 
 congress assembled May 10th, 1775, in Phil- 
 adelphia; June 7th, style the colonies “The 
 Twelve United Colonies,” Georgia not having 
 yet acceded to the Union; June 22d, 1775, 
 appoint eight major-generals ; May 5th, 1776, 
 declare the authority of England abolished ; 
 July 4th, declare independence ; Dec. 12th, 
 
 1776, adjourn from Philadelphia to meet at 
 Baltimore ; 30th, resolve to send commission- 
 ers to Prussia, Austria, Spain, &c. ; Sept. 18th, 
 
 1777, on the approach of the British army 
 toward Philadelphia, adjourn to meet in Lan- 
 caster, whence they again adjourn on the 30th 
 of the same month to meet in Little York ; 
 meet again in Philadelphia, July 2d, 1778. 
 Sept. 14th, 1778, appoint Benjamin Franklin 
 minister to France, the first regularly consti- 
 tuted ambassador from the United States, the 
 former foreign agents being styled commis- 
 sioners ; Oct. 4th, 1782, resolve against a sep- 
 arate peace; June 26th, 1783, adjourn to 
 
 CON 
 
223 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Princeton, and thence to Annapolis, where 
 they meet November 2Gth ; Nov. 1st, 1784, 
 meet at Trenton, N. J. ; Jan. 11th, 1785, at 
 New York, which continued to be the place 
 of meeting till the adoption of the federal con- 
 stitution. From 1781 to 1788, Congress met 
 annually on the first Monday in November, 
 pursuant to the articles of confederation. 
 April 1st, 1789, Congress first assembled un- 
 der the federal constitution; Sept. 22d, 1790, 
 pass an act to remove to Washington city in 
 1800. 
 
 CONGREVE, William, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish dramatist and poet, born in 1672, died 
 in 1729. His plays are replete with wit and 
 
 glitter, but are blemished by a lack of morality. 
 The dramatist was an intimate friend of the 
 Duchess of Marlborough (daughter of the 
 great duke), and left her the bulk of his for- 
 tune, about £10,000. She honored him with 
 a stately funeral, and converted the bequest 
 into a superb diamond necklace, which she 
 wore in his honor. It is said that she had a 
 statue of him in ivory, moved by clockwork, 
 and placed daily at her table ; that she had a 
 wax doll made in imitation of him, and that 
 the feet of this doll were regularly blistered 
 and anointed by the doctors, as poor Con- 
 greve’s feet had been when he suffered from 
 the gout. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, one of the New England 
 states, has an area of 4,674 square miles. 
 Population in 1860, 460,147. The surface is 
 for the most part hilly, but nowhere moun- 
 tainous. The state is well watered, mostly by 
 small streams, which are sources of important 
 power for manufactures. The Connecticut, 
 which passes through nearly the centre of the 
 state from north to south, is navigable as far 
 as Hartford. The Thames in the east, and the 
 Housatonic in the west, are the other largest 
 streams. The soil is generally productive, 
 but not highly fertile, and in general is more 
 suited for grazing than tillage. Along the 
 river valleys, however, fine rich meadows 
 lie. Connecticut does better in manufactur- 
 ing than in agriculture. Her clocks, her 
 pistols, her rifles, her axes, her gunpowder, 
 and her rubber goods find a market through- 
 out the world ; while along her streams, and 
 
 in her busy villages, are myriads of estab- 
 lishments, in which other ingenious wares 
 and fabrics are wrought by industrious and 
 prosperous artisans. 
 
 The present constitution was adopted in 
 1818, till which time the charter granted by 
 Charles II., in 1662, was the basis of the 
 government. All state officers, and the 
 members of both branches of the legislature, 
 are elected annually by the people. The 
 legislature convenes at Hartford and New 
 Haven in alternate Mays. Every male citi- 
 zen, who has gained a settlement in the state, 
 attained the age of twenty-one years, resided 
 in the town six months, has a good moral 
 character, and can read the constitution of 
 the state, shall, upon taking the oath pre- 
 scribed, be an elector. 
 
 The judicial power is vested in a supreme 
 court of errors, a superior court and such other 
 
 CON 
 
history and biography. 
 
 229 
 
 inferior courts as the general assembly shall 
 from time to time ordain and establish. The 
 supreme court of errors consists of a chief 
 judge and four associates ; the superior court 
 of eight judges, all chosen by the legislature 
 for terms of eight years. This commonwealth 
 has long been eminent for the attention giveii 
 to education. The school fund is over two 
 million dollars. A normal school for the 
 instruction of teachers, and a reform school 
 for juvenile delinquents, are maintained by 
 the state. The state has three colleges ; 
 Yale at New Haven, Trinity at Hartford, and 
 Wesleyan at Middletown. The American 
 Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, 
 was the first institution of the kind on this 
 continent. 
 
 The towns of Windsor, Hartford and 
 Wethersfield were settled in 1685 and 1636 
 by emigrants from the Massachusetts colony. 
 It was in the following year that the Pequots 
 were extirpated. The emigrants had at first 
 considered themselves under the jurisdiction 
 of the parent colony at Boston Bay, but on 
 the 14th of January, 1639, the planters con- 
 vened at Hartford, and decided for a distinct 
 commonwealth. The instrument adopted 
 upon this occasion is the earliest precedent 
 of a written constitution, proceeding from a 
 people, and in their name establishing and 
 defining a government, and is the germ of 
 the free representative plan which now dis- 
 tinguishes our country in the eyes of the 
 world. So wisely did Ludlow, Haynes and 
 Hooker lay the foundations, that the people 
 of Connecticut have found no necessity for 
 any fundamental change in the polity which 
 the fathers ordained. The colony of New 
 Haven had been founded in 1638 by Eaton, 
 Hopkins, Davenport, and others. By the 
 charter granted by Charles II. in 1662, the 
 two colonies of Hartford and New Haven 
 were united. This was the instrument after- 
 ward hidden in the Charter Oak from the 
 clutch of Andros. Curiously enough for a 
 document coming from a Stuart, it sanctioned 
 the democracy which the quiet independence 
 of the colonists had framed for themselves a 
 quarter of a century before. The common- 
 wealth suffered under King Philip’s war, sus- 
 tained its due burden in the wars against the 
 French in America, and yet grew, in strength, 
 and wealth, and numbers, till the contest for 
 
 independence came. Only one of the thir- 
 teen colonies contributed a larger quota of 
 men to the patriot army during that struggle. 
 Her venerable ''governor during this crisis, 
 the patriotic Trumbull, the original ‘Brother 
 Jonathan,’ was one of AYashington’s chief 
 supports. Irving says : “ There could be no 
 surer reliance for aid in time of danger than 
 the patriotism of Governor Trumbull ; nor 
 were there men more ready to obey a sudden 
 appeal to arms than the yeomanry of Con- 
 necticut ; however much their hearts might 
 subsequently yearn toward the farms and 
 firesides they had so promptly abandoned. 
 No portion of the Union was more severely 
 tasked, throughout the Revolution, for mili- 
 tary service; and AYashington avowed, when 
 the great struggle was over, that ‘ if all the 
 states had done their duty as well as the little 
 state of Connecticut, the war would have 
 been ended long ago.’” 
 
 Connecticut is divided into eight counties. 
 The city of Hartford is on the west bank of 
 the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its 
 mouth. It is a handsome town, noted for its 
 manufacturing and insurance interests, and 
 has a population of 40,000. New Haven, the 
 sister capital, is at the head of a small bay 
 opening upon Long Island Sound, and has 
 50,000 inhabitants. The many and noble 
 trees that adorn its ways have gained it the 
 name of the Elm City. Other prominent 
 towns of Connecticut are Norwich, New Lon- 
 don, Bridgeport, and Middletown. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES and Insurrections, 
 the most remarkable in ancient or modern his- 
 tory. A conspiracy was formed against the 
 infant republic of Rome, to restore the ban- 
 ished Sextus Tarquin, and the regal govern- 
 ment, in which the two sons of Junius Brutus, 
 the first consul, being concerned, were pub- 
 licly condemned and put to death by their 
 father, 507 b.c. Another by the Tarquin 
 faction against the Roman senators ; Publius 
 and Marcus discover it ; the other conspira- 
 tors are put to death, 496 b.c. Of Cataline 
 and his associates, to murder the consuls and 
 senate, and to burn the city of Rome, detected 
 by Cicero, 63 b.c. An insurrection in Spain 
 cost the lives of 30,000 Spaniards, and double 
 that number of Moors, a.d. 1560. At Malta, 
 to destroy the knights, for which 125 slaves 
 suffered death, June 26th, 1749. At Lisbon, 
 
 CON 
 
230 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 by several of the nobility, who shot the king, 
 1758. At St. Domingo and the other French 
 West India Islands, where near 16,000 ne- 
 groes were slain, and 400 whites, and 550 
 plantations destroyed, 1794. Of Moreau, 
 Pichegru, and Cadoudal against Bonaparte, 
 Feb. 15th, 1804. Of the Prince of Asturias 
 against his father, 1807. Of the inhabitants 
 of Madrid against the French, in which 
 many persons were killed, 1808. In Paris, 
 for which the conspirators, three ex-generals 
 and eleven officers were executed, October 
 30th, 1812. At Travencore, to massacre the 
 European officers at an entertainment, 1812. 
 At Lisbon to overturn the Portuguese gov- 
 ernment, May, 1817. 
 
 Conspiracies and insurrections in England. 
 Of the barons against Henry III. for cancel- 
 ing Magna Charta, 1258. Of the Duke of 
 Exeter and others, against the life of Henry 
 IV., discovered by dropping a paper acci- 
 dentally, 1400. Of Richard, Duke of Glou- 
 cester, against his nephews, Edward Y. and 
 his brother, whom he caused to be murdered, 
 1483. Of the Earl of Suffolk and others 
 against Henry VII., 1506. Insurrection of 
 the London apprentices, 1515. Against 
 Queen Elizabeth, by Dr. Story, 1571 ; by 
 Anthony Babington and others, in behalf of 
 Mary of Scotland, 1586 ; by Lopez, a Jew, 
 and others, 1593 ; by Patrick York, an Irish 
 fencing-master, employed by the Spaniards 
 to kill the queen, 1594 ; of Walpole, a Jesuit, 
 who engaged one Squire to poison the queen’s 
 saddle, 1598; all the conspirators were exe- 
 cuted. Against James I., by the Marchioness 
 de Yerneuil, his mistress, and others, 1604. 
 The Gunpowder plot discovered, Nov. 5th, 
 1605. Of Sindercomb and others to assassin- 
 ate Oliver Cromwell ; discovered by his as- 
 sociates ; Sindercomb was condemned, and 
 poisoned himself the day before he was to 
 have been executed, 1656. An insurrection 
 of the Puritans, 1657. An insurrection of 
 the fifth-monarchy men against Charles II., 
 1660. A conspiracy of Blood and his asso- 
 ciates, who seized the Duke of Ormond, 
 wounded him, and would have hanged him 
 if he had not escaped ; they afterward stole 
 the crown, 1670 and 1671. The pretended 
 plot of the French, Spanish, and English 
 Jesuits, countenanced by the pope, to assassi- 
 nate Charles II., discovered by Dr. Tongue 
 
 and the infamous Titus Oates, 1678 ; another 
 to assassinate him at the Rye-house farm, 
 near Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, in his way 
 from Newmarket, called the Rye-house plot, 
 1683. Of Lord Preston, the Bishop of Ely, 
 and others to restore King James, 1691. Of 
 Granvil, a French chevalier and his associates, 
 to assassinate King William in Flanders, 
 1692. A conspiracy by the Earl of Ayles- 
 bury and others, to kill the king near Rich- 
 mond, as he came from hunting, discovered 
 by Pendergrass, called the Assassination plot, 
 1696. Of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, in favor 
 of the Pretender, against Queen Anne, 1703. 
 Of the Marquis Guiscard, 1710. To assassi- 
 nate George I. by James Sheppard, an enthu- 
 siastic youth, who had been taught to consider 
 the king as an usurper, 1718. Of Layer and 
 others to bring in the Pretender, 1722. Of 
 Col. Despard and his associates to assassinate 
 George III. and overturn the government, 
 1802. Of Robert Emmet in Dublin, 1803. 
 Of Thistlewood and a gang of desperate pol- 
 iticians, commonly called the Cato Street con- 
 spiracy, 1820. 
 
 (For Southern Rebellion, see the Chro- 
 nology, end of this work.) 
 
 CONSTANTINE the Great, son of the 
 Emperor Constantius Chlorus, by Helena, 
 was born at York, about the year 274. On 
 the death of his father, in 306, he was pro- 
 claimed emperor by the army. He defeated 
 the Franks, after which he crossed the Rhine, 
 and committed great ravages in Belgium. 
 Constantine married Fausta, the daughter of 
 Maximian, in 306. His father-in-law, taking 
 advantage of his absence from Arles, where 
 he held his court, seized the treasury, and 
 assumed the imperial title, but being taken 
 prisoner by Constantine, strangled himself. 
 A war now broke out between Constantine 
 and Maxentius, the son of Maximian ; the 
 former reduced Italy, and defeated Maxen- 
 tius, who was drowned in the Tiber. At this 
 period the era of Constantine’s conversion to 
 Christianity is fixed. As he was riding at 
 the head of his troops, an immense cross of 
 exceeding brightness is said to have appeared 
 above the horizon, bearing the inscription, 
 “In this conquer.” Constantine was no 
 longer an infidel. He now entered Rome in 
 triumph, and received from the senate the 
 title of Augustus, in conjunction with Licin- 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 231 
 
 ius and Maximin, the former of whom mar- 
 ried his sister, Constantia. A civil war 
 shortly broke out between Licinius and Max- 
 imin, in which the latter was slain. Licin- 
 ius then formed a conspiracy against Con- 
 stantine, which being discovered, war ensued 
 between them, in which Constantine was 
 successful, and peace was concluded. A sec- 
 ond war broke out in 323, and terminated in 
 the defeat of Licinius, and his resignation of 
 the imperial dignity. Not long afterward 
 he was strangled. Constantine now began 
 to show his regard for the religion he had 
 adopted, by destroying the heathen temples, 
 building numerous churches, and journeying 
 to Jerusalem to visit the Holy Land, where 
 he erected a magnificent church at Bethle- 
 hem. With this zeal for religion he blended 
 courage and justice. He conquered the 
 Goths, founded Constantinople, removing the 
 seat of empire thither, and performed many 
 actions that entitle him to the name of Great. 
 But he sullied his character by putting to 
 death his son Crispus. He died in 337. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, called by the Turks 
 Stamboul, is situated on the European side 
 of the Bosphorus. Its circuit, including the 
 suburbs, is about thirty-five miles, and the 
 number of inhabitants, by the most moder- 
 ate computation, 630,000 Greeks, Armenians, 
 Jews, and Turks. It was built upon the 
 ruins of the ancient Byzantium* by Constan- 
 tine the Great. It became afterward the 
 capital of the Greek empire; and, having 
 escaped the destructive rage of the barbarous 
 nations, it was the greatest as well as - the 
 most beautiful city in Europe, and the only 
 one, during the Gothic ages, in which there 
 remained any image of the ancient elegance 
 in manners and arts. It derived great advan- 
 tages from its being the rendezvous of the 
 crusaders ; and, being then in the zenith of 
 its glory, the European writers, in that age, 
 speak of it with astonishment. During the 
 third crusade, a revolution happened at Con- 
 stantinople, which divided the eastern empire 
 for fifty-eight years. Alexius Angelus, sur- 
 named the tyrant, having dethroned Isaac 
 II., placed himself upon the throne of Con- 
 stantinople, in 1195 ; and Alexius, the son of 
 Isaac, applied to the French and Venetians, 
 who passed that way to the Holy Wars, to 
 assist him in the recovery of his father’s em- 
 
 pire. They accordingly, in 1203, reduced 
 Constantinople, after a siege of eight days, 
 and replaced Isaac on the throne. The next 
 year, Alexius Dacus Murzoufle assassinated 
 the emperor, whom the crusaders had re-es- 
 tablished, and seized the crown. On hearing 
 this, the French returned, attacked the city, 
 reduced it in three days, deposed Murzoufle, 
 and chose Baldwin, Count of Flanders, em- 
 peror. 
 
 He had four successors, the last of whom, 
 Baldwin II., was deposed in 1262, by Michael 
 Paleologus. In the mean time Theodore Las- 
 caris, who had been charged by the clergy to 
 take arms against the tyrant Murzoufle, find- 
 ing Constantinople in the power of the French, 
 retired with his wife and family to Nice, 
 where, in 1204, he was crowned emperor, and 
 formed a small empire out of that of Constan- 
 tinople. He. had but three successors, the 
 last of whom, John Ducas, was deprived of 
 his sight in 1255 by order of Michael Paleo- 
 logus, his preceptor, who usurped the throne 
 in 1259, and in 1262 made himself master of 
 Constantinople, so that the empire was re- 
 united. It continued till 1453, when Con- 
 stantinople was taken by Mohammed II., sul- 
 tan of the Ottoman Turks ; since which it has 
 remained the seat of their empire. 
 
 Constantinople is at this day one of the 
 finest cities in the world, from its situation 
 and port. It is frequently called the Porte 
 by way of eminence. The city has met with 
 many disasters from convulsions, earthquakes, 
 and the plague. 
 
 CONSTITUTION, the English, which 
 owes its foundation to the era of the con- 
 quest, has been made the model of most of 
 the constitutions enjoyed by republican 
 states. The Bill of Rights, which was the 
 basis of the English constitution, was passed 
 in the time of the revolution, and contained 
 the following provisions : 1. The pretended 
 power of suspending laws, or the execution 
 of laws by regal authority, without the con- 
 sent of parliament, is illegal. 2. That the 
 pretended power of dispensing with laws, or 
 the execution of laws by regal authority, as 
 it hath been assumed and exercised of late, 
 is illegal. 3. That the commission for erecting 
 the late court of commissioners for ecclesias- 
 tical causes, and all other commissions and 
 courts of like nature, are illegal and perni- 
 
 CON 
 
232 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 cious. 4. That levying money for, or to the 
 use of the crown, by pretense of prerogative, 
 without grant of parliament, for longer time, 
 or in all other manner than the same is, and 
 shall be granted, is illegal. 5. That it is the 
 right of the subjects to petition the king, and 
 that all commitments and prosecutions for 
 such petitioning, are illegal. 6. That the rais- 
 ing or keeping a standing army within the 
 kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with 
 consent of parliament, is against law. 7. That 
 the subjects which are Protestants, may have 
 arms for their defense, suitable for their con- 
 ditions, and as allowed by law. 8. That 
 election of members of parliament ought to 
 be free. 9. That freedom of speech, and 
 debates or proceedings in parliament, ought 
 not to be impeached or questioned in any 
 court or place out of parliament. 10 That 
 excessive bail ought not to be required, nor 
 excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and un- 
 usual punishments inflicted. 11. That ju- 
 rors ought to be duly empannelcd and 
 returned ; and that jurors which pass upon 
 men in trials for high treason, ought to 
 be freeholders. 12. That all grants and 
 promises of fines and forfeitures of particular 
 persons, before conviction, are illegal and 
 void. 13. And that for the redress of all griev- 
 ances, and for the amending, strengthening, 
 and preserving of laws, parliaments ought to 
 be held frequently. 
 
 The English constitution comprehends the 
 whole body of laws by which the British 
 people are governed, and to which it is pre- 
 sumptively held that every individual has 
 assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage 
 of laws is distinguished from the term gov- 
 ernment in this respect — that the constitution 
 is the rule by which the sovereign ought to 
 govern at all times, and government is that 
 by which he does govern at any particular 
 time.— -Lord Bolingbroke. The king of Eng- 
 land is not seated on a solitary eminence of 
 power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in 
 the co-existing branches of the legislature, 
 and he recognizes his superior in the law. — 
 Sheridan. The beautiful pile of the British 
 constitution is the work of ages ; the produc- 
 tion of a happy concurrence and succession 
 of circumstances, growing by degrees, and 
 accommodating itself, in accordance with its 
 
 growth, to the tempers and manners, the 
 customs and character of the British people. — 
 
 Montesquieu. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES, as proposed to the convention held 
 at Philadelphia, Pith September, 1787, and 
 since ratified by the several states with 
 amendments. 
 
 We the people of the United States, in 
 order to form a more perfect union, establish 
 justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide 
 for the common defense, promote the general 
 welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
 to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
 establish this Constitution for the United 
 States of America. 
 
 Article I. Section 1. All legislative pow- 
 ers herein granted shall be vested in a con- 
 gress of the United States, which shall consist 
 of a senate and house of representatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. The house of representatives shall 
 be composed of members chosen every second 
 year by the people of the several states, and 
 the electors in each state shall have the quali- 
 fications requisite for electors of the most 
 numerous branch of the state legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who 
 shall not have attained to the age of twenty- 
 five years, and been seven years a citizen of 
 the United States, and who shall not, when 
 elected, be an inhabitant of that state in w r hich 
 he shall be chosen. 
 
 Kepresentatives and direct taxes shall be 
 apportioned among the several states which 
 may be included within this union, according 
 to their respective numbers, which shall be 
 determined by adding to the w r hole number 
 of free persons, including those bound to ser- 
 vice for a term of years, and excluding In- 
 dians not taxed, three-fifths of all other per- 
 sons. The ac jual enumeration shall be made 
 within three years after the first meeting of 
 the congress of the United States, and w ithin 
 every subsequent term of ten years, in such 
 manner as they shall by law direct. The 
 number of representatives shall not exceed 
 one for every thirty thousand, but each state 
 shall have at least one representative. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representa- 
 tion from any state, the executive authority 
 thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
 such vacancies. 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 238 
 
 The house of representatives shall choose 
 their speaker and other officers ; and shall 
 have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. The senate of the United States 
 shall be composed of two senators from each 
 state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for 
 six years ; and each senator shall have one 
 vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled 
 in consequence of the first election, they 
 shall be divided as equally as may be into 
 three classes. The seats of the senators of 
 the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
 tion of the second year, of the second class at 
 the expiration of the fourth } r ear, and of the 
 third class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
 so that one-third may be chosen every second 
 year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, 
 or otherwise, during the recess of the legisla- 
 ture of any state, the executive thereof may 
 make temporary appointments until the next 
 meeting of the legislature, which shall then 
 fill such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a senator who shall not 
 have attained to the age of thirty years, and 
 been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
 and who shall not, when elected, be an in- 
 habitant of that state for which he shall be 
 chosen. 
 
 The vice-president of the United States 
 shall be president of the senate, but shall 
 have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The senate shall choose their other officers, 
 and also a president pro tempore, in the ab- 
 sence of the vice-president, or when he shall 
 exercise the office of president of the United 
 States. 
 
 The senate shall have the sole power to 
 try all impeachments. When sitting for that 
 purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
 When the president of the United States is 
 tried, the chief justice shall preside: and no 
 person shall be convicted without the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall 
 not extend further than to removal from 
 office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
 any office of honor, trust or profit under the 
 United States : but the party convicted shall 
 nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- 
 ment, trial, judgment and punishment, accord- 
 ing to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of 
 
 holding elections for senators and representa- 
 tives, shall be prescribed in each state by the 
 legislature thereof; but the congress may at 
 any time by law make or alter such regula- 
 tions, except as to the places of choosing 
 senators. 
 
 The congress shall assemble at least once 
 in every year, and such meeting shall be on 
 the first Monday in December, unless they 
 shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of 
 the elections, returns and qualifications of 
 its own members, and a majority of each shall 
 constitute a quorum to do business ; but a 
 smaller number may adjourn from day to day, 
 and may be authorized to compel the attend- 
 ance of absent members, in such manner, 
 and under such penalties as each house may 
 provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of its 
 proceedings, punish its members for disor- 
 derly behavior, and, with the concurrence of 
 two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its pro- 
 ceedings, and from time to time publish the 
 same, excepting such parts as may in their 
 judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and 
 nays of the members of either house on any 
 question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of 
 those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of con- 
 gress, shall, without the consent of the other, 
 adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
 other place than that in which the two houses 
 shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6. The senators and representatives 
 shall receive a compensation for their services, 
 to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
 treasury of the United States. They shall in 
 all cases, except treason, felony and breach 
 of the peace, be privileged from arrest during 
 their attendance at the session of their re- 
 spective houses, and in going to or returning 
 from the same ; and for any speech or debate 
 in either house, they shall not be questioned 
 in any other place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, during 
 the time for which he was elected, be appoint- 
 ed to any civil office under the authority of 
 the United States, which shall have been cre- 
 ated, or the emoluments whereof shall have 
 been increased during such time; and no 
 person holding any office under the United 
 
23 1 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 States, shall be a member of either house 
 during his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. V. All bills for raising revenue shall 
 originate in the house of representatives ; but 
 the senate may propose or concur with amend- 
 ments as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the 
 house of representatives and the senate, shall, 
 before it become a law, be presented to the 
 president of the United States ; if he approve 
 he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, 
 with his objections to that house in which it 
 shall have originated, who shall enter the ob- 
 jections at large on their journal, and proceed 
 to reconsider it. If after such reconsidera- 
 tion two-thirds of that house shall agree to 
 pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with 
 the objections, to the other house, by which 
 it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- 
 proved by two-thirds of that house, it shall 
 become a law. But in all such cases the 
 votes of both houses shall be determined by 
 yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons 
 voting for and against the bill, shall be entered 
 on the journal of each house respectively. If 
 any bill shall not be returned by the president 
 within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
 shall have been presented to him, the same 
 shall be a law, in like manner as if he had 
 signed it, unless the congress by their adjourn- 
 ment prevent its return, in which case it shall 
 not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote to which 
 the concurrence of the senate and house of 
 representatives may be necessary (except on 
 a question of adjournment) shall be presented 
 to the president of the United States; and 
 before the same shall take effect, shall be ap- 
 proved by him, or being disapproved by him, 
 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the senate 
 and house of representatives, according to the 
 rules and limitations prescribed in the case of 
 a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. The congress shall have power — To 
 lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and ex- 
 cises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
 common defense and general welfare of the 
 United States; but all duties, imposts and 
 excises shall be uniform throughout the Uni- 
 ted States; 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the Uni- 
 ted States ; 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, 
 
 and among the several states, and with the 
 Indian tribes ; 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturaliza- 
 tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bank- 
 ruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
 and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of 
 weights and measures ; 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counter- 
 feiting the securities and current coin of the 
 United States; 
 
 To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 
 
 To promote the progress of science and use- 
 ful arts, by securing for limited times to au- 
 thors and inventors the exclusive right to 
 their respective writings and discoveries ; 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the su- 
 preme court ; 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies 
 committed on the high seas, and offenses 
 against the law of nations ; 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and 
 reprisal, and make rules concerning captures 
 on land and water ; 
 
 To raise and support armies, but no appro- 
 priation of money to that use shall be for a 
 longer term than two years ; 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 To make rules for the government and reg- 
 ulation of the land and naval forces ; 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to 
 execute the laws of the union, suppress insur- 
 rections and repel invasions ; 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and dis- 
 ciplining, the militia, and for governing such 
 part of them as may be employed in the serv- 
 ice of the United States, reserving to the states 
 respectively, the appointment of the officers, 
 and the authority of training the militia ac- 
 cording to the discipline prescribed by con- 
 gress ; 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases 
 whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 
 ten miles square) as may, by cession of par- 
 ticular states, and the acceptance of congress, 
 become the seat of the government of the 
 United States, and to exercise like authority 
 over all places purchased by the consent of 
 the legislature of the state in which the same 
 shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
 arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build- 
 ings ; — and 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 235 
 
 and proper for carrying into execution the 
 foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
 by this constitution in the government of the 
 United States, or in any department or officer 
 thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such 
 persons as any of the states now existing shall 
 think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
 by the congress prior to the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty 
 may be imposed on such importation, not ex- 
 ceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
 shall not be suspended, unless when in cases 
 of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
 require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law 
 shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be 
 laid, unless in proportion to the census or enu- 
 meration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- 
 ported from any state. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any regula- 
 tion of commerce or revenue to the ports of 
 one state over those of another: nor shall 
 vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged 
 to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, 
 but in consequence of appropriations made by 
 law ; and a regular statement and account of 
 the receipts and expenditures of all public 
 money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the 
 United States: and no pefson holding any 
 office of profit or trust under them, shall, 
 without the consent of the congress, accept 
 of any present, emolument, office, or title, of 
 any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
 foreign state. 
 
 Sec. 10 . No state shall enter into any treaty, 
 alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of 
 marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills 
 of credit ; make anything but gold and silver 
 coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any 
 bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- 
 pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant 
 any title of nobility. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of the 
 congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports 
 or exports, except what may be absolutely 
 necessary for executing its inspection laws : 
 and the net produce of all duties and imposts, 
 
 laid by any state on imports or exports, shall 
 be for the use of the treasury of the United 
 States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
 the revision and control of the congress. No 
 state shall, without the consent of congress, 
 lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships 
 of war in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
 ment or compact with another state, or with 
 a foreign power, or engage in war, unless ac- 
 tually invaded, or in such imminent danger 
 as will not admit of delay. 
 
 Article II. Section 1. The executive 
 power shall be vested in a president of the 
 United States of America. He shall hold his 
 office during the term of four years, and, to- 
 gether with the vice-president, chosen for the 
 same term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each state shall appoint, in such manner as 
 the legislature thereof may direct, a number 
 of electors, equal to the whole number of sen- 
 ators and representatives to which the state 
 may be entitled in the congress : but no sen- 
 ator or representative, or person holding an 
 office of trust or profit under the United States, 
 shall be appointed an elector. [ The electors 
 shall meet in their respective states , and vote 
 by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least 
 shall not be an inhabitant of the same state 
 with themselves. And they shall make a list 
 of all the persons voted, for, and of the number 
 of votes for each ; which list they shall sign 
 and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
 of the government of the United States , di- 
 rected to the president of the senate. The 
 president of the senate shall, in the presence 
 of the senate and house of representatives, open 
 all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted. The person having the greatest 
 number of votes shall be the president, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of 
 electors appointed ; and if there be more than 
 one who have such majority , and have an equal 
 number of votes, then the house of representa- 
 tives shall immediately choose by ballot one 
 of them for president ; and if no person have 
 a majority, then from the five highest on the 
 list the said house shall in like manner choose 
 the president. But in choosing the president, 
 the votes shall be taken by states, the repre- 
 sentation from each state having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a 
 member or members from two-thirds of the 
 states, and a majority of all the states shall 
 
 CON 
 
236 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 be necessary to a choice. In every case , after 
 the choice of the president, the person having 
 the greatest number of votes of the electors 
 shall be the vice-president. But if there 
 should remain two or more who have equal 
 votes , the senate shall choose from them by 
 ballot the vice-president .] \See 12th Amend- 
 ment. 
 
 The congress may determine the time of 
 choosing the electors, and the day on which 
 they shall give their votes ; which day shall 
 be the same throughout the United States. 
 
 No person except a natural born citizen, or 
 a citizen of the United States, at the time of 
 the adoption of this constitution, shall be 
 eligible to the office of president; neither 
 shall any person be eligible to that office who 
 shall not have attained to the age of thirty -five 
 years, and been fourteen years a resident 
 within the United States. 
 
 In the case of the removal of the president 
 from office, or of his death, resignation, or in- 
 ability to discharge the powers and duties of 
 the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
 vice-president ; and the congress may by law 
 provide for the case of removal, death, resig- 
 nation, or inability, both of the president and 
 vice-president, declaring what officer shall then 
 act as president ; and such officer shall act 
 accordingly, until the disability be removed, 
 or a president shall be elected. 
 
 The president shall, at stated times, receive 
 for his services, a compensation, which shall 
 neither be increased nor diminished during 
 the period for which he shall have been elect- 
 ed, and he shall not receive within that pe- 
 riod any other emolument from the United 
 States, or any of them. 
 
 Before he enter on the execution of his of- 
 fice, he shall take the following oath or affirm- 
 ation : — 
 
 “I do solemnly swear [or affirm] that I 
 will faithfully execute the office* of president 
 of the United States, and will to the best of 
 my ability, preserve, protect and defend the 
 constitution of the United States.” 
 
 Sec. 2. The president shall be commander- 
 in-chief of the army and navy of the United 
 States, and of the militia of the several states, 
 when called into the actual service of the 
 United States; he may require the opinion, 
 in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
 the executive departments, upon any subject 
 
 relating to the duties of their respective offi- 
 ces, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
 and pardons for offenses against the United 
 States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the ad- 
 vice and consent of the senate, to make trea- 
 ties, provided two-thirds of thesenators present 
 concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and 
 with the advice and consent of the senate, 
 shall appoint ambassadors, other public min- 
 isters and consuls, judges of the supreme 
 court, and all other officers of the United 
 States, whose appointments are not herein 
 otherwise provided for, and which shall be 
 established by law : but the congress may 
 by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
 officers, as they think proper, in the president 
 alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of 
 departments. 
 
 The president shall have power to fill up 
 all vacancies that may happen during the re- 
 cess of the senate, by granting commissions 
 which shall expire at the end of their next 
 session. 
 
 Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to 
 the congress information of the state of the 
 union, and recommend to their consideration 
 such measures as he shall judge necessary and 
 expedient; he may, on extraordinary occa- 
 sions, convene both houses, or either of them ; 
 and in case of disagreement between them, 
 with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
 may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
 think proper; he shall receive ambassadors 
 and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
 commission all the officers of the UnitedStates. 
 
 Sec. 4. The president, vice-president and 
 all civil officers of the United States, shall be 
 removed from office on impeachment for, and 
 conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 
 crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 Article III. Sectionl. The judicial power 
 of the United States, shall be vested in one 
 supreme court, and in such inferior courts as 
 the congress may from time to time ordain 
 and establish. The judges, both of the su- 
 preme and inferior court, shall hold their 
 offices during good behavior, and shall, at 
 stated times, receive for their services, a com- 
 pensation, which shall not be diminished 
 during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 237 
 
 all cases, in law and equity, arising under 
 this constitution, the laws of the United 
 States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
 made, under their authority ; — to all cases 
 affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
 and consuls ; — to ail cases of admiralty and 
 maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; — to 
 controversies between two or more states ; — 
 [between a state and citizens of another 
 state ] ; — between citizens of different states, — 
 between citizens of the same state claiming 
 lands under grants of different states, and be- 
 tween a state, or the citizens thereof, and 
 foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other 
 public ministers and consuls, and those in 
 which a state shall be. party, the supreme 
 court shall have original jurisdiction. In all 
 the other cases before mentioned, the supreme 
 court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both 
 as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and 
 under such regulations as the congress shall 
 make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of 
 impeachment, shall be by jury; and such 
 trial shall be held in the state where the said 
 crimes shall have been committed ; but when 
 not committed within any state, the trial 
 shall be at such place or places as the con- 
 gress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. Treason against the United States, 
 shall consist only in levying war against them, 
 or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
 aid and comfort. No person shall be con- 
 victed of treason unless on the testimony of 
 two witnesses to the same overt act, or on 
 confession in open court. 
 
 The congress shall have power to declare 
 the punishment of treason, but no attainder 
 of treason shall work corruption of blood, or 
 forfeiture except during the life of the person 
 attainted. 
 
 Article IV. Section 1. Full faith and 
 credit shall be given in each state to the 
 public acts, records, and judicial proceedings 
 of every other state. And the congress may 
 by general laws prescribe the manner in 
 which such acts, records and proceedings 
 shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be 
 entitled to all privileges and immunities of 
 citizens in the several states. 
 
 A person charged in any state with trea- 
 son, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from 
 justice, and be found in another state, shall 
 on demand of the executive authority of the 
 state from which he fled, be delivered up, to 
 be removed to the state having jurisdiction of 
 the crime. 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one 
 state, under the laws thereof, escaping into 
 another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
 regulation therein, be discharged from such 
 service or labor, but shall be delivered up on 
 claim of the party to whom such service or 
 labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the 
 congress into this union ; but no new state 
 shall be formed or erected within the juris- 
 diction of any other state ; nor any state be 
 formed by the junction of two or more states, 
 or parts of states, without the consent of the 
 legislature of the states concerned as well as 
 of the congress. 
 
 The congress shall have power to dispose 
 of and make all needful rules and regulations 
 respecting the territory or other property be- 
 longing to the United States; and nothing in 
 this constitution shall be so construed as to 
 prejudice any claims of the United States, or 
 of any particular state. 
 
 Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee 
 to every state in this Union a republican form 
 of government, and shall protect each of them 
 against invasion ; and on application of the 
 legislature, or of the executive (when the 
 legislature can not be convened) against 
 domestic violence. 
 
 Article V. The congress, whenever two- 
 tliirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, 
 shall propose amendments to this constitu- 
 tion, or, on the application of the legislatures 
 of two-thirds of the several states, shall call 
 a convention for proposing amendments, 
 which, in either case, shall be valid to all 
 intents and purposes, as part of this consti- 
 tution, when ratified by the legislatures of, 
 three-fourths of the several states, or by con- 
 ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one 
 or the other mode of ratification may be pro- 
 posed by the congress ; provided that no 
 amendment which may be made prior to the 
 year one thousand eight hundred and eight 
 shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
 clauses in the ninth section of the first art! 
 
 I 
 
 CON 
 
238 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 cle ; and that no state, without its consent, 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 senate. 
 
 Article VI. All debts contracted and 
 engagements entered into, before the adoption 
 of this constitution, shall be as valid against 
 the United States under this constitution, as 
 under the confederation. 
 
 This constitution, and the laws of the 
 United States which shall be made in pursu- 
 ance thereof; and all treaties made, or which 
 shall be made, under the authority of the 
 United States, shall be the supreme law of 
 the land ; and the judges in every state 
 shall be bound thereby, anything in the con- 
 stitution or laws of any state to the contrary 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives before 
 mentioned, and the members of the several 
 state legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
 cial officers, both of the United States and 
 of the several states, shall be bound by oath 
 or affirmation, to support this constitution ; 
 but no religious test shall ever be required as 
 a qualification to any office or public tr. st 
 under the United States. 
 
 Article VII. The ratification of the con- 
 ventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for 
 the establishment of this constitution be- 
 tween the states so ratifying the same. 
 
 Amendments. Article the first. Congress 
 shall make no law respecting an establishment 
 of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
 thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
 or of the press ; or the right of the people 
 peaceably to assemble, and to petition the 
 government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 Article the second. A well-regulated mili- 
 tia, being necessary to the security of a free 
 state, the right of the people to keep and bear 
 arms, shall not be infringed. 
 
 Article the third. No soldier shall, in time 
 of peace be quartered in any house, without 
 the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, 
 but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 Article the fourth. The right of the peo- 
 ple to be secure in their persons, houses, 
 papers, and effects, against unreasonable 
 searches and secures, shall not be violated, 
 and no warrants shall issue, but upon proba- 
 ble cause, supported by oath or affirmation, 
 and particularly describing the place to be 
 
 searched, and the persons or things to be 
 seized. 
 
 Article the fifth. No person shall be held 
 to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
 of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
 land or naval forces, or in the militia, when 
 in actual service in time of war or public 
 danger ; nor shall any person be subject for 
 the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy 
 of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in 
 any criminal case to be a witness against him- 
 self, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or prop- 
 erty, without due process of law ; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use, 
 without just compensation. 
 
 Article the sixth. In all criminal prosecu- 
 tions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
 speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury 
 of the state and district wherein the crime 
 shall have been committed, which district 
 shall have been previously ascertained by 
 law, and to be informed of the nature and 
 cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with 
 the witnesses against him ; to have compul- 
 sory process for obtaining witnesses in his 
 favor, and to have the assistance of counsel 
 for his defense. 
 
 Article the seventh. In suits at common 
 law', where the value in controversy shall 
 exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by 
 jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by 
 a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
 court of the United States, than according to 
 the rules of the common law. 
 
 Article the eighth. Excessive bail shall 
 not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 Article the ninth. The enumeration in the 
 constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage others retained 
 by the people. 
 
 Article the tenth. The powers not dele- 
 gated to the United States by the constitu- 
 tion, nor prohibited by it to the states, are 
 reserved to the states respectively, or to the 
 people. 
 
 Article the eleventh. The judicial power 
 of the United States shall not be construed 
 to extend to* any suit in law or equity, com- 
 menced or prosecuted agaffist one of the 
 United States bj- citizens of another state, 
 
 CON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 239 
 
 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign 
 state. 
 
 Article the twelfth. The electors shall 
 meet in their respective states, and vote by 
 ballot, for president and vice-president, one 
 of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant 
 of the same state with themselves ; they shall 
 name in their ballots the person voted for as 
 president, and in distinct ballots the person 
 voted for as vice-president; and they shall 
 make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
 president, and of all persons voted for as 
 vice-president, and of the number of votes for 
 each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 
 and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- 
 ernment of the United States, directed to the 
 president of the senate ; — The president of the 
 senate shall, in the presence of the senate 
 and house of representatives, open all the certi- 
 ficates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — 
 The person having the greatest number of 
 votes for president, shall be the president, 
 if such number be a majority of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if no per- 
 son have such majority, then from the per- 
 sons having the highest numbers not ex- 
 ceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
 president, the house of representatives shall 
 choose immediately, by ballot, the president. 
 But in choosing the president, the votes shall 
 be taken by states, the representation from 
 each state having one vote ; a quorum for this 
 purpose shall consist of a member or mem- 
 bers from two-thirds of the states, and a 
 majority of all the states shall be necessary 
 to a choice. And if the house of representa- 
 tives shall not choose a president whenever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
 before the fourth day of March next follow- 
 ing, then the vice-president shall act as pres- 
 ident, as in the case of the death or other 
 constitutional disability of the president. 
 
 The person having the greatest number of 
 votes as vice-president, shall be the vice- 
 president, if such number be a majority of 
 the whole number of electors appointed, and 
 if no person have a majority, then from the 
 two highest numbers on the list, the senate 
 shall choose the vice-president: a quorum 
 for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of 
 the whole number of senators, and a major- 
 ity of the whole number shall be necessary to 
 a choice. 
 
 But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
 the office of president shall be eligible to that 
 of vice-president of the United States. 
 
 Article the Thirteenth , Section 1. Neither 
 slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as 
 a punishment for crime, whereof the party 
 shall have been duly convicted, shall exist in 
 the United States, or any place subject to 
 their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to en- 
 force this by appropriate legislation. 
 
 Article Fourteenth. See Appendix, p 971. 
 
 Article Fifteenth. See Appendix, p. 972. 
 
 CONSULS. These officials were appointed 
 at Rome, 509 b. c., and held office one year. 
 At first they were both patricians, but in 
 588 b. c. the people obtained the privilege of 
 choosing one from their own number, and 
 sometimes both were plebeians. A consular 
 government was set up in France, Nov. 9th, 
 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le- 
 brun were made consuls. 
 
 CONTI, Armand de Bourbon first an ec- 
 clesiastic, then a- soldier, opposed his brother 
 the great Conde. After being successively 
 governor of Guienne, general of the armies in 
 Catalonia, and governor of Languedoc, he 
 died in 1666. 
 
 CONTRERAS. In this engagement, fought 
 early in the morning of the 20th of August, 
 1847, a part of Scott’s army commanded by 
 Gen. Persifer F. Smith, stormed Gen. Valen- 
 cia’s intrenched camp. More than a thousand 
 prisoners were captured, and some fifteen 
 hundred Mexicans killed and wounded. The 
 American loss in killed, wounded and miss- 
 ing was about one hundred. The battle of 
 Cherubusco was fought later in the same day. 
 
 COOK, James, a famous English navigator, 
 born in Yorkshire, in 1728, early went to sea. 
 He was employed in several important ser- 
 vices, and explored the South Sea Islands in 
 1769. From New Zealand he sailed to New 
 Holland, New Guinea, and Batavia, returning 
 home in 1771. His next voyage to the 
 southern hemisphere was commenced in 
 1772, in two ships, the Resolution and Ad- 
 venture. On this voj^age Cook discovered 
 the island of New Georgia, and returning, 
 July 30th, 1775, was well received and 
 rewarded for his services. In July, 1776, 
 he sailed to determine the long agitated ques- 
 tion of a northwest passage to the Pacific 
 
 COO 
 
240 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Ocean, but the attempt was abandoned as I 
 impracticable, and the Resolution and Discov- 
 ery anchored at the Sandwich Islands, on their 
 return, Nov. 26th, 1778. Their reception 
 was at first favorable, but when Cook went 
 on shore to seize the king of Owhyhee, wdth 
 the intention of keeping him as a hostage, till 
 one of the English boats stolen by the sava- 
 ges was restored, he was attacked by the 
 natives, one of whom felled him by a club, 
 and then dispatched him with a dagger. This 
 event occurred on the 14th of February, 
 1779. 
 
 COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, an eminent 
 English surgeon, born in 1768, died in 1841. 
 
 COOPER, James Fenimore, a distinguished 
 American novelist, died at Cooperstown, N. 
 Y., Sept. 14th, 1851. He was born at Bur- 
 lington, N. J., Sept. 15th, 1789; his father 
 being a judge of some distinction, and a large 
 landholder in Otsego county. After grad- 
 uating at Yale College, he entered the navy 
 as a midshipman in 1805. In 1810, he left 
 the service, married, soon settled at Coopers- 
 town, and commenced his brilliant career in 
 fiction, publishing the series of tales of early 
 American life which won him such enviable 
 distinction. In 1826, he visited Europe, 
 everywhere meeting with a most ^ordial 
 reception. During his stay of several years 
 abroad, he wrote several of his best sea 
 stories. Some of his later works, after his 
 return home, embodied political opinions and 
 strictures upon the faults of American life 
 and character, which subjected him for some 
 years to a warm and bitter hostility. 
 
 COPERNICUS, Nicolas, the illustrious 
 astronomer, was born at Thorn in Prussia, 
 Feb. 19th, 1473. Till his time the Ptolemaic 
 theory, which made the earth the centre of 
 the planetary system and of the universe, had 
 been implicitly believed. Contrary teaching 
 was afterward denounced as not only a heresy 
 in science but in religion, and a contempt of 
 Scripture. The astronomical studies of Co- 
 pernicus convinced him of the earth’s annual 
 motion and the sun’s immobility as the centre 
 of our solar system. Dreading the prejudices 
 of the world, he long delayed the publication 
 of his theory. A printed copy of the work in 
 which he embodied it was only placed in his 
 hands a few hours before his death, which 
 occurred May 22d, 1543. 
 
 COPLEY, John Singleton, a self-taught 
 painter, a native of Boston, where he was born 
 in 1738. He went to England in 1776, where 
 he met with great encouragement, and died in 
 London in 1815. The painting of the death 
 of Lord Chatham in the House of Lords, after 
 his immortal speech in favor of America, was 
 one of his best performances. His son, John 
 Singleton Copley, born in Boston, May 21st, 
 1772, was raised to the peerage as Lord Lynd- 
 hurst upon his appointment as lord chancellor 
 in 1827, and occupied an eminent position 
 among the statesmen of his adopted country. 
 
 CORD AY, Charlotte, one of those rare 
 characters in history who by an utter sacrifice 
 of self have gained a world’s admiration, was 
 born in 1768. The blood of Corneille, the 
 great dramatist, coursed in her veins. She 
 was educated in a convent, and seems to have 
 formed her naturally enthusiastic mind upon 
 the classic models of antiquity. Her assassin- 
 ation of Marat, one of the atrocious triumvi- 
 rate, is one of the most startling passages in 
 the bloody drama of the French revolution. 
 Not aw T are that he w T as but the tool of Danton 
 and Robespierre, to him she ascribed the woes 
 of the republic, and on him she resolved to 
 avenge her ill-fated country. She left home 
 secretly, and proceeded to Paris, where she 
 calmly remained near Marat’s dwelling two 
 days, before she attempted to execute her 
 bloody intent. With difficulty she obtained 
 admittance to Marat (who stood in great fear 
 of assassination), on the evening of July 13th, 
 1793 ; having previously written him in a note 
 that she was from the seat of rebellion, and 
 would “put it in his power to d6 France a 
 great service.” Marat w T as in a bath ; a soiled 
 handkerchief was bound around his head, in- 
 creasing his natural hideousness; a coarse 
 covering was thrown across the bath ; a board 
 placed transversely supported his papers. 
 Entering into conversation with Charlotte, he 
 penned with ferocious joy the fresh list of vic- 
 tims with which she pretended to supply him ; 
 crying, with a malignant smile, “Before a 
 week they shall have perished on the guillo- 
 tine.” “ These words,” Charlotte said after- 
 ward, “sealed his fate.” Drawing from be- 
 neath the handkerchief that covered her bosom 
 the knife she had hidden there, with desperate 
 determination she plunged it to the hilt in the 
 monster’s heart. One loud, dying shriek for 
 
 COR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 241 
 
 help he gave, and then sank back dead in the 
 bath. She left the closet, and sat down calmly 
 in the next apartment. The household of 
 Marat rushed to the fatal spot; the tumult 
 spread ; a crowd gathered, who gazed with 
 wonder upon the murderess, as she stood be- 
 fore them with still disordered garments, 
 flushed cheeks, and her long dark disheveled 
 hair, loosely bound by a broad green ribbon, 
 falling around her ; so calm, so serenely lovely, 
 that those who most abhorred the deed she 
 had wrought, gazed upon her with involuntary 
 admiration. She submissively surrendered 
 herself to arrest. Her self-possession, sincer- 
 ity, and maidenly modesty at the trial, which 
 immediately ensued, were marvelous in the 
 midst of the tumult that agitated Paris. At 
 the very commencement of the prosecution, 
 “ All these details of form are needless,” she 
 said. “It was I who killed Marat.” “I 
 killed one man to save a hundred thousand.” 
 “I was a republican before the revolution; 
 
 I never wanted energy. I mean by energy 
 the feeling of those who are willing to forget 
 their own interest for the sake of their coun- 
 try.” She was condemned. A heavy storm 
 broke forth as the car of the doomed, on which 
 she sat clothed in a red smock as a murderess, 
 went from the prison to the guillotine. An 
 immense crowd lined every street through 
 which she passed. Hootings and execrations 
 at first were her portion ; but as her pure and 
 serene beauty dawned on the throngs ; as the 
 exquisite loveliness of her countenance, and 
 the sculptural beauty of her figure, became 
 more fully revealed,— pity and admiration su- 
 perseded every other feeling. Her bearing 
 was so gracefully calm and dignified as to 
 rouse sympathy in the hearts of those who 
 detested not only her crime, but the cause for 
 which it had been committed. Manjr men of 
 every party uncovered their heads and bowed 
 as the cart passed before them, and one young 
 man cried out for the erection of a monument 
 to her memory, that should bear the inscrip- 
 tion, “ Greater than Brutus.” 
 
 CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. 
 Francis; clothed in coarse gray cloth, with a 
 small cowl and cloak of the same stuff, having 
 a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, 
 whence their name, which was first given to 
 them by St. Louis of France, 1227. 
 
 CORINTH, a famous city of ancient Greece, 
 
 16 
 
 situated on the isthmus of the same name. 
 It was founded b.c. 1520. Corinthus, son of 
 Pelops, gave his name to the city. The in- 
 habitants were once famed for their power, 
 wealth, intelligence, and voluptuousness. 
 They founded Syracuse in Sicily, which they 
 afterward delivered from oppression. Corinth 
 was destroyed, by the Roman consul Mum- 
 mius, 146 b.c. The consul, who was no judge 
 of the fine arts, assured the soldiers who had 
 charge of the incomparable paintings sent 
 from Corinth to Rome, that if they injured 
 them, he should make them furnish new ones. 
 Julius Caesar attempted to restore the city to 
 its former importance. The government, at 
 first monarchical, was changed 757 b.c., and 
 it became the head of the Achaean league. In 
 1453 it fell into the hands of the Turks. Co- 
 rinth is now a small town of 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 CORIOLANUS, the surname of Caius Mar- 
 cius, given him for his victory over Corioli. 
 After having served his country faithfully, 
 and received many wounds in her service, he 
 was refused the consulship ; indignant at 
 the ingratitude of his countrymen, who ban- 
 ished him, he joined the Yolsci, a warlike na- 
 tion hostile to the Romans. Coriolanus ter- 
 rified the Romans by approaching their capital 
 at the head of a powerful army of Yolscians. . 
 The offended Roman refused to listen to pro- 
 posals made in the hope of inducing him to 
 withdraw, and pitched his camp within five 
 miles of the city. His enmity against his 
 country would have been fatal, had not his 
 wife, Yolumnia, and his mother, Yeturia, aided 
 by the presence of his children, prevailed upon 
 him to withdraw his army. Coriolanus, in 
 yielding to his mother, and raising her from 
 her suppliant posture, pronounced a sentence 
 which was prophetic of his fate: “Oh! my 
 mother, you have saved Rome, but you have 
 destroyed your son.” The Yolscians, indig- 
 nant at the treachery of Coriolanus, put him 
 to death, b.c. 488. 
 
 CORNEILLE, Pierre, a French author 
 who flourished in the time of Louis XIY., and 
 was the founder of French tragedy. 
 
 CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio Africanus 
 the elder, mother of the Gracchi, a Roman 
 matron who lived about 130 b.c. A lady of 
 Campania having shown her jewels to Corne- 
 lia, in paying a visit to the latter requested to 
 see her jewels in return. At that moment 
 
 COR 
 
242 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 her boys entered the room, and the noble Cor- 
 nelia, pointing them out to her visitors, ex- 
 claimed, “ These are my jewels ! ” At her 
 death the Romans, mindful of her worth, 
 erected a monument to her memory. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis of, born 
 in 1738, entered the English army at an early 
 age, and rose rapidly. He commanded the 
 British army in the South during the Revolu- 
 tion, and was finally captured at York town. 
 In 1786, he was made governor-general of In- 
 dia, where he reduced Tippoo Saib. From 
 1798 to 1801 he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and was of eminent service in restoring quiet 
 to that distracted country. In 1805, he was 
 once more made governor-general of India, 
 but died at Ghazepore, soon after his arrival 
 out, Oct. 5th of that year. 
 
 CORREGGIO. Antonio Allegri, com- 
 monly called Correggio from his birth-place, a 
 small town in Modena, was born in the winter 
 of 1493-4. In 1519, we find him a master of 
 established reputation at Parma. His frescoes 
 in the churches of Parma are his greatest 
 works, but he likewise produced many cele- 
 brated paintings in oil. His proverbial grace 
 — apparent, not only in his undulating forms 
 and soft transitions, but in the action and ex- 
 pression of his figures — is a distinctive char- 
 acteristic of his works ; and he is still unri- 
 valed in a certain harmony which results from 
 delicate gradations of light and shade. He 
 died of a fever at Correggio, March 5th, 1534. 
 
 CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
 north of Sardinia. Its area is 3,377 square 
 miles, and the population in 1856 was 240,183. 
 It is mountainous, but the numerous valleys 
 are extremely fertile/ The Corsicans know 
 not how to develope the resources of their 
 island. They are in an almost barbarous 
 state, recklessly brave, revengeful, fond of 
 freedom, and indolent. Corsica has been 
 successively occupied by the Carthaginians, 
 the Romans, the Goths, the Saracens, the 
 Franks, the Pope, the Pisanese, the Genoese, 
 the French, and the English, falling into the 
 hands of the last in 1794. The English, 
 however, did not long retain possession of the 
 island, and it was again restored to France. 
 Ajaccio is the chief town and port. 
 
 CORTEZ, Fernando, the conqueror of 
 Mexico, was born in 1485, in Estremadura. 
 He came to the West Indies in high hopes, 
 
 and Velasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him 
 the command of an expedition designed for 
 the reduction of Mexico, which consisted of 
 ten ships, six hundred men, ten small field- 
 pieces, and eighteen horses. With this small 
 armament he accomplished his enterprise, in 
 151-9, and added the empire of Mexico to 
 that of Spain. He took Montezuma prisoner, 
 although received with hospitality, and the 
 unfortunate king was killed by his own sub- 
 jects in an attack on the Spaniards. The 
 conduct of the conquerors so exasperated 
 the Indians that they compelled Cortez to 
 quit the city with great loss, but he regained 
 it after some hard fighting. On the capture 
 of Guatimozin, son of Montezuma, the city 
 surrendered, and the empire of Mexico was 
 at an end. A commission arrived to deprive 
 Cortez of his command, and he returned to 
 Spain in 1528 to procure redress. He died 
 in obscurity, in 1554. 
 
 CORUNNX, a seaport in the north-west 
 of Spain. Sir John Moore’s army, amounting 
 to about 15,000, had just accomplished a safe 
 retreat hither when they were attacked by 
 Soult with 20,000 troops, Jan 16th, 1809. 
 The French were repulsed, but the loss of 
 the British was immense. Their illustrious 
 commander was struck by a cannon-ball, 
 which carried away his left shoulder with 
 part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang- 
 ing by the flesh, and died in the arms of vic- 
 tory. In the evening his corpse, wrapped 
 in a cloak, was interred by the officers of his 
 staff, and the remnant of the army hastily 
 embarked. 
 
 COSSACKS, the name of several warlike 
 tribes that inhabit the south-western prov- 
 inces of Russia, and form an effective portion 
 of the Russian cavalry. Their horses are 
 small but hardy, and will travel for a whole 
 campaign from fifty to seventy miles a day. 
 They fight in little bands, and their arms are 
 long lances, bows and arrows, sabres, and 
 pistols or guns. The chief is called a hetman. 
 
 COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH. The 
 following are among the most memorable 
 ecclesiastical councils of ancient days. Of 
 the apostles at Jerusalem, a.d. 50. Arles in 
 France, 314; the western bishops met to sup- 
 press the Donatists; three fathers of the 
 English church were * present. Nice, 325; 
 the first (Ecumenical or General Nicene; 
 
 COU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 243 
 
 Constantine the Great presided ; Arius and 
 Eusebius were condemned for heresy ; this 
 council composed the Nicene creed. Tyre, 
 335, when the doctrine of Athanasius was 
 canvassed. Constantinople, 337, when the 
 Arian heresy gained ground. Rome, 342; 
 concerning Athanasius; it lasted eighteen 
 months. Sardis, 347. Rimini, 359 ; four 
 hundred fathers attended, and Constantine 
 obliged them to sign a new confession of 
 faith. Constantinople, the second general, 
 381 ; Pope Damasius presided. Ephesus, 
 the third, 431 ; Pope Celestine presided. 
 Chalcedon, the fourth, 451 ; Pope Leo pre- 
 sided, and Marcian and his empress attended. 
 Constantinople, the fifth, 553 ; and the sixth 
 in 680. Authority of the six general coun- 
 cils re-established by Theodosius, 715. Nice, 
 second Nicene and seventh general, 787. 
 Constantinople, eighth, 869. Clermont in 
 France, 1094 ; convened by Urban II. to au- 
 thorize the first crusade ; Philip I. of France 
 was excommunicated. The Lateran councils 
 were so called because held in the basilica of 
 the Lateran at Rome. First Lateran, ninth 
 general, 1122 ; the right of investitures set- 
 tled by treaty between Pope Calixtus II. and 
 the Emperor Henry Y. Second Lateran, 
 tenth general, 1139; Innocent II. presided.; 
 the preservation of the temporal ties of eccle- 
 siastics was the principal subject, and occa- 
 sioned the attendance of one thousand fathers. 
 Third Lateran, eleventh general, 1179; held 
 against schismatics. Fourth Lateran, twelfth 
 general, 1215 ; four hundred bishops and a 
 thousand abbots attended. Lyons, thirteenth 
 general, under Innocent IY. 1245. Lyons, 
 fourteenth general, under Gregory X., 1274. 
 Yienne, in Dauphiny, fifteenth. general, 1311 ; 
 Clement Y. presided, and the kings of France 
 and Aragon attended; the order of knight- 
 templars was suppressed. Pisa, sixteenth 
 general, 1409 ; Gregory XII. and Benedict 
 XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected. Con- 
 stance, seventeenth general, 1414 ; Martin Y. 
 elected pope, John XXIII. being deposed. 
 This council condemned Jerome of Prague 
 and John Buss to be burned alive, a sentence 
 executed upon the latter July 6th, 1415, and 
 on the other the 6th of May following, in a 
 suburb of Constance called Paradise ! Huss, 
 in violation of a safe-conduct from the Empe- 
 
 ror Sigismund, was cast into prison Jerome 
 hastened to Constance to defend h m, and 
 finally shared the fate of h'.s friend Basle, 
 eighteenth general, 1431. Fifth Lateran, 
 nineteenth general, begun by Julius II , 1512, 
 and continued under Leo X., till 151 7, for the 
 suppression of the pragmatic sanction of 
 France against the council of Pisa. Trent, 
 the twentieth general council styled oecumen- 
 ical, 1545 ; it was held to condemn the doc- 
 trines of Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin; it 
 continued with intervals till 1563. The last, 
 the ^Ecumenical council of 1869, was opened 
 by Pius IX., and attended by 700 Bishops. 
 The dogma of papal infallibility was adopted 
 in this council by a vote of 450 to 88. 
 
 COURTRAI, anciently Cortoriacum, a town 
 of Belgium, twenty -two miles south-west of 
 Ghent, famous for the battle fought in its 
 vicinity, in 1302, between the Flemings and 
 French. The latter were defeated with great 
 loss, and, from the fact that four thousand 
 gilt spurs were found upon the field, the en- 
 gagement was called the Battle of the Spurs. 
 
 COWLEY, Abraham, an English poet, the 
 son of a grocer, born in 1618, died in 1667. 
 He was an easy writer, and patronized by 
 royalty. 
 
 COWPENS, S. C. Here, Jan. 17th, 1781, 
 a British force led by Tarleton was brilliantly 
 defeated by the Americans under Gen. Daniel 
 Morgan. This was an important check to 
 the plans of Cornwallis. 
 
 COWPER, William, the poet, son of the 
 Rev. Dr. Cowper, was born at Berkhamstead, 
 Herts, Nov. 15th, 1731. His education was 
 acquired at a public school, where girlish 
 timidity and delicacy subjected him to con- 
 stant agony from the tyranny and roughness 
 of his school-fellows. He studied law, and 
 obtained the place of clerk of the House of 
 Lords ; but when the time approached for 
 him to enter upon the duties of his office, his 
 terror at presenting himself before the peer- 
 age, not only induced him to relinquish the 
 place, but produced a fit of sickness. About 
 this time his religious fears brought on a 
 temporary derangement. He led the life of 
 a despondent recluse, at Olney, now and then 
 afflicted by a recurrence of his insanity, 
 which in his last years settled into a constant 
 shadow of religious agony and terror. His 
 
2M 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 death took place April 25th, 1800. Of all 
 his poems the humorous ballad of “John 
 Gilpin,” and “ The Task,” are the best. 
 
 CRABBE, George, a popular British poet, 
 was born Dec. 24th, 1754, at Aldborough in 
 Suffolk. He was intended for a surgeon, and 
 actually opened a shop, to which he confined 
 himself for some time, although barely making 
 his expenses. In 1778 he went to London 
 as a literary adventurer, but was for a long 
 time unsuccessful. When a prison was in 
 near view, and ruin appeared to threaten him, 
 he conceived the idea of writing to Edmund 
 Burke, for assistance and advice. That great 
 man at once became his friend and patron, 
 urged him to persevere, and induced him to 
 study divinity and take orders. Thenceforth 
 his circumstances were comfortable. He 
 married the object of his early affections, 
 devoted himself to literature, and received 
 the applause due to a genius of the highest 
 order, and continued to use his pen till his 
 death in 1882. Crabbe excelled in descrip- 
 tions of humble life, and his poems are marked 
 by a sombre strength and pathos. Byron 
 called him, 
 
 “Nature’s sternest painter, but her best.” 
 
 CRANMER, Thomas, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, who aided the progress of the refor- 
 mation in England, was yet the slave of the 
 king, and never permitted conscience to 
 interfere with the wishes of the crowned 
 tyrant. He joined the partisans of Lady 
 Jane Grey, and was accordingly sent to the 
 Tower on the accession of Mary. Hav- 
 ing been accused of blasphemy, perjury, in- 
 continence, and heresy, he was burnt at 
 Oxford, March 21st, 1556. Cranmer was born 
 in 1489. He was at once a divine and a 
 statesman. In his character of divine he was 
 perfectly ready to go as far in the way of 
 change as any Swiss of Scottish reformer. In 
 his character of statesman he was desirous to 
 preserve that organization which had, during 
 many ages, admirably served the purposes of 
 the bishops of Rome, and might be expected 
 now to serve equally well the purposes of the 
 English kings and of their ministers. His 
 temper and his understanding eminently fitted 
 him to act as mediator. Saintly in his pro- 
 fessions, unscrupulous in his dealings, Zealous 
 for nothing, bold in speculation, a coward 
 
 and a time-server in action, a placable enemy 
 and a lukewarm friend, he was in every way 
 qualified to arrange the terms of the coalition 
 between the religious and the worldly ene- 
 mies of poperjr. He was more courageous at 
 the stake than he had been in life. The 
 night before martyrdom his enemies seduced 
 him by hope of life to sign a written recan- 
 tation. When the. fire was lit about him, he 
 thrust his right hand, with which he had 
 signed, into the flame before it could reach 
 his body, sometimes saying, “This unworthy 
 hand!” and then, “Lord Jesus, receive my 
 spirit.” 
 
 CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius, a Roman con- 
 sul, distinguished for some gallant actions, 
 and active in crushing the gladiatorial revolt 
 which was headed by Spartacus. He was 
 slain by the Parthians, b.c. 58. He was the 
 colleague of Caesar and Pompey in the first 
 triumvirate, b.c. 60. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Thomas, an eminent sculp- 
 tor, was born in New York, N. Y., March 
 22d, 1814. From an early age he manifested 
 a remarkable fondness for art, which his 
 father lost no opportunity of encouraging. 
 His tendency being manifestly toward the 
 plastic .arts, in 1834, at twenty years of age, 
 he was sent to Italy, where he was so fortu- 
 nate as to gain admittance into the studio of 
 Thorwaldsen, to whose instruction and friend- 
 ship he became indebted for much of his 
 subsequent success. The purity of form and 
 severe classicism of this eminent master are 
 reflected in many of his pupil’s works. After 
 a few years of study, Crawford established 
 his studio in Rome, and soon received abund- 
 ant employment. A malignant tumor in his 
 eye caused his death, Oct. 7th, 1857. 
 
 CREBILLON, the elder, French tragic 
 poet, died 1762, aged eighty-eight. 
 
 CRESSY, or CRECY, a town of France ten 
 miles north of Abbeville, where was fought 
 a famous battle between the French under 
 Philip and the English, in which the latter, led 
 by Edward III. and his son the brave Black 
 Prince, were completely victorious, August 
 26th, 1346. Over 30,000 French were slain, 
 while the loss of the English was very small. 
 The crest of John, the Bohemian king (who 
 fell fighting for the French), three ostrich 
 feathers, with the motto Ich dien , “ I serve,” 
 
 CRE 
 
history and biography. 
 
 245 
 
 was adopted by the Black Prince, and has 
 ever since been borne by the heir to the 
 English crown. 
 
 CRICHTON, James, a Scotch gentleman, 
 born in 1 550, of a good family, who, from his 
 proficiency in the arts and sciences, particu- 
 larly music and manly exercises, was styled 
 the Admirable. He traveled in France and 
 Italy, and in Mantua, having pleased the 
 duke, was appointed preceptor to his son. 
 During the carnival of 1583, Crichton, while 
 playing upon his guitar, was attacked in the 
 streets by a masked band, against which 
 he defended himself with his accustomed 
 spirit, until he recognized his pupil in the 
 leader. Throwing himself upon his knees, 
 he presented his sword to the young noble- 
 man, who stabbed his preceptor to the heart. 
 The motives which impelled him are un- 
 known. 
 
 CRILLON, Louis de Balbe, surnamed the 
 Fearless, a celebrated French commander, 
 bora of a noble family, in Provence, in 1541. 
 He was the friend of Henry IY. He distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Calais, and 
 against the Huguenots and the Turks. “Hang 
 thyself, brave Crillon; we have fought at 
 Arques, and thou wast absent,” was Henry’s 
 laconic announcement of one of Ms most 
 brilliant victories to his favored friend. In 
 1592, he successfully defended Villeboeuf 
 with an inferior force against Marshal Villars, 
 and when called upon to surrender, gallantly 
 answered, “Crillon is within, and Villars 
 without.” The assailants were unsuccessful. 
 One day, hearing a sermon in which the suf- 
 ferings of Christ were forcibly described, he 
 seized the handle of his sword and cried, 
 “AVhere wert thou, Crillon?” He died in 
 1616. 
 
 CRCESUS, the last king of Lydia, famed 
 for his immense wealth. Being defeated by 
 Cyrus, b.c. 548, he was conducted to the 
 stake, but saved his life by repeating, in the 
 hearing; of Cyrus, the saying of Solon, that 
 no man could be pronounced happy till his 
 death. 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, was born of a good 
 family at Huntingdon, April 25th, 1599, and 
 received a careful education. The excesses 
 in which he indulged on quitting the univer- 
 sity, were ended at his marriage with Eliz- 
 abeth Bouchier, daughter of a baronet of 
 
 Essex, at the age of twenty-one. He was 
 chosen to a seat in parliament in 1628, and 
 again in 1640. He was a strong opponent of 
 the measures of the court. In 1642, when 
 hostilities were determined upon, Cromwell 
 raised a troop of horse, and seized the plate 
 of the university at Cambridge to defray the 
 expenses of the war. He soon acquired the 
 rank of colonel, and the- superior courage of 
 his troops, procured for them at Marston 
 Moor the name of ironsides. He also distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Newbury, 
 1643. He had now gained so great an in- 
 fluence, that when the famous self-denying 
 ordinance was passed, by which all mem- 
 bers of either house of parliament were ex- 
 cluded from command in the army, Crom- 
 well was particularly excepted. He was 
 constituted lieutenant-general, and by his 
 skill and courage the battle of Naseby was 
 won in 1645, followed by a series of suc- 
 cesses which decided the fate of the roy- 
 alists. 
 
 The parliamentary troops had been at fir^t 
 far inferior to the high-spirited cavaliers. 
 But the army which grew up under the rigid 
 discipline of Cromwell, was irresistible. The 
 stubborn courage of the English was, by the 
 system of Cromwell, at once regulated and 
 stimulated. Other leaders have maintained 
 order as strict ; other leaders have inspired 
 their followers with a zeal as ardent ; but in 
 his camp alone the most rigid discipline was 
 found in company with the fiercest enthu- 
 siasm. His troops moved to victory with the 
 precision of machines, while burning with the 
 wildest fanaticism of crusaders. From the 
 time when the army was remodeled to the 
 time when it was disbanded, it never found, 
 either in the British islands or on the conti- 
 nent, an enemy who could stand its onset 
 In England, Scotland, Ireland, Flanders, the 
 Puritan warriors, often surrounded by diffi- 
 culties, sometimes contending against three- 
 fold odds, not only never failed to conquer, 
 but never failed to destroy and break in 
 pieces whatever force was opposed to them. 
 They at length came to regard the day of bat- 
 tle as a day of certain triumph, and marched 
 against the most renowned battalions of Eu- 
 rope with disdainful confidence. Turenne 
 was startled by the shout of stern exultation 
 with which his English allies advanced to th^ 
 
 CRO 
 

 
 246 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 combat, and expressed the delight of a true 
 soldier when he learned that it was ever the 
 fashion of Cromwell’s pikemen to rejoice 
 greatly when they beheld the enemy ; and the 
 banished cavaliers felt an emotion of national 
 pride when they saw a brigade of their coun- 
 trymen, outnumbered bj’ - foes and abandoned 
 by allies, drive before it in headlong route 
 the finest infantry of Spain, and force a pas- 
 sage into a counterscarp which had just been 
 pronounced impregnable by the ablest of the 
 marshals of France. But that which chiefly 
 distinguished the army of Cromwell from 
 other armies was the austere morality and the 
 fear of God which pervaded all ranks. It is 
 acknowledged by the most zealous royalists 
 that, in that singular camp, no oath was 
 heard, no drunkenness or gambling was seen, 
 and that, during the long dominion of the 
 soldiery, the property of the peaceable citizen 
 and the honor of woman were held sacred. 
 If outrages were committed, they were out- 
 rages of a very different kind from those of 
 which a victorious army is generally guilty. 
 No servant girl complained of the rough gal- 
 lantry of the red-coats ; not an ounce of plate 
 was taken from the shops of the goldsmiths ; 
 but a Pelagian sermon, or a window on which 
 the Virgin and Child were painted, produced 
 in the Puritan ranks an excitement which it 
 required the utmost exertions of the officers 
 to quell. One of Cromwell’s chief difficulties 
 was to restrain his pikemen and dragoons 
 from invading by main force the pulpits of 
 ministers whose discourses, to use the lan- 
 guage of that time, were not savory ; and too 
 many cathedrals still bear the marks of 
 the hatred with which those stern spirits 
 regarded every vestige of popery. — Macaulay. 
 
 Charles I. was betrayed by the Scotch, and 
 brought to the scaffold. For this step Crom- 
 well should not alone be held responsible. 
 He acquiesced in what he could not have 
 prevented, had he desired a quieter result. 
 England was declared a commonwealth. 
 Ireland and Scotland raised the standard of 
 the second Charles. Cromwell, in 1649, 
 went to Ireland, which he subdued, and leav- 
 ing Ireton as deputy, returned to England in 
 1650. Against the Scots, he gained the battle 
 of Dunbar, Sept. 3d, 1650, and that day twelve- 
 month, defeated the royal forces at Worcester. 
 
 The Rump parliament and the army came 
 in collision. Armed jnen cleared the house, 
 and the victorious general was declared lord 
 high protector of the commonwealth, Dec. 
 12th, 1653, by the Barebones parliament. 
 Opposed as he was by both royalists and 
 republicans, he could be safe only by being 
 absolute. The government, in form a re- 
 public, was in truth a military despotism, 
 moderated by the wisdom, the sober-minded- 
 ness, and the magnanimity of the protector. 
 The laws were violated only when demanded 
 for the safety of his person or government. 
 The cavalier who refrained from disturbance 
 was unmolested. Justice was administered 
 with exactness and purity not before known. 
 Never, since the reformation, had there been 
 so little religious persecution. 
 
 Cromwell’s foreign policy extorted the 
 ungracious approbation of those who most 
 detested him. England had been of scarcely 
 more weight in European politics than Ven- 
 ice or Saxony. She at once became the most 
 formidable power in the world, dictated terms 
 of peace to Holland, avenged the common 
 injuries of Christendom on the pirates of 
 Barbary, vanquished the Spaniards by sea 
 and land, seized one of the finest West 
 India islands, and acquired on the Flemish 
 coast a fortress which consoled the national 
 pride for the loss of Calais. She was su- 
 preme on the ocean. She was the head of 
 the Protestant interest. All the Protestant 
 churches scattered over Roman Catholic 
 kingdoms acknowledged Cromwell as their 
 guardian. The pope himself was forced to 
 preach humanity and moderation to popish 
 princes ; for a voice which seldom threatened 
 in vain had declared that, unless favor were 
 shown to the people of God, English guns 
 should be heard in the castle of Saint Angelo. 
 
 The protector had thus conquered peace 
 at home and triumph abroad. The death 
 of his favorite daughter smote him sorely ; he 
 became depressed in spirits, was seized with a 
 slow fever, and died, Sept. 3d, 1658. This 
 best and greatest ruler that England has ever 
 had was buried with more than regal pomp 
 ia Westminster Abbey. In mean revenge, 
 after the restoration, his body was torn 
 from its sanctuary and exposed upon the 
 gallows at Tyburn. 
 
 CRO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 247 
 
 CROMWELL, Richard, succeeded his fa- 
 ther as protector of England, was soon deposed 
 by the army, and lived a quiet life as a coun- 
 try gentleman. 
 
 CROMWELL, Thomas, Earl of Essex, son 
 of a blacksmith at Putney, in Surrey, was 
 born about the year 1490. Early in life he 
 became clerk to the English factory at Ant- 
 werp, which he left to serve in Italy, where 
 he fought beneath the banners of the Consta- 
 ble of Bourbon. Returning home, he was 
 taken into the service of Cardinal Wolsey, 
 who procured him a seat in the House of 
 Commons. When Wolsey fell, Cromwell be- 
 came a servant of the king, was raised to the 
 office of chancellor of the exchequer, and in 
 1534 made secretary of state and master of 
 the rolls. About this time he was also elected 
 chancellor of Cambridge. The next year he 
 was appointed visitor-general of the monaste- 
 ries. In 1536 he was made lord keeper of 
 the privy-seal, and the same year advanced to 
 the peerage by the title of Lord Cromwell ; 
 and the papal supremacy being abolished, he 
 was nominated the king’s vicar-general in the 
 convocation. In 1537 he was appointed chief- 
 justice itinerant of all the forests beyond 
 Trent, elected knight of the garter, and made 
 dean of Wells. To these honors was added 
 the grant of many manors after the dissolution 
 of the monasteries, and in 1539 he was cre- 
 ated Earl of Essex. Soon after, his fortune 
 declined as fast as it had risen. His ruin was 
 hastened by the marriage which he projected 
 between Henry and Anne of Cleves, and he 
 was sent to the Tower, where he was deserted 
 by all his friends except Cranmer, who, how- 
 ever, could not save him from the scaffold, 
 and he suffered death with fortitude, July 
 28th, 1540. 
 
 CRUDEN, Alexander, author of a well- 
 known biblical concordance, was born in Ab- 
 erdeen, May 31st, 1701. He was exceedingly 
 eccentric, and at times insane. He was found 
 dead in his chamber in the attitude of prayer, 
 Nov. 1st, 1770. 
 
 CRUSADES, the name given to the expe- 
 ditions fitted out by the Christian warriors of 
 Europe, for the recovery of the Holy Land, 
 from the end of the eleventh to the end of the 
 thirteenth centary. The crusaders derived 
 their name from the badge of the cross which 
 was wrought upon their mantles and appeared 
 
 in various parts of their equipments. The 
 age was one in which the people were pecul- 
 iarly adapted to the reception of enthusiastic 
 religious impulses. The Christians could not 
 bear to think that the places which they held 
 so dear, and which the history of their religion 
 hallowed, should be desecrated by the pres- 
 ence of infidels, and rendered dangerous to 
 those pilgrims whom reverence called to Pal- 
 estine. The church called upon the chivalry 
 of Europe, and the knights responded to the 
 summons. 
 
 The rise of the crusades is immediately at- 
 tributable to the enthusiasm of a wandering 
 pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, who, having 
 experienced the tyrannical exactions imposed 
 on the visitors of the holy sepulchre, repre- 
 sented them to Urban II. in such lively colors, 
 that the prelate selected him as the instrument 
 of a grand design which he had formed to 
 overthrow the Mohammedan power, and Peter, 
 armed with the holy commission, went from 
 province to province, to kindle up that enthu- 
 siasm by which he was himself consuming. 
 When the feelings of the people and the po- 
 tentates appeared ripe for some wild project, 
 Urban held a council in the open fields at Pi- 
 acenza, and proposed his scheme, which was 
 warmly applauded, but not as warmly em- 
 braced. Another council was therefore held 
 at Clermont, graced by the presence of am- 
 bassadors from all nations, and the result was 
 as favorable as he could have anticipated. The 
 pope held out to the crusaders the promise of 
 spiritual pardon, and imposed on them only 
 the penance of plunder for their sins. Thus 
 excited, the enthusiasm became general ; no- 
 blemen sold their estates for outfits ; the 
 meanest lords of the manors set forth at their 
 own expense ; the poor gentlemen followed 
 them as esquires ; and above 80,000 collected 
 under the banners of the cross. Godfrey of 
 Boulogne was at the head of 70,000 foot, and 
 10,000 horse, splendidly armed, were under 
 the command of many lords, who were joined 
 by Hugh, brother to Philip I. of France, Ray- 
 mond of Toulouse, Bohemond, King of Sicily, 
 and others of equal and less note. A propo- 
 sal was made to the pope to put himself at 
 their head, but he refused. This refusal, 
 however, did not damp their ardor. 
 
 Confiding in their cause, their numbers, 
 and their equipments, they traversed Germany 
 
 CRU 
 
248 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and Hungary, took Nice, Antioch, and Edessa, ; ious fury no less absorbing than that which 
 and arrived at Jerusalem. The city was taken filled the breast of the crusaders, threw him- 
 by storm, after five weeks’ siege, July 15th, | self upon Jerusalem, which, unable to hold 
 1099. The numerous inhabitants and garri- out against him, once more echoed to the 
 son were put to the sword. Neither arms shouts of Saracen conquerors, as the3 r again 
 defended the valiant nor submission the timid ; I erected their crescent on the ramparts of the 
 
 no age or sex was spared ; infants on the 
 breast were pierced by the same blow with 
 their mothers who implored for mercy. Even 
 a multitude to the number of ten thousand, 
 who had surrendered themselves prisoners, 
 and were promised quarter, were butchered in 
 cold blood by these ferocious conquerors. 
 The streets of Jerusalem were covered with 
 corpses ; and the triumphant warriors, after 
 every enemy was subdued or slaughtered, im- 
 mediate^ turned themselves in humiliation 
 toward the holy sepulchre ! They threw away 
 their weapons still streaming with blood ; they 
 advanced, with bowed heads, and naked feet 
 and hands, to that sacred monument ; they 
 sung anthems to their Saviour, who had there 
 purchased their salvation by his death and 
 agony ; and their devotion so overcame their 
 fury, that they dissolved in tears, and bore 
 the appearance of every soft and tender sen- 
 timent. So inconsistent is human nature with 
 itself! and so easily does superstition ally, 
 both with the most heroic courage and with 
 the fiercest barbarity ! Godfrey of Boulogne, 
 not without opposition from the priests, was 
 elected King of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. 
 In 1102, an immense army which departed 
 for the Holy Land, was defeated, and no fewer 
 than 200,000 men lost to Europe by the en- 
 terprise. The capture of Baldwin and the loss 
 of Edessa occasioned a new crusade in 1147. 
 
 France again gave the impulse to the relig- 
 ious excitement. Pope Eugenius III. induced 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux to act the part of 
 Peter the Hermit, and the consequence was 
 that Louis the Young, accompanied by his 
 wife, Eleanor of Guicnne, departed for the 
 Holy Land, and Conrad III., in whose hands 
 the red cross was placed, led a large army into 
 Asia. Both of them, however,, were unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 The unfortunate issue of the second crusade 
 was precipitated by the dissensions of the 
 Christians, and the uncommon abilities ofSa- 
 ladin, who, advancing at the head of an army 
 that placed implicit confidence in the courage 
 and skill of their leader, animated by a relig- 
 
 city. The Christians lost all their possessions 
 but Antioch, Tripoli, Joppa, and Tyre. 
 
 The leaders of the third crusade (1189) were 
 Frederick I. of Germany, surnamed Barbaros- 
 sa, the chivalric Philip Augustus of France, 
 and the lion-hearted Richard I. of England. 
 Barbarossa was ultimately unsuccessful, but 
 the monarchs of France and England took 
 possession of Ptolemais or Acre. Philip Au- 
 gustus, from motives of jealousy, left the field 
 to Richard, who proved himself a worthy rival 
 of Saladin, and the two commanders performed 
 wonderful feats of arms which were the ad- 
 miration of both armies. The fourth crusade 
 was conducted by Andrew II. of Hungary, 
 and the fifth by Frederick II. of German}^. 
 The results of these ought to have shown 
 that the Christians could not hope to gain 
 permanent possession of the country. In 
 1270 St. Louis, King of France, undertook 
 the sixth and last crusade, which, though 
 well conceived, and vigorously carried on, 
 was unsuccessful. In this last crusade no 
 fewer than 150,000 persons perished: add to 
 this the numbers that died in former expedi- 
 tions, and it will be seen that the east was the 
 tomb of above two millions of Europeans ; 
 and several countries were depopulated and 
 impoverished by the crusades. Yet the holy 
 wars were not without good. They created 
 an intimate connection and a constant inter- 
 course between the nations of Europe, which, 
 as it was favorable to commercial enterprise, 
 increased the wealth, improved the arts, and 
 contributed to establish the civilization of the 
 Christian world. 
 
 CUBA, subject to Spain, is the largest of 
 the West Indies. Its area is 42,883 square 
 miles, and its population exceeds a million, of 
 whom about one-half are slaves. The island 
 is rich and fertile, producing sugar, coffee, 
 and tobacco abundantly. Havana, the capital 
 of Cuba, is on the northern coast of the island ; 
 population, composed of whites, mulattocs, 
 and negroes, 150,000. The streets of the city 
 are dirty, but the strongly fortified harbor is 
 one of the finest in the world. The public 
 
 CUB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 249 
 
 edifices of the city, particularly the Catholic 
 churches, are very splendid. The commerce 
 of Havana is extensive and increasing. It 
 was founded in 1511, by Diego Velasquez, 
 and has been twice taken by the English, but 
 was restored to Spain in 1763. The bones of 
 Columbus repose in the cathedral at Havana. 
 Cuba is badly governed, and is the scene of 
 frequent revolutions. 
 
 Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492, 
 In 1511 it was conquered by the Spaniards. 
 In 1762 a powerful expedition for the conquest 
 of the island was fitted out by the British, 
 and Havana capitulated in August. The 
 plunder obtained by the British was immense. 
 By the treaty of 1763, Cuba was restored to 
 the Spaniards. An expedition headed by Lo- 
 pez, to wrest Cuba from Spanish dominion, 
 landed on the island May 17th, 1850, and 
 ended in defeat and disaster. Lopez made a 
 second attempt in August, 1851. His party 
 was taken, fifty of them shot, and he himself 
 garrotted at Havana. 
 
 CULLODEN MUIR, a heath in Scotland, 
 where the Duke of Cumberland defeated the 
 young Pretender, after an obstinate resistance, 
 on the 16th of April, 1746. Prince Charles 
 sought safety in flight among the Highland 
 wilds. The duke’s troops practiced great 
 cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon 
 the defenseless inhabitants near the field of 
 battle. The defeat quenched the hopes of the 
 house of Stuart forever. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, William Augustus, Duke 
 of, second son of George IT., was born in 
 1721. He was wounded at the battle of Det- 
 tingen, but refused the assistance of a surgeon 
 until the latter had finished dressing the 
 wound of a poor soldier who had been shot 
 at the same time with himself. He com- 
 manded the British army at the battles of 
 Fontenoy and Val, which were lost through 
 the cowardice of the Dutch troops. In 1746 
 he defeated the Pretender at Culloden, but 
 disgraced his character by his cruel treatment 
 of the vanquished. He died in 1765. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, Richard, an English 
 dramatist and miscellaneous author, son of 
 the Bishop of Clonfert, was born in 1732, and 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He 
 died in London, May 7th, 1811. His fame 
 rests altogether on his comic dramas. He 
 was extremely sensitive, self-conceited, and 
 
 jealous, and Sheridan, considering him as 
 fair game, held him up to ridicule as Sir Fret- 
 ful Plagiary in “The Critic.” He was much 
 annoyed at the success of the “School for 
 Scandal,” and it was only for fear of exciting 
 ridicule by refusing to witness it, that he 
 carried two of his children to see the play. 
 Cumberland sat behind them, the picture of 
 jealousy and envy. When they laughed at 
 any witticisms, in common with the audience, 
 Cumberland w r ould gravely extend a finger 
 and thumb, inflict a severe pinch, and say, 
 “What are you laughing at, my dears? I 
 don’t see anything to laugh at.” 
 
 CUNNERSDORF, a village on the Oder, 
 at no great distance from Frankfort, where 
 Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked 
 the Russian and Austrian army of 90,000 in 
 their camp, and at first gained considerable 
 advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the 
 Austrians and Russians rallied, and retrieved 
 a complete victory. The Prussians lost two 
 hundred guns, and 20,000 men in killed and 
 wounded, Aug. 12th, 1759. 
 
 CURIUS DENTATUS, Marcus Annius, a 
 Roman consul, famous for his fortitude and 
 frugality. He gained several victories,* and 
 defeated Pyrrhus, b.c. 272. The Samnite 
 ambassadors found him cooking some vege- 
 tables for his dinner in an earthen pot, yet he 
 indignantly refused the vessels of gold with 
 which they attempted to bribe him. 
 
 CURRAN, John Piiilpott, was born of 
 humble parents, near Cork, in 1750. He was 
 called to the bar in 1775. In his boyhood he 
 had been afflicted like Demosthenes, and his 
 nickname at school was “stuttering Jack 
 Curran.” This impediment, like Demos- 
 thenes, he overcame, and became famous for 
 his forensic and parliamentary oratory. He 
 entered the Irish parliament about 1785. 
 His eloquence shone in his conversation as 
 well, and was rivaled by his wit and sarcasm. 
 Byron said that Curran spoke more poetry 
 than any man had ever written. This admira- 
 tion the Irishman did not fully reciprocate. 
 He constantly objected to Byron’s moody 
 egotism as the great drawback on his poetry. 
 “Any subject,” said Curran, “but that eter- 
 nal one of self. I weary of knowing once a 
 month the state of any man’s hopes or fears, 
 rights or wrongs. I would as soon read a 
 register of the weather, the barometer up so 
 
 CUR 
 
250 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 many inches to day, and down so many inches 
 to-morrow. I feel skepticism all over me at 
 the sight of agonies on paper, things that 
 come as regular and notorious as the full of 
 the moon. The truth is, his lordship weeps 
 for the press, and wipes his eyes with the 
 public.” 
 
 In the Irish parliament, when once merci- 
 lessly exposing the corruption of the place- 
 men, Curran spoke of the immaculate virtue 
 of “those saints on the pension list; they 
 toil not, neither do they spin, but they are 
 arrayed like Solomon in his glory.” At 
 another time he used this strong figure con- 
 cerning those whose path to power had lain 
 through treachery to Ireland : “ Those found- 
 lings of fortune, overwhelmed in the torrent 
 of corruption at an early period, lay at the 
 bottom like drowned bodies, while soundness 
 or sanity remained in them ; but at length 
 becoming buoyant by putrefaction, they rose 
 as they rotted, and floated to the surface of 
 the polluted stream, where they were drifted 
 along, the objects of terror, and contagion, 
 and abomination.” 
 
 Of his wit many tales are related. Lundy 
 * Foot, a celebrated tobacconist, set up a car- 
 riage, and asked Curran for a Latin motto. 
 
 Quid rides,” said Curran. Being told that 
 a very stingy and slovenly barrister had 
 started for the continent with a shirt and a 
 guinea, “ He’ll not change either till he comes 
 back,” said Curran. He was cross-examin- 
 ing a witness : “My lord, my lord,” cried the 
 fellow to the judge, “ I can’t answer yon little 
 gentleman, he’s putting me in such a dol- 
 drum.” “A doldrum! Mr. Curran, what 
 does he mean by a doldrum ! ” exclaimed 
 Lord Avonmore. “Oh, my lord, it’s a very 
 common complaint with persons of this sort : 
 it’s merely a confusion of the head arising 
 from the corruption of the heart.” Once 
 when he was arguing for the defense in a 
 state trial, the judge shook his head in doubt 
 or denial at one of his points. “ I see, gen- 
 tlemen,” said Curran to the jury, “I seethe 
 motion of his lordship’s head. Common ob- 
 servers might imagine it implied a difference 
 of opinion ; but they would be mistaken : it 
 is merely accidental. Believe me, gentlemen, 
 if you remain here many days, you will your- 
 selves perceive that when his lordship shakes 
 his head, there is nothing in it.” 
 
 Curran died in London in 1817. 
 
 CURTIUS, Marcus, a noble Roman youth, 
 of whom it is related, tha v / when a pestilential 
 chasm opened in the Roman forum, 862 b. c., 
 and the oracle declared that it could only be 
 closed when the most precious thing in Rome 
 was thrown into it, Curtius, saying that arms 
 and courage were invaluable, assumed his 
 military dress, and mounting an armed horse, 
 sprang into the abyss, which closed over him 
 forever. 
 
 CUSHING, Thomas, a patriotic American, 
 born in 1725. He early obtained a seat in 
 the general court of Massachusetts, and was 
 chosen speaker of the house of representatives. 
 The supposed extent of his influence induced 
 Doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet “Taxation 
 no Tyranny,” to remark, “ One object of the 
 Americans is said to be, to adorn the brows 
 of Mr. Cushing with a diadem.” Mr. C. was 
 a member of the two first continental con- 
 gresses, and of the council of Massachusetts, 
 and was created judge of the court of com- 
 mon pleas, and of probate in the county of 
 Suffolk. Having been honored with the post 
 of lieutenant-governor of his native state, he 
 died in 1788. 
 
 CUTLER, Timothy, a talented American 
 divine, some time president of Yale College. 
 He became rector of Christ Church, in Bos- 
 ton, and died in his eighty-second year, Aug. 
 17th, 1765. 
 
 CUYIER, George Leopold Christian 
 Frederic Dagobert, Baron of, a celebrated 
 French naturalist, born at Montbeliard, Aug. 
 25th, 1769. His researches are well known 
 to the generality of readers. He died at Paris, 
 May 18th, 1832. 
 
 CYCLADES, in ancient geography a name 
 given to certain islands in the iEgean Sea, 
 particularly those that surround Delos as 
 with a circle. They were subjected by Mil- 
 tiades, but revolted during the Persian inva- 
 sion. 
 
 CYPRUS, an island in the Mediterranean, 
 famed among the ancients for its uncommon 
 fertility and the mildness of its climate. It 
 now contains 140,000 wretched inhabitants. 
 Yenus was worshiped here, and the ancient 
 Cyprians were much given to love and pleas- 
 ure. Its original colonists are unknown. 
 The Egyptians took it in 550 b.c., and the 
 Romans, 58 b.c.. It was occupied for some 
 
 CYP 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 251 
 
 time by the Arabs on the decline of the Ro- 
 man empire. They were, however, driven 
 from it daring the crusades, and the title of 
 King of Cyprus was for some time held by 
 Richard I. of England. In 1480, it fell into 
 the hands of the Y enetians, from whom it was 
 wrested, in 1571, by the Turks. 
 
 CYRUS. Concerning this monarch there 
 are two distinct and irreconcilable accounts, 
 those of Herodotus and Xenophon. The 
 latter, in his “ Cyropedia,” has rather given 
 us the picture of what a monarch should 
 be, than of what a monarch was, and the 
 account of Herodotus is generally adhered to 
 in historical narratives. Cyrus, King of Per- 
 sia, was the son of Cambyses and Maudane, 
 the daughter of Astyages, the last monarch 
 of Media. From a belief that he was fated 
 to dethrone his grandfather, he was exposed 
 as soon as born ; but was preserved by a 
 shepherdess, who educated him as her own 
 son. As he was playing with his equals in 
 years, he was elected a king in one of their 
 sports, and he exercised his power with such 
 independent spirit, that he ordered one of his 
 companions to be whipped severely for diso- 
 bedience. The father of the boy, who was a 
 nobleman, complained to the king of the ill 
 treatment which his son had received from a 
 shepherd’s boy. Astyages ordered Cyrus 
 before him, and discovered that he was Mau- 
 dane’s son, from whom he had so much to 
 apprehend. He therefore treated him with 
 suspicious coldness ; and Cyrus, unable to 
 bear his tyranny, escaped from his confine- 
 ment and began to levy troops to dethrone 
 his grandfather. He was assisted and en- 
 couraged by the ministers of Astyages, who 
 were displeased with his oppression. 
 
 marched against and defeated Astyages ju a 
 battle fought b.c. 560. From this victory the 
 empire of Media became tributary to the Per- 
 sians. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of 
 Asia, and made war against Croesus, King of 
 Lydia, whom he conquered b.c. 548. He 
 invaded the kingdom of Assyria, and took 
 the city of Babylon by turning the course 
 of the Euphrates, and marching his troops 
 through the bed of the river under the walls, 
 while the people were celebrating a grand 
 festival. He afterward led his troops against 
 Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetae, a Scyth- 
 ian nation, but was defeated in a bloody 
 battle, b.c. 529. The victorious queen, who 
 had lost her son in a previous encounter, was 
 so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off 
 his head, and threw it into a vessel filled 
 with human blood ; crying, “ Satisfy thyself 
 with the blood for which thou hast thirsted.” 
 CYRUS, the Younger, was the son of 
 Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes. 
 On the death of his father, he attempted the 
 life of his brother, to obtain the throne, but 
 was pardoned through the intercession of 
 his mother, Parysatis. He then obtained the 
 governorship of Lydia, whence he marched 
 against his brother. The war ended with 
 the death of Cyrus, b.c. 400. Several thou- 
 sand Greeks accompanied Cyrus in his ex- 
 pedition, and their retreat, led by Xenophon, 
 and by him described, is a memorable chap- 
 ter of ancient history. 
 
 CYTHERA, the ancient name of an island 
 in the Ionian sea, now Cerigo, containing 
 a population of 12,000. Yenus was wor- 
 shiped here, and here was one of her most 
 splendid temples; hence she was called 
 Cytherea. 
 
 Cyrus 
 CYT 
 
 3 
 
252 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 DACIER, Anna Lefevre (the wife of An- 
 drew Dacier), was born in France in 1651. 
 She was celebrated for her learning and 
 beauty. She edited and translated several 
 of the ancient classics, and distinguished her- 
 self by her defense of Homer in answer to 
 Lamotte. She died in 1720. 
 
 DzEDALUS, an artist and machinist of 
 Athens, who lived three generations before 
 the Trojan war. He was the builder of the 
 Cretan labyrinth. Being imprisoned with 
 his son, Icarus, he is said to have invented 
 wings cemented with wax, by which they 
 soared high in the air. Icarus, neglecting 
 the instructions of his father, fell into the sea, 
 which was named from him the Icarian. 
 His father reached Sicily, and founded a town 
 there. 
 
 DAGUERRE, L. J. M., an artist of France, 
 eminent for the discovery of the process for 
 taking pictures upon metal plates, through 
 the action of light. He was born in 1789, 
 and died July 10th, 1851. 
 
 DAHOMY, a fertile kingdom of western 
 Africa, the people of which are ferocious. 
 The king’s sleeping-chamber is paved with 
 the skulls, and ornamented with the jaw- 
 bones, of his vanquished enemies. 
 
 DALE, Richard, a commodore in the 
 American navy, was born in Virginia in 1756. 
 He served on board the Bon Homme Richard 
 under Paul Jones, and was the first to spring 
 to the deck of the Serapis in the bloody en- 
 gagement which resulted in her capture. He 
 died at Philadelphia, Feb. 24th, 1826. 
 
 D’ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond, a distin- 
 guished mathematician and astronomer, born 
 at Paris in 1717, died in 1783. He was the 
 son of Madame de Tencin and the poet Des- 
 touches, who exposed him while an infant. 
 At ten years of age, the principal of the 
 school in which he received his early educa- 
 tion, declared that his pupil had learned all 
 that he could teach him. He undertook to 
 write the mathematical part of the “ Diction- 
 naire Encyclopedique,” and contributed many 
 admirable articles to it, which, however, in- 
 volved him in the attacks made upon the 
 Work. He refused the brilliant offers of Fred- 
 
 eric II. of Prussia, and Catherine of Rus- 
 sia, tempting him to settle in their respective 
 capitals. 
 
 DALLAS, Alexander James, a native of 
 Jamaica, an able lawyer, who came to this 
 country, in 1783, and held various responsi- 
 ble offices under our government, being made 
 secretary of the treasury in 1814. In 1815, 
 he assumed the duties of secretary of war, and 
 on him devolved the task of reducing the 
 army. He died Jan. 16th, 1817, aged fifty- 
 seven. 
 
 DAMIENS, Robert Francois, a crazy fa- 
 natic, who stabbed Louis XV., at Versailles, 
 on the 5th of January, 1757. He had long 
 meditated the deed, and took opium to pre- 
 pare himself. After the most cruel tortures, 
 he was broken on the wheel, March 28th, 
 1757. 
 
 DAMON and PYTHIAS, two Syracusans, 
 who were devotedly attached to each other. 
 Dionysius condemned Pythias to death, but 
 allowed him to absent himself in order to 
 arrange his affairs, on condition that Damon 
 should remain as hostage. The appointed 
 time having expired, Damon was led to the 
 scaffold, and the executioner was about to 
 raise his axe, when Pythias arrived, breath- 
 less with haste, threw himself into the arms 
 of his friend, and embraced him tenderly. 
 Dionysius, moved by the scene, in common 
 with the people, restored both the friends to 
 the enjoyment of life and liberty, 387 b.c. 
 
 DAMP1ER, William, an English circum- 
 navigator, born in 1652, known for his 
 adventures in both hemispheres. 
 
 DANDOLO, Henry, a doge of Venice, filled 
 that highest office in the gift of the republic 
 in 1192, being then eighty -four years old. 
 Neither his age nor his defective vision pre- 
 vented him from discharging his duties with 
 honor. Joining the fourth crusade, he was 
 the first to spring on shore with the standard 
 of St. Mark, at the storming of Constantino- 
 ple. He died at the age of ninety-seven. 
 There were several other doges of this 
 family. 
 
 DANTE. The city of Florence ranks next 
 to Athens in its classic associations. There 
 
 DAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 253 
 
 certainly is no city so modern, yet so linked 
 to the past. Time seems here almost to have 
 spared the footprints of the great men whose 
 fame has defied him. In the rooms of Mi- 
 chael Angelo, his staff leans in the corner, his 
 unfinished sketches lie upon the table. One 
 may press the same stairs which John Milton 
 ascended when he visited Galileo. Among 
 the great names associated with this city, 
 there is one other, before which every man 
 bows who has been touched by the tragedy 
 of life, — Alighieri Durante, better known as 
 Dante, who in Italian literature is the Homer 
 and the Shakspeare. Dante was born in 1265. 
 He was provided by his early widowed mother 
 with the best education which could be 
 obtained in that age. It was a custom in 
 Florence to celebrate the return of spring 
 by May-day festivities ; and it was probably 
 upon one of these occasions, at her father’s 
 house, that he was inspired with the beauty 
 of Beatrice Portinari. He tells us that she 
 was so beautiful that all the citizens crowded 
 to see her when she walked in the city, and 
 so pure that they bent down their eyes in her 
 presence. She became the wife of another 
 person, and died in 1290, when Dante was in 
 his twenty -fifth year. He was married the 
 year after, but he never forgot her. At the 
 time of the troubles between the Bianchi and 
 Neri, two factions of the Guelphs in Florence, 
 Dante espoused the cause of the former. The 
 latter gained the mastery. He was banished 
 in 1302. and his property confiscated. He 
 went from place to place, restless and un- 
 happy, loathing a state of dependence, yet 
 unable to retrieve his fortune. He died at 
 Ravena, Sept. 14th, 1321. The fame of his 
 “Divina Commedia” is imperishable, and 
 the Florentines, who had persecuted him 
 during his lifetime, paid him the highest 
 honors at his death. His characters were 
 those of his own period, with whose history 
 the public were acquainted, and whose fami- 
 lies and descendants were alive, and fre- 
 quently in the enjoyment of wealth and | 
 power. But the position in which he placed 
 them, threw an interest round their story, 
 stronger than could have been produced by the 
 adventures of any individual, however illus- 
 trious, of a more remote date. The terror and 
 pity, and in some cases the vengeance, of the 
 Italians were awakened, when the shadowy 
 
 forms of their contemporaries were made to 
 pass in review before them, stripped of those 
 external advantages which while living had 
 rendered them respected, and had cast a veil 
 over their crimes. The cruel husband shrunk 
 from the picture of his murdered wife, herself 
 condemned to perdition, yet prophesying that 
 for him was destined the lowest pit in hell. 
 The son beheld his father plunged in eternal 
 woe, yet continuing to feel a tender interest 
 in his welfare. The treacherous assassin, 
 who still occupied his place among the nobles 
 of the land, trembled at seeing himself rep- 
 resented as in hell, while, according to the 
 bold supposition of the poet, a demon ani- 
 mated his body. The ‘ mighty mantle ’ itself 
 was no protection to the wearer : Pope Nich- 
 olas III., plunged headforemost in the flames, 
 was represented as waiting there for the 
 arrival of his guilty successors. The effect 
 was indescribable. Some, unable to endure 
 the contempt of their countrymen, condemned 
 themselves to voluntary exile ; some, struck 
 with terror and despair, died broken-hearted ; 
 and others fell victims to the private ven- 
 geance of the poet’s friends. 
 
 DANTON, Geokge Jacques, a foremost 
 actor in the French revolution, was born at 
 Arcis-sur-Aube, October 28th, 1759. After 
 the assassination of Marat and the fall of the 
 Girondins, Danton and Robespierre came in 
 conflict, and the former was guillotined, 
 April 5 th, 1794. He combined some of the 
 greatest and most odious qualities. He has 
 been called the colossus of the revolution, 
 “head of gold, bosom of flesh, loins of brass, 
 feet of clay,” and characterized as a “ gigan- 
 tic mass of valor, ostentation, fury, affection, 
 and wild revolutionary force and manhood.” 
 
 DARDANELLES, are the fortifications on 
 the European and Asiatic sides of the Helles- 
 pont, which is hence called the ‘ Strait of the 
 Dardanelles.’ 
 
 DARIUS. The name of several sovereigns 
 of Persia, of whom the first is the most cele- 
 brated. Darius I., a noble satrap of Persia, 
 was the son of Hystaspes, and conspired with 
 six other noblemen, to destroy Smerdis, the 
 usurper of the Persian crown. After the 
 death of the usurper, it was agreed among 
 the conspirators that he whose horse first 
 neighed should be appointed king. In con- 
 sequence of this singular resolution, the 
 
 DAR 
 
254 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 groom of Darius led his master’s horse with 
 a mare to the place near which the seven 
 noblemen were to pass. On the morrow 
 before sunrise, w T hen they proceeded all to- 
 gether, the horse of Darius neighed, and he 
 was saluted by his companions king, b.c. 522. 
 He soon showed himself fit to grace the 
 throne. He took Babylon, and conquered 
 Thrace ; was defeated by the Scythians, but 
 favored by fortune in his campaign against 
 the Indians. The burning of Sardis, which 
 was a Grecian colony, incensed the Athenians, 
 and a war was kindled between them and 
 the Persians, in which the latter were un- 
 successful. Undismayed at the disaster at 
 Marathon and his immense losses, Darius 
 resolved to lead his troops to Greece in person, 
 but died in the midst of his warlike prepara- 
 tions, b.c. 485. Darius II., or Darius Nothus, 
 reigned 423-404 b.c. Darius III., surnamed 
 Codomanus, the son of Arsanes and Sysi- 
 gambis, was descended from Darius Nothus. 
 He was no sooner seated on the throne than 
 Alexander of Macedon invaded his kingdom. 
 The Persians were defeated in the battles of 
 the Gramcus and Issus ; in the last of which, 
 Darius, leaving his wife, children, and mother, 
 fled in disguise on the horse of his armor- 
 bearer, and was saved by the darkness of the 
 night. Being again defeated in the battle of 
 Arbela, Darius in despair fled to Media, 
 where he was killed l?y Bessus, the perfidious 
 governor of Bactria, and was found by the 
 Macedonians in his chariot, expiring of his 
 wounds, b.c. 331. For this murder Bessus 
 suffered a horrible death. Four trees having 
 been with great exertion bent down to the 
 ground, he was bound upon them, a limb 
 tied to each. The trees being loosed flew 
 back with great violence, rending his body in 
 pieces. 
 
 DARKE, William, usually called Major 
 Darke, a brave veteran officer, born in Phila- 
 delphia county, 1736, served in the war of 
 1755-63; again in the Revolutionary war, 
 and finally in the Indian war, under Gen. St. 
 Clair, and died November 26th, 1801. 
 
 DARLING, Grace. Off the coast of North- 
 umberland in England, there lies a group of 
 small islets or rocks, some of which can be 
 seen only at low water ; they are called the 
 Fame Islands. Their aspect is wild and des- 
 olate in no common degree. Composed of 
 
 rock, with a slight covering of herbage, and 
 in many places ending in sheer precipices, 
 they are the residence of little else than wild 
 fowl. Between the smaller islets the sea 
 makes with great force, and many a ship in 
 times past has laid her bones upon the pitiless 
 rocks which every ebb tide exposes to view. 
 Upon Longstone, one of the outer cluster 
 known as the Staples, there stands a light- 
 house, which at one time was kept by William 
 Darling, a worthy and intelligent man, of 
 quiet manners, with resources of mind and 
 character sufficient to turn to profitable use 
 the many lonely hours which his position nec- 
 essarily entailed upon him. He had a numer- 
 ous family of children ; among them a daugh- 
 ter Grace, who had reached the age of twenty- 
 two years when the incident occurred which 
 has made her name so famous. She had 
 passed most of her life upon the little island 
 of Longstone, and is described as having been 
 of a retiring and somewhat reserved disposi- 
 tion. In personal appearance, she was about 
 the middle size, of a fair complexion and 
 pleasing countenance, with nothing masculine 
 in her aspect, but gentle and feminine, and, 
 as might be supposed, with a winning expres- 
 sion of benevolence in her face. Her smile 
 was particularly sweet. She had a good un- 
 derstanding, and had been respectably edu- 
 cated. 
 
 On Wednesday evening, Sept. 5th, 1838, 
 the steamer Forfarshire, of about three hun- 
 dred tons’ burden, under the command of 
 Captain John Humble, sailed from Hull for 
 Dundee in Scotland. She had a valuable 
 cargo of bale goods and sheet iron ; and her 
 company, including twenty-two cabin and 
 nineteen steerage passengers, comprised sixty- 
 three persons. On the evening of the next 
 day, when in the neighborhood of the Fame 
 Islands, she encountered a severe storm of 
 w r ind, attended with a heavy rain anf a dense 
 fog. She leaked to such a degree that the 
 fires could not be kept burning, and her en- 
 gines soon ceased to work. She became 
 wholly unmanageable, and drifting violently, 
 at the mercy of the winds and waves, struck 
 on one of the reefs of Longstone Island, about 
 four o’clock on Friday morning. 
 
 As too often happens in such fearful emer- 
 gencies, the master lost his self-possession, 
 order and discipline ceased, and nothing but 
 
 DAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 255 
 
 self-preservation was thought of. A portion 
 of the crew, including the first mate, lowered 
 one of the boats and left the ship. With 
 them was a single cabin passenger, who threw 
 himself into the boat by means of a rope. 
 These men were picked up, after some hours, 
 and carried into the port of Shields. The 
 scene on board was fearful : men paralyzed 
 by despair ; women wringing their hands and 
 shrieking with anguish ; and among them the 
 helpless and bewildered master, whose wife, 
 clinging to him, frantically besought the pro- 
 tection he could no longer give. The vessel 
 struck aft the paddle boxes ; and not above 
 three minutes after the passengers (most of 
 whom had been below, and many of them in 
 their berths) had rushed upon the deck, a 
 second shock broke her into two pieces. The 
 after part, with most of the passengers and 
 the captain and 'his wife, was swept away 
 through a tremendous current, and the thirty- 
 five or forty wretches perished in the waves. 
 The fore part, on which were five of the crew 
 and four passengers, stuck fast to the rock. 
 These few survivors remained in their dreadful 
 situation till daybreak, with a fearful sea run- 
 ning around them, and expecting every mo- 
 ment to be swept into the deep. With what 
 anxious eyes did they wait for the morning 
 light ! and yet what could mortal help avail 
 them even then? Craggy and dangerous 
 rocky islets lay between them and the nearest 
 land, and around these rocks a sea was raging 
 in which no boat was likely to live. But, 
 through the providence of God, a deliverance 
 was in store for them ; a deliverance wrought 
 by the strong heart of an heroic girl. As soon 
 as day broke on the morning of the 7th, they 
 were descried from the Longstone light, by 
 the Darlings, at nearly a mile’s distance. 
 None of the family were at home, except Mr. 
 and Mrs. Darling and Grace. Although the 
 wind had somewhat abated, the sea (never 
 calm among these jagged rocks) was still 
 fiercely raging ; and to have braved its perils 
 would have done the highest honor to the 
 strong muscles and well-tried nerves of the 
 stoutest man. But what shall be said of the 
 errand of mercy having been undertaken and 
 accomplished mainly through a female heart 
 and arm ! Mr. Darling was reluctant to ex- 
 pose himself to what seemed certain destruc- 
 tion; but the earnest entreaties of his daugh- 
 
 ter determined him to make the attempt. At 
 her solicitation the boat was launched, with 
 the mother’s assistance ; and father and 
 daughter entered it, each taking an oar. It 
 is worthy of notice that Grace never had oc- 
 casion to assist in the boat previous to the 
 wreck of the Forfarshire, others of the family 
 being always at hand. 
 
 It was only by the exertion of great mus- 
 cular strength, as well as by the utmost cool- 
 ness and resolution, that the father and daugh- 
 ter rowed the boat up to the rock. And when 
 there, a greater danger arose from the diffi- 
 culty of so managing it as to prevent its being 
 dashed to pieces upon the sharp ridge which 
 had proved fatal to the steamer. With much 
 difficulty and danger, the father scrambled 
 upon the rock, and the boat was left for a 
 while to the unaided strength and skill of the 
 daughter. However, the nine sufferers were 
 safely rescued. The delight with which the 
 boat was first seen was converted into amaze- 
 ment when they perceived that it was guided 
 and impelled by an old man and a slight young 
 woman. Owing to the violence of the storm, 
 the rescued persons were obliged to remain at 
 the lighthouse of the Darlings from Friday 
 morning till Sunday, during which time Grace 
 was most assiduous in her kind attentions to 
 the sufferers, giving up her bed to one of them, 
 a poor woman who had seen her two children 
 perish in her arms, while on the wreck. 
 
 This heroic deed of Grace Darling’s shot a 
 thrill of sympathy and admiration through 
 all Great Britain, and indeed through all 
 Christendom. The Humane Society sent her 
 a flattering vote of thanks and a piece of plate, 
 and a considerable sum of money was raised 
 for her from the voluntary contributions of an 
 admiring public. The lonely lighthouse be- 
 came the centre of attraction to thousands of 
 curious and sympathizing travelers ; and 
 Grace was pursued, questioned, and stared at 
 to an extent that became a serious annoyance 
 to her gentle and retiring spirit. But in all 
 this hot blaze of admiration, and in her im- 
 proved fortunes, she preserved unimpaired the 
 simplicity and modesty of her nature. Her 
 head was not in the least turne.d by the world- 
 wide fame she had earned, or by the flattering 
 caresses of the wealthy, the fashionable, and 
 the distinguished, which were lavished upon 
 her. The meekness with which she bore her 
 
 DAR 
 
256 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 honors equaled the courage which had won 
 them. She resumed her former way of life, 
 and her accustomed duties, as quietly as if 
 nothing had happened. Several advantageous 
 offers of marriage were made to her, but she 
 declined them all ; usually alleging her deter- 
 mination not to leave her parents while they 
 lived. 
 
 She was not destined long to enjoy the ap- 
 plause she had earned, or the more substantial 
 tokens of regard which had been bestowed 
 upon her. She began to show symptoms of 
 consumption toward the close of the year 
 1841 ; and although all the means of restora- 
 tion which the most affectionate care and the 
 best medical advice could suggest were re- 
 sorted to, she gradually declined, and breathed 
 her last, in calm submission to the will of 
 God, Oct. 20th, 1842. Her funeral was very 
 numerously attended, and a monument has 
 been erected to her memory in Bamborough 
 church-yard, where she was buried. 
 
 DARNLEY, Henry Stuart, Earl of, the 
 husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, came to an 
 untimely death ; his house being blown up in 
 the night, Feb. 10th, 1567. He was the fa- 
 ther of James I. of England. [ See Stuarts.] 
 
 DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician 
 and poet, born in 1781, at Elton, was the 
 author of the “Botanic Garden” and other 
 works. He died in 1802. 
 
 DAUN, Leopold, Count, marshal of the 
 German empire, and during the seven years’ 
 war the most successful opponent of Fred- 
 erick the Great, died in 1766, aged sixty-one. 
 
 DAYENANT, Sir William, an English 
 poet of the seventeenth century, the author 
 of “ Gondibert,” a heroic poem, and a the- 
 atrical writer and manager under Charles II. 
 He was born in 1605, and died in 1668.. 
 He succeeded Ben Jonson as poet-laureate. 
 Scandal hinted that he was the natural son 
 of Shakspeare. 
 
 DAVID, Jacques Louis, a French painter, 
 born at Paris in 1750, died at Brussels in 
 1825. David, though an uncompromising 
 democrat, voting for the death of Louis XVI., 
 was the favorite painter of Napoleon ; he 
 was exiled on the emperor’s fall. Among 
 his finest works are “Paris and Helen,” the 
 “Rape of the Sabine Women,” and “Napo- 
 leon crossing the Alps.” His best perform- 
 ances in portrait-painting are the numerous 
 
 likenesses of his imperial patron. The orig. 
 inal sketch for one of these, which indeed 
 was never afterward finished, was taken 
 during the last few hours of unlimited power 
 possessed by Napoleon in Paris. The greater 
 part of the preceding day and night had been 
 spent in arranging the final operations of the 
 campaign which terminated in the battle of 
 Waterloo. When now past midnight, instead 
 of retiring to repose, the emperor sent for 
 David, to whom he had promised to sit, and 
 who was in waiting in an apartment of the 
 Tuileries. “My friend,” said Napoleon to 
 the artist, “there are yet some hours till 
 four, when we are finally to review the de- 
 fenses of the capital ; in the mean time, do 
 your utmost, while I read these dispatches.” 
 But exhausted nature could hold out no 
 longer ; the paper dropped from the nerveless 
 hand, and Napoleon sank to sleep. In this 
 attitude the painter has represented him : 
 the pale and lofty forehead, the care-worn fea- 
 tures, the relaxed expression, the very accom- 
 paniments, bear an impress inexpressibly 
 tender and melancholy. With the dawn 
 Napoleon awoke, and springing to his feet 
 was about to address David, when a taper 
 just expiring in its socket arrested his eye. 
 Folding his arms on his breast, a usual pos- 
 ture of thought with him, he contemplated 
 its dying struggles, when, with the last gleam, 
 the rays of the morning sun penetrated 
 through the half-closed window-curtains. 
 “Were I superstitious,” said Napoleon, a 
 faint smile pla} r ing about his beautiful mouth, 
 “the first object on which my sight has 
 rested this day might be deemed ominous ; 
 but,” pointing to the rising sun, “ the augury 
 is doubtful : at least the prayer of the Gre- 
 cian hero will be recorded : we shall perish 
 in light.” 
 
 DAVIDSON, Lucretia Maria, displayed 
 great talents for composition at the age of 
 four years. She died of incessant applica- 
 tion, August 27th, 1825. She was born at 
 Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, September 
 27th, 1808. She was a beautiful girl, and 
 her poetic genius was of a high order. 
 
 DAVIDSON, William, a native of Lan- 
 caster county, Pennsylvania, was born in 
 1746, and in 1750, removed by his parents to 
 Mecklenburg, N. C. At the opening of the 
 Revolution, he entered the army, in which 
 
 DAY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 257 
 
 he rose to the rank of brigadier-general, and 
 fell defending the passage of the Catawba 
 River at Cowan’s Ford, against Lord Corn- 
 wallis, Feb. 1st, 1781. 
 
 DAVIE, William Richardson, a distin- 
 guished character in the American Revolu- 
 tion. He reached the rank of general, and 
 was afterward governor of North Carolina, 
 and envoy to France. He was born in Eng- 
 land, 1756, and died at Camden, S. C., in 
 1820. He was a member of the convention 
 that framed the federal constitution. 
 
 DAVIES, Samuel, a distinguished Ameri- 
 can divine, president of Nassau Hall (now 
 Princeton College), born in Delaware, Nov. 
 3d, 1724, died in 1762. 
 
 DAVIS, John, an English navigator, who 
 gave his name to the straits at the entrance 
 of Baffin’s Bay, which he entered in endeav- 
 oring to discover the north-west passage in 
 1585. He afterward made two more voyages 
 for the same purpose, and five to the East 
 Indies in the Dutch service. He was killed 
 by Japanese pirates on the coast of Malacca 
 in 1605. 
 
 DAVOUST, Louis Nicholas, Duke of 
 Auerstadt and Prince of Eckmuhl, marshal 
 and peer of France, born in 1770, died in 
 1823. He studied w T ith Bonaparte, and 
 served under him in his most brilliant cam- 
 paigns. He only submitted to Louis XVII. 
 when the hopes of Napoleon were irretrieva- 
 bly destroyed. 
 
 DAVY, Sir Humphrey, a distinguished 
 English chemist, born in 1779, at Penzance, 
 Cornwall, died at Geneva, May 29th, 1829. 
 His experiments on the nature of explosive 
 gas, to which his attention was directed by 
 the frequent accidents occurring to mines 
 from fire damps, resulted in the invention 
 of the safety -lamp. Other important discov- 
 eries were made by this distinguished man. 
 
 DAY, John, the first printer who intro- 
 duced the Greek and Saxon characters into 
 England, died in 1584. Stephen Day was 
 the first printer in New England, about 1638. 
 
 DEAD SEA, the ancient Lacus Asphaltites , 
 a piece of water in Palestine, 180 miles in 
 circuit, which occupies the space whereon 
 the condemned cities of the vale of Siddim 
 stood. The following account of it is from the 
 pen of a traveler. w After the pilgrims had 
 bathed in the Jordan, we left them and turned 
 
 17 
 
 down to the south, in company with three or 
 four other English travelers, and a guard from 
 the governor, to visit the Dead Sea. We 
 rode across plains of barren sand for an hour 
 and a half, when we stood upon the banks of 
 this memorable lake. Without any reference 
 to what others have said, I can testify to the 
 following facts. The water is perfectly clear 
 and transparent. The taste is bitter, and 
 salt far beyond that of the ocean. It acts 
 upon the tongue and mouth like alum, and 
 smarts in the eye like camphor, and produces 
 a burning pricking sensation over the whole 
 body. It stiffened the hair of the head much 
 like pomatum. The water has a much 
 greater specific gravity than the human body, 
 and hence, no efforts cause us to sink below 
 the surface; and standing, perpendicularly, 
 you would not descend lower than the arms. 
 Although there was evidence in the sands 
 thrown upon the beach, that in great storms 
 there were waves, yet there appeared to be 
 some foundation for the reports of its immo- 
 bility. Notwithstanding there was a consid- 
 erable breeze, the water lay perfectly lifeless. 
 Historians say that large quantities of bitu- 
 men were gathered from the surface of this 
 lake ; and is it not quite possible, to say the 
 least, that it formerly existed in such quanti- 
 ties as to spread over the whole face of the 
 sea, and thus effectually prevent the wind 
 from interrupting its death-like quietude ? 
 Modern travelers state that there is very little 
 of this substance now to be found, and cer- 
 tainly we saw nothing like it. We saw no 
 fish or living animals in the water, though 
 birds were flying over it in various directions 
 unharmed. We all noticed an unnatural 
 gloom hanging, not merely over the sea, but 
 also over the whole plain below Jericho. 
 This is mentioned also by ancient historians. 
 According to the measurement of Capt. Wil- 
 son in 1865, the surface of the Dead Sea is in 
 winter 1,289 feet, and in summer 1,298 feet 
 below that of the Mediterranean. 
 
 DEANE, Silas, was a native of Groton, 
 Conn. He was a member of the first con- 
 gress, 1774. In June, 1776, he was sent to 
 France as agent for the colonies, and the 
 ensuing autumn was associated with Frank- 
 lin and Lee as commissioner. His manage- 
 ment was unsatisfactory, and he was recalled 
 at the close of 1777. He was charged with 
 
 DEA 
 
258 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 using his official position for purposes of 
 private gain. Returning to Europe after 
 peace came, he died at Deal, England, in 
 1789, in great destitution. 
 
 DEARBORN, Henry, was born at Hamp- 
 ton, N. H., 1751. He served with distinction 
 through the Revolution. At the battle of 
 Monmouth, Washington noticing his efficien- 
 cy, sent to inquire what troops he com- 
 manded. “ Full-blooded Yankees from New 
 Hampshire,” was the answer. From 1801 to 
 1809, Gen. Dearborn was secretary of war. 
 
 As the senior major-general he commanded 
 the army in 1812 and 1818. From 1822 to 
 1824, he was minister to Portugal. He died 
 in 1829. 
 
 DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval 
 commander, born in Maryland, January 5th, 
 1779. Soon after his entrance into the navy 
 (1798), he received a first-lieutenancy, and for 
 his gallant conduct in recovering the frigate 
 Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, was 
 promoted to the rank of captain. He suc- 
 cessively commanded the Constitution, the 
 Congress, the Chesapeake, and the United 
 States. With the latter he captured the 
 Macedonian, October 25th, 1812. In the 
 war with Algiers in 1815, Decatur terrified 
 the regency into submission in forty-eight 
 hours ; was equally successful at Tripoli ; 
 and procured the renunciation of tribute, and 
 an agreement on the part of the Barbary 
 powers, to regard captives as prisoners of 
 war, and not slaves. Decatur was killed 
 in a duel by Commodore Barron, March 22d, 
 1820. 
 
 DECIUS, the name of a Roman consul 
 who devoted himself to death in battle to save 
 his country, b.c. 340. Also a Roman empe- 
 ror of this name, who reigned from a.d. 249 
 till December, 251. He persecuted the 
 Christians. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 At an early period in the contest between the 
 mother country and her colonies, sagacious 
 men saw that complete emancipation of the 
 latter from the royal rule must come. Many 
 of the patriots did not anticipate this, but the 
 progress of events brought about the mea- 
 sure which men like Patrick Henry, Benja- 
 min Franklin, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
 Paine, Timothy Dwight, had long foreseen 
 and desired. North Carolina wa' the first 
 
 DEC 
 
 colony that formally instructed her delegates 
 to sustain such a measure, in April, 1776. 
 Indeed, in Mecklenburg county, a year pre- 
 vious, the lovers of liberty had declared them- 
 selves independent of the crown, and framed 
 a republican government. The lead of North 
 Carolina was followed by Massachusetts, 
 Virginia, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
 Hampshire, and New Jersey. Maryland 
 positively forbade her delegates to vote for 
 independence. The delegates of the other 
 colonies were left to act as they thought best. 
 Virginia had taken a step in advance of her 
 sisters: she had desired her delegates to 
 propose a declaration of independence. Ac- 
 cordingly, on the 7th of June, 1776, Richard 
 Henry Lee moved the resolution, “ That these 
 united colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
 free and independent states ; that they are 
 absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown ; and that all political connection be- 
 tween them and the state of Great Britain 
 is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” John 
 Adams seconded it. This bold and concise 
 resolve made great inroad upon the doubt and 
 delay and hesitation which had clung about 
 the subject in the minds of many. A com- 
 mittee was selected to draught a declaration ; 
 it consisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, 
 John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin 
 Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman 
 of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of 
 New York. Mr. Lee had been summoned 
 away by the illness of his wife, and hence Mr. 
 Jefferson was put upon the committee in his 
 stead. To Mr. Jefferson was assigned the 
 writing of the document, and his draught, 
 after a few slight emendations by Adams and 
 Franklin, was unanimously adopted by the 
 committee. It met more criticism and altera- 
 tion in Congress, to which body it was re- 
 ported on the 1st of July. Mr. Lee’s resolu- 
 tion was adopted on the 2d, and the declara- 
 tion on the 4th. 
 
 In the subjoined copy of the Declaration of 
 Independence, those portions in italic are the 
 passages of the original draught which were 
 omitted or changed by Congress, and the sub- 
 stitutions follow within brackets. 
 
 “ A Declaration by the Representatives of the 
 
 United States of America, in general Con- 
 gress assembled. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 259 
 
 becomes necessary for one people to dissolve 
 the political bands which have connected 
 them with another, and to assume, among 
 the powers of the earth, the separate and 
 equal station to which the laws of nature and 
 of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect 
 to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes which impel them 
 to the separation. 
 
 “We hold these truths to be self-evident : 
 that all men are created equal ; that they are 
 endowed by their Creator with inherent and 
 inalienable [certain unalienable] rights ; that 
 among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit 
 of happiness. That, to secure the serights, 
 governments are instituted among men, deriv- 
 ing their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed ; that, whenever any form of gov- 
 ernment becomes destructive of these ends, 
 it is the right of the people to alter or to abol- 
 ish it, and to institute a new government, 
 laying its foundations on such principles, and 
 organizing its powers in such form, as to them 
 shall seem most likely to effect their safety 
 and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dic- 
 tate, that governments, long established, 
 should not be changed for light and transient 
 causes; and, accordingly, all experience 
 hath shown that mankind are more disposed 
 to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
 right themselves by abolishing the forms to 
 which they are accustomed. But when a long 
 train of abuses and usurpations, begun at a 
 distinguished period, and pursuing invaria- 
 bly the same object, evinces a design to reduce 
 them under absolute despotism, it is their 
 right, it is their duty, to throw off such gov- 
 ernment, and to provide new guards for their 
 future security. Such has been the patient 
 sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now 
 the necessity which constrains them to ex- 
 punge [alter] their former systems of govern- 
 ment. The history of the present king of 
 Great Britain is a history of unremitting [re- 
 peated] injuries and usurpations ; among 
 which appears no solitary fact to contradict 
 the uniform tenor of the rest ; but all have, 
 [having] in direct object, the establishment 
 of an absolute tyranny over these states. To 
 prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid 
 world ; for the truth of which we pledge a 
 faith yet unsullied by falsehood . 
 
 “ He has refused his assent to laws the most 
 wholesome and necessary for the public good. 
 
 “ He has forbidden his governors to pass 
 laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
 unless suspended in their operation till his 
 assent should be obtained ; and when so sus- 
 pended, he has neglected utterly [utterly 
 neglected] to attend to them. 
 
 “He has refused to pass other laws for the 
 accommodation of large districts of people, 
 unless those people would relinquish the 
 right of representation in the legislature ; a 
 right inestimable to them, and formidable to 
 tyrants only. 
 
 “ He has called together legislative bodies 
 at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant 
 from the repository of their public records, 
 for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into 
 compliance with his measures. 
 
 “He has dissolved representative houses 
 repeatedly and continually, for opposing with 
 manly firmness his invasions on the rights of 
 the people. 
 
 “ He has refused, for a long time after such 
 dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; 
 whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
 annihilation, have returned to the people at 
 large for their exercise, the state remaining 
 in the mean time exposed to all the dangers 
 of invasion from without and convulsions 
 within. 
 
 “He has endeavored to prevent the popula- 
 tion of these states ; for that purpose ob- 
 structing the laws for the naturalization of 
 foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encour- 
 age their migration hither ; and raising the 
 conditions of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 “ He has suffered the administration of 
 justice totally to cease in some of these states, 
 [He has obstructed the administration of 
 justice by] refusing his assent to laws for 
 establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 “ He has made our judges dependent on his 
 will alone, for the tenure of their offices and 
 the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 “ He has created a multitude of new offices 
 by a self-assumed power, and sent hither 
 swarms of officers to harass our people and 
 eat out their substance. 
 
 “He has kept among us, in times of peace, 
 standing armies and ships of war, without the 
 consent of our legislatures. 
 
 DEC 
 
260 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 “ He has affected to render the military inde- 
 pendent of, and superior to, the civil power. 
 
 “ He has combined with others to subject us 
 to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, 
 and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
 assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 
 
 “For quartering large bodies of armed 
 troops among us ; 
 
 “For protecting them, by a mock trial, 
 from punishment for any murders which they 
 should commit on the inhabitants of these 
 states ; 
 
 “ For cutting off our trade with all parts of 
 the world ; 
 
 “For imposing taxes on us without our 
 consent ; 
 
 “For depriving us [in many cases] of the 
 benefits of trial by jury ; 
 
 “For transporting us beyond seas to be 
 tried for pretended offenses ; 
 
 “ For abolishing the free system of English 
 taws in a neighboring province, establishing 
 therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
 ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once 
 an example and fit instrument for introduc- 
 ing the same absolute rule into these states 
 [colonies] ; 
 
 “ For taking away our charters, abolishing 
 our most valuable laws, and altering funda- 
 mentally the forms of our governments ; 
 
 “ For suspending our own legislatures, and 
 declaring themselves invested with power to 
 legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 “He has abdicated government here, with- 
 drawing his governors , and [by] declaring us 
 out of his allegiance and protection, and 
 waging war against us. 
 
 “ He has plundered our seas, ravaged our 
 coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the 
 lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large ar- 
 mies of foreign mercenaries to complete the 
 works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
 already begun with circumstances of cruelty 
 and perfidy [scarcely paralleled in the most 
 barbarous ages, and totally] unworthy the 
 head of a civilized nation. 
 
 “He has constrained others [our fellow- 
 citizens], taken captive on the high seas, to 
 bear arms against their country, to become 
 the executioners of their friends and breth- 
 ren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 
 
 [He has excited domestic insurrections 
 
 among us, and] he has endeavored to bring 
 on the inhabitants of our frontiers the mer- 
 ciless Indian savages, whose known rule of 
 warfare is an undistinguished destruction of 
 all ages, sexes, and conditions of existence ; 
 he has excited, treasonable insurrections of 
 our fellow-citizens with the allurements of 
 forfeiture and confiscation of our property. 
 
 “ He has waged cruel war against human 
 nature itself violating its most sacred rights 
 of life and liberty in the persons of a distant 
 people, who never offended him , captivating 
 and carrying them into slavery in another 
 hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in 
 their transportation thither. This piratical 
 warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is 
 the warfare of the Christian Icing of Great 
 Britain. Determined to keep open a market 
 where men should be bought and sold, he has 
 prostituted his negative for suppressing every 
 legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain 
 this execrable commerce. And that this as- 
 semblage of horrors might want no fact of 
 distinguished dye, he is now exciting those 
 very people to rise in arms among us, and to 
 purchase that liberty of which He has de- 
 prived them by murdering the people upon 
 whom He obtruded them : thus paying off 
 former crimes committed against the liber- 
 ties of one people with crimes which he urges 
 them to commit against the lives of another. 
 
 “In every stage of these oppressions, we 
 have petitioned for redress in the most humble 
 terms : our repeated petitions have been 
 answered only by repeated injury. A prince 
 whose character is thus marked by every act 
 which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
 ruler of a people who mean to be free [free 
 people]. Future ages will scarce believe that 
 the hardiness of one man adventured , within 
 the short compass of twelve years only , to 
 build a foundation , so broad and undis- 
 guised, for tyranny over a people fostered 
 and fixed in principles of freedom. 
 
 “ Nor have we been wanting in attentions 
 to our British brethren. We have warned 
 them, from time to time, of attempts by their 
 legislature to extend a [an unwarrantable] 
 jurisdiction over these our states [us]. We 
 have reminded them of the circumstances of 
 our emigration and settlement here, no one 
 of which could warrant so strange a preten- 
 sion ; that these were effected at the expense 
 
 DEC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 261 
 
 of our own "blood and treasure, unassisted by 
 the wealth or strength of Great Britain ; 
 that in constituting, indeed, our several 
 forms of government, we had adopted one 
 common hing, thereby laying a foundation 
 for perpetual league and amity with them ; 
 but that submission to their parliament 
 was no part of our constitution, nor ever in 
 idea, if history may be credited; and We 
 [have] appealed to their native justice and 
 magnanimity, as well as to [and we have 
 conjured them by] the ties of our common 
 kindred, to disavow these usurpations which 
 were likely to [would inevitably] interrupt 
 our connection and correspondence. They 
 too have been deaf to the voice of justice and 
 consanguinity ; and when occasions have been 
 given them, by the regular course of their 
 laws, of removing from their councils the 
 disturbers of our harmony, they have, by 
 their free election, re-established them in 
 power. At this very time, too, they are per- 
 mitting their chief magistrate to send over, 
 not only soldiers of our common blood, but 
 Scotch and foreign mercenaries to invade and 
 destroy us. These facts have given the last 
 stab to agonizing affection, and manly spirit 
 bids us to renounce forever these unfeeling 
 brethren. We must endeavor to forget our 
 former love for them. [We must therefore 
 acquiesce in the necessity which denounces 
 our separation, and hold them, as we hold 
 the rest of mankind, enemies in war; in 
 peace, friends. ] 
 
 “ We might have been a free and great 
 people together ; but a communication of 
 grandeur and of freedom, it seems, is below 
 their dignity. Be it so, since they will have 
 it. The road to happiness and to glory is 
 open to us too ; we will climb it apart from 
 them, and acquiesce in the necessity which 
 denounces our eternal separation. 
 
 “We, therefore, the representatives of the 
 United States of America in general congress 
 assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
 of the world for the rectitude of our inten- 
 tentions, do, in the name, and by the author- 
 ity, of the good people of these states, reject 
 and renounce all allegiance and subjection 
 to the kings of Great Britain, and all others 
 who may hereafter claim by, through, or 
 under them ; we utterly dissolve all political 
 connection which may heretofore have sub- 
 
 sisted between us and the parliament or 
 people of Great Britain ; and finally, we do 
 assert the colonies to be free and independent 
 states ; [colonies, solemnly publish and de- 
 clare that these united colonies are, and of 
 right ought to be, free and independent states ; 
 that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
 the British crown, and that all political con- 
 nection between them and the state of Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved •] 
 and that, as free aqd independent sf^es, 
 they have full power t$. r levy way, conclude 
 peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
 and to do all other acts and things which 
 independent states may of right do. And 
 for the support of this declaration, [with a 
 firm reliance on the protection of Divine Prov- 
 idence,] we mutually pledge to each other our 
 lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.” 
 The Declaration was signed by John Han- 
 cock, president of Congress, on the day of 
 its adoption. It was suitably engrossed on 
 parchment, and on the 2d of August the 
 delegates set their names to it. The signers 
 were as follows : New Hampshire, Josiah 
 Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thorn- 
 ton. Massachusetts, John Hancock, John 
 Adams, Samuel Adams, Robert Treat Paine, 
 Elbridgc Gerry. Rhode Island, Stephen Hop- 
 kins, William Ellery. Connecticut,. Roger 
 Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Wil- 
 liams, Oliver Wolcott. New York, William 
 Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. New Jersey, Richard Stock- 
 ton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania, 
 Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin 
 Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, 
 James Smith, George Taylor, James AVilson, 
 George Ross. Delaware, Ceesar Rodney, 
 George Read, Thomas M’Kean. Maryland, 
 Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca, 
 Charles Carroll of Carrolton. Virginia, 
 George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
 Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nel- 
 son, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Brax- 
 ton. North Carolina, William Hooper, Joseph 
 Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina, Ed- 
 ward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, Jr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Geor- 
 gia, Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George 
 Walton. Sketches of these patriotic and brave 
 men will be found in their appropriate places. 
 
 DEC 
 
262 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 The declaration thus put forth was made 
 good through an arduous struggle and des- 
 perate endurance, and a prosperous people 
 reverently look to the 4th of July, 1776, as 
 the birthday of their freedom and happiness. 
 
 DEFOE, Daniel, the father of the English 
 novel, born at London in 1661, was intended 
 to be a Presbyterian minister, but turned aside 
 to commercial enterprises, in which he was 
 unsuccessful. He became a vigorous political 
 pamphleteer, offended the ruling powers, and 
 reaped a plentiful crop of fines, pillory, and 
 prison. Dear-bought experience led him to 
 abandon politics, and in 1709 there came forth 
 “Robinson Crusoe,” that freshest and most 
 fascinating of romances. This was followed 
 by various other fictions, some almost as vivid, 
 till his life closed in 1731. There is a curious 
 instance of the wonderful air of truth with 
 which he could invest his fictions. For a 
 heavy theological book he wrote an elaborate 
 puff, entitled, “A true Relation of the Appa- 
 rition of one Mrs. Veal, the next day after her 
 Death, to one Mrs. Bargrave, at Canterbury, 
 the Eighth of September, 1705, which Appa- 
 rition recommends the perusal of Drelincourt’s 
 Book of Consolations against the Fears of 
 
 Death.” The circumstantial account was 
 widely credited, and the ghostly recommend- 
 ation worked off* a large edition of a volume 
 otherwise wholly unsalable. 
 
 DEJANIRA, daughter of yEneus, king of 
 Calydon, an ^Btolian city, was the wife of 
 Hercules, and the innocent cause of his death. 
 The centaur Nessus, whom Hercules killed 
 for insulting Dejanira, in dying, gave her a 
 tunic dipped in his blood, which he said would 
 restore to her the affections of her husband if 
 he put it on. When she considered herself in 
 danger from his inconstancy, she sent Hercules 
 the garment, which he no sooner put on than 
 a mortal poison penetrated to his vitals, and 
 he died in agony. 
 
 DE KALB, Baron, was a native of Alsace. 
 He had served forty-two years in the French 
 service when he came to America with La- 
 fayette in the spring of 1777. Congress at 
 once gave the silver-haired and vigorous vet- 
 eran a major-general’s commission. His ex- 
 perience was of much service to the Americans. 
 In the battle of Camden, Aug. 16th, 1780, 
 while trying to rally his scattered troops, he 
 fell pierced with eleven wounds. 
 
 DELAWARE has the bay of the same name 
 and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Maryland 
 on the south and west, and Pennsylvania on 
 the north. Having a length from north to 
 south of ninety-two miles, and varying in 
 width between ten and thirty-six miles, its 
 area is 2,120 square miles. It is thus the 
 smallest state in the Union with the exception 
 
 of Rhode Island, and in point of population 
 it falls behind that state. The population of 
 Delaware in 1870 was 125,015, of whom 
 102,221 were whites, and 22,794 colored. 
 The surface is very level, in the south marshy, 
 and in the north slightly undulating. The 
 Brandywine is a fine mill-stream. The com- 
 merce of Delaware is inconsiderable. Agri- 
 
 DEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 263 
 
 culture is the chief occupation of the inhabit 
 ants, and grain and Hour are the principal ex- 
 ports. A canal navigable for steamers and 
 ships crosses the state, connecting the Chesa- 
 peake and Delaware Bays. It was completed 
 in 1829 at a cost of $2,250,000. 
 
 Delaware was first settled by the Swedes 
 and Fins, in 1627. The Dutch gained posses- 
 sion of it, but the English in 1664 became the 
 masters of it. It was granted to Wiliiam Penn, 
 and it formed a part of Pennsylvania till 1776, 
 though from 1701 with a distinct legislative 
 assembly. It was generally styled the Three 
 Lower Counties upon Delaware. The name 
 ‘ Delaware ’ was given to the bay and river in 
 honor of Lord De La Ware, who was governor 
 of Virginia in 1611. 
 
 The general assembly of Delaware consists 
 of a senate of nine members, and a house of 
 twenty-one representatives. Its sessions and 
 the general elections are biennial. The gov- 
 ernor is elected for four years, and is not eli- 
 gible for a second term. The right of suffrage 
 is granted to every male citizen of the age 
 of twenty-two or more, who has resided 
 within the state one year, and paid a county 
 tax ; and every male citizen under twenty- 
 two and over twenty-one, who has resided 
 in the State a year, can vote without pay- 
 ment of such tax. The state is divided into 
 three counties, which are subdivided into 
 hundreds. Judicial power is vested in five 
 judges (one of whom is chief-justice, the others 
 associate law judges, residents of separate 
 counties) and a chancellor, all appointed by 
 the governor, and holding office during good 
 behavior. The chief-justice and two associates 
 constitute the superior court. No associate 
 judge can sit within his own county. Such 
 inferior courts as are needed may be estab- 
 lished by the general assembly. The whole 
 bench, including the chancellor, form a court 
 of error and appeal, and the powers of a court 
 of chancery are vested in the latter magistrate 
 together with the resident judge of the county. 
 Among religious sects, the Presbyterians and 
 Methodists are the most numerous ; there are 
 also many Episcopalians and Baptists, some 
 Roman Catholics, and a few Quakers. 
 
 Dover (pop. 6,394) is the capital, but Wil- 
 mington is the most important town. Its 
 population in 1860, was 21,508. The broad 
 
 and airy streets cross at right angles; the 
 houses are generally brick. The flouring 
 mills of Wilmington are among the largest 
 in the country ; gunpowder is extensively 
 made ; and the valuable water-power of the 
 Brandywine moves the busy machinery of 
 many other thriving manufactories. New- 
 castle, five miles from Wilmington, and once 
 the capital, has nearly 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Lewiston is a small village, near Cape Henlo- 
 pen, opposite which a breakwater has been 
 built by the general government at a cost of 
 little less than $2,250,000. 
 
 DELHI, an ancient city of Hindostan, on 
 the river Jumna. It contains many splendid 
 edifices. It was taken by the Mohammedans 
 m 1193. Once it was the great capital of the 
 Mogul empire, and so late as 1700 it had a 
 million inhabitants. It is now in decay. In 
 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, 
 he conquered Delhi, and dreadful massacres 
 and famine followed. In 1803, the Mahrattas, 
 aided by the French, got possession of the 
 place, but they were afterward expelled by 
 Gen. Lake. In 1857, the Sepoy rebels made 
 Delhi their headquarters. A small force of 
 British besieged it. After standing their 
 ground for months before an overwhelming 
 array of native forces, the Europeans assaulted 
 the city, although containing at least twice 
 their number of enemies, and after a stout re- 
 sistance, carried it on the 20th of September. 
 
 DELOS, the smallest island of the Cyclades, 
 was famed in ancient times for the number 
 and skill of its artists, and for the splendid 
 temple and oracle of Apollo. It was the birth- 
 place of Apollo and his sister Diana, according 
 to fable, being raised as an asylum to their 
 mother, Latona, when she was pursued from 
 place to place by the implacable Juno. 
 
 DELPHI, the seat of a famous oracle of 
 Apollo, situated in Phocis, on the southern 
 side of Parnassus. The fount of inspiration 
 was said to be a chasm from which issued an 
 intoxicating vapor. A temple was built over 
 this, and the tripod of the priestess (sometimes 
 called the Pythoness from Pythius, the sur- 
 name of Apollo) was placed where she could 
 breathe the ascending vapor. She was agita- 
 ted with extreme fury ; she howled and vowed, 
 her eyes sparkled, and she gave every evi- 
 dence of being possessed by a spirit. The 
 
 DEL 
 
264 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Pythian games were celebrated in the vicinity 
 of Delphi, which is now the village of Castri. 
 [See HLsop, Oracles.] 
 
 DELUGE, the flood or inundation of waters 
 by which God destroyed mankind and animals 
 >n the time of Noah, and in which, as St. Pe- 
 ter says, only eight persons were saved. Ac- 
 cording to the received chronology, this great 
 event was threatened in the year of the world 
 1536. It began Dec. 7th, 1656, and continued 
 three hundred and seventy -seven days. The 
 ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6th, 1657, 
 and Noah left the ark Dec. 18th following. 
 The year corresponds with that of 2348 b.c. 
 Almost all savage nations, even those sunk 
 the deepest in barbarism, have a tradition of 
 an universal deluge. A traveler among the 
 Indians of the north-west coast of America 
 heard of it from one of the savages, and asked 
 him how long ago it occurred ? The savage 
 scooped up from the floor of his cabin a hand- 
 ful of sand, and promptly replied, “As many 
 moons ago as there are grains of sand in this 
 heap.” The Araucanians in Chili preserve 
 the tradition of a universal deluge from w'hich 
 a few persons were saved upon the top of a 
 mountain having three peaks, called Thegtheg, 
 or ‘ thundering mountain, 1 which floated upon 
 the waves. The Aztecs supposed that a uni- 
 versal deluge occurred, in which all mankind 
 except one man and one woman were changed 
 into fishes. This lucky pair were saved in 
 the hollow of a tree. Their children w'ere all 
 born mute, were taught speech by a dove, 
 and each learned a different language. In 
 1524, alarm was spread quite widely in Eu- 
 rope by the prediction that another general 
 deluge was at hand, and arks were everywhere 
 built for refuge against the fluvial calamity ; 
 but the appointed time happened to be un- 
 commonly dry and fine. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, surnamed Soter, son of Se- 
 leucus Philopater, the son of Antiochus the 
 Great, King of Syria. His father gave him as 
 a hostage to the Romans. After the death of 
 Seleucus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the deceased 
 monarch’s brother, usurped the kingdom of 
 Syria, and was succeeded by his son Anti- 
 ochus Eupater. This usurpation displeased 
 Demetrius, who was detained at Rome; he 
 therefore procured his liberty on pretense ot 
 going to hunt, and fled to Syria, where the 
 troops received him as their lawful sovereign, 
 
 b. c. 1 62. He put to death Eupater and Lysias, 
 and established himself on his throne by cru- 
 elty and oppression. Alexander Balas, the 
 son of Antiochus Epiphanes, laid claim to the 
 crown of Syria, and slew Demetrius in battle 
 in the twelfth year of his reign. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, a Macedonian, son of Antigo- 
 nus and Stratomca, surnamed from his suc- 
 cesses, Pohorcetes, or the ‘ destroyer of towns. 1 
 At the age of twenty-two, he w r as sent by his 
 father against Ptolemy, who had invaded 
 Syria. He was defeated near Gaza, but soon 
 repaired his loss by a victory over one of the 
 generals of the enemy. He afterward sailed 
 with a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships to 
 Athens, and restored the Athenians to liberty, 
 by freeing them from the power of Cassander 
 and Ptolemy, and expelled the garrison which 
 was stationed there under Demetrius Phale- 
 reus. After this successful expedition, he 
 besieged and took Munj^chia, and defeated 
 Cassander at Thermopylae.. This uncommon 
 success raised the jealousy of the successors 
 of Alexander ; and Seleucus, Cassander, and 
 Lysimachus, united to destroy Antigonus and 
 his son. Their hostile armies met at Ipsus, 
 b.c. 391. Antigonus was killed in the battle ; 
 and Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to 
 Ephesus. His ill success raised him many 
 enemies ; the fickle Athenians, who had lately 
 adored him as a god, refused to admit him 
 into their city. He soon after ravaged the 
 territories of Lysimachus, and reconciled him- 
 self to Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter 
 Stratonice in marriage. Athens now labored 
 under tyranny ; and Demetrius relieved it and 
 pardoned its inhabitants. The loss of his 
 Asiatic possessions recalled him from Greece, 
 and he established himself on the throne of 
 Macedonia, 294 b. c. Here he was continually 
 at war with the neighboring states ; and the 
 superior powder of his adversaries obliged him 
 to leave Macedonia, after he had filled the 
 throne seven years. He passed into Asia and 
 attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus 
 with various success ; but famine and pesti- 
 lence destroyed the greatest part of his army, 
 and he retired to the court of Seleucus for 
 support and assistance. He met with a kind 
 reception, but hostilities between them soon 
 began ; and after he had gained some advan- 
 tages over his son-in-law r , Demetrius was to- 
 tally forsaken by his troops in battle, and be- 
 
 DEM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 265 
 
 came an easy prey to the enemy. Though 
 he was kept in confinement by his son-in-law, 
 yet he lived like a prince, and passed his time 
 in hunting, and in every laborious exercise. 
 His son Antigonus offered Seleucus all his 
 possessions, and even his person, to procure 
 his father’s liberty ; but all proved unavailing, 
 and Demetrius died in the fifty -fourth year of 
 his age, b.c. 284. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, a philosopher of Abdera, 
 who was born about 494 b.c. He is com- 
 monly called the laughing philosopher, be- 
 cause he is said to have been in the habit of 
 amusing himself with the follies of mankind, 
 while Heraclitus (the weeping philosopher) 
 wept at them. He placed the chief good in 
 a tranquil mind. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, an Athenian orator, son 
 of\.a sword-cutler, born about 381 b.c., famous 
 to have risen to the highest reputation by per- 
 severance in overcoming the apparently insur- 
 mountable obstacles which opposed him. He 
 was the determined opponent of Philip of 
 Macedon, continually urging the Athenians to 
 resist him. The orations which he delivered 
 on these occasions were termed Philippics, a 
 name since applied to all invective declama- 
 tion. He was banished from Athens, and 
 suddenly died 319 b.c. 
 
 DENHAM, Dixon, lieutenant-colonel in the 
 British army, associated with Captain Clap- 
 perton #nd Doctor Oudney, in exploring Cen- 
 tral Africa. Soon after being appointed lieu- 
 tenant-governor of Sierra Leone, he died in 
 1828, at the age of forty -two. 
 
 DENHAM, Sir John, author of “ Cooper’s 
 Hill” and other poems, born in Dublin 1615, 
 died in 1668. 
 
 DENMARK (the land or mark of the Dane), 
 also called the Danske Stat (the States of Den- 
 mark), is in form a slender peninsula, with an 
 area of 21,900 square miles, and a population 
 of 2,605,024 in 1SGG . Its colonial possessions 
 are the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and 
 the West Indian isles of Santa Cruz, St. 
 Thomas, and St. John’s. The surface of Den- 
 mark presents an almost uniform plain, eleva- 
 ted only a few feet above the level of the sea, 
 but occasionally relieved by small groups of 
 hills, whose wooded summits break the mo- 
 notony of the landscape, and with the numer- 
 ous small lakes and inlets from the sea give 
 the country a very pleasing appearance. Den- 
 
 mark is an agricultural country, and in gen- 
 eral the soil is well suited to tillage. The cli- 
 mate is temperate. Among the vegetable pro- 
 ductions are wheat, rye, oats, barley, beans, 
 pease, and potatoes. The commercial exports 
 are principally grain, horses, cattle, beef, pork, 
 butter, and cheese. The herring and other 
 fisheries form an important branch of industry. 
 The Lutheran is the predominant religion, 
 but every other is tolerated. Much attention 
 is paid to education. By law every child be- 
 tween the ages of seven and fourteen must at- 
 tend some school ; and free schools are pro- 
 vided for all whose parents are unable to pay 
 tuition. The press is under rather strict cen- 
 sorship. The government was formerly an 
 absolute hereditary monarchy ; in 1848 a con- 
 stitution somewhat limiting the royal power, 
 w T as promulgated. Another constitution was 
 granted in 1854. As Duka of Holstein and 
 Lauenburg, the king is a member of the Ger- 
 manic confederation. 
 
 The capital of the kingdom is Copenhagen 
 (Kjdbenhavn, ‘ merchants’ haven ’), which had 
 a population of 143,591 in 1855. It stands on 
 the east coast of the island of Zealand, and 
 has a good harbor, and an extensive commerce, 
 although formerly but a poor fishing village. 
 It was threatened by Charles XII., who, how- 
 ever, gave up the idea of capturing it. The 
 city has suffered severely from several confla- 
 grations. In April, 1801, it was bombarded 
 by the British under Lord Nelson. The Dan- 
 ish fleet w T as taken, and a flag of truce alone 
 saved the city from destruction. It was again 
 attacked in 1807 by the English under Admi- 
 ral Gambier, and Lord Cathcart. After severe 
 firing, which commenced on the 2d of Septem- 
 ber, a capitulation was settled on the 8th, and 
 the citadel, dock-yards, batteries, vessels, and 
 naval stores were taken possession of by the 
 British. Altona (population 33,000) is the 
 second city in the kingdom. Its suburbs and 
 those of Hamburg are only separated by a 
 held. Though not so active as its neighbor, 
 its commerce is yet important. 
 
 The early history of Denmark is obscure 
 and uninteresting, containing merely the ad- 
 ventures of predatory warriors, whose pre- 
 eminence consisted in ferocity and courage. 
 During the eighth and ninth centuries they 
 established their dominion in parts of England, 
 which they scourged by their invasions until 
 
 DEN 
 
266 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the middle of the eleventh century ; a band 
 of them under Rollo planted themselves in 
 Normandy ; they colonized the Orkneys, the 
 Hebrides, and Iceland, and pushed their set- 
 tlements as far south as Spain, Italy, and 
 Sicily. 
 
 Canute the Great, who sat on the Danish 
 throne in the early years of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, possessed himself of the whole of Eng- 
 land, a part of Scotland, and all Norway. To 
 this monarch Denmark was indebted for laws, 
 internal organization, an era of might, and the 
 ordination of Christianity as the religion of 
 the country. His successors were of weaker 
 mettle, till the time of Margaret, the daughter 
 of Waldemar, often called the Semiramis of 
 the north, who in 1397 united in her own 
 person, the crowns of Sweden, Denmark, and 
 Norway. This union, however, did not con- 
 tinue longer than, the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, when Christian II. was obliged 
 to renounce all claims to Sweden. Christian 
 II. was nicknamed the Wicked. The crown 
 was transferred to Frederick, Duke of Schles- 
 wig and Holstein ; whence these duchies be- 
 came united with the kingdom. During the 
 wars of the French revolution Denmark re- 
 mained neutral ; but on contesting the right 
 of search as to her mercantile shipping, in- 
 sisted upon b} r England, which led her into a 
 defensive alliance with Russia, Prussia, and 
 Sweden, she sacrificed her colonies in the East 
 and West Indies, and suffered severely off 
 Copenhagen in 1801, as we have already men- 
 tioned. Her colonies were restored to her by 
 the treaty of peace that followed. In the 
 treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, were secret articles, 
 providing that the Danish navy should be de- 
 livered to Napoleon, to aid him in his threat- 
 ened descent upon England. This occasioned 
 a fresh rupture with England, and a second 
 attack upon Copenhagen. By the treaty of 
 Kiel in 1814, Denmark accepted Pomerania 
 from Sweden in exchange for Norway. Pom- 
 erania, the next year, she turned over to 
 Prussia for the duchy of Lauenburg and a 
 large sum of money. In 1845, she sold her 
 African and East Indian colonies to England. 
 
 The Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, 
 peopled mostly by Germans, after long quar- 
 reling, revolted from Denmark in 1849, and 
 were compelled to submit by the interposi- 
 tion of Prussia and Austria. A similar diffi- 
 
 culty arose in 1864, from an attempt to fuse 
 the Duchies thoroughly with Denmark ; and 
 Austria and Prussia now interfered on the 
 other side, and easily forced Denmark to give 
 up the Duchies. 
 
 KINGS OF DENMARK. 
 
 883. Gormo, the old. 
 
 935. Harald II., surnamed Blue-tooth. 
 
 985. Suenon, or Sweyn, surnamed the Forked- 
 beard. 
 
 1014. Canute II., the Great, King of Denmark, 
 England, and Norway. 
 
 1036. Canute III., his son, the Hardicanute of 
 England. 
 
 1042. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
 1047- Suenon, or Sweyn II. 
 
 1073. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1077. Harald, called the Simple. 
 
 1080. Canute IV. 
 
 1086. Olaus IV., the Hungry. 
 
 1095. Eric III., styled the Good. 
 
 1103. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1105. Nicholas I., killed at Sleswick. 
 
 1135. Eric IV., surnamed Harefoot. 
 
 1137. Erick V. the Lamb, 
 n 4*7 j Suenon, or Sweyn III., beheaded. 
 
 ' "I Canute V., until 1154. 
 
 1157. Waldemar, styled the Great. 
 
 1182. Canute VI., surnamed the Pious. 
 
 1202. Waldemar II., the Victorious. 
 
 1241. Eric VI. 
 
 1250. Abel; assassinated his elder brother Eric; 
 
 killed in an expedition against the Pri- 
 sons. 
 
 1252. Christopher I., poisoned. 
 
 1259. Eric VII. 
 
 1286. Eric VIII. 
 
 1230. Christopher II. # 
 
 1334. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1340. Waldemar III. 
 
 1376. Olaus V. 
 
 1387. Margaret, styled the Semiramis of the 
 North, Queen of Denmark, Norway, and 
 Sweden. 
 
 1397. Margaret, and Eric IX. (Eric XIII. of 
 Sweden), jointly. 
 
 1412. Eric IX. reigns alone; obliged to resign 
 both crowns. 
 
 1438. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1440. Christopher III., King of Sweden. 
 
 1448. Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, elected 
 King of Scandinavia, which compre- 
 hended Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; 
 • succeeded by his son. 
 
 1481. John, succeeded by his son. 
 
 1513. Christian II., called the Cruel, and the 
 Nero of the North ; among other enor- 
 mous crimes he caused all the Swedish 
 nobility to be massacred ; dethroned for 
 his tyranny in 1523 ; died in a dungeon, 
 1559. [In this reign Sweden succeeded 
 in sundering itself from the crown of 
 Denmark.] 
 
 1523. Frederick, Duke of Holstein, uncle to 
 Christian II. ; a liberal ruler. 
 
 DEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 267 
 
 1534. Christian III., son of Frederick ; estab- 
 lished the Lutheran faith ; esteemed 
 the ‘Father of his People. 1 
 1559. Frederick II., son of Christian III. 
 
 1588. Christian IV., son of Frederick II. ; chosen 
 head of the Protestant league against 
 the emperor. 
 
 1648. Frederick III.; changed the government 
 from an elective to an hereditary mon- 
 archy, vested in his own family. 
 
 1670. Christian V., son of Frederick III.; suc- 
 ceeded by his son. 
 
 1699. Frederick IV.; leagued with the Czar 
 Peter and Poland against Charles XII. 
 of Sweden. 
 
 1730. Christian VI., his son. 
 
 1746. Frederick V., his son. 
 
 1766. Christian VII., son of the preceding; mar- 
 ried Caroline Matilda, sister of George 
 III., of England. In a spasm of jeal- 
 ousy, 1772, he banished his wife to 
 Zell (where she died), and put to death 
 his ministers Brandt and Struensee. 
 1784. [Regency.] The Crown-Prince Frederick 
 declared regent in consequence of the 
 insanity of his father. 
 
 1808. Frederick VI., previously regent. 
 
 1839. Christian VIII , his son. 
 
 1848. Frederick VII, his son, born October 6th, 
 1808; died Nov. 15, 1863. 
 
 1868. Christian IX., his son, born April 8, 1816, 
 •became King, Nov. 16, 1863. 
 
 DANNEWITZ, Battle of. In this con- 
 flict a remarkable victory was obtained by 
 Marshal Bernadotte, then Crown-Prince of 
 Sweden, over Marshal Ney, Sept. 6th, 1813. 
 The loss of the French exceeded 16,000. 
 
 DENNIE, Joseph, born at Boston, in 1768, 
 and educated at Harvard College, possessed 
 brilliant genius, which he evinced in several 
 papers that he edited, the Portfolio among 
 others. He wanted industry and discretion, 
 and died in 1812, of disease produced by 
 irregularity and anxiety. 
 
 D’EON, the Chevalier. This extraordinary 
 personage, who had been acting in a diplo- 
 matic capacity in several countries, and who 
 was for some time the minister of Louis XV. 
 in London, was proved to be a woman, on a 
 trial in an action to recover wagers as to his 
 sex, in 1777. He subsequently wore female 
 attire for many years : yet at his death, in 
 London, 1800, it was manifest, by the dissec- 
 tion of his body, and other undoubted evi- 
 dence, that he was a male. 
 
 DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, Louis Charles 
 Antoine, a French general, was born of a 
 noble family at St. Hilaire de Agat, in Bre- 
 tagne, in 1768. He served under Pichegru 
 
 and Moreau, and commanded, under Bona- 
 parte in Upper Egypt, a division of troops 
 destined to pursue and keep in awe the Mam- 
 elukes, whom he attacked and put to flight 
 near the pyramids of Saccara, in Upper Egypt. 
 At the battle of Marengo, the splendid suc- 
 cess of which was the result of the opportune 
 arrival of his columns on the field, he was 
 killed, June 14th, 1800. His last words were, 
 “Tell the first consul that my only regret in 
 dying is that I perish before having done 
 enough to live in the recollection of posterity.” 
 When Napoleon heard of his death, he cried, 
 “Victory at such a price is dear.” At night 
 Bourrienne said to Napoleon, “What a glo- 
 rious day!” “Yes,” was the sad reply, 
 “ very glorious, could I this evening but have 
 embraced Desaix upon the field of battle.” 
 On the same, day that the fatal bullet pierced 
 the heart of Desaix, an assassin in Egypt 
 plunged a dagger into the bosom of Kleber. 
 At St. Helena Napoleon said, “Of all my 
 generals, Desaix and Kleber had the greatest 
 talent. In particular Desaix, as Kleber loved 
 glory only as the means of acquiring wealth 
 and pleasure ; Desaix loved glory for itself. 
 To him riches and luxury were of no value. 
 He was a little black man, an inch shorter 
 than myself, always badly dressed, sometimes 
 even ragged, and despising alike comfort and 
 convenience. Wrapped in a cloak, he slept 
 under a gun as contentedly as in a palace. 
 Frank and honest in all his ways, the Arabs 
 called him the just sultan. Nature intended 
 him to figure as a consummate general. De- 
 saix and Kleber wer.e irreparable losses to 
 France.” 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene, born at La Haye, in 
 Touraine, in 1596, and died at Stockholm in 
 1650. As a soldier, mathematician, and ori- 
 ginal philosopher, he greatly distinguished 
 himself 
 
 DESIEZE, Raymond, the talented advocate 
 who defended the unfortunate Louis XVI. 
 On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was 
 loaded with honors, 1750-1828. 
 
 DESMOULINS, Benoit Camille, a French 
 revolutionist, who was condemned to death 
 by the revolutionary tribunal in April, 1794, 
 at the age of thirty-three. 
 
 DESSAIX, Joseph Marie, Count, a native 
 of Savoy, where he was born in 1764, and 
 distinguished for his military services in the 
 
268 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 French army. At the siege of Toulon, he 
 bore a part. He was appointed Napoleon 
 general of division, and grand officer of the 
 legion of honor. He died in 1825. 
 
 DESSALINES, Jean Jacques, Emperor of 
 Hayti, was originally a slave. After the 
 French had been expelled from the island in 
 1808, Dessalines was appointed governor- 
 general, but assumed the title and state of 
 emperor ; and having been guilty of many at- 
 rocities, he was killed by a soldier, Oct. 17th, 
 1806. 
 
 DETTINGEN, Battle of, between the 
 British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army, 52,000 
 strong, commanded by George II. and the 
 Earl of Stair, and the French army, 60,000 
 strong, under Marshal Noailles and the Due 
 de Grammont, June 16th, 1743. The French 
 were defeated. 
 
 DE WITT, John, grand-pensionary of Hol- 
 land, a famous statesman, was born in 1625. 
 He imbibed from his father a hatred for the 
 house of Orange. Accordingly, in the war be- 
 tween England and Holland, he attempted to 
 abolish the stadtholdership, and succeeded in 
 separating that office from that of captain- 
 general. He was forced, however, to make 
 some concessions, and beheld, with mortifica- 
 tion, William of Orange procure the post of 
 commander-in-chief. De Witt resigned his 
 employments when William was chosen stadt- 
 holder, to the joy of all, and, being thrown 
 into prison, was murdered by the populace, 
 who broke in upon him, August 20th, 1672. 
 When De Witt was once asked how it hap- 
 pened that he got through so much business 
 and of such varied kind, for he was not only 
 a great statesman and a minister, but also a 
 most eminent mathematician and literary 
 man ; his answer was that it was by two 
 rules which he always observed : to do one 
 thing only at a time, and never to put off till 
 to-morrow what he could do to-day. These 
 were his golden rules. 
 
 DEXTER, Samuel, a distinguished orator, 
 lawyer, and statesman, was born at Boston, 
 Mass., in 1761, and was educated at Harvard 
 College. He studied law, but was soon 
 chosen to the state legislature, and thence 
 transferred to Congress where his ability and 
 patriotism were properly appreciated. Under 
 President Adams he was at first secretary of 
 war, and then of the treasury. Declining 
 
 the public offices which were afterward 
 offered him, he employed himself in the 
 lucrative and honorable profession of the law, 
 being intrusted with cases of the utmost 
 importance. He died at Athens, N. Y., in 
 1816. 
 
 DIAMONDS were first polished and cut at 
 Bruges, 1489. Diamond mines were discov- 
 ered in Brazil, 1728 ; those at Coulour in the 
 East Indies, 1640; those at Golconda, in 
 1584. A diamond was sent from Brazil for 
 the court of Portugal, weighing 1680 carats, 
 or fourteen ounces, and was valued at £224,- 
 000,000; it is not very brilliant, and its true 
 value is only £400,000. Governor Pitt’s 
 weighed 126 carats, and 106 after cutting, 
 and sold for £125,000, to the king of France. 
 That which belonged to Aurung Zebe weighed 
 793 carats, in a rough state, and when cut 
 279 carats, worth £779,244. The Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany’s weighed 139 carats. The 
 celebrated diamond called the Koh-i-noor, or 
 ‘ Mountain of Light,’ was found in the mines 
 of Golconda in 1550. Precisely three centu- 
 ries after, it was brought to England. Its 
 original weight was nearly eight hundred 
 carats. Unskillful cutting reduced it to two 
 hundred and seventy-nine. Its value has 
 been estimated at two millions sterling. 
 
 DIANA, in mj'thology the daughter of 
 Jupiter and Latona, and twin sister of Apollo, 
 born at Delos. She was the goddess of hunt- 
 ing, chastity, and marriage, though she re- 
 mained unmarried. She is supposed to have 
 been the Isis of the Egyptians. 
 
 DICKENSON, John, was born in Mary- 
 land, Nov. 13th, 1732. He was bred to the 
 law in Philadelphia and at the Temple in 
 London. He was an earnest advocate of the 
 rights of the colonies. He had been a mem- 
 ber of the stamp-act congress of 1765, and 
 he represented Pennsylvania in the earlier 
 continental congresses. Opposed to political 
 separation from Great Britain, as too prema- 
 ture, he yet would not vote against his 
 brother patriots, and on the memorable 4th of 
 July he was absent from his seat. Independ- 
 ence once declared, he defended it both by 
 word and sword. He helped to frame the 
 federal constitution, and was its warm friend. 
 He died at Wilmington, Del., Feb. 14th, 1808. 
 
 DIDO, the founder of the city of Carthage, 
 also called Elisa, was a daughter of Belus, 
 
 DID 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 269 
 
 monarch of Tyre, and married Sichseus, or 
 Sicharbas, her uncle, a priest of Hercules. 
 Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, murdered 
 the husband of Dido, for the sake of his 
 wealth, and with a number of Tyrians the 
 unhappy queen set sail to lound a colony in 
 some distant land. A storm drove them 
 upon the African shore, where Dido built her 
 citadel, 869 b.c., and soon had the satisfaction 
 of finding the colony in a thriving condition. 
 T he persecutions of Jarbas, the Mauritanian 
 king, who wished to marry her, proved fatal 
 to her, for having vowed to her husband 
 never to wed a second time, she ascended a 
 funeral pile, and perished in the flames. For 
 this action she was called Dido, or ‘valiant 
 woman.’ Her connection with iEneas was 
 an invention of Virgil, for they were not 
 even contemporaries. 
 
 DIEMEN, Anthony van, governor-general 
 of the Dutch East India settlements, born in 
 1598. He went to the Indies as a clerk, 
 but rose with great rapidity. His adminis- 
 tration was judicious and successful. He 
 died in 1645. [ See Van Diemen’s Land. 
 
 DIGBY, Sir Kenelm (son of Sir Everard 
 Digby, who was condemned and executed for 
 his participation in the gunpowder plot), was 
 born at Gothurst, in Buckinghamshire, in 
 1608. He was educated at Oxford, and was 
 originally a Protestant, but was converted to 
 the Romish religion in 1636. He was one 
 of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber to 
 Charles I., commissioner of the navy, and 
 governor of the Trinity-house. He fought 
 against the V enetians at Scuderoon. He was 
 the author of several philosophical treatises. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, a famous Roman emperor, 
 born of an obscure family of Dalmatia, first 
 a common soldier, then general, and pro- 
 claimed emperor, 284 a.d. He made Maxi- 
 man a comrade, his colleague, and created 
 two subordinate emperors, Galerius and Con 
 stantius, with the title of Caesars. Some of 
 the acts of his reign are meritorious, but he 
 disgraced himself by a persecution of the 
 Christians. After a reign of twenty-one 
 years, he voluntarily and publicly abdicated 
 the throne at Nicomedia, May 1st, a.d. 305, 
 and his colleague shortly after followed his 
 example. He found sufficient pleasure in 
 the cultivation of his little garden, and died 
 in 313. 
 
 DIODATI, John, a Protestant divine, pro- 
 fessor of theology at Geneva, where he died 
 in 1649. 
 
 DIODORUS SICULUS (Diodorus the Si- 
 cilian), a Greek historian of the time of Julius 
 Caesar and Augustus. 
 
 DIOGENES (born at Sinope in Pontus, 
 413 b.c.) was a famous Cynic philosopher, 
 one of that sect that sternly opposed luxury 
 and immorality, discarding all superfluities. 
 Diogenes humorously ridiculed Lie follies of 
 human nature, and made even tne objects of 
 his satire laugh at his practical jests and 
 lessons. He perambulated the streets of 
 Athens in the garb and manner of a sturdy 
 beggar, and slept in a tub. He was rigidly 
 temperate, and despised the forms of polite 
 society. While at Corinth Alexander the 
 Great paid him a visit, but was astonished at 
 the indifferent air of the philosopher. He 
 made an offer of service, but Diogenes re^ 
 plied, “ I only want you to stand out of my 
 sunshine.” His independence made such 
 an impression on the Macedonian that he 
 cried, “If I were not Alexander, I should 
 wish to be Diogenes.” He once carried a 
 lantern about Athens at mid-day, and being 
 asked why he was doing so, answered, “ I am 
 looking for a man.” Being asked what was 
 the most dangerous animal ? he answered, 
 “Among wild ones, the slanderer; among 
 tame, the flatterer.” Plato having described 
 man as a two-legged animal without feathers, 
 and received applause for the definition, 
 Diogenes plucked a live fowl, and carrying it 
 to the Academy, exclaimed, “ Here is Plato’s 
 man!” He died at a great age, 324 b.c. 
 Had this itinerant philosopher lived in these 
 degenerate days, he would have become ob- 
 noxious to the police as a vagrant, and found 
 it extremely difficult to avoid the stocks, the 
 work-house, or the treadmill ! 
 
 DIOMEDES, a king of Bistones, who is 
 fabled to have fed his horses upon human 
 flesh, and to have therefore been killed by 
 Hercules. 
 
 DIOMEDES, a Grecian hero, king of Argos, 
 who led his subjects to the siege of Troy. 
 After the war he went to Italy, where he is 
 said to have lived to a good old age. 
 
 DION, of Syracuse, was related to Dio- 
 nysius, and often gave him advice. The 
 tyrant banished him to Greece, where he 
 
 DIO 
 
270 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 raised troops, and entering the harbor of 
 Syracuse with only two ships, reduced it in 
 three days. The tyrant fled, and Dion re- 
 tained the power in his own hands, but was 
 murdered by a false friend, Calippus of 
 Athens, b.c. 354. 
 
 DIONYSIUS I., or the Elder, from the 
 rank of a common soldier raised himself to 
 the throne of Syracuse. He was inimical to 
 the Carthaginians, and fought against them 
 with various success. His tyranny and cru- 
 elty rendered him so odious to his subjects, 
 that he lived in constant dread of assassina- 
 tion, and never permitted even his wife and 
 children to enter his presence until their gar- 
 ments had been searched for concealed weap- 
 ons. He is said to have built a subterraneous 
 cave, called the ear of Dionysius, because it 
 was built in the form of a human ear, con- 
 centrated the sound of voices within it, and 
 conveyed them distinctly to his hearing. 
 The artists employed upon the work were 
 killed for fear of their disclosing the secrets 
 of its construction, and the use to which it 
 was applied. 
 
 Dionysius was constantly betraying his 
 unhappiness. When one of his flatterers, 
 Damocles, was discoursing on his magnifi- 
 cence, riches, and power, Dionysius said to 
 him, “These things seem to delight you; 
 make a trial of my place, by way of experi- 
 *ment.” Damocles was instantly arrayed in 
 the imperial purple, and surrounded by the 
 king’s guards, while every knee w T as bent to 
 do him homage. In the midst of this show, 
 Dionysius ordered a naked sword to be hung 
 from the ceiling by a horse-hair, directly over 
 the royal throne, where Damocles was sitting 
 at a feast. From that moment the courtier- 
 king lost his appetite, his joy vanished, and 
 he begged to be restored to the security of 
 his former condition. Dionysius thus tacitly 
 acknowledged that his happiness was poisoned 
 by a dread of the punishment which was 
 due to his iniquity and cruelty. He died of 
 poison administered at the instigation of his 
 son, b.c. 368. He was very vain, and im- 
 agined that he possessed literary talents of 
 a high order, although his poetical effusions 
 were lamentable failures. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, the Younger, was the son of 
 Dionysius I. By the advice of Dion, Plato 
 was invited to court, and the philosopher 
 
 endeavored to instill into the tyrant’s mind 
 some of those precepts which were his own 
 guide through life. The king neglected his 
 advice, and, after suffering for frankness, Plato 
 quitted him in disgust. Driven from the 
 throne he had disgraced, b.c. 357, he again 
 returned to it after an absence of ten years, 
 but lost it a second time, and finally went to 
 Corinth, where to support himself he kept 
 a school, that, as Cicero observes, he might 
 still be a tyrant. We can readily imagine 
 the sufferings of the wretched urchins upon 
 the interior and exterior of whose heads the 
 ex king .labored. His pupils, we are told, 
 were few, nor can we wonder that the peda- 
 gogue was so poorly patronized. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, one of the judges of the 
 Areopagus at Athens, was converted to 
 Christianity by the apostle Paul, and was the 
 first Bishop of Athens. He was the author 
 of some polemical writings, and suffered 
 martyrdom. 
 
 DISCOVERIES, in modern times. 
 
 861. Faroe Islands — discovered about this 
 time by a Norwegian vessel. 
 
 871. Iceland — discovered by some Norwe- 
 gian chiefs who were compelled to leave their 
 native country. According to some accounts, 
 it had been visited before this, by a Scandi- 
 navian pirate, Naddodd, 
 
 980. Greenland — discovered by the Ice- 
 landers about this period. The first colony 
 established there was destroyed by a pesti- 
 lence in the fourteenth century, and by the 
 accumulation of ice which prevented all com- 
 munication between Iceland and Greenland. 
 
 1000. Winenland — a part of the continent 
 of America, from Labrador as far south as 
 Rhode Island, is supposed to have been dis- 
 covered by the Icelanders. It was called 
 Winenland, or Vinland, from the abundance 
 of a species of vine found there. The Ice- 
 landic chronicles are full and minute respect- 
 ing this discovery. 
 
 1330. Canary Isles — discovered by a French 
 ship driven among them by stress of weather, 
 having been known to the ancients. 
 
 1344. Madeira — The discovery of this 
 group is attributed to an Englishman, Robert 
 Macham ; it was revisited in 1419 by Juan 
 Gonzales, and Tristan Vaz, Portuguese. 
 
 1364. Guinea — the coast of, discovered by 
 some seamen of Dieppe, about this period. 
 
 DIS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 271 
 
 1434. Cape Bojador — doubled for the first 
 time by the Portuguese. 
 
 1439. Azores — discovered by Vanderberg ; 
 settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 
 
 1449. Cape Verde Islands — discovered by 
 Antonio de Noli, a Genoese in the service of 
 Portugal. 
 
 1484. Congo — discovered by the Portu- 
 guese, under Diego Cam. 
 
 1486. Cape of Good Hope — discovered by 
 Bartholomew Diaz. It was originally called 
 ‘ The Cape of Tempests,’ and was also named 
 ‘The Lion of the Sea,’ and ‘The Head of Af- 
 rica.’ The appellation was changed by John 
 II., King of Portugal, who augured favorably 
 of future discoveries from Diaz having reached 
 the extremity of Africa. 
 
 1492. Bahamas. — These islands were the 
 first points of discovery by Columbus. San 
 Salvador was first seen by this great naviga- 
 tor, on the night between the 11th and 12th 
 of October in this year. 
 
 Cuba and Hispaniola or St. Domingo were 
 also discovered by Columbus in his first voy- 
 age. 
 
 1493. Jamaica , St. Christopher's, and Do- 
 minica — discovered by Columbus in his sec- 
 ond voyage. 
 
 1497. Cape of Good Hope — doubled by 
 Vasco di Gama, and the passage to India dis- 
 covered. 
 
 1497. Newfoundland — -discovered by John 
 Cabot, who first called it Prima Vista and 
 Baccalaos. The title of Prima Vista still be- 
 longs to one of its capes, and an adjacent island 
 is still called Baccalao. Cabot sailed down 
 the coast and touched upon Florida, thus 
 reaching the continent before Columbus. 
 
 1498. Continent of America — discovered 
 by Columbus. 
 
 Malabar , Coast of — discovered by Vasco di 
 Gama. 
 
 Mozambique , Island of — discovered by 
 Vasco di Gama. 
 
 1500. Brazil — discovered April 24th, by 
 Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was 
 driven on its coast by a tempest. He called 
 it the Land of the Holy Cross. It^as subse- 
 quently called Brazil, on account of its red 
 wood ; and was carefully explored by Amerigo 
 Vespucci, from 1500 to 1504. 
 
 1501. Labrador and River St. Lawrence — 
 discovered by Cortereal, who sailed from Lis- 
 
 bon on a voyage of discovery for the Portu- 
 guese. The Cabots had entered the St. Law- 
 rence in 1499. 
 
 1502. Gulf of Mexico. — Some of the shores 
 of this gulf were explored by Columbus on 
 his last voyage. 
 
 St. Helena — discovered by Jean de Nova, 
 a Portuguese. 
 
 1505. Ceylon — discovered by the Portu- 
 guese. Ceylon was known to the Romans in 
 the time of Claudius, a.d. 41. 
 
 1506. Madagascar — discovered by Lorenzo 
 Almeida ; revisited by the Portuguese navi- 
 gator Fernandez Pereira, in 1508. This island 
 was first called St. Lawrence, having been 
 discovered on the day of that saint. 
 
 1509. Sumatra — reached by Diego Lopez 
 Sigueira, a Portuguese navigator. 
 
 1510. Molucca Isles — discovered by the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Sunda Isles — discovered by Abreu, a Por- 
 tuguese. 
 
 1512. Maldives. — A Portuguese navigator, 
 who was wrecked on these islands, found 
 them in possession of Arabians. 
 
 Florida — discovered by Ponce de Leon, a 
 Spanish navigator. 
 
 1513. Borneo and Java. — The Portuguese 
 became acquainted with these islands. 
 
 1513. South Sea. — The Pacific Ocean, or 
 South Sea, was discovered this year from the 
 mountains of Darien, by Nunez de Balboa, 
 and subsequently navigated by Magellan. 
 The supposition that the New World was part 
 of India now ceased. 
 
 1513. Peru— discovered by Perez de la Rua. 
 
 1516. Rio de la Plata — entered by Diaz de 
 Solis. 
 
 1517. China — Fernand Perez d’Andrada 
 reached China by sea. 
 
 1518. Mexico — discovered by the Span- 
 iards; conquered by Cortes, in 1521. 
 
 1519. Magellan, Straits of — passed by Ma- 
 gellan with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
 Charles V. The first voyage round the world 
 was undertaken by this navigator ; and his 
 vessel performed the enterprise, although he 
 perished by the way. 
 
 1520. Terra del Fuego — discovered by Ma- 
 gellan. 
 
 1520. Ladrone Islands — discovered by Ma- 
 gellan. 
 
 1521. Philippines. — This archipelago dis- 
 DIS 
 
272 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 covered by Magellan, who lost his life here in 
 a skirmish. 
 
 1524. New France. — The first voyage of 
 discovery made by the French under the pat- 
 ronage of Francis I. ; one of whose ships, after 
 reaching Florida, coasted along as far as 50 ^ 
 N. lat., and gave to this part the name of New 
 France. 
 
 1524. North America — traveled over from 
 Florida to Newfoundland by Yerazzani, a 
 Florentine, in the service of France. 
 
 1527. New Guinea — discovered by Saave- 
 dra, a Spaniard, sent from Mexico, by Cortez. 
 
 1530. Guinea — tlie first voyage to, made 
 by an English ship for elephants’ teeth. 
 
 1535. Canada — visited by Jacques Cartier, 
 of St. Malo ; a settlement having previously 
 been made in 1523, by Yerazzani, who took 
 possession in the name of Francis I. of France. 
 
 1535. California — discovered by Cortez. 
 
 1537. Chili — discovered by Diego de Al- 
 magro, one of the conquerors of Peru. 
 
 1542. Japan — discovered by the Portu- 
 guese, Antonio de Meta and Antonio de Pey- 
 xoto, who were cast by a tempest on its coasts. 
 
 1552. Spitzbergen — observed by the Eng- 
 lish, but mistaken for part of Greenland. 
 Yisited by Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in 
 search of a north-east passage, in 1595. 
 
 1553. White Sea. — This sea, which had 
 not been visited since the time of Alfred, was 
 now supposed to be discovered by Chancellor, 
 an English navigator. 
 
 1575. Solomon's Isles — discovered by Men- 
 dana, a Spaniard, sent by the governor of Peru. 
 
 1576. Frobisher's Strait — discovered by 
 the English navigator whose name it bears. 
 
 Greenland — further explored by Frobisher, 
 who also penetrated further between this 
 country and Labrador. 
 
 1577. New Albion — discovered by Drake, 
 who was the second to attempt a voyage round 
 the world, which he performed in three years. 
 He gave the name of New Albion to the north- 
 west coast of America. 
 
 1580. Siberia — first made knowrn to Europe 
 by Yermak Timopheievitch, a Cossack chief. 
 
 1585. Davis's Strait — discovered by the 
 English navigator whose name it bears, in his 
 voyage for the discovery of a north-west 
 passage. 
 
 1594. Falkland Islands — discovered by the 
 English navigator, Hawkins. 
 
 1595. Marquesas— discovered by^ Mendana, 
 a Spaniard, on his voyage from Peru to found 
 a colony in the Solomon Isles. 
 
 Solitary Island — discovered by Mendana 
 on the same voyage. 
 
 1606. Australia — by the Dutch. 
 
 Archipelago del Espiritu Santo— discovered 
 
 by Quiros, a Spaniard, sent from Peru. 
 These islands are the Cyclades of Bougainville, 
 and the New Hebrides of Cook. 
 
 Otaheite — ^supposed to be discovered by 
 Quiros, who named it Sagittaria. 
 
 1 607-1 0. Hudson's Bay — discovered by the 
 celebrated English navigator, Hudson, on his 
 third voyage. Venturing to pass the winter 
 in this bay on his fourth voyage, he was, with 
 four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, 
 and left to perish. It is probable that Sebas- 
 tian Cabot entered and partially explored this 
 bay in 1512. 
 
 1607. Chesapeake Bay — discovered by 
 John Smith. 
 
 1615. Straits of Le Maire — discovered, 
 with the island of Staten on the east, by Le 
 Maire, a merchant of Amsterdam, and Schou- 
 ten, a merchant of Horn. 
 
 1616. Cape Horn — doubled by Le Maire 
 and Schouten, Dutch navigators, w T ho called it 
 after the town of which Schouten was a native. 
 These enterprising men performed a voyage 
 round the world in about two years. 
 
 1616. Baffin's Bay — discovered by William 
 Baffin, an Englishman. The nature and ex- 
 tent of this discovery w r ere much doubted, till 
 the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that 
 Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
 ment. 
 
 1636. Arctic Ocean. — In this year the Rus- 
 sians discovered that this ocean washed and 
 bounded the north of Asia. The first Russian 
 ship sailed down the Lena into this sea. 
 
 1642. New Zealand — with the southern 
 part of Yan Diemen’s Land, discovered by 
 Tasman, a Dutch navigator. 
 
 1686. Easter Island — discovered by Rog- 
 gewein, a Dutch navigator. 
 
 1690. Kamscliatka — discovered by a Cos- 
 sack chie^Morosko. This country was taken 
 possession of by the Russians in 1697. It 
 was not known to be a peninsula until visited 
 by Behring in 1728. 
 
 1699. Japan — visited by Kampfer, a Ger- 
 man. 
 
 DIS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 273 
 
 1699. New Britain. — This island, and the 
 straits which separate it from New Guinea, 
 discovered by Dumpier. This enterprising 
 seaman made a voyage round the world at the 
 period of this discovery. 
 
 1728. Behring's Strait — explored and des- 
 ignated by a Danish navigator in the service 
 of Russia, whose name it bears. Behring thus 
 established that the continents of Asia and 
 America are not united, but are distant from 
 each other about thirty-nine miles. 
 
 1741. Aleutian Isles — on the coast of North 
 America, discovered by Behring. 
 
 1765. Duke of York's Island — discovered 
 by Byron. 
 
 Isles of Danger — discovered by Byron. 
 
 1767. Otaheite — discovered by Wallis. 
 
 1768. Cook's Strait — discovered by Capt. 
 Cook on his first voyage round the world, 
 which occupied from 1768 to 1771. 
 
 1770. New South Wales — discovered by 
 Captain Cook. 
 
 1 772. Island of Desolation — the first land 
 south of India, discovered by Kerguelen, and 
 called by his name. Subsequently called the 
 Island of Desolation by Captain Cook. 
 
 1774. New Caledonia — discovered by Cook 
 in his second voyage, 1772-1775. 
 
 1778. Icy Cape — discovered by Captain 
 Cook. 
 
 1778. Sandwich Islands — discovered by 
 Cook in his third voyage, which commenced 
 in 1776. He lost his life at Owhyhee in 1779. 
 
 1797. Bass's Straits. — Mr. Bass, surgeon 
 of H. B. M. S. Reliance, penetrated as far as 
 Western Port, in a small open boat, from Port 
 Jackson, and was of opinion that a strait ex- 
 isted between New South Wales and Van Die- 
 man’s Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders cir- 
 cumnavigated Van Dieman’s Land, and named 
 the strait after Mr. Bass. 
 
 1804-6. Missouri River — explored to Its 
 sources by Captains Lewis and Clarke, and 
 the origin and source of the Columbia ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 1819. New South Shetland — discovered by 
 Capt. Smith, of the brig William, bound to 
 Valparaiso. 
 
 1821. Asia — the northern limits of, deter- 
 mined by Baron Wrangel. [See Africa and 
 Arctic Discoveries.] 
 
 DJEZZAR, Achmet, Pacha of Acre, origin- 
 ally a slave ; aided by the English, he checked 
 
 18 DOD 
 
 the career of Napoleon, in Syria. He died in 
 1804. Djezzar signifies ‘butcher,’ and the 
 pacha won the name by his cruelties. 
 
 DODD, William, an English clergyman, 
 born in 1729 ; he was popular as a preacher, 
 and as an author, and was appointed one of 
 the king’s chaplains, which place he lost by 
 being convicted of offering a bribe to obtain 
 preferment. The Magdalen hospital in London 
 was erected under his supervision. His ex- 
 travagant excesses led him into continual em- 
 barrassments. In 1777, he was convicted of 
 forging a bond for £4,200 in the name of his 
 patron, Lord Chesterfield. High influence 
 was exerted and great interest made to save 
 him, but when the case came before the coun- 
 cil, the minister of the day said to George III., 
 “ If your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will 
 have murdered the Perreaus.” These were 
 two unfortunate wine-merchants who had been 
 executed for forgery less than a year before. 
 The doctor was accordingly hanged at Ty- 
 burn, June 27 th. Forgery is no longer a cap- 
 ital crime in England. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., a distin- 
 guished divine among the English dissenters, 
 was born in London, June 26th, 1702. His 
 pious parents early instructed him in religious 
 knowledge. The chimney in the room where 
 the family were wont to sit, was ornamented 
 with quaint Dutch tiles, and from these the 
 good mother taught her boy the history of 
 the Old and New Testaments before he could 
 read. Under such training he early entered 
 the ministry, and at twenty preached his 
 first sermon. He settled at Northampton, 
 where as pastor, an instructor of students in 
 theology, and the author of many pious 
 works, he led an arduous and faithful life till 
 1751, when ill health sent him to Portugal. 
 He survived his arrival at Lisbon but five 
 days, dying the 26th of October, 1751. Dr. 
 Johnson pronounced an epigram by Dr. 
 Doddridge one of the finest in the English 
 language. The subject is his family 
 motto, “ Dum vivimus vivamus.” 
 
 “Live while you live, the epicure would say, 
 
 And seize the pleasures of the present day. 
 
 Live while you live, the sacred preacher cries, 
 And give to God each moment as it flies. 
 
 Lord, in my views let both united be ; 
 
 I live in pleasure when I live to thee.” 
 
 DODINGTON, George Bubb (Lord Mel- 
 
274 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 combe Regis), was the son of a gentleman of 
 fortune, and was born in 1691. He enjoyed 
 many posts of honor and emolument under 
 different parties, and he did not scruple to 
 avow openly his political tergiversations. He 
 was advanced to the peerage in 1761, and died 
 in the following year. Bubb Dodington was 
 eccentric, generous, convivial, and magnifi- 
 cent in private life. Many anecdotes are 
 related of him. For the amusement of the 
 young Prince of Wales he used to suffer him- 
 self to be rolled up in blankets, and trundled 
 down the stairs. Before he took the name 
 of Dodington, he was one day lamenting to 
 Lord Chesterfield the shortness of his patro- 
 nymic, Bubb. “ You can easily remedy it,” 
 said his lordship ; “ call yourself Sillybub, 
 and that will do very well.” He winced 
 under the whimsical satire which an oppo- 
 nent issued, with the title of “ A Grub upon 
 Bubb.” When his fortune increased, he 
 built himself a splendid villa, which if cost 
 constituted elegance would have been a 
 model. But Bubb had no taste, and his 
 villa was a failure. The second story ap- 
 peared much too heavy for the first; for, 
 while the latter was ornamented in the light- 
 est style, the suite of rooms above was adorned 
 with marble fire-places, marble slabs, and 
 massy wainscoting. The proprietor, in 
 showing this to a friend one day, said, “ They 
 tell me, sir, that this is out of place, and ought 
 to be down-stairs.” “Make yourself per- 
 fectly easy,” was the consolatory answer ; “ it 
 will soon be there ! ” 
 
 DODSLEY, Robert, w r as born at Mans- 
 field, Notts, in 1703. He was at first a stock- 
 ing weaver, then a footman, and his first 
 volume was a collection entitled “ The Muse 
 in Livery.” He acquired a very handsome 
 fortune by his efforts as author and book- 
 seller, and retired to Durham, where he died 
 in 1764. His “Economy of Human Life” 
 is an excellent little moral treatise. As a 
 public-spirited publisher, he w r as of good 
 service to literature and literary men. 
 
 DOLCE, Carlo, an eminent Florentine 
 painter, 1616-1686. 
 
 DOMENICHINO is the name by which 
 Dominico Zampiere is best known. He was 
 born at Bologna in 1581. He studied paint- 
 ing in the school of the Carracci, and is ac- 
 counted the ablest of all their scholars. At 
 
 Rome, he earned a high reputation. He 
 received only fifty scudi (about fifty dollars) 
 for his “ Communion of St. Jerome,” consid- 
 ered the best altar-piece in Rome, with the 
 exception of Raphael’s “Transfiguration.” 
 In 1630, he removed to Naples, was much 
 persecuted by his rivals there and in Rome, 
 and died April 15th, 1641, not without sus - 
 picion of having been poisoned. 
 
 DOMINIC DE GUZMAN, St., was born 
 in Spain in 1170, and died at Bologna in 1221. 
 He was the founder of the order of Domini- 
 cans, whose pow r er and influence were at one 
 time almost universal. They w r ere called in 
 France Jacobins, and in England Black 
 Friars. The inquisition was at first in their 
 hands. 
 
 DOMITIAN, Titus Flavius Sabinus, son 
 of Vespasian, and brother of Titus, whom, 
 according to some accounts, he destroyed by 
 poison, was born, a.d. 51, and ascended the 
 throne, a.d. 81. The beginning of his reign 
 promised tranquillity to the people, but their 
 hopes were soon swamped in his cruelty and 
 debauchery. He perished by the hands of 
 an assassin, the 18th of September, a.d. 96, 
 in the forty-fifth year of his age, and the 
 fifteenth of his reign. He w r as the last of the 
 twelve Caesars. 
 
 DONIZETTI, Gaetano, a popular operatic 
 composer, born at Bergamo, in 1798, died 
 there insane, April 8th, 1848. He wrote 
 sixty-three operas, of w r hich the most famous 
 are, “Anna Bolena,” “ Lucrezia Borgia,” 
 “ Lucia di Lammermoor,” “ La Fille du Regi- 
 ment,” “ La Favorita,” “Linda di Chamouni,” 
 and “ Don Pasquale.” 
 
 DONNE, John, an English poet and divine 
 of some celebrity, was the son of a merchant, 
 and w r as born in London in 1573. His 
 education was obtained at Oxford and 
 Cambridge. Originally a Catholic, in his 
 nineteenth year he abjured the Romish re- 
 ligion, and was made secretary to the Lord 
 Chancellor Ellesmere, whose favor he lost for 
 a time by a clandestine marriage with his 
 niece. The juvenile pair appear to have fore- 
 seen all the consequences of their union, for 
 the doctor indorsed a paper in the following 
 manner, “ John Donne, Anne Donne, un- 
 done.” His prospects, how r ever, brightened ; 
 he took orders, became one of King James’s 
 chaplains, and died in March, 1631. 
 
 DON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY- 
 
 275 
 
 DORIA, Andrea, a Genoese commander, 
 born in 1468. After having been employed 
 by several princes, he received a command in 
 Corsica, which island he completely reduced. 
 He gained wealth and honor in his attacks 
 upon the Barbary states. On the breaking 
 out of the revolution in Genoa, he went into 
 the service of France, and next into that of 
 the pope ; but on the capture of Rome he 
 returned to Francis I., who made him the 
 general of his galleys, and admiral of the 
 Levant. The French having become masters 
 of Genoa, in 1528, Doria succeeded in deliv- 
 ering the republic from a foreign yoke, re- 
 ceived the office of doge for life, and was 
 rewarded with the title of father of his coun- 
 try. He next carried arms through the Med- 
 iterranean in the service of Charles V., and 
 died in 1560, full of years and honors. 
 
 DORIS was a small district of ancient 
 Greece, the seat of the Dorians, the most 
 powerful of the Hellenic tribes. About b.c. 
 1104, the Dorians migrated to the Pelopon- 
 nesus. They sent out many colonies. They 
 invented the Doric order of architecture, the 
 most ancient of the five. The tyric poets of 
 Greece in general wrote in the Doric dialect. 
 
 DORSET, Thomas Sackville, Lord Buck- 
 hurst and Earl of Dorset, was the son of Sir 
 Richard Sackville, and was born at Witham, 
 in Sussex, in 1527. He was educated at 
 Oxford, whence he removed to Cambridge, 
 and n^xt to the Inner Temple. On leaving 
 the Temple, he went abroad ; and after his 
 return, was made Lord Buckhurst. In 1587 
 he was sent on an embassy to the United 
 Provinces. After this he was made knight 
 of the garter, and chosen chancellor of Ox- 
 ford. On the death of Burleigh he was 
 appointed lord treasurer ; and in the next 
 reign created Earl of Dorset. He died in 
 1608. Edward (1590-1652), his grandson, 
 bearing the same titles, was a partisan of 
 Charles I., and regent during the king’s 
 absence in Scotland. 
 
 Charles Sackville, sixth Earl of Dorset 
 and Middlesex, was born in 1637. In his 
 youth he was one of the most notorious 
 libertines of the wild time which followed 
 the Restoration. He was the lover of Nell 
 Gwynn before she became a royal mistress : 
 she called him her Charles the First. Yet, in 
 the midst of follies and vices, his courageous 
 
 spirit, his fine understanding, and his natu- 
 ral goodness of heart, had been conspicuous, 
 and with all his errors he was a general 
 favorite. In 1665, he volunteered on board 
 the fleet under the Duke of York in the war 
 against the Dutch, and there, the night 
 before an engagement, wrote that song, un- 
 equaled in its kind, “To all you ladies 
 now at land.” The judgment of the world 
 became still more favorable to Dorset when 
 he had been sobered by time and marriage. 
 His graceful manners, his brilliant conversa- 
 tion, his soft heart, his open hand, were uni- 
 versally praised. No day passed, it was said, 
 in which some distressed family had not 
 reason to bless his name. And yet, with all 
 his good nature, such was the keenness of his 
 wit, that scoffers whose sarcasm all the town 
 feared stood in craven fear of the sarcasm of 
 Dorset. All political parties esteemed and 
 caressed him ; but politics were not much to 
 his taste. He took just so much part in par- 
 liamentary and diplomatic business as suf- 
 ficed to show that he wanted nothing but in- 
 clination to rival the leading statesmen of the 
 age, and turned away to pursuits which 
 pleased him better. He was the best judge 
 of painting, of sculpture, of architecture, of 
 acting, that the court could show. More 
 than one clever play which had failed on the 
 first representation was supported by his 
 single authority against the whole clamor of 
 the pit, and came forth successful from the- 
 second trial. He was a munificent patron of 
 the letters. Drydep was saved from ruin by 
 his almost princely generosity ; he was the 
 first to call attention to Butler’s “Hudibras ; ” 
 and by him Montague and Prior were intro- 
 duced into public life. The few songs and 
 satires he occasionally composed show that, 
 with more industry, he might have been a 
 rival where he was content to be a benefac- 
 tor. He died at Bath, January 19th, 1706. 
 
 DORT, a commercial town in the south of 
 Holland. The resolutions of the synod of 
 Dort, held here by the Protestants in 1618 
 and 1619, form the present code of the Dutch 
 Reformed Church. This synod was attended 
 by deputies from the reformed churches 
 throughout Europe. Its object was to settle 
 the difficulties between the doctrines of Lu- 
 ther, Calvin, and Arminius. The tenets of 
 the latter were condemned. 
 
 DOR 
 
276 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen Arnold, was born 
 in Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813. Ilis father, 
 a physician, died leaving his wife and son in 
 indigent circumstances. Young Douglas 
 attended school only one third of the year, 
 working on the farm or in a cabinet shop the 
 remainder. In 1820 he removed to Illinois, 
 taught school for a support and studied law. 
 Admitted to the bar in 1834, though im- 
 perfectly trained, yet he displayed such abili- 
 ties, that the next year he was elected State At- 
 torney. From that period till his death, June 
 3, 1861, he was in public life, as Secretary of 
 State, Judge of Supreme Court of Illinois, 
 Representative to Congress, and three suc- 
 cessive times U. S. Senator. He was for a 
 long time at the head of the Committee on 
 Territories. Though not the originator he 
 was the mover and advocate of the famous 
 “ Kansas and Nebraska Bill,” and of the 
 repeal of the “Missouri Compromise.” He 
 was the advocate, if not the originator, of the 
 “Squatter Sovereignty” doctrine, giving to 
 the settlers of a territory the power to deter- 
 mine, its status in regard to slavery. He was 
 a Democratic candidate for the Presidency in 
 1 880. At the commencement of the rebellion 
 he took a decided stand in support of the 
 Union, and his last letters and dying words 
 evinced his patriotism and his hostility to the 
 foes of the republic. He was a man of ex- 
 traordinary talent, energy and determination. 
 He possessed that genial, electric nature which 
 drew around him a host of political and per- 
 sonal friends. The West gave him the sou- 
 briquet of “Little Giant.” 
 
 DOW, Gerard, one of the most celebrated 
 of the Dutch genre painters, was born at 
 Leyden in 1013. In 1628, he was placed 
 with Rembrandt, whose pupil he continued 
 three years. His works are remarkable for 
 high finish and for lightness of handling. 
 He died at L. in 1680. 
 
 DOW, Lorenzo, an eccentric Methodist 
 preacher, was born in Coventrjq Conn., Oct. 
 16th, 1777. Traveling extensively over the 
 United States, England and Ireland, he is 
 supposed to have preached to more persons 
 than any other man of his time. He died 
 Feb. 2d, 1834. 
 
 DRACO, archon and lawgiver of Athens, 
 flourished about 600 b. c. He was very pop- 
 ular, and fell a victim to the favor of his 
 
 countrymen, for, being in the theatre at Mgi- 
 na, the people gave him the customary token 
 of approbation by throwing their caps and 
 garments upon him, and such was the number 
 of these that he was smothered under their 
 weight. He was buried under the theatre. 
 His code (623 b.c.), on account of its severity, 
 was said to be written in letters of blood. 
 Idleness was punished as heavily as murder. 
 The smallest transgression, he said, deserved 
 death, and he could not find any punishment 
 more rigorous for atrocious crimes. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, the first Englishman 
 to circumnavigate the globe in a single voy- 
 age, was born in 1546, near Tavistock in Dev- 
 onshire. He took to the sea while a lad, and 
 early became a skillful mariner. In 1565 and 
 1566, he undertook a trading voyage to the 
 West Indies, during which he was much de- 
 spoiled by Spanish cruisers. An expedition 
 with Sir John Hawkins to the Spanish main, 
 was also destroyed by the Spaniards, and in 
 1572, Drake with three small vessels sailed to 
 seek reprisals. He captured a large treasure 
 on the isthmus of Panama. During this ad- 
 venture he climbed a “ goodlie and great high 
 tree,” from which he saw the broad Pacific, 
 whose waters none of Europe but the Span- 
 iards yet had sailed, and whose shores were 
 supposed to be garners of almost exhaustless 
 treasures. The bold mariner, while he gazed, 
 “besought God to give him health and life 
 once to sail an English ship in those^seas.” 
 With a squadron of five little vessels he sailed 
 from England, Nov. 13th, 1577, and entered 
 the Pacific through the dangerous straits of 
 Magellan the following May. In the severe 
 storms that were encountered, his consorts 
 either forsook him or perished. Captures of 
 Spanish galleons soon filled the Golden Hind 
 with treasure, and the enraged sufferers col- 
 lected a large force at the south to catch him 
 on his way home. He tried to find a passage 
 round the north of America, but the severity 
 of the high latitudes which he reached, turned 
 him back. He crossed the Pacific, doubled 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and dropped anchor 
 in Plymouth harbor Nov. 3d, 1580, having 
 been not quite three years away, and in that 
 time circumnavigated the world, in the very 
 teeth of that old Egyptian monk Cosmos, who 
 had no patience with the unscriptural and im- 
 pious doctrine of the earth’s sphericity, argu- 
 
 DRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 277 
 
 ing stoutly that it is a plain surrounded by an 
 immense wall, at whose north side is a great 
 mountain, behind which the sun is hidden 
 every night. England rang with the renown 
 of Drake’s exploits and treasures. Queen 
 Elizabeth knighted him, and Spain prayed for 
 the privilege of hanging him as a pirate. In 
 the war which soon occurs between the two 
 countries, Drake does great service, attacking 
 and burning the Spanish fleet in Cadiz harbor. 
 So the armada can not sail till next year, and 
 when it does put forth to be shattered by the 
 winds and waves, Vice-Admiral Drake is 
 active in completing its destruction. In 1595, 
 with' his old comrade Sir John Hawkins, 
 Drake sails on an expedition against the Span- 
 ish West Indies, falls a victim to' the climate, 
 and dies off Portobello, January 28th, 1596. 
 
 DRAYTON, William Henry, a native of 
 South Carolina, was born in 1742. In 1775, 
 he was chosen president by the provincial 
 congress, and the next year chief-justice of 
 the colony. In 1777, he was made president 
 of South Carolina, and the next year was 
 chosen member of congress. His death took 
 place in September, 1779. 
 
 DRESDEN, the capital of Saxony, on the 
 Elbe, contains 10°, 000 inhabitants. Here, on 
 the 28th of August, 1813, Napoleon defeated 
 the allies and forced them to retire to the Bo- 
 hemian frontier. In this battle Moreau re- 
 ceived his mortal wound, while conversing 
 with the Russian emperor. On the 6th of 
 November, Marshal St. Cyr was blockaded in 
 Dresden, and after an ineffectual negotiation 
 with Schwartzenberg, surrendered his whole 
 force, amounting to 30,000 men. 
 
 DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by 
 a law in England in the reign of Edward IV., 
 1465, and again in the time of Elizabeth, 1574. 
 That brave gallant, Sir Walter Raleigh, we 
 are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- 
 sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a 
 brown doublet finely flowered, and embroid- 
 ered with pearls. In the feather of his hat a 
 large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of 
 the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, 
 with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed 
 at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which 
 on great court days were so gorgeously cov- 
 ered with precious stones, as to have exceeded 
 the value of £6,600; and he had a suit of 
 armor of solid silver, with sword and belt 
 
 blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 
 Sir Walter’s garb was outdone by the coat 
 glittering with diamonds that Prince Ester- 
 hazy sported at Paris in 1815. Accounts of 
 magnificent attire come to us from remote an- 
 tiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Ro- 
 man women was comely and graceful. Ovid 
 sings that the women of Cos, whose country 
 was famous for the silkworm, wore white gar- 
 ments of cotton and silk, so clear and thin, 
 and so beautiful and delicate in texture, that 
 their bodies could be seen through the vesture. 
 
 The Romans went for many ages without 
 any regular covering for the head, and hence 
 the heads of all the ancient statues are bare. 
 But at one period the cap was a symbol of 
 liberty, and when the Roman bestowed it upon 
 a slave he had his freedom. Sometimes the 
 cap has been a mark of infamy. In Italy 
 Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and 
 in France those who had been bankrupts were 
 forever after obliged to wear a green cap. 
 History first mentions the general use of caps 
 and hats, in place of the hoods and chaperons 
 before worn, at the triumphal entry of Charles 
 VII. into Rouen, in 1449. The monarch wore 
 a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted 
 with a rich plume. Hats were first manufac- 
 tured in England in 1510, by Spaniards; be- 
 fore which time both men and women wore 
 close-knit woolen caps. Breeches were a 
 badge of servitude among the Greeks. The 
 garment was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, 
 and other northern nations, and is said to have 
 been worn in Italy in the time of Augustus 
 Caesar. Shirts were not generally worn in 
 the west of Europe till the eighth century. 
 Woolen shirts were commonly worn in Eng- 
 land until about 1253, when linen began to 
 be used. Shoes were made of leather, linen, 
 rush, or wood, among the Jews. The Jewish 
 women wore moons as ornaments in their 
 shoes (Isaiah iii. 18). Pythagoras would have 
 his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of 
 trees ; that they might not wear those from 
 skins, as they refrained from the use of aught 
 that had had life. Sandals were worn by 
 Grecian women of rank. The Romans wore 
 an ivory crescent on their shoes, and those of 
 Caligula were enriched with precious stones. 
 The Egyptians made theirs from the bark of 
 •the papyrus. Our English ancestors had an 
 odd way of adorning their feet. They wore 
 
 DRE 
 
278 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the beaks or points of their shoes so long that 
 they were cumbersome in walking and must 
 be tied up to the knees. Fine gentlemen fast- 
 ened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, 
 and others with laces. This fashion was pro- 
 hibited in 1467, on forfeiture of twenty shil- 
 lings and on pain of being cursed by the clergy. 
 Shoes as at present worn were introduced 
 about 1633, and shoe-buckles in 1668. Boots 
 are said to have been the invention cfthe Ca- 
 rians, and were made of iron, brass, or leajther. 
 Leathern boots are mentioned by Homer. 
 
 DRUIDS. Among the ancient Germans, 
 Gauls, and Britons, the Druids were priests 
 or ministers of religion. They were also the 
 instructors of the young, and the only 
 learned men of the nations to which they 
 belonged, and also acted as judges. They did 
 not make use of writing, but their scholars 
 were obliged to get by heart all their lessons 
 from hearing them repeated. This was a 
 very tedious way of getting forward, and we 
 are not at all surprised that it took twenty 
 years of a man’s life to acquire a very lim- 
 ited stock of learning. 
 
 In general, little was known about very 
 ancient tribes and nations, until the Romans 
 invaded their countries, and conquered, them. 
 So it is from the Romans that we have de- 
 rived our knowledge of the habits, character, 
 and religion of the Druids. It is very scan- 
 ty, for the precautions of these singular men 
 were too successful in preventing their secrets 
 from being divulged. The Druids of Britain 
 were very celebrated. There has been much 
 dispute about the derivation of the word 
 ‘druid,’ but it is most probable that it comes 
 from an old British word, derw, meaning 
 ‘oak,’ because the Druids held the oak-tree 
 almost sacred ; it was their favorite tree, and 
 their groves contained no other. Little is 
 known concerning them before the age of 
 Julius Caesar, who invaded Britain after hav- 
 ing subdued Gaul, about 54 b.c. Caesar says 
 that they were divided into several classes ; 
 the priests, the soothsayers, the poets, and 
 the judges, and instructors of youth. 
 
 The priests, those Druids who were called 
 so by way of distinction, had the charge of 
 the religious ceremonies. They worshiped 
 their gods, and offered sacrifices to them 
 upon altars. Their temples or places of wor- 
 ship, were very singular. They were gener- 
 
 ally circles of vast standing pillars, over 
 which they sometimes laid huge stones mak- 
 ing a circle in the air. In the middle stood 
 the altar-stone. Of this kind was the cele- 
 brated Stonehenge, near Salisbury, in Eng- 
 land. In the island of Anglesey, near the 
 northern extremity of Wales, there are dru- 
 idical pillars yet remaining. This island is 
 supposed to have been the residence of the 
 chief Druid ot Britain. The religion of the 
 Druids, when stripped of its mysteries and 
 unmeaning practices, adapted for the gratifi- 
 cation of the ignorant, seems to have been a 
 belief in one supreme being. They had a 
 doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and 
 it was among the strongest incitements to 
 virtue and courage. As teachers of morali- 
 ty, they sustained their precepts by their 
 own example. Their austerity and contem-* 
 plative habits inspired the populace with • 
 reverence and awe. A Druid’s robe was 
 pure white, indicating holiness and truth. 
 Like the priests of other rude nations, they 
 were compelled to clothe religion with csre- 
 monies and customs calculated to stir the 
 wonder and fear of their votaries. 
 
 The poets, or bards, according to some, did 
 not properly belong to the class of Druids, 
 because they did not mix religion with their 
 songs. They inspired the people to warlike 
 actions, sang the praises of patriotism and 
 bravery, and preserved the oral chronicles 
 of the nation. 
 
 The Druids studied astronomy, and made 
 great proficiency in the science. We all 
 know what terror and astonishment an 
 eclipse, or any singular appearance in the 
 sky, creates among an ignorant people who 
 do not know the causes of these things, or 
 the means of finding out beforehand at what 
 time they will happen. Among such people, 
 persons who can foretell any occurrence, are 
 looked upon as inspired with a knowledge 
 more than human. By such arts, the Druids 
 extended and strengthened their influence 
 over the people. The Roman soothsayers, 
 or fortune-tellers, pretended to foretell events 
 by the appearance of the entrails of 
 beasts that were sacrificed on their altars. 
 In the same way, but with much greater 
 cruelty, the druidical soothsayers examined 
 the bleeding bodies of human victims, who 
 had been immolated in sacrifice. 
 
 DRU 
 
STONEHENGE. 
 
 When the Roman general, Suetonius, de- 
 termined to put an end not only to the cere- 
 monies of the Druids, but to the priests 
 themselves, they took refuge in the island of 
 Anglesey. Here they were determined to 
 make a bold resistance. Having some hopes 
 of gaining a victory over the Romans, they 
 kindled large fires, in which they intended 
 to consume the Roman prisoners, should they 
 take any. Suetonius landed nea * Parthamel. 
 The Druids, in great numbers, encircled the 
 army of their countrymen, urging them to 
 be brave and praying for the vengeance of 
 heaven upon the invaders. The scene was 
 rendered more terrific to the Romans by the 
 appearance of the British women, who were 
 dressed in black, and ran yelling to and fro, 
 with disheveled hair, brandishing torches. 
 However, the Romans were brave men, and 
 they conquered. They cut down the sacred 
 groves of oak ; they demolished the temples 
 of the Druids, and cruelly threw them into 
 their own fires. 
 
 The Druids, who were the judges in all 
 
 cases which required a recourse to law, set- 
 tled these matters by their opinion, from 
 which there was no appeal except to the 
 Arch-Druid. As the Druids were thought 
 to receive knowledge and: instruction directly 
 from the gods, they had the power of mak- 
 ing, altering, and executing laws. Any per- 
 son, who desired to possess the great power 
 of the order, could become a Druid only by 
 a long course of very strict study, and a life 
 of privation which not many had patience 
 to go through. 
 
 The schools of the Druids in Britain were 
 very famous, before the invasion of the 
 Romans. Even youth from Gaul came thith- 
 er. Scholars took an oath not to betray 
 the secrets and learning which they were 
 taught. Students always resided with their 
 teachers and school-fellows, and were forbid- 
 den to converse with any others. Acade- 
 mies were numerous, one being attached to 
 almost every temple of note. Instruction 
 was conveyed in verse. The whole circle of 
 the sciences with which the Druids were 
 
 DRU 
 
280 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 acquainted was taught in twenty thousand 
 verses, which pupils were twenty years in 
 committing to memory. Besides an ac- 
 quaintance with geometry, astrology, astron- 
 omy, geography, natural philosophy, and 
 politics, they professed a knowledge of the 
 arts of magic, and whosoever refused obedi- 
 ence was declared accursed. 
 
 The Druidesses, or female priests, were di- 
 vided into classes. The first class was com- 
 posed of those who never married, and who 
 pretended to have the power of foretelling 
 events, and performing miracles. These 
 were held in great regard. Then there was 
 a second class of married women, who spent 
 the greater part of their lives in the perform- 
 ances of religious ceremonies, among the 
 Druids. The third class consisted of those 
 who did the meanest work about the temples. 
 
 The Druids measured time, not by the 
 days but the nights, guided by the changes 
 of the moon. They had so great a venera- 
 tion for the oak, that they never performed 
 any ceremony without being adorned with 
 garlands woven of its leaves. Those who 
 professed a knowledge of medicine would 
 never betray the secrets by which they cured 
 the sick. They were, without doubt, only 
 acquainted with the healing powers of a few 
 herbs. They placed great faith in the vir- 
 tues of the mistletoe, probably from its 
 growing on the oak. They called it by a 
 name meaning ‘all-heal.’ The efficacy of 
 this plant they thought depended on certain 
 ceremonies to be observed in gathering it. 
 Among the annual festivals of the Gauls and 
 Britons, was that in which the Arch-Druid 
 cut the mistletoe from the oak. This cere- 
 mony was conducted with great pomp. 
 When they found ah oak which had the 
 rare plant upon it, they made preparations 
 for a banquet beneath. Two milk-white 
 bulls were tied to it by the horns, and then 
 the Arch-Druid, dressed in a snowy robe, 
 ascended the oak, and detached the mistletoe 
 with a golden knife. Sacrifice and feasting 
 followed. A vestige of this reverence for the 
 mistletoe has survived in England to the 
 present da}' - — the custom of using among the 
 evergreen decorations for Christmas a mistle- 
 toe, under which, in presumed imitation of 
 the Druids, it is customary to kiss the maids. 
 On every May-day a festival, in honor of the 
 
 sun, was held. The sun was called Bel, 
 Belenus, and some other names. 
 
 DRUIDS. 
 
 The existence of a law forbidding the in- 
 structions of the Druids to be written, shows 
 that they were acquainted with the art of 
 writing. We are told that in writing they 
 made use of the characters of the Greek 
 alphabet, with which they were acquainted 
 before the invasion of the Romans. The 
 Gauls and Britons never went upon any war- 
 like expedition without first praying to some 
 god for assistance. When a victory was 
 gained, a certain portion of the spoils was 
 set apart for that god who had, as the people 
 thought, enabled them to be successful. 
 The priests were, of course, to direct to what 
 use these spoils should be put, and a large 
 share of them were, without doubt, reserved 
 for themselves. The Druids too often pos- 
 sessed themselves of the offerings made in 
 the templet of the gods. Besides the money 
 there received for giving instruction in the 
 sciences, for curing diseases, and for giving 
 judgment in law-suits, the priests of each 
 temple claimed every year certain dues from 
 all the families in their district. They hit 
 upon a very cunning method to secure the 
 payment of these taxes. Every family upon 
 the last evening of October was obliged by 
 law to put out all its fires, and to pay its 
 yearly dues at the temple. On the first of 
 November, those who had paid punctually 
 received sacred fire from the altar to kindle 
 theirs at home. Delinquents were not al- 
 lowed to take any fire, and if any one lent it 
 
 DliU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 281 
 
 to them, or even conversed with them, that 
 person was punished in the same manner, 
 and not allowed to enjoy the protection of 
 justice or the pleasures of society. The sa- 
 cred fire in the temple was never allowed to 
 go out. It is surprising that this sacred 
 flame, like that in the temple of Vesta, 
 should be preserved by Christian priests for 
 ages after the disappearance of the Druids. 
 No earlier than 1220, Loundres, Archbishop 
 of Dublin, extinguished the ancient flame, 
 which was kept in a small cell near the 
 church of Kildare. So firmly rooted was the 
 superstition that the fire was relit in a few 
 years, and actually kept burning until the 
 suppression of monasteries. 
 
 The Druids were greatly restricted in their 
 privileges when Britain was a province in the 
 hands of the Romans, and they resented with 
 great warmth the order which the Roman 
 emperors issued, that no more human victims 
 should be slain at the altars. After the loss 
 they experienced in the isle of Anglesey, 
 they made no figure in Britain. The few 
 who were determined still to persevere in the 
 rites of their order, fled to Scotland, Ireland, 
 and the smaller British islands, in which they 
 kept up their authority some time. Even 
 after the Druids ceased to exist, the supersti- 
 tions they had spread gave trouble to those 
 who wished to make the people believe in the 
 gospel. In the reign of Canute the Great, 
 during the eleventh century, it was found 
 necessary to provide by law against these 
 wretched superstitions. “ We strictly forbid 
 all our subjects,” says the king, “to worship 
 the gods of the Gentiles ; that is to say, the 
 sun, moon, fires, rivers, fountains, hills, or 
 trees or woods of any kind.” 
 
 DRUSES, a warlike people of Syria, 30,000 
 in number, inhabiting the mountains of Li- 
 banus and Anti-Libanus. Their origin is 
 traced to about the commencement of the 
 twelfth century. They are a religious sect, 
 neither Christians nor Mohammedans. The}' 
 reached the summit of their power under 
 Fakardin, who, being taken prisoner by the 
 Turks, was strangled in 1631. Thenceforth 
 they were the vassals of the Turks. 
 
 DRYDEN, John, one of the great masters 
 of English verse, was born at Oldwinckle, 
 Northamptonshire, in August, 1631. 
 father, Erastus Driden, was 
 
 of an ancient family. John fledged his muse 
 in heroic stanzas lamenting the death of 
 Cromwell. The restoration came, and he 
 welcomed the returning monarch as easily 
 as he had mourned the departed protector. 
 Theatricals revived, and Dryden wrote many 
 successful dramas, all stained with licentious- 
 ness, a fault of the age that he helped on 
 rather than strove to check. In 1665, he 
 wedded Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of 
 the Earl of Berkshire, adding thereby neither 
 to his wealth nor his joy. When Mrs. Dry- 
 den wished she were a book, that she might 
 enjoy more of his company, he answered, 
 “Be an almanac then, my dear, that I may 
 change you once a year.” The envious at- 
 tacks of his detractors he silenced by those 
 trenchant satires, “ Absalom and Achitophel ” 
 and “Mac Flecknoe.” He began to have 
 doubts of the Protestant faith, and shortly 
 after the accession of James II., the laureate 
 was received into the Romish communion. 
 His sincerity has been suspected; unjustly, 
 we think : he adhered to his new belief when 
 it was no longer popular or profitable. He 
 continued busy in toil with his pen, till death 
 came, Mav-day, 1700. With great pomp he 
 was interred in Westminster Abbey. The 
 vigorous and idiomatic prose of Dryden 
 rivals the excellence of his verse. 
 
 The house in which Dryden died still 
 stands in London, a respectable, old-fashi6ned 
 dwelling. Some years ago it was tenanted 
 by a comely dame — a Wife of Bath — who 
 dealt in contraband laces, gloves, &c. Lord 
 Holland often called to see the interior, but 
 the cautious mistress, sure that his portly and 
 comfortable presence was that of a custom- 
 house officer or other functionary of govern- 
 ment, kept the door in her hand, and steadily 
 rejected the solicitations of the literary peer 
 and pilgrim. 
 
 DUBOIS, William, Cardinal, the son of an 
 apothecary, was born at a small town in 
 Limousin, in 1656. He became prime min- 
 ister to the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, 
 by the basest of means, flattering the vices 
 of his master. He died August 10th, 1723. 
 
 DUDLEY, Edmund, an English statesman 
 under Henry VII., born in 1462. On the 
 accession of Henry VIII, he was sent to the 
 Tower with his associate, Sir Richard Emp- 
 son x tried, and beheaded in 1510. 
 
 His 
 
 strict Puritan, 
 
 DUD 
 
282 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 DUDLEY, John, Duke of Northumberland, 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1502, and 
 restored in blood in 1511. He became the 
 favorite of Henry VIII., and he married his 
 son, Lord Guilford, to Lady Jane Grey, 
 when he found that Edward VI. was dying. 
 Lady Jane Grey was prevailed upon to accept 
 the fatal crown, but Mary’s adherents proved 
 too powerful for her party, and the Duke of 
 Northumberland died upon the scaffold, 
 August 22d, 1553. 
 
 DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Leicester, son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1532. He was 
 condemned with his father, but pardoned, 
 and afterward restored to blood by Queen 
 Mary. In the reign of Elizabeth, he was 
 made master of the horse, knight of the 
 garter, and a member of the privy council. 
 In 1560 his wife died, not without suspicion 
 of violence, it being generally believed that 
 Dudley aspired to the hand of his sovereign. 
 The story of the unhappy countess is beauti- 
 fully told in the ballad of “ Cumnor Hall,” 
 which gave Scott the hint for his splendid 
 romance of “ Kenilworth.” The following 
 are the concluding verses : 
 
 “ The death-bell thrice was he,ard to ring, 
 
 An aerial voice was heard to call, 
 
 And thrice the raven flapped his wing 
 Around the towers of Cumnor Hall. 
 
 “The mastiff howled at village door, 
 
 The oaks were shattered on the green; 
 
 Woe was that hour — for never more 
 That hapless countess e’er was seen. 
 
 “ And in that manor now no more 
 Is cheerful feast and sprightly ball, 
 
 For ever since that dreary hour 
 Have spirits haunted Cumnor Hall. 
 
 “ The village maids, with fearful glance, 
 
 Avoid the ancient moss-grown wall ; 
 
 Nor ever lead the merry dance 
 
 Among the groves of Cumnor Hall. 
 
 “Full many a traveler oft hath sighed, 
 
 And pensive wept the countess’ fall, . 
 
 As wandering onward they’ve espied 
 The haunted towers of Cumnor Hall!” 
 
 Elizabeth proposed Dudley to Mary, Queen 
 of Scots, as a husband, but that unfortunate 
 princess indignantly rejected him. In 1564, 
 he was created Earl of Leicester ; soon after 
 which, he was elected chancellor at Oxford. 
 About 1572, he privately married Lady Doug- 
 las Howard, but he never acknowledged her, 
 
 and even forced her to marry another. In 
 1575, the earl entertained the queen magni- 
 ficently at his castle of Kenilworth in War- 
 wickshire, but offended her very much by 
 marrying the Countess of Essex. In 1585, 
 he was appointed governor of the Protestant 
 Low Countries, but returned the same year 
 by the queen’s command. In 1588, he was 
 appointed to the chief command of the forces 
 at Tilbury. He died Sept. 4th of the same 
 year. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois, was 
 born of a noble family at Cambray, in 1’739. 
 Becoming general in the French army, he 
 gained the battle of Jemappes, over the 
 Austrians, Nov. 6th, 1792. He soon after 
 appeared before Brussels, which opened its 
 gates. On the 15th. of March, 1793, in a 
 general engagement with the Austrians at 
 Nerwinden, he was totally defeated. He had 
 a scheme for raising the Due de Chartres 
 (Louis Philippe) to the throne of France. 
 The convention dispatched four commis- 
 sioners empowered to arrest him. These he 
 caused to be delivered up to the Austrians, 
 and he himself fled to the allies for protection. 
 He received a pension from the British gov- 
 ernment, and died at Turville Park, England, 
 March 14th, 1823. 
 
 DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scot- 
 tish and English armies, in which John Baliol 
 was defeated by the Earl of Warrenne, and 
 Scotland subdued by Edward I. ; fought 
 April 27th, 1296. Battle between the Scots, 
 and the English under Cromwell, who gained 
 a signal victory, Sept. 3d, 1650. 
 
 DUNCAN, Adam, Viscount, a brave Brit- 
 ish naval officer, w T as born in Scotland in 
 1731. He entered the navy at an early age, 
 and in 1761 was appointed post-captain, in 
 which station he shared in the honors of the 
 reduction of Havanna. In 1779, he com- 
 manded the Monarch in Rodney’s victory over 
 the Spaniards. In 1794, being made vice- 
 admiral of the white, he took the command 
 of the North Sea fleet. After watching the 
 Dutch fleet in the Texcl for two years, a mu- 
 tiny in the fleet compelled him to return to 
 England, and enabled the enemy to put to 
 sea. This news restored Duncan’s men to a 
 sense of their duty ; they engaged the enemy 
 on the 11th of October, 1799, off Camper- 
 down, and completely defeated them, taking 
 
 DUN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 283 
 
 the Dutch admiral, De Winter, and eight ships. 
 For this achievement Duncan was made a 
 viscount. He died suddenly, August 4th, 
 1804. 
 
 DUNDAS, Henry, Viscount Melville, son 
 of Lord Arniston, was born in 1740. He was 
 a steady follower of W illiam Pitt, and upon 
 that minister’s retirement in 1801, Dundas 
 resigned his places, and was created Viscount 
 Melville. When Mr. Pitt came into power 
 again in 1804, he was made first lord of the 
 admiralty, but was impeached in 1805, for 
 crimes and misdemeanors in his former situa- 
 tion as treasurer of the navy. He was, how- 
 ever, acquitted, and died in Scotland, May 
 27th, 1811. 
 
 DUNKIRK, a city in French Flanders, 
 with 27,000 inhabitants, about twenty -seven 
 miles from Calais. It was taken from the 
 Spaniards by Marshal Turenne, 4th of June, 
 and transferred to the English on the 17th, in 
 1758. In 1662, it was sold by Charles II. to 
 Louis XIV., for £500,000. In 1666, an en- 
 gagement which lasted four days took place 
 between the English and French fleets off Dun- 
 kirk. At the peace of Utrecht, William III., 
 exacted from the French a promise to demolish 
 the defenses and fill up the harbor, which was 
 but partially complied with. Since the peace 
 of 1783, Dunkirk has, however, been the 
 unmolested resort of armed ships of war, and 
 smuggling vessels at all times. In 1793, the 
 Duke of York was defeated by Hoche near 
 Dunkirk. 
 
 DUNSINANE, Battle of, fought in 1057, 
 between Macbeth, Thane of Glammis, and 
 Seward, Earl of Northumberland. Edward 
 the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of 
 Malcolm, whose father, Duncan, the usurper 
 had murdered. Macbeth was defeated and 
 slain. Shakspeare has immortalized this 
 conflict. 
 
 DURER, Albrecht, the ‘evangelist of art,’ 
 was born at Nuremberg, May 20th, 1471, the 
 third of eighteen children. Though brought 
 up to be a goldsmith, as were his father and 
 maternal grandfather, he early adopted paint- 
 ing as his profession. He distinguished him- 
 self both as a painter and as an engraver on 
 copper and wood. Feb. 2d, 1494, he married 
 Agnes Frey, the pretty daughter of a Nurem- 
 berg musician, receiving with her a dowry of 
 two hundred florins ; for which, says an old I 
 
 writer, he had afterward at least two thousand 
 unhappy days. She is said to have been im- 
 perious, avaricious, and fretful, constantly 
 urging him to work, to make provision for 
 her after his death. He was the most distin- 
 guished artist of his time north of the Alps, 
 and in 1515 an interesting exchange of draw- 
 ings took place between him and Raphael. 
 One of the latter’s is preserved in Vienna, 
 with this inscription by Diirer on the back : 
 “1515, Raphael of Urbino, who has been so 
 highly esteemed by the pope, drew these 
 naked figures, and sent them to Albrecht 
 Diirer in Nuremberg, to show him his hand.” 
 Albrecht was a sculptor as well, and unques- 
 tionably a man of remarkable attainments. 
 Even Melancthon said painting was the least 
 of his accomplishments. He died at Nurem- 
 berg, April 6th, 1528. 
 
 DUROC, Michael, a friend .and favorite 
 officer of Napoleon, Duke of Friuli, grand- 
 marshal of the palace, senator, general of 
 division, grand cordon of the legion of honor, 
 and other orders, was born in 1772. Under 
 Napoleon, in Italy, in Egypt, and in Germany, 
 he distinguished himself, being the greater 
 part of the time aide-de-camp to the empe- 
 ror. He was killed in entering the village of 
 Merkersdorf, after the battle of Bautzen, May 
 23d, 1813. Napoleon was cut to the heart 
 by the loss of his dear friend. Marshal Du- 
 roc was one of those men who seem too pure 
 and perfect for this world, and whose excel- 
 lence helps to reconcile us to human nature. 
 The splendor of his position had not power 
 to dazzle or corrupt him. He remained 
 simple, natural, and independent, a warm 
 and generous friend, a just and honorable 
 man. I pronounce this eulogy without fear 
 of contradiction. — Caulaincourt. 
 
 DUVAL, Claude, a noted highwayman in 
 England, during the reign of Charles II., was 
 a Frenchman by birth. Many romantic 
 tales were told of him ; that he was the 
 page of the Duke of Richmond, took to the 
 road, became captain of a formidable gang, 
 and had the honor to be named first in 
 the royal proclamation against notorious 
 offenders ; how, at the head of his troop, 
 he stopped a lady’s coach, in which there was 
 a booty of four hundred pounds ; how he 
 took only one hundred, and suffered the fair 
 owner to ransom the rest by dancing a coranto 
 
 DUVj 
 
284 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 with him on the heath ; how his vivacious 
 gallantry stoie away the hearts of all women ; 
 how his dexterity at sword and pistol made 
 him a terror to all men ; how, at length, in the 
 year 1670, he was seized when overcome by 
 wine ; how dames of high rank visited him in 
 prison, and with tears interceded for his life ; 
 how the king would have granted a pardon 
 but for the interference of Judge Morton, the 
 terror of highwaymen, who threatened to 
 resign his office unless the law was carried 
 into full effect ; and how, after the execution, 
 the corpse lay in state with all the pomp of 
 scutcheons, wax-lights, black hangings, and 
 mutes, till the same cruel judge who had 
 intercepted the mercy of the crown sent 
 officers to disturb the obsequies. — Macaulay. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, an eminent divine, 
 
 born at Northampton, in Massachusetts, in 
 1752. His mother was a daughter of Jona- 
 than Edwards. Timothy was graduated at 
 Yale College, in which institution he was 
 tutor at nineteen. He served in the army as 
 chaplain, and about the close of the Revolu- 
 tionary war was elected a member of the 
 state legislature. Mr. Dwight then kept a 
 school in Greenfield, Connecticut, where he 
 was ordained minister in 1783. In 1794, he 
 published the poems of “ Greenfield Hill ” and 
 the “Conquest of Canaan,” both of which 
 were republished in England. In 1795, he 
 succeeded the reverend Doctor Styles as presi- 
 dent of Yale College, filling also the office of 
 professor of theology. He died January 11th, 
 1817. His “ System of Theology ” is a learned 
 and valuable work. 
 
 E. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. The following are 
 among the most memorable that have oc- 
 curred. 
 
 372 b.c. Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus 
 swallowed up. 
 
 144 b.c. Isle of Hiera rose from the JEgean 
 Sea during an earthquake. 
 
 17 a.d. Awful one in Asia, which overturned 
 twelve cities. 
 
 7 9. One, together with an eruption of Y esuvius, 
 destroying Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 114. Antioch destroyed. 
 
 558. At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, 
 and thousands perished. 
 
 742. Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; 
 more than five hundred towns destroyed, 
 and the loss of life defied all calculation. 
 1137. Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 
 persons buried in the ruins. 
 
 1302. Ischia ravaged by a volcanic eruption, 
 preceded by violent earthquakes. 
 
 1456. At Naples ; 40,000 inhabitants perished. 
 1531. February, at Lisbon; 1,500 houses, and 
 30,000 people buried in the ruins ; sev- 
 eral neighboring towns engulphed with 
 their inhabitants. 
 
 1596. In Jiipan ; several cities laid in ruins, and 
 thousands perished. 
 
 1638. Awful one at Calabria. 
 
 1662. In China; 300,000 persons buried in Pekin 
 alone. 
 
 1692. Jamaica ravaged by an earthquake, and 
 many of the inhabitants swallowed up 
 by rents in the ground ; three-quarters 
 of the houses of Port Royal, with the 
 
 ground they occupied, sank with their 
 tenants under water. 
 
 1693. Shocks of earthquake in Sicily, which ob- 
 literated Catania, overturned fifty-four 
 cities and three hundred hamlets, and 
 destroyed more than 100,000 persons. 
 
 1699. Earthquakes in Java, when no iess than 
 two hundred and eight severe shocks 
 were counted ; the fish killed in the riv- 
 ers by the mud which filled them, and 
 great numbers of wild animals des- 
 troyed. 
 
 1731. Again in China; 100,000 lives lost at 
 Pekin. 
 
 1736. One in Hungary which turned a mountain 
 
 round. 
 
 1737. Earthquake in Kamtschatka, which caused 
 
 an inundation of the sea, formed new 
 hills, lakes, and bays. 
 
 1746. Earthquake in Peru ; two hundred shocks 
 experienced in the first twenty-four 
 hours ; Lima and Callao destroyed ; 
 several new bays formed; nineteen 
 ships sunk and four carried a great dis- 
 tance up the country by the rise of the 
 sea ; several volcanoes burst forth in the 
 vicinity, and poured forth torrents of 
 water, which overflowed extensive tracts. 
 
 1750. Concepcion (or Fenco) in Chili destroyed 
 by an earthquake, and overwhelmed by 
 the sea. 
 
 1754. At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 
 40,000 persons swallowed up. In April, 
 1755, another earthquake completed the 
 destruction. 
 
 EAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 285 
 
 EARTHQUAKE AT LISBON. 
 
 1755. Earthquake destroyed Lisbon, Nov. 1st; 
 and 60,000 persons perished in six min- 
 utes. The sea first retired, and then 
 rolled in, rising fifty feet above its usual 
 level : the largest mountains in Portugal 
 rocked and split asunder, and sent forth 
 flames and clouds, of dust. The shock 
 was felt nearly all over Europe, in the 
 north part of Africa, in the Atlantic, 
 and even in the West Indies; a vast 
 wave swept over the coast of Spain, in 
 some places, sixty feet in height, and 
 near Morocco the earth opened, swal- 
 lowed up about 10,000 persons with 
 their herds, and then closed over them. 
 This awful shock is said to have extended 
 five thousand miles. The cities of Co- 
 imbra, Oporto, and Braga suffered 
 dreadfully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- 
 turned. In Spain, a large part of Mal- 
 aga was laid in ruins. More than half 
 the isle of Madeira became waste, and 
 two thousand houses in the island of 
 Meteline, in the Archipelago, were over- 
 thrown. 
 
 1759. The volcano of Jorullo in Mexico rose 
 during an earthquake from the plain of 
 Malpais, forming a hill 1,600 feet high. 
 
 1766. Violent shocks agitate Venezuela, occur- 
 ring hourly for above a year. 
 
 1772. Eruption of the volcano Papandayang in 
 Java; a tract of country fifteen miles 
 long by six broad was engulphed, forty 
 villages swallowed up or overwhelmed, 
 and the cone of the volcano was reduced 
 in height 4,000 feet. 
 
 1774. During the eruption of the volcano on the 
 side of which the city of Guatemala was 
 built, the ground gaped open and swal- 
 lowed the whole city with its 8,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 1783. Earthquake in Calabria destroyed all the 
 towns and villages, twenty miles round 
 Oppido, and 40,000 persons were swal- 
 lowed up or overwhelmed ; the shocks 
 continued for four years. 
 
 1783. Eruption of the volcano Asamayama in 
 Niphon, preceded by an earthquake, 
 during which the earth yawned and 
 swallowed many towns. 
 
 1797. Between the 4th and 20th of February, 
 the whole country from Santa Fe to 
 Panama was destroyed, including the 
 cities of Cuzco and Quito, 40,000 of 
 Avhose dwellers were in one second 
 hurled into eternity. 
 
 EAR 
 
286 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 1811. Earthquake in South Carolina, and in the 
 
 valley of the Mississippi ; the latter was 
 convulsed to such a degree between the 
 mouths of the Ohio and the St. Francis 
 as to create lakes and islands, and deep 
 chasms were lormed in the ground, from 
 which vast volumes of water, sand, and 
 coal were thrown up to the height of 
 sixty or seventy feet. 
 
 1812. The city of Caraccas destroyed by an 
 
 earthquake, and 10,000 persons buried 
 under its ruins. 
 
 1819. An earthquake in Cutch destroyed many 
 towns and villages; deepened the eas- 
 tern arm of the Indus from one to eigh- 
 teen feet ; submerged some tracts and 
 elevated others. 
 
 1S22. Aleppo destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 1822. Chili ravaged by an earthquake, the shock 
 of which was lelt for a distance of 1,200 
 miles ; the coast in the neighborhood of 
 Valparaiso for a distance of one hundred 
 miles was raised above its former level 
 from two to lour, and even six or eight 
 feet: the whole tract thus raised had an 
 area of about 100,000 square miles. 
 
 1827. Earthquake commits great ravages around 
 Bogota. 
 
 1831. The island of Sciacca rose from the sea 
 near the southern coast of Sicily ; the 
 depth of the sea at this spot was six 
 hundred feet, and the island was one 
 hundred feet above the surface : circuit 
 3,240 feet: in the winter of 1831, the 
 island was swept away by the waves, 
 leaving only a shoal. 
 
 1837. In many cities of southern Syria, Jan. 
 22d, by which hundreds of houses were 
 thrown down, and thousands of the in- 
 habitants perished. 
 
 1839. At Martinique, Jan. 11th, by which nearly 
 
 half of Port Royal was destroyed, and 
 the whole island damaged. 
 
 1840. At Fernate, Feb. 14th; the island laid 
 
 waste, almost every house destroyed, 
 and thousands of the inhabitants lost 
 their lives. 
 
 1842. At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, May 7th, 
 which destroyed nearly two-thirds of the 
 town, and almost 5,000 lives. 
 
 1857. Shocks felt quite heavily at St. Louis and 
 at Buffalo in October. Dec. 16th, a se- 
 vere earthquake shook the kingdom of 
 Naples, sending 9,350 persons into eter- 
 nity, and seriously injuring 1,359; at 
 Montemurro, a place of 7,000 inhabit- 
 ants, 5,000 were crushed to death by 
 the falling houses, and 500 severely 
 hurt. See Appendix, p. 971. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. The Roman em- 
 pire was divided a.d. 364. The following 
 were the rulers of the Eastern empire, and 
 the principal incidents in its history, down 
 to its conquest by the Turks. [See Rome.] 
 364. Valeris. 
 
 379. Theodosius the Great. Maximus the tyrant, 
 
 defeated and put to death, 388. Theodo- 
 sius defeats Eugenius, 392. 
 
 395. Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 
 
 408. Theodosius II. He institutes public schools 
 and endeavors to restore learning, 425. 
 
 450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 
 
 457. Leo I., the Thracian. 
 
 468. Ardaburius. 
 
 474. Leo the Younger, died the same year. 
 
 474. Zeno, called the Isaurian. 
 
 491. Anastasius, an Illyrian of mean birth. 
 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, 
 whose fleet is burned with a brazen spe- 
 culum by Proclus, 514. 
 
 518. Justin I., originally a private soldier. 
 
 527. Justinian, founder of the Digest. Turkish 
 empire begins in Asia, 545. 
 
 565. Justin II., nephew of Justinian. 
 
 578. Tiberius II., renowned for his virtues. 
 
 582. Maurice, the Cappkdocian, murdered With 
 all his children by his successor. 
 
 602. Phocas, a centurion, raised to the throne 
 by a revolt of the soldiery. His crimes 
 and cruelties led to his assassination. 
 Power of the popes begins, through the 
 concessions of Phocus, 606. 
 
 610. Heraclius. The Persians besiege Constam 
 tinople, 626. 
 
 641. Constantine III., reigned a few months; 
 poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 
 
 641. Constans II., assassinated in a bath. 
 
 668. Constantine IV. Pogonatus. In this year, 
 the Arabs besieged Constantinople. In 
 673 it is besieged by the Saracens, and 
 their fleet destroyed by the Greek fire, 
 a composition invented by one Callinicus, 
 an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis in 
 Syria. It burned the briskest in water, 
 and diffused itself on all sides, according 
 to the impression given to it. Nothing 
 but oil, or a mixture of vinegar, urine, 
 and sand, could quench it. It was blown 
 out of long tubes of copper, and shot out 
 of cross-bows and other spring instru- 
 ments. The invention was kept a secret 
 for many years by the court of Constan- 
 tinople, and is now lost. 
 
 685. Justinian II., son of the last emperor, an 
 abhorrent character, dethroned and mu- 
 tilated by his successor. 
 
 695. Leontius, dethroned and mutilated by his 
 successor. 
 
 698. Tiberius 111. Aspimar. 
 
 705. Justinian II. restored; Leontius and Tibe- 
 rius degraded in tlie Hippodrome, and 
 put to death. Justinian slain, 711. 
 
 711. Philippicus Bardanes, assassinated. 
 
 713. Anastatius II. ; fled on the election of The- 
 odosius in 716; afterward delivered up 
 to Leo. III., and put to death. 
 
 716. Theodosius III. Second siege of Constan- 
 tinople by the Arabs. 
 
 718. Leo III., the Isaurian. The great icono- 
 clastic controversy commences, 726. 
 The alternate prohibition and restoration 
 of images involve the peace of several 
 reigns. 
 
 741. Constantine V. Copronymus, son of Leo. 
 
 EAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 287 
 
 775. Leo IV., his son. 
 
 780. Constantine VI. and his mother Irene. 
 790, Constantine reigns alone, by the 
 desire of the people, who hate Irene. 
 792, she again reigns conjointly with her 
 son, and afterward alone. For her cru- 
 elties and murders she is deposed and 
 exiled. 
 
 802. Nioephorus I., surnamed Logothetes, slain. 
 
 811. Staurachius, reigns a few days only. 
 
 811. Michael I. Defeated in battle, he abdicates 
 and retires to a monastery. 
 
 813. Leo V., the Armenian ; killed in the temple 
 at Constantinople on Christmas by con- 
 spirators for his successor. 
 
 820. Michael II., the Stammerer. 
 
 829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 
 
 842. Michael III., surnamed Porphyrogenetes, 
 and the Sot, son of the preceding ; mur- 
 dered by his successor. 
 
 867. Basilius I., the Macedonian. 
 
 886. Leo VI., styled the Philosopher. 
 
 911. Alexander, and Constantine VII., brother 
 and son of Leo, the latter only six years 
 old; the former dying ip. 912, Zoe, 
 mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
 gency. 
 
 919. Romanes Lecapenus usurps the imperial 
 power. 
 
 •920. Constantine VIII., his son. 
 
 928. Stephen and Christopher. Five emperors 
 now reign: of these, Christopher dies in 
 931 ; Roman us is exiled by his sons Con- 
 stantine and Stephen, who are themselves 
 banished the next year. 
 
 945. Constantine VII. now reigns alone; pois- 
 oned by his daughter-in-law, Theophania. 
 
 959. Romanus II., son of the preceding, whose 
 death he had contrived. The monster 
 banishes Helena his mother. 
 
 963. Nicephorus II. Phocas; weds Theophania, 
 his predecessor’s consort, who has him 
 assassinated. 
 
 969. Joh i I. Zemisces, the celebrated general, 
 lie takes B.isilius II. and Constantine 
 IX., sons of Romanus II., as colleagues. 
 John dies, supposed by poison, and 
 
 975. Basilius II. and Constantine IX. reign. The 
 former dies in 1025, the latter in 1028. 
 
 1028. Romanus III. Argvropulus. Zoe, his con- 
 sort, poisons him and 
 
 1034. Michael IV., her paramour, a Paphlagonian 
 money-lender, ascends the throne. On 
 his death Zo 3 gives the crown to 
 
 1041. Michael V., surnamed Calaphates, her 
 
 adopted son. Him she dethrones, has 
 his eyes put out, and marries 
 
 1042. Constantine X. Monomachus, who reigns 
 
 jointly with her. Zoe dies in 1050. 
 
 1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 
 
 1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato ; deposed. 
 
 1057. Isaac I. Comnenus, chosen emperor by the 
 
 soldiery ; abdicates. 
 
 1059. Constantine XI., surnamed Ducas. 
 
 1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and 
 Romanus IV., surnamed Diogenes, whom 
 she marries, reign to the prejudice of 
 Michael, Constantine’s son. 
 
 | 1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces recovers his 
 throne, and reigns jointly with Constan- 
 tine XII. 
 
 1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 
 
 1081. Alexius I. Comnenus ; defeated by Robert 
 Guiscard at Dyrrachium, and by the 
 Turks in Asia Minor. In conjunction 
 with the crusaders, he regains Nicaea, in 
 1097, but afterward quarrels with them. 
 
 1188. John Comnenus, his son, surnamed Kalos : 
 died of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 
 
 1143. Manuel Comnenus, son of John. 
 
 1180. Alexius II. Comnenus, son of Manuel, un- 
 der the regency of Maria his mother. 
 By her misconduct he is compelled to 
 admit Andronicus Comnenus as his col- 
 league. This miscreant strangles him 
 and seizes the throne. 
 
 1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus. He is put to 
 death by 
 
 1185. Isaac II. Angelus Comnenus, who is de- 
 posed, imprisoned, and deprived of his 
 eyes by his brother, 
 
 1195. Alexius III. Angelus, called the Tyrant. 
 He is besieged in Constantinople by the 
 French and Venetians, who take the city 
 and reinstate Isaac. In Thrace, w'hither 
 he flees for safety, Alexis falls into the 
 hands of Theodore Lascaris, who puts 
 his eyes out, and imprisons him in a 
 monastery, where he dies. 
 
 1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son 
 
 Alexius IV. Father and son are mur- 
 dered by Mourzoufle. The French and 
 Venetians take Constantinople by storm. 
 Mourzourfle is put to death, after his eyes 
 have been torn from his head. 
 
 LATIN EMPERORS. 
 
 1204. Baldwin I., Earl of Flanders, on the capture 
 
 of Constantinople is elected emperor; 
 made a prisoner by the King of Bulgaria, 
 and never heard of afterward. 
 
 1206. Henry I., his brother. 
 
 1217. Peter de Courtenay, Henry’s brother-in- 
 law. 
 
 1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 
 
 1228. Baldwin II., his brother, a minor, and John 
 de Brienne of Jerusalem, regent and as- 
 sociate emperor. 
 
 1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire 
 of the Franks or Latins ends.] 
 
 GREEK EMPIRE AT NICE. 
 
 1204. Theodore Lascaris. 
 
 1222. John Ducas, Vataces. 
 
 1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son. 
 
 1259. John Lascaris, and 
 
 1260. Michael VIII. Paheologus. 
 
 AT CONSTANTINOPLE AGAIN. 
 
 1261. Michael VIII. puts out the eyes of John, 
 
 and reigns alone. 
 
 1 282. % Andronicus II. Palaeologus, son of Michael ; 
 deposed by his grandson, 
 
 1332. Andronicus the Younger. 
 
 1341. John Palaologus, under the guardianship 
 
 EAS 
 
 # 
 
 
288 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of John Cantacuzenus ; the latter pro- 
 claimed emperor at Adrianople. 
 
 1347. John Cantacuzenus. 
 
 13 55. John Palteologus, restored. 
 
 1391. Manuel Palaeologus, his son. 
 
 1425. John Palaeologus II., his son. 
 
 1448. Constantine XIII. Palieologus, his son, the 
 last emperor. Mahomet 11., the Ottoman 
 sultan, laid siege to Constantinople by 
 sea and land. After it had held out fifty- 
 eight days, the Turks carried it by as- 
 sault, May 29th, 1453. The unfortunate 
 Constantine threw himself among the 
 victors, and was cut to pieces. 
 
 EATON, William, was born at Woodstock, 
 Conn., Feb. 23d, 1764. After serving in the 
 army at an early age, he prepared himself for 
 entrance into Dartmouth College. In 1792 
 he received a captain’s commission in the 
 army, and in 1797 was appointed consul for 
 Tunis. He engaged in the war with Tripoli, 
 in 1804, hoping to reinstate Hamet Bashaw 
 on the throne which had been usurped by his 
 brother. With a force of 500 men of different 
 nations, Eaton crossed the desert from Alex- 
 andria to Derne, overcoming serious obstacles. 
 Derne was taken, the Tripolitan army re- 
 pulsed, but, in the midst of triumph, Eaton 
 learned that peace had been concluded be- 
 tween the United States and Tripoli. On his 
 return to the United States, he was received 
 with great favor. Aaron Burr in vain en- 
 deavored to obtain his aid in his conspiracy, 
 and on his trial Eaton testified against him. 
 In 1811 he fell a victim to habits of intemper- 
 ance. 
 
 EBRO, a river in Spain, the scene of a sig- 
 nal defeat of the Spaniards by the French, 
 near Tudela, Nov. 23d, 1808 ; and also the 
 scene of several important movements of the 
 allied British and Spanish armies during the 
 Peninsular war, between 1809 and 1814. 
 
 ECKMUHL ; a Bavarian village on the La- 
 ber, where Napoleon severely defeated the 
 Austrians, commanded by the Archduke 
 Charles, April 22d, 1809. For his skill and 
 intrepidity in this battle Marshal Davoust had 
 his title of Prince of Eckmiihl. 
 
 ECLIPSES. The first eclipse recorded, 
 happened March 19th, 721 b.c., at 8' 40" p.m., 
 according to Ptolemy : it was lunar, and was 
 accurately observed at Babylon. The follow- 
 ing were extraordinary eclipses. 
 
 Of the sun : — That observed at Sardis (pre- 
 dicted by Thales), 585 b.c. At Athens, 424 
 B.c. A general one at the death of Christ, 
 
 a. d. 33. At Rome, caused a total darkness 
 at noon-day, a.d. 291. At Constantinople, 
 968. In France, June 29th, 1033, dark at 
 noon-day. In England, March 21st, 1140, 
 occasioned a total darkness. Another June 
 23d, 1191, entire darkness, and the stars very 
 visible at ten in the morning. In the same 
 year, the true sun, and the appearance of an- 
 other, so that astronomers alone could distin- 
 guish the difference by their glasses. Another, 
 total, 1331. A total eclipse of the sun in Eng- 
 land, when the darkness was so great, that 
 the stars faintly appeared, and the birds went 
 to roost in the morning about ten, April 22d, 
 1715. Great eclipse in the United States, 
 1806 ; another, 1811 ; another, 1831 ; another 
 in 1834. August 7, 1869, a solar eclipse was 
 visible in the United States both as partial 
 and total. It was observed from important 
 points from Alaska to the Carolinas, and the 
 results attained are of the highest value. 
 
 Eclipses of the moon. Total, observed by 
 the Chaldeans at Babylon, 721 b.c. At Syra- 
 cuse, 413 b.c. In Asia Minor, 219 b.c. At 
 Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus, 168 
 
 b. c. Another, which terrified the Roman 
 troops, and quelled their revolt, a.d. 14. 
 
 ECUADOR, a South American republic, 
 has an area of 800,000 square miles, and a 
 population of about 665,000. It is divided 
 into the three departments of Equator or 
 Quito, Guayaquil, and Assuay. The depart- 
 ment of the Equator, lying between two par- 
 allel ranges of the loftiest Andes, forms the 
 finest table plain in all America. Almost 
 ten thousand feet is it raised above the level 
 of the sea. In soil and climate, its felicity 
 nearly approaches that of the fabled golden 
 age. The clime is perpetual spring, at once 
 benign and equal, and even during the four 
 months of rain the mornings and evenings 
 are clear. V egetation never droops ; the 
 country is called the evergreen Quito; the 
 trees and meadows are clad with perpetual 
 verdure. Above this smiling valley, resting 
 as it were on its verdant hills, rise the lof- 
 tiest volcanic cones of the Andes, crowned 
 with everlasting ice ; Chimborazo, Pichincha, 
 and their gigantic fellows. In this valley 
 are found many monuments of the sway of 
 the Incas, for though their main seat of em- 
 pire was at Cuzco, Quito was one of their 
 most valued provinces. The productions 
 
 ECU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 289 
 
 are various, but the most valuable are those 
 of the temperate climates, grains, fruits, and 
 rich pasturage. The city of Quito is the 
 capital both of the department and of the 
 republic. It has four streets, broad, hand- 
 some, and well paved, and three spacious 
 squares, in which the principal dwellings are 
 situated ; but the other streets, straggling up 
 the side of Pichincha, are crooked and irreg- 
 ular. The churches and convents are built 
 with great magnificence and some taste. 
 There are a university and two colleges, 
 and Quito is considered comparatively a 
 South American Athens. The inhabitants 
 are gay, hospitable, and courteous. They 
 are fond of the sweet bits of this life, and 
 confectionery and viands are among the chief 
 products of their city. Silver and gold are 
 worked rather extensively. The population 
 of Quito is increasing, and is now about 
 80,000. 
 
 The department of Guayaquil is also very 
 fertile. The city of Guayaquil, founded by 
 Pizarro in 1538, on the bay of the same name, 
 has a population of 25,000, and with its ex- 
 cellent harbor is a flourishing commercial 
 town. Guayaquil has its plagues, like old 
 Egypt. The air swarms with musqintoes, 
 and flies that are still more tormenting ; the 
 ground teems with snakes, centipedes, and 
 other reptiles of dangerous bite. There is a 
 chameleon whose scratch is believed to be 
 mortal ; a belief which seems quite chimeri- 
 cal, but which greatly worries the citizens. 
 The ants can not be subdued: sometimes, 
 when a tart is cut up, they are seen running 
 in all directions, leaving the interior a void. 
 Then the shores are crowded with caymans 
 and alligators. Earthquakes are common, 
 as indeed in brighter Quito. And lastly, the 
 marshy nature of the site is pestilent with 
 malignant fevers. As a set-off to all this, we 
 should mention that the women of Guayaquil 
 are famous for their beauty, and their enga- 
 ging gayety and propriety of conduct. 
 
 Ecuador was discovered by Pizarro in 
 1526, and came into the hands of the Span- 
 iards at the downfall of the Peruvian empire. 
 It constituted the audencia of Quito, depend- 
 ent upon the vice-royalty of New Grenada, 
 until in 1812 the inhabitants revolted from 
 the Spanish yoke. The fierce contest ended 
 in 1823. The republic of Colombia was then 
 
 19 
 
 formed. In 1831, it fell to pieces, and Emia- 
 dor, Venezuela, and New Grenada, the states 
 composing it, have since been independent 
 republics. The Roman Catholic is the estab- 
 lished religion. The people of Ecuador are 
 composed of the descendants of Spaniards, 
 and aborigines, the latter being about three- 
 quarters of the whole number. 
 
 EDGAR, the Peaceable, a Saxon king of 
 England, son of Edred, and brother of Edwy, 
 his immediate successor. He ascended the 
 throne at the age of sixteen in 959. He 
 governed with vigor and success, and secured 
 the proper administration of justice by giv- 
 ing it his personal attention. He died in 
 974. 
 
 EDGE HILL, Battle of, between the 
 royalists and the army of parliament, Oct. 
 23d, 1642, was the first engagement of im- 
 portance in the civil war. Charles I. was 
 present. Prince Rupert commanded the 
 
 royalists, and the Earl of Essex the parlia- 
 mentarians. The Earl of Lindsay, one of 
 the king’s generals, who headed the foot, 
 was mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. 
 The royal army lost 5,000 dead on the field, 
 with vast numbers of wounded and prison- 
 ers ; but owing to the great loss on the other 
 side also, the action gave no decisive advan- 
 tage to either party, and neither could fairly 
 claim a victory. 
 
 EDGEWORTH, Maria, a pleasing author- 
 ess, born in England, Jan. 1st, 17*67, died 
 at Edgeworth’ s-town, Ireland, in May, 1849. 
 
 EDMUND II., surnamed Ironsides, King 
 of England, succeeded Ethelred his father, 
 in 1016, and reigned seven months. He was 
 defeated by Canute, who became sole mon- 
 arch of England o i his death, which is sup- 
 posed to have been caused by poison. 
 
 EDRED, son of Edward the Elder, suc- 
 ceeded to the thror e of England on the mur- 
 der of his brother, Edmund I., in 947. He 
 quelled the Danes and Northumbrians, and 
 compelled Malcolm to do homage for the 
 crown of Scotland. Yet he was priest-ridden, 
 and a slave to Dunstan, Abbot of Glaston- 
 bury. He died aXter a reign of eight years. 
 
 EDWARD, the Elder, King of England, 
 succeeded his father, Alfred the Great, in 
 901. He was successful against the Danes 
 and Welsh, and died in 925. 
 
 EDWARD, the Martyr, King of England, 
 
 EDW 
 
290 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 son of Edgar, whom he succeeded in 974, at 
 the age of fifteen. He was stabbed at Corfe 
 Castle, March 18th, 979, while hunting, by a 
 servant of Elfrida, his step-mother, who 
 wished to raise her own son, Ethelred, to the 
 throne. 
 
 EDWARD I., II., III., IV., and V., of 
 England. [See Plantagenet.] 
 
 EDWARD VI., of England. [See Tudor.] 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, an American di- 
 vine, and distinguished metaphysician, was 
 born in East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5th, 1703, 
 and was educated at Yale College. In 1758 
 he was chosen president of the college at 
 Princeton, New Jersey, where he died March 
 22d, 1758. He had previously preached at 
 New York and Northampton, and filled 
 the office of missionary among the Indians 
 at Stockbridge, Massachusetts. His “Trea- 
 tise on Religious Affections,” and his works 
 “on Free Will” and “Original Sin,” have 
 gained him a permanent reputation. 
 
 EGBERT, the last king of the Saxon hep- 
 tarchy, and the first monarch of united Eng- 
 land, was the eighteenth king of the West 
 Saxons. He was harassed by repeated inva- 
 sions of the Danes, and died in 838. 
 
 EGEDE, Hans, a celebrated missionary, 
 born in Denmark in 1686, and died in 1758, 
 having devoted himself to the sacred task of 
 spreading the light of revealed religion among 
 the Greenlanders. The dictates of duty fre- 
 quently led him to peril his life, but the con- 
 sciousness of rectitude, and the triumphs of 
 success, sweetened his toil, and shed joy 
 upon his earthly pilgrimage. 
 
 EGYPT was the most celebrated kingdom 
 of Africa, and one of the oldest nations of 
 the world. The Egyptians were early profi- 
 cients in the sciences and the liberal arts, and 
 to them men came from all civilized countries 
 for the purpose of acquiring information. 
 Some of the most celebrated of the Greeks 
 acquired a great portion of their learning in 
 Egypt. Ancient Egypt was divided into 
 Upper Egypt, or Thebais, Middle Egypt, or 
 Heptanomis, and Lower Egypt, the most val- 
 uable portion of which was the Delta. The 
 most accurate general description of Egypt 
 that we have, has been given by Volney, in a 
 single sentence. “ To describe Egypt in two 
 words, let the reader imagine, on one side, a 
 narrow sea and rocks ; on the other, immense 
 
 plains of sand ; and in the middle, a river 
 flowing through a valley of a hundred and 
 fifty leagues in length, and from three to 
 seven wide, which, at the distance of eighty 
 leagues from the sea, separates into two 
 arms, the branches of which wander over a 
 country where they meet with no obstacles, 
 and which is almost without declivity.” 
 
 The ancient Egyptians paid great attention 
 to agriculture, and availed themselves of their 
 arts to redeem vast tracts of land from the 
 waters, rendering them fertile, and adapting 
 them to tillage. In former times the region 
 which eventually received the name of Lower 
 Egypt and the Delta, was covered with water, 
 and consequently Egypt was but a limited 
 tract of land. The ancient Egyptians, not- 
 withstanding their character for wisdom and 
 learning, were grossly idolatrous, worshiping 
 animals, and regarding oxen, cats, crocodiles, 
 sheep, &c., as sacred. The advantage taken 
 of this superstitious character by Cambyses 
 is well known. Placing in front of his army 
 the animals worshiped by the Egyptians, he 
 advanced against them boldly, well aware 
 that they would not strike a blow for fear of 
 injuring the creatures they adored. 
 
 The ancient government of Egypt was the 
 subject of eulogy among all nations, and 
 legislators from various countries came to 
 Egypt to examine its institutions, in order 
 thence to gather hints for the improvement 
 of their own. The accounts which writers 
 of antiquity give of the early history of 
 Egypt are so contradictory and improbable 
 that it is needless to allude to them in pages 
 which deal with matters of fact. Menes, the 
 first king of Egypt, is said to have conferred 
 great benefits upon his subjects. He re- 
 deemed a vast extent of land from the waters, 
 was the spiritual instructor of the Egyptians, 
 introduced splendor, and founded solemn and 
 magnificent feasts. After many years of un- 
 interrupted prosperity, Egypt fell under the 
 sway of some rude adventurers who founded 
 the dynasty of the Hycsos or shepherd kings, 
 which commenced about 2048 years b.c., and 
 lasted until the year 1825 b.c., when the 
 shepherd kings were expelled. 
 
 Jacob settled in the land of Goshen, 1706 
 b.c. The children of Israel were held in 
 bondage from the death of Joseph, 1635 b.c., 
 to 1491 b.c. Their departure happened, ac- 
 
 EGY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 291 
 
 COLOSSI NEAR THEBES. 
 
 cording to some writers, during the reign of 
 Amenophis II., the Pharaoh who pursued 
 them into the Red Sea, and was overwhelmed 
 by its returning waters. It must be remem- 
 bered that Pharaoh was a title borne by all 
 the kings of Egypt in common. In 1445, 
 Lower Egypt was conquered by the Canaan- 
 ites, who fled before Joshua, when he dispos- 
 sessed them of their own country. Upper 
 Egypt was divided at this time into a great 
 number of kingdoms, which were united 
 about 1157. About 1350, Remeses or Sesos- 
 tris, king of Egypt, made rapid and exten- 
 sive conquests. The Ethiopians conquered 
 Egypt, and retained possession of it for forty 
 years. The Assyrians also conquered it, but 
 the whole of it was regained by Psammeti- 
 chus, about 660 b.c. After a prosperous 
 reign he was succeeded by Pharaoh Necho, 
 his son, 616 b.c. This monarch was con- 
 quered by the famous Nebuchadnezzar, king 
 of Babylon. Egypt was made tributary to 
 Persia by Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, 525 
 b.c. The Egyptians revolted, but were 
 again subjugated. Another revolt was suc- 
 cessful, and for a short time the Egyptians 
 enjoyed their independence, but 350 b.c., 
 Artaxerxes Ochus restored the Persian do- 
 minion. Alexander the Great, 331 b.c., com- 
 
 pelled the Egyptians to submit to his arms. 
 On the death of this great conqueror, Ptol- 
 emy, one of his generals, took possession of 
 the kingdom, 323 b.c., and founded the dy> 
 nasty of the Ptolemies, which lasted until 
 the death of Cleopatra, when Egypt became 
 a Roman province, in the year b.c. 30, and 
 the second of the reign of Augustus. • In the 
 year 640, Egypt was conquered by Am- 
 ron, general of Omar, caliph of the Saracens. 
 The library of Alexandria, which had been 
 collected with care, and contained manu- 
 scripts of immense value, was consumed by 
 the order of Omar. The Fatimites gave 
 place to the Mamelukes in 1250. These last 
 were foreign soldiers, employed by the Fati- 
 mite princes, and they held the kingdom un- 
 til conquered by Selim I., Sultan of the 
 Turks, in 1517, and made his nominal vas- 
 sals. 
 
 In 1798, the French having resolved to at- 
 tack the British possessions in India, it was 
 determined to seize upon Egypt, so that, by 
 carrying on the commerce of the East through 
 the Red Sea, the new French colony should 
 become the grand mart where all Europe 
 might be supplied with Indian articles, 
 cheaper than they could be rendered by the 
 British, while, as a military post, it could, at 
 
 EGY 
 
292 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEPIA OF 
 
 all times, transport auxiliaries to the coast 
 of Coromandel. On the 20th of May, 1798, 
 Bonaparte put to sea on board the L’ Orient 
 of 120 guns, bearing the flag of Admiral 
 Brueys, who was to take command of the 
 fleet then assembling from the different ports 
 of France, which was to consist of an arma- 
 ment containing 40,000 soldiers and 10,000 
 sailors. On the evening of the 1st of July, 
 Bonaparte made arrangements for landing at 
 Marabout. They were at a distance of about 
 three leagues from the shore ; the wind was 
 northerly, and blew with violence, and the 
 debarkation perilous and difficult; the sea 
 was covered with boats. Early in the next 
 morning, the general-in-chief landed at the 
 head of the foremost troops, who formed with 
 the greatest promptitude in the desert, about 
 three leagues from Alexandria. After some 
 slight skirmishes, he advanced and invested 
 Alexandria, where he established himself on 
 the 5th, by a capitulation of the city and for- 
 tress. Having garrisoned Alexandria, which 
 was left in the command of Kleber, the army 
 marched to Gizeh, Rosetta and other places 
 having been garrisoned by the French. Near 
 the pyramids Bonaparte found that Murad 
 Bey had assembled all his forces to oppose 
 the further progress of the French. The 
 Mamelukes, amounting to 10,000, fought 
 with desperate but unavailing courage. Part 
 of them were put to the sword or drowned 
 in the Nile, while the remnant, under the 
 conduct of Murad Bey, retreated to Upper 
 Egypt. The battle of the Pyramids was a 
 hard-fought conflict. Bonaparte entered 
 Cairo in triumph. The French troops were 
 formed into three divisions, one of which, 
 under General Dessaix, was sent to pursue 
 the fugitive Mamelukes ; the second was left 
 at Cairo ; and the third followed Ibrahim 
 Bey, who had fled, and so precipitately, that 
 he could not be overtaken. Returning to 
 Cairo, Bonaparte employed himself in ar- 
 ranging the details of the government of 
 Lower Egypt, sending garrisons, establishing 
 lazarettos, &c. 
 
 Soon after the battle of the Nile, an insur- 
 rection broke out in Cairo which Bonaparte 
 hastened to quell. When the French gained 
 their victory at Aboukir, and took the fort 
 from the enemy, their power in Egypt ap- 
 peared to be firmly established. Soon after 
 
 this, the losses of the French in Italy, and the 
 dangers which appeared to threaten France, 
 induced Bonaparte to return home, a privilege 
 granted him in the commencement, and the 
 chief command was committed to Kleber in 
 a general order dated Aug. 22d, 1799. One 
 day, Massena having asked what sort of a man 
 Kleber, of whom such various accounts had 
 been given, in reality was, Napoleon replied : 
 “ Picture to yourself a man of lofty stature, of 
 an imposing figure, the finest military man 
 you ever saw ; talented, well instructed, and 
 capable of forming a correct judgment of any 
 thing at a glance ; a man who, like you, has 
 commenced his career in a good school, the 
 infantry, and who is a good maneuverer, al- 
 though educated in Austria; but indolent, 
 excessively proud, and sarcastic. He is a 
 man, who, in time of war, by trifling and jok- 
 ing, and heaping ridicule on all with whom he 
 deals, suffers himself to go to the very edge of 
 the ditch ; when, generally, his self-love comes 
 to the rescue, his talent rallies, and he some- 
 times does very fine things, as you have been 
 told.” 
 
 The condition of the French troops becom- 
 ing every moment more critical, after various 
 conferences with Sir Sidney Smith, it was 
 agreed that after a truce of three months, the 
 French should evacuate Egypt, and accord- 
 ingly the treaty was signed at El Arish, Jan. 
 24th, 1800. Kleber wrote a letter to the 
 French directory, stating the miserable con- 
 dition of the French army, and urging the 
 ratification of the treaty of El Arish. This 
 letter,, however, fell into the hands of Admiral 
 Keith, and having been transmitted to the 
 British government, they refused to allow the 
 French any means of saving themselves, ex- 
 cept by surrendering as prisoners of war. Sir 
 Sidney Smith hastened to inform the French 
 of the views of his government. A few days 
 after, the lieutenant of the Tiger (an English 
 vessel) sent General Kleber a letter, written 
 by Admiral Keith, under date of Minorca, Jan. 
 8th, notifying to him the only conditions on 
 which the British government would recog- 
 nize the capitulation. 
 
 General Kleber, shortly before this, enslaved 
 by a secret spirit of jealousy, which perhaps 
 he dared not confess to himself, had been fol- 
 lowing blindly a fatal path in which his fame 
 was threatened. A better day arose when 
 
 EGY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 293 
 
 the honor of his nation was menaced, and the 
 French troops were perfidiously commanded 
 to lay down their arms. The discontented 
 Kleber, Kleber the humorist, instantly became 
 another man. The patriotic Frenchman, the 
 able and heroic leader, once more appeared. 
 The order of the day was conveyed by the 
 letter of Admiral Keith, and Kleber contented 
 himself with adding these words : “ Soldiers ! 
 the only reply to insolence like this is victory ! 
 Prepare to fight.” Never were soldiers better 
 prepared. Indignation ran through every 
 rank. The Turks should pay dearly for the 
 bad faith of their allies. Kleber declared that 
 he should regard the least advance on the part 
 of the Turks as a hostile movement. Disre- 
 garding this warning, Youssef Pacha, the 
 grand vizier, repaired to El Hancka with his 
 whole army. His vanguard was within two 
 leagues of Cairo. Firmans circulated in the 
 provinces, and even in Cairo itself, excited 
 the people to insurrection. Civil and religious 
 influences increased the danger of the French. 
 Time pressed ; the troops summoned by Kle- 
 ber appeared in small detachments ; but still 
 they were animated by one spirit. Ten thou- 
 sand men did not hesitate to attack an army 
 which the Turks and English themselves have 
 estimated at from forty to sixty thousand. 
 At the ancient Heliopolis, Kleber prepared for 
 combat. With a trifling loss on their part, 
 the French routed the enemy, whose killed 
 and wounded numbered 6,000. The French 
 were again in firm possession of a reconquered 
 country, and Murad Bey became their ally. 
 
 Writers who think to honor Kleber, by rep- 
 resenting him as the enemy of Bonaparte, af- 
 fect to say, that he conceived the resolution 
 of keeping Egypt, “ out of hatred to the man 
 who had usurped the sovereignty in France.” 
 To obscure the glory of him whom they ac- 
 cuse, they darken the character of the man 
 they would eulogize. They say also, with 
 very little truth, that “the talents of Kleber 
 had excited the jealousy of Bonaparte.” But 
 what points of comparison could be established 
 between them ? What victories had Kleber 
 gained to rank them with the two campaigns 
 of Italy, or the single one of Egypt ? Kleber 
 had never commanded in chief. Often had 
 the chief command been offered him, and as 
 often had he refused ; a singular trait of that 
 pride which disdains to command, and yet 
 
 will not bend to obedience. Employed in a 
 secondary rank by preference, he revenged 
 himself for this voluntary inferiority by epi- 
 grams upon the officer above him, whether 
 Beurnonville, Jourdon, or Moreau himself. 
 In Egypt his powers of sarcasm were em- 
 ployed in vain against a man who feared them 
 not. If, at a later period, he denounced Bo- 
 naparte to the directory, he had before, in a 
 frank and bold letter, denounced, if we may 
 use the expression, the directory to General 
 Bonaparte ; and this was the political confi- 
 dence of a clear-sighted man, who, beholding 
 in that general the future fortunate leader of 
 a party, predicted the fate which awaited him. 
 On his part, Napoleon, appreciating Kleber, 
 made use of him without fear, and pardoned 
 his faults in consideration of his good qualities. 
 He feared not to debase himself in making ad- 
 vances. Some reproaches addressed to Kleber 
 on the subject of his administration in Egypt 
 having wounded his feelings to such a degree 
 that he was about to leave the army, Bona- 
 parte wrote, “ On the soil of Egypt, the clouds 
 pass away in six hours : were they on my side, 
 they should dissipate in three.” This was 
 the conduct of Bonaparte toward the man 
 whose rivalry he was accused of fearing. 
 
 Kleber made many wise regulations to 
 strengthen his administration. Meanwhile 
 Europe had heard the news of the battle of 
 Heliopolis and its results. The violation of 
 national rights had yielded to the British 
 government but unsavory and bloody fruits, 
 and they could not but regard with regret the 
 destruction of a fine Ottoman army 40,000 
 strong. General Kleber, having gained, by 
 chance, minute information of the views of 
 the English, was taking a course which gave 
 general satisfaction, when the dagger of a 
 Mussulman assassin deprived the army of a 
 leader, and France of the possession of Egypt. 
 The fatal news circulated with rapidity ; grief 
 and indignation were general, and at the end 
 of some hours the criminal was seized. It 
 was proved that the murderer, Sutiman El 
 Alepi, who was sent from Gazah to Cairo, 
 was only a fanatic subaltern, who, intoxicated 
 with temporal and spiritual promises, and 
 maddened by the incendiary firmans of the 
 Turkish government, pretended to punish, in 
 the person of Kleber, the enemy of the prophet, 
 and the conqueror of the grand vizier. 
 
 EGY 
 
294 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 After the revolt of Cairo in 1798, the sheikhs 
 having come to implore the pardon of Bona- 
 parte, the latter treated with peculiar respect 
 an old man of the party, the Sheikh Sada. 
 He raised him, kissed, and embraced him. 
 When they had retired, he said to Kleber, 
 “Do jmu know that old fellow whom I hon- 
 ored so ? ” “ No,” answered Kleber. “ He is 
 
 the ringleader of the insurrection.” “The 
 deuce ! I would have shot him.” When, in 
 1800, Kleber, having retaken Cairo with an 
 armed force, exacted as a punishment an ex- 
 traordinary contribution of 4,000,000 francs, 
 this same sheikh refused to pay the sum which 
 was assessed upon him. In the first move- 
 ment of anger, Kleber gave orders to have him 
 bastinadoed, but, soon after, recollecting the 
 conduct of Bonaparte, recalled them too late. 
 When Bonaparte heard of Kleber’s death, his 
 first words were, “ This comes of the bastinado 
 administered to the Sheikh Sada.” And in 
 reality the assassin had been concealed in the 
 mosque forty days. Similar fanatics had been 
 previously sent to stab Bonaparte, but the 
 sheikhs had prevented them. 
 
 The command of the French army devolved 
 on General Menon. In 1801 the English, de- 
 termined to drive the French from Egypt, fit- 
 ted out an expedition, of which the army was 
 commanded by Sir Ralph Abercrombie, and 
 the fleet by Lord Keith. On the 23d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1801, the fleet weighed anchor, and on 
 March 1st was anchored in Aboukir Bay. On 
 the 8th they landed, and on the 18th gained 
 possession of the fort. On the 21st, General 
 Menon attacked the English, but was com- 
 pletely defeated by them after a well contested 
 engagement. During the charge of cavalry, 
 Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wound- 
 ed ; after having dispatched his aides-de-camp 
 he was alone, and some French dragoons at- 
 tacked him, threw him from his horse, and 
 attempted to cut him down. The gallant 
 general, however, sprang up and wrested the 
 sword from his antagonist, who was bayoneted 
 by a soldier of the forty-second. He died on 
 the 28th, on board Lord Keith’s ship. Gen- 
 eral Hutchinson succeeded to the command 
 and resolved to reduce Lower Egypt. By the 
 19th of April, Fort Sulien and Rosetta were 
 captured, and the British proceeded to Rha- 
 manich, where tliO French made a stand, but 
 were vanquished, and retreated toward Cairo. 
 
 On the 11th of May the army continued its 
 march, and, on the 15th, intelligence being 
 received that Belliard was in full march from 
 Cairo, Hutchinson resolved to anticipate the 
 attack. On the 16th, the Turks commenced 
 the onset. The French took post in a wood 
 of date-trees near Elmenayer, but were com- 
 pelled to retreat. The British were now 
 joined by great numbers of Arabs. The camp 
 was placed at Gizeh, and dispositions were 
 made for invading Cairo ; but the French gar- 
 rison offered to capitulate. A convention was 
 accordingly concluded on the 28th of June, 
 with certain stipulations, but Menon not ac- 
 ceding to the surrender of Alexandria, Hut- 
 chinson invested that city, with the co-opera- 
 tion of Lord Keith and Coote, which enabled 
 him to surround it, and Menon capitulated. 
 Four weeks after the evacuation of Egypt by 
 the French, the preliminaries of a treaty of 
 peace were signed at London. The Egyptians 
 were much attached to the French, and re- 
 gretted them extremely, for both Bonaparte 
 and Kleber did all in their power, during their 
 brief term of possession, to ameliorate the con- 
 dition of the country. 
 
 The Mamelukes and the Turkish pacha 
 could not agree ; scenes of blood and treach- 
 ery occurred, till at last Mehemet Ali, the pa- 
 cha, got most of the beys and their principal 
 officers into the citadel of Cairo, under pre- 
 tense of an entertainment, and massacred the 
 whole of them, March, 1811. Thus ended the 
 Mameluke power, which had ruled Egypt 
 more than four centuries. The sway of Me- 
 hemet Ali was more rational, orderly, and 
 humane than Egypt yet had had, and he did 
 much for civilization. Though nominally sub- 
 ject to the Porte, he made wide conquests 
 and rendered himself virtually independent. 
 The sultan watched his growing power with 
 increasing jealousy, and in 1832 sent a power- 
 ful army against him. The Turks were un- 
 successful, and Ibrahim Pacha, Mehemet’s son 
 and victorious general, was on the march for 
 Constantinople, when the European powers 
 interfered, and forced a peace. In 1840 the 
 sultan thinking himself strong enough, re- 
 sumed hostilities. Again the Egyptians an- 
 nihilated his armies, and again the powers of 
 Europe came to his rescue. By a treaty 
 signed July 15th, 1841, Mehemet Ali was 
 stripped of all his conquests in Asia, but the 
 
 EGY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 295 
 
 government of Egypt was insured to him as a 
 tributary to Turkey, and made hereditary in 
 his descendants. Ibrahim Pacha died Sept. 
 1st, 1848, and his father little less than a year 
 after. Abbas Pacha, a nephew of Ibrahim, 
 was made viceroy, and upon his decease in 
 1854, Said-Pacha was appointed. 
 
 Egypt is called by the Arabs Maer, by the 
 Turks El Kabit, and by the Copts Khemi. 
 Its Hebrew name was Mizr or Mizraim. It 
 comprises 200,000 square miles, which are 
 peopled by about 2,000,000 of inhabitants. 
 It is divided into three parts, Upper Egypt 
 (Said), Middle Egypt ( Vostani ), and Lower 
 Egypt (Bahari) including the Delta. The 
 only valuable portion of the land is that which 
 is watered by the Nile and its branches. The 
 cultivated part of Upper Egypt is a narrow 
 strip inclosed by ridges of mountains. The 
 Nile annually overflows its banks, leaving a 
 fertilizing mud or slime. The inundation 
 commences about the middle of June, and in- 
 creases until the latter part of August. The 
 productions of the country are maize, rice, 
 wheat, barley, sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, flax, 
 dates, &c. The inhabitants are Copts, de- 
 scendants of the original race, Arabs, Turks, 
 and Jews. 
 
 The fertility of the land, the variety of the 
 fruits, and the thousand natural advantages 
 which it possesses, might, by judicious man- 
 agement, make Egypt one of the most wealthy 
 and flourishing countries in the world. A 
 liberal government and enterprising public 
 officers would soon restore it to the rank 
 which it once held. As a commercial coun- 
 try, it possesses inestimable facilities. Bees 
 are now carefully reared, honey forming an 
 important article of trade. The verdure of 
 Upper Egypt generally withers at the end of 
 four or five months, and commences earlier 
 than in Lower Egypt. In consequence of 
 this, the Lower Egyptians collect the bees of 
 several villages, in large boats; each hive 
 having a mark by which the owner can rec- 
 ognize it. The men having charge of them 
 then commence the gradual ascent of the Nile, 
 stopping whenever they come to a region of 
 herbage and flowers. At break of day the 
 bees issue from their cells in thousands, and 
 busily collect the sweets of the flowers which 
 are spread in luxuriant profusion around them, 
 returning to their hives laden with honey, 
 
 and issuing forth again in quest of more, sev- 
 eral times in the course of the day. Thus for 
 three or four months, they travel in a land of 
 flowers, and are brought back to the place 
 whence they started, with the delicious prod- 
 uct of the sweet orange-flowers which perfume 
 the Said, the roses of Faioum, and the jessa- 
 mines of Arabia. The sugar-cane is an Egyp- 
 tian production, and one of great value ; olive 
 and fig-trees, producing the most delicious 
 fruit, are also found in abundance. The palm 
 is one of the most useful of the Egyptian trees. 
 The fruit is agreeable, and the bark, as well 
 as the leaves and rind of the fruit, yields ma- 
 terials for cordage and the sails of the boats. 
 The Mameluke javelins were made of the ribs 
 of the palm branches. 
 
 The condition of the poor people yof Egypt 
 is deplorable. The tyranny of their rulers 
 wrests from them the fruit of their hard la- 
 bors, and leaves them but a miserable suste- 
 nance which they can hardly be supposed to 
 enjoy. Rice and corn they can not eat, for 
 all that they raise must be carried to their 
 masters, who leave them for food dourra , or 
 Indian millet, of which they form a very un- 
 palatable and coarse kind of bread without 
 any leaven. With the addition of water and 
 raw onions, this is their food throughout the 
 year. They know no luxury beyond a meal 
 of the above articles improved by a little hon- 
 ey, cheese, sour milk, and dates. A shirt of 
 coarse linen dyed blue, and a black cloak, a 
 cloth bonnet, with a long red woollen hand- 
 kerchief rolled around it, form their costume. 
 
 Cairo (Kahira), the capital, has about 
 250,000 inhabitants. It was built a.d. 970, 
 and under Saladin and his successors, became 
 one of the most commercial cities of the world, 
 standing as it did midway between Europe 
 and the Indies. The discovery of the path 
 around the Cape of Good Hope, ended its 
 prosperity. Alexandria is now the commer- 
 cial city of Egypt. [See Alexandria.] Da- 
 mietta, a town some six miles from the Medi- 
 terranean, is near the site of the ancient Tha- 
 miatis. It has 28,000 inhabitants. Rosetta, 
 formerly an important port, has lost its traffic. 
 To the traveler Egypt is replete with wonder 
 and interest. He lingers among the gigantic 
 remains of ancient art and splendor, with a 
 feeling of veneration ; recalling, as he dwells 
 
 upon the spot, the busy scenes of the past, 
 EGY 
 
296 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the actors of which sleep beneath the dust of 
 centuries, their perishable remains contrasting 
 with the vast monuments of their enterprise 
 and wealth, which, not the less surely because 
 at a later period, will yet be crumbled into 
 atoms by the stern hand of time. Then, too, 
 the presence of these antique relics raises 
 visions of the troubled times of Israel, when the 
 yoke of the Pharaoh pressed heavily upon her 
 children, till they were rescued from the land 
 of bondage by the power of the Omnipotent, 
 who rolled back the strong tides of the sea to 
 let them pass. The contemplation of these 
 early scenes awakens in the well-trained mind 
 a thought of Him, of whom we know that 
 whatever be the chance or change of time, 
 though kingdoms may pass away, and cities 
 be crumbled into dust, “His word endureth 
 for ever.” [For an account of the pyramids, 
 see Wonders of the World.] 
 
 ELBA (the ancient Ilva ), a small moun- 
 tainous island in the Mediterranean, near the 
 coast of Tuscany, to which it now belongs. 
 It has an area of ninety-seven square miles, 
 a population of 20,000, and contains iron, 
 silver, loadstone, and marble. The climate 
 is mild. This island was allotted to Napo- 
 leon in 1814, on his abdication of the crown 
 of France. He quitted it February 26th, 
 1815. 
 
 ELDON, John Scott, Earl of, born at 
 Newcastle in 1751. He was a distinguished 
 common-law judge, and sat on the woolsack 
 from 1801 till 1827. He was bigotedly op- 
 posed to law reform, and is said to have shed 
 tears on the abolition of the punishment of 
 death for stealing five shillings from a dwell- 
 ing-house. He died January 13th, 1838. 
 
 EL DORADO. When the zeal for travels, 
 conquests, and discoveries in America, first 
 began to develope itself among the Spaniards 
 and other nations of Europe, those who 
 thirsted for adventure and aggrandizement 
 were not content with the actual wonders of 
 the New World, but they taxed their imag- 
 inations for the creation of realms in which 
 the splendors of fairy -land were surpassed. 
 Various circumstances contributed to add au- 
 thority and influence to these fables. The 
 tale that is oftentimes repeated generally 
 comes to be regarded as true, particularly 
 when the narrators are skillful and have 
 weighty reasons for disguising the truth. 
 
 These were not wanting with regard to the 
 fable of El Dorado, or ‘the golden region. 
 It was currently believed that somewhere in 
 Guiana, there existed a kingdom, the wealth 
 of which surpassed that of any known region 
 on the face of the globe. Along the whole 
 coast of the Spanish Main, it was believed 
 that, in the interior of the country, there ex- 
 isted a land whose importance and riches it 
 was impossible to exaggerate. These rumors 
 are said to have had reference to the kingdom 
 of Bogota and Tunja, now New Grenada. 
 What was rather singular with regard to EL 
 Dorado, was, that the nearer adventurers ap- 
 proached to it, the farther off it appeared to 
 be. The Peruvians had accounts of its ex- 
 istence in the Nuevo Beyno ; the adventurers 
 of that country believed that it existed in 
 Peru. In fact it appeared like the blessed 
 isle of Indian song, which fled the footsteps 
 of pursuers. 
 
 Imagination, however, soon supplied the 
 proper data. Tired of profitless wanderings, 
 the gold-hunters fixed upon a certain region 
 (in Guiana), as the locality of the kingdom 
 of El Dorado. Nor was it a very difficult 
 matter to make maps of the country, to 
 crowd it with lakes and rivers, to refine its 
 inhabitants, to perfect its arts, and to heighten 
 its splendor. The story ran thus. After the 
 fall of the Incas, a younger brother of Ata- 
 balipa, collecting what treasures he could lay 
 hands upon, fled to an inland country, and 
 founded a magnificent empire. This poten- 
 tate was indifferently styled the Great Pay- 
 titi, the Great Moxo, the Enim or Great Paru. 
 From interested motives, men of intelligence 
 and reputation scrupled not to confirm the 
 tales of this empire, and lend the sanction of 
 their names to the most absurd and puerile 
 fictions. Thus Sir Walter Raleigh, aware of 
 the important results of colonizing Guiana, 
 lured adventurers onward by displaying be- 
 fore them the most enticing pictures of the 
 gilded monarch and his realm. He even did 
 not hesitate to attempt to pass upon Queen 
 Elizabeth, as facts, the monstrous fables which 
 his heated mind was alone capable of receiv- 
 ing. 
 
 One unblushing impostor asserted that he 
 had himself been in Manoa, the capital of the 
 imaginary kingdom, and that in the street of 
 silversmiths, no fewer than three thousand 
 
 ELD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 297 
 
 workmen were employed. This traveler was 
 very minute in his details, and produced a 
 map which he had projected, and which was 
 marked with the situation of a hill of gold, 
 one of silver, and one of salt. The gorgeous 
 palace of the emperor was held on high by 
 magnificent and symmetrical pillars of por- 
 phyry and alabaster, and encircled by galle- 
 ries which were formed of ebony and cedar, 
 curiously wrought. About the period of Ra- 
 leigh’s first expedition, it was believed at 
 Paraguay that the court of the Great Moxo 
 had been actually discovered and visited. 
 At this time the description of the interior 
 varied a little from that which we have just 
 given. A vast lake of exquisite transpar- 
 ency and softness reflected the palace, which 
 was built upon an island in its centre. The 
 material of the edifice was snow-white marble 
 of a peculiar brilliancy. Two towers guarded 
 the entrance, standing on each side of a su- 
 perb column, which shot up to the height of 
 twenty-five feet, and bore upon its capital an 
 immense silver moon, while two living lions 
 were attached by massy chains of solid gold 
 to its pedestal. These animals, like the 
 dragons of a fairy tale, defended the entrance 
 to a place which outshone the realms of fairy- 
 land. We know not whether an acquaint- 
 ance with magic was necessary to quiet the 
 vigilance of these wild guards, or whether 
 they were well-bred creatures, disposed to 
 make allowances for the curiosity of visitors, 
 and permit them an easy entrance into the 
 palace of El Dorado. Be that as it may, 
 having passed those guards, you entered a 
 quadrangle, where you could not fail to be 
 delighted with the freshness and shade of the 
 green trees, and the fragrant coolness and 
 musical murmur of a silver fountain, which 
 gushed and gleamed through four golden 
 pipes. A small copper gate, the bolt of 
 which shot into a massy rock, hid the inte- 
 rior of the palace. This passed, the splendor 
 of the internal arrangements dazzled and de- 
 lighted. A vast altar, formed of solid silver, 
 supported an immense golden sun, before 
 which four lamps were kept perpetually burn- 
 ing. 
 
 The lord of this magnificence was called 
 El Dorado, literally ‘the gilded,’ from the 
 savage splendor of his costume, his naked 
 body being daily anointed with costly gum, 
 
 and then heaped with gold dust, until he 
 presented the appearance of a golden statue. 
 “But,” Oviedo sagely remarks, “as this kind 
 of garment would be uneasy to him while he 
 slept, the prince washes himself every eve- 
 ning, and he is gilded anew in the morning, 
 which proves that the empire of El Dorado 
 is infinitely rich in mines.” This fable had 
 its origin in the peculiar rites introduced by 
 the worship of Bochica, as the high priest of 
 this sect was accustomed, every morning, to 
 anoint his hands and face with grease, and 
 then heap them with gold dust. Another 
 custom, spoken of by Humboldt, may have 
 given rise to the romance. This eminent 
 traveler says that in the wilder parts of Gui- 
 ana, where painting the body is used instead 
 of the practice of tattooing, the Indians smear 
 their bodies with the fat of turtles, and then 
 cover them with pieces of mica of a metallic 
 lustre, brilliantly white as silver, and red as 
 copper, so that they appear robed in a gar- 
 ment covered with gold and silver embroid- 
 ery, when seen from a little distance. 
 
 Although productive of much mischief, the 
 expeditions undertaken in the hope of discov- 
 ering El Dorado did considerable service to the 
 cause of science ; and thus, by the agency of 
 fiction, many important truths were brought 
 to light. Of the different expeditions fitted 
 out in search of El Dorado, the last, incredi- 
 ble as it may seem, was set on foot as lately as 
 the year 1775. From this we may judge how 
 firm was the belief in the existence of this 
 fairy land. The earliest enterprises of this 
 nature attempted to reach the realm of the 
 Great Moxo somewhere in the direction of 
 the eastern back of the Andes of New Gre- 
 nada. The captains Anasco and Ampudia 
 were dispatched by Sebastian de Belalcazar, 
 in 1535, to discover the valley of Dorado, in 
 consequence of the flaming descriptions which 
 an Indian of Tacumga had given of the riches 
 and splendor of the Zaque, or the king of 
 Cundinamarca. Diaz de Pineda (in 1536) 
 gave rise to the idea that there were, to the 
 eastward of the Nevados of Tunguragua, Cay- 
 ambe, and Popayan, immense plains where 
 the precious metals were found in abund- 
 ance, and where gold, in particular, was so 
 plentiful, that the inhabitants converted massy, 
 plates of it into armor. 
 
 In 1539, Gonzalo Pizarro, inflamed by the 
 
 ELD 
 
298 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 account of these treasures, set forth in search 
 of them, and by chance made discovery of 
 the American cinnamon trees. Francisco de 
 Orellana set forth to reach the river of Ama- 
 zons by the Napo. Expeditions were fitted 
 out simultaneously from Venezuela, New 
 Grenada, Quito, Peru, Brazil, and the Rio 
 de la Plata, having for their sole object the 
 conquest of Dorado. The incursions to the 
 south of Guaviare, the Rio Fragua, and the 
 Caqueta, were declared to have procured 
 proof not only of the existence of the city 
 of El Dorado, but of the immense riches of 
 the Manoas, the Omaguas, and the Guaypos. 
 We discover proofs of accurate knowledge 
 and careful research in the narratives of the 
 voyages of Orellana, George von Specier, 
 Hernan Perez de Quesada, and Philip von 
 Huten, undertaken in 1536, 1542, and 1545, 
 although there is no lack of exaggeration and 
 fable likewise. Those who sought the town 
 of the Gilded Monarch directed their steps 
 to two points situated on the north-east and 
 south-west of the Rio Negro ; viz. to Parima, 
 the early abode of the Manoas, who dwelt 
 upon the banks of the Jurubesh. There ex- 
 ists now very little doubt that the whole of 
 the country lying between the Amazon and 
 Orinoco, was comprehended under the gen- 
 eral name of the provinces »of the gilded king. 
 
 The first voyage of Sir Walter Raleigh was 
 undertaken in 1595. That enterprising and 
 romantic man, who was then in high favor 
 with Queen Elizabeth, was tired of the dull 
 realities of the old world, and thirsted for 
 adventure. He embraced the idea of El Do- 
 rado with ardor, as holding out something 
 worthy of his attention. It is true that he 
 had no definite ideas about the situation of 
 the fabled kingdom, but he rushed into the 
 adventure with the enthusiasm and ardor 
 which distinguished him. He was, of course, 
 disappointed, and probably found the affair, 
 gilded king, lake, city, palace, lions, gold 
 mountains, and all, what we, in these com- 
 monplace and degenerate days, should term 
 a bubble or a hoax. Sir Walter Raleigh was 
 a courtier, well versed in the ways of the 
 world, and he cared not to endure the morti- 
 fication, on his return, of ridicule or pity for 
 the failure of the expedition. He was deter- 
 mined tc sacrifice truth to what he considered 
 expediency. Besides, he had formed the pro- 
 
 ject of colonizing Guiana, which he saw 
 would produce the happiest results, and he 
 thought that, by holding out the golden prize 
 of El Dorado, he should induce many to 
 patronize his scheme. 
 
 We shall briefly trace the course of Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, when, after having collected 
 from Antonio de Berrio, whom he took pris- 
 oner in his incursion on the island of Trinidad 
 in 1595, and others, the sum of the knowledge 
 possessed at that time upon the subject of 
 Guiana and the adjacent countries, he set 
 forth upon his celebrated expedition. He 
 then entertained no doubts of the existence 
 of the two great lakes, and the kingdom of 
 the famous Inca, which was supposed to have 
 been founded near the sources of the river 
 Essequibo. Passing the river Guavapo, and 
 the plains of Chaymas, Raleigh stopped at 
 Morequito, where he was informed by an old 
 man that there was no doubt that foreign 
 nations had entered Guiana. The cataracts 
 of Carony, a river w hich was supposed to be 
 the shortest way to Macureguari and Manoa, 
 towns situated on the banks of Lakes Cassipa 
 and Rupunuwini, or Dorado, terminated this 
 expedition. 
 
 We must be permitted to doubt almost 
 every assertion made by Raleigh with regard 
 to the results of this voyage. He was deter- 
 mined that his cause should lose nothing from 
 excessive modesty, and consequently the style 
 in which he speaks of Manoa is highly in- 
 flated. He heard of inland seas which he 
 compares to the Caspian, and of “the impe- 
 rial and golden city of Manoa.” He styles 
 the ruler of the magnificent country, “ the 
 emperor Inga of Guyana,” and says that he 
 had erected palaces of the most dazzling mag- 
 nificence, said to surpass by far the superb 
 palaces of his Peruvian ancestors. Raleigh, 
 in his endeavors to influence the queen, neg- 
 lected neither the arts of flattery nor the 
 embellishments of fiction. He says that to 
 the barbarous nations he encountered, he 
 showed the picture of the queen, at w^ljich 
 they exhibited “ transports of joy.” He as- 
 serts that he was informed that at the time of 
 the conquest of Peru, there were prophecies 
 “ in their chiefest temples,” w r hich foretold 
 the loss of the empire and the restoration of 
 the Ingas (Incas) by Englishmen. He tells 
 her majesty that the Inca w T ould probably pay 
 
 ELD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 299 
 
 yearly to England the sum of three hundred 
 thousand pounds sterling, if she would place 
 in his towns garrisons of three or four thou- 
 sand English, under pretense of defending 
 him against all enemies. “ It seeineth to 
 me,” he adds, “that this empire of Guiana 
 is reserved for the English nation.” From 
 1595 to 1 G1 Y, Raleigh made four successive 
 voyages to the lower Orinoco. These at- 
 tempts, which, however they were represented 
 in England, were well understood in South 
 America to have been fruitless, damped the 
 ardor of adventurers who had formed projects 
 for entering and conquering El Dorado. From 
 this time there appeared none of those 
 great combinations and important expedi- 
 tions which at first owed their origin to 
 W'arm chimerical ideas ; but, at the same 
 time, the golden hopes which had been awak- 
 ened did not entirely disappear, and solitary 
 enterprises were occasionally undertaken, 
 under the sanction of various provincial gov- 
 ernors. 
 
 In 1637 and 1638, Acana and Fritz, two 
 monks, severally undertook journeys to the 
 lands of the Manoas, which were thought to be 
 rife with gold, and by the magnificent accounts 
 which they put in circulation, contrived to 
 inflame anew the imaginations of adventurers. 
 Very recently it was believed that the plains 
 of Macas, to the east of the Cordilleras, con- 
 tained the ruins of Logrono, a town situated 
 in a gold region of prodigious value. In 
 1740, an idea was current that by going up 
 the river Essequibo, Dorado might be reached 
 from Dutch Guiana. The imagination of Don 
 Manuel Centurion, governor of San Thome 
 del Angostura, having been warmed by the 
 current fables of the splendid lake of Manoa, 
 the very existence of which was apocryphal, he 
 determined to set on foot some serious inves- 
 tigations. He used all his powers to awaken 
 in the minds of the colonists an ardor equal 
 to his own. An Ipurucoto Indian, by name 
 Arimuicaipi, descended the Rio Carony, and, 
 for reasons of his own, by the most bare- 
 faced impositions, induced the Spaniards to 
 believe that the tales of El Dorado hardly did 
 justice to the splendor of the country of the 
 Great Moxo. He declared that the whitish 
 light in the clouds of Magellan, in the south- 
 ern sky, was the reflection of the silvery 
 rocks around which the waves of Lake Pa- 
 
 rima swept. “ This was describing in a very 
 poetical manner,” says Humboldt, “ the splen- 
 dor of the micaceous and talcky slates of his 
 country.” 
 
 A well-meaning Indian chief, popularly 
 termed Captain Jurado, endeavored to check 
 the progress of the delusion, and tried to 
 undeceive Centurion. The adventurers em- 
 barked upon the Caura and Rio Paragua, but 
 not only were disappointed in their expecta- 
 tions, but encountered the most dreadful 
 sufferings, which occasioned the death of sev- 
 eral hundred persons. Notwithstanding the 
 disadvantageous effects of these expeditions, 
 they brought to light many important geo- 
 graphical facts. Between 1775 and 1780, 
 Nicholas Rodriguez and Antonio Santos, two 
 men noted for their enterprise, were employed 
 by the Spanish governors, and reached the 
 Uraricuera and Rio Branco, after encountering 
 many perils ; but, of course, did not attain 
 their objects. 
 
 The frequent occurrence of mica in Guiana 
 contributed to confirm the opinions of those 
 who believed it to be a region rich with gold, 
 and thus, as in many other cases, want of 
 scientific knowledge led to the most absurd 
 ideas, and the most deplorable results. The 
 peak of Mount Calitamini at sunset gleams as 
 if it were incrusted with precious metal, or 
 ornamented with a coronet of diamonds. The 
 islets of mica-slate in the Lake Amucu are 
 fabled by the natives to increase the silver 
 beams of the clouds in the southern sky by 
 their powerful reflection. Raleigh says that 
 every mountain and every stone in the for- 
 ests of Orinoco had all the sparkling brill- 
 iancy of the precious metals. Those travelers 
 who gave the most glowing descriptions of 
 the riches of Guiana and El Dorado, were 
 those who, on other subjects, made no scruple 
 of violating truth for the sake of enhancing 
 the effects of their narrations. Diego de Or- 
 daz, the famous conquistador of Mexico, in 
 1531, undertook a voyage of discovery along 
 the banks of the Orinoco. This gentleman 
 boastingly declared that he had taken sulphur 
 out of the peak of Popocatepetl, and was 
 allowed by the emperor, Charles V., to carry 
 a flaming volcano in his coat of arms. He 
 obtained a commission to rule over all the 
 country which he could subdue by his arms 
 between Brazil and the coast of Venezuela, 
 
 ELD 
 
300 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and began his voyage by the mouth of the 
 river Maranon. Here the natives displayed 
 to his admiring eyes “ emeralds as big as a 
 man’s fist.” These were doubtless no other 
 than pieces of compact feldspar, a mineral 
 found in great profusion at the mouth of the 
 river Topayas. The Indians informed Ordaz 
 that in traveling to the westward he would 
 find a mountain of emerald, but a shipwreck 
 destroyed the hopes of the party. 
 
 The Spanish adventurers firmly believed in 
 the existence of mountains composed, prin- 
 cipally if not wholly, of gold, silver, emeralds, 
 &c. Sometimes, natural appearances, easily 
 explained, gave rise to these illusions, but 
 frequently there was no foundation whatever 
 for the belief. Acunha says that north of 
 the junction of the Curuputuba and Amazon, 
 the immense mountain of Paraguaxo, when 
 the rays of the sun fell upon it, displayed the 
 most beautiful colors, emitting from time to 
 time tremendous bellowings. The Indians, 
 who were accustomed to fasten upon their 
 skins gold spangles and powder, informed the 
 Spaniards that they obtained it by tearing 
 up the grass and earth in a certain plain, and 
 washing it. But it is possible that what was 
 imagined to be gold, was no other than mica, 
 which the natives of Rio Caura are said still 
 to use by way of ornamenting their bodies, 
 and heightening the effect of their painting. 
 
 In tracing the progress of the famous delu- 
 sion of El Dorado, we can not fail to be sur- 
 prised at the credulity of some adventurers, 
 and the audacity of others. The expedition 
 of Sir Walter Raleigh was without doubt the 
 most important undertaken, and the influence 
 which it exerted was beneficial in deterring 
 men from making those combined efforts 
 which could not have failed in terminating 
 ruinously. We cpi not doubt that Raleigh 
 was himself grossly deceived, nor that he 
 endeavored to practice upon others the impo- 
 sition from which he had himself suffered. 
 It is poor excuse to say that he misrepre- 
 sented things for a good end. The following 
 is briefly his own description of Guiana. 
 “ The empire of Guiana is directly east from 
 Peru toward the sea, and lieth under the 
 equinoctial line, and it hath more abundance 
 of gold than any part of Peru, and as many 
 or more great cities than ever Peru had when 
 it flourished most. It is governed by the 
 
 same laws, and the emperor and people ob- 
 serve the same religion, and the same form 
 and policies in government, as was used in 
 Peru, not differing in any part ; and as I have 
 been assured by such of the Spaniards as 
 have seen Manoa, the imperial city of Guiana, 
 which the Spaniards call El Dorado, that for 
 the greatness, the riches, and for the excel- 
 lent seat, it far exceedeth any of the world, 
 at least of so much of the world as is known 
 to the Spanish nation. It is founded upon a 
 lake of salt water of two hundred leagues 
 long, like unto Mare Caspium (the Caspian 
 Sea) ; and if we compare it to that of Peru, 
 and but read the report of Francisco Lopez, 
 and others, it will seem more than credible.” 
 Raleigh repeats the wonderful stories told of 
 Manod by Martinez, a Spaniard who informed 
 him that he had spent seven months in the 
 empire, and who first gave it the name of 
 El Dorado. Martinez gave by no means a 
 flattering character to the inhabitants of Gui- 
 ana, who, he said, were a set of inveterate 
 drunkards. According to him, at times of 
 solemn festival, the higher officers of the 
 empire caroused with the king. All who 
 pledged him were stripped, and having their 
 bodies anointed with a costly balsam, the 
 servants of the emperor blew gold dust upon 
 them, making use for this purpose of certain 
 hollow canes or reeds. Then glittering from 
 head to foot, they sat down by twenties and 
 hundreds, and drank sometimes for six or 
 seven days. Martinez says that he named 
 the empire El Dorado on account of the quan- 
 tity of gold which he found in the temples, 
 and throughout the city ; plates, armor, and 
 shields being formed of the precious metal. 
 
 Raleigh speaks of a race whose heads did 
 not appear above their shoulders, and adds, 
 “ Though it may be thought a mere fable, yet 
 for mine own part I am resolved it is true.” 
 “They are called Ewaipanoma. They are 
 reported to have eyes in their shoulders, and 
 their mouths in the middle of their breasts, and 
 that a long train of hair groweth backward 
 between their shoulders.” These people, 
 however, were not pretended to be the in- 
 habitants of the empire of the gilded king. 
 
 Though we can not fail to regret the waste 
 of labor and life which the fable of El Dora- 
 do caused, yet it must be confessed that it 
 led to many scientific discoveries. But while 
 
 ELD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 301 
 
 many facts were brought forward, they were 
 so mixed up with fables, defying almost all 
 attempts to separate the evil from the good, 
 that we can not be much surprised at the 
 erroneous ideas which prevailed up to a very 
 late period. The penetration and knowledge 
 of the nineteenth century have dissipated 
 the golden clouds which overhung the haunt- 
 ed region of Guiana, and the great Moxo, by 
 common consent, is for ever banished to the 
 dreamed realms of fiction. 
 
 ELEUSIS was anciently, next to Athens, 
 the principal city of Attica. It was here 
 that the festivals of Ceres, the goddess of na- 
 ture, termed the Eleusinian Mysteries, were 
 secretly celebrated once a year, in her tem- 
 ple, which was surrounded by high walls. 
 The manner of their celebration is unknown. 
 They were esteemed the holiest and most 
 venerable of the religious ceremonies of 
 Greece, and were abolished by Theodosius 
 the Great, a.d., 389. 
 
 ELGIN, Thomas Bruce, Earl of Elgin and 
 Kincardine, was British ambassador to Tur- 
 key. He is celebrated by the collection of 
 marbles bearing his name, consisting chiefly 
 of the frieze and pedimeftt of the Parthenon. 
 They were purchased of him by the govern- 
 ment for £36, 000, .and placed in the British 
 Museum, 1816. He died in 1840. 
 
 ELIO, Francisco Xavier, a Spaniard who 
 opposed Napoleon in Spain, and the revolu- 
 tionists in South America. On the restora- 
 tion of Ferdinand VII., of Spain, he declared 
 himself in favor of absolute monarchy, and 
 committed many atrocities in putting down 
 liberal principles. The revival of the consti- 
 tution of Cadiz put an end to his career. He 
 was tried for exciting a movement in favor 
 of absolute monarchy, and put to death, 
 Sept. 3d, 1822. 
 
 ELIOT, John, a native of England, was 
 born in 1604, and was educated at Cam- 
 bridge. He came to America in 1631, and 
 acted as minister of the church in Roxbury, 
 Massachusetts. He mastered the Indian 
 language, and published an Indian Bible and 
 grammar, and was indefatigable in preaching 
 the gospel to the savages. The great apostle 
 and friend of the Indians died May 20th, 
 1690. His works were voluminous. 
 
 ELIOT, George Augustus, Lord Heath- 
 field, was born at Stubbs, in Scotland, in 
 
 1718, and educated at Leyden, after which 
 he entered into the Prussian service. Hav- 
 ing returned to Scotland, he joined, in 1733, 
 the corps of engineers, and afterward be- 
 came adjutant to a corps of horse-grena- 
 diers, in which capacity he distinguished 
 himself at Dettingen, where he was wound- 
 ed. In this regiment he rose to the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel; and, in 1757, was ap- 
 pointed to the command of a regiment of 
 light-horse, which he had himself raised. 
 On his return from Germany, he was sent to 
 Havana, and, at the peace, the king conferred 
 on his regiment the title of “royal.” In 
 1775, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 in Ireland, and was soon after made governor 
 of Gibraltar, which fortress he bravely de- 
 fended against the great siege of the com- 
 bined forces of France and Spain. He died 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle, July 6th, 1790. He never 
 indulged in the pleasures of the table, his 
 food consisting of vegetables and water. 
 Ever vigilant and active, he never slept more 
 than four hours at a time. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Queen. [ See Tudor.] 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROWNA, Empress of 
 Russia. [ See Romanoff.] 
 
 ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Baron, 
 was born in 1748, at Great Salkeld, in Cum- 
 berland. His father was Bishop of Carlisle. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and early ad- 
 mitted to the bar. He was counsel for War- 
 ren Hastings in 1785, assisted by Plomer and 
 Dallas, and his client was acquitted. His 
 fortune was now fixed. In 1801 he was 
 made attorney general, and the following 
 year succeeded Lord Kenyon, as lord-chief- 
 justice of the king’s bench, and was created 
 baron. He died Dec. 13th, 1818. His son 
 has been a prominent statesman, was gover- 
 nor-general of India from 1842 to 1844, and 
 raised to the rank and title of Earl of Ellen- 
 borough. 
 
 ELLERY, William, one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 at Newport, R. I., Dec. 22d, 1727, and edu- 
 cated at Harvard College. He became a suc- 
 cessful lawyer in Newport, won the esteem 
 of his fellow-citizens, and was elected to 
 congress in 1 776. He served in that body until 
 1785, when he was appointed commissioner 
 of loans and chief-justice of the superior 
 court of Rhode Island. He was appointed 
 
 ELL 
 
302 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 by Washington the first collector of customs 
 for Newport, held the office thirty years, 
 and died February 15th, 1820, aged ninety- 
 two. 
 
 ELLIOT, Stephen, an American botanist, 
 and man of letters, was born at Beaufort, 
 S. C., in 1771, and educated at Yale College. 
 He early devoted his attention to natural 
 history. As a member of the state legisla- 
 ture, he was distinguished for patriotism, 
 learning, and ability. He was president of 
 the state bank, member of several literary 
 and scientific societies, and editor of the 
 Southern Review , and he received the degree 
 of LL.D. from Yale College. He died in 
 the early part of 1830. 
 
 ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, the ‘ Corn Law Rhym- 
 er,’ was born of humble parentage near 
 Sheffield, England, March 25th, 1781. His 
 youth was passed in toil, but in manhood he 
 acquired a competency in the iron trade. 
 The laws taxing breadstuffs he indignantly 
 assailed, and his “Corn Law Rhymes” did 
 good service in raising the tempest which 
 swept them away. He was more, however, 
 than a political song-writer, and the milder 
 outpourings of his muse occupy a high place 
 in the popular poetry of England. He died 
 December 1st, 1849. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Oliver, was born at Wind- 
 sor, Connecticut, April 29th, 1745. He was 
 the son of a farmer, and devoted his early 
 years alternately to literature and agricul- 
 ture. He was educated at Yale and Prince- 
 ton, the former of which Colleges he entered at 
 the age of seventeen, and was admitted to the 
 bar, after the usual preparatory study, in 
 1771, in the county of Hartford, Connecticut, 
 and was appointed state attorney. An ar- 
 dent friend of freedom, he served in the revo- 
 lutionary army, w?s a member of the general 
 assembly of Connecticut, and a delegate to 
 the congress of the United States. He was 
 made member of the council and judge of the 
 superior court of his native state, assisted in 
 framing the federal convention, was chosen 
 senator in the first congress, and held his 
 seat throughout Washington’s administra- 
 tion. He was appointed chief-justice of the 
 United States on the resignation of Mr. Jay, 
 and was one of the envoys sent to France in 
 1799, to procure the adjustment of the differ- 
 ences which threatened a very serious ter- 
 
 mination. Having returned to his native 
 state, he died Nov. 26th, 1807. 
 
 ELLWOOD, Thomas, an eminent member 
 of the society of Friends ; he joined the so- 
 ciety at twenty-one, and became as a preacher 
 and writer, one of their most efficent members, 
 to his death, 1713, in his seventy -fourth year. 
 He was the pupil and friend of Milton, and one 
 of those who read to the poet when blind. 
 
 EMANUEL, the Great, King of Portugal, 
 ascended the throne in 1495. During his 
 reign the discoveries and exploits of Portu- 
 guese navigators and commanders opened 
 the wealth of America and the East Indies 
 to Portugal. Everything seemed to flourish, 
 and the period merited the title which was 
 given it, the golden age of Portugal. Eman- 
 uel died Dec. 13th, 1521. He acquired one 
 renown by his expulsion of the Moors, and 
 another by his patronage of men of letters. 
 
 EMMET, Robert, the son of a physician 
 at Cork, was born in 1782. Ireland was in 
 a fevered state, and young Emmet became a 
 leading spirit among those who dreamed of 
 Erin’s freedom and independence. The ris- 
 ing he planned was abortive. He was con- 
 victed of treason, and executed September 
 20th, 1803. 
 
 EMMET, Thomas Addis, brother of Rob- 
 ert, born in .Cork, Ireland, 1765. He was 
 designed for the medical profession, but the 
 death of his elder brother, a member of the 
 bar, induced him to turn his attention to the 
 study of the law. He pursued it with suc- 
 cess and commenced practice in Dublin. In 
 1795, Emmet joined the association of United 
 Irishmen, and was arrested March 12th, 1798. 
 He was imprisoned for a long time in Fort 
 George, in the county of Nairn, Scotland, 
 but with his wife, who had shared his con- 
 finement, having been finally liberated, he 
 came to New York in November, 1804. Em- 
 met here successfully practiced law, and in 
 1812 was appointed attorney-general of the 
 state of New York. He died in the sixty- 
 third year of his age, Nov. 14th, 1827, dur- 
 ing the trial of an important case. In pri- 
 vate life he was beloved, and in public es- 
 teemed and respected. 
 
 ENGHIEN, Battle of. Fought by the 
 British under William III., and the French 
 under Marshal Luxembourg, who were victo- 
 rious, Aug. 3d, 1692. William had put him- 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 303 
 
 seif at the head o A the confederated army in 
 the Netherlands, and leagued himself with 
 the Protestant powers upon the continent 
 against the ambition of Louis XIV.; and in 
 the end he triumphed. Enghien is a small 
 town in the Flemish province of Hainault. 
 A victory gained here by the great Conde, 
 first gave the ducal title to a prince of the 
 house of Bourbon-Conde. 
 
 ENGHIEN, Louis Antoine Henri de Bour- 
 bon, Duke of, born at Chantilly, Aug. 2d, 
 1772, was the son of Louis Henry Joseph 
 Conde, Duke of Bourbon, a descendant of 
 the great Conde. He served in various cam- 
 paigns, and particularly distinguished him- 
 self under his grandfather. In 1804 he went 
 to Ettenheim, incog, and married the Prin- 
 cess Charlotte de Rohan Rochefort. At this 
 time the life of Bonaparte was threatened, 
 and the English, in particular, hinted at his 
 probable assassination. The Due d’Enghien, 
 having fallen under suspicion, was arrested 
 at Ettenheim, in the neutral territory of 
 Baden, brought to Vincennes at midnight, 
 tried with much informality by a military 
 court, condemned to death, and shot by 
 torchlight the next morning, March 20th, 
 1304; the whole affair having been conduct- 
 ed, to say the least,, with ungenerous haste. 
 No other action of Napoleon’s has excited 
 so much discussion as this. Some writers 
 have laid the whole blame of the transaction 
 upon the emperor, and others endeavor to 
 free him altogether from the charge. An ac- 
 tual conspiracy, supported by English money, 
 had been discovered at Paris, that of Georges. 
 The same spirit which had sent Georges 
 from London to France, was to be found in 
 the cabinet of all the British embassies in 
 Germany. Peculiar circumstances induced 
 M. Real, then chief of the police, to send a 
 trusty agent to find out whether the Due d’ 
 Enghien was always at Ettenheim, and what 
 were his relations and his habits. An officer 
 of the gendarmery was intrusted with this 
 mission, and this was the foundation of all the 
 evil. On his way to Strasburg, this officer 
 heard it mentioned as a notorious fact, that 
 the Due d’Enghien was in the habit of at- 
 tending the theatre in that cit} r . The spy 
 sent to Ettenheim reached it with prejudices 
 which the least indications would increase. 
 He learned that there were emigrants in the 
 
 neighborhood of the Due d’Enghien, that he 
 invariably gave them the warmest reception 
 when they visited him, and that the duke 
 was frequently absent for days at a time. It 
 appeared afterward that from time to time, a 
 passion for hunting kept the duke for several 
 successive days in the mountains of the Black 
 Forest. This was not all. The imperfect 
 pronunciation of the Germans led the officer 
 to suppose that an obscure person in the 
 suite of the duke, a M. de Thumery, was no 
 other than General Dumouriez. The union 
 of these particulars alarmed the officer, who, 
 with more zeal than truth, created fearful 
 phantoms out of innocent appearances. The 
 judgment of the first consul was obscured 
 by the rapidity with which his imagination 
 moved, causing him to take for incontestable 
 facts, stories which had but vague conjecture 
 for their foundation. Thus he soon arrived 
 at his conclusions. “ In sixty hours one can 
 come from Strasburg to Paris. It requires 
 but five days to go and return. The un- 
 known personage [afterward proved to be 
 Pichegru], who was received with so much 
 respect by Georges, is the Due d’Enghien. 
 The duke is the prime mover of the conspir- 
 acy, the soul of it, at least one of the first 
 accomplices.” These were the ideas which 
 presented themselves to the first consul, and 
 it must be confessed that the supposed pres- 
 ence of Dumouriez at Ettenheim was a cir- 
 cumstance of weight. The fact, if it had 
 been true, and Bonaparte believed it to be 
 so, would have added to the suspicions of 
 which the Due d’Enghien was the subject. 
 
 But here it may be objected that these sus- 
 picions were without foundation, and that the 
 first consul ought to have known it, because 
 the charge de affaires at Carlsruhe wrote 
 that the duke was leading the most quiet 
 and retired life at Ettenheim. It will be con- 
 ceded that his objection has little force ; for 
 might not the Due d’Enghien be concerned 
 in the conspiracies against Bonaparte, have 
 an understanding with the emigrants in his 
 neighborhood, entertain Dumouriez in his 
 train, either under his own or another name, 
 and yet find no occasion to change the exter- 
 nal and regular order of his life ? 
 
 There was another cause which acted upon 
 the determination of the first consul. The 
 conspiracy against the first consul was ma- 
 
 ENG 
 
304 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tured in England, but its branches spread in 
 every direction. In England, conspirators 
 were pensioned ; in Austria, battalions were 
 raised. On one side, were plots ; on the 
 other, conspiracies : danger was everywhere, 
 and perils were daily augmenting. How 
 could the first consul imagine that the Due 
 d’Enghien, a prince of the house of France, 
 an officer of the English army, was ignorant 
 bf the preparations which were on foot ? In 
 the eyes of Bonaparte the cabinets of London 
 and Vienna acted in concert. How could he 
 persuade himself that a Bourbon, placed at 
 Ettenheim, should refuse to participate in the 
 association ? Sir Walter Scott himself believed 
 that the duke was established at Ettenheim 
 for the purpose of putting himself at the 
 head of the royalists in that quarter, or of 
 presenting himself, if affairs required it, to 
 those of Paris. The discussion between Aus- 
 tria and France had come almost to menaces. 
 On the 9th of March Bonaparte addressed to 
 the Emperor of Germany a summons to ex- 
 plain himself. On the 10th was given the 
 fatal order relative to the Due d’Enghien. 
 Who can say that these two ideas were stran- 
 gers to each other ? That the greatness of the 
 perils which surrounded Bonaparte did not 
 contribute to the violence of the means which 
 he employed to oppose them, and make his 
 enemies tremble? Who would venture to 
 assert that Austria, always so intimately con- 
 nected with England, had no knowledge, not 
 assuredly of the plots of assassination, but of 
 the various hostile plans employed against 
 the first consul, and did not hold herself in 
 readiness to yield to the current of events ? 
 In the midst of these circumstances, the re- 
 ports of the agent sent to Ettenheim were 
 submitted to the first consul. Instantly a 
 fearful resolution was taken, and the order 
 given for the seizure of the duke. 
 
 How was this resolution taken ? Was it the 
 result of a sudden movement on the part of 
 Bonaparte, or was it determined by the delib- 
 erations of a council? The orders for the 
 minister of war were dictated at ten in the 
 evening, by the first consul, on issuing from 
 a cabinet conference at which were present 
 the two consuls, Talleyrand, the chief-justice, 
 and Fouche, who was then only a senator. 
 Had they been assembled by special convoca- 
 tion, or by chance!" This is of little conse- 
 
 quence. But what passed at this conference ? 
 It is here the interpretations of jealousy and 
 hate begin. Is it true, as some memoirs have 
 asserted, that the minister of foreign affairs, 
 after a report upon the general state of Eu- 
 rope, concluded by counseling the violation 
 of a neutral territory ? Is it true, as some 
 have asserted, that Fouche, in order to create 
 embarrassment, and make himself necessary 
 in that post which he had formerly occupied, 
 warmly advocated a measure which he would 
 soon be the first to denounce ? Is it true that 
 the opposition of Cambaceres to the seizure 
 of the duke upon a neutral territory, drew 
 down upon him the famous apostrophe of 
 Bonaparte, “You have become very avari- 
 cious of the blood of the Bourbons ?” 
 
 Bonaparte might have said: “The Bour- 
 bons have sworn to destroy me, they have 
 devoted my heart to the steel of their satel- 
 lites, they have willed my assassination. 
 W ell : let them tremble in turn ! I can also 
 assassinate. I have only to stretch forth my 
 hand to seize one of them. I will seize him, 
 I will destroy him, and they shall feel that 
 they can no longer attempt my life with im- 
 punity.” Perhaps, “in the very whirlwind 
 of his passion,” an infernal spirit, in order to 
 strengthen him, may have whispered cool 
 reflections: “The divorce between France 
 and the eldest branch of the Bourbons seems 
 definitive. The state of inaction to which the 
 princes of this branch have been condemned 
 has destroyed all sympathy between them and 
 heroic France. The name of Conde, oi\the con- 
 trary, recalls more vividly the glory of arms. 
 It recalls even the last wars. The grandfather 
 and the grandson have fought among the 
 brave against the brave. There is here a pos- 
 sibility of reconciliation, a germ of sympathy. 
 It is this branch which I must destroy, even 
 to the last shoot. It will be a crime, a great 
 crime, but a state crime, a political crime. 
 It will spread consternation in France even 
 among my most devoted friends ; it will stu- 
 pefy all Europe ; but only for a moment ; for 
 to-morrow, other occurrences will concentrate 
 the attention of all Europe; to-morrow it 
 will be apprised of the new crimes of Eng- 
 land, and the death of the Due d’Enghien 
 will be lost in the various events which 
 fortune seems to prepare expressly for the 
 purposes of concealment and oblivion.” 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 305 
 
 On the 15th of March the Due d’Enghien 
 was seized at Ettenheim and brought to Stras- 
 burg. From Strasburg he was, on the 18th, 
 transferred to Paris, where he arrived the 
 20th, and thence was sent to the castle of 
 Vincennes. The governor of Paris appointed 
 a council of war, which assembled in the 
 night. The prince was condemned to death, 
 and the sentence was immediately executed. 
 In a proceeding dictated by policy, legal for- 
 malities are rarely observed. They were not 
 in the present case. The prisoner of St. 
 Helena continually justified himself by say- 
 ing that the prince was tried “by a compe- 
 tent tribunal.” The competence of the tri- 
 bunal is a very doubtful matter ; but could 
 it be settled according to the wishes of Na- 
 poleon, there would still remain in this affair 
 the infraction of the laws which protect the 
 accused. The duke had no defender. Napo- 
 leon, it is true, has said, “ If guilty, the 
 commission did right in condemning him to 
 death. If innocent, it should have acquitted 
 him, for no order can justify the conscience 
 of a judge.” What a lesson for magistrates, 
 for commissions or counsels of war, which 
 should be tempted to make the scales of jus- 
 tice move in accordance with the interests or 
 the passions of governments. 
 
 ENGLAND is thus described by her great- 
 est poet : 
 
 “ This other Eden ; demi-paradise ; 
 
 This fortress built by Nature for herself, 
 
 Against infection and the hand of war; 
 
 This happy breed of men, this little world ; 
 
 This precious stone set in the silver sea, 
 
 Which serves it in the office of a wall, 
 
 Or as a moat defensive to a house, 
 
 Against the envy of less happier lands ; 
 
 This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this Eng- 
 land ; 
 
 This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land, 
 Dear for her reputation throughout the world.” 
 
 England, which with Wales is no larger 
 than the state of Georgia, stretches by an 
 illusion to the dimensions of an empire. The 
 innumerable details, the crowded succession 
 of towns, cities, cathedrals, castles, and great 
 and decorated estates, the number and power 
 of the trades and guilds, the military strength 
 and splendor, the multitudes of rich and of 
 remarkable people, the servants and equipa- 
 ges, — all these, catching the eye, and never 
 allowing it to pause, hide all boundaries by 
 20 
 
 the impression of magnificence and endless 
 wealth. To see England well needs a hund- 
 red years : it is stuffed full with towns, 
 towers, churches, villas, palaces, hospitals, 
 and charity houses. In the history of art, 
 it is a long way from a cromlech to York 
 Minster ; j^et all the intermediate steps may 
 still be traced in this all-preserving island. 
 The climate is warmer by many degrees 
 than that to which it is entitled by latitude. 
 Neither hot nor cold, Charles II. said “it in- 
 vited men abroad more days in the year and 
 more hours in the day than another country.” 
 The frequent rain keeps the many rivers 
 full, and brings agricultural productions up 
 to the highest point. England has plenty of 
 water, of stone, of potter’s clay, of coal, of salt, 
 and of iron. The land naturally abounds 
 with game ; immense heaths and downs are 
 paved with quails, grouse, and woodcock, and 
 the shores are animated by water-fowl. The 
 rivers and the surrounding sea spawn with 
 fish. There is the drawback of the darkness 
 of the sky : the London fog sometimes jus- 
 tifies the epigram on the climate, “ In a fine 
 day, looking up a chimney; in a foul day, 
 looking down one.” England is anchored at 
 the side of Europe, and right in the heart of 
 the modern world. The sea, which accord- 
 ing to Virgil divided the poor Britons utterly 
 from the world, proves to be the ring of mar- 
 riage with all nations. As America, Europe, 
 and Asia lie, these Britons have precisely 
 the best commercial position in the world. — • 
 Emerson. 
 
 Britain is a miniature of Europe. She has 
 her mountains, Snowdon in Wales, Hclvellyn 
 and Skiddaw in Cumberland, the Highlands 
 in Scotland. She has her lakes, the smiling 
 meres of England, the crystal lochs that mir- 
 ror Ben Nevis and Ben Lomond and their 
 brethren. She has the picturesque dales and 
 caves of Derbyshire, the fair plains of War- 
 wickshire, and Surrey, and Bucks, and indeed 
 throughout the realm. In Westmoreland 
 and Cumberland, she has a pocket Switzer- 
 land. Her mines in Cornwall, and Stafford- 
 shire, and Northumberland, and so on, furnish 
 all the great ores, iron, coal, lead, tin, copper. 
 Her quarries are not exhausted by far. Her 
 soil yields bounteous harvests. Her manu- 
 factures bring all nations in her debt. Her 
 commerce exceeds that of any other people, 
 
 ENG 
 
306 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 and she is the grand mart for the globe. The 
 keels of her merchantmen furrow all the seas, 
 and the smoke of her steamers darkens almost 
 every maritime sky ; steamers and merchant- 
 men plying between her and her colonial 
 possession's that invest the world. 
 
 England, Scotland, and Wales form the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain. The sur- 
 face of the whole island is about 89,644 
 square miles : of which England contains 
 50,922, Scotland 31,824, and Wales 7,398. 
 The population in 1861 was 23,570,245: 
 of which England and Wales had 20,061,725, 
 and Scotland 3,061,329, [See Scotland, 
 Wales.] England is divided into for- 
 ty-one counties: Northumberland, Cumber- 
 land, Durham, Yorkshire, Westmoreland, 
 Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire or Salop, 
 Herefordshire, Monmouthshire, Nottingham- 
 shire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicester- 
 shire, Rutlandshire, Northamptonshire, War- 
 wickshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, 
 Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, 
 Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridge- 
 shire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Hertfordshire, 
 Middlesex, Surry, Kent, Sussex, Berkshire, 
 Wiltshire, Hampshire or Hants, Dorsetshire, 
 Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall. 
 There are several islands which pertain to 
 England, those of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, 
 and the smaller ones adjacent. 
 
 London has separate mention in pages be- 
 yond. The second city in England is Man- 
 chester in Lancashire; population in 1861, 
 338,346. It is surrounded by some of the 
 best coal strata in England, a circumstance to 
 which it owes in no small degree its prosper- 
 ity. It has also reaped ample reward from 
 the system of canals, which here had their 
 origin with Brindley and his patron, the Duke 
 of Bridgewater. [See Brindley, Canals.] 
 In the time of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., 
 the town was busy with manufactures. The 
 enormities of Alva in the Netherlands, and 
 afterward the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 brought many enterprising and skillful 
 foreigners hither. At first the woolen was 
 the only branch of trade, but since the middle 
 of the last century, the cotton has nearly su- 
 perseded it. The series of brilliant inventions 
 and discoveries applied, improved, or origin- 
 ated in or about Manchester, comprising the 
 steam-engine, the spinning-jenny, the mule, 
 
 &c., have greatly helped the development of 
 industrial power. At Manchester was one of 
 the principal altars of the Druids, and as its 
 name betokens, it was a station of the Romans. 
 Liverpool, on the river Mersey in Lancashire, 
 next to London, is the greatest port of Great 
 Britain; population in 1861, 443,874. It was 
 but a small fishing village, until in 1172, its 
 favorable situation and its convenient harbor 
 caused Henry II. to make it the place of ren- 
 dezvous and embarkation of his troops for the 
 conquest of Ireland. In 1700 it had only 
 5,000 inhabitants. Soon it began to send 
 hardwares, cutlery, and woolens to the coast 
 of Africa ; there these were bartered for ne- 
 groes, which were borne to the West Indies 
 and exchanged for sugar and rum, laden with 
 which the ships came back ; and thus Liver- 
 pool grew to its wealth and the grandeur of 
 commerce. It is the great emporium of 
 American trade. The first great railway in 
 England was that connecting Liverpool with 
 Manchester. At its opening, July 80th, 1829, 
 Mr. Huskisson was knocked down by one of 
 the engines, which went over his thigh and 
 mortally injured him. Bristol (between the 
 shires of Gloucester and Somerset, and a 
 county in itself) had a population of 154,093 
 in 1861. Sebastian Cabot was a native of the 
 town, and its merchants entered with spirit 
 into American explorations and colonizing. 
 From the twelfth to the eighteenth century, 
 Bristol ranked next to London, as the most 
 populous, commercial, and flourishing town 
 in the kingdom ; but of late it has declined, 
 and been exceeded in these respects b} r Liver- 
 pool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, and 
 Glasgow. Bath, the chief town of Somer- 
 setshire, lies about one hundred and seven 
 miles west of London, and is situated on 
 the river Avon, in a narrow valley. Its 
 hilly environs are pleasant, and open on the 
 north-west into beautiful and wide meadow- 
 lands. The population, in 1851, was 54,240.. 
 Its hot springs were highly esteemed by the 
 Romans, who built extensive baths here. It 
 was the most fashionable watering-place of 
 England in the last century. Bathing, how- 
 ever, is far from being a practice of the inhab- 
 itants. One of the greatest manufacturing 
 towns in the kingdom is Birmingham in War- 
 wickshire; population in 1861, 295,955. It 
 was early the seat of mechanical industry, 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 '307 
 
 and when the Stuarts and their adherents 
 came back with a fondness for metal orna- 
 ments, acquired during their long residence j 
 in France, Birmingham took the lead in mak- | 
 ing the glittering trinkets which the exotic 
 taste demanded. Burke called it the toy-shop 
 of Europe, but its chief wares are now of a 
 more useful order. Plated ware, hardware, 
 fire-arms, buttons, japanned ware, glass, steel 
 pens, nails, pins, &c., are largely made. 
 Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire (pop- 
 ulation in 1861, 207,153), is the centre and 
 mart of a great woolen and linen district, in 
 which it is rivaled by the neighboring town 
 of Bradford, population, 106,218. Sheffield, 
 also in the West Riding (population in 1861, 
 185,157), is known the world over for its cut- 
 lery. Here also the process of silver-plating, 
 and the composition called Britannia metal, 
 were invented, and they are still a great 
 branch of industry. Hull, or Kingston-upon- 
 Hull, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, is a 
 seaport of 99,000 inhabitants, once largely in- 
 terested in whaling, and now engaged in ex- 
 tensive commerce with the Baltic. Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne, the chief town of Northumberland, 
 is the seat of extensive chemical, glass, iron, 
 and lead manufactures, but its chief business 
 is the shipment of coals, the produce of the 
 surrounding collieries. Southampton, in 
 Hampshire (population 86,000), is now the 
 largest packet port in the kingdom. It was 
 founded by the Anglo-Saxons. It was an- 
 ciently a place of great trade, largely exporting 
 wool and tin, but it declined very much when 
 the export of wool was prohibited. During 
 the last century its prosperity began to re- 
 vive, and it is still in the ascendant. 
 
 The government of England is a limited or 
 constitutional monarchy, the sovereign power 
 residing in three estates, king, lords, and 
 commons. These three estates constitute the 
 parliament, and their concurrence is necessary 
 for enacting, annulling, or altering any law. 
 The house of lords consists of the temporal 
 peers of England, the elective peers of Scot- 
 land and Ireland, the bishops of England, and 
 four Irish prelates who sit by rotation of ses- 
 sions. This house is the supreme court of 
 appeal for Great Britain and Ireland. The 
 house of commons now consists of 656 mem- 
 bers: 469 from England, 29 from Wales, 53 
 from Scotland, and 105 from Ireland. The 
 
 administration is intrusted by the sovereign 
 to certain great officers of state, usually from 
 twelve to fourteen, who form the cabinet. 
 The first lord of the treasury is generally con- 
 sidered the prime minister. The superior 
 courts for the administration of justice are the 
 high court of chancery, the court of exchequer, 
 the court of queen’s (or king’s) bench (the 
 highest common-law and criminal court in the 
 kingdom), and the court of common pleas. 
 Assizes are held by the judges in every county 
 of England and Wales, for which purpose the 
 country is divided into eight circuits. The 
 judges of these superior courts are appointed 
 by the crown for life, and are removable only 
 upon an address from parliament to the crown. 
 England and Wales are divided ecclesiastically 
 into the archiepiscopal provinces of Canter- 
 bury and York, containing twenty-five bish- 
 oprics or dioceses. Episcopacy is the estab- 
 lished religion, but there are large numbers of 
 dissenting and independent sects. 
 
 The Romans called the island Britannia, 
 because the inhabitants adorned their bodies 
 with brit, ‘paint.’ It was little known until 
 the invasion of Julius Caesar, who conducted 
 his army into this country, on the pretext of 
 punishing the Britons for the aid which they 
 had given to the Gauls, in 55 b.c. The in- 
 habitants were then ferocious and warlike, 
 clad in skins, and armed with clubs, and even 
 the iron-breasted Roman legions quailed at 
 first before the horrid front which the infuri- 
 ated natives presented to their invaders. The 
 Romans kept possession of Britain about five 
 hundred years, during which many improve- 
 ments were introduced, and the manners of 
 the people became assimilated to those of their 
 conquerors. This, however, was not effected 
 without much bloodshed. The Romans hav- 
 ing, in the fifth century, quitted Britain, to 
 defend their other territories, invaded by the 
 Goths and Vandals, the Britons were attacked 
 by the Piets and Scots, and sought the assist- 
 ance of the Saxons and Angles. These de- 
 feated the Scots, but finally made themselves 
 masters also of the kingdom, and gave it the 
 name of Anglia, or England. It is in those 
 times of conflict between the natives and their 
 too powerful allies that the romances place 
 the reign of the renowned King Arthur. The 
 ancient Britons were driven into W ales. Eng- 
 land was divided, by the Saxons, into seven 
 
 ENG 
 
808 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 distinct kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptar- 
 chy, some of which were established in the 
 fifth, and others in the sixth century. These 
 kingdoms were for the most part subject to 
 one king alone, those which were stronger 
 than the others giving the law to them in 
 their several turns, till in the end they were 
 all united in the monarchy of the W est Saxons 
 under Egbert. In the following list of these 
 kingdoms with their kings, a star is affixed to 
 the names of those monarchs who obtained 
 this ascendency over the heptarchy. 
 
 Kent contained only the present county of 
 Kent ; its kings were : 
 
 455. *Hengist. 
 
 488. Eske. 
 
 512. Octa. 
 
 542. Ilermenric. 
 
 560. *Ethelbert, first Christian king. 
 
 616. Eadbald. 
 
 640. Ercombert. 
 
 664. Egbert. 
 
 673. Lothaire. 
 
 685. Edriek, slain in 687. The kingdom was now 
 subject for a time to various leaders. 
 
 694. Wihtred. 
 
 748.' Ethelbert II, l sons f * ihtred - succeedin S 
 760. Alric, j each other ’ 
 
 794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 
 
 796. Cuthred. 
 
 805. Baldred, who in 823 lost his life and kingdom 
 to Egbert, King of Wessex. 
 
 South Saxony contained the counties of 
 Sussex and Surrey. 
 
 490. *Ella, a warlike prince. 
 
 514. Cissa, his son, whose peaceful reign exceed- 
 ed seventy years. Then the South Saxons 
 fell into an almost total dependence on 
 Wessex, and we scarcely know the names 
 of the princes who were possessed of this 
 titular sovereignty. 
 
 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, or Adelwach. 
 
 688. Authun and Berthun, brothers who reigned 
 jointly. Both were vanquished by Ina, 
 King of Wessex, and the kingdom was 
 finally conquered in 725. 
 
 Wessex, or West Saxony, contained the 
 counties of Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, 
 Hants, Berks, and a part of Cornwall. 
 
 519. *Cerdic. 
 
 534. *Kenric, or Cynric. 
 
 559. *Ceawlin. 
 
 591. Ceolric. 
 
 597. Ceolwulf. 
 
 611. Cynegils, and his son Cwichelm. 
 
 643. Cenwal, or Cenwald. 
 
 672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, King 
 of Mercia ; of great qualities ; probably 
 deposed. 
 
 674. Escwine and Centwine. 
 
 676. Centwine alone. 
 
 685. Ceadwal, who went in lowly state to Rome, 
 to expiate his deeds of blood, and died 
 there. 
 
 688. Ina, a brave and wise ruler, who also jour- 
 neyed to Rome, where he passed his time 
 in obscurity, leaving behind him an excel- 
 lent code of laws. 
 
 728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard. 
 
 770. Cuthred, his brother. 
 
 754. Sigebryht, or Sigebert. He treacherously 
 
 murdered his friend, Duke Cumbran, gov* 
 ernor of Hampshire, who had given him 
 an asylum once when expelled from his 
 throne. For this infamous deed he was 
 forsaken by the world, and wandered 
 about in the wilds and forests, where he 
 was at length discovered by one of Cum- 
 bran’s servants, who slew him. 
 
 755. Cynewulf, murdered by Sigebry til’s brother. 
 784. Bertric, orBeorlitric; poisoned by drinking 
 
 a cup his queen had prepared for another. 
 800. * Egbert, afterward sole monarch of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 East Saxony contained the counties of 
 Essex and Middlesex and the southern part 
 of Herts. 
 
 527. Erchenwin. 
 
 587. Sledda. 
 
 598. Sebert, first Christian king. 
 
 ( Sexred 
 614. •< Seward 
 ( Sigebert 
 
 623. Sigebert the Little. 
 
 655. Sigebert the Good. 
 
 661. Swithelme. 
 
 663. Sighere and Sebbi. 
 
 694. Sigherd and Suenfrid. 
 
 700. Offa; left his queen and kingdom, and be- 
 came a monk at Rome. 
 
 709. Suebricht, or Selred. 
 
 746. Suithred. 
 
 792. Sigeric; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 
 799. Sigered; Egbert seized the kingdom in 823. 
 
 Northumbria consisted of the sometimes 
 separate but commonly united states of Ber- 
 nicia and Deira; the former including the 
 county of Northumberland, and the south- 
 eastern counties of Scotland as far as the 
 Forth ; the latter contained Yorkshire, Dur- 
 ham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cum- 
 berland. Its kings were — 
 
 547. Ella, or Ida. 
 
 560. Adda. 
 
 567. Clappea, 
 
 572. Theodwald. 
 
 573. Fridulph. 
 
 580. Theodric. 
 
 588. Athelrick. 
 
 593. Athelfrid. 
 
 617. * Edwin, the greatest prince of the hep- 
 tarchy in that age. 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 309 
 
 633. Osric. 
 
 634. * Oswald. 
 
 644. * Oswy. 
 
 653. Ethel ward. 
 
 670. Egfrid. 
 
 685. Alkfrid. 
 
 7 05. Osred I. 
 
 716. Cenred. 
 
 718. Osrick. 
 
 729. Ceolwulf. 
 
 738. Egbert. 
 
 757. Oswulph. 
 
 759. Edilwald. 
 
 765. Alured. 
 
 774. Ethelred. 
 
 778. Alswald I. 
 
 789. Osred II. 
 
 790. Ethelred restored. 
 
 796. Osbald. 
 
 797. Ardulph. 
 
 807. Alfwald II. 
 
 810. Andred. The Northumbrians submitted to 
 Egbert of Wessex in 829. 
 
 East Anglia contained the counties of 
 Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and part of 
 Bedfordshire : its kings were — 
 
 575. Uffa. 
 
 582. Titillus. 
 
 599. * Redwald, the greatest prince of the East 
 Angles. 
 
 624. Erpenwald. 
 
 636. Sigebert. 
 
 632. Egric. 
 
 635. Annas. 
 
 654. Ethelhere. 
 
 655. Ethel wald. 
 
 664. Aldwulf. 
 
 713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
 
 746. Alphwuld. 
 
 749. Beorn and Ethelbert. 
 
 758. Beorn, alone. 
 
 761. Ethelred. 
 
 790. Ethelbert, treacherously slain in Mercia 
 792, when Offa of Mercia overran the 
 country, which was finally subdued by 
 Egbert. 
 
 Mercia contained the counties of Hunt- 
 ingdon, Rutland, Lincoln, Northampton, 
 Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Oxford, Ches- 
 ter, Salop, Gloucester, Worcester, Stafford, 
 Warwick, Buckingham, Hereford, and parts 
 of Bedford and Herts. 
 
 586. Crida. 
 
 597. Wibba. 
 
 615. Cheorlas. 
 
 626. Penda. 
 
 655. Peada. 
 
 656. *Wulfhere. 
 
 675. * Ethelred. 
 
 704. * Kenred. 
 
 709. * Ceolred. 
 
 716. * Ethelbald. 
 
 755. Beornred. 
 
 755. *Offa. 
 
 794. * Egfryd. 
 
 795. * Cenulf. 
 
 819. Kenelm. 
 
 819. Ceolwulf. 
 
 821. Burnwulf. 
 
 823. Ludecan. 
 
 825. Wiglafe. 
 
 838. Berthulf. 
 
 852. Burhred. This kingdom like the others, 
 finally merged into that of England. 
 
 England, from 783, suffered many invasions 
 and ravages from the Danes, who several 
 times made themselves masters of it. They 
 were finally expelled (1041), and the Saxon 
 government restored in the person of Edward 
 the Confessor. During this time flourished 
 Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute. During 
 this time, too, the country was blessed under 
 the rule of the wise Alfred, an account of 
 whose reign will be found in our sketch of 
 him. The following were the monarchs of 
 England to the time of the conquest. 
 
 827. Egbert, first sole monarch ; succeeded by 
 his son. 
 
 837. Ethelwolf; he first granted tithes to the 
 clergy ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 857. Ethelbald, succeeded by hisnexi brother. 
 860. Ethelbert, succeeded by his next brother. 
 866. Ethelred, succeeded by his brother. 
 
 872. Alfred, the Great, succeeded by his son. 
 901. Edward, the Elder; in whose reign Eng- 
 land was more firmly consolidated into 
 one kingdom. 
 
 924. Athelstan, eldest son of Edward ; he caused 
 the Bible to be translated into the Saxpn, 
 and presented a copy to every church 
 throughout the kingdom ; he also encour- 
 aged commerce by a decree that every 
 merchant who had taken three voyages 
 should be entitled to the rank of a thane. 
 940. Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the Elder; 
 bled to death from a wound received in 
 an affray, and was succeeded by his next 
 brother. 
 
 947. Edred; Dunstan, the ambitious Abbot of 
 Glastonbury, is virtually king. 
 
 955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund. He married 
 the beautiful Elgiva, his kinswoman. 
 Dunstan united the priesthood against 
 the marriage, and Edwy was forced to 
 divorce Elgiva. She was cruelly mur- 
 dered, and Edwy died of grief. 
 
 959. Edgar, the Peaceable, his brother. 
 
 974. Edward, the Martyr; stabbed by order of 
 his step-mother, Elfrida, while drinking 
 a cup of wine at the gate of Corfe Castle. 
 979. Ethelred II., son of Elfrida, dethroned by 
 the Danes. 
 
 1013. Sweyne, succeeded by his son. 
 
 1014. Canute the Great ; while he was absent in 
 
 Denmark, Ethelred returned. 
 
 1015. Ethelred, restored; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1016. Edmund Ironside. The English and Dan- 
 
 ish armies met at Alney, and a single 
 
 ENG 
 
310 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 combat ensued between the rival mon- 
 archs, in sight of their troops. Canute, 
 * being wounded, proposed a division of 
 
 the kingdom. To this Edmund acceded, 
 and the southern half fell to his share ; 
 but he being killed at Oxford shortly 
 after, Canute was left in peaceable pos- 
 session of all the land. 
 
 1016. Canute; married Emma, widow of Ethelred. 
 1036. Harold, surnamed Harefoot, the natural 
 son of Canute and a cruel prince. 
 
 1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; 
 
 died of gluttony and drunkenness at a 
 marriage feast. 
 
 1041. Edward, the Confessor, son of Ethelred; 
 
 he had been bred in Normandy, and 
 named William his successor; although 
 Edgar was the rightful heir. 
 
 1066. Harold II., son of Earl Godwin ; reigned 
 nine months ; killed at Hastings. 
 
 Thus in 1066, the Normans, under William 
 the Conqueror, obtained possession of the 
 kingdom, having defeated the English under 
 Harold, in the battle of Hastings. By this 
 circumstance, the whole moral and political 
 constitution of England underwent an impor- 
 tant change. Severe forest laws were de- 
 creed, making it forfeiture of property to 
 disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a 
 stag, buck, or boar : one might better slay a 
 man than a deer. Justices of peace were 
 appointed. Norman French was made the 
 legal language of the realm. A survey of 
 all the kingdom except Northumberland and 
 Durham, was made, to determine the right in 
 the tenure of estates, and furnish a basis for 
 levying taxes. The book in which it was 
 embodied was called the Dome’s-day Book. 
 The Norman principle of lordship and vas- 
 salage was introduced and enforced, and it 
 was not until after some generations, that the 
 barons themselves, feeling the chain of pas- 
 sive submission too galling, gave the first 
 impulse to that spirit which burst the fetters 
 of feudalism. To the time of John, the his- 
 tory of England is little else than an account 
 of the acts of the kings, done with a direct 
 view to acquire and sustain this unnatural 
 authority. The first William did almost 
 nothing else. His son William Rufus per- 
 ished while hunting in the New Forests, a 
 vast tract which his father had depopulated 
 for that amusement. 
 
 Henry I., the youngest son of the Con- 
 queror, seized the throne. By the military 
 ardor of Robert, Duke of Normandy, the 
 crown at the death of their father had been 
 
 given up to the second brother, in considera- 
 tion of money advanced on his expedition to 
 Palestine. On Robert’s attempt to recover it 
 now, he was taken and confined for the re- 
 mainder of his life, eight and twenty years, 
 in Cardiff Castle. Henry, to strengthen him- 
 self, married Matilda, a descendant of the 
 ancient Saxon line, and removed a few of the 
 unpalatable restrictions which his father had 
 imposed. During this reign the Templars 
 established themselves in England ; the first 
 English park was laid out at Woodstock; 
 rents were made payable in money, having 
 been previously payable in corn, cattle, &c.; 
 the coinage was corrected, a standard fixed 
 for the regulation of weights and measures, 
 and the length of the English yard taken 
 from the measurement of the king’s arm. 
 Woolen stuffs were introduced from the 
 Netherlands, and a colony of Flemish weav- 
 ers settled at Worstead in Norfolk. It is 
 from this town that worsted fabrics have 
 derived their name. After the death of 
 Henry in 1135, the crown was in dispute 
 between his daughter Maud or Matilda, who 
 had wedded the German emperor, and his 
 nephew Stephen, Earl of Blois. Stephen 
 died in 1154, and Henry II., the son of 
 Maud, came to the throne. He was the first 
 of the Plantagenet line. He waged a w r ar 
 with the Scots, in which William their king 
 was taken prisoner, and only re-obtained his 
 crown by doing homage for it as a vassal. 
 This reign was also distinguished by two 
 great acquisitions of territory ; Ireland by 
 arbitrary conquest, and Guienne and Poitou 
 by marriage. It was also marked by a con- 
 test between the king and the ecclesiastics. 
 The power of the church of Rome had so in- 
 creased as to overshadow the crown ; Thomas 
 a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, evinc- 
 ing its arrogance and determination to dictate 
 in matters temporal as well as spiritual. To 
 check these usurpations the celebrated stat- 
 utes of Clarendon were enacted by a parlia- 
 ment held at that place, in 1164. Becket 
 fulminated anathemas and excommunications 
 at those who sided with the king, and yielded 
 not a whit in his assumptions, till at last the 
 harassed monarch, one day in Normandy, 
 wished aloud that the insolent prelate was 
 dead. Four rash knights hasted across the 
 channel to Canterbury, and slew the arch- 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 311 
 
 bishop upon the very steps of the altar. The 
 murdered man was canonized, and the mon- 
 arch did hard penance at his shrine. It was 
 in this reign that England was first divided 
 into circuits for the administration of justice; 
 the English laws were digested ; charters 
 were granted to many towns ; and the win- 
 dows of private dwellings were made of 
 glass. 
 
 Richard I., the second son of Henry, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1189. He can scarcely 
 be called an English king, since during his 
 ten years’ reign he spent only eight months 
 in England, being engaged in war upon the 
 continent or in the crusades. The land suf- 
 fered sadly from lawlessness and misrule. 
 At the battle of Gisors in France, 1198, 
 Richard gave to his soldiers as the watch- 
 word of the day, Dieu et mon droit. In 
 remembrance of the signal victory that his 
 arms obtained, he made Dieu et mon droit 
 the motto of the royal arms of England, and 
 it has ever since been retained. His death 
 without issue admitted his weak and wicked 
 brother John to the throne. King John, 
 after many feeble attempts at continued des- 
 potism, was compelled, by the exasperated 
 barons, to sign what was afterward called the 
 Magna Gharta (‘great charter’), which re- 
 nounced some of the most odious prerogatives 
 of royalty, and extended a moderate share 
 of liberty to the barons of the realm. John, 
 however, involved the nation, with himself, 
 in odious submissions to the pope, the influ- 
 ence of which it cost England and her suc- 
 ceeding kings many struggles to counteract. 
 By the treachery of John, Normandy was 
 lost to the English crown, the pope was con- 
 stituted the virtual lord of his dominions, 
 and Lewis, prince of France, was actually 
 encouraged to assume the title. In this time, 
 a standing army was first levied, and an an- 
 nual election for the lord mayor and sheriffs 
 of the city of London instituted. 
 
 In 1216, Henry III. became king. He 
 was but a boy, and for many years a regency 
 held sway. When he did assume power he 
 showed the hereditary taint. Many times 
 did he swear to observe Magna Charta, and 
 as often did he violate it. This reign was 
 occupied in such disputes with his barons, 
 and extortions from the Jews. Yet civil lib- 
 erty increased. The commons were first 
 
 summoned to a parliament ; gold began to be 
 coined ; coal began to be used for fuel ; and 
 the art of distillation was introduced from the 
 Moors. The first elephant seen in the land 
 was one of enormous size, presented to Henry 
 by the French king in 1238. Henry’s son, 
 Edward I., grasped the sceptre with a firmer 
 hand. He added to Magna Charta the im- 
 portant clause securing the people from the 
 imposition of any tax without the consent of 
 parliament ; and ever since this reign there 
 has been a regular succession of parliaments. 
 Wales was subdued and added to England. 
 The dependency of Scotland was confirmed by 
 the violent imposition of Baliol upon the 
 throne, his subsequent confinement, and the 
 decided overthrow of the Scotch forces that 
 opposed the English. All, however, was recov- 
 ered in the succeeding reign by the gallantry 
 of Robert Bruce, and the field of Bannockburn. 
 Edward II. was more like his grandfather 
 than like his father. The barons rose in arms, 
 and were abetted by the queen. Edward 
 was murdered in Berkeley Castle. During 
 this reign the Jews exacted two shillings a 
 week for the loan of twenty : nowadays the 
 Gentiles no longer suffer them to have monop- 
 oly in such usury. The long reign of Edward 
 III., from 1327 to 1377, outdid the martial 
 renown of his grandsire. By his successes 
 against France at Cressy and Poictiers, and 
 that against Scotland at Durham, he obtained 
 for England much glory at much expense, 
 and two royal captives, but little solid advan- 
 tage, while the campaign in Spain occasioned 
 the death of the Black Prince in 1376, and 
 the next year that of his father. In this 
 reign, and in one private individual, we find 
 the early dawn of the reformation. Wickliffe, 
 under the protection of John of Gaunt, the 
 king’s brother, began those denunciations cf 
 the papal abuses, which, in the end, over- 
 threw that corrupt and foreign dominion in 
 England. Two weavers from Brabant settled 
 at York in 1331, where they manufactured 
 woolens, which, said King Edward, “may 
 prove of great benefit to us and our subjects.” 
 In this reign the lords and commons for the 
 first time sat in separate chambers in parlia- 
 ment. Law pleadings had heretofore been 
 had in French ; they were now authorized 
 in English. The order of the Garter was 
 founded by Edward III. 
 
 ENG 
 
312 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 The opening of the next reign saw the 
 popular outbreak headed by Wat Tyler. 
 The malcontents were met and soothed with 
 much discretion by the young monarch, but 
 his wisdom soon forsook him. It was dur- 
 ing the absence of Richard in quelling a 
 disturbance in Ireland, that the people, vexed 
 with continual exaction, and offended at the 
 injustice of the king to his cousin, the Duke 
 of Lancaster, invited the latter from banish- 
 ment, to control the operations of the king 
 and his advisers. He landed, # usurped the 
 crown, murdered the king, quelled the in- 
 surrections consequent, and captured the 
 heir to the Scottish throne. Henry IY. 
 founded the order of the Bath. He perse- 
 cuted the adherents to the doctrines of Wick- 
 liffe, and there is the stain upon his reign 
 that in its time England first witnessed the 
 death of a martyr for religious belief. His 
 son, the fifth Henry, continued these perse- 
 cutions, and there were more burnings at the 
 stake. From the time of Henry V. may be 
 dated the custom of lighting the streets of 
 London at night, since it was his command 
 that every citizen should hang a lantern on 
 his door during the winter nights. His 
 youthful excesses had taught him that crime 
 and mischief lurk under the cover of darkness. 
 From the same period also, may be dated the 
 beginnings of the English navy ; and one ship 
 built at Bayonne expressly for the king, was 
 thought quite a marvel of size and strength 
 because it measured a hundred and eighty- 
 six feet in length. Linen for shirts and under 
 clothing was at this time esteemed great lux- 
 ury, and a flock bed with a chaff bolster was 
 a refinement of comfort known only to the 
 opulent. Henry’s great feat was the con- 
 quest of France, through the victories of 
 Harfleur and Agincourt. He married Catha- 
 rine of France, was chosen regent of the 
 kingdom, and adopted as the heir of Charles 
 YI. In the midst of his brilliant career, 
 death snatched him away, 1422. 
 
 His infant son was crowned at Paris. The 
 Maid of Orleans aroused the French, and her 
 burning at the stake was soon avenged upon 
 the English by the loss of every possession 
 in France but the fortress of Calais. The 
 reign of the sixth Henry continued as unfor- 
 tunately as it had commenced. The wars of 
 the roses drenched England with blood, till 
 
 after many ups and downs the York faction 
 triumphed; Henry, now an old man, was 
 imprisoned in the Tower ; and Edward IV. 
 ascended the throne in 1461. In this reign 
 the right of voting at elections for knights of 
 the shire was limited to freeholders having 
 estates of the annual value of forty shillings. 
 Seats in the commons were not, however, 
 much sought by the middle classes of the 
 fifteenth century. The functions of the 
 commons consisted chiefly in the imposition 
 of taxes, and even the peers evinced little in- 
 terest or assiduity in the discharge of their 
 parliamentary duties. Both houses enjoyed 
 entire liberty of speech. In 1450, the first 
 lord mayor’s show took place in London. 
 The same year saw the insurrection in Kent 
 headed by Jack Cade, who, under the assumed 
 name of Mortimer, asserted a fictitious claim 
 to the throne. The stout Earl of Warwick, 
 who had raised Edward to the throne, was 
 sent to negotiate his marriage with a French 
 princess ; in his absence the fickle fellow 
 wedded Lady Elizabeth Grey; Warwick took 
 great offense, rebelled, deposed Edward, re- 
 leased Henry, and set him up again in the 
 business of royalty. But on the field of 
 Barnet, 1471, the great earl was slain; Ed- 
 ward resumed the crown, and soon after 
 poor old Henry was murdered in the Tower. 
 In this same year William Caxton, in the 
 shadow of Westminster Abbey, set up the 
 first printing-press in England. Richard III., 
 who followed his brother Edward IY., and 
 his young nephew Edward V., of the house 
 of York, was himself defeated and succeeded 
 by Henry VII., of the other line, who by 
 marrying the daughter of Edward IV. united 
 the two houses, and thus ended the conten- 
 tions of York and Lancaster, in the year 1485. 
 
 Henry’s reign was disturbed by the insur- 
 rections in support of Lambert Simnel and 
 Perkin Warbeck, pretenders to the throne. 
 It was the great era of maritime discovery, 
 and the English monarch, not to be behind- 
 hand, magnanimously authorized the Cabots 
 to undertake an expedition at their own 
 expense, with the privilege of raising his 
 banner as his vassals and deputies on what- 
 ever soil they might find. They discovered 
 Newfoundland, and a portion of North Amer- 
 ica, and this was the basis of the English 
 claim to the new continent. Shillings were 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 313 
 
 first coined in this reign, and the court of the 
 star chamber, afterward so odious, was estab- 
 lished. Gardening was introduced in Eng- 
 land generally, from the Netherlands. Henry 
 VII. died in 1509. Henry VIII., though per- 
 haps the greatest tyrant that ever filled the 
 English throne, made a new era in the history 
 of the country, in its total emancipation from 
 papal authority. The power of which he had 
 deprived the pope, he seized for himself, 
 however, and was, at least, as vigorous in its 
 exercise. The next reign ratified and enlarged 
 his acts in favor of the protestant religion ; 
 and although the bigot Mary for a time re- 
 bound the chains, and rekindled the fires of 
 persecution, the reformation was too firmly 
 established to be overthrown, and her suc- 
 cessor, Elizabeth, settled it upon a foundation 
 w'hich will endure as long as the conviction 
 of its necessity exists. 
 
 The marital experiments of bluff and cruel 
 King Hal we shall mention under our sketch 
 of the house of Tudor. England was steadily 
 advancing. The whole Bible was now ren- 
 dered into English, and the first authorized 
 edition printed ; the book of common prayer 
 for the new Anglican church was arranged 
 by Cranmer; Wales began to be represented 
 in parliament ; ship-building was improved, 
 and the navy extended ; the first geographi- 
 cal map of England was drawn ; cherries, 
 hops, apricots, pippins, and various other 
 fruits and vegetables, were introduced into 
 the land ; leaden pipes were substituted for 
 the clumsy wooden conduits in which water 
 had previously been conveyed ; cotton thread 
 came into use. Pins were introduced from 
 France by Queen Catharine Howard. Here- 
 tofore, ribbons, loopholes, laces with tags, 
 hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, 
 and gold, had been used alike by men and 
 women. The pins were a costly luxury at 
 first, and the term 1 pin-money,’ as applied to 
 a husband’s allowance to his wife, had its 
 origin thereby. A pound sterling was first 
 called a sovereign in this reign. Provisions 
 were so cheap that beef and mutton were 
 had for a half-penny a pound. Money how- 
 ever, was a twelfth cheaper than in our time. 
 Henry VIII. was the first English monarch 
 to whom the title of King of Ireland was 
 confirmed. Henry VIII., in league with 
 the pope and the Emperor Charles V., made 
 
 some conquests in France, and his generals 
 defeated and slew James IV. of Scotland, at 
 Flodden Field; and, in his successor's reign, 
 an expedition into that country was executed 
 at the desire of the late king, on a fruitless 
 expedition to induce the Scots to marry their 
 Princess Mary to Edward VI. 
 
 The boy-king Edward did much in his 
 short time to promote the reformation, and 
 the realm had a respite from the noxious 
 smoke of fires of persecution. A law was 
 enacted that permitted clergymen to marry. 
 But a little before his death the young mon- 
 arch founded Christ Hospital in London, the 
 school to which so many great scholars and 
 authors have been indebted for their educa- 
 tion. Grapes were brought over from France 
 and cultivated ; crowns, half-crowns, and six- 
 pences were introduced into the currency ; 
 the sweating sickness, a dreadful plague 
 which had prevailed from time to time, be- 
 came totally extinct. The book of common 
 prayer and the church service were establish- 
 ed. Trade with Russia was initiated. The 
 ten days’ reign of Lady Jane Grey over, Mary, 
 whom history has cursed with the epithet of 
 bloody, became queen in 1553. Lady Jane, 
 and her husband, father, and friends, were 
 beheaded; papacy w^as restored, and fatal 
 faggots flamed again. Smoke from human 
 immolations upon the altar of bigotry went 
 up continually. Calais, which had been 
 taken by Edward III. in 1347, after a year’s 
 siege, which had been held by the English 
 two hundred and ten years, and which was 
 deeply prized as the last relic of the broad 
 possessions and conquests of the Plantagenets, 
 was by treachery yielded to the French. Its 
 loss sorely smote the pride of the queen. 
 “When I’m dead,” she said, “Calais will be 
 found written on my heart.” She died to- 
 ward the close of the same year. Coaches 
 came into use in her time, before which 
 ladies had been borne in litters, or had ridden 
 on pillions behind their mounted squires. 
 Flax and hemp were first cultivated ; the use 
 of starch was discovered ; and the manufac- 
 ture of drinking glasses began to be encour- 
 aged. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth, from 1558 to 1603, 
 was one of great renown. She restored the 
 Anglican church, making herself, like her 
 father, the head of the spiritual as well as 
 
 ENG 
 
814 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 temporal power. All clergymen and all offi- 
 cers under the crown were compelled to take 
 an oath acknowledging this supremacy. All 
 persons were forbidden to attend upon any 
 ministrations but those of the established 
 church, and thus, sad to say, persecution did 
 not end although protestantism had been 
 restored. Elizabeth intrigued with Scotland, 
 but fought with Spain. The defense of the 
 kingdom against the celebrated Armada, in 
 1588, would of itself stamp her reign with 
 glory. The attack on Cadiz by the Earl of 
 Essex was eminently successful, and the 
 other enterprises of her admirals were very 
 considerable. She also supported the prot- 
 estants of Germany against Austria, and the 
 Dutch against the Spaniards. During the 
 Elizabethan era, English literature, which 
 had dawned under Chaucer in the days 
 of Edward III., came to the meridian, and 
 Shakspeare, Spenser, Bacon. Raleigh, Sidney, 
 added more to the glories of England, than 
 all the eminent wisdom and policy of the 
 queen and her statesmen, or the prowess of 
 her commanders. The naval power was much 
 advanced ; Drake circumnavigated the globe, 
 coming home with great affluence of Spanish 
 treasure, and what was better, an esculent 
 root that he planted in Lancashire, the po- 
 tato ; a colony was planted in North America, 
 and gallantly christened Virginia in honor of 
 the maiden queen. Tobacco was brought 
 from the West, and was soon very fashiona- 
 ble, after the stomachs of the courtiers were 
 used to it. Tea was brought from the East 
 by the Dutch. Pocket watches from Nu- 
 remburg began to be carried. Silk stockings 
 were worn by Elizabeth ; before, cloth hose 
 had been the wear. Commerce widened; 
 the East India company was organized ; the 
 whale and cod fisheries were entered upon. 
 Paper-making from linen rags was began at 
 Dartford by Sir John Spielman, a German; 
 Birmingham and Sheffield became the centre 
 of hardware manufactures, and Manchester of 
 woolen and stocking weaving. Theatrical 
 representations ran a race awhile with the 
 older and coarser amusement of bull-baiting, 
 and then became the popular pastime. 
 
 On Elizabeth’s death, the English and Scot- 
 tish crowns became united in the person of 
 James I., a vain and pedantic prince, son of 
 the unfortunate queen whom Elizabeth had 
 
 long held a captive, and at last murdered. A 
 similar crime, the tedious bondage and final 
 murder of Raleigh, blots the reign of James. 
 The Gunpowder plot we describe elsewhere. 
 The Stuarts had all the Tudors’ love of des- 
 potism, but not their strength of will. In this 
 weakness civil liberty found its chance for 
 growth. With James commenced those strug- 
 gles between the crown and the commons, 
 that brought his son to the scaffold, and 
 worked out the expulsion of his race from the 
 land. Parliament withheld supplies when 
 grievances became too heavy; and in the 
 king’s want of money the rank of baronet 
 originated. There was a rebellion in Ireland, 
 and each baronet upon his creation was re- 
 quired to pay into the exchequer as much as 
 would maintain “ thirty soldiers three years 
 at eightpence a day.” Sir Nicholas Bacon, 
 the father of the great Lord Bacon, was the 
 first of the baronets. The discovery of the 
 blood’s circulation was made by Harvey in 
 this time. The broad silk manufacture was 
 introduced ; copper half-pence and farthings 
 were first coined; Napier calculated loga- 
 rithms ; brick came into use for building. The 
 English Bible as we now have it, was trans- 
 lated by divines appointed by the king. The 
 settlement of Virginia was firmly established, 
 and the Puritans fled away to the wilderness 
 of New England. 
 
 Charles I. succeeded to an empty treasury. 
 After endeavoring to fill it by illegal taxes, he 
 compromised with the people. Parliament 
 granted an ample subsidy, and the king rati- 
 fied, in the most solemn manner, the celebra- 
 ted Petition of Right, the second great charter 
 of the liberties of England. B}'' this compact 
 Charles bound himself never again to raise 
 money without the consent of the houses, 
 never again to imprison any person except in 
 due course of law, and never again to subject 
 his people to the jurisdiction of courts martial. 
 Had he observed these stipulations, the im- 
 pending calamity might have been averted. 
 But no sooner was the supply collected than 
 the promise by which it had been got was 
 broken. The king resolved to do without a 
 parliament, and from 1629 to 1640 none was 
 convoked. In olden times of war, the English 
 monarchs had called on the maritime counties 
 to furnish ships for the defense of the coast. 
 In the room of ships, money had sometimes 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 315 
 
 been accepted. This ancient impost it was 
 now determined to revive, in a time of pro- 
 found peace, and to exact it not only from the 
 coast but from the inland shires. The whole 
 nation was alarmed and incensed. John 
 Hampden, a gentleman of Buckinghamshire, 
 disputed the illegal levy ; the case was argued 
 before the judges of exchequer, and an obse- 
 quious decision sustained the crown. The 
 civil grievances were rivaled by the ecclesias- 
 tical rigors of Archbishop Laud. An insane 
 attempt to foist the Anglican liturgy upon the 
 Presbyterians of Scotland roused them to open 
 rebellion. In this dilemma a parliament was 
 convened, but soon dissolved. In the fall of 
 the same year, assembled' the celebrated body 
 since known as the Long Parliament. Many 
 important reforms were enacted ; Strafford 
 and Laud were impeached ; the king promised 
 to show respect for the laws and good faith 
 toward his subjects. His faithlessness was 
 incurable. Only a few days after he sent his 
 attorney-general to impeach Pym, Hollis, 
 Hampden, and other leaders of the opposition, 
 of high treason at the bar of the House of 
 Lords ; and with armed men he entered the 
 other chamber to seize their persons. The 
 attempt failed, for the threatened members 
 had just left the house. At this unpreceden- 
 ted usurpation, the friends of the king were 
 speechless ; his opponents were furious. He 
 fled to the north, and in August, 1642, the 
 sword was drawn. 
 
 At first the royalists were successful. But 
 Fairfax defeated Prince Rupert on Marston 
 Moor in 1644, and Cromwell annihilated the 
 cavaliers at Naseby in 1645. The king fled 
 into Scotland, whence he was delivered into 
 the hands of parliament for £400,000. A 
 dark thought grew into a darker decision, and 
 on the 30th of January, 1649, Charles Stuart 
 was beheaded in front of the palace of White- 
 hall. 
 
 The era of the Commonwealth succeeded. 
 Cromwell subdued Ireland and Scotland, and 
 defeated a royalist army at Worcester; the 
 young Charles escaped to the continent ; the 
 Long Parliament was dissolved by Cromwell 
 with his soldiery, and the great general be- 
 came lord high protector. Of his rule we have 
 spoken in our sketch of his life. England 
 maintained a high rank in the scale of nations, 
 and Cromwell showed himself as well qualified 
 
 to govern as to gain. The usurpation was 
 perhaps a harsh medicine to the constitution, 
 but its operation was short, and its effects 
 very salutary. Charles II. was restored in 
 1660. He came in upon a tremendous billow 
 of loyalty, but the lazy, good-natured mon- 
 arch w as nothing but a Stuart, and the temper 
 of the nation gradually cooled tow r ard him. 
 Nonconformists were rigorously dealt with. 
 For a while he maintained a war with the 
 Dutch. De Ruyter sailed up the Thames, 
 and burned the vessels that lay at Chatham ; 
 the roar of foreign guns was heard for the first 
 and last time by the citizens of London ; a 
 treaty was shortly concluded, very different 
 from those which Cromwell had been in the 
 habit of signing. While this ignominious 
 war was raging, London suffered two great 
 disasters, such as never, in so short a time, 
 befell another city. A pestilence, surpassing 
 in horror any that during three centuries had 
 visited the island, swept away, in six months, 
 more than a hundred thousand human beings ; 
 and scarcely had the dead cart ceased to go 
 its rounds, when a fire, such as had not been 
 know r n in Europe since the conflagration of 
 Rome under Nero, laid in ruins the whole city 
 from the Tower to the Temple, and from the 
 river to the purlieusof Smithfield. — Macaulay. 
 England sunk from the rank that Cromwell 
 had given her, and Charles became a pensioner 
 upon the bounty of Louis XIY. The strict- 
 ness of the Puritans had been followed by a 
 natural reaction, and a flood of debauchery 
 and ribald life. Yet to this reign we date that 
 famous writ of right, known as the habeas 
 corpus act, by which no person can be detained 
 in durance except in cases where the detention 
 can be justified by law. 
 
 The Duke of Monmouth, one of the many 
 natural sons of Charles, strove unsuccessfully 
 in the west of England, to wrest the crown 
 from James II. John Ketch, his executioner, 
 who had butchered many brave and noble 
 victims, has furnished our language a name 
 for the headsman and hangman. The infa- 
 mous Jeffreys went the circuit of what were 
 called the bloody assizes; the jails were 
 crowded with men, and women too, accused 
 of participation in the rebellion ; some were 
 pitilessly scourged, hundreds were hanged, 
 and almost a thousand were sent as slaves be- 
 yond the seas. The ermined murderer re- 
 
 ENG 
 
316 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 turned to court from the west, leaving death, 
 and wailing, and terror behind, to receive the 
 encomiums of his master. The people of Eng- 
 land by this time understood the rights of the 
 subject, as well as the duties of the monarch, 
 and when James II. attempted to rule abso- 
 lutely, and to overthrow the religion of the 
 country, a bloodless revolution forced him to 
 abdicate the throne, and set upon it his 
 daughter Mary, and her husband, William of 
 Orange, an avowed Protestant The liberties 
 of the people took deeper root by his confirm- 
 ation of their bill of rights. In this reign an 
 expedition, headed by the king, was sent out 
 to reduce Ireland, and a war waged with 
 France, not generally successful, but there 
 appeared some brilliant sparks of enterprise, 
 and one or two fair incidents of good fortune. 
 During this reign the Bank of England was 
 incorporated. It was in the reign of Anne 
 that the age of English chivalry seemed to re- 
 vive, and the military mania of the two rival 
 nations to be renewed. The valor and skill 
 of Marlborough triumphed over the most 
 splendid arrays of military might under Louis 
 XI Y. Germany was saved, Gibraltar taken, 
 and Dunkirk demolished, by a course of vic- 
 tories as brilliant as any which the pen of the 
 historian records. It was also in this memo- 
 rable reign that the legislative union of Scot- 
 land with England took place. The era of 
 Anne is styled an Augustan age of English 
 literature. Addison, Steele, Pope, Boling- 
 broke, Gay, Swift, Prior, and other great wits 
 and authors, lived and wrote. The queen died 
 in 1714. 
 
 The succession of the house of Hanover now 
 took place. The short reign of George I. was 
 principally noted for its domestic and foreign 
 inquietude. The year after his accession a 
 rebellion arose in Scotland, headed by the 
 Pretender, as the son of James II. was called. 
 It was promptly put down, and severely pun- 
 ished. A destructive speculation known as 
 the South Sea bubble ran to a great pitch and 
 then burst, entailing great financial disaster, 
 and ruining thousands of families. The reign 
 of George II. was distinguished by the battle 
 of Dettingen, where the king fought in per- 
 son ; the military contests with France ; the 
 naval triumphs over that kingdom and Spain ; 
 the conquest of French America, and the 
 splendid successes of Clive in the East Indies. 
 
 It was in 1745 that the Stuarts made their last 
 attempt for the crown. The Chevalier Charles 
 Edward, son of the Pretender, landed in Scot- 
 land with a few adherents ; the Highlanders 
 rallied to his standard ; his forces were trium- 
 phant at Preston Pans ; he gained Edinburgh, 
 reduced Carlisle, and advanced into England. 
 The English Jacobites were not so ready as 
 the Scotch; the chevalier turned back, pur- 
 sued by the Duke of Cumberland, and on the 
 bloody plain of Culloden the hopes of his 
 house were forever extinguished. In the time 
 of George II. the change from old to new style 
 in the calendar was made. [See Time.] 
 
 In the early years of the next reign, England 
 waged another great and successful war with 
 France and Spain. But the most important 
 feature of the reign of George III. was the 
 loss of America, produced by the odious tyr- 
 anny of England. After a struggle of eight 
 years, in which she saw her vast armies and 
 fleets defeated by the bravery of a nation of 
 patriots, Great Britain was compelled to re- 
 linquish her colonies, and acknowledge their 
 independence. The peace of Europe was 
 broken by the different powers siding with 
 the combatants, and thus England was at once 
 involved in war by sea and land with America, 
 France, Spain, and Holland, while the dissen- 
 sions of party at home increased to an alarm- 
 ing height. The war was concluded by a 
 treaty with those powers in 1783. The war 
 of the French revolution forms a second period 
 of this reign. The first direct interference on 
 the part of the British was in two unsuccess- 
 ful expeditions to the continent under the 
 Duke of York and Sir S. Hood, and in the 
 capture of some French West India islands, 
 and of Pondicherry in India. In the latter 
 country very great advantages were acquired 
 over the natives ; Tippoo Sultan was entirely 
 defeated and killed, and Seringapatam cap- 
 tured. 
 
 France, having disposed of her continental 
 enemies, began to act on the offensive, and 
 undertook an invasion of Ireland, seven ships 
 of the line having, with that intent, anchored 
 in Ban try Bay. The war in the mean time had 
 divided the sentiments of the English people, 
 and strong dissatisfaction was manifested by 
 the revolutionary party. The ministers were 
 firm in their measures, and the king’s life 
 was put in danger on his going to parliament 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 317 
 
 Two attempts at negotiation failed, and the 
 internal difficulties were increased by the 
 stoppage of the bank, the mutiny of the fleet 
 at Spithead and the Nore, and the menace of 
 rebellion in Ireland. The first evil was palli- 
 ated, but the two last were not suppressed 
 without much bloodshed. The intentions of 
 the French were, however, defeated; 1,800 
 men who had landed in Ireland, surrendered, 
 and the English fleet recovered its reputation 
 by a victory over the Spaniards, and by the 
 celebrated battle of the Nile, in 1798. These 
 events having raised the spirits of the conti- 
 nental powers, Germany, Russia, and Turkey 
 joined England against France, while Ireland 
 was pacified by a show of much promise 
 which was to be effected by an union. The 
 Austrians were annihilated at Marengo ; the 
 English, at the request of the sultan, agreed 
 to evacuate Egypt ; and they made an un- 
 successful attempt upon the Boulogne flotilla 
 with which the French threatened an inva- 
 sion of Britain. Such was the state of 
 things, when, in 1802, the combatants found 
 it convenient to conclude peace. 
 
 The war recommenced in 1803, by the loss 
 on the English side of Hanover, and the 
 seizure of the British in France, which was 
 retaliated by the seizure of French ves- 
 sels and seamen. To oppose the increasing 
 power of Napoleon, Mr. Pitt was once more 
 made premier. In the mean time the most 
 advantageous treaties had been concluded 
 with the native states of India, and the 
 French defeated by the dying Nelson in the 
 great and decisive naval engagement of Tra- 
 falgar, in 1805. This was the last trophy of 
 those great preparations which Mr. Pitt had 
 made, to support his system by the overthrow 
 of that of the French, an object which in the 
 sequel, they certainly accomplished. Pitt 
 died in 1806, and Mr. Fox, his great political 
 opponent and successor, in the same year. 
 During this period, the successes in other 
 parts had been partial ; but, at home, a tri- 
 umph over injustice and inhumanity was ob- 
 tained in the abolition of the slave-trade. 
 The new ministry, persisting in pressing the 
 Catholic claims, received his majesty’s intima- 
 tion to resign. It was at this juncture, in 
 1808, that Britain made herself a party to 
 reinstate the imbecile Bourbon of Spain. 
 
 The campaign was commenced by Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley (afterward the Duke of Welling- 
 ton), with the repulse of Junot at Vimeira ; 
 but the defeat and death of Sir John Moore, 
 at Corunna, followed. Though the English 
 under Sir Arthur W elltesley were still in force 
 in Portugal, and had obtained some advan- 
 tages, as at Talavera, they had to contend 
 equally with the weakness of the Spaniards 
 and the power of the French. They therefore 
 entrenched themselves behind their lines at 
 Torres Yedras. 
 
 Two expeditions of different fortune took 
 place at this time ; one to the south of Italy, 
 and the other to the island of Walcheren. 
 Several valuable captures in other parts were 
 made. At this period (1810), the insanity 
 of the king incapacitated him from governing, 
 and his son, the dissipated Prince of Wales, 
 was appointed regent. The war in Spain 
 was carried on with determination, but with 
 partial success. The reorganization of the 
 Spanish and Portuguese armies, and the 
 reviving spirit of the cortes, changed the 
 aspect of affairs. Meanwhile, Russia, Prussia, 
 and Sweden had entered into alliance with 
 England, who supplied them with vast sub- 
 sidies to support their armies against France. 
 Holland, also, by the assistance of England, 
 had risen on its masters, and Napoleon, 
 pressed by the allies, and having suffered 
 immense losses in Russia, was obliged to give 
 way, and armies entered France on two sides. 
 Lord Wellington, proceeding through Spain, 
 passed the Pyrenees through almost unre- 
 mitted conflict, invested Bayonne, occupied 
 Bourdeaux, defeated Soult before Toulouse, 
 and there received the news of the capture 
 of Paris, and the cessation of hostilities. 
 Meanwhile England had been also engaged in 
 a war with America, which was prosecuted 
 on the plea of her assumed right to search 
 our vessels for deserters. The treaty of 
 peace was signed at Ghent in 1814. 
 
 The next year Great Britain was again 
 called into active co-operation with the other 
 confederates, to depose Napoleon, who had 
 returned in triumph from Elba, and resumed 
 the throne of France without opposition. 
 After the victory at Waterloo, the allies en- 
 tered Paris, and reinstated Louis XVIII., on 
 the throne, while Napoleon surrendered him- 
 
 ENG 
 
818 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 self to an English ship, and was sent to St. 
 Helena, where he was detained until his 
 death, in 1820. 
 
 George III., died in 1820, in the eighty- 
 second year of his age, and the sixtieth of 
 his reign, which is the longest and most 
 memorable in the annals of England. For 
 the last ten years the profligate George IV., 
 had ruled as prince regent. The trial of his 
 ill-used queen, her death, the alarming riots 
 that accompanied her funeral, the scarcity 
 and distress in Ireland, and the removal of 
 civil disabilities from the Catholics, marked 
 his ten years’ reign. He died in 1830, and 
 was succeeded by his brother William, who 
 as Duke of Clarence had served for a long 
 time in the navy. 
 
 The year 1832 is famous for the passage of 
 the bill for parliamentary reform, which was 
 carried by the commons against the will of a 
 majority of the peers. Two years after, 
 slavery was abolished throughout the British 
 dominions ; by this act 770,280 slaves became 
 freemen, on the 1st of August, 1834, and 
 £20,000,000 were granted by parliament for 
 compensation to the masters. 
 
 William was succeeded b}'' his niece Victo- 
 ria, in 1837. By virtue of the Salique law, 
 which excludes women from sovereignty, 
 Hanover was now severed from England, and 
 the Duke of Cumberland, a younger son of 
 George III., became its monarch. During 
 Victoria’s reign England has waged several 
 wars in the East ; with the Chinese, with the 
 Afghans, and with the Sikhs, [See China, 
 Afghanistan, India.] The great contest be- 
 tween Russia, and the allied powers of Eng- 
 land, France, and Turkey, is also described 
 in another page. [See Russo-Turkisii War.] 
 
 The following have been the rulers of 
 England since the conquest. 
 
 1066. William the Conqueror; died at Rouen, 
 Sept. 9th, 1087. 
 
 1087. William Rufus ; killed by an arrow, Aug. 2d, 
 
 1100. 
 
 1100. Henry I., youngest son of the Conqueror ; 
 
 died of a surfeit, Dec. 1st, 1135. 
 
 1135. Stephen, EarlofBlois, nephew of Henry I. 
 
 The Empress Maud, daughter of Henry, 
 contended with him for the crown. 
 Stephen died Oct. 25th, 1154. 
 
 THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 1154. Henry II., son of the Empress Maud by 
 her second husband, Geoffrey Planta- 
 genet, Earl of Anjou; died July 6th, 
 1189. 
 
 1189. Richard I.; died Apr. 6th, 1199. 
 
 1199. John, brother of Richard; died Oct. 18th, 
 1216. 
 
 1216. Henry III.; died Nov v 16th, 1272. 
 
 1272. Edward I.; died July 7th, 1307. 
 
 1307. Edward II. ; murdered at Berkley Castle, 
 Sept. 21st, 1327. 
 
 1327. Edward III.; died June 21st, 1377. 
 
 1377. Richard II., son of Edward the Black 
 Prince, and grandson of Edward III.; 
 dethroned Sept. 28th, 1399; murdered 
 at Pomfret Castle, Feb. 10th, 1400. 
 
 BRANCH OP LANCASTER. 
 
 1399. Henry IV., son of John of Gaunt, Duke 
 of Lancaster, and grandson of Ed- 
 ward III.; died March 20th, 1413. 
 
 1413. Henry V.; died Aug. 31st, 1422. 
 
 1422. Henry VI. ; deposed March 4th, 1461 ; 
 
 murdered in the Tower, June 20th, 
 1471. 
 
 BRANCH OF YORK. 
 
 1461. Edward IV., a descendant from two sons 
 of Edward III., Lionel, Duke of Clar- 
 ence, and Edmond, Duke of York ; died 
 April 9th, 1483. 
 
 14S3. Edward V.; deposed June 22d, 1483, and 
 murdered in the Tower. 
 
 1483. Richard III., brother of Edward IV. ; slain 
 at Bosworth, Aug. 22d, 1485. 
 
 HOUSE OP TUDOR. 
 
 1485. Henry VII., Earl of Richmond, a descend- 
 ant by his mother’s side from John of 
 Gaunt ; married Elizabeth, the heiress 
 of York; died Apr. 22d, 1509. 
 
 1509. Henry VIII.; died Jan. 28th, 1547. 
 
 1547. Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., by Jane 
 Seymour; died July 6th, 1553. 
 
 1553. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., by Cathe- 
 rine of Arragon; died Nov. 17th, 1558. 
 
 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., by 
 Anna Boleyn ; died Mar. 24th, 1603. 
 
 HOUSE OP STUART. 
 
 1603. James I., of England, and VI., of Scotland, 
 great-grandson of Margaret, daughter 
 of Henry VIII., who married James IV., 
 of Scotland; died Mar. 27th, 1625. 
 
 1625. Charles I.; beheaded at Whitehall, Jan. 
 30th, 1649. 
 
 THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 1649. Oliver Cromwell, made protector Dec. 12th, 
 1653; died Sept. 3d, 1658. 
 
 1658. Richard Cromwell, made protector Sept. 
 4th, 1658; resigned April 22d, 1659. 
 
 THE 6TUARTS RESTORED. 
 
 1660. Charles II., son of Charles I.; died Feb. 
 6th, 1685. 
 
 1685. James II., brother of Charles II.; abdi- 
 cated by flight, Dec. 12th, 1688; died 
 in exile, Aug. 6th, 1701. 
 
 1689. William (Prince of Orange, the son of 
 Mary, daughter of Charles I.) and 
 Mary (daughter of James II.) Mary 
 died Dec. 28th, 1694; and William, of 
 a fall from his horse, Mar. 8th, 1702. 
 
 ENG 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 319 
 
 1702. Anne, second daughter of James II. ; died 
 Aug. 1st, 1714. 
 
 HOUSE OP HANOVER. 
 
 1714. George I., Elector of Hanover and Duke 
 of Brunswick Lunenburg, son of Sophia, 
 who was daughter of Elizabeth, the 
 daughter of James I.; died June 11th, 
 1727. 
 
 1727. George II.; died Oct. 25th, 1760. 
 
 1760. George III., grandson of George II.; died 
 Jan. 29th, 1820. 
 
 1820. George IV.; died June 26th, 1830. 
 
 1830. William IV., brother of George IV. ; died 
 June 20th, 1837. 
 
 1837. Victoria, only child of Edward, Duke of 
 Kent, the fourth son of George III. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, a famous Theban, de- 
 scended from the ancient kings of Bceotia, 
 but born and reared in poverty. He was 
 celebrated for his private virtues and military 
 •accomplishments. His love of truth was so 
 great that he was never known to give utter- 
 ance to a falsehood. He formed an inviola- 
 ble friendship with Pelopidas, whose life he 
 saved in battle. By his advice Pelopidas 
 delivered Thebes from the power of Lacedss- 
 mon. This was the signal of war. Epam- 
 inondas was placed at the head of the Theban 
 armies, and defeated the Spartans in the cel- 
 ebrated battle of Leuctra, 371 b.c. Epami- 
 nondas entered the territoi ies of Lacedaemon 
 with 50,000 men. Here he gained many 
 friends and partisans, but, at his return from 
 Thebes, he was seized as a traitor for violating 
 the laws of his country. While he was mak- 
 ing the Theban army victorious on every side, 
 he neglected the law which forbade any cit- 
 izen to retain in his hands the supreme power 
 for more than one month, and all his eminent 
 services seemed unable to redeem him from 
 death. He paid implicit obedience to the 
 laws of his country, and only begged of his 
 judges that it might be inscribed on his tomb, 
 that he had suffered death for saving his 
 country from ruin. This animated reproach 
 was felt ; he was pardoned, and invested again 
 with sovereign power. He was successful in 
 a war with Thessaly, and again engaged 
 against the Lacedaemonians. The hostile 
 armies met near Mantinea 363 b.c., and while 
 Epaminondas was fighting bravely in the 
 thickest of the enemy, he received a fatal 
 wound in the breast, and expired with joy 
 on hearing that the Boeotians had obtained the 
 victory. On hearing his friends regret that 
 
 he had left no children, he said, u I leave 
 behind me two immortal daughters, the victo- 
 ries of Leuctra and Mantinea.” 
 
 EPEE, Charles Michael de l’, was born 
 at Versailles in 1712. None of the teachers 
 who had been successful with deaf aftd dumb 
 pupils, had published accounts of their meth- 
 ods, so that De l’Epee was not indebted to 
 them for the mode of instruction which he 
 first employed upon two sisters. His zeal in 
 the cause of those who were destitute of 
 speech and hearing led him into pecuniary 
 embarrassment. One incident in his life is 
 peculiarly interesting. He met, one day, in 
 the streets of Paris a deaf and dumb youth 
 in the garb of a beggar, whom he was con- 
 vinced was the heir of the rich family of 
 the Count of Solar. A law-suit followed, 
 which was at first successful, but when the 
 friends of Solar were dead, his property was 
 again wrested from him, and he was com- 
 pelled to enlist in the army as a cuirassier. 
 The Abbe De l’Epee died in 1789. 
 
 EPICTETUS, a Stoic philosopher, born at 
 Hieropolis, in Phrygia, a.d. 90. He was the 
 slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero. 
 His master once struck him a severe blow 
 upon the leg. “You will break it,” was the 
 calm reply of the Stoic. The brute repeated 
 the blow and broke it. “Did I not tell you 
 so ? ” was the quiet exclamation of the phi- 
 losopher. He was afterward freed, and made 
 governor of Cappadocia, a.d. 134. 
 
 EPICURUS was born at Gargettus, near 
 Athens, 342 b.c. In the thirty-sixth year of 
 his age he opened his school in an Athenian 
 garden, a spot pleasantly typical of his doctrine. 
 The Platonists had their academic grove ; the 
 Aristotelians walked along the Lyceum ; the 
 Cynics growled in the Cynosarges ; the Sto- 
 ics occupied the Porch ; and the Epicureans 
 had their Garden. There, in the tranquil 
 garden, in the society of his friends, he passed 
 a peaceful life of speculation and enjoyment. 
 The friendship that existed among them is 
 well known. In a time of general scarcity 
 and famine, they contributed to each other’s 
 support, showing that the Pythagorean no- 
 tion of community of goods was unnecessary 
 amongst friends who could confide in each 
 other. At the entrance of the garden they 
 placed this inscription : “ The hospitable 
 keeper of this mansion, where you will find 
 
 EPI 
 
320 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 pleasure the highest good, will present you 
 liberally with barley cakes and w'ater fresh 
 from the spring. The gardens will not pro- 
 voke your appetite by artificial dainties, but 
 satisfy it with natural supplies. Will you 
 not be well entertained?” He taught his 
 scholars that the summum bonum consisted 
 in happiness ; and that happiness did not 
 spring from sensual enjoyments, but from 
 a practice of the virtues. He commended 
 wisdom, was temperate, moderate, gentle, 
 firm, and fearless of death. He died 270 
 b.c., and had many followers. 
 
 EPIRUS, a province on the borders of 
 Greece, the most southerly portion of the 
 modern Albania. This country was inhab- 
 ited by the Chaones and the Molossians. 
 The best known of the kings of Epirus is 
 Pyrrhus, who reigned about 280 b.c., and 
 distinguished himself greatly by his wars 
 with the Romans, in favor of the Tarentines. 
 Upon the death of Deodamia, the last of 
 this race, about the year 240 b.c., the Epirots 
 formed themselves into a republic, which 
 was reduced 167 b.c. by Paulus AEmilius, the 
 Roman general, all the towns destroyed, and 
 the inhabitants enslaved in one day. Upon 
 the taking of Constantinople, in 1204, Michael 
 Angelus seized this country, and his poster- 
 ity held it till it was taken by the Turks under 
 Amurath II., in 1482. In 1447, Castriot 
 (Scanderbeg) revolted from the Turks, but 
 the country was finally reduced by Moham- 
 med II., in 1466. 
 
 ERASMUS, Desiderius, a man celebrated 
 for his learning, was born at Rotterdam in 
 1467. At the age of seventeen he assumed 
 the monastic habit, but subsequently obtained 
 a dispensation from his vows. He traveled 
 through many countries, but w’as received 
 with the greatest kindness by Henry VIII. 
 of England, and was for a short time professor 
 of Greek at Oxford. Erasmus died in 1536. 
 Besides his theological works, and his edi- 
 tions of the classics, he published an “ En- 
 comium on Folly,” which has been often 
 reprinted. His letters are of historical value. 
 His writings contributed largely to bring 
 about the Reformation, though he himself had 
 not the faith and courage to be a reformer. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, one of the greatest 
 mathematicians of antiquity; the first who 
 measured a degree of the meridian, and the 
 
 first who accurately determined the inclina- 
 tion of the earth’s axis to the plane of the 
 ecliptic. He flourished at Alexandria, and 
 died b.c. 195, aged eighty. 
 
 ERFURT, in Thuringia, belonging to Prus- 
 sia, contains at present 25,000 inhabitants. 
 It was founded in the fifth century. It main- 
 tained a kind of independence until the 
 seventeenth century, when the Elector of 
 Mentz gained possession of it. In 1814 it 
 was granted to Prussia by the congress of 
 Vienna. Erfurt was famous for the meeting 
 between Napoleon and the Emperor Alexan- 
 der with many other kings and princes, Sep- 
 tember 27th, 1808. Napoleon’s object was 
 the pacification of all Europe. He was now 
 at the summit of power and glory, and he 
 stood upon the very pinnacle of grandeur, 
 with a feeling of intense enjoyment. “ Come 
 to Erfurt,” he wrote exultingly to Talma, “and 
 you shall play to a whole pit full of kings.” 
 
 ERIE, Lake, one of the great fresh seas 
 that sunder the United States from the Brit- 
 ish dominions in America, is 270 miles in 
 length by from 25 to 5t> in breadth. On its 
 waters, Sept. 10th, 1813, a severe action was 
 fought between the British squadron and an 
 inferior force under Commodore Perry. “We 
 have met the enemy and they are ours,” was 
 Perry’s announcement of the victory to Gen. 
 Harrison. 
 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord Erskine, a cele- 
 brated lawyer, was the son of David Henry 
 Erskine, tenth Earl of Buchan, and was born 
 in the year 1750. It was not until aftir 
 he served some years in the army and navy 
 that he embraced the legal profession, at the 
 age of twenty-six. In 1778, he was admitted 
 to the bar, and his success was both speedy 
 and triumphant. During twenty -five years 
 he enjoyed an extensive practice. He was 
 appointed attorney-general to the Prince of 
 Wales, and, in 1802, keeper of his seals for 
 the duchy of Cornwall. He was lord-chan- 
 cellor during the short ministry of Fox and 
 Grenville in 1806. He died in 1823. His 
 popularity may be inferred from the fact that 
 his pamphlet, entitled “ A View of the Causes 
 and Consequences of the War with France,” 
 went through forty-eight editions. Though 
 celebrated as a forensic orator, he failed in 
 the House of Commons. 
 
 ESCURIAL, a magnificent palace, situated 
 
 ESC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 321 
 
 on the ascent to the chain of mountains bound- 
 ing Old Castile, twenty-two miles from Mad- 
 rid. It was erected by Philip II., in com- 
 memoration of the victory of St. Quentin, 
 gained over the French in 1557. The battle 
 was fought on the day of the festival of St. 
 Lawrence, and the palace was dedicated to 
 this saint, whose' instrument of martyrdom, 
 a gridiron, is immortalized in the disposition 
 of the buildings composing the Escurial. It 
 is said to have cost $50,000,000, and contains 
 many noble works of art. Through all its 
 apartments would be a journey of one hund- 
 red and twenty miles. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX, dwarfish tribes of North 
 America, occupying the northern coasts of 
 America. They live by hunting and fishing, 
 and are alike destitute of laws and religion. 
 They formerly put to death widows and 
 orphans, and those who, from age or misfor- 
 tune, were incapable of gaining a subsist- 
 ence. 
 
 ESSEX, Robert Devereux, Earl of, born 
 in 1567, was educated at Cambridge, and in- 
 troduced at court at an early age. He soon 
 won the regard of Queen Elizabeth, and on 
 his return from a campaign in the Low Coun- 
 tries, he was made master of horse. The 
 last of his two expeditions against Cadiz 
 failed from a misunderstanding between him 
 and Raleigh. Returning, Essex was made 
 earl-marshal of England, and master-general 
 of the ordnance. Essex was impetuous and 
 indiscreet. At the zenith of royal favor, he 
 took no care of his actions. At the council- 
 board, he contradicted the queen, who gave 
 him a smart box on the ear ; when he rose 
 in extreme wrath, clapped liis hand upon his 
 sword, and swore that he would not have 
 taken such an affront even from Henry VIII. 
 In Ireland, he made a composition with the 
 rebels, and quitted his government, without 
 leave for either proceeding. On his return 
 to London he was taken, tried, and beheaded, 
 February 25th, 1601. While in prison he is 
 said to have intrusted to the Countess of Not- 
 tingham a ring which he had received from 
 the queen, when high in favor, with the pro- 
 mise to pardon any offense on its presenta- 
 tion. Contrary to her pledge, the countess 
 retained the ring. She confessed her guilt 
 upon her death-bed, and Elizabeth is said to 
 
 21 
 
 have exclaimed, “ God may forgive you, but 
 I never will! ” 
 
 The son of Essex* after having served 
 Charles I., became a general of the parliamen- 
 tary party, but did not enjoy a high degree 
 of favor, and died suddenly in 1646. 
 
 ESSLING, a small village about seven 
 miles from Vienna. Here a dreadful conflict 
 was fought May 21st and 22d, 1809, between 
 the armies of France and Austria, commanded 
 by Napoleon and the Archduke Charles. 
 Napoleon was defeated with the loss of 30,000 
 men ; but the loss of the Austrians, also most 
 severe, exceeded 20,000. Marshal Massena 
 was created Duke of Essling by Bonaparte. 
 
 ESTAING, Charles Henry, Count d’, a 
 French admiral, and lieutenant-general of the 
 French armies, was the descendant of a noble 
 family, and commenced his career in the West 
 Indies. He was sent with a fleet to aid the 
 Americans during the Revolution. He was 
 guillotined in 1793. 
 
 ETRURIA, the country of the Etruscans, 
 now Tuscany. The Etruscans at a very early 
 age had received the arts from Greece, and 
 produced some most beautiful specimens. 
 They gave to the Romans their early relig- 
 ious usages and architecture, and finally 
 became the victims of Roman ambition. 
 
 In 1801 the name of Etruria was restored, 
 and the country was made a kingdom, and 
 remained so until amalgamated with the 
 French empire, by a senatorial decree of May 
 30th, 1808. The next year Eliza, the sister 
 of Napoleon, received this territory, with the 
 title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany. In 1814 
 its ancient rulers regained it. 
 
 EUCLID, the great mathematician, flour- 
 ished at Alexandria about 300 b.c. 
 
 EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy, commonly 
 called Prince Eugene, fifth son of Eugene 
 Mauri cfe, Duke of Savoy-Carignan, was born 
 at Paris in 1663. His mother was Olympia 
 Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarin. He was 
 educated for the church, but after the death 
 of his father, and the exile of his mother, he 
 and his brother Philip went to Vienna, where 
 they met with a gracious reception. In the 
 war which broke out with Turkey, Prince 
 Philip fell in battle, and left his command to 
 Eugene, who signalized himself at the siege 
 of Vienna in 1683, as he did afterward at 
 
 EUG 
 
322 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Buda. He next served against the French 
 in Italy ; and in 1 697 commanded the army 
 in Hungary, where he* gained a splendid vic- 
 tory at Zeuta, in which the Turks lost above 
 30,000 mon, with their commander the grand 
 vizier. On the breaking out of the war oc- 
 casioned by the disputes about the Spanish 
 succession, Eugene commanded the imperial- 
 ists in Italy, where he was opposed to Ville- 
 roi, whom he made prisoner. After this he 
 acted in conjunction with Marlborough. In 
 1712 the prince came to England to prevail 
 upon the court to continue the war, but 
 could not succeed. Compelled to act on the 
 defensive, he exerted himself to the utmost ; 
 and, in 1714, settled preliminary articles with 
 Marshal Villars at Rastadt, which ended soon 
 after in a general peace. 
 
 In 1716 the war with the Turks was re- 
 newed, and the prince again took the field 
 in Hungary, where he attacked the enemy in 
 their camp, and obtained a complete victory, 
 which was followed by the capture of Temes- 
 war and Belgrade. From this time to 1733 
 Eugene remained at Vienna, employed in the 
 cabinet ; but in that year he assumed the 
 command in Italy, where he experienced 
 various success in the contest with the com- 
 bined powers of France, Spain, and Sardinia. 
 He was found dead in his bed, April 10th, 
 1736. 
 
 EULER, Leonard, a mathematician of 
 Basle, born in 1707. He was educated at 
 the university of his native place. In his 
 nineteenth year he gained a prize from the 
 academy of Paris for the best treatise on the 
 masting of vessels. He took the department 
 of mathematics in the academy of St. Peters- 
 burg, and published a vast number of trea- 
 tises. In the French academy of sciences he 
 gained ten prizes. In 1741 he became pro- 
 fessor in ihe Berlin academy, but returned to 
 St. Petersburg, where he died in 1783, in the 
 office of director of the mathematical depart- 
 ment. Throughout his life, he received hon- 
 ors from all quarters. He was cheerful and 
 amiable in private life, although the last 
 seventeen years of his existence were passed 
 in total blindness. 
 
 EUPATORIA, a seaport on the west coast 
 of the Crimea. After the allied English, 
 French, and Turkish armies landed here, 
 Sept 14th, 1854, a detachment of Turks 
 
 occupied the place. It was attacked Feb. 
 17th, 1855, by a large force of Russians un- 
 der Liprandi, who were repulsed. 
 
 EURIPIDES, a celebrated tragic poet, in 
 great favor with Archelaus of Macedonia, 
 was born at Salamis on the day that the army 
 of Xerxes was roujted by the Athenians. He 
 wrote seventy -five tragedies, only nineteen 
 of which are extant. Euripides was called 
 Misogynes for his hatred of women, and par- 
 ticularly of his own wife. In the seventy- 
 fifth year of his age, b.c. 405, he was torn 
 to pieces by dogs. 
 
 EUROPE, the least extensive, but the 
 most improved of the great divisions of the 
 globe, is situated between 36° and 71° N. lati- 
 tude. It contains about 3,900,000 square 
 miles, with a population of 265,000,000, and 
 is bounded by the sea in all directions except 
 the east, where it joins Asia. 
 
 The following is a list of the states of Eu- 
 rope, classified according to their forms of 
 government, j Republics: Andorra (among 
 the Pyrenees), Ionian Islands, San Marino, 
 Switzerland, and the free cities of Bremen, 
 Frankfort, Hamburg, and Lubeck. Limited 
 Sovereignties : the duchies of Brunswick, 
 Nassau, Saxe Altenburg, Saxe Coburg and 
 Gotha, Saxe Meiningen Hildburghausen, and 
 Saxe W eimar Eisenach ; the grand-duchies 
 of Baden, Hesse Darmstadt, Mecklenburg 
 Schwerin, Mecklenburg Strelitz, and Olden- 
 burg; the kingdoms of Bavaria, Belgium, 
 Denmark, Great Britain, Greece, Hanover, 
 Holland (with the duchy of Luxemburg), 
 Portugal, Prussia, Sardinia, Saxony, Spain, 
 Sweden and Norway, and Wurtemburg; 
 the empire of France; the electorate of 
 Hesse Cassel ; and the principalities of Lich- 
 tenstein, Lippe Detmold, Schauenburg Lippe, 
 Reuss, Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, Schwarz- 
 burg Sondershausen, and Waldeck. Absolute 
 Sovereignties: the duchies of Anhalt Bern- 
 burg, Anhalt Dessau Cothen, Modena and 
 Massa, and Parma ; the empires of Austria, 
 Russia, and Turkey ; the popedom of the 
 States of the Church , the landgraviate of 
 Hesse Homburg ; the principalities of Monaco 
 and Montenegro ; the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies ; and the grand-duchy of Tuscany. 
 
 EUSEBIUS. There were several bishops 
 of this name in the same epoch, who are 
 
 often confounded. The first is the most 
 
 # 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 323 
 
 famous. Eusebius Pamphvlus, Bishop of 
 Caesarea, flourished a. d. 270-340. Eusebius, 
 Bishop of Nicomedia, an Arian, died 841. 
 Eusebius, Bishop of Emessa, a theological 
 writer, flourished 340-60. Eusebius, Bishop 
 of Vercelli, an Athanasian theological writer, 
 flourished 354—70. 
 
 EUTAW SPRINGS, S. C., Battle of, one 
 of the most severely contested battles of the 
 Revolution, fought Sept. 8th, 1781. Both 
 sides claimed the victory: it belonged to 
 neither, but the advantage was with the 
 Americans. Gen. Greene s forcen umbered 
 2,300, a third of whom were militia ; out of 
 which 152 were kill'ed, 424 wounded, and 40 
 missing. The loss of the British was 693, of 
 whom 85 were killed on the field. Greene 
 took 500 prisoners. This was virtually the 
 close of the campaign in South Carolina. 
 
 EUTROPIUS, Flavius, a Latin author 
 who flourished about a. d. 360. 
 
 EVELYN, John (1620-1706,) an English 
 gentleman of easy fortune, who wrote several 
 scientific works in a popular style. He was 
 one of the first in England to treat gardening 
 and planting scientifically. 
 
 EVERETT, Edward, the orator, scholar 
 and diplomatist, was born in Dedham, Mass., 
 April 11, 1794. He was graduated at Har- 
 vard College at the age of 17, with the high- 
 est honors of his class, gave the Phi Beta 
 » Kappa poem at 18, succeeded the gifted Buck- 
 minster in Brattle Street Church at 19. 
 Elected to a Greek Professorship in Harvard 
 College, with permission to visit Europe, he 
 spent four years in study in Germany and in 
 travel. In 1824 he gained great celebrity as 
 an orator and thinker by his Phi Beta Kappa 
 oration. His occasional orations and ad- 
 dresses from that time till his death, pro- 
 nounced at Plymouth, Concord, Charles- 
 town, Lexington, and other places, linked 
 with revolutionary traditions and glory — eu- 
 logies on Washington, Jefferson, the elder 
 and younger Adams, and anniversary and 
 philanthropic discourses secured for him the 
 preeminent position among the accomplished 
 orators of America. In 1825-35 he was a 
 Member of Congress — then four years Gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts. In 1841 he became 
 Minister to England, and in the negotiation 
 of the Northeastern Boundary question, the 
 McLeod and Creole affairs he displayed great 
 
 ability and statesmanship. He became Pres- 
 ident of Harvard Coll, in 1849, Secretary of 
 State under President Fillmore in 1852, U. 
 S. Senator in 1853, (but resigned on account 
 of ill health,) and candidate for the Vice 
 Presidency in 1860 with John Bell of Tenn. 
 
 Emerging from private life at the opening 
 of the rebellion he gave himself with patriotic 
 ardor to the defense of nis country. He was 
 chosen to give the oration at the consecration 
 of the cemetery at Gettysburg. His death 
 was followed by an official order by President 
 Lincoln, setting forth “ the learning, elo- 
 quence, unsurpassed and disinterested labors 
 of patriotism in a time of political disorder” 
 of the deceased, and ordering appropriate 
 honors to be rendered to his memory wher- 
 ever the national name and authority are 
 recognized. 
 
 His published works are “ Life of Wash- 
 ington,” and three volumes of Orations and 
 Addresses. 
 
 EWING, Jonx, a celebrated American di- 
 vine and mathematician, was born in Cecil 
 Co., Md., June 22d, 1732, and was gradua- 
 ted at Princeton Coll, in 1755. He became, 
 in 1759, pastor of the First Presbyterian con- 
 gregation in Philadelphia, and instructed the 
 philosophical classes in the College there. 
 He was provost of the University of Phila- 
 delphia from 1775 till his death, Sept. 8, 1802. 
 
 EXMOUTH, Lord. Edward Pellew was 
 born at Dover, April 19th, 1757. Entering 
 the'navy, he was raised 6tep by step till he 
 reached the rank of admiral. In 1816 he 
 bombarded Algiers, and rescued more than 
 1000 Christians who had been groaning in 
 Algerine captivity. For this noble exploit 
 he was raised to the peerage. On his coat of 
 arms was emblazoned a figure new to herald- 
 ry, a Christian slave holding aloft the cross 
 and dropping his broken fetter. He died 
 January 23d, 1832. 
 
 EYCK, John and Hubert van, artists who 
 flourished at Ghent and Bruges in the begin- 
 ning of the fifteenth century, are said to have 
 discovered the method of mixing paints in 
 oil or varnish. 
 
 EYLAU, a small town in Prussia, where 
 Napoleon won a great victory over the Rus- 
 sians on the 7th and 8th of Feb., 1807. The 
 French lost 15,000 men, the Russians in slain 
 alone, 20,000. 
 
 EYL 
 
324 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 F. 
 
 FABIUS MAXIMUS, a celebrated Roman 
 who, from a dull and unpromising childhood, 
 sprang into a maturity of valor and heroism, 
 and was gradually raised by his merit to the 
 highest offices in the state. In his first con- 
 sulship he gained a victory over Liguria, and 
 the fatal battle of Thrasymene occasioned his 
 election to the dictatorship. In this impor- 
 tant office he began to oppose Hannibal, not 
 by fighting him in the open field like his 
 predecessors, but by continually harassing his 
 army by countermarches and ambuscades, 
 for which he received the surname of Cunc- 
 tator ) or ‘delayer.’ When he had laid down 
 his office of dictator, his successors, for a 
 while, followed his plan ; but the rashness 
 of Yarro, and his contempt for the operations 
 of Fabius, occasioned the fatal battle of 
 Cannae; and, on that occasion, the Cartha- 
 ginian general observed that Fabius was the 
 Hannibal of Rome. When he had made an 
 agreement with Hannibal, for the ransom of 
 the captives, which was totally disapproved 
 by the Roman senate, he sold all his estates 
 to pay the money, rather than forfeit his 
 word. The bold proposal of young Scipio 
 to carry the war from Italy into Africa, was 
 regarded as chimerical by Fabius, and re- 
 jected by him as too hazardous an experi- 
 ment. He did not live to see the success 
 of the Roman arms under Scipio, and the 
 conquest of Carthage by measures which he 
 treated with contempt, and heard proposed 
 with indignation. He died in his one hun- 
 dredth year, 202 b.c., after he had been five 
 times consul. 
 
 FABRICIUS, Caius, surnamed Luscinus, 
 a truly heroic and virtuous Roman, incor- 
 ruptible at a time when wealth was almost 
 omnipotent, and preserving a fearless bearing 
 in the presence of the mightiest. He lived 
 at a time of danger to the commonwealth, 
 when Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, had come to 
 Italy, less, for the purpose of affording aid to 
 the Tarentines, than of acquiring a military 
 reputation by conquering the masters of the 
 world. When he was sent on an embassy 
 to Pyrrhus for the purpose of redeeming 
 some prisoners, that king attempted to cor- 
 
 rupt his fidelity by a bribe, which was indig- 
 nantly refused. The king on the next day 
 ordered a curtain to be suddenly drawn, dis- 
 playing to view an elephant of enormous 
 size, a creature hitherto unknown in Italy. 
 The brave Fabricius calmly said, “Your 
 beast of to-day moves me no more than your 
 gold of yesterday.” He died 275 b.c. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, inventor 
 of the thermometer which bears his name, 
 about 1726, was a physician and philosopher 
 of Dantzic. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Lord Thomas, was born at 
 Denton, in Yorkshire, in 1611. He entered 
 into military service under Lord Vere, in 
 Holland, and on the breaking out of the civil 
 wars took part against the king. Afterward, 
 however, the jealousy of Cromwell disgusted 
 him with the Puritans, although he continued 
 in the employ of the government. He as- 
 sisted in the Restoration, was reconciled to 
 Charles II., and died in 1671. 
 
 FAIRIES. Almost all nations have, in 
 ignorant times, possessed a strong belief in 
 the supernatural, which has been continued 
 to the present day, among the unenlightened. 
 Wild and terrific scenes were peopled by the 
 imagination with fierce and fearful beings, 
 while flowery dells, sequestered glades, green 
 and smiling forests, and pleasant water-falls 
 were selected as the haunts of a gentler and 
 more graceful race of beings than belong to 
 humanity. Pastoral nations delighted to pic- 
 ture forms of miniature elegance, whose 
 habitations were delicate and fragrant flow- 
 ers. The fairy queen Titania hung like a 
 bee or butterfly within a harebell, or led the 
 gay dance by moonlight over roses, without 
 bending the most fragile floweret or leaf be- 
 neath her footstep. The beings called fairies 
 were at first termed elves, the word ‘elf’ 
 originating with the Saxons, who from re- 
 mote antiquity believed in them. 
 
 The Laplanders, Icelanders, and inhabit- 
 ants of Finland believed in the existence of 
 fairies. Many affirmed that they had had 
 intercourse with them, and had been invited 
 to their subterranean retreats, where they 
 were hospitably entertained. The little men 
 
 FAI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 825 
 
 and women handed round wine and tobacco, 
 with which the mortal visitors were supplied 
 in abundance, and afterward sent them on 
 their way, with good advice, and an honorable 
 escort. Up to this time, these people boast 
 of mingling in the magical ceremonies and 
 dances of the fairies. 
 
 The word fairy is thought, by most writers, 
 to be derived from the Persian, and the char- 
 acter of the English fairies and the Persian 
 Peris is similar. The Peris of the orientals 
 are represented as females of exquisite beauty 
 and great gentleness, who are not permitted 
 to reside in heaven. They are not of earth, 
 howbeit. They live in the colors of the 
 rainbow, among the gorgeously tinted clouds, 
 and are nourished by the fragrance of sweet 
 flowers. The Dives of the Persians were 
 spirits of the male sex, with habits and dis- 
 positions directly contrary to those of the 
 Peris. They were malevolent, cruel, and 
 fierce, and hideous in their appearance. 
 Huge spiral horns sprang from their heads ; 
 their eyes were large and staring, their 
 claws sharp and their fangs terrific. Covered 
 with shaggy hair, and having long rough 
 tails, it seemed as if they possessed every 
 deformity. The Dives warred with mankind, 
 and pursued the Peris with unrelenting 
 hatred. Their lives, however, were limited, 
 and they were not incapable of feeling 
 personal violence. The fancies of the in- 
 habitants of the East teem with supernatural 
 beings. The Genii, spirits of vast size, were 
 said to have been imprisoned by Solomon, 
 who shut them up in caskets upon which he 
 placed his seal. Some were thrown into 
 rivers. A fisherman once drew one up from 
 the bottom of a stream in his net, and the 
 vessel being opened, a dense smoke arose 
 from the interior. The smoke gradually 
 assumed the vast figure of a Genius. The 
 whole story is related in the “ Arabian Nights’ 
 Entertainments.” 
 
 Fairies of a certain class, such as the war- 
 like elves or fays, were believed to exist by 
 all European nations. During times of mili- 
 tary enthusiasm, the fancy of warriors saw 
 processions of fairies, well armed and 
 mounted, bearing gorgeous banners ; their 
 weapons glittering in the moonlight, or 
 gleaming like lightning on the darkness of 
 the night. A Bohemian legend says that a 
 
 certain knight, traveling with a friend, met 
 one of these nocturnal processions, and, dis- 
 regarding the caution of his companion, 
 spurred his horse forward to attack them. 
 Horse and rider were found dead upon the 
 spot in the morning. The Swedes asserted 
 that there was a certain class of supernatural* 
 beings, pretty much the same as the Brownies 
 of Scotland, who assisted the miners, labored 
 in the shafts, and were far more ingenious 
 than mortal workmen. 
 
 The fairies of England were generally of a 
 harmless disposition. Oberon and Titania, 
 the fairy king and queen, were pleasant little 
 people, with a spice of humanity in their 
 dispositions. Robin Goodfellow was a mis- 
 chievous little creature, but not very spiteful. 
 He was represented like a rustic, “in a suit 
 of leather, close to his body, his hands and 
 face russet color, with a flail.” The Scottish 
 fairies were certainly guilty of great devia- 
 tions from the path of honesty. One of their 
 greatest sins was that of stealing fine children 
 from their cradles, and leaving in the place 
 of a healthy infant a rickety and deformed 
 being. The elves often stole away wives from 
 their husbands, and these women were only 
 to be regained by confronting the fairy pro- 
 cession on a certain night, within a year and 
 a day after the loss, which time was allowed 
 the bereaved mortals for restitution. The 
 electrical circles which are sometimes found 
 upon the turf were believed to be fairy rings, 
 within which it was thought dangerous to 
 sleep, or to be found after sunset. The 
 Scotch fairies were of diminutive stature, of 
 a doubtful nature, capricious and very resent- 
 ful. The Scotch were afraid to speak of them 
 disrespectfully, and even called malicious 
 spirits, “gude people.” 
 
 These fairies lived in green hills, on which 
 they danced by moonlight. The interior 
 of their habitations is described as presenting 
 a most beautiful appearance, brilliant with 
 glittering gold and gems, and containing 
 every thing which a splendid fancy could 
 contrive. But as “ all is not gold that glit- 
 ters, ” these fine appearances are said to be 
 a show, put on to conceal a mean or repulsive 
 reality. 
 
 These little beings are admirable riders, 
 and the best judges of horses in the world. 
 They go about in large companies by night, 
 
 FAI 
 
826 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 when their presence is disclosed by the shrill, 
 bell-like ringing of their bridles. When the 
 little men find their steeds jaded, they do not 
 scruple to continue their pleasure at the ex- 
 pense of mortals. They steal horses, and 
 ride them almost to death. The animals are 
 found in the morning in their stalls panting 
 and flecked with foam, with their manes and 
 tails matted and twisted. The shrewd reader 
 w ill guess that the fairies often had to bear 
 blame which belonged to careless grooms. 
 
 A sailor on the Isle of Man, who was 
 riding to visit his sister, was invited by a 
 party of jolly fairies who were hunting, to 
 join them in their excursion. Not being 
 aware of the nature of the little men, who 
 made a gay appearance, as they swept by in 
 green dresses, riding to the music of a mellow 
 horn, Jack followed on, delighted, and only 
 learned his danger when he arrived at his 
 sister’s house. These diminutive huntsmen 
 used to seize upon the horses which English 
 residents brought over to the Isle of Man, 
 and ride them without ceremony. A gentle- 
 man of the island attributed the loss of half 
 a dozen capital hunters, to the little men in 
 green. Sometimes they were more honest, 
 and paid good money for horses to which 
 they took a fancy. A man who had a fine 
 horse to sell, was once riding his steed among 
 the mountains, when a dapper little gentleman 
 stepped up, and examined it. He made the 
 animal show his paces, and, after some hag- 
 gling about the price, bought him. All this 
 was well enough ; but when the seller dis- 
 mounted, the purchaser, having fixed him- 
 self in the saddle, sank through the earth 
 with his bargain. The man who beheld all 
 this, was somewhat startled, but as there was 
 no mistake about the hard red gold which he 
 had received from the fairy horseman, he put 
 it in his pocket, and marched off. 
 
 The Brownies were singular beings, mea- 
 gre, shaggy, and wild in their appearance. 
 The Brownie, in the day-time, lurked in re- 
 mote recesses of the old houses which he 
 delighted to haunt, and in the night sedu- 
 lously employed himself in discharging any 
 laborious task which he thought might be 
 acceptable to the family to whose service he 
 had devoted himself. But, unlike a servant, 
 he did not labor in the hope of wages : on 
 the contrary, an offer of recompense, particu- 
 
 larly of food, drove this delicate gentleman 
 away forever. He was fond of stretching 
 himself at length before the fire, like a dog, 
 and this appeared to give him the highest 
 satisfaction. An amusing anecdote is told 
 concerning this habit. A Brownie who had 
 attached himself to a certain house, used to 
 hover round the kitchen, uneasy if the ser- 
 vants sat up late, which prevented him from 
 occupying his place upon the hearth. Some- 
 times the impatient Brownie appeared at the 
 door, and admonished the servants in the 
 following terms : “ Gang a’ to your beds, sirs, 
 and dinna put out the wee grieshoch ; ” thus 
 anglicized, “Go to your beds, all of you, and 
 don’t put out the few embers.” The Brownie 
 left the hearth at the first crow of the cock. 
 
 In this liking for a nap by the fire, the 
 Brownie resembled Miltons lubber fiend, 
 but the latter toiled for hire : 
 
 “ How the drudging goblin sweat, 
 
 To earn his cream-bowl duly set, 
 
 When in one night, ere glimpse of morn, 
 
 His shadowy flail hath threshed the corn, 
 
 That ten day -laborers could not end ; 
 
 Then lies him down the lubber fiend, 
 
 And, stretched out all the chimney’s length, 
 Basks at the tire his hairy strength; 
 
 And cropful out of door he flings, 
 
 Ere the first cock his matin rings.” 
 
 V Allegro, 
 
 The last Brownie known in Ettrick Forest 
 resided in Bodsbeck, a wild and solitary spot, 
 where he exercised his functions undisturbed, 
 till the scrupulous devotion of an old lady 
 induced her to hire him away, as it was 
 termed, by placing in his haunt a porringer 
 of milk and a piece of money. This hint to 
 depart he did not require to be repeated : all 
 the night he was heard to howl and cry, 
 “Farewell to bonny Bodsbeck,” which before 
 the dawn he had abandoned forever. 
 
 The inhabitants of Germany believe that 
 there exists a race called the Stille Volke ; 
 ‘ the silent people.’ To every family of emu 
 nence a family of the Stille Volke is at- 
 tached, containing just as many members 
 as the mortal family. When the lady of the 
 mortal family becomes a mother, the queen 
 of the Stille Volke enjoys the same blessing, 
 and the silent people endeavor to ward off 
 any injury which threatens those whom they 
 protect. 
 
 It would be impossible to enumerate all the 
 different sprites with which superstition has 
 
 FAI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 327 
 
 filled the woods, waters, hills, and valleys of 
 Europe. A few of the most agreeable elves 
 have been touched upon. It is not worth 
 while to present the dark features of a gloomy 
 superstition. The Kelpies and the Wild 
 Huntsmen have found no place in this sketch. 
 
 The legends of the Irish are generally gay, 
 exhibiting the character of that poor but 
 pleasant people. The Irish fairies are spruce 
 little gentlemen and merry little ladies, who 
 trip it away with blithe hearts and light foot- 
 steps upon their favorite and beautiful places 
 of resort. Poor people delight to describe 
 wealth and splendor which they do not pos- 
 sess, and, accordingly, in the tales of the 
 Irish, the palaces of the “good people” are 
 full of gold and brilliance. 
 
 FALCONER, William, was born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1730, and brought up to the sea. 
 An occurrence in his own life forms the 
 groundwork of his fine poem, “The Ship- 
 wreck.” He was lost at sea in 1769. 
 
 FALIERI, Marino, Doge of Venice, in the 
 fourteenth century, having, previously to his 
 elevation, gained brilliant victories for the 
 republic. Michael Steno, a young patrician, 
 who conceived himself injured, revenged him- 
 self by some offensive lines directed against 
 the honor of the doge’s wife. For this he was 
 only punished by a temporary confinement, 
 and the doge, burning for deeper revenge, 
 formed a plan for punishing the aristocracy 
 and annihilating the power of the senate. 
 This, however, was discovered, and Falieri 
 put to death in 1355. Lord Byron and 
 Casimir Dtlavigne have made this story the 
 subject of powerful dramas. 
 
 FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingshire in 
 Scotland, where the army of Scots commanded 
 by Cumyn and Sir William Wallace, was de- 
 feated by Edward I. of England, July 22d, 
 1298. Between 20,000 and 40,000 of the 
 Scotch were slain. A battle was fought at 
 Falkirk, Jan. 18th, 1746, between the army 
 of George II. and the adherents of Prince 
 Charles Stuart, in which the latter were suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 FALKLAND, Lucius Carey, Viscount, 
 was born in 1610. His juvenile irregularities 
 were terminated by an early marriage with a 
 young lady to whom he was sincerely at- 
 tached. In parliament he distinguished him- 
 self by an independent course, although he 
 
 ultimately espoused the royal cause, and 
 perished at the battle of Newbury, at the 
 age of thirty -four. His private character 
 endeared him to all. He was fond of study, 
 and once observed, “ I pity unlearned gentle- 
 men on a rainy day.” Lord Falkland was a 
 high-minded patriot. Lord Clarendon eulo- 
 gized him, as “ a person of such prodigious 
 parts of learning and knowledge, of that 
 inimitable sweetness and delight in conversa- 
 tion, of so flowing and obliging a humanity 
 and goodness to mankind, and of that primi- 
 tive simplicity and integrity of life, that if 
 there were no other brand upon this odious 
 and accursed civil war than that single loss, 
 it must be most infamous and execrable to all 
 posterity.” 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group compris- 
 ing two large and numerous small islands, 
 mountainous and boggy, in the South At- 
 lantic Ocean, east of the Straits of Magellan. 
 The harbor of Port Louis is a convenient 
 place of refit and refreshment for vessels 
 rQunding Cape Horn. They were discovered 
 in 1592, and belong to Great Britain. 
 
 FAMINE in Egypt, which lasted seven 
 years, 1708 b.c. At Rome, when many 
 persons threw themselves into the Tiber, 
 436 b.c. In Britain, so that the inhabitants 
 ate the barks of trees, 272 a.d. One in Scot- 
 land, where thousands were starved, 306. 
 In England and Wales, where 40,000 were 
 starved, 310. All over Britain, 325. At 
 Constantinople, 446. In Italy, where parents 
 ate their children, 450. In Scotland, 576. 
 AH over England, Wales, and Scotland, 739. 
 Another in Wales, 747. In Wales and Scot- 
 land, 792. Again in Scotland, 803. Again 
 in Scotland, when thousands were starved, 
 823. A severe one in Wales, 836. In Scot- 
 land, which lasted four years, 954. Famines 
 in England, 864, 974, 976, 1005. Awful one 
 throughout Europe, 1016. In Scotland, 
 which lasted two years, 1047. In England, 
 1050, 1087. In England and France, leading 
 to a pestilential fever, from 1193 to 1195. 
 In England, 1251, 1315, 1335. During that of 
 1315, the people fed on horses, cats, and dogs. 
 In England and France, called the dear sum- 
 mer, 1353. In England, 1438, so great that 
 bread was made of fern root. In 1565 two 
 millions were expended on the importation 
 of corn. One in 1748. Another in 1795, 
 
828 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and in 1801. In the diocese of Drontheim, 
 in Norway, in consequence of the intercept- 
 ing of supplies by Sweden, 5,000 persons 
 perished, 1813. 
 
 The failure of the potato crop in Ireland, in 
 1846 and the three following years, caused 
 great want and suffering. In 1871 thousands 
 perished in Persia by famine. In some cases 
 men fed upon the flesh of the dead. 
 
 FARR AG UT, David Glascoe, a cele- 
 brated American Admiral, born at Knoxville, 
 Tenn., July 5, 1801. His father was a Span- 
 iard. He entered the navy in 1812, and be- 
 came lieutenant in 1821. In 1824 he was 
 assigned to duty at the Norfolk navy yard 
 where he remained until 1833. During this 
 year, he married Hiss Virginia Loyall, of 
 Norfolk. He was commissioned commander 
 in 1841. In 1854 he was appointed com- 
 mander of the navy yard at Mare Island, 
 California, and obtained the rank of captain 
 in 1855. In 1861 he went to Washington 
 and offered his services to the government, 
 and for some time was a member of the na- 
 val retiring board. In 1862 he was placed in 
 command of a naval force fitted out for^ the 
 capture of New Orleans. Farragut distin- 
 guished himself in the management of this 
 expedition, and on the 24tli of April the city 
 surrendered. In July, 1862, he was made 
 rear-admiral. He afterwards co-operated 
 successfully in the attacks on Vicksburg, 
 Port Hudson, and Mobile, and Congress, in 
 1864, recognizing the country’s obligations 
 to Farragut, created for him the office of 
 vice-admiral. In July, 1866, he was made 
 admiral. He died at Portsmouth, N. II., on 
 the 14 h of August, 1870. His public funeral 
 took place in New York, on the 30th of Sep- 
 tember, and his remains were interred at 
 AVoodlawn cemetery. 
 
 FAUST, Doctor John, a dealer in the 
 black art, who lived in the fifteenth century 
 lie was a student of Wittembu g, but aban- 
 doned theology for magic. He figures in 
 many old romances and tales, English and 
 German. The following is a sketch of 
 one of these ; “ The History of the Damnable 
 Life and Deserved Death of Doctor John 
 Faust us.” This romance is a translation from 
 the German. Faustus is introduced as a stu- 
 dent of the university of Wittemberg, where 
 
 he is made doctor of divinity, but soon after 
 gives himself up entirely to the study of the 
 black art. He makes a compact with the 
 devil, by which the latter is to serve him in 
 all his desires for the space of twenty -four 
 years, at the expiration of which he is to 
 deliver himself up, body and soul, to the 
 destroyer. This compact is written with his 
 own blood, and straightway Mephistophiles 
 becomes his familiar spirit. Generally speak- 
 ing, this spirit is obedient to the wishes of 
 Faustus, but when the doctor puts an impro- 
 per question, or tries to do a good action, 
 Mephistophiles dragoons him into propriety 
 by a rabble rout of imps, or frightens him 
 with a cock and a bull story about the other 
 world, giving him a foretaste of the pleasant 
 pastime of being- “tossed upon pitchforks 
 from one devil to another.” On one occa- 
 sion, in particular, a great procession of evil 
 spirits came to torment him, in which pro- 
 cession Lucifer appears “in a manner of a 
 man all hairy, but of a brown color like a 
 squirrel, curled, and his tail turning upward 
 on his back as the squirrels use. I think he 
 could crack nuts too like a squirrel.” 
 
 Then a minute account is given of Faus- 
 tus’s journey to Tartarus, and through the 
 air, and among the planets, and afterward 
 through the most famous kingdoms of the 
 earth, whereby it appears that he, and not 
 Columbus, was the discoverer of America. 
 Of course the magic doctor was deeply read 
 in all mysteries, and he certainly discourses 
 wisely upon comets, and falling stars, and 
 other marvels. One chapter relates “how 
 Faustus was asked a question concerning 
 thunder.” Ilis answer is certainly very 
 luminous for a doctor in divinity and the 
 black art. “It hath commonly been seen 
 heretofore,” says he, “that before a thunder- 
 clap fell a shower of rain, or a gale of wind: 
 for commonly after wind falleth rain, and 
 after rain a thunder-clap, such thickness 
 comes to pass when the four winds meet 
 together in the heavens, the airy clouds are 
 by force beaten against the fixed crystal 
 firmament, but when the airy clouds meet 
 with the. firmament, they are congealed, ar.d 
 so strike, and rush against the firmament, 
 as great pieces of ice when they meet on the 
 waters; then each other sounded in our 
 ears ; and that we call thunder.” Afterward 
 
 FAU 
 
HI STORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 329 
 
 comes a series of the doctor’s merry con- 
 ceits, showing how he practiced necromancy ; 
 how he transported three young dukes 
 through the air from Wittemberg to Munich; 
 and how one of them fell from the magic 
 cloak on which they sailed through the air, 
 and was left behind at Munich, being 
 “strucken into an exceeding dumps.” We 
 are also told how he pawned his leg to a 
 Jew; how he ate a load of hay, and how he 
 cheated a horse-jockey, and conjured the 
 wheels from a clown’s wagon, with many 
 other wonders of a similar nature. And 
 finally, we are informed that, at the end of 
 the appointed time, the evil one came for him 
 between twelve and one o’clock at night, and 
 after dashing his brains out against the wall, 
 left his body in the yard, “ most monstrously 
 torn and fearful to behold.” 
 
 FAWKES, Guy, the principal agent in the 
 gunpowder plot, in the reign of James I., 
 who, being discovered, and having betrayed 
 his accomplices to the number of eighty, 
 was executed in 1606. [See Gunpowder 
 Plot.] 
 
 FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la 
 Motte, the venerable Archbishop of Cam- 
 bray, was born in 1651. He preached at the 
 age of fifteen with success, and was appointed 
 Archbishop of Cambray in 1694. He had 
 great success in converting the Huguenots, 
 but it was by means of mild persuasion and 
 not of infuriate threats. He superintended 
 the education of the Dukes of Burgundy, 
 Anjou, and Berri, the grandsons of Louis 
 XIV. Fenelon died in 1715. His literary 
 productions are numerous, but his most cele- 
 brated work is “Les Aventures de Ttle- 
 maque,” which inculcates a pure system of 
 morality in a pleasing and interesting man- 
 ner. 
 
 FERDINAND V., surnamed the Catholic, 
 son of John II. of Arragon, was born in 
 1453. He married Isabella, Queen of Cas- 
 tile, and thus arose the united kingdom of 
 Spain. In ten years he conquered the Moors 
 of Grenada, and expelled them from Spain 
 in 1492. He acquired Naples - and Navarre, 
 and during his reign America was discov- 
 ered by Columbus. He died in 1516 of the 
 dropsy. His policy was despotic, and his 
 character was stained by the introduction 
 of the Inquisition. 
 
 FERGUSON, James, a self-taught experi- 
 mental philosopher, mechanist, and astrono- 
 mer, was born in Keith in 1710. While a 
 shepherd, he watched the stars by night, and 
 at an early age constructed a celestial globe. 
 For some years he supported himself in 
 Edinburgh by his talents as a miniature 
 painter. In 1763 he was chosen member 
 of the Royal Society. He died in 1778. 
 
 FERRARA, a duchy in upper Italy, for a 
 long time ruled by the house of Este, now 
 forming part of the States of the Church. 
 
 FESCH, Joseph, Cardinal, the maternal 
 uncle of Napoleon Bonaparte, and Archbishop 
 of Lyons, was bom at Ajaccio, in 1763, and 
 died in 1839. 
 
 FEUDAL or FEODAL LAWS, the tenure 
 of land, by suit and service, to the lord or 
 owner of it, introduced into England by the 
 Saxons about 600. The slavery of this ten- 
 ure was increased under William I., 1068, 
 who, dividing the kingdom into baronies, 
 gave them to certain persons, and required 
 these persons to furnish the king with money 
 and a stated number of soldiers. The feudal 
 system was discountenanced in France by 
 Lous XI. about 1470; was limited in England 
 by Henry VII., in 1495 ; but abolished by 
 statute, 12th Charles II., 1663. Clanship 
 was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
 in 1008, and finally broken up by statute in 
 1746. 
 
 FEZZAN, anciently Phazania, is a country 
 of Africa, south of Tripoli. No exact es- 
 timate of the population has been made. It 
 perhaps amounts to rather more than 26,000. 
 Fezzan is the largest oasis in the great des- 
 ert. It is now a Turkish pachalic. 
 
 FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, an eminent 
 German thinker, was born in Upper Lusatia, 
 May 19th, 1762, and died Jan. 21st, 1814. 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, one of the earliest 
 and greatest English novelists, was bom at 
 Sharpham Park, Somersetshire, April 22d, 
 1707. He was a great-grandson of the Earl 
 of Denbigh. The Earls of Denbigh derived 
 their origin from the house of Hapsburgh, 
 which supplied emperors to Germany and 
 kings to Spain. Gibbon used this fact to 
 point his eulogy upon the novelist, who had 
 won for himself a more durable glory than 
 that of noble birth : “ The successors of 
 Charles V. may disdain their brethren of 
 
 FIE 
 
330 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 England ; but the romance of ‘ Tom Jones,’ 
 that exquisite picture of human manners, 
 will outlive the palace of the Escurial and 
 the imperial eagle of the house of Austria.” 
 Henry’s father served under Marlborough 
 and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general ; 
 his mother was a daughter of Mr. Justice 
 Gould. The general had a large family and 
 was a bad economist ; Henry was educated 
 at Eton and Leyden, where he studied dili- 
 gently ; and then at twenty-one he was 
 thrown upon his own resources. He came 
 to London, and, as he said, must “ become a 
 hackney writer or a hackney coachman.” 
 He lived precariously by writing poor pieces 
 for the stage. In 1736 he married Miss 
 Cradock, who had beauty and £1500, and 
 inherited from his mother an estate in Dor- 
 setshire worth £200 a year. In Dorsetshire 
 he lived dashingly and in three years was 
 penniless. Then dramatic writing again, 
 political pamphleteering, an attempt to sub- 
 sist as a barrister, and failures as a journalist ; 
 till in 1742 he published “Joseph Andrews,” 
 which he wrote in ridicule of Richardson’s 
 “Pamela,” The revels and good fellowship 
 of which he was so fond brought gout upon 
 him, and he suffered severely from that and 
 poverty. His wife, who was his model for 
 his heroines, died, and he was whelmed in 
 grief. Her maid was almost broken-hearted 
 at the loss of so good a mistress. The bond 
 of sympathy became a stronger one, and 
 Fielding made the maid his wife. Poverty 
 forced him to accept, in December, 1748, 
 what was then considered the degrading 
 office of Bow-street magistrate, the duties of 
 which he honorably discharged. “Tom 
 Jones,” that master-piece among English 
 novels, was published in February, 1749, and 
 “Amelia” in 1751. His constitution was 
 shattered ; dropsy, jaundice, and asthma had 
 seized him ; and his physicians warned him 
 to seek a warmer clime. He sailed for Lis- 
 bon, and died there October 8th, 1754, in the 
 forty-eighth year of his age. 
 
 The dissipation and errors of Fielding’s 
 life are not to be palliated, but through them 
 all shines a noble and kindly nature. “Tom 
 Jones ” has been pronounced the best novel 
 in the language. This, and Fielding’s other 
 tales, though touched by the grossness of the 
 time, display inimitable wit, wisdom, humor, 
 
 and are wonderful for their truth to life and 
 yet the raciest originality. 
 
 FIFTH MONARCHY MEN. These were 
 fanatical enthusiasts who arose in the time 
 of Oliver Cromwell, and believed the day 
 was at hand when Jesus should descend from 
 heaven, and erect the fifth universal mon- 
 archy. Cromwell dispersed them in 1653. 
 
 FINGAL, an ancient chieftain of Morven, 
 a province of Caledonia, born in 282. He 
 was the determined enemy of the Romans, 
 and is celebrated by Ossian, who represents 
 him as his father. 
 
 FISHER, John, Bishop of Rochester, was 
 born in 1459. He was eminent for his learn- 
 ing and virtues, a firm adherent to the 
 church of Rome, and, like Sir Thomas More, 
 would not sanction Henry’s divorce of Queen 
 Catherine. The king threw him into the 
 Tower. While in prison the pope made him 
 a cardinal, which drew from the king the 
 brutal remark, “Well, let the pope send him 
 a hat when he will: mother of God ! he shall 
 wear it on his shoulders then, for I will leave 
 him never a head to set it on.” After a 
 twelvemonth of confinement, Fisher was exe- 
 cuted, June 22d, 1535. 
 
 FITCH, John, was born in East Windsor, 
 Conn., in 1743. In 1785 he conceived the 
 project of propelling a vessel by the force of 
 condensed vapor. By unwearied exertion 
 he succeeded in raising the means to build 
 a rude steamboat in 1787. It was tried at 
 Philadelphia, and sailed eight miles an hour. 
 Poor and obscure, he had not the money to 
 perfect his invention as he wished. There is 
 reason to believe that Fulton had access to 
 his plans at a later date. In a letter to Mr. 
 Rittenhouse in 1792, Fitch said, “This, sir, 
 will be the mode of crossing the Atlantic in 
 time, whether I shall bring it to perfection or 
 not.” People thought him crazy. His life 
 had been rife with perplexities and disap- 
 pointments ; he sought solace in strong 
 drink, and finally plunged into the Alleghany 
 River near Pittsburg in 1798. 
 
 FLANDERS, formerly a province of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, now forming the Bel- 
 gic provinces of East and West Flanders. 
 East Flanders contains 781,000 inhabitants; 
 West Flanders 627,000. Both parts are ex- 
 tremely fertile, and the Flemings are exten- 
 sively employed in manufactures. The 
 
 FLA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 331 
 
 Franks seized upon Flanders about 412, and 
 in 864 it was granted to Baldwin I., with the 
 title of Count of Flanders, the sovereignty 
 being reserved to France. The country, by 
 the marriage of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, 
 with Margaret, daughter of Lewis de Malatin, 
 Earl of Flanders, in 1369, came to the house 
 of Burgundy ; and it passed to the house 
 of Austria by the marriage of Mary, daugh- 
 ter and heiress of Charles the Bold, to Maxi- 
 milian, Emperor of Germany. Still the 
 sovereignty was in France till 1525, when 
 Charles V., taking Francis I. prisoner at 
 Pavia, released it from that servitude. In 
 1556, Charles resigned these territories to his 
 son Philip, King of Spain. Flanders shook 
 off the Spanish yoke in 1572. In 1725, by 
 the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the 
 German empire. The whole of this country 
 was conquered by the French in 1794 ; but 
 only part of it now remains in their posses- 
 sion, forming the French department of Nord. 
 [See Belgium.] 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Charles, a parliamentary 
 general in the civil wars, the son of Sir 
 William Fleetwood, knight, cup-bearer to 
 James I. and Charles I., and comptroller of 
 Woodstock park. In 1644, the subject of 
 this article was made colonel of horse and 
 governor of Bristol. He was afterward 
 raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, and 
 had a share in the defeat of Charles II. at 
 Worcester. On the death of Ireton, Fleet- 
 wood married his widow, and being now 
 related to Cromwell, was appointed deputy 
 of Ireland, in which place he was succeeded 
 by Cromwell’s younger son, Henry. Fleet- 
 wood joined in deposing Richard, and after 
 the restoration he became one of the council 
 of state, and commander-in-chief of the 
 forces, but afterward retired to private life 
 at Stoke Newington, where he died soon 
 after. 
 
 FLETCHER, Andrew, commonly called 
 Fletcher of Saltoun, was born in 1653. He 
 was distinguished by learning and eloquence, 
 by courage, disinterestedness, and public 
 spirit, but of an irritable and impracticable 
 temper. Like many of his most illustrious 
 coi temporaries (Milton, for example, Har- 
 ringtm, Marvel, and Sidney), Fletcher, from 
 the misgovernment of several successive 
 princes, conceived a strong aversion to hered- 
 
 itary monarchy ; yet he was no democrat. 
 He was the head of an ancient Norman 
 house, and was proud of his descent. He 
 was a fine speaker and a fine writer, and 
 proud of his intellectual superiority. Both 
 in his character of gentleman and in his 
 character of scholar, he looked down with 
 disdain on the common people, and was so 
 little disposed to intrust them with political 
 power that he thought them unfit even to 
 enjoy personal freedom. It is a curious cir- 
 cumstance that this man, the most honest, 
 fearless, and uncompromising republican of 
 his time, should have been the author of a 
 plan for reducing a large part of the working 
 classes of Scotland to slavery. He bore, in 
 truth, a lively resemblance to those Roman 
 senators who, while they hated the name of 
 king, guarded the privileges of their order 
 with inflexible pride against the encroach- 
 ments of the multitude, and governed their 
 bondmen and bondwomen by means of the 
 stocks and the scourge. — Macaulay. 
 
 He opposed the arbitrary measures of the 
 Duke of York in Scotland; his estate was 
 confiscated, and he fled to the Continent. He 
 came to England with the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth in the rebellion of 1685, and was ap- 
 pointed to command the cavalry of the ex- 
 pedition. Fletcher was ill mounted ; and, 
 indeed, there were few chargers in the camp 
 which had not been taken from the plough. 
 Ordered upon a sudden and important ser- 
 vice, he thought that the exigency of the 
 case warranted him in borrowing, without 
 asking permission, a fine horse belonging to 
 Dare, the mayor of Lynn, who had joined 
 the revolt. Dare resented this liberty, an<j. 
 assailed Fletcher with gross abuse. Fletcher 
 kept his temper better than any who knew 
 him expected. At last Dare, presuming on 
 the patience with which his insolence was 
 endured, ventured to shake a switch at the 
 high-born and high-spirited Scot. Fletcher’s 
 blood boiled. He drew a pistol and shot 
 Dare dead. Such sudden and violent revenge 
 would not have been thought strange in 
 Scotland, where the law had always been 
 weak ; where he who did not right himself 
 by the strong hand was not likely to be 
 righted at all; and where, consequently, 
 human life was held almost as cheap as in 
 the worst governed provinces of Italy. But 
 
 FLE 
 
332 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the people of the southern part of the island 
 were not accustomed to see deadly weapons 
 used and blood spilled on account of a rude 
 word or a gesture, except in duel between 
 gentlemen with equal arms. There was a 
 general cry for vengeance on the foreigner 
 who had murdered an Englishman. Mon- 
 mouth could not resist the clamor. Fletcher, 
 who, when his first burst of rage had spent 
 itself, was overwhelmed with remorse and 
 sorrow, escaped to the Continent, and re- 
 paired to Hungary, where he fought bravely 
 against the common enemy of Christendom. 
 To Monmouth’s cause this was a serious loss, 
 but the event was fortunate for Fletcher, 
 since he was saved from the dangerous fate 
 to which the insurrection came. He returned 
 to England with William of Orange, became 
 prominent in the political affairs of Scotland, 
 and died in 1716. In one of Fletcher’s 
 pamphlets, occurs the memorable saying, 
 u I knew a very wise man that believed that 
 if a man were permitted to make all the 
 ballads, he need not care who should make 
 the laws of a nation.” 
 
 FLETCHER, John, son to the Bishop of 
 London, a famous dramatic writer, born in 
 1576, died of the plague in 1625. [ See Beau- 
 
 mont and Fletcher.] 
 
 FLEURUS or Flerus ; a town of Bel- 
 gium, in the province of Hainault, on the 
 Sambre, six miles north-east of Charleroi. 
 Four battles have been fought here. In 
 1622 the troops of Spain and Germany were 
 matched against each other. In 1690 the 
 French defeated the allies here with great 
 loss. June 17th, 1794, the French under 
 Jourdan gained a complete victory over the 
 Austrians and allies, and it was on this occa- 
 sion that aerostation was found to be of prac- 
 tical use. Coutel, the chief of the aerostatic 
 corps, ascended with a general and adjutant, 
 in a balloon of great size, hovered over the 
 enemy, and reconnoitered their works. The 
 information thus gained was conveyed to the 
 French by means of signal flags. During the 
 process of inflation, the fire of a battery was 
 opened upon the assistants, and as the bal- 
 loon ascended for the first time, a cannon-ball 
 passed between its neck and the gondola. 
 Soon, however, the daring aeronauts attained 
 a safe elevation, and could see beneath them 
 the then harmless cannon fruitlessly dis- 
 
 charging their shot into the upper air. The 
 fourth battle, called the battle of Ligny, was 
 fought June 16th, 1815, between the Pirns- 
 sians and French, and was desperately con- 
 tested. [See Ligny.] 
 
 FLEURY, Andre Hercule de, Cardinal, 
 preceptor to Louis XV., became prime 
 minister on the disgrace and fall of his rival, 
 the Duke of Bourbon. His administra- 
 tion was conducted with great skill and ad- 
 dress ; commerce and industry flourished 
 under him, and he had the fortune to concili- 
 ate the differences between the courts of Lon- 
 don and Madrid. He died in extreme age in 
 1743. 
 
 FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of. James IV. 
 of Scotland took part with Louis XII. of 
 France against Henry VIII. of England, and 
 this battle between the English and Scotch, 
 Sept. 9th, 1513, was the result. James, 
 most of his nobles, and 10,000 of his army, 
 were slain, while the English, whom the 
 Earl of Surrey commanded, sustained only 
 insignificant loss. 
 
 FLORIAN, a French dramatic writer, 
 novelist, and fabulist, married a niece of 
 Voltaire. He was a member of the French 
 academy, and died Sept. 13th, 1794. , 
 
 FLORIDA, one of these United States, 
 has an area of 59,208 square miles, and in 
 1870 had a population of 187,748, of whom 
 96,057 were whites and 91,689 colored. It 
 consists of a narrow strip lying between 
 Georgia and Alabama, and the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, with a vast peninsula which sunders 
 that gulf from the Atlantic. The southern 
 part of this peninsula is low and flat, being 
 mostly covered with swamps called everglades. 
 In the north the surface of the country is in 
 some parts slightly undulating, and the sur- 
 face west of the neck of the peninsula is 
 somewhat more uneven. Among the ever- 
 glades are numerous tracts of pine land, 
 prairies, and hummocks, and these with some 
 marshes mark the northern part. The soil 
 is generally sand, except in the hummocks, 
 where it is clay mixed with sand : these are 
 scattered throughout the country, varying in 
 extent from a few acres to a thousand, and 
 forming altogether but an inconsiderable 
 portion of the peninsula; they are covered 
 with a growth of oak, dog-wood, magnolia, 
 and pine, and afford excellent arable land. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 333 
 
 The prairies, or savannahs, are often miles in 
 extent, fine natural pastures for great herds of 
 cattle. The barrens are overgrown with forests 
 of pine, with little underwood. The swamps 
 are either formed by the inundation of the 
 rivers, which, overflowing their high wooded 
 banks, flood the low lands in the rear, or by 
 the drainage of the surrounding region : the 
 latter or pine-barren swamps are overgrown 
 with cypress, and the river swamps are cov- 
 ered with a heavy growth of timber. The 
 substratum of the eastern part of the penin- 
 sula is clay mixed with sand, but that of the 
 western is a rotten limestone, undermined in 
 many places by subterraneous streams, form- 
 ing cavities called sinks. Connected with 
 the same rock formation is the bursting forth 
 of numerous springs so copiously as to form 
 at once full-grown rivers. Indeed, they rather 
 seem to be eruptions of subterraneous streams, 
 suddenly emerging from dark labyrinths un- 
 derneath, through which they have long 
 crept. The central district of Florida is the 
 finest tract. Here are many pine barrens, 
 but among them are gentle eminences of fer- 
 tility, supporting a vigorous growth of oaks 
 and hickories, while numerous streams flow 
 through the country or expand into beautiful 
 lakes. Travelers have described the water 
 in these rivers and lakes as so pellucid that 
 the boat seems floating in the air. The 
 warmth and humidity of the climate compen- 
 sate for the poverty of the soil, and give it a 
 vegetation of great variety and luxuriance. 
 Majestic forests abound with game, and give 
 
 a peculiar and picturesque appearance. In- 
 termixed with the dark glossy leaves of the 
 oaks appear flowers of the most vivid and 
 varied colors. Groves of magnolias cover 
 immense tracts, bending beneath the weight 
 of their snowy blossoms, and till the air with 
 perfume. The exportation of timber is a 
 great source of the wealth of Florida. Cot- 
 ton, sugar, and tobacco are the other staple 
 exports. Tropical fruits flourish and flavor 
 excellently. The long coast line of Florida 
 is so dotted with keys and banks that there 
 are few available harbgrs. The mild winters 
 make it much resorted to by those afflicted 
 with pulmonary disorders. 
 
 Florida was discovered in 1512, by Juan 
 Ponce de Leon, in his famous search after 
 the fabulous fountain of youth, which was 
 to restore health and beauty to the aged, on 
 Palm Sunday ( Pascua Florida ), and hence 
 the name. The French and Spaniards long 
 made it the theatre of contest, but at length 
 the Spaniards were established in the town 
 and fort of St. Augustine. In 1763 Florida 
 was ceded to Great Britain, in exchange for 
 the island of Cuba. In 1781 the Spaniards 
 conquered West Florida, and by the peace 
 of 1783, Great Britain relinquished both prov- 
 inces to Spain. Spain reluctantly ceded it 
 to the United States in 1820, and in 1845 it 
 was admitted as a state. The most import- 
 ant event in its recent history is the war 
 against the Seminoles from 183.5 to 1842. 
 The greater portion of the tribe have been 
 removed beyond the Mississippi. 
 
 FLO 
 
334 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 The general assembly, consisting of two 
 houses, meets biennially on the fourth Monday 
 of November. The governor is chosen by 
 the people for four years, the senators and 
 representatives for two years. The right of 
 suffrage belongs to every male citizen aged 
 twenty-one or more, who has resided in the 
 state for two years, and the county six 
 months. Florida seceded from the Union, 
 Jan. 10, 1861. Her important island posi- 
 tions, however, at Key West, Fort Jefferson 
 on the Tortugas, and Fort Pickens on Santa 
 Rosa Island, opposite Pensacola, which to- 
 gether command the Gulf of Mexico, were 
 fortunately retained to the Union. The state 
 suffered comparatively little by the war. 
 
 Tallahassee is the capital. Pensacola has 
 one of the safest and most roomy harbors on 
 the gulf: the government has a navy -yard 
 here. St. Augustine is the oldest town in 
 the United States, having been settled by 
 the Spaniards almost fifty years before the 
 English reared their huts at Jamestown in 
 Virginia. South of Florida, a chain of small 
 rocky islands, called Keys from the Spanish 
 cayo, extend to the westward. South of the 
 bank upon which the Ke} r s rise, and sepa- 
 rated from them by a navigable channel, is a 
 long narrow coral ledge, known as the Flor- 
 ida Reef. The most important of the Keys 
 is Key West, a corruption of Cayo Hueso , 
 ‘Bone Key.’ Long the haunt of wreckers, 
 smugglers, and pirates, its reputation of late 
 years has improved. It is six miles long by 
 two in breadth, with a large and well shel- 
 tered harbor. Sponges are gathered, turtles 
 and their eggs collected on the neighboring 
 keys, and salt made by evaporation. Wreck- 
 ing is the most important business, for the 
 neighboring reefs are rife with disaster. 
 
 FLOYD, William, the first delegate from 
 New York that signed the Declaration of 
 Independence, was born on Long Island, 
 Dec. 17th, 1734. He was a lawyer. An 
 opulent landed proprietor, he was one who 
 like Charles Carrol set his all at stake, and 
 his property was laid waste by the British 
 troops. Having commanded the militia of 
 Long Island during the war, and served as 
 representative in the first federal congress, 
 he removed to a farm on the Mohawk River 
 
 FOLARD, Chevalier Charles de, a cele- 
 brated tactician, born at Avignon in 1669. 
 He was aid-de-camp under the Duke de Ven- 
 dome in 1702, was wounded in the battle of 
 Cassano, and made prisoner at Blenheim. 
 He next served against the Turks, and then 
 entered into the service of Charles XII., dur- 
 ing the latter part of his career. He died at 
 Avignon, in 1752. 
 
 FONTAINE, Jean de la, one of the most 
 distinguished literary men in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., born in 1621. Fontaine was 
 educated at Rheims, and went to Paris, where 
 he lived in habits of intimacy with the wits 
 of the age. He died at Paris, in 1695, aged 
 seventy-four. The most simple of men in 
 private life, his writings exhibit great shrewd- 
 ness and knowledge of mankind. His early 
 works are tainted with licentiousness. He 
 is best known by his “Fables.” 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of France, 
 thirteen leagues south-east of Paris, where is 
 a splendid palace. It is famous, in diplo- 
 matic history, as the place where several 
 treaties have been concluded. It was here 
 that Napoleon signed his first abdication, 
 April 5th, 1814, and bade an affectionate 
 farewell to his devoted troops. 
 
 FONTENELLE, Bernard le Bovier de, 
 a distinguished French savant, author of 
 “Plurality of Words,” born 1657, and lived 
 to January, 1757, nearly one hundred years. 
 His mother was a sister of the celebrated 
 Corneille. 
 
 FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, where 
 the French, headed by Count Saxe, defeated 
 the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Aus- 
 trians, under the command of the Duke of 
 Cumberland, April 30th (May 11th), 1745. 
 The battle was fought with great obstinacy, 
 and tke carnage on both sides was considera- 
 ble. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill 
 of the disorder of which he afterward died, 
 was borne about in a litter, encouraging his 
 soldiers. 
 
 FOOTE, Samuel, a comic dramatist and 
 actor, born at Truro, Cornwall, in 1721, died 
 at Dover, in October, 1777. He was a great 
 mimic and a man of wit. A gentleman, who 
 was the fortunate possessor of some fine 
 Constantia wine, after praising its good quali- 
 ties, invited Foote to taste. A very small 
 bottle was produce^, together with a very 
 
 in 1803, where he died Aug. 4th, 1821, at the 
 age of eighty-seven. 
 
 FOO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 835 
 
 small glass, which the niggardly host half 
 filled. The wag swallowed this immediately. 
 “Well, Foote,” said his entertainer, “what 
 do you think of that? It is forty-seven years 
 old.” “ What do I think?” replied Foote; 
 “why, sir, I think it’s very little for its 
 age.” 
 
 FORD, John, one of the finest of the old 
 English dramatists, was born in 1586, and 
 died in 1639. 
 
 FOSTER, John, an original and vigorous 
 essayist, was born in 1770, and died in 1843. 
 He was a Baptist clergyman in England. 
 
 FOUCHE, Joseph, the famous minister 
 of police under Bonaparte, was born at 
 Nantes in 1763. At the beginning of the 
 revolution he distinguished himself by vio- 
 lent harangues, and was sent to the national 
 convention in 1792, where he attached him- 
 self to Marat and voted for the death of 
 Louis XVI. During the reign of terror, 
 Fouche was active in spoliation and atrocity. 
 When Robespierre fell, Fouche shared in his 
 odium, and withdrew from the scene for a 
 couple of years. Under the directory he 
 came forth, and was successively ambassador 
 to Milan, to Holland, and minister of police. 
 This latter post was the one for which Fouche 
 was fitted both by nature and his career. He 
 carried espionage to an almost fabulous per- 
 fection. At the creation of the empire Napo- 
 leon made him Duke of Otranto. After the 
 battle of Waterloo he advised the abdication 
 of Napoleon, and at the same time made his 
 own peace with the Bourbons. His services 
 were retained some time by Louis XVIII., 
 buf he soon went as ambassador to Dres- 
 den. The general law of 1816 against all 
 regicides deprived him of this last post, and 
 after traveling awhile in Germany, he settled 
 at Trieste. He died in 1820, leaving a for- 
 tune estimated at $2,500,000. 
 
 FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, Anthony Quen- 
 tin, an attorney, born in. 1747, rendered his 
 name infamous during the French revolu- 
 tion. He obtained from Robespierre the post 
 of public accuser, but was put to death as 
 one of the revolutionary tribunal, May 7th, 
 1795. 
 
 FOURIER, Charles, the distinguished 
 social philosopher, was born at Besancon in 
 1772; died in Paris, 1837. 
 
 FOX, Charles James, second son of Henry 
 
 Fox, the first Lord Holland, was born Jan. 
 14th, 1748. His mother was Lady Caroline 
 Lennox, daughter of the Duke of Richmond, 
 who was a grandson of Charles II., and so 
 very proud of his sinister origin that neither 
 he nor his duchess could consent that their 
 daughter should wed Lord Holland, whose 
 father Sir Stephen had been a singing-boy in 
 a cathedral, while she was a great-grand- 
 daughter of Louise de Querouaille, the ‘ Pop- 
 ish mistress.’ They commanded her to wed 
 elsewhere, and an evening was set for the 
 gentleman’s formal introduction as her suitor. 
 Lady Caroline, that afternoon, completed her 
 toilet by shaving her eye-brows ! The ducal 
 parents were very wroth, but it was plain 
 she could not be presented to a new lover in 
 that plight. Before morning she had eloped 
 with Lord Holland. The match was happy. 
 Lord Holland was a queer one. Thus, one 
 day, Master Charles James very earnestly 
 insisted upon smashing his watch just for the 
 fun of it. “Well, if you must, I suppose 
 3 r ou must,” said papa ; and the watch was 
 smashed. The father is said to have lured 
 the son to play, and at a later day paid up 
 his gaming debts with £140,000. Play was 
 a blemish of the age, and did not spare 
 Fox : yet while in office, we are told, he 
 never touched a card ; and when at last his 
 political friends wiped out the score against 
 him, he abandoned the wretched habit alto- 
 gether. 
 
 He received his education at Eton, where 
 he distinguished himself by his classical 
 exercises. From that seminary he removed 
 to Hertford College, Oxford, after which he 
 went on his travels. In 1768 he was returned 
 to parliament for Midhurst. In 1770 he was 
 appointed a commissioner of the admiralty, 
 which place he resigned in 1772, and soon 
 after obtained a place at the treasury board. 
 Some differences arising between him and 
 Lord North, he was dismissed in 1774, and 
 from that time Fox assumed the character 
 of a whig. 
 
 Almost the whole of his political life was 
 spent in opposition. In vehemence and 
 power of argument he resembled Demos^ 
 thenes ; but there the resemblance ended. 
 He possessed a strain of ridicule and wit, 
 which nature denied to the Athenian ; and 
 it was the more powerful, as it always ap- 
 
 FOX 
 
336 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 peared to be blended with argument, and to 
 result from it. To the perfect composition 
 which so eminently distinguished the speeches 
 of Demosthenes, he had no pretense. He 
 was heedless of method : having the complete 
 command of good words, he never sought for 
 better; if those which occurred expressed 
 his meaning clearly and forcibly, he paid little 
 attention to their arrangement or harmony. 
 The moment of his grandeur was when, 
 after he had stated the argument of his adver- 
 sary, with much greater strength than his 
 adversary had done, and with much greater 
 than any of his hearers thought possible, he 
 seized it with the strength of a giant, and 
 tore and trampled on it to destruction. If, 
 at this moment, he had possessed the power 
 of the Athenian over the passions or the 
 imaginations of his hearers, he might have 
 disposed of the house at his pleasure ; but 
 this was denied to him ; and, on this ac- 
 count, his speeches fell very short of the 
 effect which otherwise they must have pro- 
 duced. 
 
 * 
 
 In 1780 he was elected for Westminster, 
 which, with a slight interruption, he con- 
 tinued to represent to his death. When the 
 Rockingham party came into power, Mr. 
 Fox was appointed secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs. On the dissolution of this 
 administration, by the death of the chief, a 
 coalition was formed between Mr. Fox and 
 Lord North, who, with their respective ad- 
 herents, came .again into office in 1733. The 
 introduction of the India bill occasioned 
 their final dismissal the same year. In 1788 
 Mr. Fox traveled, but while in Italy he was 
 recalled in consequence of the king’s insan- 
 ity. On this great occasion, he maintained 
 that the Prince of Wales had a right to as- 
 sume the regency, wTiich was opposed by 
 Mr. Pitt and the parliament. The next re- 
 markable event in the public life of Mr. Fox 
 was the part he took with regard to the 
 French revolution. That change he hailed 
 as a blessing, while Burke denounced it as a 
 curse ; and this difference of sentiment pro- 
 duced a schism between them which was 
 never repaired. On the death of Mr. Pitt, 
 in 1806, Mr. Fox came again into office, as 
 secretary of state; but he died of dropsy, 
 Sept, 13th, 1806. His remains were interred 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 FOX, George, the founder of the society of 
 Friends or Quakers, was the son of a weaver 
 at Drayton in Leicestershire, and born in 
 1624. The shoemaker to whom he was in- 
 dentured, traded also in wool and cattle, and 
 George spent many of his hours in tending 
 flocks, an employment which fostered his bent 
 for musing and solitude. His communings 
 finally wrought him to that religious enthu- 
 siasm in which he fancied himself .receiving 
 messages from on high. x\n impressive pas- 
 sage in his “Journal” has been paraphrased 
 in Tennyson’s “ Two Voices.” “One morn- 
 ing, as I waS sitting by the fire, a great cloud 
 came over me, and a temptation beset me, 
 and I sate still. And it was said, All things 
 come by nature ; and the Elements and Stars 
 came over me, so that I was in a moment 
 quite clouded with it ; but inasmuch as I sate 
 still, and said nothing, the people of the house 
 perceived nothing. And as I sate still under 
 it, and let it alone, a living hope arose in me 
 which cried, There is a living God who made 
 all things. And immediately the cloud and 
 temptation vanished away, and the life rose 
 over it all, and my heart was glad, and I 
 praised the living God.” Conceiving himself 
 divinely commissioned to convert his coun- 
 trymen from their sins, he began about 1647 
 to travel through the country, and harangue 
 at the market-places upon the vices of the age. 
 He had formed the opinions that a learned 
 education is unnecessary to a minister ; that 
 the existence of a separate clerical profession 
 is unwarranted by the Bible ; that the Crea- 
 tor of the world is not a dweller in temples 
 made with hands ; and that “ the .light of 
 Christ within” is a rule of duty superior 
 to the Scriptures. He believed that he was 
 divinely commanded to abstain from taking 
 off his hat to any one in homage ; to use the* 
 words ‘thee’ and ‘thou’ in addressing all 
 persons ; to bid nobody good-morrow or good- 
 night ; and never to bend his knee to any one 
 in authority, or take an oath, even on the most 
 solemn occasion. He sometimes entered 
 churches during service, and was moved to 
 interrupt the clergymen by vociferous contra- 
 diction. By such breaches of order, and such 
 rude speech as “Come down, thou deceiver,” 
 he naturally gave great offense, which some- 
 times led to long imprisonment, and some- 
 times to severe handling by the populace. 
 
 FOX 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 337 
 
 His sect became numerous. At Derby Fox 
 admonished the justice and those with him 
 to tremble at the word of the Lord : the 
 justice called him a quaker (whence the 
 name arose), and threw him into a dungeon 
 for a year. Fox visited Ireland, the Ameri- 
 can colonies, and many parts of Europe, and 
 died in London in 1690, worn down by the 
 toils and hardships his zeal had brought upon 
 him. 
 
 FOX, John, a pious Protestant, was born 
 at Boston, England, in 1517. His renun- 
 ciation of popery lost him his felloVship at 
 Oxford, and for a time he was much strait- 
 ened for the wherewithal of life. After the 
 accession of Elizabeth his fortune was easier. 
 He died in 1587. He is best known for his 
 “ Book of Martyrs.” 
 
 FRANCE has an area of 203,736 square 
 miles; population in 1861, 37,472,132. The 
 Pyrenees separate it from Spain, the Alps from 
 Italy, the Jura mountains from Switzerland, 
 the Rhine from the duchy of Baden, but the 
 rest of the frontier is conventional, and has 
 often varied with the fortunes of war. France 
 has ever been considered one of the piost ag- 
 ricultural countries of the continent ; yet the 
 husbandry is often rude, and the implements 
 used ancient and clumsy. The great divi- 
 sion of property arising from the law of equal 
 distribution among all the children at the 
 demise of the parents, lessens the size of the 
 farms. The northern part is the best tilled. 
 The ordinary grains are grown, and in the 
 southerly portions, maize, the vine, the mul- 
 berry, and the olive flourish. Beet-root is 
 extensively grown for the manufacture of 
 sugar. The basins of the Rhone, the Ga- 
 ronne, and the Upper Loire are the most dis- 
 tinguished for their mulberry plantations and 
 the produce of silk. The vintage is among 
 the chief harvests of France; the average 
 yearly produce of the vineyards is 924,000,000 
 gallons, of which about one-seventh is distilled 
 into brandy. 
 
 France was anciently divided into thir- 
 ty-three provinces of very unequal extent : Ar- 
 tois, Picardy, Champagne, Lorraine, Alsace, 
 Fran che Comte, Burgundy, Orleans, Isle of 
 France, Perche, Normandy, Brittany, Maine, 
 Anjou, Touraine, Berri, Nivernois, Bourbon, 
 Lyonnois, Auvergne, Marche, Poitou, Aunis, 
 Saintonge, Angoumois, Limousin, Guienne, 
 22 
 
 Gascony, Bearn, Foix, Rousillon, Languedoc, 
 Dauphiny, and Provence. But since the 
 revolution it has been divided into eighty-six 
 departments. The departments formed from 
 the six northern provinces are the department 
 of the North, Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Lower 
 Seine, Eure, Calvados, Manche, Orne, Seine, 
 Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Oise, Aisne, 
 Aube, Upper Marne, Marne, and Ardennes. 
 The departments formed from the six provin- 
 ces of the east are Meurthe, Moselle, Meuse, 
 Vosges, Lower Rhine, Upper Rhine, Doubs, 
 Upper Saone, Jura, Cote-d’or, Yonne, Saone-et- 
 Loire, Ain, Rhone, Loire, Isere, Drome, Upper 
 Alps. The departments formed from the 
 seven provinces of the south are the Mouths 
 of the Rhone, Lower Alps, Var, Upper Gar- 
 onne, Tarn, Aude, Herault, Gard, Lozere, 
 Upper Loire, Ardeche, Eastern Pyrenees, 
 Ariege, Lower Pyrenees, Gironde, Dordogne, 
 Lot-et-Garonne, Lot, Aveyron, Tarn-et-Gar- 
 onne, Landes, Gers, Upper Pyrenees, Cor- 
 sica. The departments formed from the six 
 provinces of the west are Charente, Lower 
 Charente, Vienne, Deux-Sevres, Vendee, 
 Maine-et-Loire, Ille-et-Vilaine, Cotes-du-Nord, 
 Finisterre, Morbihan, Lower Loire, Sarthe, 
 Mayenne. The departments formed from the 
 eight central provinces are Loiret, Eure-et- 
 Loir, Loir-et-Cher, Indre-et-Loire, Cher, In- 
 dre, Nievre, Allier, Creuse, Upper Vienne, 
 Correze, Puy-de-Dome, Cantal, and Vaucluse. 
 The provinces of Alsace and Lorra'ne are 
 now, 1872, under the immediate control of the 
 Empire of Germany. These departments are 
 each administered by a prefect. They are 
 subdivided into arrondisements, and these 
 again into cantons and communes. 
 
 Paris, the metropolis of France, is the sub- 
 ject of a separate article. Lyons, at the con- 
 fluence of the Saone and Rhone, capital of the 
 department of Rhone, is the second city in 
 the empire ; population over 318,803. It was 
 founded by the Romans, b. c. 42. In a single 
 night, A. d. 59, the town was laid in ashes by 
 fires from lightning. It was rebuilt by the 
 aid of Nero, to whom the citizens adhered 
 in his downfall. In 1793, the people of Ly- 
 ons rose against the tyranny of the Jacobins. 
 An army was sent by the convention to put 
 them down. The city sustained a siege for two 
 months anrl then surrendered, many of the in- 
 habitants being massacred by the te. rori^s. In 
 
 FRA 
 
338 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the spring of 1814, several severe acfions 
 took place in the neighborhood, between the 
 French and Austrians. On the return of 
 Napoleon from Elba, in March, 1815, he was 
 received here with acclamation. Lyons is a 
 place of much traffic, and its manufactures 
 are the most important in France. Its silks, 
 for texture, hue, and beauty, are not equaled 
 in the world. In their manufacture half the 
 population are directly or indirectly con- 
 cerned. Marseilles, on the Mediterranean, 
 is the third city of the empire, and capital of 
 the department of Bouches-du-Rhone ; pop- 
 ulation, 260,910 in 1861. A Grecian settle- 
 ment was made here as early as b.c. 600. 
 Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. Hav- 
 ing embraced the cause of Pompey, it was 
 taken by Caesar, b.c. 49, after a long siege. 
 During the thirteenth century it freed itself 
 from feudal subjection and became a muni- 
 cipal republic. It came under the perma- 
 nent dominion of the French crown in 1482. 
 The prosperity of Marseilles is due to its ex- 
 tensive commerce. Its safe harbor, in which 
 fly the flags of all nations, is formed by a 
 small inlet of the sea, running into the heart 
 of the city, which is built around it. Bor- 
 deaux, an important port, the capital of the 
 former province of Guienne, and of the present 
 department of Gironde, sits on the left bank 
 of the Garonne, and contains 162,750 inhabit- 
 ants. It is a city of great antiquity, and distin- 
 guished for its gloomy splendor. It has some 
 magnificent churches. Its academy of sci- 
 ences has a library of 128,000 volumes. The 
 Romans called this place Burdigala. In 
 the fifth century it was in the blighting hands 
 of the Goths, and later it was pillaged and 
 burned by the Normans. When Louis VII. 
 married Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke 
 of Guienne, it fell into the hands of the French. 
 When that princess was repudiated, it, with 
 all the south-east of France, came into the 
 hands of the Duke of Normandy, afterward 
 Henry IT. of England, her second husband. 
 It was restored to France under Charles VII. 
 in 1451. During the revolution it was de- 
 vastated by the terrorists, as being the seat 
 of the Girondists. Bonaparte’s continental 
 system bore heavily upon the trade of the in- 
 habitants of Bordeaux, and accordingly they 
 willingly declared themselves in favor of the 
 Bourbons, March 12th, 1814. Wine, brandy, 
 
 and fruits are the great articles of export 
 from Bordeaux. The finest clarets are from 
 this part of France. Havre (population 
 74,336), at the mouth of the Seine, is an im- 
 portant port. One of the most interesting 
 towns in France is Rouen, a little higher on 
 the Seine; population 102,649. Its ancient 
 name was Rotomugus. It was the capital of 
 the duchy of Normandy. It was besieged by 
 the English under Henry V. in 1418, and res- 
 olutely defended by Alain Blanchard, with 
 4,000 men. Famine, after five months, com- 
 pelled the garrison to surrender, and Henry 
 soiled his fame by the execution of the brave 
 Blanchard. For thirty years the English held 
 the town, and here in 1431 they burnt Joan 
 of Arc. The tall, narrow houses of old 
 Rouen are often highly picturesque, and curi- 
 ous for their rich carvings and quaint Gothic 
 ornaments. The noble cruciform cathedral, 
 whose spire springs 433 feet toward the sky, 
 and the still purer Gothic church of St. Ouen, 
 are objects of note in this ancient town. 
 Rouen ranks next to Lyons among the man- 
 ufacturing towns of France, and is a great 
 seat of the cotton manufacture. 
 
 The cathedral of Strasburg is yet more beau- 
 tiful than that of Rouen. It was founded 
 in 1015, and not completed till 1439. The 
 airy grace of the architecture, the beauty of 
 the sculptured ornaments, and the richness of 
 the many-hued windows, place this ancient 
 pile among the foremost grandeurs of Gothic 
 art. During the late war between France 
 and Germany, the cathedral was somewhat 
 injured, but not so much so but that repairs 
 can easily be made, and the structure restored 
 to its original splendor. Strasburg, on the 
 Rhine, the chief town of Alsace ; pop. 82,014. 
 German is the language of the common people 
 in this part of France, though French is gen- 
 erally understood. By the fortifications and 
 citadel of Louis XIV., Strasburg was made 
 one of the strongest places in Europe. At 
 Rheims is another ancient cathedral of great 
 beauty. Before its altar the kings of France 
 have been crowned for centuries, and at its 
 font Clovis, the founder of the monarchy, was 
 baptized from paganism into the Christian 
 church. Rheims has some 44,000 inhabit- 
 ants, and extensive woolen manufactures; 
 yet it is a dull old town, and its wide streets 
 are grass-grown for the lack of bustle. Caen 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 339 
 
 CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME AT STRASBURG. 
 
 was anciently the capital of lower Normandy, 
 and the favorite residence of William the 
 Conqueror, who was buried in the Abbaye- 
 aux-Hommes , which he built. Caen was 
 taken and plundered by Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, who met with a desperate resistance. 
 “ The town was then,” says Froissart, “ large, 
 strong, and full of drapery and all other sorts 
 of merchandise, rich citizens, noble dames 
 and damsels, and fine churches.” Caen is 
 still a fine town, the centre of considerable 
 trade and manufactures, and the dwelling- 
 place of 40,000 people. Grenoble, capital 
 of the department of Isere, and of the ancient 
 Dauphiny, was the first city to open its gates 
 
 to Napoleon, when he returned from Elba. 
 The garrison had taken up arms to resist the 
 little band of imperialists, when Napoleon, 
 advancing and uncovering his breast, said to 
 them, “ If there be one among you, who 
 would slay his general and emperor, he can 
 do it. Behold, I am defenseless.” He was 
 answered by animating shouts of “ Vive 
 V Empereur” The population of Grenoble is 
 27,000. The town is largely engaged in the 
 manufacture of kid-gloves. [See Bayonne, 
 Brest, Nantes, Paris, Toulon, Toulouse.] 
 The territory of France is admirably de- 
 fended by nature against invasion, except 
 toward the north-east. The Atlantic coast 
 
 FRA 
 
S40 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 has few harbors of any depth, and those are 
 hard of access or strongly defended. The 
 Pyrenees would be impassable in the face of 
 an aroused nation ; the wall of the Alps, the 
 Jura, and the Vosges, on the eastern frontier, 
 equally so. But on the Bavarian, Prussian, 
 and Belgian frontiers, there are no natural 
 defenses. In this quarter, therefore, military 
 science has done its utmost to command all 
 the great approaches, and in no other country 
 are there so many strongly fortified towns in 
 a same extent of territory. Here are the 
 fortresses of Dunkirk, Lisle, Douay, Cam- 
 bray, Valenciennes, Conde, Maubeuge, Av- 
 esnes, Rocroy, Givet, Charlemont, Mezieres, 
 Sedan, Thionville, Metz, Bitche, and Weis- 
 emburg. Along the Rhenish frontier (the 
 proper defense of which is not the Rhine, 
 however, but the Vosges) are the strong- 
 holds of Haguenau, Strasburg, Schelestadt, 
 andNeufBrisach. Befort, Besancon, and the 
 Fort-de-l’Ecluse command the entrance from 
 Switzerland. Toward the Alps and Sardinia 
 are Grenoble and Briancon. The Pyrenean 
 passes are warded by Perpignan, Bellegarde, 
 Mont Louis, St. Jean-Pied-de-Port, and Bay- 
 onne. Many of the towns in the interior are 
 fortified, but Paris, with its continuous wall 
 and detached forts, is the most important. 
 The great naval stations and dock-yards are 
 at Brest, Toulon, Rochefort, Cherbourg and 
 L’Orient. 
 
 The principal stock of the French race is 
 the Celtic, admixed with the Romans, Visi- 
 goths, and Franks. The Catholic is the pre- 
 dominant religion of the country : both Cath- 
 olic and Protestant clergymen are supported 
 by the state. Education is carefully fostered 
 by the government. The scheme of public 
 instruction embraces a wide range of institu- 
 tions and acquirements. Besides the ordinary 
 academies and elementary schools, and the 
 great universities and institutes, there are 
 military schools, such as the Polytechnic and 
 that of St. Cyr ; naval schools, as at Brest, 
 and the marine schools of surgery at Roche- 
 fort and Toulon; normal schools in almost 
 every department, for the training of teachers ; 
 the Conservatoire of Arts and Trades, the 
 Conservatoire of Music and Oratory, the Im- 
 perial School of the Fine Arts, all at Paris ; 
 schools of roads and bridges, schools of mines, 
 schools of agriculture, schools of arts, and 
 
 trades, and manufactures, schools of design, 
 &c. Thus, throughout the whole empire, in- 
 dustrial education is provided ; sometimes of 
 a theoretical character, and sometimes exceed- 
 ingly practical, as in the schools of weaving at 
 Lyons and Nismes, of ship-building at La Ro- 
 chelle, or lace-making at Dieppe. As a conse- 
 quence, the French hold high rank among 
 ingenious and enlightened nations. The in- 
 ventions of French chemists and their improve- 
 ment of chemical science have done much in 
 producing with economy and expedition the 
 many chemical agents employed in the various 
 branches of manufactures, particularly dyeing. 
 The cloths and other woolens fabricated are of 
 the best quality. The cotton manufacture is^ 
 still more important, and the calicoes are wide- 
 ly approved. French silks surpass all others for 
 pure brilliancy of color and exquisite taste in 
 patterns. Injewelry, marquetry, ornamental 
 bronze, and furniture, the French are almost 
 unrivaled; in chronometers and instruments 
 for scientific purposes they are wholly so. 
 Finest porcelain is made at Sevres, Paris, and 
 Limoges. During the wars at the beginning 
 of the present century, English cruisers cut 
 France off from supplies of sugar ; the saccha- 
 rine properties of the beet were tested ; and 
 sugar from beet-root is now a great branch of 
 manufacture. The leading exports from 
 France are wine, brandy, liqueurs, salt, linen, 
 hempen cloth, woolens, silks, cottons, hats, 
 jewelry and household furniture. 
 
 France was called by the Romans Transal- 
 pine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to dis- 
 tinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul, on the Italian 
 side of the Alps. Like other countries, it soon 
 became a desirable object to the ambitious 
 Romans, and, after a brave resistance, was 
 annexed to their empire by the invincible 
 arms of Julius Caesar, about 48 b.c. Gaul 
 continued in the possession of the Romans 
 until the downfall of that empire, in the fifth 
 century. On the last day of the year 406, 
 the Rhine was crossed by a host of barbarians 
 who never repassed that frontier stream. 
 Some twenty years before, when Maximus, 
 chosen emperor by the legions in Britain, had 
 crossed the channel into Gaul to dethrone his 
 rival, Gratian, a considerable band of native 
 Britons had followed his eagles. They re- 
 tained possession of Armorica, which he be- 
 stowed upon them, and thence came its name 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 341 
 
 of Bretagne, or Brittany. Armorica main- 
 tained its independence against the present 
 invasion of Vandals, Alans, Suevians, and 
 Burgundians, but the rest of Gaul became 
 their prey. The Suevians, Alans, and Van- 
 dals passed the Pyrenees into Spain ; the Bur- 
 gundians settled, with the sanction of the 
 Roman government, in the east of Gaul ; and 
 the Visigoths, who had long been ravaging 
 both the Roman empires, were induced to ac- 
 cept the cession of the country south and west 
 of the Loire. About 420, under the leader- 
 ship of Pharamond, the Franks, an ancient 
 people of Germany, settled in Flanders, and 
 began to get a foothold in the land to which 
 they afterward gave their name. With Pha- 
 ramond originated the Salic law by which the 
 sovereignty is rendered hereditary only in the 
 male line. The Franks and Burgundians, 
 after establishing their power, andreducingthe 
 Gauls to a state of slavery, parceled out the 
 lands among their principal leaders ; and suc- 
 ceeding kings found it necessary to confirm 
 their privileges, allowing them to exercise 
 sovereign authority in their respective gov- 
 ernments, until they at length assumed an 
 independence, only acknowledging the king as 
 theif head. This gave rise to those numerous 
 principalities that formerly existed in France, 
 and to the several parliaments; for every 
 province became, in its policy and govern- 
 ment, an epitome of the kingdom. 
 
 The first Christian monarch of the Franks 
 was Clovis (son of the chivalrous Childeric), 
 who is regarded as the true founder of the 
 monarchy. He expelled the remnant of the 
 Romans, weakened the Visigoths, and gained 
 brilliant victory over the Germans. He is 
 celebrated by the vow which he made to em- 
 brace the Christian religion at the solicitation 
 of his wife Clotilda, and was baptized at 
 Rheims. The Franks finally conquered the 
 Burgundians and Visigoths, and became mas- 
 ters of all Gaul. The first race of French 
 kings, prior to Charlemagne, found a cruel 
 enemy in the Saracens, who then overran 
 Europe, and retaliated the barbarities of the 
 Goths aind Vandals upon their posterity. In 
 the year 800, Charlemagne, King of France, 
 the glory of these dark ages, became master 
 of Germany, Spain, and part of Italy, and 
 was crowned King of the Romans by the 
 pope. He divided his empire by will among 
 
 FRA 
 
 his sons, which proved fatal to his family and 
 their posterity. Soon after this the Normans 
 ravaged the kingdom of France, and, about 
 the year 905, obliged the French to yield up 
 Normandy and Bretagne to Rollo, their leader, 
 who married the king’s daughter, and was 
 persuaded to profess himself a Christian. 
 This laid the foundation of the Norman power 
 in France, which afterward gave a king to 
 England, in the person of William, Duke of 
 Normandy, who subdued Harold, the last 
 Saxon king, in the year 1066. 
 
 In the reign of Philip I., who came to the 
 throne in 1060, the crusades were commenced. 
 In 1108, Philip was succeeded by his son 
 Louis the Fat, or Louis VI., who engaged in 
 a war with Henry I. of England. Letters of 
 franchise were granted to many cities and 
 towns by Louis VI., and the authority of the 
 crown over the great feudatories much in- 
 creased. Louis VII., surnamed the Young, 
 carried on his father’s policy for strengthening 
 the regal power. He marched into Cham- 
 pagne in tl^e year 1137, and having surprised 
 the city of ' V etry, met with no resistance, ex- 
 cept in the parochial church, which he caused 
 to be set on fire ; a thousand and three hun- 
 dred persons perished in the flames. At this 
 time the English kings, as Dukes of Normandy 
 and Anjou, were vassals of the French crown. 
 Henry II. married Eleanor of Guienne, the 
 repudiated wife of Louis, and thus his power 
 in France was greater than that of the mon- 
 arch to whom he owed allegiance: he held 
 Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, 
 Limousin, Angoumois, Saintonge, Berri, 
 Marche, part of Auvergne, Guienne, and Gas- 
 cony. 
 
 Philip Augustus, Louis’s son and successor 
 in 1180, and Richard I. of England, undertook 
 a joint expedition to the holy land, in 1191 ; 
 but the former returning to Europe in disgust, 
 the latter was obliged to relinquish the enter- 
 prise, and on his way home was imprisoned 
 in Austria. During his captivity, and in the 
 reign of his shiftless brother John, Philip 
 gained Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, andBerri. 
 Philip consolidated the regal power by sub- 
 stituting constitutional forms for individual 
 caprice. His reign was marked by blood- 
 stained crusades against the Albigenses in the 
 south of France. 
 
 Philip II. was succeeded by his son, Louis 
 
342 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the Lion, in 1223. He was poisoned after a 
 short reign of three years, during which he 
 conquered Poitou, and was succeeded in 1226 
 by his son, Louis IX., commonly styled St. 
 Louis, who engaged in a new crusade against 
 the infidels in Egypt and Palestine, in which 
 himself and his nobility were taken prisoners. 
 Having been afterward ransomed, he led an 
 army against the infidels of Africa, where he 
 died in 1270, before Tunis. His son and suc- 
 cessor, Philip III., kept the field against the 
 Moors, and saved the remains of the French 
 army ; and this procured him the surname of 
 the Hardy. In the reign of Philip IV., sur- 
 named the Fair, who succeeded in 1285, the 
 supreme tribunals, called parliaments, were 
 instituted. The reign of St.’ Louis, one of the 
 most equitable and virtuous of princes, and 
 the reigns of his direct descendants, some of 
 them as remarkable for opposite qualities, 
 were marked by the consolidation of the 
 power of the law as distinguished from that 
 of the sword. This beneficial change, how- 
 ever, was accompanied under the successors 
 of Louis with the most revolting acts of in- 
 justice in the name of law. Many nobles 
 were despoiled of their fiefs, the order of the 
 Templars was extirpated in the blood of its 
 members, the Jews and Lombards were 
 grievously oppressed, and trade was ruined 
 by an abased coinage. Persecution assumed 
 a more systematic form by the establishment 
 of the inquisition at Toulouse, to root out the 
 poor Albigenses. In this period the greater 
 part of Languedoc was added to the domains 
 of the crown, which were considerably aug- 
 mented elsewhere. 
 
 The direct branch of Capetian kings ended 
 with Charles IV., who left only a daughter; 
 and the states having solemnly decreed that 
 all females were incapable of succeeding to 
 the crown, Philip de Valois, the next male 
 heir, was raised to the throne in 1328. He 
 was the grandson of Philip the Hardy by his 
 third son, Charles of Valois. The mother of 
 Edward III. of England was a daughter of 
 Philip the Fair. Edward having claimed the 
 French crown, hostilities commenced, and the 
 English gained the battle of Crecy in 1346, 
 and Poitiers .in 1356; but about the end of 
 the fourteenth century, the French recovered 
 all the provinces which the English had con- 
 quered in France. 
 
 During the reign of Charles VI., who be- 
 came insane shortly after coming of age, 
 France fell into dissension. Two great fac- 
 tions contended for the mastery, the one 
 headed by the king’s uncle, the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, the other by the king’s brother, the 
 Duke of Orleans ; while the citizens and peas- 
 ants rebelled against the exactions of the 
 nobles, and demanded an increase of their priv- 
 ileges. Henry V. of England took advantage 
 of these disorders, and invaded France in 1415. 
 He made himself master of Harfleur, and 
 gained the famous battle of Agincourt, in 
 which the French lost an incredible number 
 of men. In 1420 the succession to the French 
 throne was secured to the King of England by 
 treaty; in consequence of w r hich the infant 
 Henry VI. was crowned King of France at 
 Paris. But by degrees Charles VII. recov- 
 ered possession of the kingdom, in w hich he 
 was greatly assisted by the enthusiast, Joan 
 of Arc, who raised the siege of Orleans, and 
 defeated the English ; but being taken pris- 
 oner, this gallant girl was barbarously burned 
 for alleged sorcery. 
 
 Louis XI., a crafty and intriguing prince, 
 did for France what Henry VII. did for Eng- 
 land in breaking down the feudal pow r er. • By 
 craft or by force, he rendered the regal power 
 absolute, and enlarged and consolidated his 
 empire. He robbed the nobles of their choic- 
 est privileges, and gradually united all the 
 great fiefs with the crow n. Upon the over- 
 throw and death of Charles the Bold, he seized 
 Burgundy. Pope Paul II. gave him the title 
 of Most Christian King, w r hich became an ap- 
 pellation of the monarchs of France; pretty 
 name for such a cruel ruler, whose tyranny 
 forced his subjects into a union against him, 
 known as “the league of the public good.” 
 His son Charles VIII. w r as the last prince of 
 the first line of Valois. The Duke of Orleans 
 ascended the throne in 1498, under the title 
 of Louis X.II. He was so humane, generous, 
 and indulgent to his subjects, that he obtained 
 the appellation of father of his people. Fran- 
 cis I., one of the most distinguished of the 
 kings ofFrance, succeeded him. He ascended 
 the throne in 1515, at the age of twenty -one, 
 and died in 1547. His reign was passed in 
 contests with the Emperor Charles V. He 
 conquered the Milanese in 1525, but w r as taken 
 prisoner at the siege of Pavia. In 1535 he 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 343 
 
 possessed himself of Savoy, but was after- 
 ward defeated. During his reign, notwith- 
 standing the wars, arts, commerce, and liter- 
 ature began to flourish in France. In the 
 time of Henry II., Calais was conquered, the 
 last relic of the English possessions in France. 
 
 On the accession of Francis II., commenced 
 those civil commotions which harassed France 
 during thirty years. The king was instigated 
 to attempt the extirpation of the Protestants, 
 who, by way of reproach, were denominated 
 Huguenots. The minority and reign of 
 Charles IX. exhibited a series of treacheries, 
 commotions, and assassinations; France be- 
 came a field of war and bloodshed. The mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew’s disgraced the age. 
 Henry III. was a weak and debauched prince ; 
 and in him ended the line of Valois. On his 
 death, the crown devolved on the house of 
 Bourbon, in the person of Henry IV., King of 
 Navarre, who was descended from Robert of 
 France, Count of Clermont, the fifth and last 
 son of Saint Louis. Henry was the son of 
 Antony of Bourbon, Duke of Vendome, and 
 Jeanne d’Albret, heiress of Navarre. He was 
 justly styled the Great, being one of the best 
 and most amiable of the French princes ; but 
 he perished by the hand of an assassin in 1610. 
 
 Under the minority and in the reign of 
 Louis XIII., France returned to disorder and 
 wretchedness, and Cardinal Richelieu, the 
 prime minister, rendered the power of the 
 crown absolute. The reign of Louis XIV. 
 was long and brilliant. The great Conde 
 compelled the Emperor Ferdinand III. and 
 Christiana, Queen of Sweden, to conclude the 
 peace of Westphalia. But the unbounded 
 ambition of Louis rendered him odious or 
 formidable to every prince in Europe. The 
 united forces of England, Holland, and Aus- 
 tria obliged him to conclude the peace of 
 Ryswick in 1697, and that of Utrecht in 
 1713. He reigned from 1643 to 1715. Wil- 
 liam III. of England was the great enemy of 
 Louis XIV. In 1702, he organized a new 
 confederacy of the powers of Europe against 
 him, but died before hostilities commenced. 
 The Duke of Marlborough, who led the allied 
 forces, gained, in 1704, the battle of Blen- 
 heim, which was followed by other victories. 
 But, in 1713, this bloody and useless contest 
 was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, 
 
 though Louis succeeded in placing his grand- 
 son on the throne of Spain. 
 
 At the age of five years, his great-grandson 
 ascended the throne, under the title of Louis 
 XV. In conjunction with Germany, Russia, 
 and Sweden, France, in this reign, twice con- 
 tended against Prussia and Great Britain? 
 These wars were concluded in 1748 and in 
 1763. Louis XVI. assumed the crowm of 
 France in 1774, under most unfortunate aus- 
 pices. He found a court abandoned to the 
 utmost extravagance, and the country loaded 
 with an enormous debt. The king convoked 
 an assembly of the notables, consisting of 
 princes, deputies chosen from among the 
 nobility, dignified clergy, the parliaments, 
 and the pays d'etat. 
 
 It was proposed to establish a land tax, 
 without any exception in favor of the nobility 
 or clergy. This proposal being followed by 
 a general refusal, the assembly of the nota- 
 bles was dissolved, and the minister thought 
 he could make a more advantageous bargain 
 with the parliaments. But as the latter 
 remonstrated, and advanced the opinion that 
 the right of imposing new taxes belonged 
 only to the states general, the king convoked 
 them in 1789. Necker’s indiscreet measure, 
 by which it was stipulated that the numbers 
 of the tiers etat (third estate) should be, at 
 least, equal to that of the other two orders 
 conjointly, threw the preponderance into the 
 scale of the former, who could not fail to find 
 many adherents in the superior classes. As . 
 soon as the deputies of the third order had 
 formed themselves into a national assembly, 
 the other orders were led away by their 
 impulsive force, and the equilibrium was 
 entirely destroyed. 
 
 The storm of popular fury gathered and 
 broke rapidly. On the 4th of July, 1789, the 
 Bastile was destroyed. On the 4th of Au- 
 gust the privileges of the nobility were sup- 
 pressed. On the 5th of October, 1789, the 
 king, queen, and royal family were forced 
 from Versailles by the mob, and brought cap- 
 tive to the capital. However, the monarch 
 disconcerted the schemes of his adversaries 
 by a free acceptance of the new constitution, 
 which abolished the feudal system and tha 
 titles of nobility. The situation of Louis and 
 his family became so unsupportable under 
 
 FRA 
 
344 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the harsh restraints which were imposed, 
 that they contrived to escape from their im- 
 placable enemies ; but the unfortunate mon- 
 arch, being recognized at St. Menehoult by 
 Drouet, the post-master, was stopped at Va- 
 rennes, constrained to return to Paris with 
 liis family, and to become a mere prisoner. 
 
 While the king was preparing to surrender 
 his throne and life, the Jacobins caused a de- 
 cree to be enacted, suppressing the chasseurs 
 and grenadiers, of whom they were afraid, as 
 well as the staff of the national guard. All 
 the measures which they pursued till the 
 10th of August, 1792, had, for their sole 
 aim, the overthrow of the monarchy. On 
 that day, the Marseillaise, who had been in- 
 vited to Paris to form the advanced guard in 
 the attack on the palace of the Tuileries, in 
 conjunction with the national guards, fired 
 on the devoted Swiss who composed the royal 
 body-guard, and almost annihilated them. 
 The king and his family sought refuge in the 
 assembly ; it was decreed that they should 
 be imprisoned in the Temple, and they were 
 conducted thither. 
 
 The national convention was opened on the 
 21st of September, and in the first sitting 
 abolished royalty and proclaimed the repub- 
 lic. The king was tried and condemned, and 
 on the 21st of January, 1793, perished on 
 the scaffold. Against the French republic, 
 Austria and Prussia had already declared 
 war, and, on the king’s death, their example 
 was followed by Great Britain and Holland, 
 and speedily after by Spain and Russia. 
 While France was pressed on all sides by the 
 different powers of Europe, this unfortunate 
 country was a prey to all kinds of internal 
 disorders, and to the most unbounded licen- 
 tiousness. 
 
 Robespierre and Danton obtained a decree 
 by which all the sans-culottes were to be 
 armed with pikes and muskets at the expense 
 of the rich, who were themselves to be dis- 
 armed as suspected persons. Marat, one of 
 the principal agents in the revolution, was 
 assassinated by Charlotte Corday. Toward 
 the close of June, 1793, the new constitution 
 was adopted, and great disturbances broke 
 out at Lyons, Marseilles, and in La Vendee. 
 Soon after the surrender of Valenciennes to 
 the English, the committee of public safety 
 was established, to desolate France by the 
 
 most horrid butcheries and persecutions. 
 They apprehended all suspected persons, and 
 tried them by revolutionary committees, the 
 powers of which were so unlimited that they 
 could readily seize on four-fifths of the popu- 
 lation of France. 
 
 One of their early victims was the unhappy 
 Marie Antoinette, the widow of the murdered 
 Louis. Her death was followed by the de- 
 struction of the Girondists. The infamous 
 Duke of Orleans was brought up to Paris 
 from Marseilles, and, being tried and con- 
 demned, braved the insults of the multitude 
 on the way to execution. Brittany and a 
 great part of Normandy being filled with the 
 royalists, who had acquired the denomination 
 of Ghouans , Carrier, one of the most atrocious 
 monsters of the revolution, was sent to Nan- 
 tes, where he spared neither age nor sex, but 
 put to death the aged, the infirm, and even 
 infants. The atrocities committed by the 
 satellites of the convention in the city of 
 Lyons, exceeded all that can be conceived ; at 
 the end of five months, nearly 6,000 persons 
 had perished. 
 
 In Paris the executions were now multi- 
 plied to such a degree, that eighty persons 
 were frequently conveyed in the same vehicle 
 to the place where they suffered. To cite 
 the names of all the illustrious victims who 
 fell, would far exceed our limits, and, at the 
 same time, present too horrid a picture of 
 human depravity. At length, Robespierre, 
 Couthon, and St. Just were brought to con- 
 dign punishment. A form of government 
 was afterward settled by the convention ; and 
 a council of ancients, a council of five hun- 
 dred, and five rulers, called a directory, were 
 appointed : but the other powers of Europe 
 being still in league against France, and the 
 new government being unfortunate in the 
 field, the executive power was, in 1799, 
 vested in three consuls, of whom the first 
 was the victorious Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 The consulate restored the energy of the 
 government. Bonaparte, having, in 1800, 
 gained the victory of Marengo, forced Aus- 
 tria to conclude the treaty of Luneville in 
 February, 1801 ; and concluded the treaty 
 of Amiens with England in October of that 
 year; thus restoring peace to all Europe. 
 The British government refusing to surrender 
 Malta, according to the treaty of Amiens, 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 845 
 
 after some angry discussions the English am- 
 bassador left Paris in April, 1803, and war 
 was recommenced. Tn 1804, the first con- 
 sul Napoleon Bonaparte, was crowned Em- 
 peror of France by the pope; and, in 1805, 
 King of Italy, at Milan. He afterward as- 
 sumed the title of Mediator of Switzerland, 
 and Protector of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine. He made one of his brothers King 
 of Holland, another King of Naples, a third 
 King of Spain, and a fourth King of West- 
 phalia. 
 
 These manifestations of ambition excited, 
 in succession, the jealousies and fears of all 
 Europe. Austria and Russia commenced 
 hostilities in 1805, but were overthrown at 
 Austerlitz ; Prussia in 1806, but she was 
 crushed at Jena ; Russia again in the same 
 year, but she was defeated at Friedland ; 
 Spain, in 1807 ; Austria, again, in 1808, but 
 she was overthrown at Wagram; Russia, 
 again, in 1812 ; and finally, Russia, Prussia, 
 Sweden, Austria, England, &c., invaded 
 France in 1814, when Napoleon abdicated, 
 retired to the island of Elba, and the Bour- 
 bons were restored. After a year’s absence, 
 Napoleon returned to Paris, but having been 
 defeated in the memorable battle of Water- 
 loo, again abdicated the throne, and was con- 
 veyed as a state prisoner to the island of St. 
 Helena, where he died in 1821. The Bour- 
 bons were reinstated on the throne in the 
 person of Louis XVIII., brother of Louis 
 XVI., and France relinquished the states and 
 provinces acquired during the revolutionary 
 wars. Louis XVIII. died on the 16th of 
 December, 1824; his brother, Charles X., 
 ascended the throne, and was crowned with 
 splendor at Rheims, after taking the solemn 
 oath to govern according to the charter. But 
 the misfortunes of the Bourbons had not 
 taught them wisdom. In 1830, the tyranny 
 of the ancient regime seemed to have re- 
 appeared, and fetters were placed upon the 
 press. On Tuesday morning, July 27th, the 
 liberal journals of Paris were seized, and a 
 revolution immediately broke out. In three 
 days the glorious struggle was terminated in 
 favor of the people. The paving-stones and 
 tiles of the houses became weapons more for- 
 midable than sabres or muskets. The royal 
 cavalry, as they rushed upon the barricades, 
 were assailed in front and from above ; the 
 
 young scholars of the Polytechnic school, 
 having been dismissed without their swords, 
 seized what arms they could find, and ranged 
 themselves on the side of the people ; some 
 commanded the populace, others served the 
 guns with spirit and success. Aug. 2d, the 
 king abdicated, and was permitted to leave 
 France. The Duke of Orleans was chosen 
 king, a new ministry appointed, and, after a 
 fair trial, the old ministry was imprisoned 
 for life. 
 
 Louis Philippe, though put upon the 
 throne by the will of the people, forgot the 
 lesson that experience should have taught 
 him. The tranquillity of France was again 
 ruffled by discontent. At length, in Febru- 
 ary, 1848, the suppression of a great reform 
 banquet which was to be holden at Paris, 
 caused a violent tumult. Barricades were 
 thrown up in the streets of Paris, the Tuiler- 
 ies were ransacked, the prisons opened, and 
 wild excesses indulged in by the furious 
 populace. Louis Philippe abdicated in favor 
 of hiS little grandson, and fled across the 
 channel. A republic was at once proclaimed, 
 and a provisional government formed. This 
 gave place on the 6th of May to an executive 
 commission, chosen by the national assembly. 
 Lamartine, Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, 
 Ledru Rollin, Dupont de l’Eure, were the 
 leading members of this commission. Lib- 
 erty, equality, fraternity, were the watch- 
 words of the new republic. The penalty of 
 death for political offenses was abolished. 
 Universal suffrage was proclaimed. All 
 slaves upon French territory were set free. 
 The perpetual banishment of the late mon- 
 arch and his family was decreed. National 
 workshops were established, wherein all 
 laborers out of work were employed at the 
 public expense. 
 
 A spirit of anarchy was abroad, and the 
 new government was assailed by many riots. 
 A fearful struggle broke out on the 23d of 
 June. Paris was declared to be in a state of 
 siege, and the government invested General 
 Cavaignac with dictatorial power. After a 
 bloody contest of four days he brought the 
 insurgents to submission. Sixteen thousand 
 persons had been killed or wounded, and 
 half as many were taken prisoners. A con- 
 stitution was promulgated, under which, on 
 the 11th of December, 1848, Louis Napoleon 
 
 .FRA 
 
346 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 was elected president; Cavaignac was the 
 candidate of the republicans. 
 
 The constitution was overthrown by the 
 coup d'etat of Dec. 2d, 1851. The legislative 
 assembly was dissolved, and the resisting 
 members arrested. Paris was declared to be 
 in a state of siege, and occupied by thousands 
 of troops. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, 
 Bedeau, and Lamoriciere were thrown into 
 prison. Hundreds were banished to the pes- 
 tilential marshes of Cayenne. Louis Napo- 
 leon was declared elected president for ten 
 years. This was only preliminary to further 
 usurpation. Dec. 2d, 1852, the empire was 
 restored, and the nephew of his uncle reigned 
 as Napoleon III. 
 
 We subjoin a list of the dynasties of 
 France. 
 
 THE CARLO VINGIAN8. 
 
 752. Pepin the Short. 
 
 768. Charlemagne, emperor of the West. 
 
 814. Louis the Debonair, emperor. 
 
 840. Charles the Bald, emperor in 875. 
 
 877» Louis the Stammerer, his son. 
 
 879. Louis III. and Carloman II. 
 
 882. Carloman II. 
 
 884. Charles the Fat; usurper, in prejudice to 
 Charles the Simple. 
 
 887. Eudes, or Hugh, Count of Paris. 
 
 898. Charles III., the Simple. 
 
 922. Robert, brother of Eudes ; Charles killed 
 him in battle. 
 
 928. Rodolf, Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 986. Louis IV., son of Charles III. 
 
 954. Lothaire, his son. 
 
 986. Louis V., the Indolent* son of Lothaire; 
 
 poisoned by his queen, and thus ended 
 the line of Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great, Count 
 
 of Paris, seized the crown, in prejudice 
 of Charles of Lorraine, the uncle of 
 Louis IV. 
 
 996. Robert II., his son, born 970. 
 
 1031. Henry I., his son, born 1005. 
 
 1060. Philip I., his son, born 1053. 
 
 1108. Louis VI., the Fat, his son, born 1078. 
 1137. Louis VII., the Young, his son, born 1120. 
 1180. Fhilip Augustus, his son, born 1165. 
 
 1223. Louis VIII., Coeur de Lion, his son, born 
 1187. 
 
 1226. Louis IX., St. Louis, his son, born 1215. 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy, his son, born 1245. 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair, his son, born 1268. 
 1314. Louis X., the Headstrong, his sou, born 
 1289. 
 
 1316. John I., a posthumous son of Louis X. ; 
 lived only a few days. 
 
 1316. Philip V., the Long (on account of his 
 stature), son' of Philip the Fair, born 
 1294. lie was preferred to the daugh- 
 ter and heiress of Louis X., thus con- 
 firming the Salic law. 
 
 1 322. Charles IV., the Handsome, third son of 
 Philip the Fair, born 1295. 
 
 BRANCH OP VALOIS. 
 
 1328. Philip VI., born 1293, grandson of Philip 
 the Hardy by his third son, Charles of 
 Valois. 
 
 1350. John II., the Good, his son, born 1319. 
 
 1364. Charles V., the Wise, his son, born 1337; 
 
 the first prince who bore the title of 
 dauphin. 
 
 1380. Charles VI., his son, born 1368. 
 
 1422. Charles VII., the Victorious, his son, born 
 1403. 
 
 1461. Louis XI., his son, born 1423. 
 
 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable, his son, born 
 1470. 
 
 BRANCH OP VALOIS ORLEANS. 
 
 1498. Louis XII., the Father of the People, born 
 1462, descended from a younger son 
 of Charles V. 
 
 BRANCH OP VALOIS ANGOULEME. 
 
 1515. Francis I., the Father of Letters, born 
 1494. 
 
 1547. Henry II., his son, born 1519. 
 
 1559. Francis II., eldest son of Henry II., born 
 
 1544. 
 
 1560. Charles IX., second son of Henry II., 
 
 born 1550. 
 
 1574. Henry III., third son of Henry II., born 
 1551. 
 
 HOUSE OP BOURBON. 
 
 1589. Henry IV., the Great, born 1553, de- 
 scended from Robert, Count of Cler- 
 mont, younger son of St. Louis, and 
 brother of Philip III. 
 
 1610. Louis XIII., his son, born 1601. 
 
 1643. Louis XIV., his son, the Great, born 1638. 
 
 1715. Louis XV., his great-grandson, born 1710. 
 
 1774. Louis XVI., his grandson, born 1754. 
 
 Louis XVII., his son. [Numbered with 
 the kings though he never reigned. 
 He died in prison, June 8th, 1795, aged 
 ten years and two months.] 
 
 REPUBLIC. 
 
 1793. Till 1804, under various forms, France was 
 a republic. 
 
 THE EMPIRE. 
 
 1804. Napoleon I., born Aug. 15th, 1769. 
 
 THE BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. (Count of Provence), 
 brother of Louis XVI., born Nov. 17th, 
 1755. 
 
 1824. Charles X. (Count of Artois), his brother, 
 born Oct. 9th, 1757 ; deposed. 
 
 HOUSE OP ORLEANS. 
 
 1830. Louis Philippe, son of the notorious Duke 
 of Orleans, born Oct. 6th, 1773; de- 
 posed. 
 
 NEW REPUBUC. 
 
 Louis Napoleon Charles Bonaparte, born 
 April 20th, 1808, chosen president. 
 
 1848. 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 347 
 
 THE EMPIRE REVIVED. 
 
 1852. Napoleon III. [By assuming this title 
 Louis Napoleon recognized the son of 
 Napoleon L, as the second emperor of 
 the name. His father abdicated in his 
 favor, but he never reigned.] 
 
 See Appendix, France and Prussia, p. 1013. 
 
 FRAN CIA, Gaspar Rodriguez de, com- 
 monly called Dr. Francia, born at Assomcion 
 in that province, 1757. When the South 
 American provinces threw off the yoke of 
 Spain, Francia was zealous in establishing the 
 independence of Paraguay, and soon attained 
 the sole dictatorship, which he held from 
 1815 till his death in 1840. He adopted the 
 principle of non-intercourse, and during his 
 rule Paraguay was another Japan. Although 
 he is accused of cruelty, it snould be remem- 
 bered that he preserved order in Paraguay, 
 during a period in which the neighboring 
 state of Buenos Ayres changed its govern- 
 ment, amid convulsions of riot and blood, 
 nearly forty times ! 
 
 FRANCIS I. of France, surnamed by his 
 subjects the father of letters, was born at 
 Cognac in 1494 ; his father was Charles, Count 
 of Angouleme. He succeeded Louis XII., 
 in 1515. Louis had laid claim to the duchy 
 of Milan. Francis renewed the demand. He 
 passed the Alps, penetrated as far as Milan, 
 and found the imperialists and Swiss camped 
 near Marignano. The contest was kept up 
 for two whole days. Francis and tne Cheva- 
 lier Bayard performed prodigies of valor, and 
 the Marshal of Trivulzio, who had been in 
 eighteen actions, called this a combat of 
 giants. The Swiss were beaten with a loss of 
 15,000 men; Sforza ceded Milan, and retired 
 to France, where he died. The Swiss agreed 
 to a perpetual treaty of peace, and long re- 
 mained the faithful allies of France. - Leo X., 
 equally reconciled, came to a conference in 
 which the pragmatic sanction was abolished, 
 to make way for the concordat by which the 
 king enjoyed the power of conferring benefices. 
 
 The death of the emperor, Maximilian I., 
 presented the imperial throne to the view of 
 Francis I. and Charles of Spain. The for- 
 mer never pardoned his rival for having ob- 
 tained it, and hence arose interminable wars. 
 The first care of Francis I. was to attach to 
 himself Henry VIII. of England; and they 
 had an interview near Calais on the Field of 
 
 the Cloth of Gold; but Charles V. ruined 
 his rival’s scheme by gaining the favor of the 
 all-powerful Cardinal Wolsey. The cam- 
 paign which followed presented a scene of 
 alternate success and defeat on both sides. 
 The Milanese were won by the intrigues of 
 Leo X. and Charles V. ; and France had at 
 once for adversaries the new pope, Adrian 
 VI., the emperor, England, the Venetians, 
 and the Genoese, and, to crown her misfor- 
 tunes, the Constable of Bourbon, whom dis- 
 content drove to the arms of Charles V., 
 and whom imperial favor raised to the rank 
 of commander-in-chief. 
 
 Francis fought in different places with 
 various success. The imperialists and the 
 English were repulsed by La Tremouille, the 
 Duke of Guise, and the Duke of Vendome; 
 but Bonnivet was beaten, and the brave Bay- 
 ard killed, in Italy. Yet these misfortunes 
 did not destroy the hopes of Francis: he 
 passed the mountains and re-entered the ter- 
 ritory of the Milanese. Following the ad- 
 vice of Bonnivet, he besieged Pavia, although 
 the oldest officers warned him against doing 
 so. The allies arrived in time to succor it, 
 and, on February 24th, 1525, was fought the 
 battle of Pavia, in which Francis, after having 
 had two horses killed under him, and smart- 
 ing with wounds, was taken prisoner. Bon- 
 nivet killed himself in despair. 
 
 The king wrote to his mother, Louisa of 
 Savoy, who was regent in his absence, this 
 memorable line, “ Madame, we have lost all 
 but honor.” Transferred to Spain, he was 
 imprisoned at Madrid, where, disheartened 
 and sick, he signed the treaty by which he 
 ceded Burgundy, Flanders, and Artois, and 
 gave up his two sons as hostages. Issuing 
 from his prison, his spirits revived with the 
 free air and open scenery, and springing upon 
 a spirited horse, he exclaimed with anima- 
 tion, “I am yet a king.” His progress 
 through Spain hardly resembled that of a 
 prisoner. Throughout his journey, enter- 
 tainments were given him by the Spanish 
 noblemen, who were glad of an oppor- 
 tunity to display their wealth and conse- 
 quence. One night, on arriving at a noble 
 manor, he was obliged to take his seat at a 
 splendid festival ; it concluded with a ball, 
 in which the courteous monarch did not re- 
 fuse to take a part. He asked two beautiful 
 IA 
 
348 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 girls, daughters of a proud old nobleman, to 
 dance with him. But they only consented 
 to perform that part of the figure in which 
 the lady averts her face from her partner ; in 
 short, so blindly patriotic were these pretty 
 Spaniards, that they turned upon their heels, 
 to the no small confusion of the King of 
 France. Their old father, however, not only 
 disapproved of their conduct, but punished 
 it in a summary manner, for, seizing both by 
 the hair, he dragged them out of the ball- 
 room with more rapidity than grace. So 
 much for refusing a king’s invitation. 
 
 Francis witnessed a whimsical instance of 
 Spanish pride in his reception by a certain 
 old gentleman named Don Diego d’ Alvar, 
 who, feigning a painful indisposition, kept his 
 seat, while the French monarch remained 
 standing in his presence. Don Diego had a 
 menagerie, an expensive part of the estab- 
 lishment of a Spanish grandee in those times. 
 During the festival given to Francis, an Afri- 
 can lion escaped from his cage. Consterna- 
 tion spread among the guests, each of whom 
 thought himself the devoted victim of the 
 infuriated animal, when the major-domo of the 
 castle, seizing in one hand a flaming brand, 
 and grasping his sword in the other, advanced 
 to meet the lion. The animal, frightened by 
 the flames, recoiled, and the major-domo fol- 
 lowed him up to his cage, in which he en- 
 closed him with as much coolness as if he had 
 been operating upon a greedy hound taken 
 in the act of thieving from the larder. This 
 act of courage was more admired by Francis 
 than anything else which occurred at the 
 castle of Don' Diego. 
 
 Francis returned to France. His cause 
 becoming that of all the princes who dreaded 
 the increase of the power of Charles V., a 
 league was formed between the pope, the 
 princes of Italy, Henry VIII. of England, 
 and Francis I. The indignant emperor sent 
 Laney into the States of the Church, where 
 he made himself master of many places. 
 The Constable of Bourbon, even after the 
 conquest of Milan, wanting money, advanced 
 upon Rome, and promised his troops the 
 pillage of this city. He was killed in the 
 assault. The furious soldiers, at the end of 
 two hours’ fighting, entered Rome, killed all 
 they met, sacked the houses, profaned the 
 churches, and delivered themselves up to ex- 
 
 cesses of all kinds, which continued for two 
 months. 
 
 The flame of war rekindled. Marshal Lau- 
 trec regained the greater part of Milan; 
 sacked Pavia, in revenge for the capture of 
 the king ; then forced the imperialists to con- 
 clude a treaty with the pope, who was be- 
 sieged in the castle of St. Angelo ; and went 
 thence to Naples, where he perished of the 
 plague with the rest of his army. In 1529, 
 a treaty of peace was concluded at Cambray, 
 called the Peace of Ladies ( Paix des Dames), 
 on account of the plenipotentiaries, the 
 Duchess of Angouleme, for Francis I., her 
 son, and Margaret of Austria, governess of 
 the Low Countries, for Charles V., her 
 nephew. The king engaged to pay the em- 
 peror 2,000,000 crowns, to cede the sover- 
 eignty of Flanders and Artois, and to marry 
 Eleonora, the sister of the emperor, whose 
 attentions had solaced his captivity. 
 
 Finding peace established, he employed 
 himself in repressing a multitude of dis- 
 orders to which the wars had given rise, in 
 making wise regulations, in reforming legal 
 abuses, and preserving the tranquillity of the 
 church by persecuting the reformers that men- 
 aced it. He founded colleges, protected litera- 
 ture, which he himself cultivated, encouraged 
 the arts, founded the royal library and printing 
 establishment, honored learned men, and 
 labored to deserve the title of restorer of the 
 sciences. Commerce, trade and industry 
 were fostered under his rule. 
 
 But he again cast his eyes upon Milan, and 
 in 1535 entered Italy, and made himself 
 master of Savoy. Charles, in turn, made an 
 irruption into Provence, but was repulsed 
 with loss. The Flemings, who had entered 
 Picardy, met with the same fate. The alliance 
 concluded between Francis I. and Solyman, 
 the sultan of the Turks, rendered Charles 
 more prudent, and he concluded a truce for 
 ten years. This was soon broken by his ill 
 faith, and the murder of two French ambas- 
 sadors. War was waged with various suc- 
 cess, for two years, in Italy, France, Spain, 
 and the Netherlands, till Charles and Francis 
 concluded peace at Cressy in 1544. 
 
 In March, 1547, Francis, who possessed so 
 many good qualities, died, the victim of his 
 illicit intrigues. Notwithstanding his numer- 
 ous wars, he kept the finances of France in a 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 349 
 
 flourishing condition. He wedded in 1514, 
 Claude, daughter of Louis XII. and the 
 Duchess of Brittany. She died in 1524, and 
 in 1530 he married Eleanor of Austria, sister 
 of Charles V., and widow of Emmanuel the 
 Fortunate of Portugal. She died in 1557. 
 
 FRANCIS, Sir Philip, a famous politician, 
 was born in Ireland, in 1740. He was edu- 
 cated at St. Paul’s school; after which he 
 obtained a place in the office of the secretary 
 of state. In 1760, he went in the suit of the 
 English ambassador to Lisbon. In 1763, he 
 was a clerk in the war office, and, in 1773, 
 he went out to India, as a member of the 
 council of Bengal, and fought a duel with 
 Warren Hastings, who was wounded. On 
 his return to England, he was elected to par- 
 liament for Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. 
 He supported the proceedings against War- 
 ren Hastings, whom he opposed on every 
 occasion. When the whigs came into office, 
 he was made knight of the bath. He died 
 Dec. 22d, 1818. The authorship of the let- 
 ters of Junius is most generally ascribed to 
 him. [See Junius.] 
 
 FRANCIS, St. There are five saints of 
 this name in the Romish calendar. St. Fran- 
 cis of Assise, 1182-1226; St. Francis of 
 Calabria, 1416-1507 ; St. Francis of Borgia, 
 died 1572; St. Francis of Sales, 1567-1622; 
 St. Francis Xavier, 1506-1552. [ See Xavi- 
 
 er.] The mendicant order of friars called 
 Franciscans, and also Grey Friars, was 
 founded by St. Francis of Assise, 1209-1220. 
 Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, 
 and very austere regimen ; but they became 
 rich, voluptuous, and lazy. They appeared 
 in England in 1224, and at the breaking up 
 of monasteries by Henry VIII., they had 
 fifty -five abbeys or other houses. 
 
 FRANKFORT, on the Main, is one of 
 the four free cities, and the seat of the Ger- 
 man diet. A territory of 91 square miles is 
 attached to the city, and the government is 
 republican ; total population in 1855, 74,784. 
 Frankfort was made a free city in li54. It 
 is a place of large traffic, banking, and manu- 
 factures. The aggregate capital of its bank- 
 ers is said to be $100,000,000. In the six- 
 teenth century its annual fairs were attended 
 by forty thousand strangers. Though no 
 longer so famous, they are still animated and 
 attractive. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, was born in Bos- 
 ton, Jan. 17th, 1706. He was the youngest 
 of seventeen children, and was intended for 
 his father’s business, which was that of a 
 soap-boiler and tallow-chandler, but being 
 disgusted with this employment, he was ap- 
 prenticed to his brother, who was a printer. 
 This occupation was more congenial to his 
 taste, and he used to devote his nights to the 
 perusal of such books as his scanty means 
 enabled him to buy. By restricting himself 
 to a vegetable diet, he obtained more money 
 for intellectual purposes, and at sixteen had 
 read Locke on the Understanding, Xeno- 
 phon’s Memorabilia, and the Port Royal 
 Logic, in addition to many other works. 
 Having incurred the displeasure of his father 
 and brother, he ran away, sailed in a sloop to 
 New York, walked thence to Philadelphia, 
 and entered that city with a dollar in his 
 pocket, and a loaf of bread under his arm. 
 Here he obtained employment as a printer, 
 and Sir William Keith, the governor, observ- 
 ing his diligence, persuaded him to go to 
 England, to purchase materials for a press, on 
 his own account, promising him letters of 
 introduction and credit. This was in 1725. 
 He found he was the bearer of no letters 
 that related to himself, and he was accord- 
 ingly obliged to work at his trade in London. 
 He returned to Philadelphia, where, in a 
 short time, he entered into business with one 
 Meredith, and about 1728 began a newspa- 
 per, in which he inserted many of his moral 
 essays. He published “Poor Richard’s Alma- 
 nac” for a quarter-century and more. It is 
 well known for its pithy sayings : “ Drive thy 
 business, let not that drive thee ; ” “ God gives 
 all things to industry ; then plow deep while 
 sluggards sleep, and you will have corn to sell 
 and keep ; ” “ Three removes are as bad as a 
 fire ; ” “ Keep thy shop, and thy shop will 
 keep thee ;” “If you would have your busi- 
 ness done, go ; if not, send ; ” as poor Rich- 
 ard says. The frugal maxims of poor Dick, 
 Franklin himself strictly observed, and he 
 grew to prosperity and good repute in his 
 adopted city. At the age of twenty-seven, 
 he began the study of the modern and classi- 
 cal languages. He founded the University 
 of Pennsylvania and the American Philosoph- 
 ical Society, and invented the Franklin stove, 
 which still holds its place, even among the 
 
 FRA 
 
350 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 franklin’s GRAVE AT PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 variety of modern inventions of a similar 
 kind. In 1746, he made his experiments on 
 electricity and applied his discoveries to the 
 invention of the lightning-rod. 
 
 In 1751, he was appointed deputy post- 
 master-general for the colonies. After the 
 defeat of Braddock, a bill for organizing a 
 provincial militia having passed the assembly, 
 Franklin was chosen its commander. In 1 757, 
 he was sent to England with a petition to the 
 king and council against the proprietaries, 
 who refused to bear their share in the public 
 expenses. While thus employed, he pub- 
 lished several works, which gained him a 
 high reputation, and the agency of Massa- 
 chusetts, Maryland, and Georgia. In 1762, 
 Franklin was chosen fellow of the royal so- 
 ciety, and made doctor of laws at Oxford, and 
 the same year returned to America. 
 
 In 1764 he was again deputed to England 
 as agent of his province, and in 1766 was ex- 
 
 amined before the house of commons on the 
 subject of the stamp-act. His answers were 
 clear and decisive. His conduct in England 
 was worthy of his previous character. Find- 
 ing him warmly attached to the colonies, 
 invective and coarse satire were leveled against 
 him, but his integrity and matchless wit 
 formed an invulnerable defense. He was next 
 offered “any reward, unlimited recompense, 
 honors and recompense beyond his expecta- 
 tions,” if he would forsake his countty, but 
 he stood firm as a rock. 
 
 He returned to America in 1775, and was 
 immediately chosen a member of congress, 
 and performed the most arduous duties in the 
 service of his country. He was sent as com- 
 missioner to France in 1776, and concluded a 
 treaty, February 6th, 1778, in which year he 
 was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the 
 court of Versailles, and one of the commis- 
 tioners for negotiating peace with Great Brit- 
 
 FRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 351 
 
 ain. Although he solicited leave, he was not 
 permitted to return till 1785. He was made 
 president of Pennsylvania, and as a delegate 
 to the convention of 1787, approved the fed- 
 eral constitution. He died April 17th, 1790. 
 
 How generally he was beloved, both at 
 home and abroad, the various honors which 
 he received, show. Incorruptible, talented, 
 and virtuous, he merited the eulogium of 
 Lord Chatham, who characterized him as 
 “ one whom all Europe held in high estimation 
 for his knowledge and wisdom ; who was an 
 honor, not to the English nation only, but to 
 human nature.” His wit and humor rendered 
 his society acceptable to every class. On one 
 occasion, he was dining with the English am- 
 bassador and a French functionary at Paris. 
 The former rose, and gave the following sen- 
 timent: “England! the bright sun whose 
 rays illuminate the world ! ” The French 
 gentleman, struggling between patriotism and 
 politeness, proposed, “France! the moon 
 whose mild beams dispel the shades of night.” 
 Doctor Franklin, rising in turn, said, “ Gen- 
 eral George Washington! the Joshua who 
 commanded the sun and moon to stand still, 
 and they obeyed him ! ” Franklin’s wit and 
 humor are happily displayed in an epitaph 
 which he once wrote. 
 
 THE BODY 
 OF 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 
 PRINTER 
 
 (LIKE THE COVER OF AN OLD BOOK, 
 
 ITS CONTENTS TORN OUT, 
 
 AND STRIPPED OF ITS LETTERING AND GILDING), 
 LIES HERE, FOOD FOR WORMS; 
 
 YET THE WORK ITSELF SHALL NOT BE LOST, 
 
 FOR IT WILL (AS HE BELIEVED) APPEAR ONCE MORE 
 IN A NEW 
 
 AND MORE BEAUTIFUL EDITION, 
 CORRECTED AND AMENDED 
 BY 
 
 the Author. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Sir J ohn, was born at Spils- 
 by, Lincolnshire, in 1786. His early love for 
 the sea led him into the navy as a midship- 
 man at the age of fourteen. In 1808 he 
 accompanied Capt. Flanders in a voyage of 
 discovery to the South Seas, and was wrecked 
 on th*e coast of New Holland. He was at 
 Copenhagen, Trafalgar, and New Orleans. 
 His first Arctic voyage was in 1814, as sec- 
 ond to Capt. Buchan. He was also in the ex- 
 pedition of Ross and Parry. Afterward, with 
 
 Mr. Richardson, he made two arduous jour- 
 neys by land in the polar regions, and for his 
 services was knighted. From 1830 to 1848 he 
 was governor of Van Diemen’s Land. On the 
 19th of May, 1845, he sailed once more for 
 the frozen seas of the north. After a time 
 the anxiety of Christendom was awakened 
 in behalf of Sir John and his comrades. Ex- 
 pedition after expedition, both from Eng- 
 land and America, was dispatched for their 
 rescue. The generous toil was in vain. The 
 sad fate of the long missing party was at last 
 ascertained, but not from a survivor’s lips. 
 [See North-West Passage.] 
 
 FREDEGONDE, the wife of Chilperic of 
 France, a ruthless woman who persuaded her 
 husband to oppress his subjects. She is said 
 to have murdered Sigebert, Meroveus, the 
 son of Chilperic, Andoveus, his brother, and 
 Pretextatus, Bishop of Rouen. Afterward, 
 retiring to Paris, she continued her persecu- 
 tions of Brunehaut, and Childebert her son, 
 took the field, and vanquished him with the 
 slaughter of 30,000 of his army. She then 
 wasted Champagne, and retook Paris. She 
 died in 597, after having caused Chilperic to 
 be assassinated. 
 
 FREDERICK I., surnamed Barbarossa, 
 succeeded to the imperial crown, on the death 
 of his uncle, Conrad III., in 1152. His first 
 business was to insure the tranquillity of Ger- 
 many, after which he marched into Italy, and 
 assumed its sovereignty. He afterward re- 
 newed the war, took Milan a second time, 
 and destroyed it, but he was excommunicated 
 by the pope. He engaged in the crusades 
 against the Turks, defeated Saladin in two 
 combats, and took several cities from the 
 infidels. He was drowned July 10th, 1190; 
 in the midst of his successes. 
 
 FREDERICK II., King of Prussia, com- 
 monly called the Great, was the son of Fred- 
 erick William I., and was born January 21st, 
 1712. His education was strict, but when 
 he grew up, he showed so strong an inclina- 
 tion to literature and music, as to incur the 
 displeasure of his father, who considered read- 
 ing as beneath the dignity of a monarch and 
 a man. So harsh was the conduct of his 
 parent, that in 1730 he attempted to escape 
 from Prussia, but was taken with his travel- 
 ing companion, Lieutenant Catt, who was 
 put to death by order of the king. The prince 
 
 FRE 
 
352 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 himself was punished by confinement. The 
 death of his father raised him to the throne, 
 May 31st, 1740, and, by taking advantage 
 of the defenseless state of Maria Theresa, 
 he added Silesia to his dominions. In 1744, 
 he again took up arms against Austria ; and 
 the treaty of Dresden, in 1745, left him in 
 possession of an extended territory. In 1755, 
 he entered into an alliance with England, 
 which produced the seven years’ war; in 
 which Frederick exhibited all the powers of 
 his character as a skillful general. In 1757, 
 he had to contend with Russia, Austria, Sax- 
 ony, Sweden, and France; notwithstanding 
 which, and though his enemies made them, 
 selves masters of his capital, he extricated 
 himself from his difficulties, and by the battle 
 of Torgau repaired all his losses. In 1763, 
 peace was restored. Frederick afterward led 
 a philosophic life, with the exception of his 
 wicked share in dismembering Poland in 1773. 
 He died August 17th, 1786. 
 
 FRENEAU, Philip, a poet of the American 
 Revolution, died at Freehold, N. J., Dec. 
 18th, 1832, aged about eighty. He was for 
 some time a captive in the Scorpion prison- 
 ship at New York. 
 
 FRIDAY, the sixth day in the week, was 
 so called from Friga, a Scandinavian goddess 
 commonly supposed to be the same with 
 Venus. She was the wife of Thor, and the 
 goddess of peace, fertility, and riches. Friga, 
 Thor, and Odin composed the court or su- 
 preme council of the gods. The Moham- 
 medans consider Friday holy, because on 
 that day the Hegira occurred. Per contra, 
 throughout Christendom from time immemo- 
 rial, Friday has been dreaded as a day of ill 
 omen. From the earliest days of Christianity 
 the Friday before Easter has been kept as 
 a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifix- 
 ion of Christ, Friday, April 3d, a.d. 33. By 
 the Saxon Christians this fast was called 
 Long Friday, because of the great length of 
 the offices observed and fastings enjoined. 
 The name Good Friday is peculiar to the 
 Episcopal church. The evil repute of this 
 day of the week may have arisen from the 
 fact that it was darkened by our Saviour’s 
 death. A superstitious fear of it has been 
 especially prevalent among seamen. It would 
 seem that Americans, whether mariners or 
 landsmen, have little cause to dread this day. 
 
 On Friday, August 21st, 1492, Christopher 
 Columbus sailed on his great voyage of dis- 
 covery. On Friday, October 12th, 1492, he 
 first discovered land. On Friday, January 
 4th, 1493, he sailed on his return to Spain, 
 and had he not reached home in safety, the 
 happy result that led to the settlement of this 
 vast continent, would not have been known. 
 On Friday, March 15th, 1493, he arrived at 
 Palos in safety. On Friday, November 22d, 
 
 1493, he arrived at Hispaniola, on his second 
 voyage to America. On Friday, June 13th, 
 
 1494, he, though unknown to himself, dis- 
 covered the continent of America. On Fri- 
 day, March 5th, 1496, Henry VII. of Eng- 
 land gave to John Cabot his commission, 
 which led to the discovery of North America ; 
 this is the first American state paper in 
 England. On Friday, September 7th, 1565, 
 Melendez founded St. Augustine, the oldest 
 town in the United States by more than forty 
 years. On Friday, November 10th, 1620, the 
 Mayflower, with the Pilgrims, made the har- 
 bor of Provincetown, and on that day they 
 signed that august compact, the forerunner 
 of our present glorious constitution. On 
 Friday, December 22d, 1620, the Pilgrims 
 made their final landing at Plymouth rock. 
 On Friday, February 22d, 1732, George 
 Washington, the father of American freedom, 
 was born. On Friday, June 16th, Bunker 
 Hill was seized and fortified. On Friday, 
 October 7th, 1777, the surrender of Saratoga 
 was made, which had such power and in- 
 fluence in inducing France to declare for our 
 cause. On Friday, October 19th, 1781, the 
 surrender at Yorktown, the crowning glory 
 of the American arms, occurred. On Friday, 
 July 7th, 1776, the motion in Congress was 
 made by John Adams, seconded by Richard 
 Henry Lee, that the united colonies were, 
 and of right ought to be, free and independ- 
 ent. Thus, by numerous examples, we see 
 that, however it may be with foreign nations, 
 Americans need never dread to begin on Fri- 
 day any undertaking, however momentous it 
 may be. 
 
 FRIEDL AND, a town of Bohemia, piemo- 
 rable for the battle fought there on the 14th 
 of June, 1807, between the French and the 
 allied Russians and Prussians, which resulted 
 in the total defeat of the latter, with immense 
 Napoleon commanded the French in 
 
 loss. 
 
 FRI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 353 
 
 fulton’s first steamboat. 
 
 person. The treaty of Tilsit was a result of 
 his victory. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLANDS, a group of islands 
 in the South Pacific Ocean, 150 in number. 
 They are very fertile, but contain but few 
 springs of good water. They were discovered 
 by Tasman in 1642, and visited in 1773 by 
 Captain Cook, who thought the inhabitants 
 amicable and inoffensive, and christened the 
 isles accordingly. It was afterward learned 
 that they intended to kill him and seize his 
 vessels. The people are industrious, and 
 many have been converted to Christianity by 
 missionaries. 
 
 FRISIANS, an old tribe of Germans, in- 
 habiting Friesland. Prussia took possession 
 of East Friesland in 1744, and it was annexed 
 to Hanover in 1815. 
 
 FRITH, John, an early martyr to the ref- 
 ormation in England, was burned about 
 1533 ; Frith’s work on the Eucharist is sup- 
 posed to have been the first English treatise 
 on the side of the reformed doctrines. 
 
 FROBISHER, Sir Martin, the first Eng- 
 lishman who tried to find a north-west pas- 
 sage to the Pacific, in 1576. He entered the 
 strait since known by his name. He was 
 knighted for bis services against the Armada. 
 
 He died in 1594 from a wound got In an 
 attack on Brest. 
 
 FROISSART, John, the celebrated French 
 chronicler, died in 1402, aged sixty-nine. 
 
 FRY, Elizabeth, who has been called ‘ the 
 female Howard,’ was born in 1780, at Earl- 
 ham, Norfolk. Her maiden name was Gur- 
 ney, and she was a member of the society of 
 Friends. Her life was devoted to labors of 
 love in behalf of the poor, the afflicted, and 
 the suffering. In her endeavors for the ref- 
 ormation of criminals she visited all the prin- 
 cipal jails in Great Britain, France, Holland, 
 Denmark, and Prussia. The unwearying 
 benevolence of this excellent woman made 
 serious inroads on her health, and she died 
 at Ramsgate, October 11th, 1844. 
 
 FUENTES D’ONORE, Battle of, in Por- 
 tugal, May 5th, 1811, between the French 
 under Massena, who desired to relieve Almei- 
 da, and a greatly inferior force commanded 
 by Lord Wellington. The fight lasted until 
 evening, and victory rested with neither army. 
 
 FULLER, Thomas, an eminent English 
 divine and writer, born 1608 died 1661, aged 
 fifty-three. He was the author of various 
 works in practical divinity and history, but 
 his quaint melange, “The Worthies of Eng- 
 
 FUL 
 
854 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 land,” is now best known. His memory was 
 wonderful : it is said that he could repeat five 
 hundred unconnected words after twice hear- 
 ing them, and recite all the signs in the prin- 
 cipal thoroughfare of London after once pass- 
 ing through it and back again. He was chap- 
 lain to Charles II. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, the celebrated American 
 engineer, was born in Pennsylvania in 1765. 
 At an early age he exhibited a fondness for 
 the mechanical arts, and a talent for drawing. 
 In his twenty-second year, he went to Eng- 
 land, and subsequently to France, distinguish- 
 ing himself in both countries by mechanical 
 inventions. He returned to America in 1806. 
 Mr. Livingston, the American ambassador to 
 
 GADSDEN, Christopher, lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor of South Carolina, was bom in 1724. 
 He was an early and ardent friend of liberty, 
 and discharged the duties of member of the 
 provincial congress with ability and apnlause. 
 After the capture of Charleston by the British 
 in 1780, Mr. Gadsden and other firm patriots 
 were arrested, in flagrant violation of the terms 
 of capitulation, and incarcerated for months 
 in dungeons at St. Augustine. He died Aug. 
 28th, 1805. 
 
 GAELS, a family of the Celts, who passed 
 over from Gaul to Britain and the neighboring 
 islands. Traces of them are still found in the 
 remote districts of Ireland and Scotland. 
 
 GAGE, Thomas, the last royal governor of 
 Massachusetts. He was lieutenant under 
 Braddock, witnessed his defeat, and bore his 
 body from the field of battle. In 1760 he 
 was appointed governor of Montreal, and a 
 few years afterward succeeded to the chief 
 command of the British forces in America. 
 He was the successor of Hutchinson in the 
 office of governor of Massachusetts. Gage 
 was naturally a benevolent and amiable man, 
 but his sense of duty forced him to the exe- 
 cution of the odious measures of his masters 
 in England. He went home in the autumn 
 of 17.75, and died in April, 1787. 
 
 GAINES, Edmund Pendleton, major-gen- 
 eral in the American army, born in Virginia, 
 
 G. 
 
 France, furnished him with funds to carry out 
 his plans. Fulton had built a steamboat upon 
 the Seine in 1803, which was partly success- 
 ful. In 1807, the first attempt at steam nav- 
 igation in America was made upon the Hud- 
 son. The maximum speed was only five 
 miles an hour. In 1809 Mr. Fulton took a 
 patent for his invention, and in 1811 a second 
 patent for subsequent improvements. He died 
 February 24th, 1815. 
 
 FUSELI, Henry, was born at Zurich, Feb. 
 7th, 1741, and bred to the church. He came 
 to England in 1763, and by the advice of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds adopted painting as a pro- 
 fession, wherein he attained a flattering emi- 
 nence. He died April 16th, 1825. 
 
 1777, entered the army in 1799, served with 
 distinction in the war of 1812, and died in 
 1849. 
 
 GALATIA, originally part of Phrygia and 
 Cappadocia, obtained its name from the set- 
 tlement of a large body of Gauls in that sec- 
 tion of Asia Minor, about b.c. 239. It became 
 a Roman province, b.c. 25. St. Paul appears 
 to have visited Galatia twice, about a.d. 50 
 and 55 (Acts xvi. 6 ; xviii. 23). 
 
 GALBA, Sergius, or Servius Sulpicius, 
 succeeded Nero on the imperial throne. He 
 had risen gradually through various state 
 offices, although continually exposed to the 
 jealousy of Nero, who ordered him to be as- 
 sassinated ; and having escaped the toils which 
 were laid for him, he was saluted emperor, 
 a.d. 68. His avarice induced him to profit 
 by the sale of offices, and his appointment of 
 Piso Licinianus, instead of Otho, to fill the 
 office of colleague in the government, exas. 
 perated the praetorians, who put him to death, 
 a.d. 69, in the seventy-second year of his age, 
 after a reign of three months. 
 
 GALENUS, Claudius, commonly called 
 Galen, a celebrated Greek physician, who 
 lived in the second century of the Christian 
 era. He was an oracle in medical science for 
 centuries. 
 
 GALILEO, or Galilei, was born at Pisa, 
 July 15th, 1564. He was a professor of math- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 855 
 
 ematics at Pisa, and afterward at Padua. He 
 constructed for himself a telescope in 1609, 
 with which he discovered mo mtains and cav- 
 ities in the moon, the round disc of the plan- 
 ets, the four satellites of Jupiter, and spots on 
 the s.un. For teaching the Copernican theory, 
 he was accused of heresy, examined by the 
 inquisition, and put to the torture. Worn 
 out by age, he succumbed to his persecutors, 
 and abjured his objectionable doctrines, in 
 1633. In his later years he became blind. 
 He died at Florence, January 8th, 1642. 
 
 GALL, Francis Joseph, the founder of the 
 science of phrenology, was born in the duchy 
 of Baden, March 9th, 1758 and died in Paris 
 in 1828. 
 
 GALLATIN, Albert, born in Geneva, 1761, 
 came to America in 1779, was for a while 
 tutor at Cambridge, and finally removed to 
 Pennsylvania. He represented that state as 
 representative and senator in Congress from 
 1793 to 1801. President Jefferson appointed 
 him secretary of the treasury in 1802, and he 
 administered that department with eminent 
 ability till 1813, when he was sent abroad to 
 negotiate peace with Great Britain. He was 
 afterward minister to France, Great Britain, 
 and the Netherlands. He died in 1849. 
 
 GALLAUDET, Rev. Thomas H., the pio- 
 neer of deaf-mute instruction in America, died 
 at Hartford, Sept. 10th, 1851, aged sixty-four. 
 He visited Europe in 1815, acquired the art 
 from Abbe Sicard, and returned in August of 
 the next year, with Laurent Clerc, one of Si- 
 card’s most intelligent deaf-mute pupils. He 
 was the first principal of the American Asy- 
 lum at Hartford, resigned in 1830, and became 
 chaplain at the Retreat for the Insane in that 
 city. 
 
 GALYANI, Luigi, a physician and physi- 
 ologist, famous for his discovery of galvanism, 
 was born at Bologna in 1737, and died in 1798. 
 
 GAMA, Vasco de, the celebrated Portu- 
 guese navigator, who in 1497 discovered the 
 way to the East Indies around the Cape of 
 Good Hope. He lived in the reign of Eman- 
 uel the Fortunate. He was appointed viceroy 
 of the Portuguese Indies, and died in Decem- 
 ber, 1524, at Goa. 
 
 GANSEVOORT, Peter, was born in Alba- 
 ny, N. Y., July 16th, 1749. He accompanied 
 Montgomery to Canada, in 1775, and was 
 raised to the rank of colonel the ensuing year. 
 
 August 2d, 1777, he was besieged with his 
 command in Fort Stanwix (where the town of 
 Rome now stands), by Colonel St. Leger, with 
 a body of British tories and Indians, who, 
 after a most gallant defense, were repelled and 
 forced to retreat, August 22d. Gen. Ganse- 
 voort died July 2d, 1812. 
 
 GARDEN, Alexander, an eminentbotanist, 
 born in Scotland, 1730; removed to Charles- 
 ton, S. C., 1752, where he practiced medicine ; 
 died in London, 1791, aged sixty-one. 
 
 GARDENING. Introduced into England 
 from the Netherlands, whence most vegetables 
 were imported till 1500 ; muskmelons, the pale 
 gooseberry, salads, garden roots, cabbages, 
 &c., were brought from Flanders, and hops 
 from Artois, 1520 ; rye and wheat from Tar- 
 tary and Siberia, where they are yet indige- 
 nous ; barley and oats unknown, but certainly 
 not indigenous in England ; rice from Ethio- 
 pia ; buckwheat, Asia ; borage, Syria ; cresses, 
 Crete ; cauliflower, Cyprus ; asparagus, Asia ; 
 chervil, Italy ; fennel, Canary Islands ; anise 
 and parsley, Egypt; garlic, the East; shal- 
 lots, Siberia ; horse-radish, China ; kidney 
 beans, East Indies ; gourds, Astracan ; lentils, 
 France; potatoes, Brazil; tobacco, America; 
 cabbage, lettuce, &c., Holland. Jasmine came 
 from the East Indies ; the elder tree from Per- 
 sia ; the tulip from Cappadocia ; the daffodil 
 from Italy ; the lily from Syria ; the tube rose 
 from Java and Ceylon ; the carnation and pink 
 from Italy, &c. ; ranunculus from the Alps ; 
 apples from Syria ; apricots from Epirus ; ar- 
 tichokes from Holland ; celery from Flanders ; 
 cherries from Pontus ; currants from Zante ; 
 damask and musk roses from Damascus, as 
 well as plums; gilliflowers, carnations, the 
 Provence rose, &c., from Toulouse, in France ; 
 oranges and lemons from Spain ; beans from 
 Greece, and peas from Spain. 
 
 GARDINER, Stephen, Bishop of Winches- 
 ter, was a strenuous opponent of the reforma- 
 tion in England. He lost his place under 
 Henry VIII., but regained it under the bigoted 
 Mary, whom he instigated to persecute the 
 Protestants with fire and sword. 1483-1555. 
 
 GARRICK, David, one of the most cele- 
 brated and talented of English actors, and the 
 friend of Dr. Johnson. He was born at Lich- 
 field, 1716, and died Jan. 20th, 1779, having 
 amassed a bountiful fortune by the profession 
 he had elevated and adorned. 
 
 GAR 
 
356 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 GARTER, Order of the. This famous or- 
 der of knighthood was instituted by Edward 
 III. of England. King Edward, being of a 
 military genius, and engaged in a war for re- 
 covering France, made it his business to draw 
 the best soldiers of Europe into his interest. 
 With this view he projected a restoration of 
 King Arthur’s round table, and proclaimed 
 a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality 
 and courage to the exercise. The place for 
 the solemnity was fixed at Windsor. He 
 published his royal letters of protection for 
 the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
 knights as intended to venture their reputa- 
 tion at the jousts and tournaments, which 
 were to be held on the 19th of January, 1344. 
 He provided a great supper to begin the 
 solemnity, and then ordering this feast to be 
 annually kept at Whitsuntide, he for that pur- 
 pose erected a particular building in the cas- 
 tle, wherein he placed a round table, of two 
 hundred feet diameter, in imitation of King 
 Arthur’s at Winchester, and thereat enter- 
 tained the knights at his own expense of a 
 hundred pounds a week. 
 
 The said king issuing out his garter for the 
 signal of a battle that was crowned with suc- 
 cess (supposed to be Cressy), he instituted an 
 order of knights, April 23d, 1349-50, giving 
 the garter pre-eminence among its ensigns, 
 whence the select number whom he incorpo- 
 rated into a fraternity were styled Equites 
 Aurem Periscelidis, ‘ the knights of the golden 
 garter.’ The Black Prince was the first of 
 the original twenty-five knights. 
 
 The habits and ensigns of this order con- 
 sist of the garter, surcoat, mantle, hood, 
 gcorge, collar, cap, and feathers; the four 
 first were assigned by the founder, and the 
 rest by Henry VIII. 
 
 The garter, appointed to be worn by the 
 knights on the left leg between the knee and 
 calf, was instituted by the founder, as a tie 
 of association, honor, and military virtue, to 
 bind the knights strictly to himself and each 
 other in friendship, and as an ensign of unity 
 and combination, to promote the honor of 
 God, and the interest of their prince and 
 sovereign. He also caused to be wrought 
 in gold letters this motto, Honi soit qui 
 mal y pense (Evil to him who evil thinks) ; 
 declaring thereby the equity of his inten- 
 
 tion, retorting shame and defiance upon him 
 who thought ill of the just enterprise in 
 which he had engaged for the support of 
 his right to the French crown. The garter 
 is of blue velvet bordered with gold (having 
 the letters of the motto of the same), and is 
 buckled on at the time of the election. 
 
 The knight’s pantaloons are of pearl-colored 
 silk. On the outside of the right knee is 
 fixed a knot of open silver lace and ribbons 
 intermixed, in the form of a large rose ; and, 
 a little below the knee, is placed the garter. 
 His shoes, which are of white shammy, with 
 red heels, have each a knot on the exterior 
 side. His doublet is cloth of silver, adorned 
 before and behind, and down the sleeves, 
 with several guards or rows of silver lace, 
 each having a row of small buttons set down 
 the middle. The cuffs are open, and adorned 
 with the before-mentioned lace and ribbons 
 set in small loops. At the bottom of the 
 upper seam of each cuff is fixed a knot of 
 silver ribbons that fall over his gloves, which 
 are of kid, laced at the top with silver, and 
 adorned at the opening with a knot, like that 
 on the cuff. His surcoat is of crimson vel- 
 vet, lined with white taffeta. His cap is 
 of black velvet adorned with a diamond band, 
 and a plume of white feathers, with a heron 
 sprig in the middle. The mantle is of sky- 
 colored velvet, adorned on the left shoulder 
 with St. George’s cross encircled with the 
 garter, wreathed on the edges with blue and 
 gold. The hood is of crimson velvet and 
 lined with white taffeta. The collar, which 
 weighs thirty ounces troy, of gold, was intro- 
 duced by Henry VIII., and contains twenty- 
 six garters enameled, and as many knots, 
 alluding to the sovereign of the order, to 
 which is pendent the figure of St. George 
 and the dragon, which is a gold medal, and 
 may be enriched with jewels at the pleasure 
 of the owner. The officers of the order are 
 the prelate of the garter, the chancellor of 
 the garter, the register of the garter, and 
 black rod, the last officer being instituted by 
 the founder. The knights are installed in 
 St. George’s Chapel, at Windsor. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, Sir William, an eminent 
 English lawyer and judge, born 1350, died 
 1413. 
 
 GASSENDI, Pierre, an eminent French 
 
 GAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 857 
 
 astronomer and philosopher, one of the 
 great restorers of inductive philosophy, died 
 1655, aged sixty-three. 
 
 GAS, introduced in London, for lighting 
 Pall Mall, in 1809; first into the United 
 States, at Baltimore, 1821. 
 
 GASTON DE FOIX, Duke of Nemours, 
 the nephew of Louis XII. of France, was 
 born in 1488. He ran a brilliant career in 
 arms, and fell in the battle of Ravenna, 
 April 11th, 1512. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, was an Englishman by 
 birth, and the godson of Horace Walpole ; 
 scandal said the filial relationship was closer 
 and less sanctified. In Braddock’s disastrous 
 campaign, he commanded one of the inde- 
 pendent companies from New York, and was 
 severely wounded. Afterward he reached 
 the rank of major in the regular army, but 
 neither his pay nor promotion equaled his 
 desires; and after several years of solicita- 
 tion and waiting for something better, he 
 sold his commission, a disappointed man, 
 crossed the Atlantic in 1772, purchased an 
 estate in Virginia, espoused the popular side, 
 and renewed his old campaigning acquaint- 
 ance with George W ashington. When W ash- 
 ington was put at the head of the continental 
 army, at his express request Gates was made 
 adjutant-general, with the rank of brigadier. 
 His experience was of much service in orga- 
 nizing the raw forces at Cambridge. In 
 May, 1776, he was made major-general, and 
 in June the command of the army engaged 
 in the invasion of Canada was conferred upon 
 him. Questions of rank and precedence 
 arose between him and Schuyler, the com- 
 mander of the northern department. Through 
 the intrigues of Gates with Congress, Schuy- 
 ler was removed in August, 1777, and Gates 
 made his successor. Schuyler was then 
 busy in opposing the progress of Burgoyne’s 
 expedition; the glory of the victory that 
 ensued was due in good part to his previous 
 operations, though his supplanter had the 
 fame. The Conway cabal raised up Gates 
 as a rival to Washington, but their schemes, 
 although very annoying and embarrassing, 
 were finally abortive. When Gates was 
 named to the command in the South, General 
 Lee predicted, “His northern laurels will be 
 exchanged for southern willows.” This was 
 verified in the disaster of Camden. His con- 
 
 duct was investigated, and he was acquitted 
 of blame. Meantime hostilities had ended. 
 Gen. Gates removed to the city of New York, 
 and died April 10th, 1806, aged seventy- 
 eight. A few years before, he had manumit- 
 ted his slaves, but many preferred to remain 
 in the family. Vanity was the general’s 
 besetting sin, often obscuring his judgment 
 and better traits. 
 
 GAY, John, the author of the “ Beggars’ 
 Opera,” “Black-Eyed Susan,” and “The 
 Hare with Many Friends,” died Dec. 4th, 
 1732, aged forty-four. Over his grave in 
 Westminster Abbey is a tablet with a long 
 recital of his praises, set up by his friends, 
 the Duke and Duchess of Queensberry ; but 
 few read more than the irreverent epitaph 
 which Gay himself composed: 
 
 “Life’s a jest, and all things show it: 
 
 I thought so once : now I know it.” 
 
 Gay and Swift were fast friends, and the let- 
 ter of Pope, announcing Gay’s death, was 
 thus indorsed by Swift: “On my dear friend 
 Mr. Gay’s death. Received, December 15th, 
 but not read till the 20th, by an impulse 
 foreboding some misfortune.” 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN, the famous Mongol 
 emperor, was born a.d. 1163. He founded 
 in 1206 that vast empire, the grandeur of 
 which was the theme of admiration through- 
 out the world. The leading men of the small 
 domain left him by his father having rebelled 
 against him, he marched upon them with an 
 army of 30,000 men, and completely frus- 
 trated their designs. Tartary and China 
 and all inland Asia fell before the power of 
 the conqueror, whose dominions extended to 
 the banks of the Dnieper. He died Aug. 
 24th, 1227, leaving to his children an empire 
 twelve hundred leagues in length. The con- 
 quests of the great khan were stained with 
 the most atrocious cruelties ; his march was 
 like the progress of a fiery storm, bursting 
 over several countries at once, and involving 
 them in ruin. According to the most moder- 
 ate calculation, no fewer than 2,000,000 men 
 fell beneath the murdering swnrd, without 
 reckoning the numbers that affliction and the 
 horrors of slavery consigned to the grave. 
 [See Mongols.] 
 
 GENLIS, Stephanie, Countess de, was 
 born near Autun, in 1746. Soon after her 
 birth she narrowly escaped suffocation, for a 
 
 GEN 
 
358 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gentleman who called to see her mother, was 
 about to sit down upon the chair on which 
 the infant was laid, had actually divided the 
 flaps of his coat for that purpose, and was 
 only prevented by the united screams of the 
 nurse and mother. The literary talent of 
 Mademoiselle de St. Aubin early developed 
 itself, and induced the Count de Genlis to 
 offer her hfs hand without ever having seen 
 her. She was governess to the children of 
 the notorious Duke of Orleans, to whose 
 number she added an illegitimate daughter, 
 afterward the wife of Lord Edward Fitzger- 
 ald. Madame de Genlis died, after a wander- 
 ing life, in 1830, just after one of her pupils 
 had become King of the French. 
 
 GENOA is now a duchy of Sardinia. The 
 city of Genoa, on the Mediterranean coast, 
 has a population of 100,000. The harbor is 
 capacious and secure. The city is built on a 
 declivity, and the streets are narrow, dirty, 
 and steep. The duchy contains 1,257 square 
 miles, and 545,000 inhabitants. Genoa is a 
 town of great antiquity. It was seized by 
 the Langobards, after the fall of the western 
 Roman empire, and came next into the hands 
 of the Franks. It was erected into a republic 
 after the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 Quarrels with the Pisans and Venetians occu- 
 pied the Genoese for many years. In the 
 thirteenth century the Genoese founded 
 many and wealthy colonies in the Levant and 
 the Euxine. The French assumed the sove- 
 reignty of Genoa, but did not long retain it. 
 Internal dissensions not unfrequently enabled 
 foreign powers to seize upon the state. In 
 1528 tranquillity was restored to Genoa, an 
 aristocratical form of government established, 
 and a doge placed at the head of the state. 
 Some time after this the city was convulsed 
 by furious contentions between the old and 
 new nobility, the two factions into which 
 the aristocracy was divided. By degrees 
 Genoa lost her foreign possessions, the last 
 of which, Corsica, revolted in 1730. During 
 the invasion of Italy in 1797, Genoa observed 
 a strict neutrality, but the dissensions of the 
 Genoese did not escape the vigilant eye of 
 Napoleon. He established a form of govern- 
 ment on the French representative system, 
 and gave it the title of the Ligurian republic. 
 In 1805 it was annexed to the French empire. 
 In 1815 the congress of Vienna annexed 
 
 Genoa to the territories of Sardinia. The 
 city was seized by revolutionists, and a re- 
 public proclaimed in April, 1850, but General 
 Marmora quelled the rising before the month 
 was out. 
 
 GEORGE I., II., III., IV., of England. 
 [See Hanover, House of.] 
 
 GEORGIA has an area of 58,000 square 
 miles ; population in 1870, 1,184,109, of whom 
 638,926 were whites, 545,142 colored, and 40 
 Chinese. Along the coast is a level strip, 
 interspersed with many swamps. West of 
 this tract are a series of plains forming the 
 sand-hill belt or pine barrens, thickly grown 
 with forests of the long-leaved pine ; varied 
 with fine savannahs, verdant and well- 
 watered, and ornamented with clumps of 
 evergreens and other trees and shrubs. The 
 lower sides of these savannahs are often 
 joined by a great cane swamp, dotted with 
 coppices and hummocks variously wooded. 
 The northern half of the state is a hilly re- 
 gion, blessed with a strong and productive 
 soil and mild climate; “fertile and delight- 
 ful, continually replenished by innumerable 
 rivulets, either coursing about the fragrant 
 hills, or springing from the rocky precipices 
 in many cascades, invigorating by their purity 
 and coolness the hot and sultry air.” Into 
 this section the Blue Ridge enters from North 
 Carolina, and, suddenly changing its general 
 course, runs nearly east and west into Ala- 
 bama. The largest rivers of Georgia are the 
 Savannah, which divides it from South Caro- 
 lina, the jAltamaha, and the Chattahoochee, 
 Along the Florida border, between the head- 
 waters of the Suwanee and the St. Mary’s, 
 there is an extensive series of swamps, the 
 Okefinokee, covered with a thick growth of 
 bay-trees, vines, and underwood, presenting 
 in the wet season the appearance of wide 
 lakes, with islands of rich high land. The 
 Creeks had a tradition that somewhere in this 
 wilderness dwelt a race whose women were 
 incomparably beautiful ; they called them the 
 daughters of the sun. Some of the Creek 
 hunters, when lost among the labyrinth of 
 bogs, had been relieved by these charming 
 maids ; but all search for the blissful island 
 was in vain. 
 
 On the low islands that line the Georgia coast 
 is grown the long-staple cotton, thence called 
 Sea-island cotton, whose value exceeds that 
 
 GEO 
 
of any other in the market. Rice is the other 
 great agricultural staple. Tar, pitch, turpen- 
 tine, and lumber, yielded by the broad forests 
 of pine, are prominent exports. The mineral 
 resources are imperfectly known : iron ores 
 are abundant, and much gold has been found. 
 
 Georgia was colonized in 1732 by a private 
 company, and the colony named in honor of 
 George II. In 1733 Gen. Oglethorpe founded 
 the town of Savannah. The colony was in- 
 tended as an asylum to relieve the distresses 
 of the poor in England, and to secure the 
 frontiers of South Carolina from the Indians 
 and Spaniards, Several bodies of Germans 
 and Highlanders were brought over soon af- 
 terward. The lands were held on a military 
 tenure. In 1752 it became a royal govern- 
 ment, and in 1755 a provincial legislature was 
 established. It joined its sister colonies in 
 the Revolution, but from 1778 till the close of 
 the war was occupied by a British force. Its 
 territory originally included the present states 
 of Alabama and Mississippi. The Creeks and 
 Cherokees, whose home was here, have been 
 removed bejmnd the Mississippi. 
 
 Georgia seceded, Jan. 19, 1861, and was 
 throughout one of the most important bases 
 of the rebellion, as the main rebel railroad 
 systems centered at Atlanta, and her finan- 
 cial and agricultural resources were a princi- 
 pal source of supplies. She also suffered 
 severely, especially during that long course 
 of tremendous operations which included 
 Chicamauga, Chattanooga, the advance on 
 Atlanta, the fall of that place and Sherman’s 
 great march from Atlanta to the sea. During 
 
 this same period, several destructive forays 
 were made into the state by Union cavalry. 
 
 Milledgeville, the capital of the state, is 
 pleasantly situated at the head of steamboat 
 navigation on the Oconee, in the centre of a 
 rich cotton district ; population in 1870, 2,750. 
 Savannah is finely placed for a commercial 
 town, accessible to large ships from the sea, 
 and communicating with the interior by the 
 noble river on which it stands. It is built on 
 a plain about fifty feet above the water, from 
 which it is a fine sight, with its spacious and 
 regular streets, many public squares, hand- 
 some buildings, and frequent groves of trees. 
 The former unhealthiness has been done away 
 by judicious drainage. Savannah is one of 
 the most flourishing cities in the South, and 
 the great commercial depot of Georgia ; pop- 
 ulation in 1870, 28,285. It suffered a severe 
 blow in 1820 by a conflagration whose loss 
 was set down at $4,000,000. It was taken by 
 the British in 1778, arid held until 1 782. The 
 great interior emporium of Georgia is Augusta, 
 at the head of steam navigation on the Savan- 
 nah, well laid out and built, and the market 
 of an extensive and populous country; pop- 
 ulation in 1870, 15,389. Macon, on the Ocmul- 
 gee, consisted in 1822 of a single cabin ; in 
 1870 it had 10,810 inhabitants, and its trade 
 is rapidly growing. Columbus stands upon 
 a plain about sixty feet above the Chattahoo- 
 chee, just below the falls ; population in 1870, 
 7,401. The banks of the river are here very 
 beautiful, and a spacious and regular town 
 stands where in 1828 the solitude of the pri- 
 meval forest lay. Athens, on the Oconee, is 
 
360 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the seat of Franklin College, originally incor- 
 porated as the University of Georgia. Atlan- 
 ta, the junction of three great railways, has 
 grown rapidly of late. 
 
 GEORGIA, a rich country of Asia, south 
 of the Caucasus, between the Black Sea and 
 the Caspian, now belonging to Russia. The 
 beauty and grace of its women have long been 
 famous. The Caucasian country is the seat 
 of a great variety of tribes, differing in speech, 
 habits, and many physical characteristics. 
 The Georgians are the purest specimens of 
 the Caucasian type, which the old ethnolo- 
 gists made the highest class of the human 
 race. The Assetes have a marked affinity in 
 habits and customs with the ancient Germans. 
 Here are the Yezidis, who worship the evil 
 spirit, Armenians, Tartars, &c. In the same 
 village, Armenians, Georgians, and Tartars 
 dwell together, yet rarely intermix; each 
 people preserving its own rites, traditions, 
 customs, and dress. All the races who have 
 passed through this country have left memo- 
 rials. Here are the dwellings of the Troglo- 
 dytes, entire cities cut out of the rock ; the 
 colossal ruins of aqueducts and canals that 
 date to the times of the great monarchies of 
 Babylon, Assyria, and Persia; with Greek 
 and Roman edifices, and castles of the middle 
 ages. It is very remarkable that the prophet 
 Elijah is a particular object of adoration among 
 almost all the Caucasian tribes, whether Mo- 
 hammedan or heathen. There are caverns 
 consecrated to him, where the inhabitants 
 assemble on certain days to offer sacrifices. If 
 one is struck dead by lightning, they say that 
 he was killed by the prophet Elijah, and his 
 relatives rejoice. 
 
 GERMANICUS CiESAR, a son of Claudius 
 Drusus Nero, and Antonia, the virtuous niece 
 of Augustus. He was adopted by his uncle 
 Tiberius, and raised to the highest offices of 
 state. At the time of the death of Augustus, 
 he was employed in a war with Germany, but 
 Tiberius, jealous of the hero, recalled him, 
 although he permitted him to celebrate a 
 triumph for his victories. He then sent him 
 to the east with sovereign authority, but saw 
 his successes with a jealous eye. Germanicus 
 died near Antioch, a.d. 19, in the thirty-fourth 
 year of his age, not without suspicion of poison. 
 
 GERMANTOWN, a town of Pennsylvania, 
 seven miles north-west of Philadelphia, mem- 
 
 orable for a battle fought here on the 4th of 
 October, 1777, between the Americans, under 
 Washington, and the British, to the disadvan- 
 tage of the former. Victory was once within 
 the grasp of the Americans, when, in the be- 
 wildering fog that enveloped the field, the cry 
 that the British were gathering in their rear, 
 threw them into disastrous panic. The loss 
 of the enemy was 71 killed, 415 wounded, and 
 14 missing ; that of the Americans, 150 killed, 
 521 wounded, and 400 made prisoners. 
 
 GERMANY is bounded west by the Neth- 
 erlands, Belgium, and France ; south by 
 Switzerland and the Austrian territories in 
 Italy ; east by the kingdoms of Hungary, Ga- 
 licia, Poland, and Prussia ; and north by the 
 Baltic. Its area is estimated at 284, 000 square 
 miles. The following are the states which 
 form the Germanic confederation: Austria, 
 Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtem- 
 burg, Baden, Hesse Cassel, Hesse Darmstadt, 
 Lauenburg, Luxemburg, Brunswick, Meck- 
 lenburg Schwerin, Nassau, Saxe Weimar, 
 Saxe Coburg and Gotha, Saxe Meiningen Hild- 
 burghausen, Saxe Altenburg, Mecklenburg 
 Strelitz, Oldenburg, Anhalt Dessau, Anhalt 
 Bernburg, Anhalt Kothen, Schwarzburg Son- 
 dershausen, Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, Licht- 
 enstein, Waldeck, Reuss, Schauenburg Lippe, 
 Lippe Detmold, Hesse Homburg, Liibeck, 
 Frankfurt, Bremen, and Hamburg. 
 
 Germany, like Gaul, was anciently occupied 
 by numerous tribes, some of which only were 
 subjugated by the Romans, after a very fierce 
 and prolonged resistance. It was afterward 
 conquered by Charlemagne, who fixed his im- 
 perial residence in Germany. The posterity 
 of Charlemagne inherited this country until 
 911. Otho the Illustrious, Duke of Saxony, 
 having declined the royal dignity on account 
 of his great age, Conrad I., first duke of Fran- 
 conia, was unanimously elected to fill the 
 vacant throne in 912. Thence, until 1806, the 
 empire of Germany was an elective monarchy. 
 Frederick Barbarossa ascended the throne in 
 1152, and during his splendid reign was 
 formed the famous league of the Hanseatic 
 towns for the protection of commerce. Fred- 
 erick II. was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 1212. He did much for the encouragement 
 of arts and literature. 
 
 The princes of the empire, assembled in 
 diet at Frankfort, elected Rodolph of Haps- 
 
 GER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 361 
 
 burg to the imperial throne in 1272. He 
 swayed the imperial sceptre with ability for 
 about eighteen years, and died, after a short 
 illness, in the seventy -third year of his age. 
 Albert I. of Austria was invested with the 
 diadem at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1298. Under his 
 harsh administration, the Swiss revolted, and 
 the foundation of the Helvetic republic was 
 laid. 
 
 Henry VII. of Luxemburg was elected in 
 1308, and now commenced the celebrated di- 
 vision of Guelphs and Ghibellines in the con- 
 tests between the emperors and popes. On 
 his death, Louis of Bavaria was recognized as 
 lawful possessor of the throne in 1330. 
 Charles IV., King of Bohemia, received the 
 imperial diadem in 1347. His reign was pros- 
 perous, and under his sway a spirit of opposi- 
 tion to the corrupt clergy began to manifest 
 itself. At the diet of Nuremberg, 1356, he 
 proclaimed the famous Golden Bull, which 
 became the fundamental law of the empire. 
 This regulated the rights, privileges, and du- 
 ties of the electors ; the manner of the election 
 and coronation of an emperor; the coinage, 
 customs, and other matters of commerce ; the 
 rights and obligations of the free imperial 
 cities, &c. 
 
 Sigismund ascended the throne in 1411. 
 He concurred with the pope in convoking the 
 famous council of Constance, by which the 
 reformer Huss was condemned; the war of 
 the Hussites followed. Albert II. died in a 
 short time, and, in 1440, the electors placed 
 upon the imperial throne Frederick III., Duke 
 of Austria. During his long reign, science 
 and learning made great advance, and many 
 universities were founded throughout Germa- 
 ny. His son Maximilian was elected king of 
 the Romans, and invested with the supreme 
 dignity in 1493. He was an active and enter- 
 prising prince. He ended many abuses which 
 had desolated the empire, particularly private 
 feuds. He improved the courts, introduced 
 a system of police, and established a post in 
 1516. He organized the army anew and bet- 
 ter. During his reign the Reformation began. 
 [ See Reformation.] At the death of Maxi- 
 milian, Francis I. of France, Henry VIII. of 
 England, and Charles of Spain sought the 
 imperial crown. The latter was preferred. 
 [See Charles V.] Ferdinand, the brother of 
 Charles, succeeded him at his abdication. 
 
 Then came Maximilian II., the son of Ferdi- 
 nand, who had already received the crown of 
 Bohemia, and had been elected king of the 
 Romans. On the demise of this illustrious 
 prince, his eldest son, who had been elected 
 king of the Romans, and acknowledged as his 
 successor to the crown of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia, succeeded to the empire by the name 
 of Rodolph II., in 1576. The emperor ceded 
 Bohemia to his brother Matthias, who suc- 
 ceeded him in 1612. On the demise of Mat- 
 thias, Ferdinand was declared emperor in 1619, 
 but, on account of his fanaticism, the Protes- 
 tants renounced allegiance to him, and the 
 ‘thirty years’ war’ was waged with sanguin- 
 ary animosity by both parties. Ferdinand 
 was at first triumphant, and Germany began 
 to tremble with the apprehension of slavish 
 subjection ; Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 
 rushing with impetuosity into the empire, de- 
 feated tne imperialists, but was slain on the 
 plain of Lutzen. 
 
 On the death of Ferdinand II., his son, Fer- 
 dinand III., ascended the imperial throne in 
 1637, at a critical period, and succeeded in 
 tranquilizing Germany, although the flames 
 of war yet rolled unabated. France, Sweden, 
 Denmark, England, and some of the German 
 states were confederated against Spain and 
 the house of Austria. At length a treaty was 
 concluded, in 1648, since known as the peace 
 of Westphalia. By this treaty, the religious 
 and political liberties of the Germans were 
 firmly secured against misrule. On the death 
 of Ferdinand, Leopold I. of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia was declared duly elected to the im- 
 perial throne in 1658. Scarcely were the 
 troubles in the north composed, when a war 
 with Turkey broke out, while Louis XIV. of 
 France took this opportunity of marching 
 against the German monarch. But notwith- 
 standing his perplexities and embarrassments, 
 Leopold found means to render the crown of 
 Hungary hereditary in his family, an object 
 which had long been desired. The Archduke 
 Joseph was chosen sovereign of Hungary, 
 elected king of the Romans, and ascended the 
 imperial throne in 1705. He governed with 
 stern inflexibility, and continued the Spanish 
 war. The Archduke Charles was elevated to 
 the imperial throne, by the name of Charles 
 VI., in 1711. Anne of England having ex- 
 pressed her pacific intentions, he had to svs- 
 
 GER 
 
362 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tain the whole weight of a war with France 
 and Spain, unless he accepted the terms of 
 Louis. At length, however, negotiations were 
 commenced, and the treaty of Utrecht re-es- 
 tablished the general peace. Charles died in 
 the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was 
 the author of the ‘pragmatic sanction,’ which 
 secured all the possessions of the house of 
 Austria to his daughter the Archduchess 
 Maria Theresa, and which was guaranteed by 
 the states of the empire, and by all the great 
 powers of Europe. 
 
 The death of Charles, in 1740, was followed 
 by very serious commotions, but the prag- 
 matic sanction was preserved, and the treaty 
 of Fussen and Aix-la-Chapelle terminated the 
 war of the Austrian succession in favor of 
 Maria Theresa. Two years after the conclu- 
 sion of ‘ the seven years’ war ’ by the treaty 
 of Hubertsburg, the Emperor Francis, hus- 
 band of Maria Theresa, ‘died in the twenty- 
 first year of his reign. He was succeeded by 
 his son Joseph II. Joseph joined with Rus- 
 sia and Prussia in the base dismemberment of 
 Poland, but this did not prevent hostilities 
 from being commenced between Austria and 
 Prussia, on account of the succession to the 
 electorate of Bavaria. Maria Theresa, Em- 
 press of Germany, Queen of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, and Archduchess of Austria, died 
 in 1780. Joseph II. promulgated a decree in 
 favor of the liberty of the press, which had 
 been hitherto much circumscribed in the 
 Austrian dominions. In 1783 he published 
 an edict for the total abolition of villanage 
 and slavery in Bohemia, Moravia, and Sile- 
 sia; and similar measures were taken soon 
 after for the relief of the peasants of Austrian 
 Poland. He also abolished the use of torture 
 in his hereditary dominions. He was suc- 
 ceeded by^ his brother, Leopold II., Grand- 
 duke of Tuscany, in 1790. 
 
 The French revolution now attracting the 
 attention of all the European powers, a con- 
 ference was held at Pilnitz between the empe- 
 ror, the King of Prussia, and the Elector of 
 Saxony ; but, instead of advising an imme- 
 diate attack upon France, Leopold acted 
 with his accustomed moderation, and merely 
 wished to oppose an effectual security against 
 the hurricane which threatened Europe. He 
 was afterward persuaded to commence hos- 
 
 tilities, but his designs were soon terminated 
 by his death, m the second year of his reign. 
 
 Francis II. succeeded his father in 1792. 
 At the instigation of the King of Prussia, he 
 resolved to use his utmost endeavors for the 
 restoration of the monarchy in France; but 
 the attempts of the allies were so unfortunate 
 in the first campaign, that they commenced 
 the second with altered views, and a feeling 
 of insecurity in consequence of previous losses. 
 The second campaign proved more successful, 
 but that of 1794 was disastrous to the allies. 
 The fourth campaign again raised the hopes 
 of the Austrians. In 1796, from altered 
 views of expediency, the French turned their 
 arms upon the Austrian possessions in Italy, 
 where the victories of Bonaparte soon spread 
 the terror of his name. 
 
 At length the court of Vienna, finding that 
 all expectations of effectual opposition to the 
 French were totally unfounded, concluded in 
 1797 the treaty of Campo-Formio, by which 
 the emperor ceded to France the whole of the 
 Netherlands, and all his former territory in 
 Italy, but received in return the city of Ven- 
 ice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the Venetian 
 islands in the Adriatic. However, the war 
 was renewed with great vigor on both sides, 
 and, in 1799, the Austrians compelled the 
 French to evacuate nearly the whole of Italy. 
 The brilliant successes of the Archduke 
 Charles in Germany, also, reanimated the 
 court of Vienna, and contributed to break off 
 the conferences at Rastadt. In the mean time, 
 Bonaparte having returned from Egypt, and 
 been chosen first consul of the French repub- 
 lic, the war with Austria was destined to 
 take a new turn. That general, at the head 
 of an army of reserve, marched toward Italy, 
 with inconceivable labor crossed the Alps, 
 and advanced to Milan. After reducing Pa- 
 via, and defeating the Austrians in the battle 
 of Montebello, the French marched to the 
 plain of Marengo. Both the French and im- 
 perialists exhibited extraordinary skill and 
 resolution. At length the first consul, avail- 
 ing himself of an error which had been com- 
 mitted, compelled his enemies to retreat. 
 In Germany the French had opened the cam- 
 paign with similar success; and General 
 Moreau, after defeating the imperialists in 
 several engagements, formed a junction with 
 
 GER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 363 
 
 the army of Italy, and obliged the Austrians 
 to conclude an armistice. 
 
 Soon after, preliminaries of peace were 
 signed at Paris ; but as Bonaparte refused to 
 negotiate with Englind, the emperor would 
 not ratify them. Hostilities were therefore 
 re-commenced, and the Austrians were de- 
 feated by Moreau in the decisive battle of 
 Hohenlinden. This was followed in 1801 by 
 the treaty of Luneville, by which the empe- 
 ror ceded to France the Belgic provinces and 
 the whole of the country on the left side of 
 the Rhine. In 1805, the court of Vienna 
 entered into an alliance with Russia, against 
 France. Preparation was made for war. 
 Without waiting for the arrival of the Rus- 
 sian troops, the Austrians marched toward 
 the banks of the Danube, where hostilities 
 commenced, and the French, under Bona- 
 parte, after a severe contest, succeeded in 
 defeating the imperialists with great loss. 
 The Austrians retreated, and Bonaparte ad- 
 vanced to Munich. From this time, partial 
 engagements took place, in which the Aus- 
 trians, though they fought with bravery, 
 were uniformly defeated. The whole Aus- 
 trian army in Suabia now concentrated itself 
 in and near Ulm ; and everything seemed to 
 indicate the approach of a general and deci- 
 sive battle. However, to the astonishment 
 and concern of all Europe, Gen. Mack, who 
 was in Ulm with 33,000 men, without strik- 
 ing a blow agreed to the terms of capitulation 
 offered by Bonaparte, evacuated that import- 
 ant fortress, and surrendered himself and his 
 troops prisoners of war. Bonaparte was 
 everywhere victorious, and the decisive battle 
 of Austerlitz compelled an armistice, speedily 
 followed by the treaty of Presburg. 
 
 In 1806, sixteen German princes renounced 
 their connection with the German empire, and 
 signed at Paris the Confederation of the Rhine, 
 by which they acknowledged Napoleon as their 
 protector. This was followed, on the 6th of 
 August, by the renunciation of the title of Em- 
 peror of Germany, by Francis, who assumed 
 that of Emperor of Austria, and publicly 
 absolved all the German provinces and states 
 from their reciprocal duties toward the Ger- 
 man empire. In 1809, Francis, smarting 
 under sacrifices already made, and dreading 
 farther encroachments, resolved to try again 
 the chance of war, at a time when a large 
 
 proportion of the military force of France was 
 employed in completing the subjugation of 
 Spain. War was declared, in proclamations 
 from the Archduke Charles and the Emperor 
 Francis, and these were followed by a man- 
 ifesto, stating the provocations and causes of 
 alarm which had been given by France to 
 Austria. 
 
 The Austrians were defeated in two battles, 
 one at Abensburg by Napoleon in person, 
 and the other at Eckmuhl ; and after these 
 defeats, Vienna surrendered to the French 
 emperor. But in the battle of Aspern, which 
 followed soon after, Napoleon experienced 
 the severest check which his career had yet 
 received. After the decisive battle of Wa- 
 gram, an armistice was concluded. This was 
 followed by a peace between Austria and 
 France, by which Francis ceded to Napoleon 
 all those parts of his territory which bordered 
 on the Adriatic. Other cessions were also 
 made. By a secret article in this treaty, the 
 Emperor Francis agreed to give his daughter, 
 the Archduchess Maria Louisa, in marriage 
 to Napoleon. After the disastrous conse- 
 quences of the Russian campaign, Austria 
 declared war against France, a declaration 
 which was followed by a treaty of amity and 
 defensive alliance between the courts of Vi- 
 enna and Petersburg. Russia and Prussia had 
 previously formed treaties with Great Britain. 
 Sweden had also joined the allies, and the 
 accession of Bavaria to the common cause 
 proved the general concurrence of Germany 
 to throw off the yoke of Napoleon. The battle 
 of Leipzig decided the fate of Germany.- 
 
 After Napoleon abdicated the throne of 
 France in 1814, the allied powers concluded 
 a treaty at Paris by which the German states 
 were to be independent, and united by a fed- 
 eral league. As the Austrian or Catholic 
 Netherlands were unable to secure their 
 independence, Belgium was annexed to the 
 Netherlands, forming a single state, under 
 the sovereignty of the house of Orange. After 
 the battle of Waterloo, iji 1815, a congress of 
 the allied powers was held at Vienna, at which 
 the future tranquillity of Germany was pro- 
 vided for • by a solemn act of confederation, 
 signed by its sovereigns and free cities, in- 
 cluding the Emperor of Austria and the King 
 of Prussia, for those of their possessions for- 
 merly appertaining to the German empire, 
 
 GER 
 
364 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 the King of Denmark for Holstein, and the 
 King of the Netherlands for Luxemburg. 
 
 In 1848 a closer union of the German peo- 
 ple was proposed. The Prussian king, egged 
 on by the violent excitement then prevalent, 
 urged the German princes and people to 
 abandon their local names and independence, 
 and unite under one guiding hand. This 
 guide he offered himself to be, and he for- 
 mally ‘fused and dissolved the name of 
 Prussia in that of Germany.’ A national 
 constitutional assembly was convoked at 
 Frankfort. Austria and Prussia struggled 
 for the ascendency in the proposed empire, 
 and the result was naught. 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
 
 CARLOVINGIANS* 
 
 800. Charlemagne. 
 
 814. Louis the Debonair, King of France. 
 
 840. Lothaire, his son ; died in a monastery at 
 Treves. 
 
 855. Louis II., his son. 
 
 875. Charles the Bald, King of France. 
 
 877. [Interregnum.] 
 
 880. Charles the Fat, of France; crowned King 
 of Italy ; deposed. 
 
 887. Arnulf, or Arnoul, his nephew ; crowned 
 emperor at Rome in 896. 
 
 899. Louis III., called IV., his infant son, the 
 last of the Carlovingian line in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 THE SAXON DYNASTY. 
 
 911. Conrad I., Duke of Franconia. 
 
 918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, Duke 
 of Saxony. 
 
 936. Otho I., the Great, his son ; crowned by 
 Pope John XII. in 962. 
 
 973. Otho II., the Bloody ; massacred his chief 
 nobility ; wounded by a poisoned arrow. 
 983. Otho III., the Red, his son, not of age ; 
 poisoned. 
 
 1002. Henry II., the Saint, Duke of Bavaria. 
 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 
 
 1039. Henry III., the Black, his son. 
 
 1056. Henry IV., his son; excommunicated by 
 Pope Pascal II. ; deposed by his son. 
 1106. Henry V.; married Maud, or Matilda, 
 daughter of Henry I. of England. 
 
 1125. Lothaire II., the Saxon. 
 
 1138. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1138. Conrad III., Duke of Franconia. 
 
 1152. Frederick Barb^rossa. 
 
 1190. Henry VI., the Sharp, his son; he de- 
 tained Richard I. of England in cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 1198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated. 
 1208. Otho IV., the Superb; excommunicated 
 and deposed. 
 
 1112. Frederick II., King of Sicily, son of Henry 
 VI. : deposed, and Henry, Landgrave 
 of Thuringia, elected. Frederick died 
 
 in 1250, naming his son Conrad his 
 successor, but the pope gave the impe- 
 rial title to William, Earl of Holland. 
 
 1250. Conrad IV., son of Frederick. 
 
 1250. William, Earl of Holland; died in Decem- 
 ber, 1 255. The electors could not agree 
 upon a successor. 
 
 1256. [Interregnum.] 
 
 HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, AND BAVARIA. 
 
 1273. Rodolph of Hapsburg. 
 
 1291. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1292. Adolphus, Count of Nassau, to the exclu- 
 
 sion of Albert, Rodolph’s son ; deposed, 
 and slain at the battle of Spires. 
 
 1298. Albert, Duke of Austria, son of Rodolph; 
 assassinated by his nephew. 
 
 1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 
 
 1313. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1314. Louis IV., of Bavaria, and Frederick III., 
 
 of Austria, son of Albert, rival emper- 
 ors. Frederick died in 1330. 
 
 1347. Charles IV., of Luxemburg. 
 
 1378. Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia, his son. 
 
 1400. Frederick, Duke of Brunswick; murdered 
 as soon as elected. 
 
 1400. Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 1410. Jossus, Marquess of Moravia; chosen by 
 one party of the electors; died 1411. 
 
 1410. Sigismund, King of Hungary ; elected by 
 another party ; King of Bohemia in 1419. 
 
 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1438. Albert II., the Great, Duke of Austria, 
 
 and King of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 1439. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1440. Frederick IV., the Pacific. 
 
 1493. Maximilian, his son. 
 
 1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain), his grandson; 
 
 son of Joan of Castile and Philip of 
 Austria; abdicated. 
 
 1558. Ferdinand I., King of Hungary, brother 
 of Charles. 
 
 1564. Maximilian II., his son, King of Bohemia 
 and Hungary. 
 
 1576. Rodolph II., his son. 
 
 1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II., cousin of Rodolph, son of 
 the Archduke Charles, King of Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 1637. Ferdinand III., son of Ferdinand II. 
 
 1658. Leopold I., his son. 
 
 1705. Joseph I., his son. 
 
 1711. Charles VI., brother of Joseph; succeeded 
 by his daughter. 
 
 1740. Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, whose right to the empire 
 was sustained by England. 
 
 1742. Charles VII., Elector of Bavaria, whose 
 claim was supported by France. The 
 crown contested in a general war. 
 Charles died in January, 17^5. 
 
 1745. Francis I., of Lorraine, Grand-Duke of 
 Tuscany, consort of Maria Theresa. 
 
 1765. Joseph II., their son. 
 
 1790. Leopold II., his brother. 
 
 1792. Francis II., his son. In 1804 this prince 
 took the title of Emperor of Austria 
 only. 
 
 GER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 365 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge, one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, and after- 
 ward vice-president of the United States, was 
 born at Marblehead, Mass., July 17th, 1744. 
 He was graduated at Harvard College, 1762, 
 and afterward, by his success in commercial 
 pursuits, acquired considerable property. 
 From his warm patriotism, he was elected a 
 member of the Massachusetts general court, 
 and to the continental congress in 1775. He 
 held the front rank in that body on naval and 
 commercial matters, and rendered important 
 aid as an able financier. In 1797 he accom- 
 panied Gen. Pinckney and Mr. Marshall on 
 a ^ special mission to France, and upon his 
 return was elected governor of Massachusetts 
 for several successive years. In 1809 and 
 1810 he was again raised to the executive. 
 In 1812 he was elected vice-president, over 
 Jared Ingersoll of Pennsylvania, and died in 
 office at Washington, November, 1814. 
 
 During his last year of office as governor 
 of Massachusetts, his party friends perpe- 
 trated a glaring iniquity in forming senato- 
 rial districts, which gave an expressive word 
 to the political vocabulary of the country. 
 The object was to get a majority of the legis- 
 lature out of a minority of the votes of the 
 people. As an instance, in the old, rich, 
 populous county of Essex, it was necessary 
 to cut a rim in a zigzag course almost com- 
 pletely around the county somewhat in the 
 shape of a horse-shoe. An ingenious wag 
 drew a map of the county with this rim of 
 democratic towns painted in different colors, 
 resembling some monster animal with many 
 short legs and claws — a sort of sea-serpent, 
 ending with a horrible head and open jaws 
 at Cape Ann, and a tail at Marblehead. The 
 party trick was called the gerrymander, and 
 similar unfairness since in various states, has 
 kept the word in use. 
 
 GHENT. A city of Belgium [ see Belgi- 
 um], where a treaty of peace between Great 
 Britain and the United States was signed, 
 Dec. 24th, 1814. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, an eminent English 
 historian, born at Putney, in 1737. He re- 
 sided much abroad, chiefly at Lausanne, but 
 was engaged at horns in political life for some 
 time. He conceived the idea of his great 
 work, the “Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 
 Empire,” at Rome, in 1764, as he sat amidst 
 the ruins of the Capitol, “while the bare- 
 footed friars were singing vespers in the 
 temple of Jupiter;” and he has eloquently 
 recorded the mixed emotions with which, 
 one moonlight night of June, 1787, in a sum- 
 mer-house in his garden at Lausanne, he 
 wrote the last sentences of the task which 
 had so long been his occupation and pleas- 
 ure. He died in England, on the 16th of 
 January, 1794. 
 
 GIBRALTAR, a fortified rock in Andalu- 
 sia, at the entrance of the Mediterranean, 
 rising about 1,600 feet above the sea. This 
 rock, under its ancient name of Calpe, and 
 Mt. Abyla (now Ceuta) opposite on the Afri- 
 can coast, were called by the ancients the 
 Pillars of Hercules. In the early part of the 
 eighth century an army of Saracens from 
 Africa, commanded by Tarif, or Tarek, 
 landed near here. They erected a castle, and 
 called the rock Gibel-Tarif, ‘the mountain 
 of Tarif.’ At the downfall of the Moors the 
 rock fell into the hands of the Spaniards, by 
 whom it was fortified till it was thought 
 impregnable. But, on the 24th of July, 
 1704, it was taken after a dreadful cannon- 
 ade, by an English and Dutch fleet com- 
 manded by Sir George Rooke and the Prince 
 of Hesse Darmstadt. Since then it has been 
 possessed by the British, although many 
 attempts have been made to regain it. It 
 was besieged by the Spaniards and French, 
 Oct. 11th, 1704; by the Spaniards in 1720 
 and 1727. But the most memorable siege 
 was that by the Spaniards and French from 
 July, 1779, to February, 1783. The British 
 garrison numbered only 7,000. The assail- 
 ants had an army of 40,000 men, a thousand 
 pieces of artillery, and a mighty fleet of three- 
 deckers, frigates, floating batteries, gun- 
 boats, &c. For weeks, six thousand shells a 
 day were thrown into the town. Yet this 
 great armament was beaten off, and wholly 
 overthrown by the brave garrison, who were 
 commanded by Gen. Elliot. 
 
 GIBSON, George, a native of Lancaster, 
 Penn., settled early in life at Pittsburg, joined 
 the Revolutionary army as a colonel, and 
 served to the end of 1778. In the war with 
 the Indian tribes, Colonel Gibson again com- 
 manded a regiment, and shared the fatal dan- 
 
 GIB 
 
366 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 gers of St. Clair’s defeat, in which he re- 
 ceived a mortal wound, at Fort Jefferson, 
 Dec. 11th, 1794. 
 
 GIBSON, John, uncle of the above, born 
 at Lancaster, Penn., May 23d, 1740, served 
 under Gen. Forbes when that officer took 
 Fort du Quesne ; entered the Revolutionary 
 army as a colonel early in the war, and con- 
 tinued through it ; died at Braddock’s Field, 
 near Pittsburg, April 10th, 1822. 
 
 GIFFORD, William, born in April, 1756, 
 and early left an orphan, was apprenticed to 
 a shoemaker. Industry and perseverance 
 raised him to a prominent rank in English 
 literature as a satirical poet, a translator, and 
 a critic. He was editor of the Quarterly 
 Review from its start in 1808 till within two 
 years of his death, which took place Dec. 
 31st, 1826. 
 
 GILBERT, Sir Humphrey, half-brother to 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, and one of the earliest 
 English adventurers who attempted to form 
 a colony in America, born in 1539; in 1576, 
 published U A Treatise to prove a Passage by 
 the North-west to the East Indies.” In 1578 
 he obtained a patent to make a settlement in 
 North America, and in that year made a 
 voyage to Newfoundland, returned to Europe, 
 and in 1583, on his homeward-bound voyage, 
 in a barque of only ten tons, from another 
 trip to America, was lost with all his crew. 
 
 GILPIN, Bernard, the ‘apostle of the 
 north,’ was born in Westmoreland in 1517, 
 and educated in Catholicism. His inquiries 
 turned him to the reformed faith. He became 
 rector of Houghton in Durham, a parish 
 containing no less than fourteen villages, 
 shrouded in ignorance and superstition. He 
 was arrested by order of Bishop Bonner, but 
 the death of bloody Mary saved him from the 
 stake, and he returned to his zealous work 
 of good. His labors were not confined to 
 his own parish. Every year he visited divers 
 neglected districts in Northumberland, York- 
 shire, Cheshire, Westmoreland, and Cumber- 
 land ; and that his own flock might not suf- 
 fer, he was at the expense of a constant 
 assistant. In all his journeys he did not fail 
 to visit the gaols and places of confinement ; 
 and by his labors and affectionate manner 
 of behavior, he is said to have reformed many 
 abandoned persons in those abodes of human 
 misery. He had set times and places of 
 
 preaching, in the different parts of the coun- 
 try, which were as regularly attended as the 
 assizes. If there was a church in the place, 
 he made use of it ; if not, of barns or any 
 other large buildings. He had an enthusi- 
 astic warmth in his addresses, which turned 
 many to a sense of religion, who had never 
 thought of anything serious before. Danger 
 and fatigue were in his estimation abundantly 
 compensated by advantage accruing to his 
 uninstructed fellow-creatures. This good 
 man is said to have amassed, by unwearied 
 application, a vast stock of knowledge; to 
 have been ignorant of no part- of learning in 
 esteem at that time ; to have been more than 
 usually skilled in the classic languages, his- 
 tory, and poetry : but everything he made 
 subservient to the nobility and benefit of his 
 Christian ministry. He established and sus- 
 tained excellent schools; generous bounty 
 was dispensed by his hand ; and his door was 
 ever open to the poor or the stranger. Lord 
 Burleigh’s offer of a bishopric he refused: 
 his ambition worked itself out in good deeds. 
 “Meanwhile age began to grow upon him. 
 After his lean body was quite worn out with 
 diversity of pains-taking, at the last even, feel- 
 ing beforehand the approach of death, he 
 commanded the poor to be called together, 
 unto whom he made a speech, and took his 
 leave of them. Afterwards he did the like 
 to others. He used many exhortations to his 
 schollers, to his servants, and divers others, 
 and fell asleep in great peace in the sixty- 
 sixth year of his age, in the year of our Lord 
 1583.” 
 
 GLAUBER, JonN Rodolph, a German 
 chemist, and dabler in alchemy ; he dis- 
 covered the sulphate of soda, now known as 
 Glauber’s salt; flourished 1640-1660. 
 
 GLENCOE, Massacre of. In August, 
 1691, a proclamation was issued by Wil- 
 liam III. of England, offering indemnity to 
 such insurgents as should take the oath of 
 allegiance to the king and queen on or before 
 the last day of the year ; and the chiefs of 
 such clans as had been in arms for James II. 
 soon embraced the offer. But Macdonald of 
 Glencoe was prevented by accident, not de- 
 sign, from tendering his submission within 
 the limited time. He did not roach Inverary 
 till the new year had come in. The sheriff, 
 however, yielding to the importunities and 
 
 GLE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 367 
 
 even tears of the aged chieftain, administered 
 to him the oath of allegiance then, and sent 
 an explanation of the circumstances to the 
 privy council at Edinburgh. But Stair and 
 Breadalbane were the enemies of Macdonald ; 
 they persuaded William that the Macdonalds 
 were great obstacles to the pacification of the 
 Highlands ; and the royal command was ob- 
 tained “ for the good and saftie of the Coun- 
 trie, that thes miscriants be cut off 'root and 
 branch.” Capt. Campbell, of Argyle’s regi- 
 ment, repaired to Glencoe with a hundred 
 and twenty men. He was the uncle of young 
 Macdonald’s wife, and he and his troops 
 were received by the unsuspecting Highland- 
 ers with the utmost hospitality. The orders 
 were “ to fall upon the rebels the Macdonalds 
 of Glencoe, and put all to the sword under 
 seventy yet for several days this dread 
 intent was concealed, and butchers and vic- 
 tims dwelt in peace with one another. The 
 mask dropped on the night of Feb. 13th, 
 1691. Macdonald was shot dead at his bed- 
 side. His aged wife was stripped naked by 
 the soldiers, who tore the rings from her 
 fingers with their teeth. Neither age nor 
 sex was spared. Thirty-eight persons were 
 massacred, and several who fled among the 
 mountains perished by starvation and expos- 
 ure. The hamlet was laid in ashes. 
 
 GLENDOWER, Owen, a celebrated Welsh 
 chieftain, born in 1354. He was the deter- 
 mined foe of Henry IV., and for a long time 
 kept up a marauding warfare which was 
 highly annoying to the English. He died, 
 unsubdued, Feb. 24th, 1416. 
 
 GLISSON, Francis, president of the col- 
 lege of Physicians, London, died in 1677, 
 aged eighty. He was one of the founders of 
 the Royal Society, and was eulogized by 
 Boerhaave and Haller. 
 
 GLUCK, Christopher, the Chevalier, an 
 eminent German musical composer, died at 
 Vienna, 1787, aged seventy-one. 
 
 GOBELJN, Giles, famous as a dyer of 
 scarlet in the reign of Francis I. of France, 
 and the founder of the works where the 
 beautiful Gobelin tapestry has been produced. 
 
 GODFREY of Bouillon, Marquis of An- 
 vers and Duke of Brabant, was the son of 
 Eustace II., Count of Boulogne, and was born 
 about the middle of the eleventh century. 
 He served with distinction under Henry IV., 
 
 Emperor of Germany, but acquired an im- 
 perishable fame in the first crusade. At 
 Nice, Elessa, and Antioch, he particularly 
 distinguished himself, and in July, 1099, he 
 took Jerusalem, after a siege of five weeks. 
 On taking possession of the city, he threw 
 off his armor, clothed himself in a mantle, 
 and, with bare head and naked feet, went to 
 the Church of the Sepulchre. On the foun- 
 dation of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 
 in the same year, Godfrey’s virtues were* 
 declared to be pre-eminent ; the princes con- 
 ducted him to the church which covered the 
 tomb of Christ, and offered him a crown. 
 But he refused to wear a diadem of gold 
 where his Saviour wore a crown of thorns, 
 and modestly claimed only the honor of being 
 the defender of the Holy Sepulchre. He 
 enjoyed it but a short time, for he died July 
 18th, 1100, just one year after the taking of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 GODFREY, Thomas, inventor of the quad- 
 rant commonly called Hadley’s, by whom he 
 was cheated out of the credit of the inven- 
 tion ; born in Philadelphia, where he died in 
 December, 1749. 
 
 GODMAN, John D., an eminent American 
 naturalist, was born at Annapolis, Md., and 
 at an early age was apprenticed to a printer. 
 Disliking his business, he shipped as a sailor 
 on board the Chesapeake flotilla, in the war 
 of 1813. Having afterward studied medicine, 
 he settled in New York, and was offered the 
 professorship of anatomy in Rutger’s Medical 
 College. The state of his health, however, 
 rendered traveling necessary, and he went to 
 Vera Cruz, but without experiencing the 
 relief which he hoped. He died in Philadel- 
 phia, April 17th, 1830, in the thirty-second 
 year of his age. His “Natural History of 
 American Quadrupeds,” and his “Rambles 
 of a Naturalist” were deservedly popular. 
 
 GODOLPHIN, Sidney, Earl of, and lord 
 high treasurer of England, was born in Corn- 
 wall, and educated at Oxford. He was em- 
 ployed in the reigns of Charles II. and 
 James II., although he had voted for the 
 exclusion of the latter in 1680. He was 
 placed at the head of the treasury on the 
 accession of Queen Anne, but was obliged to 
 retire from office in 1710. He died in 1712. 
 
 GODWIN, William, the author of “Caleb 
 Williams,” was born in 1756, and died in 
 
368 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 1836. He was a voluminous writer, a warm 
 republican in politics, and an eccentric and 
 remarkable man. 
 
 GOETHE, John Wolfgang von, bom Aug. 
 28th, 1749, at Frankfort on the Maine. He 
 displayed an early fondness for literature and 
 the arts, which increased with his years. His 
 studies embraced the whole circle of the sci- 
 ences. In 1771 he took the degree of doctor 
 of laws. About the year 1776, on the invi- 
 tation of the grand-duke, he went to Weimar, 
 where he passed the rest of his life, loaded 
 by his patron with honors, ennobled, made 
 a privy counselor, and for many years prime 
 minister. Owing in part to the liberal 
 patronage of the grand-duke, the little court 
 of Weimar was a distinguished focus of Ger- 
 man literature ; and in the early years of the 
 present century, this place reckoned among 
 its residents more than twenty writers of 
 note, at the head of whom were Goethe, 
 Schiller, Wieland, Herder, and for a time 
 Kotzebue. 
 
 The following particulars of the life of this 
 celebrated man were written not long before 
 his death. “It would be difficult to find a 
 man who had arrived at the age of eighty-one 
 with fewer infirmities than Goethe. The 
 prodigious activity of his mind seems not to 
 have worn out his bod)', although the latter, 
 it is said, was put to the proof by his juvenile 
 irregularities. His elevated form, the strik- 
 ing regularity of his features, his imposing 
 and noble bearing, the athletic proportions 
 of his body, seem to have suffered no injury 
 from age ; he holds himself as upright as a 
 young man of eighteen ; no apparent infirmity 
 accompanies his years, and the wrinkles of 
 his face hardly indicate a man of sixty. 
 There is in his behavior and countenance 
 something cold and reserved, which adds to 
 the emotion which is felt in beholding him. 
 He rarely determines, in the interviews 
 which he grants to strangers, to display the 
 resources of his genius; and visitors are 
 sorry to observe that these hours of audience 
 are only moments of repose for his spirit, 
 perhaps of annoyance. It is said that this 
 reserve always disappears in favor of strang- 
 ers who arrive at Weimar preceded by a 
 literary reputation. Goethe has felt obliged 
 to impose this reserve upon himself to avoid 
 the unhappy consequences of frankness which 
 
 once distinguished him, and it is said that 
 English travelers have not a little contributed 
 to it by the indiscretion they have shown in 
 publishing in their journals incorrect frag- 
 ments of their conversation with him. 
 
 “The life which Goethe leads at present 
 bears the impress of that vigor of mind and 
 body, which he has succeeded in preserving. 
 With a freshness and activity of mind that 
 eighty y*ears of a laborious life have not 
 impaired, he knows how to profit by every 
 moment of the day. By six o’clock in the 
 morning he is at work, and he permits no 
 interruption until the hour of noon. During 
 these long mornings he writes letters, com- 
 poses, reviews his complete works, and ar- 
 ranges his correspondence with Schiller, of 
 which the first volume has been published 
 some months. At noon strangers are admit- 
 ted. After dinner, he assembles at his house, 
 about four or five o’clock, the limited number 
 of the elect who have the happiness to live 
 in habits of intimacy with him. The eve- 
 nings of Goethe are consecrated to reading ; 
 he reads with a prodigious rapidity, which 
 would be but a defect, were it not accom- 
 panied by an astonishing memory and an 
 extraordinary faculty of analysis. He is but 
 seldom seen at the theatre, and the theatre 
 of Weimar feels this abandonment but too 
 sensibly. Goethe was formerly the manager, 
 perhaps we may call him the creator of it: 
 it was he who, aided by Schiller, formed all 
 the actors who, for more than a quarter of a 
 century, shone in the first rank upon the 
 German stage, and made the little theatre of 
 Weimar the true school of the dramatic art 
 in Germany.” 
 
 Goethe died at Weimar, March 22d, 1832, 
 aged eighty-two. He was an eminent author 
 and a romantic poet, held in great repute by 
 his countrymen and admirers, and styled the 
 patriarch of German literature ; according to 
 a writer in the Foreign Quarterly Review, 
 “the first man of his nation and time;” and 
 according to Prince Puckler Muskau, “the 
 third in the great triumvirate with Homer and 
 Shakspeare.” Among the most celebrated 
 of the productions of Goethe are the “ Sor- 
 rows of Wcrther,” “Faust,” and “Wilhelm 
 Meister’s Apprenticeship.” He maintained 
 for many years a tranquil empire over the 
 literature of his country, which was implicitly 
 
 GOE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 369 
 
 acquiesced in by the candidates for literary 
 fame; yet many of his. voluminous works 
 have been much complained of, as charac- 
 terized by unintelligible mysticism, and as 
 of irreligious and immoral tendency. 
 
 GOFFE, William, one of the judges of 
 Charles I., and a general under Cromwell. 
 When the Stuarts were restored, he, with 
 Whalley, another of the regicides, came to 
 New England, and found concealment at New 
 Haven, Hadley, and elsewhere. Sept. 1st, 
 1675, Hadley was attacked by Indians. The 
 savages were repelled by an aged man, who 
 suddenly appeared and headed the inhabit- 
 ants, and disappeared as suddenly after the 
 victory. This man, regarded as an angel at 
 the time, was afterward discovered to be 
 Goflfe, who for many years was secreted 
 there. He is supposed to have died in 1680. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, an eminent poet 
 and miscellaneous writer, born in Ireland, 
 Nov. 10th, 1728. His father was a poor 
 curate. He studied at Dublin, Edinburgh, 
 and Leyden, and took a doctor’s degree at 
 Padua, a maternal uncle defraying part of the 
 expenses. Having made the tour of Europe 
 on foot, supporting himtelf by flute-playing, 
 he reached London, after a long absence, with 
 but a few pence in his pocket. Here he 
 sustained himself by his pen, and compiled 
 many works, besides composing those which 
 have rendered his name immortal. His poem 
 of “ The Traveller ” gained him an enviable 
 poetical reputation. His fame was estab- 
 lished on a firm basis by “The Deserted 
 Village.” Improvident, like many men of 
 genius, he was about to marry his landlady 
 to cancel a debt he owed her, when the sale 
 of the manuscript of his novel “ The Vicar 
 of Wakefield,” which met the approbation 
 of Dr. Johnson, afforded him a temporary 
 relief. An adventure of his own formed the 
 groundwork of his highly successful comedy, 
 “ She Stoops to Conquer.” He put up at the 
 house of a gentleman, mistaking it for an inn, 
 and amused the inmates by calling out lustily 
 for whatever he wanted, ordering the ser- 
 vants, slapping his host upon the back, and 
 asking to see the bill of fare ; his mortifica- 
 tion, on discovering his mistake, can easily 
 be imagined. He died April 4th, 1774. He 
 was eccentric even to absurdity, and in 
 society showed the simplicity of La Fontaine. 
 
 Garrick, in some extemporaneous verses, 
 spoke of him as 
 
 “Noll, 
 
 Who wrote like an angel, but talked — like poor 
 Poll.” 
 
 The debts he left amounted to £2,000. “ W as 
 
 ever poet so trusted before ? ” said Dr. John- 
 son. “No man,” said the doctor also, “was 
 wiser when he had a pen in his hand, or nspre 
 foolish when he had not.” 
 
 GONZALVO, Hernandez v Aguilar, of 
 Cordova, commonly called the ‘ great captain,’ 
 was born in 1443. This celebrated Spaniard 
 served under Ferdinand and Isabella in the 
 conquest of Grenada, where he took several 
 strong places from the Moors. Ferdinand 
 gave him command of the forces which he 
 sent into the kingdom of Naples to succor 
 Frederick and Alphonso. After having gained 
 his purpose, he returned to Spain, and then, 
 serving against the Turks, wrested Zante and 
 Cephalonia from them. He was afterward, 
 in consequence of his various victories, ap- 
 pointed viceroy of Naples, with unlimited 
 powers. He died in 1515. 
 
 GOOKIN, Daniel, major-general of Mas* 
 sachusetts from 1681 to 1687, the year of his 
 death. He was an Englishman, but came to 
 Virginia in 1621, and in 1644 removed to 
 New England that he might enjoy freedom 
 of worship. He was the author of “Histori- 
 cal Collections of the Indians in New Eng- 
 land,” and a zealous coadjutor of the Rev. 
 John Eliot. 
 
 GORDIUS, a king of Phrygia, who fast- 
 ened the pole of his chariot -with so ingenious 
 a knot that the oracle promised the empire of 
 Persia to the man who should loose it. Alex- 
 ander the Great cut it with his sword. 
 
 GORE, Christopher, a governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts, born in Boston in 1758, was the 
 son of a mechanic. His education was com- 
 pleted at Harvard University ; he studied law 
 and practiced it with success. He was the 
 first United States district attorney for Massa- 
 chusetts, and was one of the commissioners to 
 settle the claims on England for the spoliations 
 committed by her upon the property of the 
 Americans. In 1809 he was chosen gover- 
 nor of Massachusetts, but remained in office 
 only one year. In 1814 he was chosen 
 United States senator. He died in retire- 
 ment, March 1st, 1827. 
 
 GOR 
 
370 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 GORE, John, the friend and companion of 
 Capt. Cook, born in Virginia, 1735, entered 
 the British navy early in Hie, and made his 
 first voyage round the world with Com- 
 modore Byron. In 1768, he was appointed 
 second lieutenant of the Endeavor, under 
 Captain Cook, and again circumnavigated the 
 earth. In 1776, he was appointed first lieu- 
 tenant of the Resolution, and, by the succes- 
 sive deaths of Captains Cook and Clerke, 
 returned to Europe, October, 1780, commander 
 of the squadron. He ended his days as one 
 of the captains of Greenwich Hospital, Aug. 
 10th, 1790, aged fifty -five. 
 
 GOTHS, an ancient barbarous tribe, whose 
 origin is very uncertain. They w r ere said 
 to come from Scandinavia. For a long time 
 they resided in Germany, whence they finally 
 forced their way and made themselves formid- 
 able to the Romans. Under Alaric, they took 
 and plundered Rome. The Goths of the east 
 were called Ostrogoths, and those of the west 
 Visigoths. 
 
 GRACCHUS, Tiberius Sempronius and 
 Caius, the sons of the celebrated Cornelia, 
 lost their lives in attempting to reform the 
 republic. With a winning eloquence, affected 
 moderation, and uncommon popularity, Tibe- 
 rius began to revive the agrarian law, which 
 had already caused dissensions among the 
 Romans. His proposition passed into a law, 
 but he was killed in the midst of a tumult, 
 for happening to raise his hand to his head, 
 his enemies declared that he signified a de- 
 sire for a crown, and he was slain in the 
 outbreak of popular fury which ensued. His 
 brother Caius supported the cause of the 
 people with more vehemence and less modera- 
 tion than Tiberius, and his success animated 
 his resentment against the nobles. With the 
 privileges of a tribune, he treated the patri- 
 cians with contempt, and this behavior hast- 
 ened his ruin. He fled with a large number 
 of his adherents, but the consul Opinius 
 attacked and defeated them, and slew their 
 leader, b.c. 121, about thirteen years after the 
 unfortunate end of Tiberius. 
 
 GRAHAM, Sylvester, the untiring advo- 
 cate of a vegetarian system of dietetics in 
 America, died at Northampton, Mass., Sept. 
 11th, 1851, aged fifty-five. He was a native 
 of Suffield, Conn. 
 
 GRANT, U. S. See Appendix, p. 972. 
 
 G 
 
 GRATTAN, Henry, was born about 1750 
 in Dublin. He wal elected into the Irish 
 parliament in 1775, and by his powerful re- 
 monstrances obtained for his country a par- 
 ticipation in the commerce of Britain, for 
 which he was rewarded by a vote of £50,000. 
 In 1 790 he was returned for the city of Dublin, 
 and from that time was the active leader of 
 the opposition till the union with England, 
 which measure he resisted with all his elo- 
 quence. When it was effected, he accepted 
 a seat in the House of Commons for Malton ; 
 his principal exertions were called forth in 
 advocating the claims of the Catholics, to 
 which cause he fell a martyr, by leaving Ire- 
 land in an exhausted state, to.carry the peti- 
 tion with which he was intrusted to England. 
 He died, soon after his arrival, May 14th, 
 1820 ; and his remains were interred in West- 
 minster Abbey. No government ever dis- 
 mayed him ; the world could not bribe him. 
 He only thought of Ireland ; lived for no 
 other object ; dedicated to her his beautiful 
 fancy, his elegant wit, his manly courage, and 
 all the splendor of his astonishing eloquence. 
 He was so born, and so gifted, that all the 
 attainments of humati genius were within his 
 reach ; but he thought the noblest occupation 
 of man was to make other men happy and 
 free ; and in that straight line he went on for 
 fifty years, without one side look, without 
 one yielding thought, without one motive in 
 his heart which he might not have laid open 
 to the view of God and man. 
 
 GRAY, Thomas, an English poet, born in 
 London in 171 6. After completing the course 
 of education at Eton and Cambridge, he made 
 the tour of Europe with his friend Horace 
 Walpole, returning in 1741. The remainder 
 of his life was passed in literary retirement. 
 He was forever laying gigantic literary plans, 
 which he wanted the perseverance to execute. 
 He wrote little, and published only after 
 mature deliberation. His “ Ode on a Distant 
 Prospect of Eton College,” “ Hymn to Ad- 
 versity,” “The Bard,” and “Elegy in a 
 Country Church-yard,” are inimitable. This 
 distinguished poet died of a gout in the 
 stomach, July 30th, 1771. 
 
 GREECE. Ancient Greece contained about 
 22,121 square miles. It was bounded on the 
 west by the Ionian Sea, south by the Mediter- 
 ranean, east by the iEgean, and north by 
 E 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 871 
 
 Illyria and Macedonia. This country has 
 been esteemed superior to every other part 
 of the earth, on account of the salubrity of 
 the air, the temperature of the climate, the 
 fertility of the soil, and, above all, the fame, 
 learning, and arts of its inhabitants. It is 
 severed by the Gulf of Corinth. The north- 
 ern part contained Thessaly, Epirus, Acarn- 
 ania, /Etolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Boeotia, 
 Megaris, and Attica. The southern part, 
 called the Peloponnesus, contained Laconia, 
 Messenia, Arcadia, Elis, Argolis, Achaia, 
 Sicyonia, and Corinth. Sketches of these 
 distinct states are given elsewhere. 
 
 The history of Greece is darkened, in its 
 primitive ages, by the mists of fable. The 
 inhabitants believed that they were the orig- 
 inal dwellers in the country, and sprang from 
 the earth whereon they dwelt; and they 
 heard with contempt the probable conjec- 
 tures which traced their origin to the inhab- 
 itants of Asia and the colonies of Egypt. In 
 the first periods of their history, the Greeks 
 were governed by monarchs ; and there were 
 as many kings as there were cities. The 
 monarchical power gradually decreased ; the 
 love of liberty established the republican 
 governments ; till no part of Greece remained 
 in the hands of an absolute sovereign. The 
 expedition of the Argonauts first rendered 
 the Greeks respectable among their neigh- 
 bors; in the succeeding age, the wars of 
 Thebes anft Troy gave opportunity to their 
 heroes to display their valor in the field of ' 
 battle. The simplicity of the ancient Greeks 
 rendered them virtuous ; and the establish- 
 ment of the Olympic games in particular, 
 where the only reward of the conqueror was 
 a laurel crown, contributed to their aggrand- 
 izement, making them ambitious of fame, and 
 not the slaves of riches. 
 
 The austerity of their laws, and the educa- 
 tion of their youth, particularly in Lacedae- 
 mon, rendered them brave and active, insen- 
 sible to bodily pain, fearless and intrepid in 
 the hour of danger. The celebrated battles 
 of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea, 
 and Mycale sufficiently show what superi- 
 ority a well trained though small army pos- 
 sesses over millions of undisciplined barba- 
 rians. After many signal victories over the 
 Persians, the Greeks became elated with their 
 success, and when they found no one able 
 
 to dispute their power abroad, they turned 
 their arms against each other, and leagued 
 with foreign states to destroy the most flour- 
 ishing of their cities. The Messenian and 
 Peloponnesian wars are examples of the dread- 
 ful calamities which arise from civil discord 
 and long prosperity ; and the ease with which 
 the gold and sword of Philip of Macedon cor- 
 rupted and enslaved Greece, fatally proved 
 that when a nation becomes indolent and lux- 
 urious at home, it ceases to be respectable in 
 the eyes of neighboring states. The annals 
 of Greece, however, abound with singular 
 proof of heroism and resolution. While tfte 
 Greeks rendered themselves so illustrious by 
 their military exploits, the arts and sciences 
 were assisted by conquest, and received fresh 
 lustre from the liberal patronage bestowed on 
 them. 
 
 From the dominion of Macedon, , Greece 
 passed under the yoke of Rome. From the 
 fifteenth century until a recent period, Greece 
 was subject to the Turkish government. 
 Although degraded, changed from what she 
 was, there was yet something in modern 
 Greece to remind the world of former days 
 of glory. Ere the storm of the revolution 
 broke forth, the bard could sing : 
 
 “ On Suli’s rock, and Parga’s shore, 
 
 Exists the remnant of a line 
 
 Such as the Doric mothers bore, 
 
 And. there, perhaps, some seed is sown, 
 
 That Heracleidan blood might own.” 
 
 The Greek revolution broke out at a village 
 of Achaia, March 23d, 1821. At length 
 England took the part of the Greeks, and a 
 Russian, French, and British squadron, under 
 Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, destroyed 
 the Turkish-Egyptian armada of 110 ships, 
 in the bay of Navarino, Oct. 20th, 1827. In 
 1828, the war between Russia and Turkey 
 broke out, and the interference of foreign 
 power produced the pacification of Greece 
 in 1829. The Turks were compelled to yield 
 their grasp. A monarchy was finally estab- 
 lished and Otho of Bavaria was called to the 
 throne in 1833. After a troubled, inefficient 
 and unprosperous reign, Otho absconded from 
 Athens, Oct. 13, 1862 ; six days afterwards 
 a revolution broke out to secure a change of 
 dynasty ; a provisional government was 
 formed which continued until June, 1863, 
 when the youngest son of the King of Den- 
 
 GRE 
 
372 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 mark accepted the throne, and became king 
 by the title of George I. 
 
 Modern Greece has an area of 19,250 square 
 miles; population in 1861, 1,330,933. 
 
 GREENE, Col. Christopher, a relation of 
 Gen. Nathaniel Greene, and a native of War- 
 wick, Rhode Island, was born 1737, and in 
 May, 1775, entered the service as a lieuten- 
 ant. He was with Montgomery at Quebec, 
 where he became a prisoner. Soon after his 
 exchange in 1777, he was placed in command 
 of Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, N. J., which 
 he gallantly defended against the British. 
 He fell May 22d, 1781, in an action with some 
 tories near New York. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, was born of Qua- 
 ker parentage at Warwick, R. I., May 22d, 
 1742. He early evinced an attachment to 
 learning and a fondness for a martial life. He 
 took up arms for his country’s defense when 
 he heard of the affair at Lexington ; the 
 Quakers disowned him. He was among the 
 first brigadier-generals commissioned by Con- 
 gress, rose to the rank of major-general, and 
 was in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, 
 Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. 
 In December, 1780, he took the command of 
 the army in the South, where he continued till 
 the close of the war. In 1785 he went to Geor- 
 gia to look after an estate which he had pur 
 chased there, and died from a sun-stroke near 
 Savannah, June 19 th, 1786. He was one. of 
 the ablest of Washington’s generals, and one 
 of his most attached and faithful friends. 
 
 GREENLAND, an extensive country of 
 North America, belonging to Denmark. The 
 natives belong to the Esquimaux family, and 
 are rude in their manners, and confined in 
 their ideas. They are of diminutive size^ 
 clothed in skins, and subsisting by hunting 
 and fishing. Their religious notions are rude 
 and primitive. There are several settlements 
 upon the coast of Greenland, many of them 
 being made by the Moravian missionaries. 
 Greenland was discovered at the end of the 
 tenth century, and soon colonized from Ice- 
 land. It is said that in 1406 there were 
 almost two hundred villages, but the colony 
 was suddenly lost to the world : vast floes of 
 ice blockaded the coast, and shut out all 
 supplies. Davis rediscovered Greenland in 
 1 586. The Northmen called this country 
 Greenland because its verdure was so much 
 
 more luxurious than that of Iceland. A 
 wonderful change has taken place in this 
 land. The reindeer and the hare have both 
 disappeared; fields once fertile are now oc- 
 cupied by enormous glaciers ; the shores, too, 
 are beset with immense fields of ice, which 
 forbid the approach of the inquiring mar- 
 riner ; and of the once flourishing Scandina- 
 vian settlements, nothing remains but vague 
 intimations. History forgot them nearly five 
 hundred years ago and recorded nothing of 
 their fate. 
 
 GREENOUGH, Horatio, a sculptor of 
 eminence, was born in Boston in 1805, passed 
 much time in the pursuit of his art in Italy, 
 and died in Boston, Dec. 18th, 1852. 
 
 GREENVILLE, Sir Bevil, grandson of Ad- 
 miral Greenville, was born 1596, and slain in 
 the battle of Lansdown, near Bath, 1643, 
 fighting for King Charles. 
 
 GREENVILLE, Sir Richard, commander 
 of the first English colony sent to North Amer- 
 ica, was born in 1540. Greenville shared with 
 Howard, Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins 4 Frobisher, 
 the renown of defeating the Spanish Armada. 
 In 1591 he was made vice-admiral of a squad- 
 ron sent out to the West Indies. In this 
 expedition he fell in with a superior force, 
 and in the action his ship was taken and 
 himself mortally wounded. 
 
 GREGORY. Sixteen popes have born this 
 name. Gregory I., surnamed the Great, 
 succeeded Pelagius II., in 590, and intro< 
 duced many of the present ceremonies of the 
 Romish church. He was of a noble family 
 and induced to take monastic vows by a 
 disgust of worldly affairs. He died in 604. 
 Gregory VII. is better known by his orig- 
 inal name of Hildebrand. [ See Hildebrand.] 
 Gregory XIII., the greatest civilian and can- 
 onist of his time, to whom we owe the refor- 
 mation of the calendar, born 1502, reigned 
 from 1572 to 1585. [, See Time,] 
 
 GRENVILLE, George, born in 1722, en- 
 tered parliament in 1750, and took a prom- 
 inent part in the public affairs of Great 
 Britain. During his ministry the stamp act 
 was brought forward. He died Nov. 13th, 
 1770. He married the daughter of Sir Wil- 
 liam Wyndham. Richard, his brother, Earl 
 Temple (1711-1779), was also a leading 
 statesman, though neither so honest nor capa- 
 George’s third son, William Wyndham, 
 
 ble. 
 GRE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 373 
 
 afterward Lord Grenville, was a distinguished 
 and powerful statesman, and was the nom- 
 inal head of the * all-the-talents ’ ministry, 
 which came in upon Mr. Pitt’s death, and was 
 soon shattered by the death of Mr. Fox. 
 
 The secret of the authorship of “Junius” 
 was said to have been intrusted to Lord Gren- 
 ville, and the rumor was that it would be dis- 
 closed after his death ; the office of making 
 the disclosure, some have supposed, was con- 
 fided to his nephew, Lord Nugent. He died 
 at his seat, Dropmore, in Buckinghamshire, 
 on the 12 th of January, 1834, aged seventy - 
 four. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, an unfortunate and 
 most amiable lady, the daughter of Henry 
 Grey, Marquis of Dorset, by Lady Frances 
 Brandon, daughter of the Duke of Suffolk, 
 was of royal descent on both sides. She was 
 born in 1537, at Bradgate Hall, her father’s 
 seat in Leicestershire, and early in life gave 
 proofs of uncommon genius. She worked 
 admirably with her needle ; wrote an elegant 
 hand ; played well on several instruments ; 
 and was well versed in Greek and Latin, be- 
 sides being conversant with French and Ital- 
 ian. Roger Ascham, “the schoolmaster of 
 princes,” has given a beautiful and affecting 
 narrative of his interview with her at Bradgate 
 Hall, where he found her reading Plato’s Phoe- 
 don in Greek, while the family were amusing 
 themselves in the park. 
 
 In 1551, her father was created Duke of 
 Suffolk ; and at this time Lady Jane Grey 
 was much at court, where the ambitious Duke 
 of Northumberland projected a marriage be- 
 tween her and his son, Lord Guilford Dudley, 
 which took place at the end of May, 1553. 
 Soon after this Edward VI. died, having been 
 prevailed upon, in his last illness, to settle the 
 crown upon the Lady Jane, who, against her 
 will, was proclaimed with great pomp. The 
 splendor of royalty, however, endured but a 
 short time. The nation was dissatisfied, and 
 the nobility incensed at the presumption of 
 Northumberland, so that Mary was not long 
 in obtaining the victory, and with an indig- 
 nant spirit she determined on revenge. Lady 
 Jane and her husband, after having been con- 
 fined in the Tower some months, were ar- 
 raigned and condemned to death, Nov. 3d, 
 1553. The sentence was not carried into ex- 
 ecution until the 12th of February in the fol- 
 
 lowing year, when Lord Guilford first suffered, 
 and his wife immediately afterward, on the 
 same scaffold. She died with the firmness 
 and meekness of a martyr ; and such no doubt 
 she was, since her Protestant principles were 
 more offensive to the queen than the part she 
 had been compelled to act. On the evening 
 previous to her death she sent a letter written 
 in Greek to her sister; and even after seeing 
 the headless body of her husband carried to 
 the chapel, she wrote three sentences, in 
 Greek, Latin, and English, in a table book, 
 which she presented to the lieutenant of the 
 Tower. 
 
 GRIDLEY, Jeremiah, a distinguished law- 
 yer, who was born in 1705, and flourished in 
 Massachusetts before the revolution. Al- 
 though a warm opponent of the British min- 
 istry, he accepted the office of attorney-gen- 
 eral of the province of Massachusetts Bay, 
 and defended the writs of assistance, but was 
 completely refuted by James Otis, who had 
 studied law in his office. He died in Boston, 
 Sept. 7th, 1767. 
 
 GRIMSTON, Sir Harbottle. An English 
 lawyer of much repute, lived (notwithstanding 
 his name) almost ninety years, dying in 1683. 
 
 GRISWOLD, Roger, a governor of Connec- 
 ticut, was the son of Gov. Matthew Griswold, 
 and born at Lyme in that state in 1762. He 
 was educated at Yale College, and chosen 
 member of Congress in 1794. In 1807 he ac- 
 cepted the office of judge of the supreme court 
 of Connecticut, and, after serving as lieutenant- 
 governor, in 1811 was chosen governor. He 
 died at Norwich, Oct. 12th, 1812. 
 
 GROTIUS, or De Groot, Hugo, a famous 
 scholar and statesman, born at Delft, April 
 10th, 1583. So precocious were his powers, 
 that he had a European reputation at fifteen. 
 Grotius, having espoused the cause of a relig- 
 ious sect called the Remonstrants, was con- 
 demned to imprisonment for life in the fortress 
 of Louvenstein, but having concealed himself 
 in a chest in which his wife had sent him some 
 books, he was carried out of the castle unsus- 
 pected. After wandering about in several 
 countries, having been banished forever from 
 his own, he went to Stockholm in 1634, and 
 was appointed counselor of state, and ambas- 
 sador to the French court. Although person- 
 ally obnoxious to Cardinal Richelieu, he held 
 this office for ten years, and then returned to 
 
 GRO 
 
874 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Sweden, passing through his native country, 
 where his reception was most flattering. He 
 solicited his dismission from the Queen of 
 Sweden ; after leaving her court, he was taken 
 sick at Rostock, in Pomerania, and died there, 
 August 28th, 1645. He was a profound and 
 elegant scholar, and a powerful writer upon 
 international law. 
 
 GROUCHY, Emanuel, Count, a marshal of 
 France, born at Paris in 1766, and known as 
 a brave and successful soldier in the wars of 
 Napoleon, is memorable for his singular con- 
 duct at Waterloo. With thirty-five thousand 
 men and eighty pieces of artillery under his 
 orders, he remained immovable either by the 
 prayers or the threats of the other generals, 
 in a position which could only be justified by 
 the strict letter of his instructions. It is not 
 certain that he intended to betray the cause 
 of Napoleon, but his culpable indecision con- 
 tributed decidedly to the result of the conflict. 
 He was restored to his military rank on the 
 accession of Louis Philippe, and died in 1847. 
 
 GUATEMALA, the largest and most north- 
 ern of the five republics of Central America, 
 has a territory of 59,000 square miles and a 
 population of 1,100,000. The resources of 
 this fertile country wait for the magic touch 
 of enterprise and industry. Many of the ab- 
 original tribes are yet in the perfect indepen- 
 dence of barbarian life. Guatemala la Nueva, 
 the seat of government, was founded in 1775, 
 and contains 40,000 inhabitants. It is situa- 
 ted on the river Yacas, twenty-six miles from 
 the Pacific. 
 
 GUELPHS, one of the two great factions 
 which divided Europe in the middle ages, 
 during the contest between the papal and 
 imperial power. The Guelphs sustained the 
 pope, the Ghibellines the emperor. Guelph 
 is the family name of the dynasty now upon 
 the British throne. 
 
 GUESCLIN, Bertrand du, constable of 
 France, and one of her most renowned gener- 
 als, born in 1314, at the castle of Motte Broon, 
 near Rennes. At the age of seventeen years, 
 he won a prize in a tournament. After the 
 battle of Poictiers, and the losses of Charles, 
 Du Guesclin came forward and redeemed the 
 honor of his country, wresting from the hands 
 of the English almost all their possessions. 
 He died, in the midst of triumph, before Cha- 
 teau-neuf-de-Raudon, July 13th, 1380. He 
 
 had nothing pleasing or noble in his person, 
 and owed his honors wholly to his own exer- 
 tions. 
 
 GUIANA, a country of South America, 
 formerly of vast extent. At present, what 
 was formerly Spanish Guiana belongs to Ven- 
 ezuela, and Portuguese Guiana to Brazil. The 
 remaining portions are divided between the 
 English, Dutch, and French. Parts of Guiana 
 are yet wild and imperfectly known, and in 
 its interior the El Dorado of the Spaniards 
 was formerly believed to exist. 
 
 French Guiana, or Cayenne, is an alluvial, 
 swampy region, covered with forests whose 
 trees are as prodigious in size as they are va- 
 rious in species. Here thrive fine aromatics 
 unknown to other regions of the west. The 
 Cayenne is the most pungent and delicate of 
 peppers. But a serious obstacle to settlement 
 is presented by the pestilential vapors steam- 
 ing from the woods and marshes. The French 
 colonized Cayenne in 1625. After having 
 fallen into the hands of the English and the 
 Dutch, it revolted to its original possessors in 
 1677. In a settlement on a great scale at- 
 tempted in 1763, there perished 13,000 per- 
 sons-: so that during the revolution, deporta- 
 tion'to Cayenne was considered almost as fatal 
 as Sentence of death. Within the last few 
 years, many Frenchmen have been banished 
 to this poisonous spot as a penalty for their 
 opposition to the despotism of Louis Napoleon. 
 
 Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, is the most im- 
 portant of the Dutch possessions in this west- 
 ern world. The colonies of Demerara, Ber- 
 bice, and Essequibo formerly belonged to 
 Holland, but were conquered by the English, 
 and since 1814 have constituted British Gui- 
 ana. The industry of the new owners, with 
 the fertility of the soil, has rendered this one 
 of the most productive regions on the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 GUIDO RENI, commonly called Guido, 
 was born at Bologna in 1575. His father 
 was a musician, and he was intended for the 
 same calling. But at an early age he evinced 
 a decided taste for painting, and he became 
 one of the most distinguished pupils of the 
 Caracci. Guido resided some twenty years in 
 Rome, and came away abruptly, during the 
 pontificate of Urban VIII., in consequence of 
 an offensive reprimand from Cardinal Spinola. 
 He had been commissioned to paint one of the 
 
 GUI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 375 
 
 altar-pieces of St. Peter’s, and had received 
 four hundred scudi in advance; but after a 
 few years not having even commenced the 
 picture, the cardinal rather harshly reminded 
 him of the money advanced for which he had 
 done nothing. Guido at once restored the 
 four hundred scudi, and in a few days left 
 Rome : all attempts to induce his return were 
 vain. He lived in great splendor at Bologna, 
 where he died Aug. 18th, 1642, and was in- 
 terred with great pomp in the church of San 
 Domenico. Notwithstanding the princely in- 
 come that he received for many years, his 
 habits of gaming and profuse liberality em- 
 barrassed his circumstances, and he died in 
 debt. It was during the latter unhappy pe- 
 riod of his career, that he sold his time for so 
 much an hour to certain dealers, one of whom 
 tasked the painter so rigidly as to stand by 
 him, watch in hand, while he worked. 
 
 GUILFORD, Battle of. A battle was 
 fought between the British under Cornwallis 
 and the Americans under Greene, March 13th, 
 1781, near Guilford Court House, N. C. The 
 combat lasted two hours. The American force 
 was twice that of the British, and was very 
 advantageously posted. No battle in the 
 course of the war reflected more honor on the 
 courage of the royal troops. The panic and 
 flight of the North Carolina militia turned the 
 scale against Gen. Greene ; the British gained 
 a nominal victory, the Americans retreating 
 in good order. The loss^on the side of Corn- 
 wallis was more than 600 killed and wounded ; 
 that of Greene’s army was over 400, and many 
 of the militia were reported missing, having 
 forsaken the field for their firesides. 
 
 GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, an eminent 
 physician, born in 1738, was the inventor 
 (about 1785) of the instrument of death called 
 by his name. His humane design was to ren- 
 der capital punishment less painful by decap- 
 itation, and he was greatly annoyed that the 
 guillotine should be named after him. He 
 was imprisoned during the revolutionary 
 troubles, and ran some hazard of suffering the 
 fatal stroke of his own invention. But he 
 escaped, and lived till 1814, greatly respected. 
 An engine called the maiden, somewhat sim- 
 ilar to the guillotine, was in use in Halifax, 
 Yorkshire, in the time of Elizabeth. It was 
 introduced into Scotland by the regent Morton, 
 
 for the decapitation of his political opponents, 
 and he himself lost his head under it in 1581. 
 
 GUISE, a town and dukedom of France, in 
 Picardy, besieged by the Spaniards in 1528. 
 The Dukes of Guise were very important per- 
 sonages in all the affairs of France, from the 
 reign of Francis I. to that of Henry IV. This 
 family was a branch of the house of Lorraine, 
 promoted by Francis I. in 1528 from Counts 
 of Guise to Dukes. The first thus raised was 
 Claude, the son of Rene II. One of his 
 daughters wedded James V. of Scotland, and 
 was the mother of Queen Mary. He had eight 
 sons, among whom were Francis, Duke of 
 Guise, Claudius, Duke of Aumale, and Rene, 
 Marquis of Elbceuf. Francis gallantly defend- 
 ed Metz against Charles V. and took Calais 
 from the English. He was virtually monarch 
 of France. He was the head of the League, 
 and the great opponent of Conde and the Hu- 
 guenots. He was assassinated in 1563. He 
 was the father of Henry, Duke of Guise, and 
 Charles, Duke of Maine, &c. Henry placing 
 himself at the head of the holy league, was 
 slain in the states of Blois, by the order of . 
 King Henry III., in 1588. The Duke of Maine 
 took up arms against Henry IV., till at last, 
 in 1594, he was forced to submit to that vic- 
 torious prince. 
 
 GULF STREAM. One of the most remark- 
 able of all known oceanic phenomena is the 
 mighty current which ceaselessly flows from 
 west to east, across the bosom of the North 
 Atlantic. The fountain-head of this ocean- 
 river, as it may well be termed, is in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. Thence it flows north-easterly 
 along the shores of the United States, until it 
 reaches the banks of Newfoundland; then 
 stretches across the Atlantic to the British 
 islands, where it divides into two parts, one 
 flowing northward to the Arctic Sea, the other 
 southward to the Azores. In the whole world, 
 there is not another so majestic flow of water 
 as this ocean-river. Its current is more rapid 
 than the Amazon or the Mississippi. In the 
 severest droughts it never fails ; in the great- 
 est floods it never overflows. Though its 
 banks and bed consist of cold water, yet the 
 river itself is warm ; and so great is the want 
 of affinity between these waters, so reluctant 
 are they to mingle with each other, that their 
 line of junction is often distinctly visible to 
 
 GUL 
 
376 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the eye : one-half of a ship may frequently be 
 perceived floating in the cold ocean water, the 
 other half in this warm current, known to 
 mariners and geographers as the Gulf Stream. 
 
 Long before the discovery of America, the 
 Gulf Stream, by carrying nuts, bamboos, and 
 artificially carved pieces of wood to the shores 
 of Europe, indicated the existence of a western 
 continent. Columbus himself was told by a 
 settler in the Azores, that even strange boats 
 had been seen, constructed so that they could 
 not sink, and managed by broad-faced men of 
 foreign appearance. Were these Esquimaux 
 Indians? Wallace, in his “Account of the 
 Islands of Orkney,” tells us that in 1682 an 
 Esquimaux was seen in his canoe off the south 
 side of the island of Edda by many persons, 
 who could not succeed in reaching him ; and 
 another was seen, in 1684, off the island of 
 Westram. Moreover, he says, “Be the seas 
 never so boisterous, these boats, being made 
 of fish-skins, are so contrived that they can 
 never sink, but are like sea-gulls swimming 
 on the top of the water.” Two more of these 
 current-drifted canoes wei*e subsequently 
 found on the shores of the Orkneys ; one was 
 sent to Edinburgh, the other hung up i.i the 
 church of Burra. 
 
 As if determined to make its course and 
 existence known to the most unobservant, the 
 Gulf Stream carried the main-mast of the Eng- 
 lish ship Tilbury, that was destroyed by fire 
 off the coast of St. Domingo, during the seven 
 years’ war, to the coast of Scotland. But, 
 again, it carried to Scotland a number of casks 
 of palm-oil, that were recognized, by their 
 marks and brands, to be part of the cargo of 
 a ship that had been wrecked near Cape Lopez 
 in Africa. How could this last remarkable 
 drift come to pass ? Simply thus : the Gulf 
 Stream, which we have compared to a river, 
 is in reality a part of a great system of oceanic 
 circulation. The branch that turns off from 
 the British islands, southward to the Azores, 
 joins the great equatorial current which, flow- 
 ing to the westward from the coast of Africa, 
 enters the Caribbean Sea, and emerges from 
 the Straits of Florida as the Gulf Stream. The 
 casks of palm-oil, then, had twice traversed 
 the Atlantic — first from east to west in the 
 equatorial current, and secondly from west to 
 east in the Gulf Stream — before they found a 
 resting-place on the coast of Scotland. 
 
 If we were to place little pieces of cork, 
 chaff, or other light bodies, in a basin of water, 
 and give the water a circular motion, the light 
 substances would crowd together in the cen- 
 tre, where there is the least motion. So it is 
 in the great basin of the Atlantic, where the 
 Sargasso Sea forms the centre of the whirl 
 caused by the circular motion of the equato- 
 rial current and the Gulf Stream. This sea, 
 situated about midway in the Atlantic, in the 
 triangular space between the Azores, Cana- 
 ries, and Cape de Yerd Islands, covering a 
 space equal in extent to the valley of the Mis- 
 sissippi, is so thickly matted over with a 
 peculiar weed ( Fucus natans) that the speed 
 of vessels passing through it is often greatly 
 retarded. To the eye, at a short distance, it 
 seems substantial enough to walk upon, and 
 countless hosts of small Crustacea dwell on this 
 curious carpet of the ocean. Columbus sailed 
 through it, on his first voyage of discovery, in 
 spite of the terrors of his less adventurous 
 companions, who believed that it marked the 
 limits of navigation ; and its position has not 
 altered since that time. This Sargasso, or 
 Sea of Lentils, as the Spaniards first termed 
 it, has a historical interest. In the celebrated 
 bull of Pope Alexander VI. in 1493, when he 
 divided the world between the Spaniards and 
 the Portuguese, he decreed that the Sargasso 
 Sea was to be their mutual boundary to all 
 eternity ! 
 
 The Gulf Stream .preserves its identity in 
 physical characteristics throughout the many 
 thousand miles of its continuous flow; the 
 only change undergone is that of degree. As 
 its waters gradually commingle with those of 
 the clasping sea, their deep blue tint declines, 
 their high temperature diminishes, the speed 
 with "which they press forward abates. The 
 maximum of velocity, where the stream quits 
 the narrow channel of Bernini, which com- 
 presses its #gress from the gulf, is about four 
 miles an hour ; off Cape Hatteras, where it 
 has gained a breadth of seventy-five miles, the 
 velocity is reduced to three miles. On the 
 parallel of the Newfoundland banks, it is far. 
 ther reduced to one and a half miles an hour, 
 and this gradual abatement of force is contin- 
 ued across the Atlantic. The highest temper- 
 ature observed is eighty-five degrees. 
 
 The waters of the Gulf Stream do not, in 
 any part of their course, touch the bottom of 
 
 GUL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 377 
 
 the sea. They are everywhere defended from 
 so comparatively good a conductor of heat by 
 a cushion of cold water, one of the best of 
 non-conductors ; the genial warmth is carried 
 thousands of miles to fulfill its destined pur- 
 poses. On a winter-day, the temperature of 
 the stream, as far north as Cape Hatteras, is 
 from twenty to thirty degrees higher than the 
 water of the surrounding ocean. Even after 
 flowing three thousand miles, it preserves in 
 winter the heat of summer. With this tem- 
 perature it crosses the fortieth degree of north 
 latitude, and there overflowing its liquid banks, 
 spreads itself out, for thousands of square 
 leagues, over the cold waters around, covering 
 the ocean with a mantle of warmth. Moving 
 now more slowly, but dispensing its genial in- 
 fluence more freely, it at last meets the British 
 islands. By these it is divided, one part go- 
 ing into the polar basin of Spitzber'gen, the 
 other entering the Bay of Biscay ; but each 
 with a warmth considerably above the ocean 
 temperature. 
 
 Modern ingenuity has suggested a method 
 of warming buildings by means of hot water. 
 The north-western parts of Europe are warmed 
 in similar manner by the Gulf Stream. The 
 torrid zone is the furnace ; the Caribbean Sea 
 and Gulf of Mexico, the boilers; the Gulf 
 Stream, the conducting-pipe ; from the banks 
 of Newfoundland to the shores of Europe is 
 the great hot-air chamber, spread out so as to 
 present a large surface. Mere the heat, con- 
 veyed into this warm-air chamber of mid- 
 ocean, is taken up by the prevailing west 
 winds, and dispensed over Britain and other 
 countries, where it is so much required. 
 Such, in short, is the influence of the Gulf 
 Stream upon the climate, that Ireland is 
 clothed in robes of evergreen grass ; while in 
 the same latitude, on the American side of the 
 Atlantic, is the frost-bound coast of Labrador. 
 In 1831 the harbor of St. John’s, Newfound- 
 land, was closed with ice so late in the season 
 as June ; yet the port of Liverpool, two de- 
 grees farther north, has never been closed by 
 frost in the severest winter. The Laplander 
 cultivates barley in a latitude which in every 
 other part of the world is doomed to perpet- 
 ual sterility. The benefit thus conferred by 
 the Gulf Stream is a remarkable accident. It 
 obviously depends on the Gulf of Mexico con- 
 tinuing to be a gulf, which, however, it might 
 
 easily cease to be. A subsidence of the Isth- 
 mus of Panama to the extent of a couple of 
 hundred feet (and such subsidences have taken 
 place in geological times all over the world), 
 would allow the equatorial current of the At- 
 lantic to pass through into the Pacific, instead 
 of being reflected back to European coasts. 
 Britain would become a Labrador, and cease 
 to be the seat of a numerous and powerful 
 people. 
 
 While the Gulf Stream is covering Europe’s 
 shores with verdure, ripening the harvests of 
 England and the vintage of France, its influ- 
 ence is equally beneficial at its fountain-head 
 in the western world. The Caribbean Sea 
 and the Gulf of Mexico are encompassed on 
 one side by the chain of West India Islands, 
 and on the other by the Cordilleras of the 
 Andes, contracting with the Isthmus of Dari- 
 en, and again expanding over the plains of 
 Central America and Mexico. On the extreme 
 summits of this range are the regions of eter- 
 nal snow ; next in descent is the tierra tem- 
 plada, or temperate region ; and lower still is 
 what the Spaniards truly and emphatically 
 have termed tierra caliente , the burning land. 
 Descending still lower is the level of the sea, 
 where, were it not for this wonderful system 
 of aqueous circulation, the peculiar features 
 of the surrounding country assure us we 
 should find the hottest and most pestilential 
 climate in the world. But as the waters be- 
 come heated, they are carried off by the Gulf 
 Stream, and replaced by cooler currents en- 
 tering the Caribbean Sea. The surface-water 
 flowing out is four degrees warmer than the 
 surface-water entering to supply its place. 
 
 As in a hot-water apparatus for warming 
 a building, the water cooled in the hot-air 
 chamber flows back to the boiler ; so one 
 part of the waters of the Gulf Stream, after 
 giving out their heat, flow toward the equa- 
 torial current, the other to the polar basin 
 of Spitzbergen. The secrets of the Arctic 
 regions are hidden by impenetrable ice ; but 
 we know that a return-current, bearing im- 
 mense icebergs, comes down from the dreary 
 north, through Davis’s Strait, and meets the 
 Gulf Stream at the banks of Newfoundland. 
 Scoresby counted at one time six hundred 
 icebergs starting off on their southward jour- 
 ney by this current, which, pressing on the 
 waters of the Stream, curves its channel into 
 
 GUL 
 
378 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 a ‘ bend,’ in shape resembling a horse-shoe, 
 and some hundreds of miles in area. This 
 bend is the great receptacle or harbor of the 
 icebergs which drift down from the north, 
 and are here melted by the warm waters of 
 the Gulf Stream. Who dare say that, in the 
 course of ages, the banks of Newfoundland 
 have not been formed by the earth, stones, 
 and gravel carried down to that spot by these 
 very icebergs ? Such is the distinctness 
 kept up between the warm and cold water, 
 that, though this northern current forms a 
 large bend or indentation in the Gulf Stream, 
 it does not commingle with it ; the former 
 here divides into two parts, one actually 
 under-running the Gulf Stream, the other 
 flowing south-westerly between it and tile 
 coast of America. 
 
 Though the Gulf Stream was noticed by 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, we are indebted to Dr. Franklin for the 
 first chart of its course. Being in London 
 in 1770, his attention was called to a memo- 
 rial which the board of customs at Boston 
 had sent to the lords of the treasury, stating 
 that the Falmouth packets were generally a 
 fortnight longer on their voyage to Boston 
 than common trading-vessels were from Lon- 
 don to Rhode Island. They therefore begged 
 that the Falmouth packets should be sent to 
 Providence instead of to Boston. This ap- 
 peared very strange to Franklin, as the trad- 
 ers were deeply laden and badly manned 
 vessels, to say nothing of the extra distance 
 between London and Falmouth. He con- 
 sulted a Nantucket whaling-captain named 
 Folger, who happened to be in London at the 
 time. Folger immediately explained the 
 mystery by stating that the Rhode Island 
 trading-captains were acquainted with the 
 course of the Gulf Stream, while those of the 
 English packet-service were not. The latter 
 kept in it, and were set back from sixty to 
 seventy miles per day, while the former 
 merely ran across it. At the request of 
 Franklin, the Nantucket whaler traced the 
 course of the Stream, and the doctor had it 
 engraved, and sent copies to the Falmouth 
 captains, who treated the communication 
 with contempt. This course of the Stream, 
 as laid down by Folger, has been retained 
 in our charts almost to the present day. 
 Who taught this unscientific Nantucket 
 
 whaler so accurately the course of this 
 mighty current, then so little known? It 
 was the whales, the gigantic prey he followed 
 in the ocean. The right whale ( Balcena 
 mysticetus ), as seamen term it, never enters 
 the warm water of the Gulf Stream, which, 
 as well as the warm waters of the torrid 
 zone, is as a wall of fire to these creatures. 
 But they delight to congregate, seeking for 
 food, along the edges of the Stream; and 
 thus Folger, through the experience of many 
 voyages, was enabled so correctly to denote 
 its course. 
 
 The Gulf Stream of the Atlantic has its 
 counterpart in the Pacific. The latter flows 
 out of the Straits of Malacca, just as the 
 Atlantic current flows out of the Straits of 
 Florida. The coast of China is its United 
 States; the Philippines its Bermudas; the 
 Japanese islands its Newfoundland. The 
 climates of the Asiatic coast correspond with 
 those of America along the Atlantic ; and 
 those of Columbia, Washington, and Van- 
 couver are duplicates of those of Western 
 Europe and the British islands ; the climate 
 of California resembles that of Spain; and 
 the sandy plains and rainless regions of 
 Lower California remind us of Africa. The 
 course of this Stream has not yet been traced 
 out, but it sets southwardly along the coast 
 of California and Mexico, as the Gulf Stream 
 does along the west coast of Africa to the 
 Cape Verd Islands. This current, too, has 
 its Sargasso Sea ; to the west, from Califor- 
 nia, of the southwardly set, lies the pool in 
 which the drift-wood and sea-weed of the 
 North Pacific are gathered. Inshore of, but 
 counter to, the China stream, along the east- 
 ern shores of Asia, is found a current of cold 
 water, resembling that between the Gulf 
 Stream and the American coast. Like its 
 counterpart, it is the nursery of valuable 
 fisheries. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT, a conspiracy formed 
 in the beginning of the reign of James I. of 
 England, for the re-establishment of popery. 
 The Roman Catholics had expected great 
 favor and indulgence from James, both be- 
 cause he was a descendant of Mary, a rigid 
 Catholic, and because he had shown some 
 favor to that religion in his youth ; but they 
 soon discovered their mistake, and were at 
 once surprised and enraged to find James, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 379 
 
 ori all occasions, express his resolution of 
 strictly executing the laws enacted against 
 them, and of persevering in the policy of his 
 predecessor. This declaration determined 
 certain desperate men among them to destroy 
 the king and parliament at a blow. They 
 stored, in the vaults under the parliament- 
 house, thirty -six barrels of gunpowder, pur- 
 chased in Holland, and covered them with 
 coals and fagots. The meaning of a warning 
 but ambiguous letter, received by Lord Mon- 
 teagle, was first penetrated by the king. The 
 care of searching the vaults devolved upon 
 the Earl of Suffolk, the lord chamberlain, 
 who purposely delayed the search until the 
 day before the meeting of parliament, Nov. 
 5th, 1605. He remarked the great piles of 
 fagots which lay in the vault under the house 
 of peers, and seized a man preparing for the 
 terrible enterprise, dressed in a cloak and 
 boots, with a dark lantern in his hand. This 
 was one Guy Fawkes, who had just dis- 
 posed every part of the train for taking fire 
 the next morning ; the matches and other 
 combustibles being found in his pockets. 
 The whole of the design was now discov- 
 ered ; but the atrocity of his guilt, and the 
 despair of pardon, inspiring him with resolu- 
 tion, he told the officers of justice with an 
 undaunted air that had he blown them and 
 himself up together, he had been happy. 
 Before the council he displayed the same 
 intrepid firmness, mixed even with scorn and 
 disdain, refusing to discover his associates, 
 and showing no concern but for the failure 
 of his enterprise. But his bold spirit was 
 at length subdued; after confinement in 
 the Tower for two or three days, on being 
 shown the rack, his courage failed him, and 
 he made a full discovery of his accomplices, 
 to the number of eighty. Catesby and Percy 
 were killed; Sir Everard Digby, R-ock wood, 
 Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, were 
 executed, as was also Guy Fawkes. 
 
 GUNTER, Edmund, an eminent English 
 mathematician, author of the scale and chain 
 which bear his name, died in 1626, aged 
 forty-five. 
 
 GUSTAYUS I. of Sweden, commonly 
 called Gustavus Yasa, was imprisoned when 
 Christian II. of Denmark sought to enslave 
 his country. Having escaped from prison in 
 1519, he arrived at Lubeck after meeting 
 
 with various difficulties. The father of Gus- 
 tavus perished in- the wholesale slaughter of 
 Swedish nobles by Christian in 1520. Pro- 
 scribed by the tyrant, he fled into Dalecarlia, 
 where he roused the miners to revenge the 
 wrongs of their country. The young hero 
 found the peasants prepared to receive him 
 with open arms, and to swear to revenge the 
 massacre at Stockholm with the last drop of 
 their blood. The brave Dalecarlians flocked 
 to the standard of Gustavus, who was from 
 this moment irresistible. After the expul- 
 sion of the Danes, Gustavus was proclaimed 
 King of Sweden and of the two Gothlands 
 in 1523, and he soon succeeded in establish- 
 ing the doctrines of Luther in his dominions. 
 In 1531, Christian made preparations for re- 
 covering the throne, but his vast armament 
 was defeated with great slaughter. In 1542, 
 Gustavus prevailed on the states to render 
 the crown hereditary in his own family. 
 This valiant, wise, and virtuous hero, the 
 true deliverer of his country, died in 1560, 
 at the age of seventy. 
 
 GUSTAYUS ADOLPHUS, Kingof Sweden, 
 succeeded his father, Charles IX., in 1611, at 
 the age of eighteen. Russia, Poland, and 
 Denmark were then enemies of Sweden. Gus- 
 tavus, having placed the Chancellor Oxen- 
 stiern at the head of the administration of 
 civil affairs, took charge himself of the mar- 
 tial operations, and in 1613 prosecuted the 
 war against Denmark with such vigor and 
 success, that, through the mediation of Great 
 Britain and Holland, an advantageous peace 
 was procured, by which the Danish monarch 
 renounced all pretensions to the throne. He 
 was equally successful with the Russians, 
 who ceded to him the fine province of Livo- 
 nia and part of the province of Novogorod. 
 His hostilities, however, with his cousin 
 Sigismund of Poland, were of longer dura- 
 tion, and were productive of those glorious 
 events which procured him a conspicuous 
 rank among the most distinguished warriors 
 of his time. The King of Poland could not 
 forget the Swedish crown, of which he had 
 been deprived by the impolitic conduct of 
 his father and himself, and formed a plot for 
 seizing on Gustavus, who, however, avoided 
 the snare. 
 
 The Swedish monarch, having prepare^ a 
 numerous fleet, laid siege to Riga in 1621. 
 
 GUS 
 
880 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Gustavus proved victorious, but allowed 
 the besieged to capitulate on honorable 
 terms. During a series of years he was en- 
 gaged in constant warfare, which afforded 
 him opportunities of training the Swedes, 
 and forming those intrepid commanders and 
 formidable battalions which long kept Europe 
 in alarm. At length, in 1629, Gustavus glo- 
 riously terminated the war with Poland, and 
 obtained large cessions of territory. He did 
 not, however, long enjoy the fruits of his 
 victories in peace. 
 
 The war between the Catholics and Pro- 
 testants, which laid Germany waste in this 
 century, had already commenced. Gustavus 
 Adolphus was looked to as the champion of 
 the reformed faith. This, with the resent- 
 ment he felt against the emperor for aiding 
 Poland, and his ambition to curb the power 
 of the house of Austria, determined him to 
 march into Germany in 1630. He reduced 
 Frankfort on the Oder, and various other 
 places, and compelled the Elector of Bran- 
 denburg to unite his troops with the Swedish 
 battalions. He then invaded Saxony. In 
 1631, Tilly awaited Gustavus at Leipzig with 
 an army of 40,000 men. The Swedish mon- 
 arch led his troops to the attack, and after 
 an obstinate conflict obtained a decisive vic- 
 tory. He then penetrated into Bavaria, and 
 levied contributions on the opulent districts 
 of Germany. The battle of Lutzen ensued 
 in 1632, on the fate of which contest that 
 of Europe appeared to depend. The Swedish 
 infantry performed prodigies of valor, broke 
 the line of the imperialists, and seized their 
 cannon. Victory had already declared for 
 the Swedes, when Gustavus was found 
 stretched among the slain. His death 
 plunged Sweden into the greatest affliction, 
 but his triumphant bands for a time supported 
 her military reputation. 
 
 GUSTAVUS III. of Sweden, the eldest 
 son of Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp, was born in 1746, and succeeded to 
 the throne on his father’s death, Feb. 12th, 
 1771. The country, which was convulsed 
 throughout, was tranquillized by the prudent 
 measures of Gustavus, who was wise, firm, 
 and accomplished, although fond of pleasure 
 
 and ambitious. He determined to take part 
 against the French revolutionists, and thereby 
 gave very general dissatisfaction. A con- 
 spiracy was formed against him; the most 
 prominent members were the Counts Horn, 
 Ribbing, and Ankarstroem, and he was shot 
 by the latter at a masquerade at Stockholm, 
 March 15 th, 1792. 
 
 GUSTAVUS IV., his son, deposed and 
 banished in 1809, died in Switzerland, after 
 wandering through Europe under various 
 names and the most straitened circumstances. 
 
 GWINNETT, Button, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 England in 1732, and came to Charleston, 
 S. C., in 1770. Soon afterward he purchased 
 a large tract of land in Georgia, which he 
 made his permanent residence. He took an 
 active share in the affairs of the Revolution, 
 and was in Congress in 1776. Subsequently 
 he assisted in framing a state constitution for 
 Georgia, and was chosen the first governor 
 under it. He died May 27th, 1777, from a 
 wound received in a duel with Gen. McIntosh. 
 
 GYPSIES. These mysterious vagabonds 
 are the most widely diffused yet distinct race 
 on the earth, not excepting even the Jews. 
 They first made their appearance in Europe 
 about 1517, in Bohemia, whence they are 
 sometimes called Bohemians. Their origin 
 has been a matter of much doubt. The 
 common belief was (as some of the earliest 
 hordes in Europe stated, and as the name 
 ‘ gypsy ’ implied) that they came from Egypt, 
 being driven forth by the Turks. Their 
 supposed skill in the black art gave them a 
 universal reception in that early age of cre- 
 dulity and superstition. Notwithstanding the 
 persecution and proscription they have so 
 generally met, they are yet found in all parts 
 of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa, and 
 some even are leading the same wandering 
 life in our own country. Through all their 
 intercourse with other nations, they, like the 
 Jews, have preserved their manners, customs, 
 usage, and appearance unchanged. They 
 have a tongue of their own, which has been 
 traced to an Indian origin. They call them- 
 selves Roumani. 
 
 GYP 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 381 
 
 H. 
 
 HAHNEMANN, Samuel, was born of poor 
 parents at Meissen in Saxony, 1755, and 
 received his diploma as doctor in physic at 
 Heidelberg in 1781. His researches led him 
 to propound a new theory of medical science, 
 now known as homoeopathy, in support of 
 which he published numerous treatises. He 
 died at Paris in 1843. 
 
 HALE, Sir Matthew, one of the most 
 upright judges that ever sat upon the Eng- 
 lish bench, born in 1609, died in 1676. Rich- 
 ard Baxter said, “ I believe he would have 
 lost all he had in the world, rather than do 
 an unjust act.” 
 
 HALE, Nathan, the martyr-spy of the 
 American Revolution, was born in Coventry, 
 Conn., June 6th, 1755. He graduated with 
 honor at Yale College in 1775, and was teach- 
 ing school at New London, when news of the 
 blood spilt at Lexington thrilled through the 
 land. “ Let us march immediately,” said he, 
 “and never lay down our arms until we 
 obtain our independence.” He enrolled at 
 once as a volunteer, and sought the scene of 
 action. After the disastrous battle of Long 
 Island, it was an anxious question with Gen. 
 Washington, what would be the next move 
 of the victorious British against the scanty 
 and ill-appointed patriot army ? He directed 
 Colonel Knowlton to select some competent 
 person, who should seek the royal camp 
 and penetrate the veil in which Howe had 
 shrouded his designs. Col. Knowlton ap- 
 plied to various officers, with ill success: 
 men who did not fear the hazard could not bear 
 the ignominy of the task of a spy. Young 
 Hale undertook it, assigning these reasons 
 against the remonstrances of his comrades : 
 “I think I owe to my country the accom- 
 plishment of an object so important, and so 
 much desired by the commander of her ar- 
 mies ; and I know no other mode of obtain- 
 ing the information than by assuming a 
 disguise and passing into the enemy’s camp. 
 I am sensible of the consequences of discov- 
 ery and capture in such a situation. But 
 for a year I have been attached to the army 
 and have not rendered any material service, 
 while receiving a compensation for which 
 
 make no return. Yet I am not influenced by 
 the expectation of promotion or pecuniary 
 reward. I wish to be useful, and every kind 
 of service necessary for the public good be- 
 comes honorable by being necessary. If the 
 exigencies of my country demand a peculiar 
 service, its claims, to the performance of that 
 service are imperious.” In the plain costume 
 of a schoolmaster, he crossed the sound from 
 the Connecticut shore, gained the perilous 
 knowledge he sought, reached in safe return 
 the point where ho had landed on the Long 
 Island shore, and there was captured. The 
 telltale notes and draughts in which he had 
 put his observations, revealed his errand ; he 
 was borne to New York, and sentenced to be 
 hanged the next morning at daybreak. The 
 provost marshal treated the doomed man 
 with an awful cruelty, refusing him the solace 
 of a Bible and the use of writing materials ; 
 the intercession of a young lieutenant pro- 
 cured the latter. The calm message home 
 which Hale penned for his mother, was tom 
 in pieces by the wretch, “ that the rebels 
 should never know they had a man who could 
 die with such firmness.” Injuries and taunts 
 could not shake the firm spirit of the young 
 hero ; his dying words were, “ I only regret 
 that I have but one life to live for my coun- 
 try ! ” He was executed September 22d, 
 1776. The place of his burial is unknown. 
 He was betrothed to a young lady in Con- 
 necticut, who survived him many years, 
 dying in 1845. She had wedded and borne 
 children, but her last thoughts on earth 
 were busy with her maiden memories ; she 
 murmured, just before death, “ Write to 
 Nathan ! ” 
 
 HALIDON HILL, Battle of. Fought 
 near Berwick, between the English and 
 Scots, July 19th, 1333. The latter were 
 sorely defeated, 13,000 being slain, while the 
 southron loss was small. After this victory 
 Edward III. placed Edward Baliol on the 
 Scottish throne. 
 
 HALIFAX. George Saville, Marquis 
 of Halifax, a celebrated English statesman, 
 was born in Yorkshire in 1630. He was. 
 created a peer for his loyalty at the restora- 
 
 I 
 
 HAL 
 
S82 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 tion, and in 1682 was raised to the dignity 
 of a marquis, soon after which he was made 
 lord privy seal. At the beginning of the 
 reign of James II., he was appointed presi- 
 dent of the council, but on refusing his consent 
 to the repeal of the test acts, he was dis- 
 missed. In the convention parliament, he 
 sat as speaker of the House of Lords, and 
 concurred in all the measures of the Revolu- 
 tion; but afterward he joined the opposition. 
 He died in 1695. 
 
 HALL, Lyman, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 Connecticut, in 1731, graduated at Yale, 
 studied medicine, and went to South Caro- 
 lina in 1752. He was a practicing physician 
 in Georgia on the breaking out of the Revo- 
 lution. He at once was ready to devote 
 his property and person to the service of his* 
 country, and in 1775 he was chosen a dele- 
 gate to the general congress, then assembled 
 in Philadelphia. He was at the North until 
 after the evacuation of Savannah in 1782, when 
 he returned ana found all his property con- 
 fiscated to the crown. In 1783, he was 
 chosen governor of the state of Georgia, and 
 died in retirement in Burke county in 1790. 
 
 HALL, Robert, one of the most eloquent 
 of modern preachers, born near Leicester in 
 1764, was the son of a Baptist clergyman. 
 He learned to read from inscriptions on grave- 
 stones, and at an early age was a prodigy of 
 learning. While yet a boy he found his 
 favorite reading in Edwards on the Will and 
 Butler’s Analogy. He spent some time at 
 King’s college, Aberdeen, where he had for 
 fellow-student and warm friend, Sir James 
 Mackintosh. From their partiality for Greek 
 literature, the twain were dubbed “Plato 
 and Herodotus.” The eloquent orations and 
 evangelical discourses wherewith he admin- 
 istered to the Baptist church at Cambridge 
 won him the foremost rank among British 
 preachers. He suffered acute pains from a 
 disease of the spine, and in 1804 he began to 
 be afflicted by occasional insanity, which at 
 last rendered it necessary that his connection 
 with the flock at Cambridge should bo sev- 
 ered. He recovered completely, and spent 
 twenty years in useful and brilliant ministry 
 at Leicester, removing in 1826 to Bristol, 
 •where he labored till within a fortnight of 
 
 his death, which came the 21st of February, 
 1831. 
 
 HALLE, a Prussian city, in the province 
 of Saxony, on the right bank of the Saale, 
 containing 30,000 inhabitants. Its univer- 
 sity ranks deservedly very high. It was the 
 scene of an obstinate conflict, Oct. 17th, 1806, 
 three days after the battle of Jena. 
 
 HALLEY, Edmund, an eminent astrono- 
 mer, born in London, Nov. 8th, 1656, died 
 Jan. 14th, 1742. 
 
 HAMBURG, a free city of Germany, situ- 
 ated on the Elbe, about eighty miles from its 
 mouth, containing 229,941 inhabitants. It 
 was founded in the reign of Charlemagne, 
 and was originally a fort called Hammen- 
 burg. In 1618, it was admitted into the 
 number of imperial towns, subject to the 
 counts of Holstein. In 1768, however, the 
 subjection was annulled, and Hamburg was 
 confirmed into an independent city. In 
 1807 it was taken possession of by a large 
 French garrison, and Bonaparte seized a part 
 of its public funds. In 1810, it was incor- 
 porated into the French empire ; and in 1813, 
 an unsuccessful effort was made to shake 
 off the French yoke. A contribution of 
 $9,000,000 was then levied upon it, and the 
 most positive orders were given to defend it, 
 at whatever sacrifice, against the allies. This 
 led to incalculable distress, to the destruction 
 of the houses on the ramparts, to the seizure 
 of considerable merchandise, and, finally, of 
 the bank funds, by Davoust. At last, the 
 city was evacuated, in May, 1814, and a 
 part of the bank funds were restored by the 
 Bourbons. Thrift and energy insured a 
 return of prosperity. Hamburg was smitten 
 by a mighty conflagration in May, 1842, 
 which left twenty thousand people houseless. 
 The territory of Hamburg is about 150 square 
 miles, and the total population 217,000, the 
 most of whom are Lutherans. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, was born in the 
 island of Nevis, W. I., in 1757. At the age 
 of sixteen, he entered Columbia College, New 
 York, in which institution he greatly distin- 
 guished himself. At the age of seventeen 
 he published political essays in favor of the 
 colonial cause, so powerful and brilliant that 
 they were at first attributed to Mr. Jay, then 
 in the prime of life. At nineteen, eager to 
 
 HAM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 383 
 
 Hamilton’s monument in trinity church-yard, new yoRk. 
 
 peril his life for liberty, Hamilton entered the 
 army ; he soon rose to the rank of captain of 
 artillery, and Washington appointed him his 
 aid-de-camp, ranking as lieutenant-colonel, 
 when he was but twenty years of age. At 
 the siege of Yorktown, he was in the hottest 
 of the fire, and headed an assault which car- 
 ried one of the outworks. After the war he 
 commenced the study of the law in New 
 York, and was speedily admitted to practice. 
 In 1783 he was chosen member of Congress, 
 and distinguished himself by his ability, un- 
 . wearied industry, and patriotism. He was a 
 member of the convention which met at 
 Philadelphia for the purpose of framing the 
 federal constitution. The essays which, with 
 Jay and Madison, he published under the 
 title of “The Federalist,” contributed Very 
 essentially to render the constitution popular. 
 As secretary of the treasury, to which office 
 he was appointed in 1789, he gained the 
 reputation of one of the greatest financiers of 
 the age. In 1795 he retired into private 
 life, but in 1798, as inspector-general, he or- 
 ganized the army intended to repel the threat- 
 
 ened invasion of the French, and in 1799, on 
 the death of Washington, he succeeded to 
 the chief command. June 11th, 1804, in 
 consequence of a dispute between Colonel 
 Burr and General Hamilton, the parties met 
 at Hoboken, and Hamilton was killed at the 
 first shot, standing on the fatal spot where 
 his eldest son had recently been slain in a 
 similai rencontre. Hamilton married Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Gen. Schuyler. She died 
 in 1854, at the advanced age of ninety-six. 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir William, a distinguished 
 metaphysician, professor in the University 
 of Edinburgh, died in 1857. 
 
 HAMPDEN, John, was born at London 
 in 1594. He belonged to one of the worship- 
 ful and ancient country families of England, 
 as did most of the parliamentary leaders 
 in the great contest with the crown. He sat 
 in the earlier parliaments of Charles I., but 
 took no prominent part till he so manfully 
 stood forth against the unauthorized tax for 
 ship money in 1636. The king unsuccess- 
 fully sought his impeachment. Whe^ resort 
 to arms became necessary, Hampden , oised a 
 
 HAM 
 
834 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 regiment from his tenantry, and brought to 
 the field the same courage and capacity he 
 had shown in discussion. He was killed in 
 an engagement with Prince Rupert, June 8th, 
 1643. 
 
 HANAU, a province of Hesse-Cassel, the 
 capital of which, Hanau, on the Kinzig, con- 
 tains about 16,000 inhabitants. In 1792, 
 Hanau was attacked, but not occupied, by 
 the French. October 30th, 1813, an Austrian 
 and Bavarian corps opposed here the great 
 army of the French, in their retreat from 
 Leipsic : a sanguinary conflict took place, in 
 which the former were forced to retire. 
 
 HANCOCK, John, was born at Quincy, in 
 Massachusetts. Having lost his parents 
 early, he was sent to Harvard College, where 
 he graduated in 1754, by his uncle, a rich 
 and benevolent merchant of Boston, to whose 
 wealth and business he succeeded in 1764. 
 After the battle of Lexington, when pardon 
 was offered to the rebels in case of submission 
 to the royal authority, Hancock and Adams 
 were the only Americans excepted by Gage 
 from the offer of mercy. After having been 
 president of the provincial congress of Massa- 
 chusetts, Hancock w T as sent to the general 
 congress at Philadelphia in 1775, and filled 
 the presidential chair of that body until 1779, 
 when sickness compelled him to relinquish it. 
 He was annually chosen governor of Massa- 
 chusetts from 1780 till 1785. In 1787 he 
 was re-elected, and filled the post until his 
 death, Oct. 8th, 1793, at the age of fifty-six 
 years. As the president of Congress, he was 
 the first to sign the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. 
 
 HANDEL, George Frederic, a native of 
 Saxony, born February 24th, 1684. He pro- 
 duced his earliest operas at Hamburg. In 
 1710, he visited England, and his fame and 
 fortune were there established. In 1741, he 
 brought out his master-piece, the oratorio of 
 “The Messiah.” Toward the latter part of 
 his life he was afflicted with total blindness. 
 He died April 13th, 1759, leaving a fortune 
 of £20,000. His appetites were coarse, his 
 person ungainly, and his temper violent, 
 although an external roughness was compen- 
 sated by a humane and generous heart. 
 
 The following anecdote strikingly illus- 
 trates his manners and his peculiar humor. 
 Dr. Graene, a personal friend, as well as a 
 
 warm admirer of Handel, brought to the 
 great German an anthem of his own compo- 
 sition, requesting the favor of his opinion and 
 remarks upon it. Handel readily received 
 the production, promised to examine it imme- 
 diately, and invited the doctor to breakfast 
 with him the next day. Dr. Greene accord- 
 ingly waited on the illustrious musician. 
 Handel received him with cordiality, gave 
 him an elegant breakfast, treated him with 
 every politeness, but constantly continued to 
 evade hi,s visitor’s questions respecting his 
 opinion of the anthem. Greene, at length, 
 too impatient to wait any longer for the great 
 composer’s decision on the merits of his 
 piece, exclaimed vehemently, “My dearest 
 friend, keep me no longer in suspense — tell 
 me, I pray you — tell me what do you think 
 of my anthem?” Handel, who had found it 
 scientifically written, but very deficient in 
 melody, answered, “Oh, it is ver fine, my 
 dear doctor, ver fine indeed ; only it do vant 
 air, and so I flung it put of de vindow.” 
 
 The publisher of one of Handel’s operas 
 cleared £1,500 by it; this caused the com- 
 poser to say, “My dear sir, as it is only right 
 that we should be upon an equal footing, you 
 shall compose the next opera, and I will sell 
 it.” 
 
 HANNIBAL, son of Hamilcar Barcas, born 
 b.c. 247, was a celebrated Carthaginian gen- 
 eral. He was educated in his father’s camp, 
 and inured from his early years to the labors 
 of the field, having passed into opain when 
 nine years old. Before leaving Carthage 
 Hamilcar swore him to eternal enmity to the 
 Romans. After his father’s death, he had 
 the command of the cavalry in Spain, and 
 some time after, upon the death of Hasdrubal, 
 he was invested with the command of all the 
 armies of Cartilage, though not yet in the 
 twenty -fifth year of his age. In three years • 
 of continual success, he subdued all the na- 
 tions of Spam which opposed the Carthagin- 
 ian power, and took Saguntum after a siege 
 of gight months. This city was in alliance 
 with Rome, and its foil was the cause of the 
 second Punic war, which Hannibal prepared 
 to support with all the courage and prudence 
 of a finished general. The army with which 
 he entered Italy amounted, by the largest 
 computation, to 100,000 foot and 20,000 
 horse. With this overwhelming force he 
 
 HAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 385 
 
 THB HANCOCK HOUSE IN BOSTON. 
 
 passed the Alps, conquered his opponents, 
 crossed the Apennines, invaded Etruria, de- 
 feated Flaminius at the lake Thrasymene, 
 and Caius Terentius and L. JEmilius in the 
 fatal battle of Cannae. Had Hannibal, imme- 
 diately after this battle, marched his army to 
 the gates of Rome, it must have yielded 
 amidst the general consternation ; but his 
 delay continued so long that the Romans 
 recovered their hopes, and when he finally 
 approached the walls, he was informed that 
 the piece of ground on which his army then 
 stood, was being sold at a high price in the 
 Roman forum. He then, after some time, 
 retired to Capua, the luxuries of which ener- 
 vated bis troops, and unfitted them for action ; 
 this gave rise to the saying that “ Capua was 
 a Cannae to Hannibal.” Marcellus, who suc- 
 ceeded the cautious Fabius in the fiel$, first 
 taught the Romans that Hannibal was not 
 invincible. Scipio having passed over into 
 Africa, the Carthaginians now recalled Han- 
 nibal to combat the adventurous Romans. 
 After sixteen years of flattering triumph, the 
 Carthaginian general left Italy, met Scipio at 
 
 25 
 
 Zama, was defeated, and fled to Adrumetura. 
 The Carthaginians procured peace on favora- 
 ble terms, and Hannibal fled to Syria, but he 
 was pursued from place to place by the ani- 
 mosity of the Romans, and at length killed 
 himself at the court of Prusias, King of 
 Bithynra, b.c. 183, aged sixty-four years'. 
 
 HANNO, a Carthaginian general of high 
 reputation, who was conquered by Scipio in 
 Spain. He is not to be confounded with the 
 great navigator, who lived three or four cen- 
 turies earlier. 
 
 HANOVER, in the north of Germany, was 
 erected into a kingdom in 1814. It contains 
 14,800 Square miles, and 1,819,777 inhabit- 
 ants. The Hartz mountains contain silver, 
 iron, copper, lead, &c. When Napoleon had 
 obtained dominion over almost the whole con- 
 tinent in 1811, Hanover became an integral 
 part of the kingdom of Westphalia, which had 
 been formed of provinces ceded by Prussia 
 and others to France, and of which Jerome 
 Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, was the 
 sovereign. Hanover, its capital, suffered 
 severely during its occupation by the French 
 
 HAN 
 
386 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 from 1803 to 1813 ; out was relieved from 
 their presence by the arrival of Bernadotte, 
 with an allied force, on the 6th of November 
 of the latter year. The city of Hanover, cap- 
 ital of the kingdom, has 40,000 inhabitants. 
 Gottingen, a city on the Leine, contains 
 10,000 inhabitants, and is famous for its uni- 
 versity, founded by George II. in 1734. 
 
 HANOVER, House of. Elizabeth, daugh- 
 ter of James I. of England, married with 
 Frederick, the Elector-Palatine of Bohemia. 
 Their daughter Sophia became the wife of 
 Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick Lunen- 
 burg, and first Elector of Hanover. In 1701 
 the English parliament limited the succession 
 of the crown, after William III. and Queen 
 Anne, if the latter had no issue, to the Prin- 
 cess Sophia of Hanover, and the heirs of her 
 body, being Protestants. Accordingly, upon 
 the death of Anne, Sophia’s son George Lewis, 
 Elector of Hanover and Duke of Brunswick 
 Lunenburg, became also King of Great Brit- 
 ain as George I. He was born May 28th, 
 1660, and had married his cousin Sophia, 
 heiress of Brunswick Zell. He was pro- 
 claimed King of England, Aug. 1st, 1714, and 
 landed at Greenwich in the following month. 
 At the commencement of his reign, the Whigs 
 had the ascendency, both in and out of par- 
 liament. In 1715 a revolution broke out in 
 Scotland in favor of the Pretender, but was 
 quelled without much trouble, although there 
 were many who were decidedly opposed to 
 the existing government. In 1715 the bill 
 for septennial parliaments was brought into 
 the house of lords by the Duke of Devon- 
 shire, and passed both houses. In 1718 a 
 quadruple alliance of England, Holland, 
 France, and Germany, was formed against 
 Spain, and the Spanish were defeated by Sir 
 George Byng on the coast of Sicily. In 1720 
 was started the celebrated South Sea scheme, 
 which involved thousands of families in ruin. 
 In 1721 Bishop Atterbury was. seized and 
 conveyed to the Tower, and afterward ban- 
 ished on suspicion of treason; the Duke of 
 Norfolk, the Earl of Orrery, and others were 
 imprisoned for participation in the plot. In 
 1725 the treaty of Hanover was signed to 
 counteract the first treaty of Vienna. In 
 1727 the king visited his electoral dominions 
 at Hanover, but being seized with a paralytic 
 disorder on the road from Hanover to Hol- 
 
 H 
 
 land, he was conveyed to Osnaburgh, June 
 11th, 1727, where he died, in the thirteenth 
 year of his reign. The disaffection toward 
 the Elector of Hanover, on his arrival in Eng- 
 land, was very great, and the populace gave 
 no equivocal signs of it. One time a noisy 
 mob surrounded a carriage which contained 
 some German ladies of the court, and assailed 
 their ears with epithets of abuse more fluent 
 than elegant. One of the foreigners, putting 
 her head out of the carriage-window, said, in 
 her broken English, “My good peoples', we 
 ish come for all your goods.” “ Yes,” replied 
 a surly fellow in the crowd, “and for all our 
 chattels too.” 
 
 George Augustus, the first George’s son, 
 came to the throne as George II. He was 
 born Oct. 30th, 1683, and was created Prince 
 of Wales, Oct. 4th, 1714. In 1704 he married 
 Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Branden- 
 burg- Anspach, and in 1727 succeeded his 
 father. In 1729 the peace of Seville w*as 
 concluded with Spain, but the war with that 
 country was renewed in 1739. In 1742 Sir 
 Robert Walpole resigned, after having been 
 minister for nearly twenty years, and in the 
 same year, the king, espousing the cause of 
 Maria Theresa, marched against the French, 
 whom he defeated in the battle of Dettingen, 
 but without gaining much advantage. In 
 1745 Charles Edward, the young Pretender, 
 landed in Scotland, but was finally defeated at 
 Culloden. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
 concluded in 1748. In 1754 the encroach- 
 ments of the French in America brought on 
 that war which resulted happily for Great 
 Britain, and some of the successes of which 
 in America are attributable to the bravery 
 of the provincial troops. In the midst of 
 general prosperity, George II. died at Ken- 
 sington, Oct. 25th, 1760, in the seventy- 
 seventh year of his age and thirty-third of 
 his reign. He possessed no shining qualities, 
 and despised learning. 
 
 Quarrels between the monarch and the 
 heir apparent marked this dynasty. Thus 
 George II. while Prince of Wales had not 
 been on the best of terms with his father. 
 Similar disagreement sundered him in turn 
 from his son Frederick. The houses in Lon- 
 don to which George Augustus, and after- 
 ward Frederick, retired when in disfavor at 
 St. James’s, were familiarly known as 4 pouting 
 \R 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 387 
 
 houses.’ Frederick died before his hither, 
 and the grandson, George III., was heir to 
 the crown. His long and eventful reign we 
 have mentioned in our sketch of England. 
 His mother was the Princess Augusta of 
 Saxe Gotha, who gave him birth June 4th, 
 1738. He succeeded his grandfather, George 
 II., Oct. 25th, 1760 ; married Charlotte Sophia, 
 Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Sept. 8th, 
 1761 ; and both were crowned Sept. 22d in 
 the same year. He was deranged in mind 
 from October, 1788, to March, 1789. On the 
 24th of April, 1789, he went in procession to 
 St. Paul’s, to offer thanks for his- recovery. 
 The malady returned in 1801, and afflicted 
 him till 1804; he relapsed in 1810, and 
 died in Windsor Castle, Jan. 29th, 1820, in 
 the eighty-second year of his age, and the 
 sixtieth of his reign. Queen Charlotte died 
 in 1818. George III. was a virtuous man, a 
 good husband and father. Before his time 
 the English court had the licentiousness of 
 France with the coarseness of Germany. 
 Under the influence of George and his excel- 
 lent consort, decency was restored. But his 
 virtue was not shared by all his numerous 
 offspring ; the Duke of York and the Duke 
 of Cumberland were notoriously profligate ; 
 they were outdone in vice and shame by their 
 eldest brother, George IV. 
 
 He was born Aug. 12th, 1762. Well edu- 
 cated and talented, he abused the gifts be- 
 stowed upon him, and in his youth plunged 
 into the guiltiest excesses. Loaded with 
 debt, he at length adopted a system of 
 retrenchment, sold his splendid racing-stud, 
 and reduced his whole establishment. With 
 the assistance of parliament, he extricated 
 himself from his difficulties. The indignation 
 excited by a nefarious transaction of his, 
 which was exposed by the Jockey Club, com- 
 pelled him to abandon the .turf. The fat 
 young debauchee became enamored with Mrs. 
 Fitzherbert, a brilliant and lovely widow of 
 twenty-five. His heart, he declared, was now 
 seriously affected ; the fair widow divided his 
 affection with the bottle ; and his wooing was 
 as assiduous as was her avoidance of him. 
 She remained obdurate to all entreaty, till 
 one day several gentlemen of the prince’s 
 household arrived at her house in the utmost 
 consternation, informing her that the life of 
 the prince was in imminent danger ; that he 
 
 had stabbed himself, and that only her imme- 
 diate presence could save him. There prob- 
 ably never was a man more ridiculous wLen 
 playing the part of a lover than this Prince 
 of Wales. To have himself bled, in order 
 that he might look pale and interesting in the 
 eyes of the Cynthia of the minute, was with 
 him no unusual trick. On this occasion, 
 however, it was positively declared that he 
 had stabbed himself, and the emissaries be- 
 sought the young widow to hasten and heal 
 the wound. She proceeded to Carlton House, 
 under the very proper guardianship of the 
 Duchess of Devonshire. She found the prince 
 pale and covered with blood. “The sight,” 
 we are told, “so overpowered her faculties 
 that she was deprived almost of all conscious- 
 ness. The prince told her that nothing could 
 induce him to live, unless she promised to 
 become his wife, and permitted him to put a 
 ring round her finger.” She repented, how- 
 ever, of her betrothal, fled beyond the sea, 
 and remained a year on the continent, en- 
 deavoring to avoid the perilous suit. Couri- 
 ers with ardent dispatches followed her with 
 such speed and in such numbers that the 
 suspicious French government at last began 
 to clap them in prison. George once wrote 
 her a love-letter of seven and thirty pages, in 
 which he assured her that his father would 
 connive at the union. She returned to Eng- 
 land, and was privately married to the prince. 
 But she was wife and yet no wife. Public 
 attention was turned to the match ; parlia- 
 ment began to inquire into the matter ; and 
 Mr. Fox was authorized by the princely liar 
 to deny that he was married. The pressure 
 of his ill-gotten debts induced him, in 1795, to 
 marry Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of 
 the Duke of Brunswick. Her sufferings and 
 persecution excited the world’s indignation 
 against her heartless husband. One daugh- 
 ter, the Princess Charlotte, was the only off- 
 spring of this unhappy and unhallowed union. 
 This lovely and virtuous girl wedded Prince 
 Leopold, afterward King of the Belgians ; 
 the hope of the nation was turned to lament- 
 ation by her death in childbed, Nov. 5th, 
 1817, at the early age of twenty-one. Her 
 injured mother died in 1821, shortly after 
 her husband ascended the throne. 
 
 George IV. had been regent during the long 
 insanity of his father. His reign as king 
 
 HAN 
 
383 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was not long. He died July 26th, 1830. 
 On his death-bed he received a touching note 
 from Maria Fitzherbert, long separated from 
 him, as from a wife offering her services to 
 her husband. She died in March, 1837. 
 George was succeeded by his brother Wil- 
 liam, Duke of Clarence, who had spent much 
 of his life in the naval service. The sailor 
 king had his errors, but what with compari- 
 son to his brother, and his own bluff good 
 nature, he was very popular. His queen 
 was Adelaide, sister of the Duke of Saxe 
 Meinengen, who survived him some twenty 
 years. William IY. died June 20th, 1837. 
 The kingdom of Hanover was subject to the 
 Salique law, by which a woman can not hold 
 the sceptre. Victoria, a girl of eighteen, the 
 daughter of the Duke of Kent, was the heir 
 to the British crown. The throne of Han- 
 over therefore fell to the Duke of Cumber- 
 land, her uncle, and Victoria became Queen 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. She was mar- 
 ried Feb. 10th, 1840, to her cousin, Prince 
 Albert, of Saxe-Coburg. The crown is not 
 likely to lack an heir in the direct line; 
 Victoria -and Albert are blessed wuth nine 
 children : Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, 
 Princess Royal, born Nov. 21st, 1840 ; married 
 to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, Jan- 
 uary, 1858. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, 
 born Nov. 9th, 1841. Alice Maud Mary, 
 born April 25th, 1843. Alfred Ernest, 
 bom Aug. 6th, 1844. Helena Augusta Vic- 
 toria, born May 25th, 1846. Louisa Carolina 
 Alberta, born March 18th, 1848. Arthur 
 Patrick Albert, born May 1st, 1850. Leo- 
 pold George Duncan Albert, born April 7th, 
 1853. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born 
 April 17th, 1857. 
 
 There were thirteen children born from the 
 marriage of George III. with Queen Char- 
 lotte ; and yet, of this numerous family there 
 are singularly few legitimate descendants in 
 the present generation. The sons were seven: 
 George, Prince of Wales, afterward George 
 IV. ; Frederick, Duke of York ; William, 
 Duke of Clarence, afterward William IV. ; 
 Edward, Duke of Kent; Ernest, Duke of 
 Cumberland, afterward King of Hanover; 
 Augustus, Duke of Sussex, and Adolphus, 
 the Duke of Cambridge. Of the six daugh- 
 ters, the names in the order of birth stand 
 thus : the Princess Royal, Charlotte Augusta, 
 
 who was married to the King of Wurtem- 
 burg ; the Princess Augusta, who died unmar- 
 ried ; the Princess Elizabeth, who was married 
 to the Prince of Hesse Homburg ; the Prin- 
 cess Mary, who was married to her cousin, 
 the Duke of Gloucester; and the Princesses 
 Sophia and Amelia, both of whom died un- 
 married. The last of these children on earth 
 was Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, w r ho expired 
 April 30th, 1857, at the age of eight} r -one. 
 Queen Victoria, daughter of the Duke of 
 Kent ; the King of Hanover, son of the Duke 
 of Cumberland ; and the three children of the 
 late Duke of Cambridge, — these are the only 
 lawful grand-children of the third George 
 that survive; and the Princess Charlotte, 
 daughter of George IV., is the only one who 
 has passed away. 
 
 HANSEATIC LEAGUE. In the middle 
 of the thirteenth century, the sea and land 
 were infested wi ,h pirates and robbers. The 
 German trade being exposed to accidents by 
 land and sea, Hamburg and Lubeck, in the 
 year 1241, entered into a confederacy in which 
 they agreed to defend each other from all 
 attacks and from every act of violence. This 
 league was soon after joined by Brunswick ; 
 it was named by way of eminence, the Hanse, 
 meaning a league for mutual defense. Many 
 other towns joined in a short time. In 
 1260 a meeting of the members was held 
 at Lubeck, and continued there every three 
 years. In the fourteenth century, this league 
 attained everywhere a high political import- 
 ance, and enjoyed extensive and uncommon 
 privileges, till at last it became the mistress 
 of lands and seas and crowns. So it contin- 
 ued for a length of time, till the traveling 
 becoming more secure, and the circumstan- 
 ces that gave it rise being changed, the Han- 
 seatic League began to fall. The last diet 
 was held at Lubeck in 1630. The largest 
 number of the Hanse towns was eighty-five. 
 
 HARDICANUTE, son of Canute and Em- 
 ma, and the opponent of Harold, filled the 
 thrones of England and Denmark for a short 
 time. He made himself odious by the impo- 
 sition of taxes, and died of repletion at the 
 nuptials of a Danish lord in 1041. 
 
 HARLEY, Robert, Earl of Oxford and 
 Mortimer, a distinguished statesman in the 
 time of Queen Anne, was born in 1661. He 
 was impeached in 1715, on suspicion of favor- 
 
 11 AR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 889 
 
 ing the restoration of the exiled Stuarts, and 
 was confined in the Tower a couple of years. 
 He was finally set free, and died May 21st, 
 1724. He was a great patron of literature, 
 and by him the Harleian Library, now in the 
 British Museum, was brought together. 
 
 HAROLD I., of England, was the son of 
 Canute, by Alfwen, daughter of the Earl of 
 Southampton. He was proclaimed King of 
 England on the death of Canute in 1035, and 
 was supported by the Danes, in opposition 
 to Earl Godwin of Kent, who favored Hardi- 
 canute. He died in 1039. 
 
 HAROLD IT., son of Earl Godwin, usurped 
 the English throne against Edgar, after the 
 death of Edward the Confessor, 1066. He 
 was defeated and slain in the fatal battle of 
 Hastings, Oct. 14th, 1066. 
 
 HARO UN al Rasciiid was one of the most 
 celebrated of the Saracenic caliphs ; the ter- 
 ritories which he governed extended from 
 Egypt to Khorassan. He was no less distin- 
 guished for his taste, and the encouragement 
 he afforded to literature and the arts, than 
 for his power. He was the second son of 
 the Caliph Mahadi, and succeeded his elder 
 brother, Hadi, a.d. 786. He differed in so 
 many respects from the despots of the east, 
 that he obtained the name of al Raschid, ‘the 
 just.’ The caliph was fond of personally 
 ascertaining the condition of his people, when, 
 rid of the dazzling attributes of rank, he feared 
 no concealment on their part. Many instan- 
 ces of the wisdom and justice of his decisions 
 have come down to us. A merchant, having 
 lost a purse containing a large sum of money, 
 caused the loss to be proclaimed, with an 
 accurate description of the purse and the 
 value of its contents, offering a large reward 
 to the person who should find and restore it. 
 After some days had elapsed, a poor laborer 
 presented himself before ar magistrate with 
 the purse, and claimed of the merchant (who 
 was summoned) the reward which belonged 
 to him. The merchant, rejoiced at finding his 
 money, thought to avoid payment of the 
 reward by declaring that the purse contained, 
 in addition to the money, an emerald of great 
 value, which the finder must be compelled to 
 restore. The poor laborer was overwhelmed 
 by this assertion, and the magistrate appeared 
 at a loss, but the caliph, who was present in 
 disguise, advanced and decided the case. 
 
 “Since,” said he, “the merchant declares 
 that the purse which he lost contained a sum 
 of money and an emerald, and since the finder 
 of this purse swears, and the seal upon the 
 purse proves, that he has taken no precious 
 gem, this can not be the purse which the mer- 
 chant has lost. Let, then, its present holder 
 endeavor to discover the real owner, and, 
 (ailing to do so, appropriate the prize ; and let 
 the merchant make diligent search for the 
 money and the emerald which he has lost ; 
 the present property being, as he has proved, 
 none of his.” 
 
 Haroun was an ardent lover of learning, 
 and caused it to be disseminated throughout 
 his realms. He was a warm admirer of the 
 ancient classics, and translations of the Iliad 
 and Odyssey, with other works of antiquity, 
 made his people acquainted with the beauties 
 of Greek and Roman literature. He invaded 
 the Greek empire no fewer than eight times, 
 conquering in 802 the Emperor Nicephorus, 
 who had refused to pay him the customary 
 tribute. The Greek monarch was compelled 
 to pay a heavier tribute to the caliph, and 
 promise not to rebuild the frontier towns 
 which hacf been ruined and plundered. The 
 caliph’s destruction of the family of the Bar- 
 mecides displays the stern resolution of a 
 despot. He had experienced the care of 
 Yahia, the head of the Barmecide famity, who 
 had superintended his education ; the eldest 
 of Yahia’s sons was a general who had served 
 his country well ; the second was Giafar, the 
 caliph’s prime vizier, and the two other sons 
 were in responsible and dignified stations. 
 The Barmecides were in favor with all classes, 
 and Giafar stood high in the graces of the 
 caliph. Indeed, so warmly attached was the 
 latter to the vizier, that, for the sake of enjoy- 
 ing his company with that of his beloved 
 sister Abassa, he united them in marriage, 
 but placed capricious restrictions upon their 
 intimacy. On the disobedience of the pair, 
 all the violent passions .of the caliph were 
 aroused. He publicly sacrificed Giafar to his 
 resentment, and impoverished the whole fam- 
 ily. Haroun, at the height of splendor and 
 fame, sent an embassy to the Emperor Char- 
 lemagne, bearing, among other presents, a 
 water-clock, an elephant, and the keys of the 
 holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. The caliph was 
 seized with a mortal illness while preparing 
 
 HAR 
 
390 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to depart upon a military expedition, and 
 died at Tous, in Khorassan, a.d. 809, in the 
 forty-seventh year of his age, and the twenty- 
 third of his reign. No other of the Saracenic 
 caliphs ever attained the height of power 
 and popularity which Haroun al Raschid 
 gained, and although some of his acts are 
 inexcusable, yet considering the examples 
 furnished by his age, and the- preceding, we 
 can not withhold from him a large share of 
 praise. Haroun is one of those characters 
 which are equally the delight of history and 
 romance, and while the graver acts of his 
 reign employ the pen of the rigid annalist, 
 his varied adventures are themes for the gay 
 eloquence of such works as the “Arabian 
 Nights’ Entertainments.” 
 
 HARPER, Robert Goodloe, was born near 
 Fredericksburg, Va., of poor parents. He 
 served a short time in a troop of light horse, 
 but he soon withdrew from the service for 
 the purpose of completing his education. 
 He entered Princeton College, and while dis- 
 tinguishing himself in the upper classes, he 
 was employed in the instruction of the lower. 
 After leaving college he went to Charleston, 
 S. C., where he studied law, but soon retired 
 to an interior district to practice. Some 
 essays in a newspaper gave a favorable idea 
 of his talents and principles ; he was elected 
 to the legislature, arid soon after to Congress. 
 In 1801 he resumed the practice of law in 
 Baltimore, having married the daughter of 
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton. He defended 
 Judge Chase on his impeachment. He was 
 afterward senator in Congress, but his pro- 
 fessional duties compelled him to resign. 
 He died suddenly on the 15th of January, 
 1825, aged sixty. 
 
 HARRIS, John, the first compiler of a dic- 
 tionary of arts and sciences in England, died 
 a beggar, 1719, aged forty-nine. 
 
 HARRISON, Benjamin, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, born in Berke- 
 ley, Virginia. He was educated at William 
 and Mary College, and began his public career 
 in the Virginia assembly in 1764. From 1774 
 to 1777 he was a delegate to Congress, chair- 
 man of the board of war, speaker of the 
 house of burgesses, and governor of Virginia 
 from 1782 to 1784; he was extremely popu- 
 lar and useful. He died in April, 1791. 
 
 HARRISON, William Henry, the youngest 
 
 son of Benjamin Harrison (above), w r as born 
 on the 9th of February, 1773, at Berkeley in 
 Charles City county, Virginia, about twenty- 
 five miles below Richmond. His father was 
 a descendant of the great General Harrison 
 who held a commission under Cromwell. 
 His mother was Elizabeth Bassett, a niece of 
 the wife of General Washington. At the time 
 of Benjamin Harrison’s death, in 1791, his 
 estate having become embarrassed in the pub- 
 lic service, William Henry was at Hampden 
 Sidney College, qualifying himself for the 
 study of medicine, but when the news of the 
 Indian outrages on the frontiers reached Vir- 
 ginia, he determined to enter the army. This 
 resolution, which was opposed by his guard- 
 ian, the celebrated financier Robert Morris, 
 was warmly approved by the illustrious 
 Washington, who gave him the commission 
 of ensign in the first regiment of artillery, 
 then stationed at Fort Washington on the 
 Ohio, near the spot where Cincinnati now 
 stands. Just after he arrived at the post, the 
 news of Gen. St. Clair’s defeat by the Indians 
 on the Wabash reached it, and though he 
 was urged to relinquish his new profession, 
 on the grounds of the extreme hardships and 
 deprivations of the service, and his youth and 
 apparently slender constitution, he promptly 
 and decidedly rejected the advice. Soon after, 
 he was intrusted with the command of the 
 escort of a train of pack-horses, destined to 
 furnish supplies to Fort Hamilton on the 
 Miami, twenty or thirty miles north of Fort 
 Washington. This service required especial 
 prudence and sagacity, and was performed 
 by him, though a mere youth, in such a 
 manner as to obtain the warm commendation 
 of Gen. St. Clair. 
 
 Judge Burnet, in his “Transactions of the 
 Historical Society of Ohio,” speaks thus of 
 this circumstance: “Soon after the battle 
 and defeat of St. Clair, which was on the 4th 
 of November, 1791, General Harrison, then 
 a subaltern, was sent in command of a small 
 detachment from Fort Washington to Forts 
 Hamilton and Jefferson. It was in the midst 
 of one of the severest winters ever known in 
 this country. Subalterns, as you know, 
 were not permitted to march on horseback. 
 Of course this youthful hero, not then twenty 
 years of age, marched on foot, through the 
 snow, at the head of his detachment, 'vith 
 
 HAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 391 
 
 his knapsajck on his back ; and although the 
 woods were swarming with Indians, who had 
 been released from the necessity of watching 
 the army, he marched to the place of his des- 
 tination in safety, after as severe an exposure 
 to frost, fatigue, and danger as was endured 
 at an.y time during the war.” 
 
 From this time forward, the best years of 
 his life were devoted to his country. In 1792 
 he was made a lieutenant, and in 1793 Gen. 
 Wayne appointed him one of his aids, which 
 he continued to be during the war. On the 
 20th of August, 1794, in marching down the 
 Maumee, Gen. Wayne with 900 men was 
 attacked by Indians to the number of 2,000, 
 and put them to flight. In his official account 
 he mentions that his “ faithful and gallant aid, 
 Lieutenant Harrison, rendered most essential 
 service, by communicating orders in every 
 direction, and by his conduct and bravery ex- 
 citing the troops to press for victory.” In 
 August, 1795, peace was concluded at Green- 
 ville. Soon after, Harrison was promoted to 
 the rank of captain, and placed in command 
 of Fort Washington. 
 
 When Gen. Wayne died in 1797, Capt. 
 Harrison resigned his commission, and was 
 made secretary of the North-western Terri- 
 tory, and ex officio lieutenant-governor, Gen. 
 St. Clair being governor. This office he filled 
 with so much approbation, that he was chosen 
 by the inhabitants their first delegate to Con- 
 gress. His popularity was increased by his 
 wish that the public lands should be sold in 
 small quantities to actual settlers, instead of 
 permitting speculators to purchase them in 
 large ones, which object he accomplished, as 
 well as a reform in the method of locating 
 military land-warrants. The North-west Ter- 
 ritory being divided into two, Ohio and Indi- 
 ana, he was made governor of the latter in 
 1799, in which office his power was very 
 extended, including that of superintendent of 
 Indian affairs, and commissioner for treating 
 with the Indians. The territory included 
 the present states of Indiana, Illinois, Michi- 
 gan, and Wisconsin ; the seat of govern- 
 ment was at Vincennes, a village on the 
 Wabash. Harrison’s conduct as governor 
 was held in high estimation, and Adams, 
 Jefferson, and Madison successively appointed 
 him for a period of thirteen years. 
 
 In 1806, through the intrigues of two 
 
 celebrated chiefs of the Shawnee tribe, 
 Tecumseh and his brother the Prophet, the 
 Indians began again to be troublesome. 
 Their hostile demonstrations gradually in- 
 creased. Gov. Harrison endeavored, unsuc- 
 cessfully, to conciliate them. The brothers, 
 incited by British emissaries, were untiring 
 in their endeavors for a league of all the 
 tribes against the whites, till they had about 
 them a thousand warriors. These committed 
 atrocious depredations along the frontier, till 
 even the governor’s house was scarcely con- 
 sidered, safe from their attacks. In Septem- 
 ber, 1809, a council convened at Fort Wayne, 
 at which Gov. Harrison negotiated with the 
 Miamies, Delawares, Pottawatomies, and 
 Kickapoos, a large purchase of land. Tecum- 
 seh was much dissatisfied with this treaty 
 when he heard of it, and he threatened the 
 lives of some of the chiefs by whom it had 
 been concluded. Hearing this, Harrison 
 invited him to come to Vincennes, stipulating 
 that he should not bring with him more than 
 thirty warriors. But, alleging suspicion of 
 treachery from the Americans, he came with 
 more than four hundred, armed. He also 
 refused to hold the conference' at the ap- 
 pointed place, which was under the portico 
 of the governor’s house, insisting that it 
 should be in a neighboring grove. The coun- 
 cil was held August 12th, 1810. Tecumseff 
 complained of injustice that Indians had re- 
 ceived. To an explanation from Harrison, 
 he fiercely shouted, “ It is false ! ” His war- 
 riors sprang to their feet and brandished their 
 clubs and tomahawks. They eyed the gov- 
 ernor with ferocious gaze. His military escort 
 numbered but twelve men, and they were 
 cut off from him by the threatening Indians. 
 They advanced, and would have fired upon 
 the maddened savages, had not Harrison re- 
 strained them. The moment was perilous, 
 but the cool bravery of the governor was 
 equal to it. In a calm, firm voice, he said to 
 Tecumseh, “You are a bad man: I will have 
 no further talk with you. You must now 
 take your departure from these settlements, 
 and hasten immediately to your camp.” 
 Tecumseh was cowed by the governor’s 
 dauntless bearing, and the next day he 
 apologized for his insolence. No satisfactory 
 result came of the council ; and Tecumseh 
 withdrew to Tippecanoe, the residence of 
 
 HAR 
 
592 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the Prophet, and the brothers continued their 
 machinations. A blow against the ruthless 
 marauders became unavoidable, and the for* 
 bearance of the American government was at 
 last exhausted. The next year Gov. Har- 
 rison received orders to march against the 
 Prophet’s town. Hastily assembling a force 
 of 900 men, he advanced, and on the 9th of 
 November, 1811, the famous battle of Tippe- 
 canoe was fought. In this fierce contest, the 
 cool courage of Harrison was gallantly con- 
 spicuous ; victory crowned the bravery of 
 himself and his men. Notwithstanding this 
 decisive blow, Tecumseh and the Prophet con- 
 tinued busy in mischief, and when war broke 
 out with England in 1812, their activity was 
 redoubled. Gov. Harrison received a briga- 
 dier-general’s commission in the army of the 
 United States, and President Madison in- 
 vested him with the command of the north- 
 western army, nominally consisting of ten 
 thousand men, but undisciplined, destitute, 
 and scattered over a wide region. The trust 
 was as trying as it was important. The 
 marked points of the campaign of 1813 un- 
 der his direction, were the glorious defense 
 of Fort Meigs, and the important and deci- 
 sive victory won in the battle of the Thames, 
 the 5th of October, in which Tecumseh fell, 
 and by which the north-western frontier was 
 relieved from danger. Harrison had received 
 the promotion of major-general. The jeal- 
 ousy of Gen. Armstrong, the secretary of 
 war, ousted him from active service, and led 
 him to tender his resignation early in 1814. 
 
 From 1816 to 1819 he was a representative 
 in Congress from Ohio. He was earnest for 
 the recognition of the South American repub- 
 lics. He assiduously and successfully labored 
 for the relief of the veterans who had served 
 in the war of the Revolution, as well as those 
 who had been wounded or otherwise disabled 
 in the late war with Great Britain. In 1825 
 he took his seat as United States senator from 
 Ohio. He supported the administration of 
 John Quincy Adams, and in 1828 that presi- 
 dent appointed him minister to the South 
 American republic of Colombia. His mis- 
 sion was cut short by the accession of Gen. 
 Jackson, one of whose first acts was his re- 
 call. After his return he led a quiet life upon 
 his little farm at North Bend, on the Ohio 
 River a few miles below Cincinnati. He had 
 
 given his life to his country’s service, not te 
 the accumulation of fortune, and his means 
 were small. He took the office of clerk to 
 the court of Hamilton county, and this mod- 
 est station he held till 1840, when the people 
 called him to the highest office in their gift. 
 
 The joy with which his elevation to the 
 executive was hailed soon changed to a na- 
 tion’s mourning. The cares of office, and 
 the devotion with which he entered into its. 
 onerous duties, wore heavily upon him; a 
 severe cold was followed by an attack of 
 bilious pleurisy that baffled medical skill, and 
 his useful and honorable life closed April 4th, 
 1841, just one month from the day of his in- 
 auguration. Party distinctions were merged 
 in sorrow for his untimely decease, and 
 throughout the land funeral honors were 
 paid to his memory. Minute guns were 
 fired, bells were tolled, and resolutions ex- 
 pressive of the most profound regret were 
 adopted in almost every town and village 
 throughout the Union. It being the first 
 instance of the death of a chief magistrate 
 while occupying the presidential chair, the 
 impression made was doubly strong. The 
 funeral ceremonies at Washington were very 
 impressive. Mr. Tyler, who as vice presi- 
 dent succeeded to the office of chief magis- 
 trate, issued a recommendation to the people 
 of the Union to observe the 14th of May as 
 a day of fasting and humiliation, in conse- 
 quence of the affliction the nation had sus- 
 tained. It was almost unanimously observed, 
 and very few clergymen in the country failed 
 to improve the opportunity to impress upon 
 the minds of their hearers the weight of our 
 national sins, and the solemn lesson given 
 them of the vanity of all earthly distinctions 
 and honors. Ohio could not relinquish her 
 claim to the remains of one who, from the 
 age of nineteen, had been devoted to her best 
 interests. A committee of her most respect- 
 able inhabitants went on to Washington, 
 and were permitted to convey them to North 
 Bend, where, on the mound under which 
 they are deposited, a modest tomb denotes to 
 the eye of the traveler sailing upon the Ohio, 
 the spot where rests the patriot, hero, and 
 Christian. 
 
 In person General Harrison was tall and 
 slender. Although his constitution was not 
 the most robust, habitual activity and tem- 
 
 HAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 393 
 
 perance secured him a bodily vigor seldom 
 surpassed. He was of generous disposition, 
 and easy and unostentatious in manners. At 
 the age of twenty-one, while stationed as a 
 captain at Fort Washington (where the 
 queenly city of Cincinnati now stands), he 
 married Anna, the daughter of John Cleves 
 Symmes, the founder of the Miami settle- 
 ments. Four sons and a daughter died be- 
 fore him ; Mrs. Harrison, a son, and three 
 daughters survived. 
 
 HART, John, a signer of the Declaration of 
 Independence, was born at Hopewell, N. J., 
 about 1715. He tilled the earth, and his mind 
 was strong, though little cultivated by letters. 
 He was a member of the congress of 1774, 
 and soon after signing the Declaration of In- 
 dependence retired from that body. When 
 New Jersey became the theatre of war, he 
 suffered much loss at the hands of the loyal- 
 ists. He died in 1780, and was buried at Rah- 
 way, N. J. 
 
 HARTLEY, David, an eminent English 
 metaphysician, died in 1757, aged fifty-three. 
 
 HARVEY, William, M. D., the discoverer 
 of the circulation of the blood, born at Folke- 
 stone in 1578, died in London, June 3d, 1657. 
 
 HASTINGS, a borough, market town, and 
 cinque-port in Sussex, memorable for the bat- 
 tle fought in its vicinity, Oct. 14th, 1066, 
 which gave the English crown to William the 
 Conqueror. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warren, was born Dec. 6th, 
 1732, near Daylesford, in Worcestershire, and 
 Was sent to India, as a writer in the com- 
 pany’s service, in 1750. tie diligently ap- 
 plied himself to the duties of his station, and 
 in his leisure studied the oriental languages. 
 After fourteen years’ residence in Bengal he 
 returned to England; but in 1769 he went 
 out again, as second in council at Madras, 
 where he remained about two years, and 
 then removed to the presidency at Calcutta. 
 He held the post of governor-general till 
 
 1785. For his bold and unscrupulous meas- 
 ures against Hyder Ali, and in the various 
 dangerous exigencies of his administration, 
 grave charges of injustice, cruelty, and op- 
 pression were brought against him in parlia- 
 ment, supported by such men as Fox, Burke, 
 and Sheridan. He returned to England in 
 
 1786, and an impeachment followed. 
 
 The trial began on the 13th of February, 
 
 1788; in the words of Macaulay, the high 
 court of parliament was to sit according to 
 forms handed down from the days of the 
 Plantagenets, on an Englishman accused of 
 exercising tyranny over the lord of the holy 
 city of Benares, and the ladies of the princely 
 house of Oude. The place was worthy of 
 such a trial. It was the great hall of William 
 Rufus ; the hall which had resounded with 
 acclamations at the inauguration of thirty 
 kings ; the hall which had witnessed the just 
 sentence of Bacon, and the just absolution 
 of Somers ; thediall where the eloquence of 
 Strafford had for a moment awed and melted 
 a victorious party, inflamed with just resent- 
 ment ; the hall where Charles had confronted 
 the high court of justice, with the placid 
 courage that has half redeemed his fame. 
 Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. 
 The avenues were lined with grenadiers. 
 The streets were kept clear by cavalry. The 
 peers, robed in gold and ermine, were mar- 
 shaled by garter king-at-arms. The judges, 
 in their vestments of state, attended to give 
 advice on points of law. Near a hundred 
 and seventy lords, three-fourths of the upper 
 house, walked in solemn order from their 
 usual place of assembling to the tribunal. 
 The junior baron present led the way, George 
 Eliot, Lord Heathfield, recently ennobled for 
 his memorable defense of Gibraltar against 
 the fleets and armies of France and Spain. 
 The long procession was closed by the Duke 
 of Norfolk, earl marshal of the realm, by the 
 great dignitaries, and by the brothers and 
 sons of the king. 
 
 The gray old walls were hung with scarlet. 
 The long galleries were crowded by an audi- 
 ence such as has rarely excited the fears or 
 the emulation of an orator. ‘ There were 
 gathered together from all parts of a great, 
 free, enlightened, and prosperous empire, 
 grace and female loveliness, wit and learning, 
 the representatives of every science and of 
 every art. There were seated round the 
 queen the fair-haired young daughters of the 
 house of Brunswick. There the ambassadors 
 of great kings and commonwealths gazed with 
 admiration on a spectacle which no other 
 country in the world could present. There 
 Siddons, in the prime of her majestic beauty, 
 looked with emotion on a scene surpassing 
 all the imitations of the stage. There Gib- 
 
 HAS 
 
394 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 bon, the historian of the Roman empire, 
 thought of the days when Cicero pleaded the 
 cause of Sicily against Yerres, and when, 
 before a senate that still retained some show 
 of freedom, Tacitus thundered against the 
 oppressor of Africa. The spectacle had 
 allured Reynolds from that easel which has 
 preserved the thoughtful foreheads of so 
 many writers and statesmen, and the sweet 
 smiles of so many noble matrons. There 
 appeared the voluptuous charms of Mrs. 
 Fitzherbert, to whom the heir of the throne 
 had in secret plighted his fai^h. There were 
 the members of that brilliant society which 
 quoted, criticised, and exchanged repartees, 
 under the rich peacock hangings of Mrs. 
 Montague. And there the ladies, whose lips, 
 more persuasive than those of Fox himself, 
 had carried the Westminster election against 
 palace and treasury, shone round Georgiana, 
 Duchess of Devonshire. 
 
 The serjeants made proclamation. Hast- 
 ings advanced to the bar, and bent his knee. 
 The culprit was indeed not unworthy of that 
 great presence. He had ruled an extensive 
 and populous country, had made laws and 
 treaties, had sent forth armies, had set up 
 and pulled down princes. And in his high 
 place he had so borne himself, that all had 
 feared him, that most had loved him, and 
 that hatred itself could deny him no title to 
 glory, except virtue. He looked like a great 
 man, and not like a bad man. A person 
 small and emaciated; yet deriving dignity 
 from a carriage which, while it indicated 
 deference to the court, indicated also habitual 
 self-possession and self-respect; a high and 
 intellectual forehead ; a brow pensive, but not 
 gloomy ; a mouth of inflexible decision ; a 
 face pale and worn, but serene, — such was 
 the aspect with which the great proconsul 
 presented himself to his judges. His counsel 
 accompanied him ; men all of whom were 
 afterward raised by their talents and learning 
 to the highest posts in their profession — the 
 bold and strong-minded Law, afterward chief- 
 justice of the king’s bench ; the more hu- 
 mane and eloquent Dallas, afterward chief- 
 justice of the common pleas ; and Plomer, 
 who, nearly twenty years later, successfully 
 conducted in the same high court the defense 
 of Lord Melville, and subsequently became 
 vice-chancellor and master of the rolls. 
 
 But neither the culprit nor his advocates 
 attracted so much notice as his accusers. In 
 the midst of the blaze of red drapery, a 
 space had been fitted up with green benches 
 and tables for the Commons. The managers, 
 with Burke at their head, appeared in full 
 dress. The collectors of gossip did not fail 
 to remark that even Fox, generally so regard- 
 less of his appearance, had paid to the illus- 
 trious tribunal the compliment of wearing a 
 bag and sword. Pitt had refused to be one 
 of the conductors of the impeachment ; and 
 his commanding, copious, and sonorous elo- 
 quence was wanting to that great muster of 
 various talents. Age and blindness had un- 
 fitted Lord North for the duties of a public 
 prosecutor ; and his friends were left without 
 his excellent sense, his tact, and his urbanity. 
 But in spite of the absence of these two dis- 
 tinguished members of the lower house, the 
 box in which the managers stood contained 
 an array of speakers such as perhaps had 
 not appeared together since the great age of 
 Athenian eloquence. There were Fox and 
 Sheridan, the English Demosthenes and the 
 English Hyperides. There was Burke, igno- 
 ant, indeed, or negligent, of the art of adapt- 
 ing his reasonings and his style to the 
 capacity and taste of his hearers, but in 
 amplitude of comprehension and richness of 
 imagination superior to every other orator, 
 ancient or modern. There, with eyes rever- 
 ently fixed on Burke, appeared the finest 
 gentleman of the age, his form developed by 
 every manly exercise, his face beaming with 
 intelligence and spirit — the ingenious, the 
 chivalrous, the high-souled Windham. 
 
 The charges and the answers of Hastings 
 were first read. The ceremony occupied two 
 whole days, and was rendered less tedious 
 than it would otherwise have been, by the 
 silver voice and just emphasis of Cowper, the 
 clerk of the court, a near relation to the 
 amiable poet. On the third day, Burke rose. 
 Four sittings were occupied by his opening 
 speech, which was intended to be a general 
 introduction to all the charges. With an 
 exuberance of thought and a splendor of dic- 
 tion which more than satisfied the highly 
 raised expectation of the audience, he de- 
 scribed the character and institutions of the 
 natives of India, recounted the circumstances 
 in which the Asiatic empire of Britain had 
 
 HAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 395 
 
 originated, and set forth the constitution of 
 the company and of the English presidencies. 
 Having thus attempted to. communicate to 
 his hearers an idea of eastern society as vivid 
 as that which existed in his own mind, he 
 proceeded to arraign the administration of 
 Hastings, as systematically conducted in defi- 
 ance of morality and public law. The energy 
 and pathos of the great orator extorted ex- 
 pressions of unwonted admiration from the 
 stern and hostile chancellor [Lord Thurlow], 
 and, for a moment, seemed to pierce the 
 resolute heart of the defendant. The ladies 
 in the galleries, unaccustomed to such dis- 
 plays of eloquence, excited by the solemnity 
 of the occasion, and perhaps not unwilling to 
 display their taste and sensibility, were in a 
 state of uncontrollable emotion. Handker- 
 chiefs were pulled out ; smelling-bottles 
 were handed round; hysterical cries and 
 sobs were heard; and Mrs. Sheridan was 
 carried out in a fit. At length the orator 
 concluded. Raising his voice, till the old 
 arches of Irish oak resounded, “Therefore,” 
 said he, “hath it with all confidence been 
 ordered by the Commons of Great Britain, 
 that I impeach Warren Hastings of high 
 crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach him 
 in the name of the Commons’ house of par- 
 liament, whose trust he has betrayed. I im- 
 peach him in the name of the English nation, 
 whose ancient honors he has sullied. I im- 
 peach him in the name of the people of India, 
 whose rights he has trodden under foot, and 
 whose country he has turned into a desert. 
 Lastly, in the name of human nature itself, 
 in the name of both sexes, in the name of 
 every age, in the name of every rank, I im- 
 peach the common oppressor of all.” 
 
 The trial thus strikingly commenced was 
 for a time the great event of interest for the 
 English public. With the brilliant speech 
 of Sheridan in June, the excitement culmin- 
 ated ; he occupied two whole days, and the 
 hall was crowded to suffocation, some paying 
 even fifty guineas for a place to hear him. 
 The spectacle had now lost the charm of nov- 
 elty ; the great displays of rhetoric were 
 over ; there remained only dry details of evi- 
 dence, and bickerings between the managers 
 of the impeachment and the counsel for the 
 defense. More stirring occurrences diverted 
 attention from Indian affairs, and at times 
 
 the impeachment was almost forgotten. A 
 well constituted tribunal, sitting regularly 
 six days in the week, would have finished 
 the trial in less than three months. But it 
 was impracticable for the house of lords to 
 give more than a few days to the impeach- 
 ment, during each session of parliament ; the 
 trial was not terminated till the spring of 
 1795. Hastings was then acquitted. But 
 he was a ruined man ; the legal expenses of 
 his defense had been enormous, the other 
 outlays perhaps still larger. He was par- 
 tially reimbursed by an annuity which his 
 friends in the East India Company settled 
 upon him, and by other reward that they 
 bestowed upon him. The last twenty-four 
 years of his life were chiefly spent in retire- 
 ment at Daylesford, the manor of his ancestors, 
 which, from boyhood, it had been his desire 
 to recover. He died Aug. 22d, 1818. 
 
 HAUSER, Caspar, a personage whose his- 
 tory is enveloped in mystery, died at Anspach, 
 Bavaria, of wounds inflicted by an unknown 
 assassin, Dec. 17th, 1833. On the 26th of 
 May, 1828, a youth, apparently about sixteen 
 or seventeen years of age, was found at one 
 of the gates of Nuremberg; he was unable to 
 give any account of himself, nor could it be 
 discovered who brought him there, whence 
 he came, or who he was. He was four feet 
 and nine inches in height ; was very pale ; 
 had a short delicate beard on his chin and 
 upper lip; his limbs were slender; his feet 
 bore no marks of having been confined in 
 shoes ; he scarcely knew how to use his fin- 
 gers or hands ; and his attempts to walk re- 
 sembled the first efforts of a child. He under- 
 stood nothing that was said to him, and only 
 replied in a few words of unintelligible gib- 
 berish; his countenance was expressive of 
 gross stupidity. He held in his hand a letter 
 addressed to the captain of one of the cavalry 
 companies of Nuremberg, dated “Bavarian 
 frontiers ; place nameless.” Its purport was 
 that the bearer had been left with the writer, 
 who was a poor laborer, in October, 1812, 
 and who, not knowing his parents, had 
 brought him up in his house, without allowing 
 him to stir out of it. A note accompanying 
 the letter contained these words : “ His father 
 was one of the light cavalry ; send him, when 
 he is seventeen years old, to Nuremberg, for 
 his father was stationed there. He was born 
 
 HAU 
 
396 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 April 30th, 1812. I am a poor girl, and can 
 not support him ; his father is dead.” A pen 
 being put into his hands, he wrote in plain 
 letters Caspar Hauser. He appeared to be 
 hungry and thirsty, but manifested great 
 aversion to eating or drinking anything that 
 was offered to him except bread arid water. 
 He fell into the hands of persons who treated 
 him kindly, and taught him the use of lan- 
 guage ; and he manifested the most amiable 
 and grateful disposition. But he could give 
 no account of himself, except that, as far back 
 as he could remember, he had always inhab- 
 ited a small cell, continually seated on the 
 ground, with his feet naked, and having no 
 covering except a shirt and trousers, and he 
 had never seen the sky. When he awoke 
 .from sleep he was accustomed to find near 
 him some bread and a pitcher of water ; but 
 he never saw the face of the person who 
 brought them ; and it was at Nuremberg that 
 he first learnt there were other living crea- 
 tures besides himself and the man with whom 
 he had always been. Previous to his death 
 Hauser resided at Anspach, where he had a 
 little employment in the registrar-office, and 
 Lord Stanhope had also provided for his sup- 
 port. Some time before his assassination, an 
 ineffectual attempt had been made upon his 
 life, by the same assassin, it is supposed, that 
 finally inflicted the fatal blow with a dagger. 
 
 HAVELOCK, Sir Henry, was born at 
 Bishopwearmouth in 1795, and educated at 
 the Charter House. About 1813, in conse- 
 quence of adverse fortune, Ingress Park, his 
 father’s property in Kent, was sold to govern- 
 ment; Havelock was entered at the Middle 
 Temple, and attended the lectures of Chitty, 
 the eminent special pleader, where his most 
 intimate associate was Sir Thomas Talfourd, 
 the author of “Ion.” An elder brother had 
 distinguished himself in the Peninsular war 
 and at Waterloo, and Henry, yielding to the 
 military propensities of his family, endeavored 
 to obtain a commission. A month after 
 Waterloo, he was appointed second lieutenant 
 in the rifle brigade. 
 
 Havelock served for eight years in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, and embarked for India 
 in 1823. Next year the first Burmese war 
 broke out ; he was present at the actions of 
 Napadee, Patanagoh, and Paghan. At the 
 close of the war he was associated with Cap- 
 
 tain Lumsden and Dr. Knox on a mission to 
 the court of Ava, and had an audience of the 
 “Golden Foot,” when the treaty of Yandaboo 
 was signed. In 1827 he published the “His- 
 tory of the Ava Campaigns.” In 1838 he 
 was promoted to a captaincy, after having 
 served twenty-three years as a subaltern. An 
 army was now collected for the invasion of 
 Afghanistan, and Havelock accompanied it on 
 the staff of Sir Willoughby Cotton. He went 
 through the first Afghan campaign, was pres- 
 ent at the storming of Ghuznee and the oc- 
 cupation of Cabul, and then returned to India 
 with Sir Willoughby Cotton. Having ob- 
 tained leave to visit the presidency, he pre- 
 pared a “Memoir of the Afghan Campaign,” 
 which was soon after printed in London. He 
 returned to the Punjaub in charge of a detach- 
 ment, and was placed on the staff of Gen. 
 Elphinstone, as Persian interpreter. 
 
 When the Eastern Ghilzies, having lisen, 
 blockaded Cabul, Havelock was sent to join 
 Sir Robert Sale, then marching back to India, 
 and was present at the forcing of the Khoord 
 Cabul pass, at the action of Tezeen, and all 
 the other engagements of that force till it 
 reached Jellalabad. In the final attack on 
 Mahomed Akbar, in April, 1842, which obliged 
 that chief to raise the siege, Havelock, com- 
 manded the right column, and defeated him 
 before the other columns could come up. For 
 this he was promoted to a brevet majority, 
 and was made companion of the bath. He 
 was then nominated Persian interpreter to 
 General Pollock, and was present at the action 
 of Mamoo Keil, and the second engagement at 
 Tezeen. He proceeded with Sir John McCas- 
 kill’s force into the Kohistan, and had an im- 
 portant share in the brilliant affair at Istaliff. 
 Next year he was promoted to a regimental 
 majority, and nominated Persian interpreter 
 to the commander-in-chief, Sir Hugh Gough. 
 At the close of 1843 he accompanied the army 
 to Gwalior, and was engaged in the battle of 
 Maharajore. In 1844 he was promoted to the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel by brevet. In 1 845 
 he proceeded with the army to meet the inva- 
 sion of the Sikhs, and was actively engaged in 
 the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah, and So- 
 braon. On the conclusion of the Sutlej cam- 
 paign he was appointed deputy adjutant-gen- 
 eral of the queen’s troops at Bombay. The 
 second Sikh war now broke out, and his elder 
 
 HAV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 397 
 
 brother, Coi. William Havelock, was killed at 
 Kamnuggur. His own regiment having been 
 ordered into the field, he quitted his staff* em- 
 ployment at Bombay, in order to join it, and 
 had proceeded as far as Indore when his fur- 
 ther progress was countermanded, and he re- 
 turned to his post. 
 
 Twenty-five years of incessant and laborious 
 service now began to tell on his constitution, 
 and his medical adviser in 1849 sent him to 
 Europe for two years, for the restoration of 
 his health. He returned to Bombay in 1851, 
 and was soon after made brevet-colonel, and 
 appointed, through the kindness of Lord Har- 
 dinge, by whose side he had fought in the 
 three battles of the Sutlej, quartermaster-gen- 
 eral, and then adjutant-general, of the queen’s 
 troops in India. On the dispatch of the ex- 
 pedition to Persia, he was appointed to the 
 second division, and commanded the troops at 
 Mohammerah, the glory of which action was, 
 however, reserved for the naval force. On 
 the conclusion of peace he returned to Bom- 
 bay, and embarked in the Erin for Calcutta, 
 in which vessel he was wrecked, in 1857, off* 
 the coast of Ceylon. Five days after, he ob- 
 tained a passage in the Fire Queen, and on 
 reaching Calcutta, was immediately sent up 
 to Allahabad as brigadier-general, to command 
 the movable column, to act against the insur- 
 gent sepoys. 
 
 He first attacked the mutineers at Futty- 
 pore, on the 12th of July; on the 15th, at 
 Asung, and at Pandoo Nuddee; on the 16th 
 at Cawnpore, he had a horse shot under him, 
 and the enemy lost twenty-three guns. Ad- 
 vancing from Cawnpore on the 29th, he cap- 
 tured Oonao, Busserut Gunge, and nineteen 
 guns. This position he was obliged to give 
 up, but he retook it on the 5th of August, 
 inflicting great slaughter. On the 12th of 
 August he again defeated the mutineers, and 
 on the 16th attacked them at Bithoor. Event- 
 ually receiving reinforcements under Sir James 
 Outram, he entered Lucknow on the 25th of 
 September, and held his ground there until 
 the garrison was finally relieved by Sir Colin 
 Campbell on the 17th of November. The 
 severe toils of, the campaign had told upon 
 the gallant general’s health ; he died on the 
 24th of November, 1857. Havelock was as 
 conspicuous for his piety as for his briery. 
 
 HAWKE, Lord Edward, a gallant English 
 
 admiral, the son of a barrister, was born in 
 1713, and entered the naval service as a mid- 
 shipman at the age of twelve. In 1744 he 
 distinguished himself in the action of Toulon. 
 November 20th, 1759, he gained a great vic- 
 tory over the French fleet commanded by Con- 
 flans in-fQuiberon Bay, though it was a lee 
 shore, and the sea ran high in the midst of a 
 storm. The projected invasion of England 
 was thus defeated. He was raised to the 
 peerage in 1776, a few years after he had been 
 appointed first lord of the admiralty. He died 
 Oct. 14th, 1781. 
 
 HAYDN, Francis Josepii, an eminent com- 
 poser, the author of the great oratorio of the 
 “ Creation,” was born near Vienna, in March, 
 1732. He visited England, but spent most of 
 bis life at Vienna, near which place he died, 
 May 31st, 1809. 
 
 HAYNE, Isaac, a native of South Carolina, 
 distinguished himself by his services during 
 the Revolution. After the capture of Charles- 
 ton, he took an oath of allegiance to Great 
 Britain, with the express stipulation that he 
 should not bear arms against his country. 
 When, in violation of British promises, he 
 was summoned to join the British standard, 
 he refused, and was in consequence condemned 
 by a court of inquiry, and hanged, on the 4th 
 of August, 1781. . 
 
 HAYTI is one of the largest of the West 
 Indian islands, lying between Jamaica and 
 Porto Rico, having an area of 29,000 square 
 miles. It is sometimes called St. Domingo 
 and sometimes Hispaniola. In the centre 
 rises a lofty mountain range, its sides covered 
 with vegetation, and noble woods, and leaping 
 streams that fertilize the plains below. The 
 principal productions of the island are coffee, 
 the sugar-cane (for making rum), cotton, cat- 
 tle, and some tobacco. Here Columbus found- 
 ed his first colony, under the name of Hispan- 
 iola. After the rapacity of the Spaniards had 
 drained the gold-mines, and their cruelty had 
 extirpated the natives, St. Domingo was neg- 
 lected for the richer lands of Peru and Mexico. 
 In the time of Louis XIV. the French gained 
 the western third of the island, which in their 
 hands attained a prosperity and opulence sur- 
 passing not only the Spanish part, but the 
 whole Spanish West Indies. 
 
 When in 1791 the French revolution de- 
 clared all men free and equal, the slaves of St. 
 
398 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Domingo carried the doctrine out for them- 
 selves: they drove out their former task- 
 masters with dreadful slaughter. Toussaint 
 l’Ouverture established a republic in 1801. 
 After he had been treacherously borne off to 
 France, the negroes rallied under Dessalines, 
 who set up a military despotism and called 
 himself James I. Dessalines restored the 
 name of Hayti, by which the natives called 
 the island when Columbus discovered it. 
 After his murder in 1806, French Hispaniola 
 was divided into two states : the northern 
 coast was formed into a negro republic under 
 Christophe, who in 1811 took the title of 
 Emperor Henry I. ; the plains about Port au 
 Prince became a mulatto republic under 
 Petion. Continual war subsisted between 
 these two states. Boyer in 1813 succeeded 
 Petion as president: Christophe committed 
 suicide in 1820, and Boyer subjected not only 
 his empire, but Spanish Hispaniola also. 
 Boyer was deposed in 1844, and a struggle 
 for power ensued, which terminated in March, 
 1847, by the election of Gen. Faustin So- 
 louque as president. He declared himself, in 
 Aug. 1849, emperor. Gen. Fabre Geffrard 
 proclaimed a republic at Gonaives, Dec. 22, 
 1808, and Faustin was forced to abdicate. 
 Geffrard has since been president. The cap- 
 ital is Port-au-Prince. The eastern part of 
 the island made itself an independent repub- 
 lic (of San Domingo) under Gen. Santana, 
 Feb. 27, 1844, who, however, being gained 
 over by Spain, proclaimed, March 16, 1861, 
 that San Domingo was re-u*nited to Spain. 
 Hostilities followed, but in 1865, the Spanish 
 forces were obliged to evacuate the island 
 and it was left still free. 
 
 JIAZLITT, William, an able critic on 
 poetry, the drama, and the fine arts, was the 
 son of a Unitarian minister in Shropshire. 
 He died in London, Sept. 18th, 1830, at the 
 age of fifty-two. 
 
 HEATH, William, born at Roxbury, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1737, and died in his native 
 place, Jan. 24th, 1814, aged seventy-seven. 
 Amongst the first to take up arms in favor of 
 his insulted country, he was appointed by 
 the provincial congress of Massachusetts, in 
 1775, a brigadier-general, and was by the 
 continental congress, in 1776, raised to the 
 rank of major-general. He commanded on 
 the Hudson in 1779. He M as the last sur- 
 
 vivor of the major-generals of the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 HEBER, Reginald, was the son of a cler- 
 gyman in Cheshire. At Brazennose, Oxford, 
 he ranked high for his scholastic attainments 
 and poetical abilities. He relinquished tempt- 
 ing prospects at home to accept the arduous 
 bishopric of Calcutta, in 1823. His earnest 
 labors were cut short by an apoplectic stroke, 
 April 1st, 1826, in the forty -third year of his 
 age. 
 
 HECTOR, the brave son of Priam, King 
 of Troy, killed by Achilles. 
 
 HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, King of 
 Thrace, and second wife of Priam. She sur- 
 vived the fall of Troy but a short time, and 
 was stoned to death by the Greeks, who were 
 exasperated at her bitter reproaches. 
 
 HEGEL, George William Frederick, an 
 eminent German metaphysician, born at 
 Stuttgardt 1770, died at Berlin, Nov. 14th, 
 1831. 
 
 HEGIRA, the flight of Mohammed from 
 Mecca to Medina, from which era the Moham- 
 medans begin their computation of time. 
 They fix it on the 16th of July, a.d. 622. 
 
 HELEN, the beautiful daughter of Leda, 
 wife of Tyndarus, as it is fabled, by Jupiter, 
 who introduced himself to her notice in* the 
 form of a swan. She married Menelaus, 
 whom she forsook for Paris, son of Priam, 
 who bore her to Troy, and thus kindled 
 the flame of war between the Greeks and 
 Trojans. She was received by Menelaus 
 after the fall of Troy, but on his death was 
 murdered by Polyxo of Argos, the widow of 
 one of the warriors killed before Troy. 
 
 HELIOGABALUS. Marcus Aurelius An- 
 toninus, a Roman emperor, son of Yarius 
 Marcellus, was called Heiiogabalus,' from 
 having been a priest of the sun in Phoenicia. 
 At the age of fourteen he was invested with 
 the purple on the death of Macrinus, but his 
 cruelty and licentiousness were such that his 
 subjects rose against him, and his head was 
 severed from his body, March 10th, a.d. 222, 
 in the eighteenth year of his age. He bur- 
 thened his subjects with the most oppressive 
 taxes ; his halls were covered with carpets of 
 gold and silver tissue ; his mats were made 
 with the down of hares and the soft feathers 
 foun(^ under the wings of pari ridges. He 
 often invited the lowest of the people to share 
 
 HEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 399 
 
 his banquets, and made them sit down on 
 large bellows full of wind, which, by suddenly 
 emptying themselves, threw the guests on the 
 ground, and left them a prey to wild beasts. 
 He tied some of his favorites to a large wheel, 
 and was particularly delighted to see them 
 whirled round like Ixion, alternately sus- 
 pended in the air and plunged beneath the 
 water. 
 
 HELLE, in fable, a daughter of Athamas 
 and Nephese, who, to escape from the perse- 
 cution of her step-mother Ino, trusted herself 
 to the back of a golden ram, from which she 
 fell and was drowned in that part of the sea 
 called the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles. 
 
 HEMANS. Felicia Dorothea Browne 
 was born at Liverpool, September 25th, 1793. 
 Her union with Capt. Hemans in 1812 proved 
 an unhappy one, and they separated in 1818. 
 Her poems are marked by beautiful purity 
 of sentiment and gentle pathos. The grace- 
 ful poetess died at Dublin, May lGth, 1835. 
 
 HENGIST, the first Saxon king of Kent, 
 about the end of the fifth century. He was 
 invited to the aid of the Britons against the 
 Scots and Piets, and received from the hands 
 of Vortigern the whole of Kent, for which he 
 gave his daughter in marriage. However, he 
 leagued with the enemies of Britain, and 
 committed great ravages beyond the limits 
 of his territory. He died in the year 488. 
 
 HENRY I. of France. Constance his moth- 
 er endeavored to set his younger brother, 
 Robert, upon the throne ; but, with the assist- 
 ance of Robert IT., Duke of Normandy, Henry 
 defeated the queen’s army, and obliged his 
 brother to content himself with the dukedom 
 of Burgundy. In his time Pope Leo IX. 
 held a council at Rheims in France, and the 
 Normans headed by Robert Guiscard, took 
 Naples and Sicily from the Saracens. He 
 died Aug. 4th, 1060. 
 
 HENRY IV. of France, called the Great, 
 born in 1553, was son of Anthony of Bour- 
 bon, Duke of Vendome, and Jeanne d’Albret, 
 Queen of Navarre. After the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew, he signalized himself against 
 the leaguers, and on the death of Henry III. 
 succeeded to the throne, taking the title of 
 King of France and Navarre. His enemies 
 endeavored in vain to make the old Cardinal 
 de Bourbon king under the title of Charles 
 X. Henry was victorious at Arques, Ivry, 
 
 and elsewhere. Although, to make sure of his 
 crown, he embraced Catholicism, he secured 
 the Huguenots by the edict of Nantes. With 
 the aid of his able minister, the Duke of Sully, 
 he did much to raise the country from the 
 plight into which misrule and contention had 
 plunged it. The Duke de Biron’s execution, 
 in 1602, was the only example of severity in 
 his reign ; and France had enjoyed peace for 
 sixteen years, when the fanatic Ravaillac, with 
 a knife, stabbed the king in his coach at Paris, 
 May 14th, 1610, when on the eve of march- 
 ing to fight on the side of the Protestant 
 princes of Germany. Henry was an able and 
 popular prince. Amours were the great 
 blemishes upon his character, and he set a 
 pernicious example that his subjects were but 
 too ready to follow. His first wife was Mar- 
 garet de Valois, sister of Charles IX. ; after 
 her divorce he wedded Marie de Medicis, who 
 was regent after his death. 
 
 HENRY I., Emperor of Germany, son of 
 Otho, Duke of Saxony, succeeded Conrad, his 
 brother-in-law, in 919. He reduced Arnold, 
 Duke of Bavaria, and vanquished the Hunga- 
 rians, Bohemians, Sclavonians, and Danes. 
 He took the kingdom of Lorraine from Charles 
 the Simple, defeated the Hungarians a second 
 time, and killed 8,000 of their number. He 
 died of an apoplexy in 936. 
 
 HENRY III. of Franconia, surnamed the 
 Black, succeeded Conrad II. in 1039. He de- 
 feated the Bohemians (that denied him tribute) 
 in his second campaign, and restored Peter to 
 the throne of Hungary, whence his subjects 
 had driven him in 1043 ; reduced the petty 
 princes of Italy, and made war on the Hunga- 
 rians. He died at Bothfeld in Saxony, in 1056. 
 
 HENRY I. of England, the youngest son 
 of William the Conqueror, was born in 1068. 
 Upon the death of his brother William Rufus 
 in 1100, he hastened to Winchester, secured 
 the royal treasure, and usurped the crown. 
 He removed the odious restrictions of the 
 curfew ; his marriage with Matilda, daughter 
 of Malcolm, King of Scotland, and also a de- 
 scendant of the ancient Saxon line, still fur- 
 ther ingratiated him with the common peo- 
 ple. Robert, the eldest son of' the Conqueror, 
 having returned from Palestine to his duchy 
 of Normandy, difficulties arose between the 
 brothers; Henry invaded Robert’s domain, 
 and in the battle of Tinchebray (1106) the 
 
 HEN 
 
400 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 latter was defeated and captured. Henry- 
 reigned over Normandy, and Robert, for the 
 remaining eight and twenty years of his life, 
 lay imprisoned in Cardiff Castle. Queen 
 Matilda died May 1st, 1119; she had borne 
 the king one daughter, Maud, or Matilda, who 
 had wedded Henry Y. of Germany, and one 
 son, Prince William. In 1120 Henry passed 
 over to Normandy with his son, that the 
 barons of the duchy might pay their homage 
 to the young prince. On the voyage home, 
 the crew of Prince William’s, vessel were in 
 liquor ;* she struck upon the rocks near Bar- 
 fleur ; only one of the many lives on board 
 was spared, that of a butcher of Rouen. 
 Prince William, his newly married bride, his 
 bastard brother Richard, his fair cousin Lucia, 
 and the throng of gay nobles composing his 
 retinue, — all were drowned. * King Henry, 
 Some say, never smiled again. In 1129 he 
 married Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, Earl 
 of Louvaine ; she survived him. Henry died 
 Dec. 1st, 1135, of a surfeit of lampreys, a 
 fish of which he was inordinately fond. This 
 king’s scholarship so far surpassed the ordi- 
 nary attainments of his time that he was 
 surnamed Beauclerc. 
 
 HENRY II., III., IY., Y., YI., Kings of 
 England. [ See Plantagenet.] 
 
 HENRY YII., VIII., Kings of England. 
 [See Tudor.] 
 
 HENRY, Matthew, the celebrated com- 
 mentator on the Scriptures, was born in 1662 
 in Flintshire, whither his parents had retired 
 after his father, Rev. Philip Henry, was 
 ejected from his parish for nonconforming. 
 Matthew became a dissenting minister at 
 Chester, where he continued with great use- 
 fulness for twenty -five years. In 1712 he 
 removed to Hackney, near London. Of sev- 
 eral theological works put forth by this excel- 
 lent divine, the largest and best known is his 
 Commentary on the Bible, which he did not 
 live to complete. He died of apoplexy in 
 June, 1714. 
 
 HENRY, Patrick, son of John Henry, was 
 born in the colony of Virginia, May 29th, 
 1736. Passionately addicted to field sports, 
 and averse to toil of any kind, even the ele. 
 ments of education were mastered by him 
 with distaste, although he had a strong mind 
 and a retentive memory. At the age of eight- 
 een he married Miss Skelton, and settled on 
 
 a farm ; but agricultural as well as mercan- 
 tile pursuits, in which he had previously 
 embarked, possessed no charm for him, and 
 he was unsuccessful. As a final effort, he 
 resolved to attempt the law, and was licensed 
 to practice after six weeks' preparatory study. 
 For several years his practice was limited and 
 the wants of his family extreme. The first 
 argument that he made was in 1763, in oppo- 
 sition to the clergy’s tobacco stipend. His 
 eloquence electrified his hearers, gained his 
 cause, and put him at once in the front rank 
 of his profession. In 1765 he was elected 
 member of the house of burgesses, and intro- 
 duced his celebrated resolutions on the stamp 
 act. In the midst of the debate on this 
 occasion, he exclaimed, “ Caesar had his 
 Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and 
 
 George the Third” “Treason!” cried the 
 
 speaker — “ Treason, treason ! ” echoed from 
 every part of the house. Henry faltered not 
 for an instant, but, taking a loftier attitude, 
 and fixing on the speaker an eye of fire, he 
 
 added “ may profit by their example. If 
 
 this be treason, make the most of it.” Henry 
 served his country in various posts, was sent 
 to the congress at Philadelphia in 1774, took 
 the field, and was elected governor of the 
 commonwealth of Virginia. In 1791 he 
 retired from public life, and died June 6th, 
 1799. His eloquence was manly and con- 
 vincing, and his voice powerful’ and musical. 
 The following was his language in 1775: 
 
 “It is vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. 
 Gentlemen may cry, peace , peace — but there 
 is no peace. The war is actually begun. 
 
 “ The next gale that sweeps from the north 
 will bring to our ears the clash of resounding 
 arms ! Our brethren are already in the field ! 
 Why stand we here idle ? What is it that gen- 
 tlemen wish ? What would they have ? Is 
 life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
 chased at the price of chains and slavery? 
 Forbid it, Almighty God!— I know not what 
 course others may take, but as for me, give 
 me liberty or give me death!" 
 
 He took his seat. No murmur of applause 
 was heard. The effect was too deep. After 
 the trance of a moment, several members 
 started from their seats. The cry, “ To arms,” 
 seemed to quiver on every lip, and gleam 
 from every eye ! Richard Henry Lee arose 
 and supported Mr. Henry with his usual 
 
 HEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 401 
 
 spirit and elegance. But his melody was lost 
 amidst the agitations of that ocean which the 
 master spirit of the storm had lifted up on 
 high. That supernatural voice still sounded 
 in their ears and shivered along their arte- 
 ries. They heard, in every pause, the cry 
 of liberty or death. They became impatient 
 of speech ; their souls were on fire for action. 
 
 HERCULANEUM, an ancient city not far 
 from Naples, which was buried by an erup- 
 tion of Vesuvius, in the reign of Titus, Aug. 
 24th, a.d. 79. It has been excavated, and 
 presents a most curious and interesting spec- 
 tacle. The same eruption destroyed Pompeii. 
 
 HERCULES, a fabulous Grecian hero, the 
 son of Jupiter and Alcmena, the wife of Am- 
 phitryon, king of Thebes. In vain did the 
 jealous Juno send two serpents to kill the 
 young hero in his cradle : he strangled them 
 both, and thus displayed to all the divinity 
 of his origin. He had to combat for a long 
 time the enmity of Juno, who exacted of him 
 twelve labors, independently of other signal 
 actions which he performed. 1. He killed 
 the Ncmcan lion, to deliver the kingdom of 
 Mycene, and wore his skin in the remainder 
 of his exploits. 2. He slew the Lernean 
 hydra, whose heads multiplied sevenfold on 
 being severed. 3. He brought to Eurystheus 
 upon his shoulders, the Erymanthean boar, 
 an animal of a prodigious size. 4. He sub- 
 dued the golden-horned and brazen-hoofed 
 stag of Diana. 5. He destroyed with his 
 arrows the foul Stymphalian birds of extra- 
 ordinary size and voracity. 6. He cleansed 
 the Augaean stables. 7. He tamed the 
 furious bull of Crete. 8. He gave Diomedes 
 to be devoured by his own horses, which had 
 been fed on human flesh. 9. He vanquished 
 the Amazons, whose queen, Hippolyta, he 
 gave in marriage to his friend Theseus. 10. 
 He brought the oxen of Geryon, king of Spain, 
 to Greece. This was only effected by killing 
 this monarch, formidable for his triple head. 
 
 11. He obtained the golden apples of the gar- 
 den of the Hesperides, by killing the dragon 
 with a hundred heads that guarded them. 
 
 12. He dragged away Cerberus, the three- 
 headed dog that watched the gate of hell, 
 into which he descended twice, once with his 
 friend Theseus, and afterward to seek the 
 queen Alceste, who devoted herself to death 
 for her husband Admetus. 
 
 26 
 
 The centaur Nessus having insulted De- 
 janira, the wife of Hercules, the hero killed 
 him with an arrow, the barb of which was 
 poisoned with the blood of the Lernean hydra. 
 The dying centaur persuaded Dejanira to give 
 a tunic dipped in his blood to her husband, 
 in token of reconciliation. Hercules had no 
 sooner clothed himself in this garment than 
 he perceived that he was poisoned by it. He 
 accordingly, with the help of Philoctetes, 
 built a funeral pile on Mount (Eta, and ex- 
 pired in the flames. But Jupiter received 
 him in the ranks of the gods, and gave him 
 in marriage Hebe, the beautiful goddess of 
 youth. Hercules is generally represented 
 as a robust man, leaning on his club. On 
 his shoulders he wears the skin of the Ne- 
 mean lion, and in his hands he holds the 
 Hesperian fruit. 
 
 Abyla, a mountain of Africa, and Calpe 
 (now Gibraltar) directly opposite, were for- 
 merly called the Pillars of Hercules, from a 
 tradition that this Samson of the Greeks 
 forced them asunder to form a junction 
 between the waters of the Atlantic and 
 Mediterranean. In this tale we perceive the 
 reminiscence of a great convulsion of nature 
 that separated Europe and Africa. 
 
 HERO and LEANDER. Their amour is 
 famous. Their fidelity was so great, and 
 their love so ardent, that Leander frequently, 
 in the night, eluded the vigilance of his fam- 
 ily, and swam the Hellespont from Abydos 
 to Sestos, while Hero, a beautiful priestess of 
 Venus, held a burning torch as a beacon to 
 guide his course. After many stolen trysts, 
 thus obtained, Leander was drowned one 
 stormy night ; and Hero, in despair, threw 
 herself from her tower, and perished in the 
 sea, 627 b.c. The Hellespont is now called 
 the strait of the Dardanelles. [/See Abydos.] 
 
 HERMANN, the deliverer of Germany 
 from the Roman yoke, was born 18 b.c. He 
 was educated at Rome, and honored by Au- 
 gustus with the knighthood, and the rights 
 of citizenship. But from attachment to the 
 land of his birth, he instigated the Germans 
 to revolt. After various fortunes he was 
 assassinated in the thirty-seventh year of his 
 age. 
 
 HEROD, surnamed the Great, w r as born 
 at Ascalon, Judea, b.c. 71. He reigned in 
 Judea as a vassal of the Romans v and ren- 
 
 HER 
 
402 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dered himself odious by his tyranny. As 
 he knew that the day of his death would 
 become a day of mirth and festivity, he 
 ordered the most illustrious of his subjects to 
 be confined and murdered the very instant 
 he expired, that every eye in the kingdom 
 might seem to shed tears at the death of 
 Herod. This order was never executed. He 
 died a dreadful death in the seventieth year 
 of his age, after a reign of forty years, which 
 was rendered memorable by the birth of 
 Christ. 
 
 HERODOTUS, ‘the Father of History,’ 
 born at Halicarnassus in Caria, b.c. 484, 
 flourished b.c. 440 ; time of his death un- 
 known. His history includes a period of 
 234 years, from b.c. 713 to 479. 
 
 HERRINGS, Battle of the. This battle 
 was fought in 1429, when the English were 
 besieging Orleans. The Due de Bourbon, 
 trying to cut off a convoy from the English 
 camp, was severely beaten. The convoy 
 being laden with herrings, the battle thence 
 had its ludicrous name. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir William, born in Hano- 
 ver, November 15th, 1738, came to England 
 in 1757, and was at first a humble musician. 
 Love of science led him to the study of 
 mathematics and astronomy. Too poor to 
 purchase a telescope, he constructed one 
 with his own hands, grinding and polishing 
 the specula himself. He completed in 1774 
 a five feet Newtonian reflector with which he 
 could see the satellites of Jupiter and the 
 belt of Saturn. He discovered the planet 
 Uranus in 1781. He died August 25th, 1822. 
 
 HESSE-CASSEL, an electorate, and a 
 member of the Germanic confederacy, con- 
 taining 736,392 inhabitants in 1855. The 
 sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel formerly filled 
 their coffers by hiring out their subjects as 
 mercenaries in foreign wars. Several thou- 
 sand Hessians were employed by the British 
 in the American Revolution. The grand 
 duchy of Hesse Darmstadt has 854,314 in- 
 habitants, and the little landgraviate of Hesse 
 Homburg, 25,000. 
 
 HEWES, Joseph, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born at Kingston, 
 N. J., in 1730. He was educated at Princeton, 
 became a merchant, and at the age of thirty 
 settled in North Carolina. After sitting sev- 
 eral years in the colonial assembly, he was 
 
 elected to Congress in 1774. He was com- 
 pelled by sickness to leave his seat in 1779, 
 and died Nov. 10th of that year. 
 
 HEYWARD, Thomas, Jr., a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was a native of 
 St, Luke’s, S. C., born in 1746. Having 
 studied law at the Temple in London, he 
 practiced his profession in his native state, 
 and soon entered upon political life. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1775, and left that 
 body in 1778 to fill a judicial station at home. 
 He commanded a battalion of militia during 
 the siege of Charleston, was made prisoner 
 upon the surrender, and sent with others to 
 St. Augustine. He retired from public life 
 in 1778, and died in March, 1809. 
 
 HIERO I., a king of Syracuse after his 
 brother Gelon, rendered himself odious by 
 his tyranny in the beginning of his reign. 
 He made war against Theron, the tyrant of 
 Agrigentum, and took Himera. He obtained 
 three different crowns at the Olympic games, 
 two in horse-races, and one in a chariot-race. 
 The first Olympic ode of Pindar is inscribed 
 to him, and mention is made of his horse 
 Phrenicus, by which he was the winner of 
 the Olympic crown. The ancient races were 
 somewhat different from the modern ; at the 
 former, honor alone was the reward of the 
 winner, and no one lost either his character 
 or his money. In the latter part of his reign, 
 the conversation of Simonides, Epicharmus, 
 Pindar, &c., softened the roughness of Hiero’s 
 manners and the severity of his government, 
 and tended to render him the patron of learn- 
 ing, genius, and merit. He died after a reign 
 of eighteen years, b.c. 467, leaving the crown 
 to his brother Thrasybulus, who disgraced it 
 by his tyranny. 
 
 HIERO II., a descendant of Gelon, reigned 
 about two hundred years after the preceding. 
 He was appointed to carry on the war against 
 the Carthaginians. He joined his enemies in 
 besieging Messina, which had surrendered to 
 the Romans; but he was beaten by Appius 
 Claudius, the Roman consul, and obliged to 
 retir ) to Syracuse, where he was soon blocked 
 up. Seeing all hopes of victory lost, he made 
 peace with the Romans and proved so faith- 
 ful to his engagements, during the fifty-nine 
 years of his reign, that the Romans never 
 had a more firm or attached ally. He died 
 in the ninety -fourth year of his age, about 225 
 
 HIE 
 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 403 
 
 HIERUU LY RHICS. 
 
 b.c. He was universally regretted, and all 
 the Sicilians showed by their lamentations 
 that they had lost a common father and a 
 friend. He liberally patronized the learned, 
 and employed the talents of Archimedes for 
 the good of his country. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS, or ‘sacred engraving,’ 
 was the name given first to the sculptures 
 and inscriptions on the monuments of Egypt : 
 it is now often used to denote simply picture 
 writing, which is seen in its rudest state 
 upon the buffalo skins of our North Ameri- 
 can Indians, &c. A new charm was given to 
 similar sculptures, and indeed to the study 
 of antiquity in general, by Champollion’s dis- 
 covery of the key to these so long inexplica- 
 ble mysteries. This indefatigable scholar, 
 after many years of toil, at last succeeded 
 in deciphering every inscription presented to 
 
 him ! He discovered that these hieroglyphics 
 were usually employed as mere alphabetic 
 letters ; that when thus read, they yield 
 regular compositions in the Coptic or old 
 Egyptian language. 
 
 The hieroglyphic writing is eminently 
 monumental. It is, from the nature of the 
 signs which it employs, a species of painting, 
 and it presents a various and picturesque 
 aspect which distinguishes it essentially from 
 every other method of writing. The hiero- 
 glyphic characters do in fact exhibit images 
 of almost every material object in creation : 
 celestial bodies, human figures in various 
 positions, human limbs taken separately, 
 wild and domestic quadrupeds, limbs of ani- 
 mals, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, vegeta- 
 bles, plants, flowers, and fruits, buildings, 
 furniture, coverings for feet and legs, head- 
 
 HIE 
 
404 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dresses, weapons, ornaments and sceptres, 
 tools and instruments of various sorts, vases, 
 cups, and the like, geometrical figures, and 
 fantastic forms. The figures are arranged in 
 columns, vertical or horizontal, and grouped 
 together, as circumstances required, so as to 
 leave no spaces unnecessarily vacant. We 
 can not go into a detailed account of the vari- 
 ous methods of Egyptian writing, but give 
 a familiar specimen of the phonetic and al- 
 phabetic, an illustration of which is pre- 
 sented on the preceding page. To write 
 the word ‘Boston’ (see cut, A), for ‘b’ the 
 Egyptians would look for some familiar ob- 
 ject, the name of which began with ‘b,’ say 
 a censer, which is called in Egyptian berbe, 
 and the engraving would be the more appro- 
 priate to use, from the church-going character 
 of the inhabitants of Boston ; in looking 
 round for an object whose name begins with 
 ‘o,’ the literary character of the city would 
 suggest the reed, an instrument of writing 
 anciently, and now so used in the East ; this, 
 in Egyptian, is o~ke ; for ‘s’ take a star, sion ; 
 for ‘t’ a hand, tot ; for ‘o,’ again, to have a 
 variety, instead of the Egyptian tufted reed, 
 as above, they might take an abbreviation of 
 it, the curled line ; for ‘ n,’ we have the vul- 
 ture, noure , or, Better, the sign for inunda- 
 tion, neph. Fig. B gives an Egyptian speci- 
 men of the symbolical style, in what is gen- 
 erally called an anaglyph. It is a female 
 winged sphinx, founded on a block of black 
 granite. The sphinx was an emblem of 
 strength and wisdom, the body being that 
 of a lion, and the head human. The name 
 Tmauhmot (daughter of Horus, a king of the 
 eighteenth dynasty of Egypt) is read in the 
 oval. This, then, is a symbolical image of 
 the queen herself ; and the flowers of lotus, 
 underneath, are evidently, though emblem- 
 atically, taken for the Nile, and for the 
 whole country of Egypt. The sphinx, in- 
 stead of a paw, has a hand, raised in the atti- 
 tude of protection. The whole, then, seems 
 to be in praise of a monarch, and to signify 
 “a monument raised to the memory of Queen 
 Tmauhmof, s‘yled the guardian and protec- 
 tress of the land of Egypt, by her wisdom 
 and strength.” 
 
 HILDEBRAND succeeded Alexander II. 
 as pope in the year 1073, taking the name 
 of Gregory VII. Being advanced by the suf- 
 
 frages of the cardinals without the emperor’s 
 authority, the better to confirm himself in 
 the pontificate he abolished the imperial 
 power of conferring investiture upon bishops 
 and clergymen, and became an inveterate 
 enemy of the Emperor Henry IV. He pre- 
 vailed upon Rodolph, Duke of Suabia, to 
 assume the title of emperor and take up arms 
 against Henry ; but Rodolph being over- 
 thrown and slain, Henry marched directly 
 into Italy, besieged Rome, took the city, 
 and established Clement III. upon the papal 
 throne. Gregory fled to Salerno, and there 
 died, after having enjoyed the papal dignity 
 twelve years. He was the first who bore the 
 exclusive title of pope, which theretofore had 
 been\common to other bishops. 
 
 HILL, Rowland, son of Sir Rowland Hill, 
 was born at Hawkestone, Shropshire, in 
 1745, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. 
 He was a Calvinistic Methodist, and took 
 Whitfield for his model. His discourses 
 were singular, being sometimes crowded with 
 puns and stories, while at others their solem- 
 nity was unbroken. Some of his straits are 
 mentioned in his diary. “1767, Jan. 1st, 
 preached at Chesterton ; we had the honor 
 of a mob ; no other harm was done than the 
 windows broke.” “Thursday, in a barn, for 
 the first time, with much comfort. God 
 send, if I am to live, this may not- be my last 
 barn. Some gownsmen were there, but they 
 were not permitted to do more than gnash 
 their teeth.” Mr. Hill used to be circum- 
 spect in receiving recruits. To a person who 
 had a great desire to preach, and talked 
 about hiding his talents, he replied that “the 
 closer he hid them the better.” Robert Hall 
 once replied to a shoemaker, who expressed 
 a similar reluctance to hide his talents in a 
 napkin, “The smallest pocket-handkerchief 
 you have will do, sir.” Mr. Hill, in his 
 “field campaigns,” used to go to large towns 
 on market-days, and address the assemblage 
 in the market-houses. When he heard of a 
 fair or a revel, he preached there in spite of 
 the violence with which he was assailed, and 
 often with success. His favorite text was 
 “Come ye out from among them.” The 
 freshness and originality of his addresses 
 attracted crowds to hear him. He preached 
 on Calton Hill in Edinburgh to an audience 
 of ten thousand. Nor was he admired by a 
 
 HIL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 405 
 
 vulgar and uneducated class only ; Sheridan 
 used to say, “I often go to hear Rowland 
 Hill, because his ideas come red-hot from the 
 heart.” The eccentricities of manner, the 
 quaintness of expression, the anecdotes and 
 witticisms in the pulpit, were forgotten by 
 his regular hearers, in the rich vein of ster- 
 ling piety and spiritual instruction that 
 marked the service. He died April 11th, 
 1833. 
 
 HILLHOUSE, James, a man very highly 
 respected for his private virtues, and his 
 great and long continued public services, 
 was born at Montville, Conn., Oct. 21st, 
 1754, and died at New Haven, Dec. 29th, 
 1832. He was a member of the senate from 
 1796 to 1810. 
 
 HIPPIAS AND HIPPARCHUS, two sons 
 of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, whom 
 they succeeded 527 b.c. Hipparchus was 
 slain in a conspirac}^ 512 b.c., by Harmodius 
 and Aristogiton, who had devoted themselves 
 to their country. Hippias alone now held 
 the reins of government, but he became 
 odious, and on the siege of Athens by the 
 Lacedaemonians, he surrendered the city and 
 retired to Ligseum, on the Hellespont, 509 b.c. 
 Thus Athens once more recovered its liberty. 
 An attempt was afterward made to restore 
 Hippias to the government of Athens. By 
 some authors he is said to have perished at 
 the battle of Marathon ; but others assert 
 that he died at Lemnos in poverty and dis- 
 tress. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, a celebrated Greek physi- 
 cian, born 460 b.c. He is called the Father 
 of Medicine. The time of his death is un- 
 known. 
 
 HOADLEY, Benjamin, an eminent Eng- 
 lish divine, Bishop of Bangor and of Win- 
 chester, died in 1761, aged eighty -five. 
 
 HOBBES, Thomas, a celebrated English 
 philosopher, died in 1769, aged ninety-one. 
 
 HOCHE, Lazake, born in 1768, was a 
 brave and skillful general in the French revo- 
 lutionary army. He accomplished the pacifi- 
 cation of La Vendee and Brittany ; headed 
 the expedition against Ireland in 1796, which 
 was dispersed by storms; and in 1797 was 
 put in command of the army of the Sambre 
 and the Meuse. He died in this year, after 
 a short illness. 
 
 HOCHKIRCHEN, Battle of, between the 
 
 Prussians under Frederick the Great, and the 
 Austrians under Count Daun, Oct. 14th, 
 1758. Frederick was taken unawares, and 
 w r as defeated. 
 
 HOFER, Andrew, the Tell of the Tyrol, 
 a heroic Tyrolese who headed an insur- 
 rection of his countrymen on the 10th of 
 April, 1809. His resistance to the French 
 was chivalric, and successful on many occa- 
 sions. After he found farther resistance 
 useless, he concealed himself, but was be- 
 trayed by a priest, conveyed to Mantua, and 
 shot, February 20th, 1810. He met his fate 
 with firmness, rejoicing that he had done his 
 duty. 
 
 HOGARTH, William, was born in Lon- 
 don, Dec. 10th, 1697. He was apprenticed 
 at an early age to a silversmith, but at the 
 expiration of his time, in 1718, he took to 
 engraving in copper for the booksellers. In 
 1730 he married the only daughter of Sir 
 James Thornhill, against the father’s will, 
 and set up as a portrait painter with con- 
 siderable success. He now commenced his 
 remarkable series of satirical paintings re- 
 flecting on the social abuses of the time; 
 producing “The Harlot’s Progress” in 1734, 
 “The Rake’s Progress” in 1735, and “Mar- 
 riage a la Mode” in 1745. In 1753 he ap- 
 peared as an author in his “ Analysis of 
 Beauty.” In 1757 he was appointed serjeant 
 painter to the king. He died in London, 
 Oct. 26th, 1764, and w r as buried at Chiswick. 
 
 HOGG, James (commonly called ‘the 
 Ettrick Shepherd’), was born Jan. 25th, 
 1772 ; he greatly prided himself that his 
 birth-day was the anniversary of that of 
 Burns. He was a native of Ettrick Vale, in 
 picturesque Selkirkshire. A love of romance 
 and poetry, he inherited from his mother, 
 w T hose memory was thickly stored with the 
 ancient legends and ballads of Scotland ; and 
 his solitary watches over his flocks on the 
 hills and among the glens heightened his 
 imagination. The “Queen’s Wake” estab- 
 lished his fame as an author; it consists 
 of a collection of tales and ballads supposed 
 to be sung to Mary Queen of Scots by the 
 native bards of Scotland, assembled at a royal 
 wake at Holyrood, in order that the fair 
 monarch might prove the wondrous powers 
 of Scottish song. The worldly schemes of 
 the Shepherd were seldom successful ; he 
 
 * HOG 
 
406 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 made two disastrous attempts at farming ; 
 and his sole support, for the latter years of 
 his life, was the remuneration afforded by 
 his literary labors. He lived in a cottage 
 which he had built at Altrive, on a piece of 
 moorland presented to him by the Duchess 
 of Buccleuch. His love of angling and field 
 sports amounted to a passion, and when he 
 could no longer fish or hunt, he declared his 
 belief that his death must be near. In the 
 autumn of 1835 he was attacked with a drop- 
 sical complaint ; and on the 21st of Novem- 
 ber of that year, after some days of insensi- 
 bility, he breathed his last as calmly, and 
 with as little pain, as he * ever fell asleep in 
 his gray plaid on the hillside. His death 
 was deeply mourned in the vale of Ettrick, 
 for all rejoiced in his fame, and, notwith- 
 standing his personal foibles, the Shepherd 
 was generous, kind-hearted, and charitable 
 far beyond his means. 
 
 HOHENLINDEN, a village of Bavaria, 
 eighteen miles east of Munich, remarkable 
 for the great defeat which the Austrian army 
 sustained here on the 3d of November, 1800, 
 from the French under Moreau. 
 
 HOLBEIN, IIans, an eminent Swiss paint- 
 er, died in London, 1554, aged fifty-six. He 
 was the favorite artist of Henry VIII. 
 
 HOLLAND. [See Netherlands.] 
 
 HOLSTEIN, a duchy in the north of Ger- 
 mmy, belonging to Denmark. It contains 
 3,259 square miles, and 479,000 inhabitants, 
 mostly Lutherans. Almost the whole of the 
 country is fruitful. The King of Denmark is 
 Duke of Holstein, by virtue of which he has 
 a place in the German confederation. War 
 subsisted between Denmark and the duchies 
 of Schleswig and Holstein in 1849 and 1850. 
 The matters of difference were patched up by 
 the intervention of Austria and Prussia. 
 
 HOLT, Sir John, an eminent English law- 
 yer and judge, died in 1709', aged sixty-seven. 
 He was a firm opponent of the oppressions of 
 the crown. 
 
 IIOLWELL, John Zephantah, was one of 
 the few survivors of the party of 146 English, 
 who were confined by the Nabob of Bengal 
 in 1756, in what was called the Black Hole 
 at Calcutta. Mr. Holwell wrote ah account 
 of this dreadful affair, which he survived 
 forty-two years, dying in 1798, aged eighty- 
 nine. [See Black Hole.] 
 
 HOLYOKE, Edward Augustus, M. D., son 
 of the Rev. Edward Holyoke, president of Har- 
 vard College, was born Aug. 1st, 1728, in 
 Essex county, Mass. He was graduated at 
 Harvard in 1746, and commenced the practice 
 of medicine at Salem in 1749. He was dis- 
 tinguished in his profession, and published 
 several scientific disquisitions. He died the 
 31st of March, 1829, being then over one 
 hundred years of age. 
 
 HOMER, the most celebrated poet of anti- 
 quity, was, according to common tradition, 
 born on the river Meles, not far from Smyrna. 
 His father’s name was Moeon, and his moth- 
 er’s Critheis. Seven cities contended for the 
 honor of being his birth-place : Smyrna, Colo- 
 phon, Chios, Argos, Athens, Rhodes, and 
 Salamis. It is doubtful whether he lived in 
 the tenth, ninth, or eighth century before 
 Christ. Little is known of Homer. He has 
 
 homer. 
 
 been represented as blind, but this must have 
 been a misfortune occurring in his latter days, 
 for his descriptions could only have been 
 given by a man possessed of sight. He wan- 
 dered about singing his poems, which were 
 handed down from mouth to mouth, and from 
 generation to generation, after his death, un- 
 til they were finally transmitted to paper, and 
 thus preserved from oblivion. The poems 
 attributed to Homer are the Iliad and the 
 Odyssey : the subject of the Iliad is the re- 
 venge taken by Achilles on Agamemnon for 
 depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, during 
 the siege of Troy, and the evils which in con- 
 sequence befell the Greeks : the Odyssey nar- 
 >M 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 407 
 
 rates the adventures of Ulysses, returning 
 from Troy to Ithaca, his native island. 
 
 HONORIUS, the first emperor of the West- 
 ern empire of Rome, succeeded his father 
 Theodosius the Great, with his brother Arcadi- 
 us, a.d. 395. He was neither bold nor vicious, 
 but he was of a modest and timid disposition, 
 unfit for enterprise, and fearful of danger. He 
 conquered his enemies by means of his gener- 
 als, and suffered himself and his people to be 
 governed by ministers who took advantage of 
 their imperial master’s indolence and inactiv- 
 ity. He died of the dropsy, in the thirty- 
 ninth year of his age, Aug. loth, a.d. 423. 
 
 HOOD, Robin, an outlaw in the time of 
 Richard I., who dwelt chiefly in Sherwood 
 Forest, Nottinghamshire, and was the most 
 romantic and courteous of bandits, as well as 
 the most powerful. He took from the rich, 
 but he gave to the poor. It is said that he 
 was bled to death by a nun, to whom he ap- 
 plied for phlebotomy, in the year 1247. 
 
 HOOD, Samuel, Viscount, was the eldest 
 son of the Rev. Samuel Hood, vicar of Thorn- 
 combe, in Devonshire ; at which place he was 
 borji in 1724. He went to sea at the age of 
 sixteen, and, for his gallantry in taking a 
 fifty-gun ship, was made a post-captain in 
 1759. In 1780, jvith the rank of admiral, he 
 sailed to the West Indies, where he defeated 
 the attempt made upon St. Christopher’s by 
 the Comte de Grasse. He also had an active 
 part in the victory obtained over that com- 
 mander on the 12th of April, 1782 ; for which 
 he was created Baron Hood of Catherington, 
 in the kingdom of Ireland. In 1784 he was 
 elected into parliament for Westminster ; he 
 vacated his seat, on being named one of the 
 lords of the admiralty, in 1787. In 1793 he 
 was appointed to command in the Mediterra- 
 nean, where he distinguished himself by 
 taking possession of Toulon, and, when it was 
 no longer tenable, destroying the arsenal, 
 dock-yard, and shipping. After this he made 
 himself master of Corsica, and then returned 
 to England, where he was made a viscount, 
 and governor of Greenwich Hospital. He 
 died at Bath, January 27th, 1816. 
 
 HOOD, Thomas, a poet and prose-writer of 
 the utmost humor and pathos, died in 1845, 
 aged forty -seven. His lot was lifelong toil, 
 threatened by poverty, and embittered by ill 
 health. 
 
 HOOKER, Richard, author of “ Ecclesias- 
 tical Polity,” died in 1600, aged forty-seven. 
 This learned theologian having occasion to 
 visit London, and arriving from Oxford wet 
 and weary, received so much kindness and 
 attention from his hostess that she completely 
 won his confidence. The good man came to 
 be persuaded by her that his constitution was 
 tender; that it was best for him to have a 
 wife, who might prove a nurse to him, such 
 a one as might both prolong his life and 
 make it comfortable; and such a one she 
 could and would provide for him, if he thought * 
 fit to marry. The helpmate she provided 
 was her own daughter, silly, clownish, and 
 withal a perfect Xantippe. Hooker married 
 her, however, according to his promise, and 
 had an especial occasion to practice the spirit 
 of resignation during his seventeen years of 
 wedlock, the remnant of his life. 
 
 HOOPER, William, a signer of the Declar- 
 ation of Independence, was born at Boston, 
 Mass., June 17th, 1742, the son of a Scotch 
 clergyman, and was educated at Harvard. 
 He studied law under James Otis, and com- 
 menced practice at Wilmington, N. C., in 
 1767. He was a member of the colonial 
 legislature in 1773, and the next year was 
 sent to the continental congress, where he 
 served till 1777, when he resigned and re- 
 turned home. In 1786 he was elected a 
 judge, and in October, 1790, he departed 
 from life. He advocated the caus^ of liberty 
 both with pen and voice, and was its active 
 champion. Among the documents from his 
 pen was an address to the people of Jamaica 
 in 1775. 
 
 HOPKINS, Stephen, a signer of the Declar- 
 ation of Independence, was born in Scituate, 
 R. I., March 7th, 1707. He was chosen 
 speaker of the general assembly in 1741. In 
 1751 he was appointed chief-justice of the 
 superior court of Rhode Island, and in 1774 a 
 delegate to Congress. Previous to this, he 
 had held for some years the office of governor 
 of Rhode Island. In 1778 he was a fourth 
 time chosen member of Congress. He died 
 July 13th, 1 785, at the age of seventy-eight. 
 He was bred as a farmer, and afterward en- 
 gaged in commerce at Providence. Although 
 a self-taught man, he was an excellent math- 
 ematician, and well versed in political econo- 
 my and science. 
 
 HOP 
 
408 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 HOPKINSON, Francis, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 Philadelphia in 1737. After receiving a col- 
 legiate education and having studied law, he 
 visited England for two years, and upon his 
 return became distinguished in his profession. 
 He resided at Borden town, N. J., when the 
 war of the Revolution broke out, and was 
 chosen a delegate to Congress from that state 
 in 1776. He strongly advocated independ- 
 ence, and w’as an active member. He was 
 .afterward judge of the district court for 
 Pennsylvania. He was a wit and a poet, as 
 well as a lawyer and judge. He died May 
 9th, 1790. 
 
 HORACE. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, a 
 celebrated Roman poet, was born at Venu- 
 sium b.c. 65. He was well educated, and 
 fought for liberty at Philippi, b.c. 42. He 
 gained the favor of Maecenas, but lived in 
 retirement, and even refused the splendid 
 offers of Augustus, preferring the peaceful 
 solitude of his Sabine farm. He died sudden- 
 ly, 9 b.c., in the fifty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 II OR ATI I, three Roman brothers, who 
 during the reign of Tullus, to prevent the 
 effusion of blood in a general battle, engaged 
 the Curiatii, three Alban brothers, to decide 
 the contest. Two of the Horatii were slain, 
 when the surviving brother, feigning flight, 
 permitted the Curiatii, who were disabled by 
 wounds, to approach him one by one, and 
 then slew'them singly, thus deciding the con- 
 test in favor of the Romans. The conqueror 
 stained his triumph by murdering his sister, 
 because, amidst her country’s joy, she could 
 shed tears at the death of her lover, one of 
 the Curiatii. 
 
 HORATIUS, surnamed Codes, ‘the one- 
 eyed,’ alone sustained the attack of the Etru- 
 rian army, while his friends broke down the 
 bridge over the Tiber that led to Rome, be- 
 hind him. He then committed himself to the 
 waves, armed as he was, and reached Rome 
 in safety. This exploit was performed b.c. 
 507. 
 
 HOWARD, John, the philanthropist, was 
 born at Hackney, in 1726. He was bound 
 apprentice to a grocer in London ; but dis- 
 liking the business, and inheriting an inde- 
 pendent fortune, he purchased his indentures, 
 and made the tour of France and Italy. On 
 his return, he married a widow lady, much 
 
 older than himself, who died about three 
 years afterward. In 1756 he undertook a 
 voyage to Lisbon, to see the place after the 
 earthquake ; but on the voyage the ship was 
 taken by a French privateer, and carried to 
 France. On being released, Mr. Howard re- 
 tired to a villa in the New Forest; and, in 
 1758, married a second time; but lost his 
 lady in 1765. About this time he settled at 
 Cardington, near Bedford, where his time 
 was much occupied in benevolent objects, 
 and in the education of his son, who after- 
 ward became hopelessly insane. In 1773 he 
 received the office of high sheriff, which led 
 him to make inquiries into the state of pris- 
 ons. With this view he visited every prison 
 in the united kingdom, and traveled through 
 France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and Turkey. He published, in 1777, 
 a work entitled “The State of the Prisons in 
 England and Wales,” dedicated to the House 
 of Commons. In 1780 appeared an appendix, 
 with an account of the author’s travels ip 
 Italy. He also printed a description of the 
 Bastile, a translation of Tuscany’s new code 
 of civil law; and, in 1789; “An Account of 
 Europe.” The plague was now the object of 
 his researches, and, with a design of ascer- 
 taining the nature of this disorder, and the 
 means of curing it, he set out for the east; 
 but died of a malignant epidemic, at Cherson, 
 in the south of Russia, January 20th, 1790. 
 A statue has been erected to his memory in 
 St. Paul’s Cathedral. 
 
 HOWARD, John Eager, a gallant officer 
 in the American revolution, was born in 
 Maryland, June 4th, 1752. He principally 
 distinguished himself in the southern cam- 
 paigns, and received a wound at the battle of 
 Eutaw, from the effects of which he never 
 recovered. He was chosen governor of Mary- 
 land in 1788, and filled the post for three 
 years. From 1796 till 1803 he was a mem- 
 ber of the senate of the United States. Col. 
 Howard died in October, 1827. 
 
 HOWARD, Charles, Earl of Nottingham, 
 was the son of William Lord Howard, of 
 Effingham, and grandson of Thomas, the sec- 
 ond Duke of Norfolk. He was born in 1536. 
 He went in 1559 to congratulate Francis II. 
 of France on his accession to the throne ; and 
 in 1569 was made general of the horse in the 
 army sent against the Earls of Northumber- 
 
 HOW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 409 
 
 land and Westmoreland. The next ) r ear he 
 went with a fleet of men-of-war to convoy the 
 Princess Anne of Austria to Spain ; and in 
 1573 he succeeded his father in his titles and 
 estate. The same year he was installed 
 knight of the garter, and made lord chamber- 
 lain of the household ; and in 1585 he was 
 constituted lord high admiral of England. In 
 1588 he commanded the fleet which defeated 
 and dispersed the Spanish armada; and, in 
 1596, when another invasion was apprehend- 
 ed, he was appointed commander-in-chief at 
 sea, as the Earl of Essex was on the land. 
 In this expedition Cadiz was taken, and the 
 Spanish fleet burnt ; for which he was made 
 Earl of Nottingham and justice-itinerant of all 
 the forests south of Trent. In 1601 he sup- 
 pressed the Earl of Essex’s rebellion, and was 
 principally concerned in bringing that noble- 
 man to the block. James I. continued him 
 in all his employments ; and at the coronation 
 the earl acted as lord high steward. In 1 605 
 he went ambassador to Spain; and in 1613 
 he conveyed the Princess Elizabeth, on her 
 marriage, to Flushing. He died in 1624. 
 
 HQ WARD, Henry, Earl of Surrey, was 
 the eldest son of the third Duke of Norfolk, 
 by Elizabeth, daughter of Edward Stafford, 
 Duke of Buckingham. He was born in 1516. 
 He was well educated, talented, and chivalric. 
 While at Florence he issued a general chal- 
 lenge, and in a splendid tournament main- 
 tained the beauty of his mistress Geraldine 
 at the point of the lance ; he was completely 
 victorious. In 1542 he served in the army, 
 under his father, in Scotland; and in 1544 
 he went as field-marshal to Boulogne, where, 
 being then knight of the garter, he was con- 
 stituted king’s lieutenant and captain-general. 
 Happening, however, to prove unfortunate in 
 an attempt upon the enemy’s convoy of pro- 
 visions, he incurred the displeasure of Henry 
 VIII., which hastened his ruin. Some in- 
 temperate language, used by him, was caught 
 hold of ; charges were brought against him, 
 and he was beheaded on Tower Hill, Janua- 
 ry 19th, 1546-7. 
 
 HOWARD, Thomas, Earl of Surrey, and 
 third Duke of Norfolk, was born in 1473. He 
 was bred to arms, and soon after the accession 
 of Henry VIII. was honored with the order of 
 the garter. He succeeded his brother, Sir 
 Edward Howard, as high admiral, in 1513 ; 
 
 and the victory of Flodden Field was chiefly 
 owing to his valor and skill. For this, the 
 title of Duke of Norfolk was restored to his 
 father, and he was himself created Earl of 
 Surrey. In 1521 he went to Ireland as lord 
 lieutenant, and while there suppressed a dan- 
 gerous rebellion. Notwithstanding these ser- 
 vices, he was sent to the Tower by Henry, 
 at the close of his reign, and kept there till 
 the accession of Mary, when he was released, 
 and contributed to suppress W yatt’s rebellion. 
 He died in 1554. 
 
 HOWE, George, Viscount, was the eldest 
 son of Sir E. Scrope, second Viscount Howe 
 in Ireland. He was the second in command 
 in Abercrombie’s expedition, and fell before 
 Ticonderoga in 1758, aged thirty-four. He 
 was the idol of the army, both regular and 
 provincial, and his untimely death was lament- 
 ed throughout the colonies. 
 
 HOWE, Richard, Earl, the second son of 
 Sir Emanuel Scrope, second Viscount Howe, 
 was born in 1725, and at the age of fourteen 
 went on board the Severn, part of the squad- 
 ron destined for the South Seas under Anson. 
 In 1745 he was with Admiral Vernon, and 
 soon after was made commander of the Balti- 
 more sloop, in which, with another armed 
 vessel, he beat off two French ships conveying 
 troops and ammunition to the Pretender ; for 
 which he was made a post-captain. On the 
 breaking out of the war with France, he com- 
 manded the Dunkirk ; with which he took 
 the Alcide, a French sixty-four, off Newfound- 
 land. In 1757 he served under Sir Edward 
 Hawke, and his ship, the Magnanime, battered 
 the fort on the Aix till it surrendered. After 
 this he was appointed commodore of a squad- 
 ron, with which he took the town of Cher- 
 bourg, and destroyed the basin. When France 
 entered into war to aid America against Eng- 
 land, Lord Howe was sent to America to op- 
 pose D’Estaing. In 1782 he was made an 
 English viscount, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of the fleet sent to the relief of Gibral- 
 tar, which object he accomplished. The next 
 year he was made first lord of the admiralty ; 
 but soon resigned that station to Lord Keppel. 
 In 1788 he was created an English earl. On 
 the breaking out of hostilities with France, in 
 1793, he was appointed to the command of 
 the channel fleet ; and on the 1st of June, in 
 the following year, he gained a complete vic- 
 
 HOW 
 
410 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tory over the French, who lost seven ships of 
 the line. For this he received the thanks of 
 parliament; the king visited him on board 
 his ship, presented him with a valuable sword, 
 and made him knight of the garter. The last 
 service rendered by his lordship to his coun- 
 try, was in reducing the mutinous seamen to 
 their duty by kindness, at Portsmouth in 
 1797. He died August 5th, 1799. 
 
 HOWE, Sir William, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, succeeded General Gage in the com- 
 mand of the forces in America in 1775. He 
 defeated the Americans in the battle of Long 
 Island, 1776, took possession of New York, 
 and in the October of the same year, repelled 
 the Americans at Germantown. He was suc- 
 ceeded in his command by Clinton, in 1778. 
 His death took place in 1814. 
 
 HUDSON, Henry, an eminent naval com- 
 mander and discoverer in North America, from 
 1607 to 1610. In the latter year, whilst nav- 
 igating the bay which now bears his name, 
 his crew mutinied, and put him, his son, and 
 seven others on shore, where they no doubt 
 perished. 
 
 HUGH CAPET, Duke and afterward King 
 of France, was the son of Hugh the Great, 
 who dying left him under the protection of 
 Richard I., Duke of Normandy. Lothaire, 
 King of France, pleased with Hugh’s prudence 
 and generosity, gave him, in 960, the dukedom 
 of France, with the earldom of Paris and Poi- 
 tou. Louis Y. , dying fifteen or sixteen months 
 after his father, Hugh Capet was proclaimed 
 king at Noyon, and crowned at Rheims, 987. 
 Charles I., Duke of Lower Lorraine, son of 
 Louis IV., the only man of the royal blood 
 left in France, was taken prisoner by Hugh, 
 and died in 992. 
 
 HUGUENOTS, the name given in 1560 by 
 the Catholics of France to their Protestant 
 countrymen, as a term of reproach. Thou- 
 sands of them perished in the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew, and the persecutions that fol- 
 lowed. Henry IV. secured their safety and 
 rights by the edict of Nantes. Its revocation 
 by Louis XI Y., and the cruelties of the drag- 
 onnade, drove throngs into exile. The man- 
 ufactures of England had their start from the 
 Flemings who fled from the Low Countries 
 before the pitiless Duke of Alva : they received 
 new impulse from the Huguenot artisans. 
 Many Huguenots sought an asylum beyond 
 
 the sea. Some settled in Rhode Island ; oth- 
 ers in Ulster and Orange counties, New York, 
 where their descendants are numerous at this 
 day ; more made their home in South Caro- 
 lina, sowing those seeds of civil liberty which 
 ripened so nobly during the Revolution. 
 
 HULL, Isaac, was born at Derby, Conn., 
 in 1775. He began to follow the sea when a 
 mere lad, and at the establishment of the navy 
 received a lieutenant’s commission. To him 
 the first British flag was struck on the ocean, 
 during the war of 1812 ; this was on the 19th 
 of August, 1812, when the frigate Guerriere, 
 commanded by Capt. Dacres, was captured by 
 the frigate Constitution, after a close action of 
 thirty minutes. Commodore Hull died at 
 Philadelphia, Feb. 13th, 1843. 
 
 HULL, William, was an officer in the Rev- 
 olutionary army. He afterward reached the 
 rank of brigadier-general and was governor of 
 Michigan territory. At the commencement 
 of the war of 1812, he commanded the north- 
 western army. He surrendered his whole 
 force at Detroit to Gen. Brock, Aug. 16th, 
 1812. For this reverse, Gen. Hull was con- 
 demned by a court-martial to be shot ; a sen- 
 tence which was mitigated in consideration of 
 his previous services and his age. He lived 
 to see his character vindicated, dying in 1825, 
 aged seventy-two. 
 
 HUME, David, the philosopher and histo- 
 rian, died at Edinburgh, his native city, Aug. 
 25th, 1776, aged sixty -five. 
 
 HUMPHREYS, David, was born at Derby, 
 Conn., July, 1752. In 1780 he was appointed 
 aid to Gen. Washington, with whom he re- 
 mained through the residue of the war, and 
 at its termination accompanied him to Vir- 
 ginia. Col. Humphreys w r as distinguished 
 for his gallantry and military skill at the siege 
 of Yorktown. He remained with Gen. W ash- 
 in gton until 1790, with the exception of two 
 years’ residence in France. In 1790 he was 
 appointed minister to Portugal, and afterward 
 to Spain. He died Feb. 21st, 1818, aged sixty- 
 six. He was much interested in the introduc- 
 tion of merino sheep into this country. 
 
 HUNGARY, the country of the Magyars, 
 or Hungarians. They are represented as de- 
 rived from the Huns of Attila. A complete 
 account of ancient Hungary would present 
 little more than the melancholy picture of a 
 perpetual seat of war. The Romans for a time 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 411 
 
 assumed the ascendant, and obtained a decided 
 superiority over the opposite and conflicting 
 parties. The Hungarians have been thought 
 to belong to the Finnish nations, from the 
 resemblance there is between certain words 
 of their respective dialects. The Magyars 
 appear to have been a principal division of 
 that great northern people near the Altai 
 Mountains, whence issued the hordes who 
 introduced such changes in the character of 
 nations, Asiatic and European. So far as the I 
 Magyars are concerned, their progress from 
 the Altai Mountains seems obvious. About 
 the end of the ninth century, we find a divi- 
 sion of them entering the plains of Munkatz, 
 under their leader, Almus, whose son Arpad 
 was the first duke of Hungary. In a few 
 years (896) Arpad had dispossessed several of 
 the princes of Hungary, and contracted alli- 
 ances with others. He subdued a considera- 
 ble portion of the Moravian kingdom, and, in 
 the ardor of conquest, was for attempting to 
 establish himself in the territories of the Em- 
 peror Arnulph. Arpad finally extended his 
 conquests into Bavaria, Suabia, Franconia, 
 and Italy; his exertions were divided, but 
 everywhere successful. Ilis son Zoltan, in 
 907, had penetrated into Alsatia, Lorraine, 
 and France. While the genius of the state 
 was thus aspiring to eminence, the strength 
 of others seemed proportionately paralyzed, 
 as if the unremitting cruelties characteristic 
 of Attila were again to be feared. 
 
 The imputation of ferocity affixed to the 
 name of the Huns inspired terror, till their 
 fourth duke, Geysa, diverted their ferocious 
 dispositions into other channels. The .atten- 
 tion he bestowed in giving a tinge of religion 
 to the mind and manners of his countrymen, 
 operated as an incentive to their civilization. 
 It was not until the commencement of the 
 eleventh century, that a people rude, and 
 proud of their rudeness, were induced to lay 
 aside their barbarous habits. Stephen, their 
 last duke and first king, introduced the 
 Christian religion, and those social institu- 
 tions, which, if left to operate unrestrained, 
 give a stamp to the character of a people. 
 He died in 1038, after a reign of forty-one 
 years, during which he had established laws 
 in the interior, reunited Transylvania to his 
 kingdom, subjugated the Sclavi and Bulgari- 
 
 ans, and effected much for the amelioration of 
 society and morals. 
 
 On the death of Stephen, Hungary be- 
 came subject to the tyranny of various 
 princes, the country being involved, for 
 nearly a century, in the horrors of civil war. 
 In this distracted state of the kingdom, vari- 
 ous usurpers aspiring to the throne, the 
 churches were destroyed, and the ministers 
 of religion persecuted. Any intervals of 
 peace were interrupted by the Bulgarians, 
 Wallachians, Russians, Croats, &c., renewing 
 their inroads. Under Ladislaus I., 1077, the 
 country enjoyed some tranquillity ; religion, 
 commerce, legislation, tempered the bold 
 independence of a dark age ; and as a war- 
 rior, he also became the temporary savior of 
 his country. John Corvin, or Hunniades, 
 was justly celebrated for his military achieve- 
 ments in the wars with Amurath II. and 
 Mohammed IT. His son, Matthias Corvin, 
 was unanimously elected king in 1458, and 
 gave early indications of great gifts and 
 talents, adding not a little to the lustre of his 
 father’s acquirements. From his character, 
 policy, military operations, and great power, 
 he has been described as one of the most 
 accomplished kings of Hungary. Such was 
 the force of his mind, that his views extended 
 to whatever could secure his government, 
 and render it formidable. His ends were 
 great, and his means prudent ; he kept both 
 the Turks and Austrians at bay, and, as a 
 politician and hero, was watchful over his 
 enemies, both at home and abroad. To his 
 other eminent qualities, this king added a 
 measure of literary reputation. He is said 
 to have been conversant with the languages, 
 arts, and sciences of his time ; the country 
 flourished under his establishments, civil and 
 military ; and the love of his subjects shows 
 the great esteem in which he was held by 
 them. Compared, generally, with his con- 
 temporaries in power, the energy of his mind 
 seems worthy of admiration. He knew how 
 to anticipate hostile designs, and we find the 
 kingdom, under his government, preponder- 
 ating in the balance of Europe. Matthias 
 had no children, and the election of a new 
 king occasioned a scene of distress. Under 
 Louis II. in 1516, the Turks besieged Bel- 
 grade, which surrendered to their arms ; and 
 
 HUN 
 
412 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 this was followed by various other successes. 
 In the famous battle of Mohatz (1526), Louis 
 was defeated and slain ; Buda was given up 
 to pillage ; and the ferocious barbarians, un- 
 der Solyman II., after plundering the coun- 
 try, converted the scene of their depredations 
 into an immense desert. The country was 
 now convulsed with disputes about the suc- 
 cession, the Archduke Ferdinand being op- 
 posed by John Zapolski, who was finally 
 seated on the throne. Zapolski died in 
 1540, and the Hungarians invited Ferdinand 
 to the throne. The country was again deso- 
 lated and crimsoned with blood. In 1564 
 Maximilian II., Emperor of Germany, laid 
 claim to the crown, but it was not till 1570 
 that a peace was finally ratified between the 
 Hungarians and Germans ; John Sigismund, 
 son of Zapolski, was created Prince of Tran- 
 sylvania. The next circumstance to be no- 
 ticed and recorded, is the definitive subjection 
 of the Hungarians to the imperial house of 
 Austria. At the accession of Charles VI., 
 Emperor of Germany, a definitive treaty, in 
 1711, terminated all differences; it was not 
 till then that every principle of internal hos- 
 tility, all those evils which had proved a 
 hindrance to civilization, disappeared. As 
 the Hungarians were now united to the Aus- 
 trian dynasty, the series of their kings is that 
 of the emperors. 
 
 The Austrian rule was on many accounts 
 unpopular, and ardent patriots dreamed of a 
 restoration of that independence which had 
 been lost in the Austrian empire. When, 
 in 1848, France set the fires of revolution a 
 blazing, they soon caught in Hungary. A 
 provisional government was set up, at the 
 head of which was the eloquent Kossuth. 
 For a time a brilliant struggle kept the Aus- 
 trian power at bay ; but dissensions weakened 
 the patriots ; Kossuth, great as were his elo- 
 quence and patriotism, lacked decision ; the 
 czar sent an army in aid of the imperial des- 
 potism; the Austrians were victorious in 
 several fields ; and on the 11th of August, 
 1849, Kossuth, in obedience to his colleagues, 
 resigned his authority into the hands of Gor- 
 gei, the commander of the army, and fled into 
 Turkey. Gorgei completed the negotiations 
 he had before commenced with the Russian 
 general, for an unconditional surrender. On 
 
 the 17th of August the Hungarians laid down 
 their arms ; the contest was at an end. The 
 hapless nation suffered severely under the 
 restored domination of Austria, which was 
 now far more severe than ever. 
 
 Hungary, as at present limited, contains 
 69,325 square miles, and in 1857 had a popu- 
 lation of 9,900,785. Pesth, the most popu- 
 lous city and the ancient capital of the king- 
 dom, stands on the east bank of the Danube, 
 opposite Buda ; population 131,705. 
 
 HUNS, a warlike tribe of Scythia, or Tar- 
 tary, who invaded Europe in the fifth cen- 
 tury. The ravages of Attila, their leader, 
 gained him the name of ‘the scourge of God.’ 
 It was to check the invasions of this people, 
 that the Chinese built their great wall about 
 200 b.c. 
 
 HUNTER, John, the eminent surgeon, 
 died very suddenly in St. George’s Hospital, 
 London, Oct. 16th, 1793, aged sixty-five. 
 His elder brother, William (1717-1783), was 
 also a distinguished anatomist. 
 
 HUNTINGDON, Selina, Countess of, was 
 the second daughter of Washington, Earl Fer- 
 rers. She was born in 1707, and left the 
 widow of Theophilus Hastings, Earl of Hunt- 
 ingdon, in 1747. She was the friend of 
 Whitfield and the W esleys, in aid of whose 
 evangelical schemes, by the rearing of chap- 
 els, the maintenance of ministers, the founda- 
 tion of seminaries for their training, &c., 
 her ample jointure and her active labors were 
 bestowed. She lived to the age of eighty- 
 four. 
 
 HUNTINGTON, Samuel, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 Windham, Conn., July 3d, 1732. He was 
 the son of a farmer, and educated at a com- 
 mon school. At the age of twenty-two, he 
 was admitted to practice law in his native 
 place, but shortly afterward removed to Nor- 
 wich. In 1764 he was representative of 
 Norwich to the general assembly, and in the 
 next year king’s attorney; in 1774 he was 
 made a judge of the superior court. In 1775 
 he was chosen a member of the council of 
 Connecticut, and in 1776 he took his seat as 
 a delegate to the general congress. In 1779 
 he succeeded John Jay as president of that 
 body. He was made chief-justice of Connec- 
 ticut, then lieutenant-governor; and in 1786 
 
 HUN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 413 
 
 he succeeded Mr. Griswold, as governor of 
 Connecticut, filling the office till his death, 
 January 5th, 1796. 
 
 HUSS, John, the celebrated reformer, was 
 a native of Bohemia, born in 1370, and edu- 
 cated at the University of Prague. He early 
 perceived the corruption of the Romish 
 church, and exposed its prevalent abuses 
 freely, although persecuted by several popes. 
 He finally appeared at the council of Con- 
 stance under a safe-conduct from the Emperor 
 Sigismund : yet nevertheless he was thrown 
 into prison, and, after some months of con- 
 finement, sentenced to be burned alive. This 
 dreadful fate he met with resignation and 
 lofty faith, July 6th, 1415, and his ashes 
 were thrown into the Rhine. The rebellion 
 of the followers of Huss lasted fifteen years, 
 and filled Bohemia with bloodshed. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Thomas, born at Boston, 
 1711, graduated at Harvard College in 1727. 
 He was appointed lieutenant-governor of 
 Massachusetts in 1758, and chief-justice in 
 1760. In 1771 he was made royal governor 
 of Massachusetts. He was succeeded by 
 Gage in 1774, and retreated to England, 
 where he lived in retirement at Brompton, 
 
 and died June 3d, 1780, in his sixty-ninth 
 year. At one time a Boston mob attacked 
 his house, which was nearly demolished. 
 His uniform support of the ministerial meas- 
 ures made him exceedingly unpopular. 
 
 HYDER ALI, an eastern prince of Mo- 
 hammedan origin, the formidable enemy to 
 the British in India. He was frequently suc- 
 cessful, and, in 1766 his dominions contained 
 70,000 square miles. He died in 1782, and 
 was succeeded by Tippoo Saib, his son. 
 
 HYMEN. Hymenseus, an Athenian youth 
 of extraordinary beauty, but low birth, be- 
 came enamored of the daughter of one of 
 the noblest of his countrymen. The rank 
 of his mistress preventing his suit, he fol- 
 lowed her wherever she went, disguised as a 
 woman. A procession to Eleusis was seized 
 by pirates, and Hymen, after sharing the 
 captivity of his mistress, effected her rescue. 
 He was rewarded by her hand, and so great 
 was his felicity i» wedlock that the Atheni- 
 ans instituted festivals in his honor about 
 1350 b.c., and solemnly invoked him at their 
 nuptials, believing that no union could be 
 joyous or fortunate without his aid. 
 
 I. 
 
 ICELAND, a large island in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, near the confines of the polar circle, 
 belonging to Denmark. Christianity was 
 introduced into it in 981. Among its curiosi- 
 ties are the Geysers, or boiling springs, and 
 the numerous volcanoes, the largest of which 
 is Mount Hecla, whose terrific eruptions have 
 often caused the greatest distress amhng the 
 inhabitants. The islanders are simple, frugal, 
 industrious, and pious ; the lower classes are 
 well informed. The staple exports are fish, 
 oil, eider down, sulphur, and salted mutton. 
 Iceland was discovered in the middle of the 
 ninth century, and settled by Norsemen in 
 874. 
 
 ILLINOIS contains 55,405 square miles, 
 and in 1870 had 2,539,891 inhabitants. The 
 Mississippi forms the western boundary of 
 this rich country ; the Ohio the southern ; the 
 W abash and Lake Michigan wash a large part 
 
 of the eastern line ; while the interior is pene- 
 trated by such noble and navigable streams 
 as the Illinois, the Rock, and the Kaskaskia. 
 A small tract in the south is hilly, and the 
 northern portion is also somewhat broken ; 
 but the general surface is almost a uniform 
 level, or slightly undulating. About two- 
 thirds of the state consisted of prairies, on 
 whose wide expanses cultivation is rapidly 
 encroaching. The barrens, or oak openings, 
 partake as it were at once of the character of 
 the forest and the prairie. They rise from a 
 grassy turf seldom encumbered with brush- 
 wood, but not unfrequently broken by jungles 
 of rich and gaudy flowering plants, and of 
 dwarf sumach. Among the oak openings 
 you find some of the most lovely landscapes 
 of the west, and travel for miles and miles 
 through varied parks of natural growth, with 
 all the diversity of gently swelling hill and 
 
 ILL 
 
414 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dale: here, trees grouped, or standing single.; 
 and there, arranged in long avenues, as 
 though by human hands, with slips of open 
 meadow between. Sometimes the openings 
 are interspersed with clear lakes of enchanting 
 beauty. The alluvial bottoms are tracts of 
 great fertility. Lead is found in the north- 
 western corner of Illinois in exhaustless 
 quantities. Bituminous coal, iron, and cop- 
 per are also obtained. Maize and wheat are 
 the great staples of the state. In the north 
 are stony tracts, but elsewhere the plough 
 may furrow millions of acres without turning 
 even a pebble. 
 
 Settlements were made along the Missis- 
 sippi by the French from Canada toward the 
 close of the seventeenth century, as at Caho- 
 kia and Kaskaskia. The whole of this region 
 was abandoned to the English by the peace 
 of 1763. In 1809 Illinois was organized as 
 a territory, and its admission into the Union 
 followed in 1818. The state is named from 
 its great central river, whose appellation is 
 aboriginal, meaning ‘ the river of men.’ By 
 the constitution the elective franchise per- 
 tains to every white major citizen, who has 
 resided in the state for one year. Dueling is 
 a disqualification for office. The state sen- 
 ate is elected for four years, one-half bienni- 
 ally ; the lower house for two years. The 
 sessions are biennial. The governor is elected 
 for four years. The three judges of the su- 
 preme court have terms of nine years, one 
 being chosen triennially by the people. There 
 are nine judicial districts. Circuit judges are 
 
 chosen from each district and hold office for 
 six years. Considerable provision is made by 
 the state for education. 
 
 Springfield, the capital, on the border of 
 a beautiful prairie, had 19,811 inhabitants in 
 1870. The great city of Illinois is Chicago. 
 It numbered, in 1870, 298,977 inhabitants. 
 In the early part of October, 1871, the busi- 
 ness portion of the city was partially destroyed 
 by fire, and over $150,000,000 worth of prop- 
 erty was destroyed. Efforts are being made to 
 rebuild the burned portion of the city, and the 
 enterprise which has characterized its citizens 
 is further evidenced in this work of recon- 
 struction. Alton, on the left bank of the 
 Mississippi, three miles above the confluence 
 of the Missouri, is the chief town of western 
 Illinois ; population 8,665. Peoria and Quin- 
 cy are flourishing towns. 
 
 INDIA. This region, between Cape Co- 
 morin and the Himalaya Mountains, formerly 
 called the Peninsula within the Ganges, is 
 known in the Persian language as Hindus- 
 tan, the country of the Hindoos. The area 
 is about 1,300,000 square miles, or more than 
 ten times the extent of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. The population is estimated at 
 200,000,000. The coast-line amounts to 
 3,200 miles, of which 1,800 miles are washed 
 by the Indian Ocean, and 1,400 miles by the 
 Bay of Bengal. Intersected by vast and 
 lofty mountain ranges, the Indian peninsula 
 presents a remarkably varied surface of table- 
 land, plain, and valley ; and extending as it 
 does from 8° 4' to 34° N. lat., with some- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 415 
 
 times tracts half a mile above the level of the 
 sea, there are many varieties of climate and 
 a great range of temperature. 
 
 The island of Rameserum, off the coast of 
 Southern India, is low, sandy, uncultivated, 
 but celebrated for the extent and splendor 
 of its great pagoda ; it is still visited by pil- 
 grims from all parts of Hindustan. The 
 isolated mountain region of Southern India 
 rises to 7,000 and 8,000 feet, the highest land 
 south of the Himalayas. Here are the do- 
 minions of the Rajah of Travancore and the 
 Rajah of Cochin. 
 
 The region south of the river Nerbudda, 
 separated from Southern India by the Gap 
 of Coimbatore, is called the Deccan. It is 
 mostly an elevated table-land, the greatest 
 portion still under the sway of Hindoo or 
 Mohammedan princes, in alliance with the 
 British. The kingdom of Mysore, in the 
 south, is governed by a Hindoo prince. In the 
 north are the territories of the Nizam of Hy- 
 drabad, or Hyderabad ; Ilydrabad, the capi- 
 tal, is noted for its traffic in diamonds ; this 
 was formerly called the kingdom of Golconda. 
 East of this are the possessions of the Rajah 
 of Berar or Nagpoor. The territory of the 
 Rajah of Colapore extends along the West- 
 ern Ghauts. The Deccan is skirted on every 
 side by lofty ranges of mountains, known as 
 the Ghauts, from which the descent to the 
 low narrow belt along the seashore is steep 
 and difficult. The southern part of the nar- 
 row coast between the Western Ghauts and 
 the Indian Ocean is called Malabar. On 
 these Western Ghauts, between' 12° and 14° 
 N. lat., grows the only sandal-wood in Hin- 
 dustan ; it is an important export to China 
 and Japan. The city of Goa, belonging to 
 the Portuguese, lies on the western coast: 
 once it was splendid and populous, with. mag- 
 nificent dwellings and many elegant churches 
 and monasteries ; these are now decaying, 
 and the ancient town, now very unhealthy, 
 is scantily peopled. A new, well-built town, 
 five miles nearer the sea, called Panjim, is 
 the residence of the Portuguese viceroy, and 
 has 20,000 inhabitants. Mah6 is a French 
 settlement on this coast, with a trade in 
 pepper. On the Nilgherry Mountains, only 
 eleven degrees from the equator, the climate 
 and productions of Europe are found. Here 
 are established sanitary stations, where Eu- 
 
 ropeans may regain their health when im- 
 paired by a long residence in hot countries. 
 The country between the Eastern Ghauts and 
 the Bay of Bengal comprises the central and 
 northern Carnatic, with the Guntoor Circar. 
 Here is the Coromandel coast, Madras, the 
 French settlement of Pondicherry, and the 
 Danish one of Tranquebar. The coast is 
 much exposed, and during the south-west 
 monsoon the only smooth water is the harbor 
 of Coringa. 
 
 Central India, or the mountain region of 
 Northern Hindustan, has nearly the form of 
 a triangle, whose base is the Yindhya Mount- 
 ains, and the apex near Delhi. To this region 
 belong Gujerat and Cutch. The country is 
 for the most part in the possession of native 
 rulers, the Mahratta princes, Scindia, Ilolkar, 
 the Guicowar, the Rajpoots, and the Rajah 
 of Rewa. 
 
 The Ganges rises among the highest Hima- 
 layas, and enters the sea by a man}^-branched 
 delta, after a course of nearly 1,500 miles. 
 The great plain drained by it and its afflu- 
 ents is the most fertile, the best cultivated, 
 and the most thickly inhabited portion of 
 Hindustan, containing more than one-half of 
 its population. Here are the cities of Be- 
 nares, Calcutta, Cawnpoor, Delhi, Lucknow, 
 &c. This region is entirely under British 
 rule ; the kingdom of Oude was their last 
 acquisition. 
 
 The Indus rises on the table-land of Thi- 
 bet. The extensive plain of the Indus com- 
 prehends the Punjaub (country of the five 
 rivers), Sinde, &c. The Punjaub has very 
 fertile and very sterile tracts ; rice is the 
 chief object of agriculture. The Sikhs are 
 the principal inhabitants. The Punjaub is 
 now a British province, and Lahore the seat 
 of rule. Sinde is indebted for its fertility to 
 the inundations of the Indus ; as far as these 
 extend, the country yields abundant crops. 
 It is thinly peopled. It was formerly ruled 
 by chiefs of Belooch descent, called ameers ; 
 it is now annexed to the Bombay presidency. 
 
 The Himalayas form the northern boundary 
 of India. The range is some 1,500 miles in 
 length, with a breadth between 80 and 120 
 miles ; it may occupy a surface of 150,000 
 square miles. In its arms the Cashmere val- 
 ley is enclosed. The highest portion of the 
 Himalayas is the Dhawalaghiri range, where 
 
 IND 
 
416 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the summit of Ghosa Cotee attains an eleva- 
 tion of 28,000 feet above the level of the sea, 
 the highest land known on the globe. The 
 word ‘Himalaya’ is Sanscrit, meaning, ‘the 
 abode of frost’ 
 
 The aboriginal tribes, besides the Hindoos, 
 are few and only found in the mountainous 
 parts of India. The foreigners are partly 
 Asiatics and partly Europeans. The Asiatics 
 have come by sea and by land. To the former 
 class belong the Arabs, who are very numer- 
 ous on the coast of Malabar. Some Parsees, 
 or Guebres, are dispersed through the cities 
 on the coast between Bombay and Surat. 
 The Asiatics who entered by land chiefly 
 settled in the plains of the Ganges and the 
 Indus. They came with the conquerors who 
 at several epochs have established their em- 
 pires here. They are mostly Afghans, are 
 commonly called Patans, and number about 
 IO^OOOjOOO. The Europeans are chiefly de- 
 scendants of the Portuguese, and most nu- 
 merous along the western coast. Their 
 number is between one and two million. 
 The British race is pre-eminent in power ; 
 yet it numbers less than 100,000. 
 
 India is rich in gems ; not diamonds only, 
 but rubies, emeralds, sapphires, turquoises, 
 opals, amethysts, and almost every known 
 gem, arc found, of great purity and beauty. 
 Gold is rare. There is iron of good quality. 
 The celebrated Damascus blades bore testimo- 
 ny of old to the worth of Indian steel, and there 
 is still some produced of equally fine quality. 
 Lead, copper, zinc, and tin also exist in vari- 
 ous districts. The forests furnish valuable 
 woods — ebonjq satin-wood, calamander, teak, 
 saul-wood, and the useful bamboo. The 
 most important crop of India is cotton. It 
 is inferior to the cotton of the United States 
 in length of fibre and in cleanliness. The 
 other great staple of India is rice, grown in 
 every variety of soil and in every climate. 
 The land is rich in dyes. India rubber has 
 long been exported to England. Tobacco is 
 grown considerably, but of inferior quality. 
 Maize is freely cultivated, but it is far from 
 equalling to the American corn. 
 
 India is comprised- in three great political 
 divisions, the presidencies of Bengal (includ- 
 ing the sub-presidency of Agra, or the north- 
 western provinces), Madras, and Bombay, 
 the former the seat of the governor-general 
 
 and the supreme council. These divisions 
 include not only the territories under the 
 direct rule of the British, but also most of 
 the native states, some of which are sub- 
 sidiary, some tributary, some protected, and 
 some nominally independent ; but all are 
 more or less under British control. Nearly a 
 million and a half sterling has been annually 
 paid in pensions to conquered native princes. 
 
 The antiquity of the Hindoos is undoubt- 
 edly great ; little change has taken place in 
 their religion, manners, or customs, for more 
 than two thousand years. Hindustan was 
 very slightly known to the ancients. They 
 had some vague idea of its extent and 
 wealth, but they had little knowledge of its 
 interior. Various attempts were made to 
 subdue the land : Alexander the Great car- 
 ried his victorious arms across the frontier ; 
 Seleucus advanced as far as the Ganges ; 
 Semiramis pushed her forces against the In- 
 dians ; and other adventurers essayed their 
 subversion. Whatever successes they gained 
 appeared not to result to their advantage ; 
 the people resisted their invaders with great 
 bravery. The Romans never extended their 
 conquests as far as India. 
 
 Commerce between India and the western 
 nations of Asia appears to have been carried 
 on from the earliest times. Indian articles 
 found their way into Europe through the 
 Phoenician merchants. After the foundation 
 of Alexandria in Egypt, the Indian traffic 
 was sustained almost exclusively by its mer- 
 chants. 
 
 Hardly anything is known of the history 
 of India from the time of Alexander to the 
 Mohammedan conquest. The Greek king- 
 dom of Bactria, founded by Theodotus, a 
 lieutenant of the S}^rian monarchs, b.c. 255, 
 comprised a considerable part of northern 
 India. It was overthrown, b.c. 126, by the 
 Tartars (called Scythians by the Greeks), who 
 possessed the greater part of north-western 
 Hindustan till they were driven beyond the 
 Indus, b.c. 56, by Vicramaditya I. The 
 earliest invasion of the Mohammedans was 
 made in the latter part of the tenth century 
 under Mahmoud Ghazni, who led twelve ex- 
 peditions in all into Hindustan, sacking cities, 
 carrying off their treasure, and trying to ex- 
 terminate the inhabitants, since he could not 
 convert them to the faith of Islam. Inva- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 417 
 
 sions and conquests followed, and in 1093 
 Delhi was taken, and made the capital of the 
 Mohammedan empire in India. In 1398 
 Tamerlane descended upon India with his 
 conquering horde of Tartars, massacring the 
 inhabitants of every place through which he 
 passed, and defeating the Indian army with 
 immense slaughter. He carried away a great 
 booty and a vast retinue of slaves, leaving 
 the country a desert which he had found a 
 garden. In 1526 Baber, a descendant of 
 Tamerlane, took Delhi, and established the 
 Tartar dynasty, or as it is commonly called, 
 the Mogul empire. The emperor was known 
 in Europe as the Great Mogul. Akbar, 
 Shah Jehan, Aurungzebe, were emperors of 
 great renown. 
 
 In 1738 Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan, the 
 ambitious monarch of Persia, crossed the 
 Indus with a brave and veteran army, and 
 soon decisively defeated the Mogul’s troops. 
 Nadir Shah’s stay at Delhi was marked by 
 rapacity and bloodshed ; a hundred and fifty 
 thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, 
 and the conqueror is said to have borne off 
 over $100,000,000 in treasure ! By this blow 
 the power of the emperor was nearly de- 
 stroyed ; only one imperial army ever entered 
 the field after this, and that was defeated by 
 the Rohillas in 1749. Delhi, and a few miles 
 around it, constituted almost the sole terri- 
 tory of the descendants of Tamerlane; while 
 the governors of districts and provinces, un- 
 der the names of rajahs, nabobs, and a variety 
 of others, became independent sovereigns. 
 
 The Portuguese were the first nation of 
 Europe that got a foothold in India ; Vasco 
 de Gama landed at Calicut, May 20th, 1498. 
 By the possession of Malacca they commanded 
 the trade of the* Indian archipelago ; and by 
 their numerous settlements along the Mala- 
 bar coast, especially at Goa and Diu, they 
 monopolized the commerce with Europe. 
 Under their rule the inquisition was planted 
 in India, and its shambles dripped with hor- 
 rors. In the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, the English, Dutch, and French began 
 to make settlements along the coast, and the 
 Portuguese lost their dominions almost as 
 rapidly as they had acquired them. They 
 still possess Goa, Damaun, and Diu. The 
 Dutch never gained much political power in 
 Hindustan, though at one time they carried 
 27 
 
 on the greater part of the Indian trade. The 
 French obtained extensive possessions in the 
 Deccan, of which they retain only Pondi- 
 cherry, Carical, Yanaon, Mahe, and Chander- 
 nagore. 
 
 The first maritime mercantile adventure 
 from England direct to India w T as in 1591. 
 In 1600 a charter w T as given to an association 
 of merchants, under the designation of “ The 
 Governor and Compan}' - of London Mer- 
 chants trading to the East Indies.” In 1615 
 an English ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, w r as 
 sent to the court of the Mogul emperor, by 
 whom he w T as cordially received. The Eng- 
 lish East India Company w r ere pretty suc- 
 cessful in their voyages ; and after victoriously 
 contending with the Portuguese in several 
 naval engagements, they at length succeeded 
 (1612) in forming a factory at Surat, on the 
 Malabar coast, by permission of the Emperor 
 Jehan Ghir. They had to struggle against 
 the enmity of both the Portuguese and the 
 Dutch. In 1639 permission wms obtained to 
 erect a fortress at Madras. Accident laid 
 the foundation of their pow r er in Bengal in 
 1652, when, through the influence of a medi- 
 cal gentleman who had successfully used his 
 professional skill at the court of the Mogul, 
 a license was given, for the merely nominal 
 sum of thirty thousand rupees, permitting 
 the English East India Company to trade to 
 an unlimited extent, free from all payment 
 cf duties. The first English post was at 
 Ilooghly, twenty-three miles higher up the 
 river than Calcutta. It wrns not until 1698 
 that the factory w T as removed to Calcutta, 
 and Fort William built. 
 
 Bombay had been ceded to the Portuguese 
 by the Mogul in 1630. It came into the pos- 
 session of England on the marriage of Charles 
 II. w T ith the Infanta Catherine of Portugal. 
 By the marriage contract, Charles was to 
 receive £500,000 in money, the town of Tan- 
 gier in Africa, and the island of Bombay with 
 its dependencies, together wdth permission 
 for his subjects to carry on a free trade with 
 the Portuguese settlements in India and Bra- 
 zil. The island was transferred to the East 
 India Company in 1668. 
 
 The wars waged between France and Eng- 
 land in the eighteenth century extended into 
 India. Hostilities commenced in 1747, and 
 w r ere waged with spirit by both sides, the 
 
 IND 
 
418 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 abilities of Clive contributing to the successes 
 of the English, until in 1755 a cessation took 
 place. In 1750, the authorities at Calcutta 
 having been induced by dread of the French 
 to strengthen their fortifications, Surajah 
 Dowlah, the soubahdar of Bengal, who had 
 never been friendly to the English, made this 
 a pretext for attacking the place. The out- 
 posts were assailed on the 18th of June, 1756, 
 and after two days the fort was carried by 
 storm. The tragedy of the Black Hole fol- 
 lowed. On the first day of the next year 
 Calcutta was retaken by the English ; on the 
 23d of June following the nabob was de- 
 feated at Plassey by Clive ; and earl}' - in July 
 he was assassinated by the son of his suc- 
 cessor. From this time may be dated the 
 beginning of the absolute government of the 
 English in Bengal. 
 
 On the Coromandel coast, meantime, affairs 
 were going on very indifferently for the Eng- 
 lish. But things again took a turn, all the 
 enterprises of the French commander going 
 awry. His attempt upon Wandewash, in 
 1760, was extremely unfortunate. Chelta- 
 put, Arcot, Timery, Carical, Cillambaram, 
 Alamparva, Trincomalee, Cuddalore, fell into 
 the hands of the English. Pondicherry was 
 invested, and capitulated Jan. 15th, 1761 ; 
 the power of the French in India being thus 
 annihilated. 
 
 In 1767 a new enemy appeared in the 
 Deccan — Hvder Ali, Prince of Mysore, who 
 had raised himself from the rank of a sub- 
 ordinate soldier and established a principality 
 for himself. For several years he baffled the 
 attempts of the English to crush him, and 
 he often gained advantages over them in bat- 
 tle. In 1781 Sir Eyre Coote was appointed 
 commander-in-chief ; -he defeated Hyder in 
 several severe engagements. In the midst 
 of- the contest with the English II) r dcr died, 
 and there succeeded him as Sultan of Mysore 
 his bloodthirsty son, Tippoo Saib. He waged 
 war for several } r ears, till Seringapatam, the 
 capital of Mysore, was stormed, and Tippoo 
 slain, May 4th, 1709. 
 
 To enumerate in detail all the conquests 
 and intrigues h}* - which the British extended 
 their empire in India would far oiftrun our 
 limits. From 1801 to the close of 1805 the 
 first Mahrntta war lasted, in which Gen. 
 Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, 
 
 distinguished himself, especially at Assay e. 
 The second Mahratta war continued from 
 1806 till 1822. At the renewal of the Com- 
 pany’s charter in 1813, only the monopoly 
 in the trade between China and England was 
 retained; unrestricted intercourse with the 
 Indian possessions was allowed to British 
 merchants. In 1824 the Burmese commenced 
 hostilities ; Rangoon was taken by the Brit- 
 ish, and the Burmese several times defeated ; 
 in February, 1826, the Burmese monarch, 
 humbled and disheartened, made peace, ced- 
 ing a large tract of territory, and paying 
 £1,000,000 sterling. 
 
 At the renewal of the charter in 1833, not 
 only was the monopoly of the China trade 
 abolished, but the Company was restricted 
 from carrying on any commercial operations 
 whatever on its own account, and was con- 
 fined entirely to the territorial and political 
 management of the vast empire beneath its 
 sway. The disastrous Afghan expedition we 
 have already spoken of under Afghanistan. 
 As a sequel came hostilities with the Ameers 
 of Scinde; their army of 30,000 foot and 
 5,000 horse was routed on a bloody field by 
 Sir Charles Napier with a little band of 2,100, 
 and Scinde was annexed to the British em- 
 pire. The next great storm of bloodshed 
 was the war with the Sikhs, who crossed the 
 Sutlej and attacked the British at Ferozepore, 
 Dec. 14th, 1845. At Moodkee, Ferozeshah, 
 Aliwal, and Sobraon, within sixty days, the 
 Sikhs were defeated, and the war ended. A 
 second war with the Sikhs began in 1848. 
 Chillianwallah and Goojerat were the deci- 
 sive battles. March 14th, 1849, the Sikhs 
 laid down their arms, and surrendered un- 
 conditionally. The Punjaub was annexed to 
 the British dominions. In both wars the 
 victories over the Sikhs were bought by a 
 heavy sacrifice of British blood and life. In 
 1852 a second war with Burmah resulted 
 in the annexation of Pegu ; and in 1856 the 
 large, rich province of Oude was taken from 
 its profligate king. 
 
 Edmund Burke accused his countrymen of 
 having sold every monarch, prince, and state 
 in India, broken every contract, and ruined 
 every prince and every state who had ever 
 trusted them. India has presented a novel 
 spectacle. A handful of strangers from a 
 small ocean isle, dwelling among a people 
 
 IND 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 419 
 
 differing every way from them, draw from 
 the country a revenue of £27,000,000; they 
 fill the highest offices of state; they have 
 power over 98,000,000 of people, and exer- 
 cise indirect authority over 52,000,000 more 
 whom they suffer to be ruled through native 
 princes. Their sway extends over a space 
 half as large as Europe. The chiefs of this 
 vast empire had neither crown nor sceptre. 
 Subjected at home to the same laws as other 
 citizens, placed under the same power, their 
 rise was as silent as their fall ; they reigned 
 or died unknown to their subjects. These 
 masters, these kings, were merchants — mer- 
 chant princes in truth ! they composed the 
 English East India Company. 
 
 A veil may well be drawn over the blood} 1 ' 
 contests and oppressive measures by which 
 the natives of India were crushed, their 
 princes ruined and betrayed, their wealth 
 stolen from them, and their rights trampled 
 under foot, without remorse or hesitation. 
 Eloquent and upright men in England indig- 
 nantly denounced the conduct of the Com- 
 pany — in vain. Confiding in their wealth, 
 steeled by an unrelenting avarice, proud in a 
 constant success, they smiled at every attempt 
 to shake their power or impeach their officers. 
 The native sovereigns were not backward to 
 inflict revolting cruelties in retaliation. It 
 must be remembered that the Mohammedan 
 rulers who had sway before the advent of the 
 British, were themselves usurpers, and that 
 their despotisms were cruel and treacherous. 
 Notwithstanding the crimes that have sullied 
 the rule of the British, it has on the whole 
 been beneficial to the unhappy country. For 
 the wrongs of which they were guilty they 
 have reaped an awful harvest. 
 
 For a long time the Mohammedans of Up- 
 per India had been discontented with their 
 subordinate position, but it was of no use to 
 try to throw off the British yoke so long as 
 the Hindoo soldiery continued true" to their 
 salt. The high-caste sepoys of the Bengal 
 army being mostly Brahmins, they obtained 
 a consideration for religious scruples and 
 whims which gradually impaired and ulti- 
 mately destroyed all discipline. When it 
 became absolutely necessary to curtail some 
 of their privileges, they considered them- 
 selves aggrieved, and to arrogance added dis- 
 content. The introduction of improved mus- 
 
 kets rendering the use of greased cartridges 
 necessary, a quantity was sent out from Eng- 
 land. The sepoys objected to them because 
 they might have been greased with the fat 
 of cows or pigs ; the former is an object of 
 especial veneration, the latter of abhorrence 
 and hatred, and by tasting the fat of either 
 caste would be lost. The issue of the obnox- 
 ious cartridges was at once discontinued. 
 This was in January, 1857. A mutinous 
 spirit, however, gradually cropped out in the 
 Bengal native army. In March several regi- 
 ments were disbanded, followed by others, 
 till in June the army had lost, by disband- 
 ment and desertion, 80, COO men. In April 
 eighty-five of the native cavalry at Meerut 
 refused to use their cartridges ; they were 
 committed to jail, May 9th. On the 10th 
 the native troops rose, fired on their officers, 
 killing Col. Finnis and others, released their 
 imprisoned comrades and hundreds of crimi- 
 nals, massacred many Europeans, fired the 
 public buildings, and then marched off for 
 Delhi. The sepoys there welcomed the mu- 
 tineers and fraternized with them. Delhi 
 was soon wholly in their hands. The titular 
 king of Delhi was proclaimed emperor. The 
 fate of the Europeans resident in Delhi was 
 awful. Delicate women were stripped of their 
 clothing, violated, turned naked into the 
 streets, beaten with canes, pelted with filth, 
 and abandoned to the beastly lusts of the 
 rabble until welcome death relieved them. 
 Men were slowly hacked to pieces, burned 
 to death, or horribly mutilated. A sepoy 
 snatched a child from its mother’s arms, and 
 dashed its brains out on the pavement before 
 her. Atrocities so terrible and disgusting 
 that they can never be hinted at on the page 
 of history were the fate of the Englishmen 
 and Englishwomen throughout this reign of 
 horror. 
 
 Similar mutinies followed at various points, 
 accompanied by similar outrages. In several 
 instances some of the rebelling sepoys pro- 
 tected their British officers and enabled them 
 to escape ; in others they were loud in profess- 
 ing loyalty, and swore to defend the English 
 to the last drop of their blood, — yet the mo- 
 ment after, perfidiously shooting them down, 
 and marching to join the insurgents at Delhi. 
 It became evident that the whole Bengal 
 army was leavened with the spirit of evil. 
 
 IND 
 
420 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 It was a force of upward of 150,000 men. 
 The European troops in Bengal were less 
 than 25,000, and were distributed through 
 the country at about a hundred military sta- 
 tions. Some disaffection appeared in the 
 Bombay army, but it was more promptly met ; 
 there had been less regard to high caste paid 
 there, and there was better discipline. The 
 Madras sepoys generally exhibited a striking 
 example of fidelity. Most of the native 
 princes kept their faith with the British gov- 
 ernment during this critical period. The 
 villagers showed little love for the insurgents, 
 a fact testifying that the trouble was a mu- 
 tiny, not a popular insurrection. 
 
 The news of these horrible massacres 
 caused great excitement in England. Regi- 
 ment after regiment was sent to the relief, 
 and Sir Colin Campbell hurried on to take 
 the command. Lucknow was besieged by 
 the insurgents, and the men of the garrison 
 of Cawnpore were massacred by Nena Sa- 
 hib. The heroic Havelock came up too. late 
 to avert this terrible catastrophe, and the day 
 before he entered Cawnpore Nena Sahib 
 finished the tragedy by murdering the wo- 
 men and children. This was in the middle 
 of July, 1857. Not till the 19th of Septem- 
 ber was Havelock’s force strong enough to 
 advance to the relief of the long beleaguered 
 band at Lucknow. On the 25th, when a few 
 hours must have given the besieged over to 
 their pitiless foe, Havelock and succor came, 
 and they were saved. Meanwhile a British 
 army had gathered before the walls of Delhi, 
 and on the 7th of September the siege com- 
 menced. Several successful assaults were 
 made, with great loss of life, and on the eve- 
 ning of the 20th, the rebels evacuated the 
 city and suburbs. Among the prisoners 
 made was the wretched old King- of Delhi ; 
 his life and that of his wife were spared ; his 
 ‘ wo sons and grandson were shot. The fall 
 of Delhi scattered the rebels through the 
 land, and the war assumed more of a guer- 
 rilla character. 
 
 •The force with which Havelock relieved 
 Lucknow not being strong enough to protect 
 the retreat of the women and children to 
 Cawnpore, he remained at Lucknow ; the 
 insurgents again besieged it, and the position 
 of its defenders became quite critical. One 
 of Sir Colin Campbell’s first movements was 
 
 for its relief. He prosecuted hostilities 
 against the insurgents with his proverbial 
 energy, and with much hard fighting before 
 the dose of 1858 the mutiny was quelled. 
 Sir Colin was elevated to the peerage as Baron 
 Clyde. 
 
 The missionaries in India were not spared 
 in this whirlwind of fire and blood. Ten of 
 these devoted men, with their wives, were 
 slain ; of whom four belonged to the Ameri- 
 can Presbyterian mission at Futtehgur. The 
 destruction of mission property was immense. 
 The mission bungalow residences, the schools, 
 the churches or chapels, the libraries and 
 stores of books, were destroyed. The ex- 
 tensive printing-presses of the American 
 mission at Allahabad, and of the Church of 
 England nrssion at Agra, with the fonts of 
 type, and Bible, and tract, and school-book 
 depositories, — the accumulated results of the 
 knowledge, experience, and toil of many a 
 devoted spirit for many years, — all disap- 
 peared. 
 
 In 1858 the East India Company ceased to 
 exist, and by act of parliament the control 
 of India came into the hands of the crown. 
 
 The following have been the governors- 
 general of India : — 
 
 Warren Hastings assumed the government April 
 13th, 1772. 
 
 Sir John Macpherson, Feb. 1st, 1785. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, Sept. 12th, 1786. 
 
 Sir John Shore (afterward Lord Teignmouth), 
 Oct. 28th, 1793. 
 
 Lord (afterward Marquis) Cornwallis again: he 
 relinquished the appointment. 
 
 Sir Alured Clarke, April 6th, 1798. 
 
 Lord Mornington (afterward Marquis Wellesley), 
 May 17th, 1798. 
 
 Marquis Cornwallis again, July 30th, 1805. 
 
 Sir George Hilaro Barlow, Oct. 10th, 1805. 
 
 Lord Minto, July 31st, 1807. 
 
 Earl of Moira (afterward Marquis Hastings), Oct. 
 4th, 1813. 
 
 Hon. John Adam, Jan. 13th, 1823. 
 lit. Hon. George Canning ; he relinquished the 
 appointment. 
 
 Lord Amherst, Aug. 1st, 1823. 
 
 Hon. Wm. Butterworth Bayley, March 13th, 
 1S28. 
 
 Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck, July 4th, 1828. 
 Sir Charles Theophilus (afterward Lord) Metcalfe, 
 March 20th, 1835. 
 
 Lord Auckland, March 4th, 1836. 
 
 Lord Ellenborougii, Feb. 28th, 1842. 
 
 William Wilberforce Bird, June loth, 1844. 
 
 Siv Henry (afterward Viscount) Ilardinge, July 
 23d, 1844. 
 
 Lord Dalhousie, Jan. 12th, 1848. 
 
 Lord Canning, July, 1855. 
 
 IND 
 
421 
 
 history and 
 
 Calcutta, the capital of the province of 
 Bengal, and the seat of supreme government 
 for British India, is situated on the east bank 
 of the Hoogly, one of the arms of the Ganges, 
 a hundred miles from the sea. Drainage has 
 ameliorated the unhealthiness of its site. It 
 was a small native village when the English 
 established their factory in 1656. Fort Wil- 
 liam was built by Clive in 1757. The town 
 extends more than six miles along the river, 
 having an average width of three miles. 
 The population, with the suburbs, is esti- 
 mated at 500,000, made up of a strange 
 hodgepodge of Eurasions (half-breeds), Ar- 
 menians, Jews, Moguls, Parsees, Arabs, Bur- 
 mese, Madrasses, native Christians, and 
 British. The great mass speak the Bengalee 
 language, and many the Ilindustanee also. 
 No springs are found for a hundred and forty 
 feet below the surface, and for good water 
 the people are dependent upon tanks filled 
 by the periodical rains. Calcutta is the great 
 emporium of trade and commerce for all Ben- 
 gal. Flocks of kites, vultures, crows, and 
 adjutant cranes clear away the surplus food 
 provided for Europeans, which is thrown at 
 night into the streets, since it can not be kept 
 in that climate, and the religious prejudices 
 of the natives forbid them to consume it. 
 These feathered scavengers are aided by 
 foxes, jackals, and wild dogs from the jun- 
 gles, who prowl and howl through the ways 
 at night. The markets are abundantly sup- 
 plied with choice meats, game, fish, and 
 fruits. Several institutions for literary, sci 
 entific, and educational objects have been es- 
 tablished by the English. 
 
 The sacred city of Benares, in Bengal, 
 rises like an amphitheatre on the high north- 
 ern bank of the Ganges. It has more than 
 600,000 inhabitants, and the dense masses at 
 the great Hindoo festivals present an extra- 
 ordinary scene. The natives call Benares 
 Casi or Cashi, ‘ the splendid,’ and it is re- 
 garded with peculiar reverence. It abounds 
 in temples. A college for the instruction of 
 Hindoos in their own literature was founded 
 here by the British government in 1791. 
 Benares is a great mart for diamonds and 
 other gems, which are brought principally 
 from the Bundelcund. The cit} r was ceded 
 to the East India Company by the Nabob of 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Oude in 1775. A Hindoo imagines that if 
 he dies in Benares, his eternal felicity is cer- 
 tain. 
 
 The city of Bombay is situated on an 
 island of the same name, on the western 
 coast of India ; population, 566,000. It is 
 belted with fortifications. The trade of Bom- 
 bay is very great, cotton being the largest 
 export. 
 
 Madras lies on the eastern coast. Fort St. 
 George was built in 1639, and a factory estab- 
 lished here. The population is 300,000, and 
 fhere are several populous suburbs. The 
 coast has no indentation, nor has Madras any 
 harbor or pier. A heavy swell rolls in shore 
 throughout the year, and vessels anchor in 
 the open roads a mile or so out. Consider- 
 able difficulty is frequently experienced in 
 landing passengers and goods. 
 
 The languages of India may be divided 
 into two great classes. I. Languages de- 
 rived from the Sanscrit, spoken in the north- 
 ern and central provinces — the Hindee, 
 Bengalee, Punjaubee, Mahratta, Guzerattee, 
 Cutchee, Boondela, Brig Bhakhur, Ooriya, 
 and Asamese. II. Languages less closely 
 dependent upon the Sanscrit, spoken in the 
 southern parts — the Teloogoo, Tamul, Cana- 
 rese, Malayala, and Cingalese. The common 
 language of Mohammedans is Hindustanee ; 
 this is a compound of Hindee, the primi- 
 tive language of the Hindoos, with Arabic 
 and Persian, the speech of their Moham- 
 medan conquerors. Legislative acts are 
 translated into Persian, Bengalee, and Hin- 
 dustanee. 
 
 The Hindoos from earliest times have been 
 divided into four castes, or races. The Brah- 
 mins occupy the first rank ; their proper 
 duties are to teach the Vedas or sacred books, 
 to perform sacrifices to the gods, and to 
 meditate' upon divine and holy objects. The 
 Kshatriya, or military class, is said by the 
 Brahmins to be extinct, but the Rajpoots 
 claim to belong to this class. The Vaisyas 
 are agriculturists, herdsmen, and hunters. 
 The Sudras are handicraftsmen and artisans, 
 and the lowest and most degraded class in 
 Hindoo society. The Hindoos of the present 
 day are divided into numerous sects, all of 
 modern origin, and most of them differing 
 very much from the ancient religion. 
 
 IND 
 
422 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 INDIANA has an area of 33,809 square 
 miles, and in 1870 had a population of 
 1,680,637. In some quarters the surface is 
 hilly, but the greater portion of the state is 
 level or slightly undulating. The land is 
 generally rich and productive, and along the 
 streams lie strips of alluvion that are almost 
 exhaustless in fertility. The state is well 
 watered by many fine streams, some of them 
 navigable, as the Wabash and the White. It 
 is rich in indigenous timber; the oak, the 
 walnut, the sycamore, and the poplar attain 
 a noble size ; oaks and beeches are the most 
 prevalent. Indiana is a great grain-growing 
 state ; her manufactures are yet in embryo. 
 Bituminous coal is abundant. 
 
 The first settlement in Indiana was made at 
 Vincennes on the Wabash, by the French, 
 in 1702. All this region passed into the 
 hjinds of the British by treaty, and was 
 wrested from them in the Revolution. The 
 early white dwellers in these then distant 
 wilds suffered severely from the tomahawk 
 and scalping-knife of the savage. Indiana 
 was admitted into the Union in 1816. The 
 present constitution was framed in 1851. 
 The governor is elected for four years ; the 
 senate for the same term ; and the representa- 
 tives for two years. The general assembly 
 meets biennially on the first Monday of Jan- 
 uary. The right of suffrage is bestowed upon 
 every male citizen of the United States who 
 is of age and has resided in the state six 
 months, and to every white foreign-born male 
 who shall have resided in the United States 
 
 one year, in the state six months, and have 
 duly declared his intention to become a citi- 
 zen of the United States. No soldier, sea- 
 man, or marine can vote. Liberal legislation 
 has provided for public instruction, and there 
 are institutions at Indianapolis where all the 
 blind and deaf-mute children of the state 
 are educated without charge for board or tu- 
 ition. 
 
 Indianapolis, the capital, was laid out in 
 1821 : in 1820 its site was covered with a 
 dense forest, which in 1870 had given place 
 to the homes of 48,244 people. It was plan- 
 ned upon noble dimensions ; the broad streets, 
 intersecting one another at right angles, bear 
 the names of the different states of the Union. 
 Evansville, on the Ohio, is a thriving town 
 of (1870) 21,830 inhabitants. New Albany, 
 farther up the river, is laid out with great 
 regularity, is the seat of a good business, and 
 the largest town in the state ; population in 
 1870, 17,693. Madison still above, is hand- 
 somely built of brick, with broad straight 
 streets, and is a place of enterprise ; popula- 
 tion in 1870, 16,581. 
 
 INDIANS. The aboriginal population of 
 America consists of two distinct races — the 
 Esquimaux, inhabiting the seaboard districts 
 of the Arctic regions ; and the copper-colored 
 Indians, who were spread over all the rest 
 of the continent. The question as to the ori- 
 gin of the latter has never been solved, and 
 perhaps is beyond the province of history. 
 Notwithstanding some partial differences of 
 complexion and stature, and a prodigious 
 
 1ND 
 
BISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 423 
 
 diversity in languages, a strong family char- 
 acter pervades the Indians of both Americas. 
 Humboldt testifies that the Indians of New 
 Spain bear a general physical resemblance to 
 those of Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. 
 
 In their civil and social state, however, there 
 has been a great difference among the abo- 
 rigines. The Aztecs of Mexico, the inhabi- 
 tants of Cundinamarca, the Peruvians, and 
 the ancient possessors of Central America, 
 all made much progress in civilization, con- 
 trasting strongly with the ' bold and terrible 
 traits of the barbarous tribes, many of whom 
 seemed sunk in the lowest misery. 
 
 From Hudson’s Bay to Mexico, and from 
 the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, the 
 whites found the country possessed by many 
 petty and independent tribes, who were gene- 
 rally enemies to one another. They were in 
 the rudest state of society, wandering from 
 place to place, without science and without 
 arts, with no metallic instruments, and own- 
 ing no domestic animals. A little corn was 
 raised by the labor of their women with a 
 clamshell or the scapula of a buffalo ; this 
 they devoured with savage improvidence, and 
 subsisted during the rest of the year upon 
 precarious supplies of game and fish. They 
 were thinly scattered over a wide extent of 
 country, fixing their summer residence upon 
 some fertile spot, and roaming during the 
 winter, with their families and their mat or 
 skin houses, in search of the animals neces- 
 sary for food or clothing. Their numbers 
 never could have been considerable, for their 
 habits could exist only in a boundless forest 
 and among a sparse population. Where 
 each family requires for its daily con- 
 sumption a deer, an elk, or a buffalo, the 
 herd which is to supply the demand must 
 occupy an extensive district of country. 
 Their hostilities often brought on a scarcity 
 of provisions, which led to famine, fright- 
 ful suffering, and death. Some of the tribes 
 indulged in the horrid banquet of human 
 flesh. 
 
 Throughout the continent, with some rare 
 exceptions, the woman was the slave of the 
 man : she performed all the menial offices, 
 bore the burdens, tilled the ground, and in 
 many cases was not counted worthy to eat 
 or speak before fhe other sex. Polygamy 
 was by no means uncommon, though often 
 
 checked by the difficulty of procuring, or the 
 hardship of supporting, more than one wife. 
 
 In general the American Indians seem to 
 have entertained the idea of a Great Spirit, 
 a Master of Life, in short a Creator ; and of 
 an Evil Spirit, holding divided empire over 
 nature with the other. Many of them had 
 priests, prophets, sorcerers, in whose super- 
 natural powers they put trust ; and most, if 
 not all, appear to have believed in a future 
 state. The Algonquin nations believed in 
 the existence of a Supreme Creator, the 
 Kacha Manito, or Good Spirit; of Malcha 
 Manito, or Evil Spirit ; and of inferior spirits. 
 They sought to obtain the favor of these by 
 certain ceremonies, and sometimes by sacri- 
 fices and offerings. They had some notions 
 of a future life, in which the good should 
 spend their time in hunting and mirth, and 
 the bad grunt and sweat in hard labor. 
 They had sorcerers whose spells were highly 
 esteemed for the cure of diseases and for 
 luck in their enterprises ; the medicine-bags 
 or charms were carefully worn about the per- 
 son or hung up in the lodge. For the cure 
 of diseases, they practiced bleeding, used the 
 steam bath, employed various herbs and 
 roots, and trusted much to the efficiency of 
 songs, dances, and other ceremonies performed 
 under the direction of the medicine men. 
 
 The aboriginal population of the territory 
 of the United States, instead of merging into 
 the European stock that settled among them, 
 have wasted away, and become almost extinct 
 east of the Mississippi. Wars with the 
 whites, too often provoked by the cupidity 
 and rascality of the latter ; the gradual de- 
 struction of the game on which they depended 
 for subsistence ; and the vices taught them 
 by intercourse with civilization, — these causes 
 combined to lessen their numbers, until the 
 numerous tribes that once occupied all the 
 openings in the great primitive American 
 forest have wholly died out, or have dwin- 
 dled to a few miserable individuals. 
 
 The region between the Atlantic and the 
 Rocky Mountains, and between the Gulf of 
 Mexico and Hudson’s Bay, seems to have 
 been divided among five great nations or 
 families of tribes — the Algonquin, or Chip- 
 pewa; the Huron, or Wyandot; the Flori- 
 dian ; the Sioux, or Dahcotah ; and the Paw- 
 nee. Each of these families comprised many 
 
 IND 
 
424 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 independent and often hostile tribes ; which, 
 however, are proved to have spoken cognate 
 dialects, and therefore to have sprung from a 
 common stock. 
 
 The leading tribes of New York — the Mo- 
 hawks, Senecas, Cayugas, Oneidas, Ononda- 
 gas (all belonging to the Huron farnil}’), to 
 whom were afterward added the Tusearoras 
 from North Carolina — were banded in a pow- 
 erful confederac} 7 , known as the Five Nations 
 or Iroquois. [See Six Nations.] The Mo- 
 hawks, the leaders of these Romans of the 
 new world, — as they have been called on ac- 
 count of their warlike spirit and extensive 
 conquests, — removed to Canada in 1776, and 
 were followed by a portion of the Ca} r ugas. 
 These once powerful nations have diminished 
 to an insignificant band. 
 
 The Algonquin race once possessed all the 
 country between the Tennessee and Roanoke, 
 and the St. Lawrence and the lakes, and even 
 much farther . north ; with the exception of 
 the comparatively small enclosed tract inhab- 
 ited by the Huron nations. The Indians of 
 New England were of this race, as were the 
 Chippewas, or Ojibwas, Ottawas, Potawata- 
 mies, Sacs and Foxes, Shawnees, Kickapoos, 
 Miamis, and Lenni Lenapes, or Delawares. 
 
 The Sioux, or Dahcotahs, occup) 7 ing the 
 country between the upper Missouri and the 
 upper Mississippi, are one of the most pow- 
 erful nations yet remaining. There are many 
 other tribes that belong to this stock ; as the 
 Winnebagoes, Osages, Crows, Blackfeet, &c. 
 The Pawnees, Camanches, and other tribes 
 of the Pawnee family are well mounted, and 
 nomadic in their life, following the buffalo in 
 his annual migrations from north to south, 
 and in his continual roamings in search of new 
 pastures. The mounted Apache hordes are 
 warlike and powerful, and are rarely at peace. 
 
 An extensive tract of country, west of Ar- 
 kansas, has been set apart by the United 
 States for the permanent residence of the 
 various tribes of Indians that have been 
 removed from the states. The principal of 
 these are the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, 
 Osages, Chickasaws, Potawatamies and Chip- 
 pewas, Pawnees, Scminolcs, Sacs and Foxes, 
 Shawnees and Senecas, and Delawares. The 
 Cherokees are the most civilized ; the Creeks 
 and Choctaws come next. Under the guid- 
 ance of missionaries, who have settled among 
 
 them, and with the sanction and assistance 
 of the commissioner of Indian affairs, they 
 have established regular governments, legis- 
 latures, judicial officers, churches, schools, 
 newspapers, &c. ; have introduced the manu- 
 facture of agricultural implements, cloth, and 
 most articles of ordinary farm and domestic 
 use; cultivate the land with a considerable 
 amount of skill; rear horses and cattle; 
 build houses ; and export maize, cotton, 
 hides, &c. By the treaty of removal and 
 settlement, the federal government furnishes 
 them with blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and 
 some other mechanics, and at their first set- 
 tlement gave them a stock of cattle, &c. 
 Many of the tribes possess slaves. The 
 Seminoles w r ere exceedingly loath to depart 
 from their old homes in the glades of 
 Florida, and fought desperately against the 
 removal. 
 
 The North American Indians were distin- 
 guished for a quick understanding, a reten- 
 tive memory, and a stoicism which would 
 have excited the envy of the philosophers of 
 ancient Greece. The desire for revonge was 
 to an Indian one of the most powerful in- 
 citements to action. He knew 7 nothing of 
 the principle that leads a Christian to return 
 good for evil. He rarely if ever forgot an 
 injury. As an exception to this, how 7 ever, 
 the following anecdote appears worthy to be 
 related. An Indian, having wandered far 
 from his comrades, found himself near a 
 white man’s dwelling, foot-worn and thirsty. 
 The owmer of the house w^as standing at the 
 door. The Indian begged a morsel of food 
 and a cup of water, to sustain his sinking 
 frame. “ Begone ! dog of an Indian ! ” was 
 the surly reply. Some years after this the 
 Englishman, on a hunting excursion, lost 
 himself in the forest. At the moment of 
 despair, he perceived an Indian wigwam, and 
 having applied for shelter, w T as welcomed 
 with ready hospitality. The Indian host 
 busied himself in making every arrangement 
 for the comfort of his guest. His horse w 7 as 
 fed and cared for, a supper was provided, 
 and a bed of soft skins invited him to repose 
 his weary limbs. In the morning, w hen the 
 white man signified his desire to depart, the 
 Indian offered to be his guide. Having con- 
 ducted him to the outskirts of the forest, the 
 Indian pointed out his path. The English- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 425 
 
 man thanked him, and was about to go. “ Stay 
 yet a moment,” said the Indian ; “ I see that 
 you do not know me, — but I know you well. 
 Some ten years since, a poor Indian came to 
 your door, and asked you to give him a mor- 
 sel of bread and a cup of water. You re- 
 fused him. I am that red man. I swore to 
 be revenged. Am I not ? Now go your 
 ways, and forget not to tell your white breth- 
 ren that there is at least one Indian who 
 can practice what they preach.” 
 
 The Indians were noted for their bravery. 
 In war they seldom gave quarter, and pris- 
 oners were generally tortured, and burnt at 
 the stake. It was the pride of a vanquished 
 warrior or chieftain to endure these tortures 
 without a murmur, and to perish singing 
 with an unfaltering voice his triumphant 
 death-song, in which he recounted his previ- 
 ous exploits, the number of foes that had 
 fallen beneath his hatchet and whose scalps 
 adorned his wigwam, and rejoiced at the 
 prospect of reaching those Elysian fields of 
 after life, where through eternity the immor- 
 tal huntsman chased undying game. 
 
 The traditions of the Iroquois abound with 
 touching tales of the injustice they sustained 
 from the whites, from their first settling in 
 the country. “ We and our tribes,” they say, 
 “ lived in peace and harmony with each other 
 before the white people came into this 
 country ; our council house extended far 
 to the north and the south. In the middle 
 of it we could meet from all parts to smoke 
 the pipe of peace together. When the white 
 men arrived in the south we received them 
 Wis friends ; we did the same when they came 
 in the east. We knew not but the Great 
 Spirit had sent “them to us for some good 
 purpose, and therefore we thought they must 
 be a good people. We were mistaken. The 
 whites will not rest contented until they shall 
 have destroyed the last of us, and made us 
 disappear entirely from the face of the earth.” 
 Menandon, an Oneida chief, who was a 
 Christian, lived to be a hundred and twenty 
 years old, long surviving the minister 
 through whose teachings he had been con- 
 verted. Just before he died, he said, “ I am 
 an aged hemlock. The winds of one hun- 
 dred years have whistled through my 
 branches. I am dead at top [referring to his 
 blindness]. Why I yet live, the Good Spirit 
 
 only knows. Pray to Jesus that I may wait 
 my appointed time to die ; and when I die, 
 lay me by the side of my minister and father, 
 that I may go up with him to the great resur- 
 rection.” 
 
 The Indians have shown instances of strong 
 sentiment. Schoolcraft relates that a noble- 
 minded girl, named Oolaita, being attached 
 to a young chief of her own tribe, was com- 
 manded by her parents to marry an old war- 
 rior, renowned for his wisdom and influence 
 in the nation. She left her father’s house 
 while the marriage-feast was preparing, and 
 throwing herself from an awful precipice, 
 was dashed to pieces. A Sioux Helen caused 
 a division ^f that nation. Ozalapaila, the wife 
 of one of the chiefs, having been carried off 
 by another leading warrior of the same tribe, 
 and the husband and brothers of the woman 
 having been slain in the attempt to recover 
 her, the quarrel gradually extended from the 
 friends of the two parties to the whole nation, 
 and ended in a fierce civil war. 
 
 Drunkenness has been a great curse to the 
 race. An Indian who had been brought up 
 in Minisink, near the Delaware water-gap, to 
 whom the German inhabitants of that neigh- 
 borhood had given the name of Cornelius 
 Rosenbaum, told Mr. Heckewelder that he 
 had once, when under the influence of strong 
 liquor, killed the best Indian friend he had, 
 fancying him to be his worst avowed enemy. 
 He said that the deception was complete, and 
 that the face of his friend presented to his 
 intoxicated eyes all the features of the man 
 with whom he was in a state of hostility. It 
 is impossible to express the horror with 
 which he was struck when he awoke from 
 that delusion; he was so shocked, that he 
 resolved from that moment never more to' 
 taste the maddening poison, of which he was 
 convinced the devil was the inventor ; for it 
 could only be the evil spirit that made him 
 see his enemy when his friend was before 
 him, and produced so strong a delusion on 
 his bewildered senses that he actually killed 
 him. From that time until his death, which 
 happened thirty years afterward, he never 
 drank a drop of ardent spirits, which he 
 always called “ the devil’s blood,” and was 
 firmly persuaded that the devil, or some of 
 his inferior spirits, had a hand in prepar- 
 ing it. * 
 
 IND 
 
426 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus, 
 and falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pacha, 
 marching to the relief of Kars, crossed this 
 river with 10,000 men, Nov. 6th, 1855, and 
 attacked the Russians, 12,000 strong, en- 
 camped on the left bank," who after a struggle 
 retreated with the loss of 400 men. Kars, 
 however, was not saved. 
 
 INKERMANN, Battle of. The Russians 
 sallied from Sebastopol, and attacked the 
 British at Inkermann, before daybreak, Nov. 
 5th, 1854. The British fought desperately, 
 but being far outnumbered by the attacking 
 force, were only saved by the arrival of a 
 French division. The contest was most 
 bloody. Sir George Cathcart was among the 
 British slain. 
 
 INNSPRUCK, or Innsbruck, the capital of 
 the Tyrol, situated on the Inn. Population, 
 13,000. The valley in which it stands was 
 the scene of several of the events that took 
 place during the heroic resistance made by 
 the Tyrolese to the French and Bavarians in 
 1809. 
 
 INQUISITION. The Inquisition, or Holy 
 Office, as it is called, was an institution of the 
 Catholic church, established in Spain, Portu- 
 gal, Italy, and other Romanist countries, to 
 try persons accused of holding opinions con- 
 trary to those received by the church. The 
 members of this jurisdiction were called in- 
 quisitors, because, without any proof of a 
 person’s guilt, they seized him upon common 
 report, and investigated his conduct, they 
 themselves deciding upon his guilt or inno- 
 cence. 
 
 There is some controversy about the origin 
 of the Inquisition, but it is allowed that Pope 
 Innocent III. first gave rise to the Holy Office. 
 While this man was at the head of the Cath- 
 olic church, the Albigenses of France, who 
 refused to embrace the monstrous doctrines of 
 the Roman Catholic church, were persecuted 
 and hunted like wild beasts. It was in the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century, that Pope 
 Innocent -sent Pierre de Castelman, Archdea- 
 con of Maguelonne, and Rainier, another 
 priest, to stir up a spirit of zeal and persecu- 
 tion against the heretics. Dominic, a famous 
 Spaniard, founder of the order of Preachers, 
 fell in with the messengers of the pope in the 
 year 1206, and labored, with energy, to put 
 an end to the heresy, as any opinion different 
 
 from the doctrines of the church was called. 
 These priests inquired into the conduct of the 
 princes, and other men in power, toward the 
 heretics, and from the scrutiny to which they 
 subjected suspected persons were called in- 
 quisitors. They had no court and no decisive 
 authority, being mere spies of the pope. St. 
 Dominic is said to have founded the first reg- 
 ular tribunal at Toulouse. Innocent III. sig- 
 nified his approbation, and authorized the 
 establishment in the year 1 215. Gregory IX r 
 gave the institution into the hands of the 
 Dominicans. 
 
 So cruel were the proceedings of the Inqui- 
 sition, that even Catholics endeavored to pre- 
 vent its establishment in different countries ; 
 but Spain, a country famous for its devotion 
 to the Catholic religion, and for its ignorance, 
 became its chosen seat. The Spanish Inqui- 
 sition is always spoken of with horror and 
 indignation. In Spain it was first introduced 
 in 1478. The first inquisitor-general and the 
 first court were constituted in 1481. The 
 kings of Castile, before thby were crowned, 
 took an oath that they, as well as their sub- 
 jects, should be under the power of the Holy 
 Office, as it was impiously called. The in- 
 quisitors received their power from the pope’s 
 mouth, or by means of letters, and he alone 
 had power to remove them from office. 
 
 Nothing could be more horrible than the 
 proceedings of the inquisitors. Without be- 
 ing permitted to know who accused him, a 
 man was suddenly seized ; his dearest friends 
 abandoned him at once, none daring to speak 
 to him. From the midst of the luxuries of 
 life, he was hurried to a loathsome dungeon. 
 Upon the slightest pretense, the torture was 
 applied, and many an innocent person, in the 
 pangs of death, was forced to accuse himself. 
 The very advocate who plead for them was in 
 terror of the Inquisition and completely in its 
 power ; the slightest sentence he uttered, 
 which could possibly be turned against him, 
 was enough to place him also in danger of life. 
 
 There were two classes of punishments, the 
 ecclesiastical or religious punishments, and 
 the civil. The ecclesiastical punishments 
 were excommunication, loss of a Christian 
 burial in consecrated ground, and loss of all 
 right to hold offices. As civil punishments, 
 the inquisitors disinherited the children of the 
 criminal ; that is, declared that if their father 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 427 
 
 died a "heretic, they, although Catholics, 
 should not hold any of his property. They 
 also pronounced the sentence of infamy, which 
 deprived a man of all his property, of all right 
 to hold an office, and of all power, even over 
 his children and servants. Criminals were 
 also imprisoned. They incurred the ban, or 
 curse, by which they lost all the rights of a 
 human being, were driven out of all society, 
 and might be falsely accused, beaten, and 
 robbed, without any hope of getting redress. 
 In fact, if any lawyer defended them against 
 an accusation, he was pronounced infamous 
 and deprived of office. 
 
 The last and most frightful punishment 
 w r as that of being burned alive, sometimes 
 with an iron gag in the mouth, which pre- 
 vented the agonized sufferer from uttering an 
 intelligible cry. Often, however, while burn- 
 ing, they were left at liberty to speak, and 
 supplicated for mercy in a manner which 
 would have moved any but the hardest-hearted 
 to pity ; and yet the pitiless inquisitors dared 
 to say that their actions found favor in the 
 eyes of Heaven. 
 
 The tortures to which the inquisitors put 
 the accused, to make them confess their guilt, 
 were dreadful. The tortures were of five 
 kinds. First, their being threatened with the 
 torture; second, their being carried to the 
 place of torture ; third, their being stripped 
 and bound ; fourth, their being hoisted on the 
 rack; fifth, squassation, in which the limbs 
 were all disjointed. 
 
 Squassation was thus performed. The pris- 
 oner’s hands being tied behind his back, heavy 
 weights were attached to his feet, and he was 
 hoisted up by a rope, until his head touched 
 the pulley. Hanging in this awful situation 
 for some time, his limbs and joints became 
 stretched frightfully ; and when suddenly let 
 to fall, the fall being checked by the rope be- 
 fore he touched the ground, all his limbs were 
 disjointed. The horrible pain he now felt 
 was increased by the immense weight hanging 
 at his feet. The Inquisition inflicted squassa- 
 tion, when determined on, once, twice, or even 
 three times in the space of an hour. What 
 could the poor wretch enjoy of life, if he 
 gained his liberty at length? 
 
 When we examine farther into the annals 
 of the Inquisition, humanity shudders. Lovely 
 and innocent women had their delicate frames 
 
 torn to pieces by the racks of these monsters, 
 because they refused to acknowledge that as 
 the true religion which sanctioned such enor- 
 mities. Such were the torments inflicted upon 
 Jane Bohorques and her attendant, a young 
 Protestant girl. They were afterward burnt 
 at the auto da fc , or act of faith. 
 
 These acts of faith, when a large number of 
 the condemned were often collected to suffer 
 at once, were always held upon festival days. 
 The procession issued from the halls of the 
 Inquisition, the Dominican friars, with the 
 standard of their order, coming first. On one 
 side their flag had the picture of Saint Domi- 
 nic, on the other the motto, “Justice and 
 Mercy” ! After these came the penitents, all 
 in sleeveless black coats, with lighted wax 
 tapers, and barefooted. Those who had nar- 
 rowly escaped burning, followed next in order, 
 with flames pointing downward painted on 
 their coats. The relapsed came next, with 
 habits covered with flames pointing upward. 
 Lastly marched those who were peculiar ene- 
 mies to the Romish doctrines ; their habits 
 were covered with flames, pointing upward, 
 and on their breasts they bore a likeness of 
 themselves, in the act of being devoured by 
 wild beasts and serpents. 
 
 At Lisbon, the place where they were 
 burned was the Ribera, containing as many 
 stakes as there were condemned criminals, 
 surrounded with furze. The stakes of the 
 professed, as they were called, were about four 
 yards high, with a seat for the prisoner upon 
 a board, within a yard of the top. The nega- 
 tive and relapsed prisoners were first strangled 
 and burned ; the professed then ascended the 
 ladder with a Jesuit upon each side, who ex- 
 horted them to confess their sins and return 
 to the Romish church. If they refused, the 
 priests descended the ladder, and the execu- 
 tioner chained them to the stake. After an 
 interval the priests again ascended, and if the 
 prisoners proved still obstinate, they were 
 forsaken, and the spectators called out, “Let 
 the dogs’ beards be made ! ” The operation 
 alluded to was performed by thrusting poles, 
 having flaming bunches of furze at the end, 
 against the faces of the criminals. These were 
 generally held against them until their faces 
 were burnt to a coal, the whole proceeding 
 eliciting shouts of approbation and joy. 
 
 After this the furze at the foot of the stake 
 
 INQ 
 
428 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was fired, and, in general reached no higher 
 than the knees of the condemned, so that they 
 were literally roasted to death. In a calm 
 they might die in half an hour; in a high 
 wind seldom under two hours. 
 
 In ancient times, the Spaniards thought the 
 entertainment afforded by the horrid spectacle 
 of an auto da fe, equal to that derived from a 
 bull-fight or a dance. In honor of Elizabeth, 
 the new queen, daughter of Henry II. of 
 France, a girl of thirteen, one was held in 
 1560, in which, not content with burning some 
 human beings, they consumed a few effigies. 
 
 Napoleon abolished this terrible Inquisi- 
 tion, and this just exercise of power should be 
 remembered when many of his crimes are 
 brought to view. When Ferdinand was re- 
 stored, by the success of Napoleon’s opponents, 
 to the Spanish throne, he re-established it. 
 The Cortes swept it away in 1820. There 
 never was another institution of such dreadful 
 cruelty, nor one in which the laws of religion 
 and mercy were so daringly defied, under pre- 
 tense, too, of vindicating morality and pure 
 piety. 
 
 If the Inquisition, in modern days, was less 
 bloody than formerly, we are to attribute it, 
 not to the spirit of the institution, but to the 
 increase of light, which will finally, we trust, 
 put an end to all abuses. 
 
 ION [A, a district of Asia Minor, peopled by 
 a migration from Attica about b.c. 1044. Ionia 
 was divided into twelve small states, which 
 formed a celebrated confederacy often spoken 
 of by the ancients. These states were Priene, 
 Miletus, Colophon, Clazoinence, Ephesus, Le- 
 bedos, Teos, Erythrae, Phocaea, Smjnma, and 
 the capitals of Samos and Chios. After they 
 had enjoyed, for some time, their freedom and 
 independence, they were made tributary to 
 the power of Lydia by Croesus. The Atheni- 
 ans assisted them to shake off the yoke of the 
 Asiatic monarchs, but they soon forgot their 
 duty and relation to their mother country, 
 and joined Xerxes when he invaded Greece. 
 They were delivered from the Persian yoke 
 by Alexander, and finally were reduced by 
 the Romans under Sylla. Smyrna, unchanged 
 in name, and prosperous in commerce, alone 
 remains, and is the most important city in 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS, the collective name of 
 a group west of Greece, comprising Cephalo- 
 nia (the ancient Cephallenia), Corfu (Corey - 
 ra), Santa Maura (Leucas), Zante (Zakyn- 
 thos), Cerigo (Cythera), Ithaca, and Paxo. 
 They were long a republic under English 
 “ protection,” but were re-united to Greece on 
 the accession of the present -king, George I. 
 Population, 227,000. Corfu is their capital. 
 
 IOWA has an area of 50,914 square miles ; 
 population in 1870, 1,191,792. Her domain lies 
 in the embrace of the two largest rivers of our 
 country, navigable far beyond her limits. The 
 interior is traversed by lesser, but noble and 
 
 10W 
 
 often navigable rivers, the Des Moines, Iowa, 
 Red Cedar, Boyer, Nodaway, Nishnabotna, 
 &c. Heavy timber groves skirt the numerous 
 streams, and frequent clumps dot the land- 
 scape on every hand, like islands in the prai- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 429 
 
 rie sea. The face of the country is a rolling 
 prairie, fertile and virgin, varied with the 
 luxuriant river valleys and much prized tim- 
 ber lands. Valuable lead mines occur in the 
 neighborhood of Dubuque ; coal is largely dif- 
 fused through the state; extensive beds of 
 gypsum are found in Webster county; and 
 iron and copper have been discovered to some 
 extent. Wheat and corn are the staple pro- 
 ductions of Iowa ; tobacco ‘is grown in the 
 western section to some extent; the soil is 
 well adapted for any of the productions com- 
 mon to the temperate zone, especially to rais- 
 ing fruit. 
 
 Until 1832 Iowa was a wilderness, in the 
 hands of the Indians. The wave of emigra- 
 tion broke across the Mississippi, upon its 
 smiling valleys and prairies; in 1838 it was 
 organized as a territory ; and in 1846 it be- 
 came a sovereign state and member of the 
 Union. By the state constitution, every 
 male citizen of the United States, twenty-one 
 years old (idiotic, insane, or infamous persons 
 excepted), who has resided in the state six 
 months, and in the county twenty days, has 
 the right of suffrage. The sessions of the 
 general assembly are biennial : the senators 
 are chosen for four years, one-half biennially, 
 and the representatives for two years. The 
 governor is elected biennially. The judicial 
 power is vested in a supreme court, consisting 
 of a chief-justice and two associates, chosen 
 by the general assembly for six years ; in 
 district courts, the judges of which are elected 
 for five years by the people of the respective 
 districts ; and ip justices of the peace. Lib- 
 eral support has been provided for common 
 schools and academies. The Iowa State Uni- 
 versity is located at Iowa City ; normal schools 
 have been provided ; common schools nurture 
 the youth of every hamlet ; and a deaf-mute 
 asylum, and an institution for the blind, both 
 at Iowa City, care for those unfortunate 
 classes. In this matter of education the 
 Hawkeye state is surpassed by none of her 
 sisters in the great North-west. 
 
 Des Moines (formerly called Fort Des 
 Moines) is the capital of Iowa. A frontier 
 fort was erected here at an early day. The 
 town was laid out in 1846 ; in 1856 it was 
 made the capital, and had, in 1870, 12,035 
 inhabitants. Iowa City, the former seat of 
 government, was laid out in 1839, and in 
 
 1870 had 8,094 inhabitants. Davenport is 
 built on the broad bottom land of the Missis- 
 sippi, opposite Rock Island; tasteful dwell- 
 ings extending up the beautiful bluffs, and into 
 prairie beyond ; population in 1870, 23,452. 
 Burlington, called the oldest town in the 
 state, stands lower down the Mississippi. 
 As an instance of the rapid growth of Iowa, 
 shared by all her towns and hamlets, we may 
 say that in 1850, Burlington had 2,000 dwell- 
 ers : in 1870 its population was 14,930, and 
 thrift and wealth has gained proportionally. 
 Dubuque, on the Mississippi, in the heart of 
 the great lead region, is one of the largest and 
 finest towns in the state, standing on a natu- 
 ral terrace, bounded on the west by a range 
 of high bluffs, whose summits command a 
 landscape of varied beauty. Dubuque had 
 its name from M. Dubuque, a Frenchman 
 who obtained a grant from the Spanish gov- 
 ernment for mining lead here. It was the 
 first European settlement in Iowa, dating to 
 1786. The population in 1870 was 18,434. 
 Keokuclc, at the mouth of the fertile valley of 
 the Des Moines, is another of the progressive 
 cities of Iowa, with a population in 1870 of 
 12,766. 
 
 IPSUS, Battle of. Seleucus was con- 
 firmed upon his throne by the defeat and 
 death of Antigonus in this contest, b.c. 301. 
 On the one side were Antigonus and his son ; 
 on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
 and Cassander. The former led into the 
 field an army of above 70,000 foot and 10,000 
 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter’s forces 
 consisted of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 
 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. 
 
 IRELAND, the second in size of the Brit- 
 ish islands, has an area of 32,508 square 
 miles; population in 1861, 5,764,543. The 
 surface of Ireland is less rugged than that of 
 Scotland, and more varied and undulating 
 than that of England. Its freshness and ver- 
 dure have gained it the poetical name of the 
 Emerald Isle. Its ancient name was Erin, 
 and by the Romans it was known as Hiber- 
 nia. It is divided into four provinces, Ulster, 
 Leinster, Connaught, and Munster, which 
 are subdivided into thirty-two counties. The 
 executive government is administered by a 
 viceroy, whose official title is lord lieutenant 
 general and general governor of Ireland. 
 The judiciary is similar to that of England. 
 
 IRE 
 
430 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 There are two ecclesiastical provinces, whose 
 primates are the Archbishop of Armagh and 
 the Archbishop of Dublin. There are ten 
 suffragan bishops. The Roman Catholic dig- 
 nitaries are the four archbishops of Armagh, 
 Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam, with twenty-five 
 bishops. 
 
 Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, is situa- 
 ted on both sides of the Liffey, as it enters 
 Dublin Bay. It is a beautiful city ; the pub- 
 lic buildings are of stone, and few cities con- 
 tain an equal number of magnificent edifices. 
 The University of Dublin, or Trinity College, 
 founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1593, is a 
 well endowed institution. Population of Dub- 
 lin in 1861, .249,783. Cork, the second city 
 of Ireland, situated on the Lee, with a popu- 
 lation in 1851 of 167,450, is a large and 
 flourishing place, and was built by the Danes 
 in the sixth century. After the revolution 
 of 1688 it was occupied by James IT. ; it was 
 taken by Marlborough in 1690. The harbor 
 of Cork is one of the noblest in the world. 
 Belfast (population in 1851, 125,491) is the 
 chief town in the province of Ulster, and the 
 principal place of trade in Ireland. Linens, 
 damasks, diapers, and cottons are actively 
 manufactured. The town had its origin in 
 the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 Limerick, on the Shannon, had in 1851, 
 53,448 inhabitants. It is a place of great 
 antiquity, supposed by some to be the Regia 
 of Ptolemseus, and was a place of some note 
 in the fifth century when visited by St. 
 Patrick. 
 
 There are no serpents or other venomous 
 reptiles in Ireland ; St. Patrick is said to 
 have driven them all into the sea. At the 
 lake of Killarney, the peasants still preserve 
 the following ludicrous tradition. When the 
 labors of St. Patrick were drawing to a close, 
 there was one enormous serpent who sturdily 
 refused to emigrate, and baffled the attempts 
 of the good saint for a long time. He haunted 
 the romantic shores of Killarney, and was so 
 well pleased with his place of residence, that 
 he never contemplated the prospect of re- 
 moving without a deep sighi. At length St. 
 Patrick, having procured a large oaken chest, 
 with nine strong bolts to secure its lid, took 
 it on his shoulder one fine sunshiny morning, 
 and trudged over to Killarney, where he 
 found the serpent basking in the sun. “ Good 
 
 morrow to ye!” said the saint. “Bad luck 
 to ye ! ” replied the serpent. “ Not so, my 
 friend,” replied the good saint; ' you speak 
 unwisely ; I’m your friend. To prove which, 
 haven’t I brought you over this beautiful 
 house as a shelter to you ? So be aisy, my 
 darlint.” But the serpent, being a cunning 
 reptile, understood what blarney meant, as 
 well as the saint himself. Still, not wishing 
 to affront his apparently friendly visitor, he 
 said, by way of excuse, that the chest was not 
 large enough for him. St. Patrick assured 
 him that it would accommodate him very 
 well. “Just get into it, my darlint, and see 
 how aisy you’ll be.” The serpent thought to 
 cheat the saint; he whipped into the chest, 
 but left an inch or two of his tail hanging out 
 over the edge. “I told you so,” said he; 
 “there’s not room for the whole of me.” 
 “Take care of your tail, my darlint! ” cried 
 the saint, as he whacked the lid down on the 
 serpent. In an instant the tail disappeared, 
 and St. Patrick proceeded to shoot all the 
 bolts. He then took the chest on his shoul- 
 ders. “ Let me out ! ” cried the serpent. 
 “Aisy,” cried the saint; “I’ll let you out to- 
 morrow.” So saying, he threw the box into 
 the waters of the lake, to the bottom of which 
 it sank to rise no more. But forever after- 
 ward, the fishermen affirmed that they heard 
 the voice of the poor cozened reptile eagerly 
 inquiring, “ Is to-morrow come yet ? Is to- 
 morrow come yet ? ” 
 
 The early history of Ireland is involved in 
 great obscurity, and it is impossible to distin- 
 guish fact from fiction in the tales of its early 
 historians. Some of them trace the line of 
 ancient kings to antediluvian time, and one 
 commences his annals with the creation of 
 Adam, and has a chapter recounting the inva- 
 sions of Ireland before the deluge. Accord- 
 ing to one legend, fifty women and three men 
 under the lead of Banba, a daughter of Cain, 
 took possession of Ireland before the flood. 
 They lived in the country forty years, until a 
 plague came upon them and destroyed the 
 whole colony in a single week. Others assert 
 that three Spanish fishermen, having acci- 
 dentally discovered Ireland, went home for 
 their wives, and on their return to the island 
 were overtaken by the deluge and drowned. 
 According to a third authority, Bith, a son 
 of Noah, having been denied admission to the 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 431 
 
 ark, forsook the God of his father, and with 
 several others had recourse to an idol. The 
 idol could not tell them when the deluge 
 would take place ; but, following its advice, 
 they built a ship and put to sea. After 
 having been tossed for seven years and a 
 quarter, through adventures as various as 
 those of Ulysses or Eneas, they landed at 
 Cork. The party consisted of three men 
 and fifty women. The former divided the 
 latter among them, and settled in different 
 parts of the island. Two of the men died, 
 and their wives came to the third, who fled 
 before them out of Leinster, leaving his favor- 
 ite wife to die of grief. These things hap- 
 pened six da}^s before the deluge. The 
 learned and reverend historian makes the 
 following judicious remarks: “The reader 
 
 must observe that I do not give down these 
 invasions or occupations as true history. I 
 have recounted them here, merely because I 
 found them mentioned in ancient books ; and, 
 moreover, I can not conceive how our anti- 
 quaries could have obtained these accounts 
 of persons that arrived in Ireland before the 
 flood, if it were not from those aerial demons 
 who were their family followers in pagan 
 times, or unless they had found them en- 
 graved upon some rocks, that remained after 
 the flood had subsided. I do not, however, 
 insist that there- might not have existed, at 
 the time of St. Patrick’s coming to Ireland, 
 some very old and venerable man, who had 
 lived through piany centuries before that 
 time, and that this man gave that apostle an 
 account both of everything he remembered 
 himself and of all the traditions he had re- 
 ceived from his ancestors concerning the past- 
 ages. I do think that there was some such 
 kind of personage in those times, who had 
 lived more than three hundred years, and 
 who related many ancient traditions to St. 
 Patrick.” 
 
 The same writer (Dr. Geoffrey Keating) 
 accounts for the absence of serpents in Ire- 
 land by a legend of high antiquity, the scene 
 of which is in Egypt. A serpent chanced to 
 bite Gaedal Niul’s son while he was swim- 
 ming, and his life was endangered thereby. 
 Niul followed the advice of his household and 
 brought the boy to Moses without delay, who 
 prayed to God and touched the wound with 
 
 then affirmed that no venomous creature 
 should have power in any country wherein 
 the posterity of that youth should dwell. 
 “And this prophecy has been fulfilled in the 
 isle of Crete or Candia, where some of his 
 posterity remain, in which island, as in Ire- 
 land, no venomous serpents can exist; for 
 although, according to some authors, we have 
 had some serpents in Ireland before St. Pat- 
 rick’s time, I am yet of opinion that they 
 were not venomous. I am likewise inclined 
 to think that infernal demons are meant by 
 those serpents spoken of in the life of St. 
 Patrick.” 
 
 It is supposed that the Phoenicians reached 
 Ireland in their voyagings. The Irish are of 
 Celtic descent. The island suffered from in- 
 cursions of the Danes. Brian Boiroiinhe, a 
 valiant and renowned prince, defeated them 
 at Clontarf in 1039, and was assassinated in 
 his tent the same night, while in the act of 
 prayer. Strongbow (the surname of the Earl 
 of Pembroke), at the request of Dermot 
 McMorrogh, a dethroned king of Leinster, 
 invaded Ireland in 1169 ; a great part of the 
 island was soon conquered by the English, 
 who by degrees became masters of the whole 
 country, though rebellions were frequent. 
 A parliament was summoned at Dublin, May 
 1st, 1536, which declared Henry VIII. the 
 supreme head on earth of the church of Ire- 
 land, and annulled the papal power. Every 
 person who refused to take the oath of su- 
 premacy, was declared guilty of high treason. 
 But, to resist the royal usurpations, confed- 
 eracies w r ere formed, and the reformation was 
 rendered so odious to the Irish that it made 
 slow progress among them. Though the 
 liturgy of the church of England was per- 
 formed for the first time on Easter Sunday, 
 1551, the bulk of the nation still adhered 
 steadfastly to their ancient faith, and the 
 cause of the Romish religion became the 
 cause of the nation. The attempts to force a. 
 people to renounce the faith which they had 
 received from St. Patrick, and to receive a 
 new system of religion with an English ritual, 
 naturally became blended with the national 
 prejudices against English oppression. A 
 general system of rebellion to shake off the 
 English yoke was organized in Ireland about 
 
 his rod, and it was immediately healed. He 
 
 IRE 
 
 1596 ; the most formidable of the rebel chiefs 
 was O’Neil, who, disdaining the title of Earl 
 
432 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of Tyrone, had assumed the rank and appel- 
 lation of King of Ulster, and received a sup- 
 ply of arms and ammunition from Spain. 
 This rebellion was finally terminated by the 
 submission of O’Neil. 
 
 The conduct of James I. in 1G01 estranged 
 the affections of the Irish, and, during the 
 reign of Charles I., a rebellion broke out 
 which deluged the country in blood. The 
 Catholics plotted the extirpation of the Eng- 
 lish. Parliament sent Cromwell into the 
 island, and his unsparing measures reduced 
 it to obedience; twenty thousand Irishmen 
 were sold as slaves, and forty thousand entered 
 into foreign service to escape from tyranny at 
 home. 
 
 On the death of the great protector, Rich- 
 ard Cromwell confirmed his brother Henry 
 in the government of Ireland, by the new 
 title of lord lieutenant. Henry exerted him- 
 self with vigor to support the tottering 
 authority of his brother ; but, after the abdi- 
 cation of Richard, Charles II. was proclaimed 
 with every manifestation of joy in all the 
 great towns of Ireland. On the accession of 
 James II. to the throne of England, the Duke 
 of Ormond gave place in the government of 
 Ireland to the Earl of Clarendon. The cruel 
 Earl of Tyrconnel was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the army, and made independent 
 of the lord lieutenant. This, and other pro- 
 ceedings in favor of the Catholics, alarmed 
 the Protestant part of the kingdom, and most 
 of the traders, and those whose fortunes 
 were transferable, fled from the country. 
 The distracted state of this unhappy king- 
 dom, at the period of the revolution in 1688, 
 can hardly be described. The Protestants in 
 the north proclaimed William and Mary. 
 James, who had sailed from Brest, with a 
 large armament, landed at Kinsale, in March, 
 1689. He was opposed by an English army 
 commanded by William in person. A dread- 
 ful civil war took place, but at length the 
 battle of the Boyne, on the 1st of July, 1690, 
 decided the fate of James, who fled to France. 
 The Irish subjects outlawed for the rebellion 
 of 1688, amounted to 300,978, and their Irish 
 possessions comprised 1,600,000 acres. In 
 1796 the injured Irish, denied the enjoyments 
 of their dearest rights, and condemned to 
 political disability on account of professing 
 
 the Catholic religion, once more rebelled. 
 The French favored them, but only a small 
 French force ever landed, and they surren- 
 dered to the superior army of Cornwallis. 
 The insurgents, being excluded from all quar- 
 ters, fled, and were pursued with great 
 slaughter. On the 1st of January, 1801, 
 the union of Great Britain with Ireland was 
 effected. The political disabilities of the 
 Catholics were removed in 1829, but still the 
 condition of Ireland was unhappy. 
 
 One cause of the distresses of Ireland 
 was absenteeism, the absence in England of 
 great landed proprietors, whose estates were 
 underlet by rapacious agents that ground the 
 poor tenants without mercy. In spite of 
 religious intolerance and civil disqualifica- 
 tions ; of statutes which rendered commerce 
 a crime, and laws which made industry penal ; 
 of abuses of power under William, and of 
 
 thing like a counterpoise was found to balance 
 these political evils, in the home residence of 
 the educated gentry, and in the political 
 bustle and activity of an Irish parliament. 
 As soon as the positive calamities of war and 
 confiscation ceased ; as soon as an approach 
 was made to European habits and policy, and 
 industry was permitted to find a scope and a 
 reward for its exertions, — the nation made a 
 sudden and a rapid progress in civilization 
 and comfort, simply through the efficiency of 
 its own resources, and the demands of its 
 own market. It was in vain that the talis- 
 manic words 1 Irishmen ’ and ‘ Papist ’ were 
 employed to arm passion and prejudice against 
 the country ; it was in vain that commercial 
 jealousy threw shackles round its infant man- 
 ufactures. In spite of these and many other 
 obstacles, the moral strength of a country 
 always distinguished for the natural endow- 
 ments of its population, rose superior to the 
 cruel pressure of its political inflictions ; and 
 the domestic activity and intellectual improve- 
 ment of the people — slow and limited as 
 they appear, when compared with the advan- 
 ces of the sister kingdom — proceeded with a 
 rapidity little short of miraculous, under so 
 stultifying a system of legislation and gov- 
 ernment. It was then that the light of 
 national genius concentrated its long scattered 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 433 
 
 rays to a point, and shining steadily from its 
 proper focus, threw out those inextinguisha- 
 ble sparks of moral lustre, 
 
 “which are wont to give 
 
 Light to a world, and make a nation live.” 
 
 It was then that the powerful collision of 
 active, ardent, and energetic minds produced 
 that brilliant burst of talent which, for some- 
 thing more than a century, flung over the 
 political darkness of the land a splendor to 
 which her struggles and her misfortunes 
 served only to give a stronger relief and more 
 brilliant effect. It was then that, after ages 
 of mental depression, the Irish intellect broke 
 out, like the Irish rebellion, “threescore 
 thousand strong,” when none expected or 
 were prepared for the splendid irruption. 
 The old mart of learning was re-opened to 
 the erudite of Europe, as in those times when, 
 if a sage was missing, it was said “ emandatus 
 est ad disciplinary in Hibernia ; ” and the 
 rich stream of native humor, which, like a 
 caverned river, had hitherto “ kept the noise- 
 less tenor of its way,” darkened by impending 
 shadows, now rushed forth with the rapidity 
 of a torrent, pure, sparkling, and abundant, 
 at the first vent afforded to its progress. 
 
 The legislative union with Great Britain 
 has been very unpopular with Irish patriots, 
 and from 1829 to 1847 a great movement, 
 headed by Daniel O’Connell, agitated for its 
 repeal. . In 1 847 and the two successive years, 
 a disease blighted the potato crop, and the 
 twin curses of pestilence and famine brooded 
 over the hapless island. Revolution was the 
 cry on the continent, and an abortive insur- 
 rection was planned in Ireland. The leaders, 
 Smith O’Brien, John Mitchell, Thomas Fran- 
 cis Meagher, Terence McManus, and others, 
 were sentenced to death ; a fate commuted 
 by the crown to transportation, from which 
 they have all escaped or have been pardoned. 
 
 By an act of 1849, a commission for the 
 sale of encumbered estates was appointed, 
 whose operations have been highly benefi- 
 cial, and promise much improvement in the 
 social condition of the Irish people. Large 
 domains have been transferred from bankrupt 
 proprietors, who groaned under irredeemable 
 mortgages and had no capital to employ labor, 
 to the hands of competent and progressive 
 landlords, of whom a large proportion are 
 skillful cultivators from England and Scot- 
 28 
 
 land. The tendency will be to lessen the 
 evil of absenteeism, and thus do away with 
 the middle-men, who have formed one stand- 
 ing and regular. Irish grievance. It was the 
 common method in Ireland to extort the last 
 farthing which the tenant was willing to give 
 for land rather than quit it, and the machinery 
 by which such a practice wag carried into effect, 
 was that of the middle-man. He gave high 
 prices, that he might obtain higher from the 
 occupant ; more was paid by the actual 
 occupant than was consistent with the pres- 
 ervation of the land; it was injured, ran out, 
 and the most shocking consequences ensued 
 from it. There was little manufacture in 
 Ireland ; the price of labor was low ; the 
 demand for labor irregular. If a poor man 
 was driven, by distress of rent, from his 
 potato garden, he had no other resource ; all 
 was lost ; he would do the impossible (as the 
 French say) to retain it — ^subscribe any bond, 
 and promise any rent. The middle-man had 
 no character to lose ; and he knew when he 
 took up the occupation that it was one with 
 which pity had nothing to do. On he drove, 
 and backward the poor peasant receded, 
 losing something at every step, till he came 
 to the very brink of despair ; and then he 
 recoiled and murdered his oppressor, and was 
 a White Boy, or a Right Boy ; and the soldier 
 shot him, and the judge hanged him. 
 
 IRENiEUS, St., was a native of Asia 
 Minor, and a pupil of Polycarp. He is sup- 
 posed to have come to Gaul, while a young 
 man, and died at Lyons, of whose church he 
 was bishop, about the close of the second 
 century. 
 
 IRETON, Henry, the son-in-law of Crom- 
 well, and a distinguished parliamentary gen- 
 eral, was lord deputy of Ireland during the 
 commonwealth. He died at Limerick in 1 65 1 , 
 aged forty-one. 
 
 IRON MASK. The Man in the Iron Mask 
 was the most singular prisoner ever confined 
 within the walls of the Bastile; notwith- 
 standing all the curiosity and conjecture that 
 have been employed to ascertain his quality 
 and pedigree, nothing authentic has trans- 
 pired to the present time. In 1698 he was 
 brought from the island of St. Marguerite by 
 Mons. de St. Mars, the newly appointed gov- 
 ernor of the Bastile ; he was attended with 
 the greatest respect, maintained a sumptuous 
 
 IRO 
 
434 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 table, and had every possible indulgence 
 shown him until the time of his death, Nov. 
 19th, 1703. This mysterious prisoner, on 
 his removal to the Bastile, was carried in a 
 litter, accompanied by several men on horse- 
 back, who had orders to put him to death, 
 if he made the slightest attempt to show his 
 face or otherwise discover himself. His face 
 was concealed with a mask of black velvet, 
 with springs of steel or whalebone, which 
 were so constructed that he could eat with- 
 out taking it off. A physician of the Bastile, 
 who had often attended him, said he had 
 never seen his face, though he had frequently 
 examined his tongue and other parts of his 
 body ; but added that he was admirably well 
 made, that his skin was brown, his voice in- 
 teresting, that he was very accomplished, 
 read much, played on the guitar, and had an 
 exquisite taste for lace and fine linen. 
 
 The pains taken in his concealment show 
 that he was a person of considerable quality 
 and importance, and from thfe following cir- 
 cumstances it appears singular that he w T as 
 never discovered. Whilst at St. Marguerite, 
 he one day wrote something with his knife 
 on a silver plate, which he threw from the 
 window toward a boat lying near the tower. 
 A fisherman took up the plate and brought it 
 to the governor, who, with great astonish- 
 ment, asked the man if he had read the writ- 
 ing or showed it to any one, and, although 
 the fisherman answered in the negative, kept 
 him in confinement until he was perfectly 
 satisfied, after which he dismissed him, say- 
 ing, “It is lucky for you that you can not 
 read.” The Abbe Papon says : “ In the year 
 1778 I had the curiosity to visit the apart- 
 ment of this unfortunate prisoner : it looks 
 toward the sea. I found in the citadel an 
 officer in the independent company there, 
 seventy -nine years of age. He told me that 
 his father had often related to him that a 
 young lad, a barber, having seen one day 
 something white floating on the water, took 
 it up ; it was a very fine shirt, written almost 
 all over. He carried it to Mons. de St. Mars, 
 who, having looked at some parts of the 
 writing, asked the lad, with an appearance 
 of anxiety, if he had not had the curiosity to 
 read it ? He assured him he had not ; but 
 two days afterward the boy was found dead 
 in his bed.” 
 
 Immediately after the prisoner’s death, 
 his apparel, linen, clothes, mattresses, and 
 everything that had been used by him, were 
 burnt ; the walls of his room were scraped, 
 the floor was taken up, and every precaution 
 used that no trace of him might be left be- 
 hind. When he was on the road from St. 
 Marguerite to his last residence, Mons. de St. 
 Mars, was overheard to reply to a question 
 of the prisoner, relative to any design against 
 his life : “ No, prince, your life is in safety ; 
 you must only allow yourself to be conduct- 
 ed.” A prisoner told Ml la Grange Chancel 
 that he was lodged, with other prisoners, in 
 the room immediately over this celebrated 
 captive, and found means of speaking to him 
 by the vents of the chimney ; but he refused 
 to inform them who he was, alleging that it 
 would cost him his own life, as well as the 
 lives of those to whom the secret might be 
 revealed. 
 
 Various have been the individuals supposed 
 to have been the masked prisoner : the Due 
 de Beaufort; the Count de Vermandois, 
 natural son to Louis XIV. by the Duchess 
 de la Valliere; the Duke of Monmouth, 
 natural son of Charles II. of England ; Gero- 
 lami Alagni, minister of the Duke of Alodena ; 
 the offspring of a secret marriage between 
 Anne of Austria and Cardinal Alazarin, &c., 
 &c. Voltaire says that the secret was known 
 to Monsieur de Chamillard, and that the son- 
 in-law of that minister conjured him on his 
 death-bed to tell the name of the man with 
 the mask ; but he replied it was a state 
 secret, which he had sworn he would never 
 divulge. 
 
 The supposition now generally received is 
 that this unfortunate person was the twin 
 brother of Louis XIV., born eight hours after 
 this monarch, and the unhappy victim of 
 Superstition and cruelty. Louis XIII., being 
 weak enough to give credit to the prediction 
 of some impostors, that if the queen should 
 be delivered of twins, the kingdom would be 
 involved in civil war, ordered the birth of 
 this prince to be kept a profound secret, and 
 had him privately educated in the country 
 as the illegitimate son of a nobleman; but 
 on the accession of Louis XIV., the young 
 man gave indications of having discovered 
 his parentage. His brother being informed 
 of this, ordered him to be imprisoned for 
 
 IRQ 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 435 
 
 life, and to wear a mask in order to prevent 
 his being recognized. 
 
 ISABELLA of Castile was born in 1450. 
 Civil dissensions made her the heiress and 
 successor of her brother Henry, whose 
 daughter Joanna was set aside. Of the 
 many suitors for her hand, the King of Por- 
 tugal, the Due de Guienne, brother of Louis 
 XI. of France, the Duke of Clarence, brother 
 of Edward IV. of England, and Don Ferdi- 
 nand, the heir of Arragon, she chose the lat- 
 ter, and was united to him in 1474. By this 
 match nearly the whole Christian dominions 
 of Spain were united in one monarchy. It 
 was through the generous patronage of Isa- 
 bella that Columbus was enabled to set sail 
 on that momentous voyage from which he 
 landed upon the strand of a virgin hemi- 
 sphere. Isabella died in 1504. 
 
 ISMAIL, a strongly fortified town in Rus- 
 sia, in Bessarabia, on the north side of the 
 Danube, thirty-three miles from the Black 
 Sea. It is memorable for its siege, in 1790, 
 by the Russians under Suwarrow. It was 
 taken by a terrible assault, on the 23d of De- 
 cember. Of the Turks 30,000 were massa- 
 cred in cold blood; 6,000 women were 
 butchered, and the town was fired. The 
 Russians lost 5,000 men on the day of cap- 
 ture, and more than twice that number in 
 previous operations. 
 
 ISSUS, Battle of, the second great defeat 
 of Darius by Alexander, 333 b.c. The queen 
 and family of the Persian monarch were 
 taken by the Macedonians. 
 
 ITALY. The present kingdom was formed 
 by the adhesion of one part of the country 
 after another to the government of Victor 
 Emanuel. This movement commenced even 
 before the peace of Villa Franca, which was 
 finally signed at Zurich, Nov. 10, 1859. Tus- 
 cany, on the 15th of the previous August, 
 had declared for the new kingdom ; Modena 
 on the 20th, Parma Sept. 3d. The first 
 Italian parliament met at Turin, Feb. 18, 
 1861, and on the 28th enacted the new title 
 of King of Italy. The British government 
 recognized the new Kingdom in March. In 
 1864, Florence was made the capital instead 
 of Turin. Under the new Italian government 
 in 1866, the abolishment of all ecclesiastical 
 corporations was effected, and the property 
 owners by these orders appropriated by the 
 
 state and used chiefly for educational pur- 
 poses. The area of the kingdom of Italy is 
 98,075 sq. m. ; pop. in 1862, 21,776,953. Italy 
 has borne the names of Saturnia, AEnotria, 
 Hesperia, Ausonia, Tyrrhenia. The ancient 
 inhabitants called themselves Aborigines, 
 offspring of the soil, and the country was 
 soon after peopled by colonies from Greece. 
 Italy has been the mother of arts as well as 
 of arms, and the immortal monuments which 
 remain of the eloquence and poetical genius 
 of its inhabitants, are universally known. 
 The. early part of the history of this coun- 
 fry, is, however, involved in the greatest 
 obscurity. The first light thrown on this 
 land of darkness was by the settlement of 
 Greek colonies in the south, where, eventu- 
 ally, a large tract of country was called 
 Magna Grsecia. The early history of Italy 
 is linked with the annals of Rome. 
 
 Italy continued* subject to one power, for 
 more than eight hundred years, until the 
 fifth century, when the Goths crossed the 
 barriers of the Alps. Toward a.d. 560 
 the Longobards entered the north of Italy, 
 took Milan and Pavia, and founded a kingdom 
 which continued during two centuries, until 
 overthrown by Charlemagne. After his 
 death Italy belonged to his successors on 
 the imperial throne, but their tenure was 
 precarious ; the great barons laboring to as- 
 sert their independence, and the popes to 
 extend their temporal dominion. The sub- 
 sequent history »is little more than a succes- 
 sion of military struggles, of little interest, 
 until 960, when Otho I. repaired, in person, 
 to the north of Italy, granted municipal 
 rights to the cities, and improved the interior 
 government in general. The whole was 
 united to the German empire ; but from this 
 compact fresh feuds and commotions fol- 
 lowed: the Italian nobility were jealous of 
 their privileges; conspiracies were formed, 
 detected, and suppressed, and no constant 
 allegiance was exhibited to the German gov- 
 ernment, or the magistracy put into authority 
 by it. A series of wars continued for several 
 ages. In the fourteenth century, Italy was 
 divided into the kingdom of Naples, the es- 
 tates of the Church, Tuscany, Parma, and 
 Lombardy, the Genoese and the Venetian 
 territories, and other petty states. For two 
 centuries the Venetians and Genoese were 
 
 ITA 
 
436 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the most considerable commercial people in 
 Europe. Venice, in particular, possessed 
 large foreign colonies; and, in 1194, she took 
 Constantinople and held in sovereignty por- 
 tions of what now constitutes Turkey in Eu- 
 rope and Greece. The foundation of the 
 temporal power of the popes was laid about 
 1080, by Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, who 
 bequeathed a large portion of her dominions 
 to Gregory VII. After that time the popes 
 successively made great acquisitions of terri- 
 tory : but, in 1798, Rome was taken by Ber- 
 thier, and Bonaparte annexed the papal 
 dominions to France. They were, however, 
 restored in 1814. Napoleon made many 
 changes in the states of Italy, but after his 
 fall the former condition was restored. [ See 
 Naples, Sardinia, Tuscany, &c.] 
 
 ITURBIDE, Augustus, was born in 1784. 
 When Mexico threw off the Spanish yoke, 
 he was the commander of the royal army in 
 
 the north. He declared for the independence 
 of the Mexican people, and the Spaniards 
 being driven forth, succeeded in making 
 himself emperor in 1822. Anarchy made his 
 rule not quite imperial; he abdicated in 
 March, 1823, his divorced empire promising 
 him an affluent alimony, and he agreeing to 
 dwell in Italy. Unsatisfied ambition led him 
 back to Mexico in 1824; the congress de- 
 clared him an outlaw, and he was shot a few 
 days after his arrival. 
 
 IVRY, or Yvres, Battle of, between 
 Henry IV. of France, aided by his chief 
 nobility, and the generals of the Catholic 
 league, over whom the king gained a signal 
 victory. This success enabled Henry to 
 blockade Paris, and reduce that capital to 
 the last extremity by famine ; but the Duke 
 of Parma, by orders of Philip of Spain, 
 marched to the relief of the league, and 
 obliged the king to raise the blockade. 
 
 JACKSON, Andrew, was the seventh 
 president of the United States. His ances- 
 tors were of the Presbyterian faith, and 
 among the Scotch emigrants to the province 
 of Ulster in Ireland, under the policy of James 
 I., who stocked the confiscated estates of the 
 Irish with colonists from England and Scot- 
 land. Hugh Jackson, the grandfather of 
 Andrew, was a linen-draper near Carrickfer- 
 gus ; his four sons were reputable farmers, 
 and the youngest of them, Andrew, married 
 Elizabeth Hutchinson, by whom he had in 
 Ireland two sons, Hugh and Robert. To im- 
 prove his condition, he emigrated to America, 
 in company with several of his neighbors, in 
 1765, and settled on Waxhaw Creek, just 
 within the limits of North Carolina, where 
 others of his countrymen had formed a set- 
 tlement and reared a meeting-house. At a 
 later period, Samuel, a son of another of the 
 brothers, came over, and became a citizen of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 On this plantation, in Mecklenburg county, 
 N. C., Andrew Jackson saw the light, March 
 
 JA 
 
 15th, 1767, only five days before the eyes of 
 his father were closed in death. A few weeks 
 after, the widow, with her orphan boys and 
 new-born babe, removed into South Carolina 
 and made her home at another point on the 
 Waxhaw. There was spent the infancy and 
 early youth of the future hero. The lone 
 mother’s means were slender, but she longed 
 to see her youngest son a minister of the 
 gospel, and he was early placed in a neigh- 
 boring academy. He was making fair prog- 
 ress in his studies, when the Revolution 
 broke out, and South Carolina soon became 
 a theatre of war. His elder brother, Hugh, 
 lost his life in the fatigues of service against 
 the foe. A battle was fought at Waxhaw 
 settlement in May, 1780, in which 113 Ameri- 
 icans were killed and 150 wounded. Wax- 
 haw meeting-house was converted into a tem- 
 porary hospital, and there the wounded were 
 borne. The mangled corpses of slaughtered 
 patriots recalled to the youth that looked 
 upon them, the tales of British cruelty and 
 wrong he had so often heard from his mother, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 437 
 
 JACKSON AT THE HERMITAGE. 
 
 as she related scenes of tyranny in Ireland, 
 from which his father had fled to find an 
 asylum in the Carolinas. 
 
 In the summer of 1780, then a boy of little 
 more than thirteen, he shouldered a musket, 
 and with his brother Robert joined a corps 
 of volunteers attached to Gen. Sumter’s 
 brigade. An action took place August 6th, 
 1780, at a place called Hanging Rock, be- 
 tween the Americans and British soldiers 
 aided by Tories. Davie’s corps, in which the 
 young Jacksons fought, distinguished itself 
 and suffered heavy loss ; but the brothers 
 were unhurt. 
 
 For several months the region between the 
 Great Pedee and Saluda rivers was the stage 
 of hot warfare. Andrew and Robert were 
 too young to mingle in all the dangers and 
 hardships of partisan life. The settlers about 
 the Waxhaw were firm republicans by birth 
 and spirit, and were special marks for British 
 hate. Mrs. Jackson retired with her sons 
 
 into North Carolina for some time. In 1781 
 both of the boys were captured by a party 
 of dragoons. Andrew was ordered by a Tory 
 officer to clean his muddy boots ; the boy-sol- 
 dier proudly refused, and parried with his 
 left arm a sword-stroke murderously aimed 
 at his head. His hand was wounded, and he 
 bore the scar for life. Robert was ordered to 
 perform the same menial office, and upon a 
 refusal as prompt as his brother’s, the brutal 
 major gave him a sword-cut upon the head, 
 from the effect of which he never recovered. 
 With other prisoners, the youths were con- 
 fined some time in Camden, where they suf- 
 fered severely, from their undressed wounds, 
 from ill treatment, and from the small pox, 
 which raged among the prisoners. Their 
 mother hurried to Camden ; by an exchange 
 of prisoners, her sons were yielded to her, 
 hardly more than mere wrecks of their former 
 selves. With five released neighbors, the 
 i widow and her boys started for their home 
 
 JAC 
 
438 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 on the Waxhaw. For the company there 
 were but two horses. Mrs. Jackson rode one, 
 without saddle or bridle, and on the other 
 the weak and wounded Robert was borne. 
 Andrew, not yet recovered from the small- 
 pox, barefooted and half-naked, trudged on 
 foot the weary way of forty miles. Two 
 hours before reaching home, a heavy rain 
 drenched the party, and the disease left the 
 skin of the boys to pervade their systems. 
 Robert lived but two days ; for a fortnight 
 Andrew was delirious with a raging fever, 
 and lingered upon the brink of death. Not 
 long after his recovery, his noble mother 
 died from a fever contracted on the prison- 
 ships at Charleston, whither she had gone to 
 nurse and tend the victims who were there 
 suffering and dying. 
 
 Andrew Jackson was thus left alone on 
 the earth. For some time he was wayward 
 and dissolute in his habits, till suddenly 
 changing his course of life, he commenced 
 ihe study of law, at Salisbury, N. C. This 
 was in the winter of 1784, in his eighteenth 
 year ; in little more than two years he was 
 licensed to practice. Without asking, he 
 received from the governor the appointment 
 of solicitor for the western district, embracing 
 the present state of Tennessee. In the spring 
 of 1788, then just of man’s age, he crossed 
 the mountains to take up his abode. The 
 country was wild and sparsely settled, the 
 white man having to struggle boldly and 
 bloodily with the fierce savage. Jackson 
 was engaged in several expeditions against 
 the Indians ; his bravery attracted their notice, 
 and they gave him the names of Sharp Knife 
 and Pointed Arrow. 
 
 After dwelling awhile at Jonesborough, he 
 determined to make Nashville his home, and 
 there boarded in the pleasant family of Mrs. 
 Donelson, the widow of Col. Donelson, an 
 emigrant from Virginia. Rachel, the daugh- 
 ter of Mrs. Donelson, was celebrated for her 
 beauty and affability. She was then in the 
 bloom of early womanhood. She had been 
 wedded to Captain Robards, a dissolute and 
 brutal man, and had sought sanctuary from 
 his cruel treatment under her mother’s roof. 
 Alarmed by a rumor that he was coming to 
 Nashville, she left there in the spring of 
 1791, with the family of a friend, and went 
 down the river to Natchez. Jackson accom- 
 
 panied the party as a protector against the 
 dangers of the journey. When he returned 
 to Nashville he learned that Capt. Robards 
 had applied to the legislature of Virginia 
 for a divorce, and was credibly informed 
 that the prayer had been granted. He at 
 once hastened to Natchez with the welcome 
 tidings. He had admired Rachel Donelson 
 before ; and now that she was free to marry, 
 and love for her was not illicit, his regard at 
 once warmed into ardent affection. His suit 
 was accepted; in the autumn they were 
 married. In December, 1793, Jackson was 
 startled to learn that the Virginia legislature 
 did not grant a divorce, but only authorized 
 a suit to be brought in a Kentucky court. 
 That suit had just terminated and the divorce 
 had been granted. In January, 1794, Jackson 
 was again regularly married. His conduct 
 was ever singularly delicate and chivalrous 
 toward woman, and when partisan rancor 
 tried to asperse him, those who were familiar 
 with the circumstances of this case, vindi- 
 cated his conduct as perfectly honorable and 
 virtuous. 
 
 Fie now applied himself assiduously to his 
 profession. The prodigal debtors, with whom 
 he came in contact in the collection of debts, 
 clubbed together to drive him from the coun- 
 try. He flinched not, and their animosity 
 brought upon him several personal encoun- 
 ters, in which he was uniformly victorious. 
 His nerve, strength, and agility were qualities 
 to win him the liking of the hardy frontiers- 
 men of Tennessee, and after assisting in 1796 
 to form a state constitution, he was chosen 
 the first representative of the new common- 
 wealth in Congress. He served one session, 
 and then, having been chosen senator by 
 the legislature, took that seat Nov. 22d, 
 1797. Unambitious of political distinction, 
 he resigned his seat in the senate after one 
 session, went back to Tennessee, and was 
 made judge of the supreme court of the state, 
 a post which he held some six years. 
 
 For some years, he tasted the retirement 
 which he had so long desired, devoting 
 his time to the pursuits of agriculture. In 
 1802 he had been appointed major-general of 
 the militia of Tennessee. When the war 
 with Great Britain came in 1812, he was 
 called into the field. The expedition against 
 the Creeks, who had been stirred to hostility 
 
 JAC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 439 
 
 by emissaries in the interest of England, was 
 conducted by him with eminent success. In 
 May, 1814, he received a commission as major- 
 general in the regular army. The threatened 
 descent of the British upon Louisiana soon 
 drew his attention to that quarter ; the meas- 
 ures which through his energy were adopted 
 for resistance and defense, were crowned with 
 victory upon the field of Chalmette, Jan. 8th, 
 1815, when backwoods marksmen and tough 
 cotton-bales proved more than a match for 
 veterans who had been victorious in the 
 Peninsula and the great fight of Waterloo. 
 
 Gen. Jackson took his seat in the senate of 
 the United States, as senator from Tennessee, 
 in December, 1823. He was a prominent can- 
 didate for the presidency in 1824, and in 
 1828 and 1832 was elected to that high office. 
 His administration was marked by a fierce 
 contest with the United States bank. At the 
 close of his second term, he retired to his 
 favorite residence, at the Hermitage in Ten- 
 nessee, where he passed the remnant of his 
 days. He died on the 8th of June, 1845. 
 His countrymen, throughout the land, joined 
 in testimonials of respect to his memory. 
 
 JAOKSON, James, an officer in our Revo- 
 lutionary army, was born in England in 1757, 
 and settled in Georgia in 1772. He was 
 engaged in the attack on Savannah, when but 
 nineteen years old, and a few years afterward 
 was chosen brigade-major in the Georgia 
 militia. After the close of the war, through- 
 out which he displayed great gallantry and 
 prudence, he commenced the practice of law, 
 and in 1783 he became a member of the legis- 
 lature. In 1788 he was chosen governor of 
 Georgia, but modestly declined the honor on 
 account of his youth and inexperience. He 
 held the post, however, from 1798 to 1801. 
 He was afterward chosen United States sena- 
 tor, and died in Washington, March 19th, 
 1806. 
 
 JACOBINS. The Jacobin club originated 
 in 1789, from a secret association of about 
 forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had 
 united to discuss and disseminate political 
 and other opinions ; they were called Jaco- 
 bins because they met in the hall of the 
 Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became 
 numerous and popular ; fraternal societies 
 were founded in all the principal towns of the 
 kingdom ; and the share of the Jacobins in 
 
 the ensuing revolution need not be told here. 
 The club law of Oct. 16th, 1794, gave the 
 death-blow to the Jacobin club. 
 
 JACQUARD, Marie Joseph, the inventor 
 of the celebrated loom, was born at Lyons 
 in 1752, and died in 1834. 
 
 JAFFA, anciently Joppa, a seaport of 
 Syria, twelve leagues north-west of Jerusa- 
 lem ; population 4,000. It was taken by 
 Bonaparte in 1799. His soldiers suffered 
 terribly here from the plague. 
 
 JAMAICA is the largest and most import- 
 ant of the West India islands belonging to 
 Great Britain. It is about 150 miles long, 
 and 40 broad. It is less fertile than some 
 others of the West Indies, but is a rich and 
 valuable country. It is subject to earth- 
 quakes. Sugar, rum, molasses, indigo, coffee, 
 pimento, and ginger are the most valuable 
 articles of export. The present population 
 is about 380,000, of whom 15,000 are whites. 
 The island was discovered by Columbus, May 
 3d, 1494. In 1655 it was taken from the 
 Spanish by the English under the command 
 of Admiral Penn and General Venables. 
 In 1795 a war commenced between the 
 Maroons, the runaway slaves of the Spanish 
 settlers, and the white inhabitants ; the bar- 
 barous expedient of using bloodhounds being 
 resorted to, for the purpose of tracing the 
 mountain haunts of the negroes, they were 
 at last compelled to surrender at discretion. 
 
 Spanish Town, or Santiago de la Vega, is 
 the seat of the colonial legislature. Kings- 
 ton is the largest town in the island ; popula- 
 tion over 35,000. Port Royal, once the 
 capital, has been often and severely smitten 
 by earthquakes, hurricanes, and flames. 
 
 JAMES L, King of Scotland, was born in 
 1394. At the age of eleven years, he was 
 sent to France, that he might escape the 
 danger to which he was exposed from the 
 ambition of his uncle, the Duke of Albany ; 
 but, falling into the hands of the English, he 
 and his retinue were confined in England, 
 where, however, the young prince received an 
 excellent education. His talents were of a 
 high order. Washington Irving has given an 
 interesting account of him in the Sketch 
 Book, which we condense. 
 
 I visited the ancient keep of the castle 
 [at Windsor], where James I. of Scotland, the 
 pride and theme of Scottish poets and histo- 
 
 JAM 
 
440 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 rians, was for many years of his youth 
 detained a prisoner of state. It is a large 
 gray tower, that has stood the brunt of ages, 
 and is still in good preservation. It stands on 
 a mound which elevates it above other parts 
 of the castle, and a great flight of steps lead 
 into the interior. In the armory, which is a 
 Gothic hall, furnished with weapons of vari- 
 ous kinds and ages, I was shown a coat of 
 armor hanging against the wall, which I was 
 told had once belonged to James. From 
 hence I was conducted up a staircase to a 
 suite of apartments of faded magnificence, 
 hung with storied tapestry, which formed 
 his prison, and the scene of that passionate 
 and fanciful amour, which has woven into the 
 web of his story the magical hues of poetry 
 and fiction. 
 
 The whole history of this amiable but 
 unfortunate prince is highly romantic. The 
 intelligence of his capture, coming in the 
 train of many sorrows and disasters, proved 
 fatal to his unhappy father. The news, we 
 are told, was brought to him while at supper, 
 and did so overwhelm him with grief, that he 
 was almost ready to give up the ghost into 
 the hands of the servants that attended him. 
 But being carried into his bed-chamber, he 
 abstained from all food, and in three days 
 died of hunger and grief at Rothesay. 
 
 James was detained in captivity above 
 eighteen years ; but, though deprived of per- 
 sonal liberty, he was treated with the respect 
 due to his rank. He was well taught, we are 
 told, to fight with the sword, to joust, to* 
 tourney, to wrestle, to sing and dance ; he 
 was an expert mediciner, right crafty in 
 playing both of lute and harp, and sundry 
 other instruments of music, and was expert 
 in grammar, oratory, and poetry. 
 
 In prison he wrote “The King’s Quhair” 
 (Book). The subject of the poem is his love 
 for the Lady Jane Beaufort, daughter of the 
 Earl of Somerset, and a princess of the blood 
 royal of England, of whom he became enam- 
 ored in the course of his captivity. His 
 passion for the Lady Jane, as it was the solace 
 of his captivity, so it facilitated his release, 
 it being imagined by the court that a con- 
 nection with the blood royal of England 
 would attach him to its own interests. He 
 was ultimately restored to his liberty and 
 crown, having previously espoused the Lady 
 
 Jane, who accompanied him to Scotland, and 
 made him a most tender and devoted wife. 
 
 He found his kingdom in great confusion, 
 the feudal chieftains having taken advantage 
 of the troubles and irregularities of a long 
 interregnum, to strengthen themselves in 
 their possessions, and place themselves above 
 the power of the laws. James sought to 
 found the basis of his power in the atfections 
 of his people. He attached the lower orders 
 to him by the reformation of abuses, the 
 temperate and equable administration of jus- 
 tice, the encouragement of the arts of peace, 
 and the promotion of everything that could 
 diffuse comfort, competency, and innocent 
 enjoyment through the humblest ranks of 
 society. He mingled occasionally among the 
 common people in disguise ; visited their 
 firesides ; entered into their cares, their pur- 
 suits, and their amusements ; informed himself 
 of the mechanical arts, and how they could 
 be best patronized and improved ; and was 
 thus an all-pervading spirit, watching with a 
 benevolent eye over the meanest of his sub- 
 jects. Having in this generous manner made 
 himself strong in the hearts of the common 
 people, he turned himself to curb the power 
 of the factious nobility ; to strip them of 
 those dangerous immunities which they had 
 usurped ; to punish such as had been guilty 
 of flagrant offenses ; and to bring the whole 
 into proper obedience to the crown. For 
 some time they bore this with outward sub- 
 mission, but with secret impatience and 
 brooding resentment. A conspiracy was at 
 length formed against his life, at the head of 
 which was his own uncle, Robert Stewart, 
 Earl of Athol, who, being too old himself for 
 the perpetration of the deed of blood, insti- 
 gated his grandson, Sir Robert Stewart, 
 together with Sir Robert Graham, and others 
 of less note, to commit the deed. They broke 
 into his bed-chamber at the Dominican con- 
 vent near Perth, where he was residing, and 
 barbarously murdered him by oft-repeated 
 wounds. His faithful queen, rushing to 
 throw her tender body between him and the 
 sword, was twice wounded in the ineffectual 
 attempts to shield him from the assassin ; 
 and it was not until she had been forcibly 
 torn from his person, that the murder was 
 accomplished. 
 
 This tragedy was acted Feb. 20th, 1437. 
 
 JAM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 441 
 
 When the footsteps of the ruthless assassins 
 were heard approaching the door of the royal 
 apartment, Catharine Douglas, one of the 
 queen’s ladies, secured it for a moment, by 
 thrusting her arm through the staple, and 
 sustaining, with unwavering fortitude, the 
 shocks of the assailants, till her arm was 
 broken and the door forced. 
 
 The sentiments with which Mr. Irving con- 
 cludes his sketch of James, are best conveyed 
 in his own beautiful language. “ Others may 
 dwell on the illustrious deeds of James as a 
 warrior and a legislator ; but I have delight- 
 ed to view him merely as the companion of 
 his fellow-men, the benefactor of the human 
 race, stooping from his high estate to sow the 
 sweet flowers of poetry and song in the paths 
 of common life. He was the first to cultivate 
 the vigorous and hardy plant of Scottish 
 genius, which has since been so prolific of the 
 most wholesome and highly flavored fruit. 
 He carried with him into the sterner regions 
 of the north, all the fertilizing arts of south- 
 ern refinement. He did everything in his 
 power to win his countrymen to the gay, the 
 elegant, and gentle arts, which soften and 
 refine the character of a people, and wreathe 
 a grace round the loftiness of a proud and 
 warlike spirit. He wrote many poems, which, 
 unfortunately for the fullness of his fame, are 
 now lost to the world ; one which is still pre- 
 served, called ‘Christ’s Kirk of the Green,’ 
 shows how diligently he had made himself 
 acquainted with the rustic sports and pas- 
 times which constitute such a source of kind 
 and social feeling among the Scottish peas- 
 antry, and with what simple and happy humor 
 he could enter into their enjoyments. He 
 contributed greatly to improve the national 
 music ; and traces of his tender sentiment and 
 elegant taste are said to exist in those witch- 
 ing airs still piped among the wild mountains 
 and lonely glens of Scotland. He has thus 
 connected his image with whatever is most 
 gracious and endearing in the national char- 
 acter ; he has embalmed his memory in song, 
 and floated his name down to after ages in the 
 rich stream of Scottish melody. The recol- 
 lection of these things was kindling at my 
 heart, as I paced the silent scene of his im- 
 prisonment. I have visited Yaucluse with as 
 much enthusiasm as a pilgrim would visit the 
 shrine at Loretto ; but I have never felt more 
 
 poetical devotion than when contemplating 
 the old tower and the little garden at Wind- 
 sor, and musing over the romantic loves of 
 the Lady Jane and the royal poet of Scot- 
 land.” 
 
 JAMES YI. of Scotland and I. of England. 
 
 [See Stuart, House of.J 
 
 JAMES II. of England. [See Stuart.] 
 
 JANE, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 born in 1482, became mother of the emperors 
 Charles Y. and Ferdinand I. The death of 
 her husband, Philip, Archduke of Austria, 
 affected her reason; she became insane in 
 1506, and remained so to her death, 1555, 
 forty-nine years. 
 
 JANIZARIES. These formidable foot- 
 soldiers, at first the guards of the Ottoman 
 monarchs, and for a long time the arbiters of 
 their fate, were finally broken up in 1826, the 
 date of their last rebellion, when three thou- 
 sand of them were slain. They were estab- 
 lished by Amurath I., and originally consisted 
 of the finest Christian slaves, educated in the 
 Mohammedan religion and arms. When first 
 formed, this new militia was consecrated in 
 the presence of the sultan, by a dervish, who, 
 standing in the front of their ranks, stretched 
 the sleeve of his gown over the head of the 
 foremost soldier, and delivered his blessing 
 in these words : “ Let them be called Janiza- 
 ries [yingi cheri , or new soldiers] ; may their 
 countenances be ever bright, their hand vic- 
 torious, their swords keen ; may their spear 
 always hang over the heads of their enemies ; 
 and, wheresoever they go, may they return 
 with a white face.” White and hlach face 
 are common and proverbial expressions of 
 praise and reproach in the Turkish language. 
 
 JANUS, a deity believed by the Romans 
 to have the double office of opening and shut- ^ 
 ting the gate of heaven. He was represented 
 with two faces. His temple at Rome was built 
 in the form of a square, and was opened in 
 time of war, and shut in time of peace. It 
 was shut only twice in seven centuries; in 
 the reigns of Numa and Augustus. 
 
 JAPAN, an empire to the east of China, 
 composed of a great number of islands. 
 The principal are Niphon, Kioosioo, and Sit- 
 kokf. The Japanese have nominally two 
 emperors; one is the supreme pontiff, and 
 oracle of religion, and the other a secular 
 emperor, who is invested with absolute au- 
 
 JAP 
 
442 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 thority. The latter’s residence is at Jeddo, a 
 large city, the capital of the empire, in the 
 island of Niphon. The Japanese are enter- 
 prising, hardy, and enlightened. The soil is 
 fertile, and agriculture has attained great, per- 
 fection. The silks, cottons, porcelain, lack- 
 ered wares, &c., are in high repute. The area 
 of the Japanese empire is estimated by some 
 at 160,000, and by others at 260,000 square 
 miles. Of its population there is no more 
 certain knowledge, some calling it 25,000,000, 
 and others carrying it to double that amount. 
 
 The jealous restrictions upon intercourse 
 with foreigners have preserved this insular 
 empire as a terra incognita. The Dutch 
 have long been allowed to trade at the port 
 of Nagasaki. In 1619 ambassadors are said 
 to have come from Japan to do homage to 
 Pope Paul as the head of the church, for their 
 master had been won to the Christian faith 
 by the preaching of Jesuit missionaries. The 
 ambition of the Jesuits, and the intrigues of 
 the jealous Dutch, caused the expulsion of 
 the former in 1622. Commodore Perry, with 
 an American squadron dispatched for the 
 purpose, visited Japan in 1853 and 1854, and 
 concluded a commercial treaty, by which a 
 few ports are partially opened to American 
 ships. The British obtained similar conces- 
 sions in October, 1854. 
 
 JASPER, William, was ' distinguished for 
 gallantry in the Revolutionary war. June 
 28th, 1776, in the celebrated attack of Sir 
 Peter Parker on Fort Moultrie, he replaced, 
 in the midst of an iron rain, the American 
 flag after it was shot away by a cannon-ball. 
 He, with the aid of Sergeant Newton, way- 
 laid, surprised, and captured a British guard 
 of eight men, releasing an American of the 
 name of Jones, whom they were conducting 
 to certain death at Savannah. This extraor- 
 dinary exploit was performed within about 
 two miles from the British lines. Brave Ser- 
 geant Jasper was killed in the attack on 
 Savannah, Oct. 9th, 1779. 
 
 JAVA, a large island in the eastern seas, 
 642 miles long, and 128 broad. In 1849 the 
 population amounted to 9,560,000, of whom 
 not more than 20,000 were of European de- 
 scent. Java was discovered by the Portu- 
 guese in 1510. But the Dutch obtained their 
 possessions, and the island was divided be- 
 tween them and the native princes. There 
 
 are many volcanic peaks. The island is ex- 
 ceedingly fertile, producing rice, cotton, coffee’ 
 pepper, sugar, drugs of all kinds, and various 
 fruits. The coffee of this island is renowned. 
 There are also mines of gold, rubies, diamonds, 
 and emeralds. In 1811 the island was taken 
 by the British, but it was restored by the 
 treaty of Paris in 1814. The natives are 
 much oppressed, and have several times re- 
 volted. The Dutch now have the sovereignty 
 of all the island. Batavia, a city and seaport 
 on the north coast near the western end, is 
 the capital of all the Dutch East Indies : Ion. 
 106° 54' E. ; lat. .6° 12' S. Population 
 118,000. The Dutch founded the city in 
 1619, and after being taken by the British in 
 1811, it was restored to the Dutch in 1816. 
 The bay would be good if it were easily ac- 
 cessible. The old town is built on a low 
 marshy foundation, at the junction of small 
 rivers, and some of the canals in the streets 
 contain stagnant water. Hence originates the 
 intermittent fever, so frequently fatal to stran- 
 gers. A new town has arisen on the eleva- 
 ted ground farther inland: Batavia once had 
 an immense trade, and the name of Queen of 
 the East, but the British have outrivaled the 
 Dutch in the traffic of the Indies, and Bata- 
 via has declined accordingly. The quarter 
 of the native population is exceedingly mean, 
 while the European houses are neat rather 
 than elegant. 
 
 JAY, John, an American statesman and 
 jurist, was born of Huguenot ancestry, in the 
 city of New York, Dec. 1st, 1745, o.s., and 
 was educated at King’s (now Columbia) Col- 
 lege. In 1768 he was admitted to practice 
 law, and in 1774 was chosen a delegate to 
 the first provincial congress which met at 
 Philadelphia. Two years afterward he was 
 chosen president of Congress. In 1778 he 
 was chosen chief-justice of New York, the 
 constitution of which he had been instru- 
 mental in framing. The next year he was 
 sent on a mission to Spain, to procure aid and 
 a recognition of our independence. In 1782 
 he was one of the commissioners appointed to 
 negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain. 
 On his return, Mr. Jay was placed at the 
 head of the department for foreign affairs, in 
 which office he continued until appointed 
 chief-justice of the United States. In 1794 
 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Great 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 443 
 
 MONTICELLO. 
 
 Britain, and on his return the next year en- 
 tered on the duties of office of governor of 
 the state of New York, to which he had been 
 elected during his absence. From this station 
 he retired to private life in 1801. He died 
 May 17th, 1829. Our country has no purer 
 patriot than John Jay in her list of worthies. 
 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas. The family of 
 Jefferson were among the early emigrants 
 from Great Britain. Thomas, the third pres- 
 ident of the United States of America, was 
 born at Shadwell, Virginia, April 2d, 1743, 
 o.s. His father, Peter Jefferson, a man of 
 some distinction in the colony, died in 1757, 
 leaving a widow (who lived until 1776) with 
 two sons and six daughters. Of the hand- 
 some paternal estate, Thomas, the eldest 
 child, received the lands he called Monticello, 
 on which he resided when not in public life. 
 He spent two years at William and Mary’s 
 College, and then commenced the study of 
 the law, which he was admitted to practice in 
 1767. 
 
 By birth Mr. Jefferson belonged to the 
 aristocracy of Virginia ; by nature he was a 
 republican; and he espoused with all his 
 might the popular cause against the encroach- 
 ments of Britain. In 1769 he took his seat 
 in the general assembly of Virginia, which 
 
 the governor of Virginia dissolved. Mr. 
 Jefferson, before that event, had made an 
 effort for the emancipation of the slaves of 
 Virginia. He was then elected to fill the 
 place of Peyton Randolph in Congress, and 
 assumed his seat in that body, June 21st, 1775. 
 He was one of the committee appointed to 
 draw up a declaration of independence, and 
 that document, with few alterations, was his 
 own composition. His seat in Congress he 
 resigned, because he felt that he could be 
 more useful in organizing the republican 
 government of Virginia. Among the laws 
 proposed by him, and adopted by the com- 
 monwealth, were those prohibiting the future 
 importation of slaves ; for abolishing primo- 
 geniture, and providing for the equal parti- 
 tion of inheritances ; for establishing religious 
 freedom ; and for a system of general educa- 
 tion ; which last, however, was never carried 
 into practice in the state. June 1st, 1779, 
 he was chosen governor of Virginia, but after 
 two years he resigned, being of opinion that 
 a military man would be better suited for the 
 emergencies of the times. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson was the author of our pres- 
 ent system of coins and decimals, proposing 
 it in 1784; another scheme was favored by 
 Robert Morris. On the 5th of July, 1784, 
 
 JEF 
 
444 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Mr. Jefferson sailed for Paris, having been 
 appointed by Congress a third commissioner 
 to negotiate treaties of commerce with other 
 nations, Mr. Adams and Dr. Franklin being 
 the other two. He was actively engaged un- 
 til 1789, when he returned to the United 
 States and was appointed secretary of state. 
 Dec. 1st, 1790, he resigned this office, and 
 lived in retirement until 1797, when he was 
 chosen vice-president of the United States. 
 In 1801 he was chosen president. He filled 
 the office of chief magistrate for eight years, 
 when he retired to his seat at Monticello, 
 where he died on the 4th of July, 1826, the 
 same day on which Mr. Adams expired. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson made himself known as an 
 author in 1781, by his “Notes on Virginia.” 
 In private life he was hospitable, and pleasing 
 in his manners; in public, the unyielding, 
 sagacious and talented leader of the Repub- 
 lican party. A monument of his regard for 
 education remains in the university estab- 
 lished at Charlottesville, in which he filled 
 the office of rector for some years. In a pri- 
 vate memorandum, he desired that a small 
 granite obelisk might be raised above his 
 ashes, with this inscription : 
 
 Here was buried 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 
 Author of the Declaration of Independence, 
 
 Of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, 
 and 
 
 Father of the University of Virginia. 
 
 In January, 1772, he married Mrs. Martha 
 Skelton, a young widow, the daughter of Mr. 
 John Wayles. She died in 1782, leaving 
 three daughters, one of whom died young; 
 one married John W. Eppes, and the other 
 Gov. Thos. M. Randolph, both of Virginia. 
 Mrs. Randolph survived her father. 
 
 The following sketch of Mr. Jefferson’s per- 
 sonal appearance and habits is condensed 
 from Randall’s painstaking biography. His 
 appearance was engaging. His face, though 
 angular, and far from beautiful, beamed with 
 intelligence, with benevolence, and with the 
 cheerful vivacity of a happy, hopeful spirit. 
 His complexion was ruddy, and delicately 
 fair ; his reddish chestnut hair luxuriant and 
 silken. His full, deep-set eyes, the prevail- 
 ing color of which was a light hazel, were 
 peculiarly expressive. He stood six feet two 
 and a half inches in height, and though very 
 
 slim at this period, his form was erect and 
 sinewy, and his movements displayed elasti- 
 city and vigor. He was an expert musician, 
 a fine dancer, a dashing rider, and there was 
 no manly exercise in which he could not play 
 well his part. His manners were unusually 
 graceful, but simple and cordial. His con- 
 versation already possessed no inconsiderable 
 share of that charm which, in after years, 
 was so much extolled by friends, and to which 
 enemies attributed so seductive an influence 
 in moulding the young and the wavering to 
 his political views. There were a frankness, 
 earnestness, and cordiality in its tone ; a deep 
 sympathy with humanity ; a confidence in 
 man, and a sanguine hopefulness in his des- 
 tiny, — winning irresistibly upon the feelings, 
 not only of the ordinary hearer, but of those 
 grave men whose commerce with the world 
 had perhaps led them to form less glowing 
 estimates of it. Mr. Jefferson’s temper was 
 gentle, kindly, and forgiving. If it naturally 
 had anything of that warmth which is the 
 usual concomitant of affections and sympa- 
 thies so ardent, — and it no doubt had, — it had 
 been subjugated by habitual control. Yet, 
 under its even placidity, there were not want- 
 ing those indications of calm self-reliance and 
 courage which all instinctively recognize and 
 respect. There is not an instance on record 
 of his having been engaged in a personal 
 rencontre, or his having suffered a personal 
 indignity. Possessing the accomplishments, 
 he avoided the vices, of the young Virginia 
 gentry of the day, and a class of habits which, 
 if not vices themselves, were too often made 
 the preludes to them. He never gambled. 
 To avoid importunities to games which were 
 generally accompanied with betting, he never 
 learned to distinguish one card from another ; 
 he was moderate in the enjoyments of the 
 table; to strong drinks he had an aversion 
 which rarely yielded to any circumstances ; 
 his mouth was unpolluted by oaths or tobac- 
 co! Though he speaks of enjoying “the 
 victory of a favorite horse,” and the “death 
 of the fox,” he never put but one horse in 
 training to run ; never ran but a single race ; 
 and he very rarely joined in the pleasant 
 excitement of the chase : he knew it to be 
 too pleasant for the aspiring student. With 
 such qualities of mind and character, with the 
 favor of powerful friends and relatives, and 
 
 JEF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 445 
 
 even of viceroyalty to urge him onward, Mr. 
 Jefferson was not a young man to be lightly 
 regarded by the young or old of either sex. 
 
 Of his singular precision, down to minute 
 details, and his habit of careful observation, 
 Randall gives many instances. Never was 
 there a more methodical man, from great 
 matters down to the merest seeming trifles ; 
 never so diligent a recorder of them ! In his 
 garden book, for example, the times of plant- 
 ing, sprouting, coming to the table, or ripen- 
 ing of his multitude of esculents are severally 
 noted ; the plots of ground containing them, 
 the rows of plants, and sometimes the sepa- 
 rate plants in each row, are numbered ; dia- 
 grams, as neatly drawn as engravings, present 
 the different plots or beds collectively to the 
 eye, and display their annual rotations. Mete- 
 orological observations, recorded punctually 
 at three different periods of the day, extend 
 through a long course of years, and through 
 some of the busiest ones of his life. The 
 pocket account-books include the minutest 
 items of his daily expenditure, down to two 
 or three pennies paid for a shoestring, or 
 tossed into a beggar’s hat in Paris ; and we 
 think we remember one or two entries of a 
 single penny, to make the inexorable cash- 
 book balance exactly ! The object of the 
 disbursement is generally specified. Account- 
 books kept thus present a curious history of 
 a man’s life ; and Mr. Jefferson’s tell where 
 he went, and what he bought, every day for 
 thirty years. When he is away from home, 
 his monthly expenses are often tabularized, 
 so as to separately exhibit the aggregate 
 expenditure for each principal article ; as for 
 meat, bread, wine, &c. ; and this is habitually 
 done where official position required him to 
 keep an extensive establishment. He makes 
 memorahda of minute economical facts of 
 every description. Those in regard to farm- 
 ing and gardening are innumerable. Even 
 household details do not escape his attention. 
 We often find how much of this or that it will 
 take to supply the wants of a person or fam- 
 ily ; how much oil will supply a lamp for a 
 certain number of hours; comparative cost 
 of lamps and candles, &c., &c. 
 
 In everything pertaining to natural history, 
 we have a series of almost microscopic obser- 
 vations. We will name one, which, in what 
 may be termed the department of economico- 
 
 natural history (a department in which he 
 seems to have specially delighted), exhibits 
 something which it is hard, at the first blush, 
 to define. This is a table beautifully drawn up, 
 giving the average earliest and latest appear- 
 ance of thirty-seven varieties of vegetables in 
 the Washington market during the whole 
 eight years of his presidency ! To think of 
 a leader of a great civil revolution, the 
 founder of a new party and creed, the 
 statesman engaged in the pressing cares of a 
 nation, watching with a green-grocer’s assi- 
 duity, and recording with more than a green- 
 grocer’s precision, the first and last appear- 
 ance of radishes, squashes, cabbages, and 
 cauliflowers in the market, suggests a curious 
 train of reflection. 
 
 He observed the rule of entering informa- 
 tion under appropriate heads, in regard to all 
 facts thought worthy of record. Thus his 
 agricultural observations are ultimately ar- 
 ranged under seventeen general heads, and 
 these divided into upward of fifty subdivisions. 
 Everything, even to his expense.accounts, has 
 a paged index, made by himself. We look m 
 vain for an illegibly scrawled word or figure ; 
 though we find him on one occasion making 
 all his entries, for two or three months, with 
 his left hand, owing to a broken wrist. 
 
 JEFFREY, Francis. This brilliant re- 
 viewer was the son of a respectable Scottish 
 attorney, born at Edinburgh in 1772, and 
 educated at Glasgow and Oxford. He was 
 called to the Edinburgh bar in 1794, and 
 remained several } T ears an advocate with little 
 practice. He was one of the band of youth 
 who sat at the feet of Dugald Stewart, and 
 whose first incentives to distinction in the 
 more difficult paths of knowledge, as well as 
 their almost universal adoption of the liberal 
 school of politics, were in some degree attrib- 
 utable to the teachings of that distinguished 
 man. Among them were Brougham and 
 Horner. One day early in 1802, in the eighth 
 or ninth story, or flat, then the elevated resi- 
 dence of Jeffrey, he was visited by Horner 
 and Sydney Smith, the latter a young curate 
 temporarily resident in Edinburgh, preach- 
 ing, teaching, and joking with a flow of wit, 
 humanity, and sense, that fascinated every- 
 body. Smith started the notion of the “ Ed- 
 inburgh Review,” and was immediately voted 
 its editor by the two Scotchmen. The pro- 
 
 JEF 
 
446 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ject was communicated to others of the 
 literary knot, among others Henry Brougham, 
 , then as brilliant and erratic as his subsequent 
 life has shown him. The project hung fire 
 at first ; those who promised to contribute 
 were slow at fulfilling: Jeffrey had nearly 
 finished four articles; Horner had partly writ- 
 ten four* and more than half the number was 
 printed; and yet well nigh the other half 
 had still to be written. The memorable 
 ‘blue and jmllow’ at last appeared in No- 
 vember, after a somewhat tedious gestation 
 of ten months. Sydney Smith was the only 
 one who had promptly done his task: as 
 early as April he had completed more than 
 half of what he contributed, while nobody 
 else had put pen to paper ; and shortly after 
 the number appeared, he was probably not 
 sorry to be summoned, with his easy pen and 
 cheerful wit, to London, abandoning the 
 cares of editorship to Jeffrey. To this place 
 of honor Jeffrey’s articles in the first number 
 proved his right. Under his management 
 the “Edinburgh Review” at once became a 
 new power in literature. The freshness, 
 originality, boldness, and independence of its 
 criticisms, on literature, science, and govern- 
 ment, and the beauty, brilliancy, and strength 
 which characterized its contents, gave it a 
 splendid success. Nothing of the kind had 
 ever been : it opened a new era in criticism. 
 It was also famous as a political journal, and 
 did powerful battle for the liberal school of 
 English politics, for the Whigs against Tory- 
 ism. So much was its power feared that 
 in 1809 the “ Quarterly Review ” was started 
 in London by the Tories as a necessity 
 against it. 
 
 Of course mistakes were made. Jeffrey’s 
 memorable criticism upon Wordsworth, com- 
 mencing “ This will never do,” was contra- 
 dicted by time. The Edinburgh reviewers at 
 the outset were young men, and their sallies 
 could not but be blemished with some indis- 
 cretions. The influence of the review upon 
 the literature of England w r as sound and 
 healthy. As a biographer of Jeffrey has 
 said: “Nothing could be conceived more 
 charming than the earnest, playful, delight- 
 ful way in which his comments adorned and 
 enriched the poets he admired. Hogarth 
 is not happier in Charles Lamb’s company, 
 than is the homely vigor and genius of Crabbe 
 
 under Jeffrey’s friendly leaning ; he returned 
 fancy for fancy to Moore’s exuberance, and 
 sparkled with a wit as keen ; he ‘ tamed his 
 wild heart’ to the loving thoughtfulness of 
 Rogers, his scholarly enthusiasm, his pure 
 and vivid pictures ; with the fiery energy and 
 passionate exuberance of Byron, his bright, 
 courageous spirit broke into earnest sympa- 
 thy ; for the clear and stirring strains of 
 Campbell he had an ever lively and liberal 
 response ; and Scott, in the midst of many 
 temptations to an exercise of severity, never 
 ceased to awaken the romance and generosity 
 of his nature.” Mr. Jeffrey was both editor 
 and contributor to the review, poetry and 
 elegant literature being his chosen field. 
 
 Not only did he distinguish himself in let- 
 ters ; he acquired a brilliant reputation in 
 his profession. In 1821 and 1822 he w T as 
 chosen lord rector of the university of Glas- 
 gow; and in 1829, being elected dean of the 
 faculty of advocates, he resigned his editor- 
 ship, deeming that position properly incom- 
 patible with his new one as the head of a 
 great law corporation. The Whigs coming 
 into power the following } r ear, he was made 
 lord advocate, the first office under the crown 
 in Scotland, and sat for a time in parliament. 
 Although in this new sphere he was both 
 useful and able, it was not his natural 
 element, and he gladly accepted in 1834 a 
 promotion to the Scottish bench, as one of 
 the judges of the court of .sessions. This 
 was in his sixty-second year, and for nearl} 1, 
 sixteen years he continued the chief orna- 
 ment of the court in which he sat. From 
 this appointment he gained the title of lord, 
 by which he was thereafter commonly known. 
 He died in January, 1850, after a short ill- 
 ness, a genial, kindly man to the last, and 
 was universally regretted. His was a youth 
 of enterprise, a manhood of brilliant success, 
 and ‘ honor, love, obedience, troops of friends ’ 
 encircled his later years. 
 
 Lord Jeffrey was twice married. His 
 second wife, a grand-niece of the noted John 
 Wilkes, was born in America, and he crossed 
 the Atlantic in 1813 to be wedded to her. 
 She survived him not quite four months. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, Baron Wem, was 
 born at Acton in Denbighshire, in 1648. He 
 was not regularly admitted to the bar, but 
 being at Kingston assizes in the year of the 
 
 JEF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 447 
 
 plague, 1666, when there were scarcely any 
 barristers present, he was permitted to plead, 
 and from that time continued to do so, with- 
 out having his title questioned. In 1683 he 
 was made chief-justice of the king’s bench. 
 At the accession of James II., he was created 
 Baron Jeffreys of Wem, in the county of 
 Salop. On the suppression of the Duke of 
 Monmouth's rebellion, he was sent to try the 
 prisoners in the west, where he committed 
 the most shocking cruelties, for which, at his 
 return, he was constituted lord chancellor of 
 England. Macaulay has thus searchingly 
 sketched the character of this notorious 
 judge. 
 
 He was a man of quick and vigorous parts, 
 but constitutionally prone to insolence and 
 to the angry passions. When just emerging 
 from boyhood, he had risen into practice at 
 the Old Bailey bar, a bar where advocates 
 have always used a license of tongue un- 
 known in Westminster Hall. Here, during 
 many years, his chief business was to exam- 
 ine and cross-examine the most hardened 
 miscreants of a great capital. Daily con- 
 flicts with prostitutes and thieves called out 
 and exercised his powers so effectually that 
 he became the most consummate bully ever 
 known in his profession. All tenderness for 
 the feelings of others, all self-respect, all 
 sense of the becoming, were obliterated from 
 his mind. He acquired a boundless com- 
 mand of the rhetoric in which the vulgar 
 express hatred and contempt. The profusion 
 of maledictions and vituperative epithets 
 which composed his vocabulary could hardly 
 have been rivaled in the fish-market or the 
 bear-garden. His countenance and his voice 
 must always have been unamiable ; but these 
 natural advantages — for such he seems to 
 have thought them — he had improved to such 
 a degree that there were few who, in his 
 paroxysms of rage, could see or hear him 
 without emotion. Impudence and ferocity 
 sat upon his brow. The glare of his eyes 
 had a fascination for the unhappy victim on 
 whom they were fixed; yet his brow and 
 eye were said to be less terrible than the 
 savage lines of his mouth. His yell of fury, 
 as was said by one who had often heard it, 
 sounded like the thunder of the judgment 
 day. These qualifications he carried, while 
 still a young man, from the bar to the bench. 
 
 He early became common sergeant, and then 
 recorder of London. As judge at the city 
 sessions he exhibited the same propensities 
 which afterward, in a higher post, gained for 
 him an unenviable immortality. Already 
 might be remarked in him the most odious 
 vice which is incident to human nature, a 
 delight in misery merely as misery.# There 
 was a fiendish exultation in the way in which 
 he pronounced sentence on offenders. Their 
 weeping and imploring seemed to titillate 
 him voluptuously ; and he loved to scare 
 them into fits by dilating with luxuriant am- 
 plification on all the details of what they 
 were to suffer. Thus, when he had an op- 
 portunity of ordering an unlucky adventu- 
 ress to be whipped at the cart's tail, “ Hang- 
 man,” he would exclaim, “ I charge you to pay 
 particular attention to this lady ! Scourge 
 her soundly, man ! Scourge her till the 
 blood runs down ! It is Christmas ; a cold 
 time for madam to strip in ! See that you 
 warm her shoulders thoroughly ! ” He was 
 hardly less facetious when he passed judg- 
 ment on Ludowick Muggleton, the drunken 
 tailor who fancied himself a prophet. “ Im- 
 pudent rogue!” roared Jeffreys, “thou shalt 
 have an easy, easy, easy punishment ! ” One 
 part of this easy punishment was the pillory, 
 in which the wretched fanatic was almost 
 killed with brickbats. 
 
 The nature of Jeffreys had been hardened 
 to that temper which tyrants require in their 
 worst implements. He had hitherto looked 
 for professional advancement to the corpora- 
 tion of London. He had therefore professed 
 himself a Roundhead, and had always ap- 
 peared to be in a higher state of exhilaration 
 when he explained to popish priests that 
 they were to be cut down alive, and were .to 
 see their own bodies burned, than when he 
 passed ordinary sentences of death. But, as 
 soon as he had got all that the city could 
 give, he made haste to sell his forehead of 
 brass and his tongue of venom to the court. 
 The renegade soon found a patron in the ob- 
 durate and revengeful James, but was always 
 regarded with scorn and disgust by Charles, 
 whose faults, great as they were, had no 
 affinity with insolence and cruelty. “ That 
 man,” said the king, “has no learning, no 
 sense, no manners, and more impudence than 
 ten carted street-walkers.” Work was to be 
 
 JEF 
 
448 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 done, however, which could be trusted to no 
 man who reverenced law or was sensible of 
 shame'; and thus Jeffreys, at an age at which 
 a barrister thinks himself fortunate if he is 
 employed to lead an important cause, was 
 made chief-justice of the king’s bench. 
 
 His enemies could not deny that he pos- 
 sessed sime of the qualities of a great judge. 
 His legal knowledge, indeed, was merely such 
 as he had picked up in practice of no very 
 high kind ; but he had one of those happily 
 constituted intellects which, across labyrinths 
 of sophistry and through masses of immate- 
 rial facts, go straight to the true point. Of 
 his intellect, however, he seldom had the full 
 use. Even in civil causes his malevolent and 
 despotic temper perpetually disordered his 
 judgment. To enter his court was to enter 
 the den of a wild beast, which none could 
 tame, and which was as likely to be roused 
 to rage by caresses as by attacks. He fre- 
 quently poured forth on plaintiffs and defen- 
 dants, barristers and attorneys, witnesses 
 and jurymen, torrents of frantic abuse, 
 intermixed with oaths and curses. His looks 
 and tones had inspired terror when he was 
 merely a young advocate struggling into 
 practice. Now that he was at the head of 
 the most formidable tribunal in the realm, 
 there were few indeed who did not tremble 
 before him. Even when he was sober, his 
 violence was sufficiently frightful ; but, in 
 general, his reason was overclouded, and his 
 evil passions stimulated by the fumes of in- 
 toxication. His evenings were ordinarily 
 given to revelry. People who saw him only 
 over his bottle would have supposed him to 
 be a man gross indeed, sottish, and addicted 
 to low company and low merriment, but 
 social and good-humored. He was constantly 
 surrounded on such occasions by buffoons, 
 selected for the most part from among the 
 vilest pettifoggers who practiced before him. 
 These men bantered and abused each other 
 for his entertainment. He joined in their 
 ribald talk, sang catches with them, and, 
 when his head grew hot, hugged and kissed 
 them in an ecstasy of drunken fondness. 
 But, though wine at first seemed to soften 
 his heart, the effect a few hours later was 
 very different. He often came to the judg- 
 ment seat, having kept the court waiting 
 long, and yet having but half slept off his 
 
 debauch, his cheeks on fire, his eyes staring 
 like those of a maniac. When he was in 
 this state, his boon companions of the pre- 
 ceding night, if they were wise, kept out of 
 his way, for the recollection of the familiarity 
 to which he had admitted them inflamed his 
 malignity, and he was sure to take every 
 opportunity of overwhelming them with exe- 
 cration and invective. Not the least odious 
 of his many odious peculiarities was the 
 pleasure which he took in publicly brow- 
 beating and mortifying those whom, in his fits 
 of maudlin tenderness, he had encouraged to 
 presume on his favor. 
 
 When the Prince of Orange arrived, and 
 James had abandoned his kingdom, Jeffreys, 
 knowing his unpopularity, endeavored to 
 escape in disguise. There was true retribu- 
 tion in his detection. A scrivener at Wap - 
 ping, whose trade was to furnish the sea- 
 faring men there with money at high interest, 
 had some time before lent a sum on bottomry. 
 The debtor applied to equity for relief against 
 his own bond, and the case came before 
 Jeffreys. The counsel for the borrower, 
 having little else to say, said that the lender 
 was a Trimmer. The chancellor instantly 
 fired. “ A Trimmer ! where is he ? Let me 
 see him. I have heard of that kind of mon- 
 ster. What is it made like ? ” The unfor- 
 tunate creditor was forced to stand forth. 
 The chancellor glared fiercely on him, stormed 
 at him, and sent him away half dead with 
 fright. “ While I live,” the poor man said, 
 as he tottered out of the court, “ I shall never 
 forget that terrible countenance.” And now 
 the day of retribution had arrived. The 
 Trimmer was walking through Wapping, 
 when he saw a face aJt the window of an ale- 
 house. The eye-brows had been shaved 
 away ; the dress was that of a common sailor 
 from Newcastle, and was black with coal 
 dust ; but there was no mistaking the savage 
 mouth and eye of Jeffreys. The alarm was 
 given. In a moment the house was sur- 
 rounded by hundreds of people shaking 
 bludgeons and bellowing curses. The fugi- 
 tive’s life was saved by a company of the 
 train-bands, and he was carried before the 
 lord mayor. 
 
 The mayor was a simple man who had 
 passed his whole life in obscurity, and was 
 bewildered by finding himself an important 
 
 JEF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 449 
 
 actor in a mighty revolution. The events of 
 the last twenty-four hours, and the perilous 
 state of the city which was under his charge, 
 had disordered his mind and his body. When 
 the great man, at whose frown, a few days 
 before, the whole kingdom had trembled, was 
 dragged into the justice room begrimed with 
 ashes, half dead with fright, and followed by 
 a raging multitude, the agitation of the un- 
 fortunate mayor rose to the height. He fell 
 into fits, and was carried to his bed, whence 
 he never rose. Meanwhile the throng without 
 was constantly becoming more numerous and 
 more savage. Jeffreys begged to be sent to 
 prison. An order to that effect was procured 
 from the Lords, who were sitting at White- 
 hall, and he was conveyed in a carriage to the 
 Tower. Two regiments of militia were drawn 
 out to escort him, and found the duty a diffi- 
 cult one. It was repeatedly necessary for them 
 to form, as if for the purpose of repelling a 
 charge of cavalry, and to present a forest of 
 pikes to the mob. The thousands who were 
 disappointed of their revenge pursued the 
 coach, with howls of rage, to the gate of the 
 Tower, brandishing cudgels, and holding up 
 halters full in the prisoner’s view. The 
 wretched man, meahtime, was in convulsions 
 of terror. He wrung his hands ; he looked 
 wildly out, sometimes at one window, some- 
 times at the other, and was heard even above 
 the tumult crying, “ Keep them off, gentle- 
 men! for God’s sake, keep them off!” At 
 length, having suffered far more than the bit- 
 terness of death, he was safely lodged in the 
 fortress, where some of his most illustrious 
 victims had passed their last days, and where 
 his own life was destined to close in unspeak- 
 able ignominy and horror, April 18th, 1789. 
 
 JEMMAPPES, Battle of, in Flanders. In 
 this obstinate contest, Nov. 5th, 1792, Gen. 
 Dumouriez, with 40,000 French, defeated 
 28,000 Austrians strongly intrenched. 
 
 JENA, a town of Saxe-Weimar, containing 
 a famous university, and 6,500 inhabitants, 
 and memorable for the hard-fought battle be- 
 tween the French and Prussians, on the 14th 
 of October, 1806. Napoleon headed the 
 French troops, and the Duke of Brunswick 
 the Prussians. The battle was sanguinary in 
 the extreme; 250,000 or 300,000 men, of 
 which the two armies were composed, with 
 700 or 800 pieces of artillery, scattered death 
 
 29 
 
 in every direction, and exhibited one of the 
 most awful scenes recorded in history. The 
 result was decisive in favor of the French. 
 The Duke of Brunswick was mortally wound- 
 ed. The power of Prussia was crushed, and 
 Napoleon entered Berlin. 
 
 JENNER, Edward, the discoverer of vac- 
 cination, was born at Berkeley in Gloucester- 
 shire, May 17th, 1749, and bred to the profes- 
 sion of medicine. His celebrated discovery 
 was made in 1798, but was incredulously re- 
 ceived. Parliament at last voted him £10,000. 
 Jenner died Jan. 26th, 1823. Napoleon val- 
 ued Dr. Jenner s discovery so highly that he 
 released a large number of English prisoners 
 at his request. 
 
 JEROME, or Hieronymus, was born of 
 Christian parents, in Dalmatia. He was 
 deeply immersed in the theological controver- 
 sies of the day, and his works were volumin- 
 ous. He excelled all his contemporaries in 
 erudition. His translation of the Scriptures 
 into Latin is known as the Vulgate. Jerome 
 died in 420, at the age of ninety. 
 
 JEROME of Prague, a Bohemian reformer, 
 was the scholar of WicklifFe and John Huss, 
 and began to publish their doctrines. In 1415 
 he was examined before the council of Con- 
 stance, when Huss was in prison. He con- 
 trived, however, to escape, but was taken, 
 delivered into the hands of a magistrate, and 
 burned, May 30th, 1416. 
 
 JERUSALEM, a celebrated city of Pales- 
 tine. Its environs are barren and mountain- 
 ous, and the town is irregularly built. The 
 number of inhabitants is 25,000, about one- 
 half being Mohammedans, and a sixth Jews. 
 There are many Roman and Greek convents 
 in the city. The Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre has been an object of veneration and 
 curiosity for fifteen centuries. The Mosque 
 of Omar, on the site of the ancient Temple, is 
 splendid edifice. 
 
 Melchisedek .is called the founder of Jerusa- 
 lem. It was a long time in the hands of the 
 Jebusites, from whom King David took it. 
 Solomon built the temple on Mount Moriah. 
 After his death Sesostris, King of Egypt, took 
 the city, and plundered it, during Rehoboam’s 
 reign. In short, it was five times taken. Its 
 most memorable siege was that by Titus, a.d. 
 70, when the city and the temple were entirely 
 destroyed ; 1,110,000 persons are said to have 
 
 JER 
 
450 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 perished, and 97,000 to have been made pris- 
 oners, and afterward either sold as slaves, or 
 wantonly exposed, for the sport of their cruel 
 victors, to the fury of wild beasts. 
 
 Milman, the historian of the Jews, elo- 
 quently describes the destruction of the tem- 
 ple. An appalling spectacle to the Roman, 
 what was it to the Jew ? The whole summit 
 of the hill which commanded the city blazed 
 like a volcano. One after another the build- 
 ings fell in, with a tremendous crash, and 
 were swallowed up in the fiery abyss. The 
 roofs of cedar were like sheets of flame ; the 
 gilded pinnacles shone like spikes of red light ; 
 the gate towers sent up tall columns of flame 
 and smoke. The neighboring hills were 
 lighted up ; and dark groups of people were 
 seen watching in horrible anxiety the progress 
 of the destruction : the walls and heights of 
 the upper city were crowded with faces, some 
 pale with the agony of despair, others scowling 
 unavailing vengeance. The shouts of the Ro- 
 man soldiery, as they ran to and fro, and the 
 howlings of the insurgents who were perishing 
 in the flames, mingled with the roaring of the 
 conflagration and the thundering sound of 
 falling timbers. The echoes of the mountains 
 replied, or brought back the shrieks of the 
 people on the heights : all along the walls re- 
 sounded screams and wailings ; men who w r ere 
 expiring with famine, rallied their remaining 
 strength to utter a cry of anguish and desola- 
 tion. The slaughter within was even more 
 dreadful than the spectacle from without. 
 Men and women, old and young, insurgents 
 and priests, those who fought and those who 
 entreated mercy, were hewn down in indis- 
 criminate carnage. The number of the slain 
 exceeded that of the slayers. The legionaries 
 had to clamber over heaps of dead, to carry 
 on the work of extermination. John, at the 
 head of some of his troops, cut his way 
 through, first into the outer court of the tem- 
 ple, afterward into the upper city. Some of 
 the priests upon the roof wrenched off the 
 gilded spikes with their sockets of lead, and 
 used them as missiles against the Romans 
 below. Afterward they fled to a part of the 
 wall about fourteen feet wide ; they were soon 
 summoned to surrender; but two of them, 
 Mair, son of Belgo, and Joseph, son of Delia, 
 plunged headlong into the flames ! 
 
 The Emperor Adrian began to rebuild the 
 
 city, sixty years after its destruction. During 
 the decay of the Byzantine empire the city 
 fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. In 
 the seventh and eighth centuries, the Crusad- 
 ers contended fiercely for the possession of 
 Jerusalem, and it was taken by the host w hich 
 Godfrey of Bouillon headed, the 15th of July, 
 1099. The Christians founded a kingdom 
 there, which was ended by the Turks in 1187. 
 [See Crusades.] Jerusalem was taken by the 
 French under Bonaparte, in February, 1799. 
 
 JESUITS. The religious order of the Jes- 
 uits was founded by a military gentleman of 
 Biscay named Ignatius Loyola. The order 
 at first was sometimes called Loyolists, and 
 sometimes Inighists, from the founder’s Span- 
 ish name, Inigo de Cyuipuscoa. Ignatius 
 assembled at Rome ten of his companions, 
 chosen, for the most part, from the university 
 of Paris, in the year 1538. He submitted the 
 plan of his institution, which h& said w T as 
 inspired by divinity, to Pope Paul III. A 
 committee appointed by that pontiff to exam- 
 ine the character of the institution, declared 
 it inimical to the interests of the church, as 
 well as unnecessary. The opposition to the 
 establishment of the order was overcome by 
 a promise, in addition to the three vows of 
 poverty, celibacy, and monastic obedience, to 
 take an oath of implicit submission to the 
 pope, agreeing to go whithersoever he should 
 direct, and to claim nothing for support from 
 the holy see. In the very charter, however, 
 by which the followers of Ignatius bound 
 themselves to the interests of the pope, they 
 agreed blindly to obey their general. The 
 pope finally confirmed the institution by a 
 bull, or decree, in the year 1540. The founder 
 of the order of Jesuits being originally a rude 
 soldier, it has been supposed he was a mere 
 tool in the hands of artful men, and that he 
 was not in reality the author of the writings 
 which bear his name. The order was con- 
 firmed under the title of the “ Company of 
 Jesus.” It is said that when the little band 
 who formed the germ of this great order, 
 w r ere deliberating w T hat answer they should 
 return to those who were continually ques- 
 tioning them as to their calling and institute, 
 Ignatius, ever full of military ideas, said : “As 
 our general is no other than Jesus Christ; as 
 his cross is our standard ; his law, even in 
 its counsels, our rule; his name our chief 
 
 JES 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 451 
 
 consolation and our only hope; let us tell 
 men the simple truth, that we are the little 
 battalion of Jesus Christ.” Such is the origin 
 of the title ‘Society of Jesus,’ which has 
 been shortened into the name of Jesuits. 
 
 At first the number of members was lim- 
 ited to sixty, but this restriction was removed, 
 and the Jesuits multiplied rapidly. In the 
 year 1710, the order had 24 professed houses ; 
 59 houses of probation ; 340 residences ; 612 
 colleges; 200 missions; 150 seminaries and 
 boarding schools; and consisted of 19,998 
 Jesuits. The code of laws by which the 
 Jesuits were governed was perfected by Lay- 
 ner and Aquaviva, who succeeded Loyola as 
 general of the order, and were possessed of 
 even more talent than their predecessor. 
 
 Many causes contributed to insure the suc- 
 cess of the institution. The Jesuits were 
 required to be more active than other monks, 
 having little to do with the usual monastic 
 functions. They were soldiers devoted to the 
 service of God and the pope. They cultivated 
 the acquaintance of the great, and were deeply 
 imbued with the spirit of intrigue. Loyola 
 made the government of the institution 
 purely monarchical. The general was chosen 
 for life by deputies from the different prov- 
 inces. His power was absolute, and no case 
 and no individual were exempt from it. The 
 general had a despotic power over the mem- 
 bers of the institution ; a much greater power 
 than the head of any monastic order had ever 
 before exercised. The Jesuits were not only 
 obliged to obey their general in outward 
 observances, but to him they submitted the 
 direction of their minds. Each novice was 
 obliged, every six months, to manifest his 
 conscience to his superior or to some one 
 appointed by him ; and these novices were 
 closely watched by others of the order, who 
 were directed to give notice to the general of 
 anything important. The heads of the sev- 
 eral houses were obliged to transmit frequent 
 reports of the character and conduct of the 
 departments over which they presided, to the 
 superior, and these reports were carefully 
 kept and arranged, that the general might 
 refer at once to the account of particular 
 houses at any period. The provincials and 
 heads of departments of the order transmitted 
 full and minute accounts of the civil state 
 
 of the respective countries in which they 
 resided. 
 
 The education of youth was an object which 
 the Jesuits were particularly anxious to pro- 
 mote and direct, and the business of educa- 
 tion was soon almost entirely conducted by 
 them. In spite of their vow of poverty, they 
 contrived to amass vast possessions, and in 
 the East and West Indies carried on a very 
 lucrative commerce. They were the con- 
 fessors to monarchs and men of rank, and 
 the influence they acquired was very great. 
 They sought to acquire and enlarge property, 
 and in South America, being possessed of 
 wealthy dominions, they ruled over some 
 hundred thousand subjects, as monarchs. 
 They favored the passions of mankind by 
 sanctioning unbridled license of manners, 
 through the moral code they taught. Regu- 
 lar and severe in their own habits, they were 
 enabled to make a selfish use of the irregu- 
 larities they countenanced. 
 
 They were not unacquainted with the per- 
 suasive power of the tortures of the inquisi- 
 tion, in making proselytes. One of their 
 most noted missionaries was Francis Xavier, 
 called the apostle of India. He sailed for the 
 Portuguese settlements in India, in 1542, and 
 soon spread the doctrines of the Romish 
 church over the continent and surrounding 
 islands. It is not our intention to detail the 
 proceeding of the J esuits in the process of mak- 
 ing foreign proselytes, nor the controversies 
 to which it gave rise. They were accused of 
 making compromises with some sects, permit- 
 ting them to retain profane customs and im- 
 proper rites, in consideration of their publicly 
 embracing the doctrines of the Romish church. 
 As we have before hinted, it is quite prob- 
 able that as many converts were made by 
 terror as by mildness, since the Jesuits were 
 willing to do anything to maintain a show of 
 success. 
 
 They took possession of the fertile South 
 American province of Paraguay, in the sev- 
 enteenth century, and labored to disseminate 
 military arts and improvements among the 
 Indians. They introduced the comforts of 
 civilization among the inhabitants, and thus 
 in the first place gained their affection and 
 esteem. Proceeding in this manner, they 
 gradually strengthened their influence so 
 
 JES 
 
452 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 that a few priests readily ruled some hundred 
 thousand Indians. But these priests did not 
 maintain the purity of conduct which they 
 had given reason at first to suppose would be 
 their constant guide in all their actions. 
 They soon manifested schemes of the most 
 daring ambition and most insatiable avarice. 
 They yearly sent home to the European Jes- 
 uits, immense quantities of gold, which they 
 procured principally from Paraguay. They 
 armed the Indians, and excited them to hatred 
 against the Spaniards and Portuguese, evi- 
 dently showing their intentions of making a 
 separate sovereignty of Paraguay. In 1750 
 the courts of Madrid and Lisbon entered into 
 a treaty for fixing the boundaries of their 
 respective possessions in South America. 
 When this treaty came to be executed in the 
 year 1752, the Jesuits opposed it, and animated 
 the Indians strenuously to resist the Portu- 
 guese and Spaniards, in the war which fol- 
 lowed. The disgrace of the Jesuits at the 
 Portuguese court originated in their conduct 
 on this occasion. 
 
 In France the intrigues and the seditious 
 writings of the Jesuits caused them to be ex- 
 pelled by several parliaments, and denounced 
 as corrupters of youth and enemies of govern- 
 ment. The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, 
 by which they condemned the institution, as 
 being calculated rather for the ruin than the 
 edification of the faithful. Louis XIII. again 
 countenanced them, and Cardinal Richelieu 
 and Louis XIY. showed them favor. In the 
 reign of the latter monarch, they obtained the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes in favor of 
 the Protestants. They had gained an almost 
 complete triumph over their enemies, the 
 Jansenists, when, among other things, their 
 refusal to administer the sacrament to the 
 Jansenists, created a turn of the tide against 
 them which ended in their dissolution. 
 
 The Jesuits were tried before the grand 
 chamber of the parliament of Paris, and lost 
 their case, which grew out of a desire to 
 compound their debts, when, having carried 
 on great commerce in Martinico, they had 
 sustained heavy losses by war. An examin- 
 ation into their own books only proved the 
 charges against them. Professing poverty, 
 they were found to possess riches ; pretend- 
 ing to moderation and justice, they were 
 convicted of inculcating principles which 
 
 endangered the well being of the king and 
 realm. 
 
 The Jesuits were expelled from England 
 in 1604 ; from Portugal in 1759 ; from France 
 in 1764; from Spain in 1767; and their 
 society was abolished by Pope Clement XIY., 
 in 1773. Had they adhered to the principles 
 they professed, in the outset, and merely 
 aimed at civilizing and converting savages, 
 and increasing knowledge at home, the insti- 
 tution would have been as justly celebrated, 
 as it is now denounced for ambition, avarice, 
 cruelty, and corruption. 
 
 The order was restored by Pius YIT. in 
 1814, and has since been tolerated in various 
 countries. It has a secret and extensive 
 existence. 
 
 Macaulay has glowingly sketched the char- 
 acter of this wonderful religious corps. In 
 the sixteenth century, the pontificate, exposed 
 to new dangers more formidable than had ever 
 before threatened it, was saved by a new relig- 
 ious order, which was animated by intense 
 enthusiasm and organized with exquisite skill. 
 When the Jesuits came to the rescue of the 
 papacy, they found it in extreme peril ; but 
 from that moment the tide of battle turned. 
 Protestantism, which had, during the whole 
 generation, carried all before it, was stopped 
 in its progress, and rapidly beaten back from 
 the foot of the Alps to the shores of the Baltic. 
 Before the order had existed a hundred years, 
 it had filled the whole world with memorials 
 of great things done and suffered for the faith. 
 No religious community could produce a list 
 of men so variously distinguished ; none had 
 extended its operations over so vast a space ; 
 yet in none had there ever been such perfect 
 unity of feeling and action. There was no 
 region of the globe, no walk of speculative or 
 of active life, in which Jesuits were not to be 
 found. They guided the counsels of kings. 
 They deciphered Latin inscriptions. They 
 observed the motions of Jupiter’s satellites. 
 They published whole libraries, controversy, 
 casuistry, history, treatises on optics, Alcaic 
 odes, editions of the fathers, madrigals, cate- 
 chisms, and lampoons. The liberal education 
 of youth passed almost entirely into their 
 hands, and was conducted by them with con- 
 spicuous ability. They appear to have dis- 
 covered the precise point to which intellectual 
 culture can be carried without risk of intel- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 453 
 
 lectual emancipation. Enmity itself was com- 
 pelled to own that, in the art of managing and 
 forming the tender mind, they had no equals. 
 Meanwhile they assiduously and successfully 
 cultivated the eloquence of the pulpit. With 
 still greater assiduity and still greater success 
 they applied themselves to the ministry of the 
 confessional. Throughout Catholic Europe 
 the secrets of every government and of almost 
 every family of note were in their keeping. 
 They glided from one Protestant country to 
 another under innumerable disguises, as gay 
 cavaliers, as simple rustics, as Puritan 
 preachers. They wandered to countries which 
 neither mercantile avidity nor liberal curiosity 
 had ever impelled any stranger to explore. 
 They were to be found in the garb of manda- 
 rins, superintending the observatory at Pekin. 
 They were to be found, spade in hand, teach- 
 ing the rudiments of agriculture to the sav- 
 ages of Paraguay. Yet, whatever might be 
 their residence, whatever might be their em- 
 ployment, their spirit was the same, entire 
 devotion to the common cause, implicit obe- 
 dience to the central authority. None of them 
 had chosen his dwelling-place or his avocation 
 for himself. Whether the Jesuit should live 
 under the arctic circle or. the equator ; wheth- 
 er he should pass his life in arranging gems 
 and collating manuscripts at the Vatican, or 
 in persuading naked barbarians in the south- 
 ern hemisphere not to eat each other, — were 
 matters which he left with profound submis- 
 sion to the decision of others. If he was 
 wanted at Lima, he was on the Atlantic in 
 the next fleet. If he was wanted at Bagdad, 
 he was toiling through the desert with the 
 next caravan. If his ministry was needed in 
 some country where his life was more insecure 
 than that of a wolf ; where it was a crime to 
 harbor him ; where the heads and quarters of 
 his brethren, fixed in the public places, showed 
 Jiim what he had to expect, — he went without 
 remonstrance or hesitation to his doom. Nor 
 is this heroic spirit yet extinct. When, in 
 our own time, a new and terrible pestilence 
 passed round the globe ; when, in some great 
 cities, fear had dissolved all the ties which 
 hold society together ; when the secular clergy 
 had deserted their flocks ; when medical suc- 
 cor was not to be purchased by gold ; when 
 the strongest natural affections had yielded to 
 love of life, — even then the Jesuit was found 
 
 by the pallet which bishop and curate, physi- 
 cian and nurse, father and mother, had de- 
 serted, bending over infected lips to catch the 
 faint accents of confession, and holding up to 
 the last, before the expiring penitent, the im- 
 age of the expiring Redeemer. 
 
 But with the admirable energy, disinterest- 
 edness, and self-devotion which were charac- 
 teristic of the society, great vices were min- 
 gled. It was alleged, and not without found- 
 ation, that the ardent public spirit which made 
 the Jesuit regardless of his ease, of his liberty, 
 and of his life, made him also regardless of 
 truth and of mercy ; that no means which 
 could promote the interest of his religion 
 seemed to him unlawful, and that by the in- 
 terest of his religion he too often meant the 
 interest of his society. It was alleged that, 
 in the most atrocious plots recorded in history, 
 his agency could be distinctly traced ; that, 
 constant only in attachment to the fraternity 
 to which he belonged, he was in some coun- 
 tries the most dangerous enemy of freedom, 
 and in others the most dangerous enemy of 
 order. The mighty victories which he boasted 
 that he had achieved in the cause of the 
 church were, in the judgment of many illus- 
 trious members of that church, rather appar- 
 ent than real. He had, indeed, labored with 
 a wonderful show of success to reduce the 
 world under her laws, but he had done so by 
 relaxing her laws to suit the temper of the 
 world. Instead of toiling to elevate human 
 nature to the noble standard fixed by divine 
 precept and example, he had lowered the 
 standard till it was beneath the average level 
 of human nature. He gloried in multitudes 
 of converts who had been baptized in the re- 
 mote regions of the east ; but it was reported 
 that from some of these converts the facts on 
 which the whole theology of the gospel de- 
 pends had been cunningly concealed, and that 
 others were permitted to avoid persecution by 
 bowing down before the images of false gods, 
 while internally repeating Paters and Aves. 
 Nor was it only in heathen countries that such 
 arts were said to be practiced. It was not 
 strange that people of all ranks, and especially 
 of the highest ranks, crowded to the confes- 
 sionals in the Jesuit temples, for from those 
 confessionals none went discontented away. 
 There the priest was all things to all men. 
 If he had to deal with a mind truly devout, 
 
454 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 he spoke in the saintly tone of the primitive 
 fathers ; but with that very large part of man- 
 kind who have religion enough to make them 
 uneasy when they do wrong, and not religion 
 enough to keep them from doing wrong, he 
 followed a very different system. Since he 
 could not reclaim them from guilt, it was his 
 business to save them from remorse. He had 
 at his command an immense dispensary of 
 anodjmes for wounded consciences. In the 
 books of casuistry which had been written by 
 his brethren, and printed with the approbation 
 of his superiors, were to be found doctrines 
 consolatory to transgressors of every class. 
 There the bankrupt was taught how he might, 
 without sin, secrete his goods from his credit- 
 ors. The servant was taught how he might, 
 without sin, run off with his master’s plate. 
 The pander was assured that a Christian man 
 might innocently earn his living by carrying 
 letters and messages between married women 
 and their gallants. The high-spirited and 
 punctilious gentlemen of France were gratified 
 by a decision in favor of dueling. The Ital- 
 ians, accustomed to darker and baser modes 
 of vengeance, were glad to learn that they 
 might, without any crime, shoot at their ene- 
 mies from behind hedges. To deceit was 
 given a license sufficient to destroy the whole 
 value of human contracts and of human testi- 
 mony. Jn truth, if society continued to hold 
 together, if life and property enjoyed any se- 
 curity, it was because common sense and com- 
 mon humanity restrained men from doing 
 what the society of Jesus assured them they 
 might with a safe conscience do. 
 
 So strangely were good and evil intermixed 
 in the character of these celebrated brethren ; 
 and the intermixture was the secret of their 
 giganti c power. That power could never have 
 belonged to mere hypocrites. It could never 
 have belonged to rigid moralists. It was to 
 be attained only by men sincerely enthusiastic 
 in the pursuit of a great end, and at the same 
 time unscrupulous as to the choice of means. 
 
 JEWS. Abraham received the name of 
 Hebrew from the Canaanites among whom he 
 dwelt. The derivation of the word is uncer- 
 tain. Its signification before the time of 
 Jacob, or Israel, is unknown, but it appears 
 to have been applied afterward exclusively 
 to the posterity of Jacob, and to have been 
 synonymous with Israelites. After the Bab- 
 
 ylonish captivity the appellation was changed 
 to Jews. Their history begins, of course, 
 with Abraham. 
 
 After the call of Abraham, he went at first 
 to Canaan, which God had promised to his 
 posterity, taking with him Sarah his wife, and 
 Lot, the son of his brother, and here led a 
 wandering life, removing in search of pasture 
 with his flocks, from place to place, and dwell- 
 ing with his family in tents. By the bounty 
 of the Lord, his wealth increased, and he be- 
 came rich in flocks, in gold, and in silver. 
 Under Isaac and Jacob, the Hebrews still 
 formed a great nomadic family, without chang- 
 ing their habits and manners. Jacob had 
 twelve sons, from whom sprang the twelve 
 tribes of the Hebrew people. These were 
 Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Dan, Judah, Naphtali, 
 Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and 
 Benjamin. Joseph, having been sold to some 
 wandering merchants by his jealous brethren, 
 was taken to Egypt, and rose to a high rank 
 at the court of Pharaoh. This led to the em- 
 igration of his father’s family to Egypt, about 
 1700 b.c. During the lifetime of Joseph, the 
 Hebrews were well treated, but after his death 
 a tyrannical king filled the throne, and the 
 persecutions they endured threatened to an- 
 nihilate the nation. God raised up a deliverer 
 in the person of Moses, and the children of 
 Israel, having left the land of Egypt, were 
 conducted over the bed of the Red Sea, and 
 afterward providentially preserved in the des- 
 ert. At Sinai, the Lord promulgated his laws 
 from the summit of that awful mountain. Not- 
 withstanding the blessings which had been 
 heaped upon them, the Hebrews murmured, 
 and became idolatrous, and were in conse- 
 quence punished for their sins. The various 
 nations inimical to the Hebrews were repulsed 
 with loss. Moses having died on Mount Nebo, 
 before the entrance into the promised land, 
 his place was filled by the warlike Joshua. 
 The waters retired before the bearers of the 
 ark, and the people crossed the Jordan in 
 safety. The walls of the city of Jericho were 
 destroyed by the Lord, and the inhabitants 
 slain by the Israelites. The period of the 
 judges abounded in heroic exploits of individ- 
 ual valor, among which those of Samson are 
 the most celebrated. At length, about 1095 
 b.c., the monarchy was established, Saul being 
 the first king. Saul achieved some brilliant 
 
 JEW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 455 
 
 victories, but as he became disregardful o r the 
 counsels of the prophet Samuel, the latter pri- 
 vately anointed David, the son of Jesse, a val- 
 orous youth, whose fame eclipsed that of Saul. 
 The reign of David extended from 1055 to 1015. 
 It was rendered brilliant by victories over the 
 Jebusites, Philistines, Amalekites, Idumceans, 
 Moabites, Ammonites, and Zeba, but unhappy 
 by the domestic misfortunes and crimes which 
 '•embittered the heart of King David. Under 
 Solomon, his son, whose reign extended from 
 1015 to 975, the nation attained a high degree 
 of splendor and consequence, while his stern 
 strength and pure integrity sank under the 
 corrupting influence of wealth and luxury. 
 Toward the latter part of his reign, Solomon, 
 enervated by the pleasures of his seraglio, and 
 enthralled by female favorites, permitted the 
 worship of false gods, and forsook Him to 
 whom he owed his glory. The revolt of the 
 ten tribes under Jeroboam took place, while 
 Rehoboam succeeded to the government of 
 Judah and Benjamin. The ten tribes formed 
 the kingdom of Israel, the latter that of Judah. 
 Sichem at first, and afterward Samaria, was 
 the capital of Israel, and Jerusalem that of 
 Judah. The contest between the two states 
 was furious, and not unequal. In general the 
 kingdom of Judah preserved the worship of 
 the true God, while that of Israel was idola- 
 trous. The kingdom of Israel existed two 
 hundred and fifty-four years after the separa- 
 tion, under nineteen kings, whose authority 
 was gained and lost by violent revolutions. 
 Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, ended the king- 
 dom, and carried the people captive into Asia, 
 b.c. 721. 
 
 The kingdom of Judah existed under 
 twenty kings of the house of David, until 
 587 b.c., when Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusa- 
 lem, and carried away the inhabitants cap- 
 tive. During the captivity flourished Daniel, 
 Jeremiah, and other prophets, who were 
 commissioned by God to inform the Hebrew 
 people of the fate which awaited them. From 
 the time of the captivity they are more often 
 known under the name of Jews. Their cap- 
 tivity was terminated by Cyrus, King of 
 Persia, who published an edict permitting all 
 the Jews to return to their country, and to 
 rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, 536 b.c. 
 They placed the foundations of the temple ; 
 
 but the Samaritans, inveterate enemies of the 
 Jews, procured a suspension of their opera- 
 tions. Nevertheless, Darius, informed of the 
 edict of Cyrus, permitted the completion of 
 the temple. The Jews labored with such 
 spirit, that, four years after, the walls of 
 Jerusalem were rebuilt, and their worship 
 re-established. Nehemiah, being chosen gov- 
 ernor of Judea, neglected no exertions to 
 maintain the public observance of the laws 
 of God. Esther, a Jewish maiden, having 
 found favor in the eyes of Ahasuerus, King 
 of Persia, this monarch confirmed the immu- 
 nities of the Jews, preserved them from 
 massacre, and severely punished their im- 
 placable enemies. 
 
 In the time of the high-priest Onias, Seleu- 
 cus, King of Syria, sent Heliodorus to seize 
 all the gold of the temple. He came to Jeru- 
 salem and entered the temple, intending to 
 obey the royal command. It was in vain 
 that the high-priest represented to him that 
 the treasures were deposites, destined for the 
 support of the fatherless and widows. The 
 legend runs that Heliodorus turned a deaf 
 ear to his remonstrances, and was already on 
 the threshold of the treasury, when he be- 
 held a white horse, richly caparisoned, whose 
 rider wore a terrible aspect, with armor of 
 gold. At the same time Heliodorus was at- 
 tacked by two young men of surpassing 
 beauty, and would have been slain, but for 
 the interposition of Onias, who implored the 
 pardon of the Almighty, and offered up a 
 sacrifice to appease his wrath. 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, or the Illustrious, 
 the successor of Seleucus, an impious prince, 
 deprived Onias of the sacerdotal office, and 
 sold it to the highest bidder. He entered 
 Jerusalem with a powerful army, and killed 
 or enslaved 80,000 men. Fie had the bold- 
 ness to enter the temple, and to bear away 
 the altar and golden table, the golden candle- 
 stick, the precious vessels, and all the money 
 that the treasury contained, and even under- 
 took to abolish the religion of the Jews, for- 
 bidding them, on pain of death, to maintain 
 their worship, and erecting the statute of 
 Jupiter Olympius on the altar of the temple. 
 The Jews were forced to attend the profane 
 sacrifices, and compelled to eat the flesh of 
 animals prohibited by their law. Under this 
 
 JEW 
 
456 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 persecution many of the Jews yielded, but 
 there were some who remained firm, in the 
 midst of martyrdom. 
 
 Judas Maccabaeus raised the standard of 
 revolt, and rendered his name formidable to 
 the enemies of the Jews, for, having collected 
 an army of six thousand men, he performed 
 prodigies of valor in defense of the religion 
 and liberties of their fathers. He conquered 
 and killed Apollonius, governor of Samaria, 
 and the general of the Syrian army. Every- 
 where victory crowned his efforts, till the 
 valiant leader fell in battle, after slaying 
 many of his enemies. Jonathan and Simon, 
 his brothers, emulated his glory. Afterward 
 the Jews came under the rule of Rome. The 
 Jews refused to recognize Jesus Christ, who 
 was born in the reign of Herod, King of the 
 Jews, as the Messiah. Christ foretold the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, which was taken 
 by Titus, a.d. 70, after a siege of unparalleled 
 horrof. This was the signal of the complete 
 dispersion of the Jews, in fulfillment of the 
 divine warning. 
 
 Their history in the middle ages is a tale 
 of suffering. They were early dealers in 
 money, and from kings and nobles they en- 
 dured exactions that it must have required 
 heavy usury to repay. To enumerate the 
 cruelties put upon them, or barely mention 
 the many massacres in which they perished, 
 would exhaust a goodly volume. They were 
 banished from England in 1290 by Edward 
 I., and were shut out thenceforth till the time 
 of Cromwell. From France they were several 
 times driven, and as often recalled to be plun- 
 dered again ; they were finally expelled by 
 Charles YI. In Spain their sufferings were 
 greater even than elsewhere. For them the 
 hungry fires of the inquisition were lit, and 
 in 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered them 
 to depart from Spain within four months. 
 Eight hundred thousand men, women, and 
 children were thus driven forth from home. 
 Multitudes perished. Portugal was the re- 
 fuge of many, who had gold to purchase the 
 liberty of tarrying there. The Portuguese 
 monarch had cruel compassion upon them ; 
 his treaty with Spain forbade him to allow 
 the Jews a permanent residence in his realm, 
 and he thought to save some by making them 
 Christians. With a promise of ships to bear 
 
 Lisbon. There the orders were that the 
 children should be torn from their parents, 
 that they might be nurtured in the bosom 
 of the true church. A scene of anguish fol- 
 lowed. Many a father slew his son, rather 
 than abandon him ; and many a mother, pre- 
 tending Christianity that she might not be 
 exiled from a daughter, soon betrayed her 
 insincerity, and was murdered by the tor- 
 tures of the inquisition. Throughout Europe* 
 it was believed that in their rites the Jews 
 crucified children, and whenever a distemper 
 raged, the cry was that they had poisoned 
 the wells and streams. Any such rumor 
 was the watchword for their butchery, the 
 plucking of their eyes or teeth, the extirpa- 
 tion of their homes, and the seizure of their 
 estates. In modern times, these atrocities 
 have ceased, but yet the Jew is too often the 
 object of an unjust loathing, if not hatred. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC (Jeanne d’Akc), called 
 the Maid of Orleans, was born of low parent- 
 age at Domremy, a village on the borders 
 of Lorraine. When the affairs of France 
 were in a deplorable state, and the city of 
 Orleans was so closely besieged by the Duke 
 of Bedford that its fall appeared inevitable, 
 Joan claimed to have received a divine com- 
 mission to expel the invaders. At this time, 
 a belief in supernatural endowments was by 
 no means uncommon, and, far from being 
 confined to the lower classes, pervaded the 
 minds of the loftiest and most pretending. 
 Joan, on being introduced to Charles VII., 
 offered to raise the siege of Orleans, and con- 
 duct her prince to Rheims, there to be 
 crowned with the usual solemnities; at the 
 same time demanding for herself a conse- 
 crated sword which had long hung suspended 
 in the church of St. Catharine. Her request 
 was granted, and she fulfilled her promises, 
 entered Orleans with supplies in triumph, 
 and appeared, clad in a splendid suit of ar- 
 mor, at the coronation of Charles, which 
 took place in the cathedral of Rheims. The 
 gallant maid, her mission done, now sought 
 j retire into private life, but she was urged 
 to stay. She yielded to the general wish 
 with fatal facility; fatal, because, having 
 been taken with the garrison of Compiegne, 
 she was, to the disgrace of Bedford and the 
 English, condemned to death as a witch, and 
 burned at the stake, in the market-place of 
 
 them away, he beguiled them to gather at 
 
 JOA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 45 ? 
 
 Rouen, May 30th, 1431. She was never a 
 servant, as English writers have represented, 
 and was a lovely girl of eighteen when she 
 first sought an audience of Charles. An 
 authentic portrait, yet extant, shows that 
 she possessed a face and figure of exquisite 
 loveliness ; a countenance to which a beam- 
 ing eye, and a tender expression of melan- 
 choly, imparted an interest which rendered 
 her fascination irresistible. She led the 
 French to victory, but never stained her 
 hand with bloodshed. 
 
 JOHN, King of England. [ See Planta- 
 genet.] 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, LL. D., one of the 
 most eminent literary men of the eighteenth 
 century in England, was born at Lichfield, 
 in Staffordshire, in 1709, and was the son 
 of a bookseller. He entered Pembroke Col- 
 lege, Oxford, at the age of nineteen, but his 
 father’s losses compelled him to leave without 
 taking a degree. For some years after leav- 
 ing college, he was unsettled in his views, 
 which, however, chiefly turned to literature. 
 In 1735 he married Mrs. Porter, a mercer’s 
 widow of twice his own age ; he describes 
 the affair as a “love match on both sides.” 
 In 1737 he came to London in company with 
 David Garrick, who had been one of his pu- 
 pils, to seek his fortune. Here he supported 
 himself by his pen, his first publication in 
 London being a poem in imitation of one 
 of Juvenal’s satires. He was for many 
 years a contributor to the Gentleman's 
 Magazine. In 1747 he issued his plans for 
 an English dictionary, a work which, when 
 published, fully equaled the high expectations 
 which had been formed of it. His periodical 
 papers, “The Rambler” and “The Idler,” 
 displayed the talents of the author in a favor- 
 able light. The moderate success of the 
 tragedy of “Irene” convinced Dr. John- 
 son that he was incapable of producing 
 dramas which would reflect honor on his 
 pen. His fine romance of “Rasselas” was 
 written in the evenings of one week to de- 
 fray his mother’s funeral expenses. In 1762 
 he received a government pension of £300 a 
 year. He published some political pamph- 
 lets against the revolted colonists of America, 
 which, however, do not display very great 
 argumentative powers. His last undertak- 
 ing, “ Lives of the Poets,” was completed in 
 
 1781. He died December 13th, 1784, and 
 was interred in Westminster Abbey, where 
 a statute is erected to his memory. 
 
 His biography, by his intimate friend Bos- 
 well, is one of the best works of the kind 
 ever written, and still continues to enjoy 
 high popularity. Boswell said to Madame 
 d’Arblay : “Yes, madam ; you must give me 
 some of your choice little notes of the doc 
 tor’s ; we have seen him long enough upon 
 stilts ; I want to show him in a new light. 
 Grave Sam, and great Sam, and solemn Sam, 
 and learned Sam — all these he has appeared 
 over and over. Now I want to entwine a 
 wreath of the graces across his brow ; I want 
 to show him as gay Sam, agreeable Sam, 
 pleasant Sam; so you must help me with 
 some of his beautiful billets to yourself.” 
 
 JONES, Jacob, born in Delaware, 1770, 
 entered the navy at the age of twenty-nine. 
 He commanded the Wasp at the capture of 
 the British brig Frolic, Oct. 18th, 1812. The 
 next day the Wasp and her prize were taken 
 by the Poictiers, a British seventy-four, and 
 carried into Bermuda. Commodore Jones 
 died at Philadelphia, August 3d, 1850. 
 
 JONES, John Paul, was a younger son 
 of a gardener who dwelt at Arbigland, on 
 Solway Frith, in Scotland. He was born 
 July 6th, 1747, and when but a boy of twelve 
 was apprenticed to a shipping merchant of 
 White Haven, the principal port of the Sol- 
 way. He made several voyages to Virginia ; 
 then his master was unfortunate in business ; 
 and at the age of sixteen he was left to con- 
 trol himself. Several White Haven vessels 
 were engaged in the slave-trade ; young Paul 
 got the berth of third mate in one of them ; 
 at nineteen he had advanced to be first mate 
 of the Two Friends, one of the largest White 
 Haven vessels in the traffic. Then he was 
 engaged for a time in the West India trade; 
 finally he left Scotland forever, and abandoned 
 sea for shore. When the Revolution broke 
 out he was living in poverty near Fredericks- 
 burg, Va. He at once offered Congress his 
 services in the navy then to be formed ; and 
 about this time, from reasons ever unknown, 
 he added ‘Jones’ to his patronymic. He 
 was commissioned as lieutenant, first on the 
 list, in December, 1775, and was appointed to 
 the Alfred, a clumsy merchantman that had 
 been altered into a frigate of thirty guns. It 
 
458 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was the flagship of the small fleet of Com- 
 modore Hopkins ; and on a bright morning, 
 early in February, 1776, as the commodore 
 came on board, Lieut. Jones with his own 
 hands hoisted the first American ensign ever 
 displayed on a man-of-war. It was of yellow 
 silk, bearing the figure of a pine-tree, and 
 the significant device of a rattlesnake, with 
 the ominous words, “ Don’t tread on me ! ” 
 The gallantry, fearlessness, and value of 
 Jones soon became proverbial, and early in 
 August he was rewarded with a captain’s 
 -commission. In 1777 he was put in com- 
 mand of the Ranger (a ship of eighteen guns 
 just built for the service at Portsmouth, 
 N. H.), hoisted the new flag of the stars and 
 stripes, and sailed for France. The next 
 spring he took the first of his famous cruises 
 along the British coast, and made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to burn the town of White 
 Haven ; for this his excuse was a desire to 
 avenge some of the wanton burnings in Amer- 
 ica, and to teach the British “that not all 
 their boasted navy could protect their own 
 coasts ; ” but the attempt can not be justified. 
 He visited the scenes of his boyhood, boldly 
 anchored in the Solway at noon, and landed 
 with a small party, intending to make a pris- 
 oner of the Earl of Selkirk, the benefactor of 
 his father. But he was foiled by the noble- 
 man’s absence. Against his earnest remon- 
 strances, the men insisted upon plundering 
 the mansion of its plate. When the prizes 
 were sold at Brest, Jones bought the silver 
 and restored it, accompanied by an extrava- 
 gant letter, to Lady Selkirk. His return to 
 France was marked by a hot contest with the 
 English sloop Drake off Carrickfergus, in 
 which the Ranger was victorious. In expec- 
 tation of the command of a larger vessel, 
 Jones relinquished the Ranger. After gall- 
 ing delay, the Due de Duras, an old and 
 unseaworthy ship of forty guns, was fitted 
 out for him ; in compliment to Dr. Franklin 
 he named her Bon Homme Richard. More 
 delay intervened, but at last, the 14th of 
 August, 1779, he left L’Orient with a squad- 
 ron of seven sail, for another cruise off* the 
 British coast. A heavy storm scattered the 
 little fleet, but the Bon Homme Richard and 
 the frigate Alliance, with two smaller vessels, 
 after taking some prizes off the English and 
 Irish shores, came together at Cape Wrath, 
 
 a northern point of Scotland. They spread 
 terror along the eastern coast, and late in the 
 afternoon of the 16th of September, the four 
 vessels lay in the Frith of Forth, within sight 
 of Edinburgh castle. Jones’s intention was 
 to seize the shipping at Leith, to menace the 
 town with the torch, and obtain a heavy 
 ransom “toward the reimbursement which 
 Britain owed to the much injured citizens of 
 the United States.” Wild alarm spread along 
 the threatened coast. Early the next morn- 
 ing the Bon Homme Richard was seen stand- 
 ing toward Kirkcaldy, on the northern shore. 
 In an agony of fear the people gazed at her, and 
 the odd minister of the place, kneeling on the 
 beach, thus wrestled with the Lord : “ Now, 
 dear Laird, dinna ye think it a shame for ye 
 to send this vile piret to rob our folk o’ Kirk- 
 caldy, for ye ken they’re poor enow already, 
 and hae naething to spare. The wa’ the 
 ween blaws, he’ll be here in a jiffie, and wha 
 kens what he may do ? He’s nae too good for 
 ony thing. Mickle’s the mischief he’s dune 
 already. He’ll burn their hooses, tak’ their 
 very claes, and tirl them to the sark ; and, 
 waes me ! wha kens but the bluidy villain 
 may tak’ their lives ! The puir weemen are 
 maist frightened out o’ their wits, and the 
 bairns skirling after them. I canna thol’t 
 it ! I hae been lang a faithfu’ servant to ye, 
 Laird ; but gin ye dinna turn the ween aboot, 
 and blaw the scoundrel out o’ our gate, I’ll na 
 staur a fit, but wull just sit here till the tide 
 comes. Sae, tak’ yere wull o’t.” 
 
 The wind veered, and Jones was forced to 
 put to sea. A week later he fell in with a 
 fleet of Baltic merchantmen, convoyed by 
 the new ship Serapis, forty-four guns, and 
 the Countess of Scarborough, twenty guns. 
 Landais, the treacherous captain of the Alli- 
 ance, who had caused Jones much trouble 
 during the cruise, disobeyed all signals, and 
 held his ship aloof. The Vengeance followed 
 this cowardly example ; while the Pallas, the 
 other small vessel, engaged the Countess of 
 Scarborough. The Bon Homme Richard and 
 the Serapis battled together. Such another 
 sea-fight as this of the 23d of September, 1779, 
 off Flamborough Head, has never been seen. 
 The breeze almost died away ; and at twilight 
 the ships were not within reach of each other’s 
 guns. They were so close to the shore that 
 crowds of eager watchers gathered to witness 
 
 JON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 459 
 
 the spectacle. For a little while the curtain 
 of night mantled them ; then a full, bright 
 moon came up, and the terrible struggle 
 began. The fire of the Serapis made large 
 havoc in the rotten timbers of the Richard, 
 but in a few minutes the latter ran into her 
 antagonist, the spars and rigging of both were 
 entangled, and the great guns were almost 
 useless. Jones was repulsed in a trial to 
 board. His flag was hidden by the smoke. 
 Pearson, captain of the Serapis, cried out, 
 “ Has your ship struck?” “I have not yet 
 begun to fight,” was the answer. 
 
 • The ships yawned apart for a moment, and 
 then lay broadside to broadside, the muzzles of 
 the guns touching. Jones lashed his ship to 
 the Serapis, and in this fierce embrace the 
 awful cannonade went on. The fight raged 
 with fiendish fury ; the crew of the Richard 
 suffered terrible loss, and their ship leaked 
 badly. To add to their danger, the treach- 
 erous Alliance now came up and poured 
 broadside after broadside into them. There 
 could be no mistake or excuse for this dread- 
 ful villainy ; the moonlight was bright, the 
 position of the combatants clear. The cour- 
 age of Jones did not falter, although his 
 position was so critical, and his ship was 
 slowly sinking. The hand-grenades of his 
 marines set the Serapis on fire. Capt. Pear- 
 son had not the obstinacy of his foe, though 
 he had fought with great bravery, and at last 
 he surrendered to his really weaker enemy. 
 “It is painful,” he said to Jones, in a surly 
 manner, “ to deliver up my sword to a man 
 who has fought with a halter around his 
 neck.” Jones preserved his temper, and 
 courteously replied, as he returned the wea- 
 pon, “ Sir, you have fought like a hero ; and 
 I make no doubt but your sovereign will 
 reward you in the most ample manner.” He 
 said rightly ; George III. knighted Pearson 
 for the bravery h^here displayed. When 
 Jones heard of this, he remarked, “Well, he 
 deserves it ; and it I fall in with him again, 
 I will make a lord of him ! ” 
 
 The battle had raged three hours. Flames 
 were now rapidly devouring both vessels. 
 The Bon Homme Richard was damaged past 
 recovery. The flames were extinguished on 
 the Serapis, prisoners and men were all 
 transferred to her, and the shattered wreck of 
 the Richard went down beneath the billows. 
 
 The merchantmen under convoy had escaped, 
 through the criminal conduct of the com- 
 manders of the Alliance and the Vengeance; 
 but the Countess of Scarborough had yielded 
 to the Pallas after an hour’s fight, notwith- 
 standing the nefarious Landais had fired into 
 the latter, as he did into the Richard. After 
 tossing about on the North Sea for ten days, 
 Jones ran into the Texel with his little squad- 
 ron and prizes, only a few hours before eleven 
 British ships of war that had been sent after 
 him appeared in the offing. His brilliant 
 exploit excited great admiration at Amster- 
 dam, and afterward at Paris. The French 
 king gave him a sword of honor and a cross 
 of the military order of merit. The Amer- 
 ican congress, eight years later, voted him a 
 gold medal. 
 
 After the conclusion of peace, Jones, rest- 
 less, and longing for action and adventure, 
 accepted the post of rear-admiral in the Rus- 
 sian navy in 1788, and was employed against 
 the Turks on the Black Sea. He soon, how- 
 ever, fell into disfavor with Potemkin, the 
 favorite of Catharine, was granted leave of 
 absence, and never recalled into service. He 
 died of dropsy in the chest, July 18th, 1792, 
 at Paris, aged only forty-five. His grave is 
 unknown. He was a man of dauntless 
 courage, and of great service to his adopted 
 country. Among his most marked traits, an 
 overweening vanity was conspicuous. 
 
 JONES, Sir William, a poet, statesman, 
 and oriental scholar, born in London, 1746, 
 died in Hindostan, April 27th, 1794, aged 
 forty-seven. His attainments in law and 
 general science were profound and varied. 
 As* a linguist he has never been surpassed : he 
 was the master of twenty-eight languages, 
 and his knowledge extended over the litera- 
 ture and antiquities of which they were the 
 key. 
 
 JONSON, Ben, was the posthumous son 
 of a clergyman in Westminster, where he 
 was born in 1574, about a month after his 
 father’s decease. His family was originally 
 from Scotland, whence his grandfather re- 
 moved to Carlisle, in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 Benjamin received his education under the 
 learned Camden, at Westminster school ; and 
 had made extrordinary progress in his stud- 
 ies, when his mother, who had married a 
 bricklayer for her second husband, took him 
 
 JON 
 
460 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 away to work under his step-father. From 
 this humble employment he escaped, by en- 
 listing as a soldier in the army, then serving 
 in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. 
 An exploit which he here performed, of kill- 
 ing an enemy in a single combat, gave him 
 room to boast ever after of a degree of cour- 
 age which has not often been found in alli- 
 ance with poetical distinction. 
 
 On his return, Jonson entered himself at 
 St. John’s College, Cambridge, which he was 
 shortly obliged to quit, from the scanty state 
 * of his finances. He turned his thoughts to 
 the stage, and applied for employment at the 
 theatres ; but his talents as an actor could 
 only procure for him admission at an obscure 
 playhouse in the suburbs. Here he had the 
 misfortune to kill a fellow-actor in a duel, for 
 which he was thrown into prison. The state 
 of mind to which he was here brought, gave 
 the advantage to a Popish priest in convert- 
 ing him to the Catholic faith, under which 
 religion he continued for twelve years. 
 
 After his liberation from prison, he mar- 
 ried, and applied in earnest to writing for the 
 stage, in which he appears to have already 
 made several attempts. His comedy of 
 “ Every Man in his Humor,” the first of his 
 acknowledged pieces, was performed with 
 applause in 1596 ; after which he continued 
 to furnish a play yearly, till his time was 
 occupied by the composition of the masques 
 and other entertainments by which the ac- 
 cession of James was celebrated. Dryden, 
 in his “Essay on Dramatic Poetry,” speaks 
 of him as the “ most learned and judicious 
 writer which any theatre ever had.” 
 
 In 1616 he published a folio volume of his 
 works, which procured for him a grant from 
 his majesty of the salary of poet-laureate for 
 life, though he did not take possession of the 
 post till three years after. Jonson was re- 
 duced to necessitous circumstances in the 
 latter part of his life, though he obtained 
 from Charles I. an advance of his salary as 
 laureate. He died in 1637 at the age of 
 sixty-three, being at that time considered as 
 at the head of English poetry. He was in- 
 terred in Westminster Abbey, where an 
 inscription was placed over his grave, famili- 
 arly expressive of the reputation he had ac- 
 quired among his countrymen : “ 0 rare Ben 
 Jonson.” Six months after his death, a col- 
 
 lection of poems to his honor, by a number 
 of the most eminent writers and scholars in 
 the nation, was published, with the title of 
 “ Jonsonius Virbius; or the Memory of Ben 
 Jonson, revived by the Friends of the 
 Muses.” 
 
 We subjoin his beautiful epitaph on the 
 Countess of Pembroke, sister to Sir Philip 
 Sidney. 
 
 “ Underneath this marble herse 
 Lies the subject of all verse, 
 
 Sidney’s sister, Pembroke’s mother ; 
 Death, ere thou hast slain another 
 Learn’d, and fair, and good as she, 
 
 Time shall throw his dart at thee.” . 
 
 JOSEPH II., Emperor of Germany, son 
 of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, and brother 
 of Marie Antoinette, was born in 1741. His 
 father died in 1765, but he did not really 
 reign till the death of his mother in 1780, 
 when he became King of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia. Joseph made his reign conspicuous 
 by his designs for the good of his subjects. 
 He aimed at the most extensive and import- 
 ant reformations, but was not aware of the 
 strength of those prejudices and evils which 
 presented themselves in his path at the very 
 outset, and continued to obstruct it through- 
 out the whole of his career. The education 
 of Joseph had been carefully attended to, and 
 at the age of nineteen he was married to 
 Isabella, infanta of Parma. In 1764 he was 
 crowned King of the Romans. The death 
 of his first wife, whom he loved with more 
 than usual fondness, was a severe blow to 
 him, but in 1765 he married the sister of the 
 Elector of Bavaria. It was in this year that 
 he ascended the throne, without encountering 
 the slightest opposition. Having always 
 displayed a military ambition, he was now 
 happy in remodeling his armies and perfect- 
 ing their discipline, not restricting his refor- 
 mation to the army, but making it felt in all 
 the departments of government. After hav- 
 ing returned from a tour through his own 
 dominions, and through Prussia, Italy, France, 
 and Russia, he set apart one day in each 
 week for hearing the complaints and petitions 
 of all, even the meanest of his subjects. “It 
 behooves me,” said he, “to do justice; and 
 it is my invariable intention to render it to 
 all the world, without respect of persons.” 
 It is a pity that he forgot this maxim when 
 he accepted the invitation of the royal anat- 
 
 JOS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 461 
 
 omists, and assisted in the dismemberment 
 of Poland, in 1772. Joseph encouraged the 
 liberty of the press, and even permitted 
 strictures to be made on his own conduct and 
 measures, provided they were not couched 
 in the language of coarse pasquinade. “If,” 
 said he, “they be founded in justice, we 
 shall profit by them ; if not, we shall disre- 
 gard them.” 
 
 Many curious adventures are said to have 
 occurred to the emperor, when, as was his 
 custom, he drove about in the garb of a pri- 
 vate citizen. One day, as he was riding thus 
 alone, he was accosted familiarly by a soldier, 
 who mistook him for a man of the middle class, 
 and asked the emperor to give him a ride. 
 “Willingly,” exclaimed Joseph; “jump in, 
 comrade, for I am in something of a hurry.” 
 The soldier sprang into the cabriolet, and 
 sovereign and subject sat side by side on the 
 same seat. The soldier was loquacious. 
 “ Come, comrade ! ” said he, slapping the 
 emperor famil.arly on the back ; “ are you 
 good at guessing?” “Perhaps I am,” re- 
 plied Joseph; “try me.” “Well, then, my 
 boy, conjure up your wits, and guess what I 
 had for breakfast this morning.” “ Sour 
 krout.” “ Come, none of that ! try again, 
 comrade.” “ Perhaps a Westphalia ham,” 
 said the emperor, willing to humor - his com- 
 panion. “Better than that!” exclaimed the 
 soldier. “ Sausages from Bologna, and Hock- 
 heimer from the Rhine?” “Better than 
 that! d’ye give it up?” “I do.” “Open 
 your eyes and ears then,” said the soldier 
 bluntly; “I had a pheasant, by Jove! shot 
 in the Emperor Joe’s park, ha ! ha ! ” W r hen 
 the exultation of the soldier had subsided, 
 Joseph said quietly: “I want to try your 
 skill in guessing, comrade. See if you can 
 name the rank I hold.” “You’re a — no — 
 hang it ! you’re not smart enough for a cor- 
 net.” “Better than that,” said the emperor. 
 “ A lieutenant ? ” “ Better than that.” “A 
 
 captain?” “Better than that.” “A ma- 
 jor?” “Better than that.” “General?” 
 “Better than that.” The soldier was now 
 fearfully agitated ; he had doffed his hat, and 
 sat bareheaded ; he could hardly articulate. 
 “ Pardon me, your excellency ; you are field- 
 marshal.” “Better than that,” replied Jo- 
 seph. “ Lord help me ! ” cried the soldier, 
 “you’re the emperor!” He threw himself 
 
 out of the cabriolet, and kneeled for pardon 
 in the mud. The emperor often laughed 
 over it heartily, and the soldier received a 
 mark of favor which he could not forget. 
 
 On another occasion, Joseph, turning a 
 corner shortly, ran the wheel of his vehicle 
 against an old woman’s fruit-stall, and upset 
 it, scattering the good things in every direc- 
 tion. The ragged urchins in the immediate 
 vicinity fell upon the tempting fruit, and has- 
 tily gathering it, ate it, mud- and all. As 
 soon as the old woman gained her feet, she 
 gave utterance to a volley of abuse, and the 
 emperor was glad to escape and permit the 
 predatory youths of the suburbs to take 
 their share of the vituperative epithets of 
 the enraged fruit-seller. As soon as he had 
 reached his palace, Joseph dispatched some 
 of his officers to make reparation to the old 
 woman. Surrounded by a group of men in 
 splendid uniforms, the old lady was terrified 
 when they informed her that the driver of 
 the cabriolet w r as her emperor. Indistinct 
 ideas of halters and executioners were flitting 
 across her mind, when she was awakened to 
 the reality by the sight of a purse full of 
 gold pieces, which the officers threw upon her 
 table. She opened her lips to bless the em- 
 peror, but his messengers had put spurs to 
 their horses, and were seen galloping off in 
 the distance. “I think,” said the emperor, 
 “ she has no reason to complain ; for she has 
 been amply paid, and has had the pleasure 
 of abusing me unmercifully, while I heard 
 her with the patience of a saint.” 
 
 Various events occurred to disturb the 
 tranquillity of Joseph during his reign, and 
 he died on the 20th of February, 1790. 
 
 JOSEPHINE (Rose Tascher de la Page- 
 rie) was born in Martinique, June 24th, 
 1763, and married at an early age to Viscount 
 Beauharnais, who was executed in the reign 
 of terror. Josephine married Bonaparte in 
 1796. She lived to see Napoleon raised to 
 the zenith of his power, and then hurled 
 from the summit he had gained. But at that 
 hour of affliction the affectionate Josephine 
 had no longer a right to be near the man she 
 adored, for he had divorced her to marry 
 Maria Louisa, from motives of policy and in 
 hope of an heir. Josephine retired to her 
 beautiful seat of Malmaison with the title 
 of empress-queen-dowager. She was called 
 
 JOS 
 
462 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the star of Napoleon ; and his better destiny 
 forsook him when he cast off* his amiable and 
 lovely wife. She died May 29th, 1814, her 
 last words being, “ Lite de Elbe — Napo- 
 leon / ” The poor mourned in her a faithful 
 friend, the artists of the capital a kind and 
 munificent patron, and the lovers of Napoleon 
 the peerless woman who had graced his 
 throne in the brightest moments of his 
 career. Truly did the emperor say, “If 1 
 win battles, Josephine wins hearts.” 
 
 JOSEPHUS, Flavius, a Jewish historian, 
 born a.d. 37. He signalized himself by sup- 
 porting a siege of forty- seven days against 
 Vespaskm and Titus in a town of Judea. 
 The city was finally taken by treachery, and 
 thousands of the inhabitants were slain, the 
 number of captives being only 1,200. Jose- 
 phus saved his life by flying into a cave, and 
 finally surrendered to Vespasian, who gave 
 him his liberty, and treated him with great 
 favor. Josephus was present at the siege 
 of Jerusalem. He died a.d. 93, in the fifty- 
 sixth year of his age. 
 
 JOURDAN, Jean Baptiste, born in 1762, 
 was a general of the French revolution, and 
 became a marshal of the empire. He won 
 the day at Fleurus, but he lost the battle of 
 Vittoria. Fie died in 1833. 
 
 JUBA, the second of that name, was the 
 son of Juba I. of Numidia, and was among 
 the captives led to Rome to grace the triumph 
 of the victorious Caesar. He gained the 
 hearts of the Romans by the courteousness 
 of his manners, and Augustus rewarded his 
 fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra, 
 the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and 
 conferring upon him the title of King of 
 Mauritania and making him master of all the 
 territories which his father once possessed. 
 His popularity was so great that the Athe- 
 nians raised a statue to him, and the Ethio- 
 pians worshiped him as a divinity. He died 
 a.d. 23. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT (lord of the world), a 
 celebrated temple in Hindostan, on the coast 
 of Orissa. The idol is a shapeless stone, 
 with a hideous black face, diamonds for eyes, 
 and crimson jaws yawning open. This is 
 the representative of Vishnu, the preserver 
 of the world. On days of festival, the idol 
 is placed on a tower, sixty feet high, moving 
 on wheels, beneath which the blinded Hin- 
 
 doos throw themselves on the ground and 
 are crushed by the progress of the car. 
 More than a million devotees seek this shrine 
 annually, many of whom leave their bones 
 whitening on the adjoining ways. 
 
 JUGURTHA, son of Mastanabal, murdered 
 Hiempsal, the son of his uncle Micipsa, and 
 exiled Adherbal, the brother of Hiempsal, to 
 seat himself on the throne of Numidia. 
 Adherbal supplicated the aid of the Romans, 
 but the gold of Jugurtha procured a decision 
 in his favor. Adherbal, who surrendered to 
 the usurper, was inhumanly murdered, and 
 the Roman people breathing vengeance 
 against the murderer, the senate were con- 
 strained to declare war upon him. The 
 Jugurthine war required an immense expen- 
 diture of blood and treasure, but Jugurtha 
 was finally defeated by Marius, and starved 
 to death in a Roman prison, 106 b.c. Then 
 Numidia became a Roman province. 
 
 JULIAN the Apostate (Flavius Claudia- 
 nus), son of Julius Constans, the brother of 
 Constantine the Great, was born at Constan- 
 tinople. The massacre which attended the 
 elevation to the throne of Constans, son of 
 Constantine the Great, nearly proved fatal to 
 Julian and his brother Gallus. The two 
 brothers were privately educated together, 
 and taught the doctrines of the Christian 
 religion. Gallus received the instructions of 
 his teachers with deference and submission ; 
 but Julian fed his dislike for Christianity 
 by secretly cherishing a desire to become one 
 of the votaries of paganism. He was banished 
 to rule over Gaul, with the title of Caesar, by 
 Constans, and there he showed himself worthy 
 of the imperial dignity by his prudence, valor, 
 and the numerous victories he obtained over 
 the enemies of Rome in Gaul and Germany. 
 His mildness, as well as his condescension, 
 gained him the hearts of his soldiers; and 
 when Constans, to whom Julian became an 
 object of suspicion, ordered him to send part 
 of his forces to the east, the army immediately 
 mutinied, and promised eternal fidelity to 
 their leader, refusing to obey the order of Con- 
 stans. They even compelled J ulian, by 
 threats and entreaties, to accept the title of 
 emperor, and the death of Constans, which 
 soon after happened, left him sole master of 
 the Roman empire, a.d. 361. 
 
 His immediate disavowal of the doctrines of 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 463 
 
 TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS. 
 
 Christianity procured Julian the title of the 
 Apostate. His change of religious opinion 
 was attributed to the austerity with which he 
 had been taught the doctrines of Christianity, 
 or, according to others, to the literary conver- 
 sation and persuasive eloquence of some of the 
 Athenian philosophers. After he had made 
 his public entry into Constantinople, he de- 
 termined to continue the Persian war, and 
 check those barbarians, who had for sixty 
 years derided the indolence of the Roman em- 
 perors. Having crossed the Tigris, he burned 
 his fleet and boldly advanced into the enemy’s 
 country. He defeated the Persian forces, but 
 died of a wound received in battle, a.d. 363, 
 aged thirty-three years. 
 
 JUNIUS. From 1769 to 1772 a series of 
 political letters appeared in Woodfall’s Public 
 Advertiser, at London, that by their force of 
 invective, their keenness of sarcasm, and the 
 clear, brilliant style in which they were 
 couched, produced a powerful impression, and 
 
 they have since taken a place among the stan- 
 dard works in our language. Every effort 
 that could be devised by the government, or 
 prompted by private indignation, was made to 
 discover their writer, but the authorship re- 
 mains an unsolved mystery to this day. Per- 
 haps they have been most generally ascribed 
 to Sir Philip Francis ; but they have also been 
 plausibly assigned to Lord George Sackville, 
 Edmund Burke, John Wilkes, William Gerard 
 Hamilton (commonly called Single-speech 
 Hamilton), Mr. Dunning (afterward Lord Ash- 
 burton), Gen. Charles Lee, the Duke of Port- 
 land, Mr. Adair, Rev. J. Rosenhagen, John 
 Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, Hugh 
 Boyd, Horne Took e, Lord Chatham, Dr. Fran- 
 cis Glover, John Lewis De Solme, Rev. James 
 Wilmot, Gibbon the historian, Suett the com- 
 edian, the Earl of Chesterfield, Daniel Wray, 
 Earl Temple, Sir Robert Rich, Gov. Pownall, 
 &c. “I am the depositary of my own secret, 
 and it shall perish with me,” said Junius. 
 
 JUN 
 
464 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 JUPITER, in mythology, the son of Rhea 
 and Saturn, was concealed from his father, 
 who devoured his offspring, and brought up 
 in Crete, where he was nursed by the nymph 
 Amalthea. He forced Saturn to surrender to 
 him the empire of the world, which he shared 
 among his brothers, giving the ocean to Nep- 
 tune, and hell to Pluto, remaining himself 
 master of the heavens; he was called the 
 father of gods and men. The giants, descended 
 from his uncle Titan, made war upon him, 
 but were defeated. He gave Juno, his wife 
 and sister, ample cause for jealousy, and from 
 the multiplicity of his intrigues was almost 
 literal^ the father of his people. He was 
 generally represented with thunderbolts in 
 his hand, the eagle at his side, his flowing 
 hair encircled with a diadem. His figure was 
 majestic, and a long beard added to the im- 
 posing aspect of his lofty countenance. Bulls, 
 in preference to other animals, were sacrificed 
 to him. 
 
 JUNOT, Andoche, was born in 1771. At 
 the siege of Toulon in 1794, Lieut. Bonaparte 
 was dictating a dispatch on a drumhead to a 
 sergeant of artillery : a ball struck the ground 
 hard by, scattering the dirt all about. “Very 
 lucky,” gayly cried the sergeant, not flinch- 
 ing; “we need no sand.” His bearing im- 
 pressed the lieutenant to say, “ What can I 
 do for you?” “Everything!” said the ser- 
 geant ; “ you can change my worsted shoul- 
 der-knot into an epaulette.” The lieutenant 
 did more than this. Sergeant Junot became 
 a marshal of the empire and Duke of Abran- 
 tes. He died in 1813. 
 
 JUSTIN MARTYR was born of pagan 
 parents in Samaria about the beginning of the 
 second century. While yet a young man he 
 w'as converted to Christianity, his restless 
 
 mind having sifted the various philosophies 
 of the Greeks, and wrote many treatises in 
 defense of the faith upon which he settled. He 
 suffered martyrdom in the reign of Marcus 
 Antoninus, about a.d. 165. 
 
 JUSTINIAN I., surnamed the Great, Em- 
 peror of the East, celebrated as a lawgiver, 
 was born in 483, of an obscure family. He 
 shared the fortune of his uncle, Justin I., who, 
 from a lowly station, was raised to the throne. 
 Justinian flattered the people and the senate, 
 and, in 527, on the death of his uncle, was 
 proclaimed emperor. He gained great victo- 
 ries, and enacted admirable laws, but he loaded 
 his subjects with taxes, and was severe to 
 strangers, while the crimes of his own serv- 
 ants went unpunished. He died in 565, in 
 the eighty -third year of his age. The digest 
 of the Roman law, known as the Justinian 
 code, is the great glory of his reign. 
 
 JUVENAL, Decius Junius, flourished at 
 Rome in the latter half of the first century. 
 He was sent to Egypt by Domitian, w’ho 
 dreaded his satire, but returned under Trajan, 
 in the eighty-second year of his age. His 
 sixteen satires are powerful and caustic. 
 
 JUXON, William, an English prelate, was 
 born at Chichester, in 1582. In 1635 he w*as 
 advanced to the post of lord high treasurer, 
 which no churchman had held since the reign 
 of Henry VII. This office he resigned in 
 1641, when it was admitted by all parties that 
 he had conducted himself without reproach. 
 After attending his royal master, Charles I., 
 during his imprisonment in the Isle of Wight, 
 and on the scaffold, he went into retirement ; 
 but at the restoration he was made Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and had the satisfaction 
 of placing the crown on the head of Charles 
 II. He died June 4th, 1663. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 405 
 
 
 K. 
 
 KALMUCKS, a branch of the Mongol race, 
 of great antiquity. Their tribes are scattered. 
 In 1759 a part of them, consisting of eighteen 
 hundred families, settled on the Volga, and 
 placed themselves under the protection of the 
 Russian government, to whom they paid vol- 
 untary allegiance. Others are settled in dif- 
 ferent parts. Many of them are Mohammed- 
 ans. Their personal appearance is far from 
 pleasing, and their habits are extremely rude. 
 
 KAMES. Henry Home (1696-1782), a 
 Scotch lawyer and judge, — in which latter 
 capacity, according to the custom of the coun- 
 try, he took a title as Lord Karnes,-— was con- 
 spicuous in the brilliant literary society of 
 Edinburgh, and wrote several metaphysical 
 and ethical treatises, the best of which is 
 “ The Elements of Criticism.” 
 
 KANE, Elisha Kent, was born at Phila- 
 delphia, Feb. 3d, 1820. The most remarkable 
 trait of his boyhood was a love for feats of 
 daring and difficulty. He resorted to the 
 University of Virginia for a collegiate educa- 
 tion, but was arrested midway in the course 
 by startling manifestations of the disease 
 w r hich finally ended his life. For a long time 
 his life was despaired of by his famity, and 
 when he recovered it was only to be informed 
 that he might at any moment fall as suddenly 
 as from a musket-shot. He was now in his 
 eighteenth year, and about to commence the 
 serious business of life with the knowledge 
 that he had in his system a fatal disease which 
 might suddenly terminate his earthly career 
 at a moment’s warning, and which was sure 
 to be always a source of pain and suffering. 
 His father said to him, u Elisha, if you must 
 die, die in the harness,” and he resolved to 
 act in conformity with the advice, which was, 
 in reality, a matter of necessity, for inaction 
 was more injurious to him than constant ex- 
 posure to dangers, and he found that the only 
 way to combat with his enemy was to keep 
 himself incessantly employed. There is the 
 best authority for the opinion, according to 
 his biographer, that his ailments had always 
 in them a preponderating character of neuro- 
 pathic disturbance. Even when he was com 
 30 
 
 paratively free from the acute form of rheu- 
 matic disorder, his nerves were tingling and 
 rioting with irritation. But in the midst of 
 this nervous rioting he was calm, sedate, 
 serious, and thoughtful. His friends believing 
 that his disease rendered him unfit for the 
 profession of an engineer, for which he had 
 been preparing, he began the study of medi- 
 cine. In his twenty-first year he was elected 
 resident physician in the Pennsylvania Hos- 
 pital. He attended strictly to his duties for 
 six months, while he was laboring under so 
 severe an attack of cardiac disease as to be 
 unable to sleep in a horizontal position, and 
 never closing his eyes at night without the 
 feeling that the chances were against his ever 
 opening them again in this world. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his inaugural thesis on 
 “Kyestein,” which attracted attention even 
 among the savans of Europe. His father, be- 
 ing satisfied that the routine of a physician’s 
 life would be fatal to his son’s constitution, 
 obtained for him, without his knowledge, an 
 appointment as a surgeon in the navy. He 
 was greatly indisposed to the place, and the 
 position he held on shipboard was always 
 odious to him. His aversion to a sea life 
 amounted to detestation ; but he yielded to 
 his father’s wishes, and after his examination 
 prepared himself cheerfully for his new duties. 
 
 He was appointed upon the diplomatic 
 staff as surgeon to the first American embassy 
 to China in 1843, when Mr. Cushing was 
 sent out as commissioner. On the voyage 
 out he had the advantage of stopping at 
 Madeira and Rio Janeiro, at which latter place 
 he improved his time by making an ascent of 
 the eastern Andes, which rear their fantastic 
 forms on the coast of Brazil. The notes 
 which he made of this exploration were un- 
 happily lost while he was traveling on the 
 Nile. On the voyage from Rio to Bombay he 
 employed himself assiduously in the study 
 of navigation and modern languages. When 
 the frigate arrived at Bombay, Mr. Cushing, 
 who had gone out overland, intending to 
 come on board at that port, had not come. 
 Dr. Kane directly began to' visit the caves of 
 
 KAN 
 
466 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Elephanta, and every other object of interest i» 
 in the neighborhood, and then started on an 
 elephant hunt in the island of Ceylon. 
 
 They reached Canton in July, 1844. Kane 
 soon tired of the sluggishness of diplomacy 
 in the celestial empire, and, obtaining leave 
 of absence, set off to explore the Philippine 
 Islands, which he effected mainly on foot. 
 He was the first man who descended into the 
 crater of Tael ; lowered more than a hundred 
 feet by a bamboo rope from the overhanging 
 cliff, and clambering down some seven hund- 
 red more through the scoriae, he made a topo- 
 graphical sketch of the interior of this great 
 volcanoe, collected a bottle of sulphurous 
 acid from the very mouth of the crater ; and, 
 although he was drawn up almost senseless, 
 he brought with him his portrait of this 
 hideous cavern, and the specimens which it 
 afforded. The natives were much outraged 
 at this impious invasion of the dwelling place 
 of their deity, so that his life was also in peril 
 from them. 
 
 After the departure of the embassy for 
 home, he remained at Canton to establish 
 himself as a physician ; but, at the end of 
 six months, he was brought down with the 
 rice fever, and came near dying, recovering 
 only after a long illness. He returned home 
 overland. Before he reached Philadelphia, 
 he had ascended the Himalayas, and triangu- 
 lated Greece, on foot ; he had visited Ceylon, 
 the Upper Nile, and all the mythologic region 
 of Egypt, traversing the route and making 
 the acquaintance of the learned Lepsius, who 
 was then prosecuting his archaeological re- 
 searches. He twice narrowly escaped death ; 
 once in a skirmish with the Bedouins, in 
 which he was wounded in the leg, and then 
 from an attack of plague. 
 
 Dr. Kane would have resigned his post in 
 the navy, had not honor forbidden this in 
 view of the impending war with Mexico. He 
 was ordered to the frigate United States, 
 bound for the coast of Africa. Here he vis- 
 ited the slave factories, from Cape Mount to 
 the river Bonny, and, through the infamous 
 Da Souza, got access to the barracoons of 
 Dahomey, and contracted, besides, the coast 
 fever, from the effects of which he never 
 wholly recovered. Jle came home invalided. 
 Believing that his constitution was broken, 
 and his health rapidly going, he called upon 
 
 (President Polk, and demanded an opportu- 
 nity for active service that might crowd the 
 little remnant of his life with achievements 
 in keeping with his ambition. He was 
 charged with dispatches to Gen. Scott, of great 
 moment and urgency, which must be carried 
 through a region occupied by the enemy. 
 Landed at Vera Cruz, he asked for an escort 
 to convey him to the capital, but the officer 
 in command had no troopers to spare : he 
 must wait, or he must accept, instead, a band 
 of ruffian Mexicans called the spy company, 
 who had taken to the business of treason and 
 trickery for a livelihood. He accepted them, 
 and went forward. Near Puebla his troops 
 encountered a body of Mexicans escorting a 
 number of distinguished officers to Orizaba, 
 among whom were Gen. Gaona, governor of 
 Puebla, his son .Maximilian, and Gen. Tore- 
 jon, who commanded the brilliant charge of 
 horse at Buena Vista. The surprise was 
 mutual, but the spy company had the advan- 
 tage of the ground. At the first instant of 
 the discovery, and before the rascals fully 
 comprehended their involvement, the doctor 
 shouted in Spanish, “Bravo! the capital 
 adventure! colonel, form your line for the 
 charge!” And down they went upon the 
 enemy ; Kane and his gallant Kentucky 
 charger ahead. Understanding the princi- 
 ple that sends a tallow candle through a 
 plank, and that the momentum of a body is 
 its weight multiplied by its velocity, he 
 dashed through the opposing force, and turn- 
 ing to engage after breaking their line, he 
 found himself fairly surrounded, and two of 
 the enemy giving him their special attention. 
 One of these was disposed of in an instant 
 by rearing his horse, who, with a blow of his 
 fore-foot, floored his man ; and wheeling sud- 
 denly, the doctor gave the other a sword 
 wound, which opened the external iliac 
 artery, and put him hors de combat. This 
 subject of the doctors military surgery was 
 the young Maximilian. The brief melee ter- 
 minated with a cry from the Mexicans, “ We 
 surrender.” Two of the officers made a dash 
 for an escape: the doctor pursued them, but 
 soon gave up the. chase. When he returned, 
 he found the ruffians preparing to massacre 
 the prisoners. As he galloped past the 
 young officer whom he had wounded, he 
 heard him cry, “ Senor, save my father.” A 
 
 KAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 467 
 
 group of the guerilla guards were dashing'’ 
 upon the Mexicans, huddled together, with 
 their lances in rest. He threw himself be- 
 fore them ; one of them transfixed his horse, 
 another gave him a severe wound in the 
 groin. He killed the first lieutenant, wounded 
 the second lieutenant, and blew a part of the 
 colonel’s beard off* with the last charge of his 
 six-shooter ; then grappling with them and 
 using his fists, he brought the party to terms. 
 The lives of the prisoners were saved, and the 
 doctor received their swords. As soon *as 
 General Gaona could reach his son, who lay 
 at a little distance from the scene of the last 
 struggle, the doctor found him sitting by 
 him, receiving his last adieu. Shifting the 
 soldier and resuming the surgeon, he secured 
 the artery, and put the wounded man in a 
 condition to travel. The ambulance got up for 
 the occasion contained at once the wounded 
 Maximilian, the wounded second lieutenant, 
 and the man that had prepared them for slow 
 traveling, himself on his litter, from the lance 
 wound received in defense of his prisoners ! 
 When they reached Puebla, the doctor’s 
 wound proved the worst in the party. He was 
 taken to the government house, but the old 
 general, in gratitude for his generous services, 
 had him conveyed to his own house. General 
 Childs, the American commander at Puebla, 
 hearing of the generosity of his prisoner, dis- 
 charged him without making any terms, and 
 the old general became the principal nurse 
 of his captor and benefactor, dividing his 
 attentions between him and his son, who lay 
 wounded in an adjoining room. This illness 
 of our hero was long and doubtful, and he 
 was reported dead to his friends at home. 
 
 After the war was ended, he was sent to 
 the Mediterranean in the store-ship Supply, 
 and, while on this voyage, was seized with an 
 attack of tetanus, the most terrible of all dis- 
 orders, when, to use his own expression, his 
 body felt as though it was composed of fiddle- 
 strings, and a host of devils were tuning him 
 up. He had not the faintest hope of recov- 
 ering from this disorder, but he did, and 
 returned to Norfolk, not quite dead, in Sep- 
 tember, 1849. After a brief rest at home, he 
 was employed in the coast survey. 
 
 He was bathing in the tepid waters of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, on the 12th of May, 1850, 
 when he received his telegraphic order to 
 
 proceed forthwith to New York, for duty upon 
 the Arctic expedition. In nine days from 
 that date he was beyond the limits of the 
 United States on his dismal voyage to the 
 polar seas. Of this first American expedi- 
 tion in search of Franklin, he was the sur- 
 geon, naturalist, and historian. It returned, 
 after an absence of sixteen months, for nine 
 of which it had been fast in the ice, without 
 accomplishing the generous object for which 
 it had gone. The commander of this expedi- 
 tion, Lieutenant De Haven, had never even 
 heard of Doctor Kane until they met for the 
 first time in the navy yard at Brooklyn, the 
 day before they set sail. When he took the 
 measure of the man upon whom the health 
 of himself and crew must depend, he felt a 
 misgiving that he was not the right man 
 for the place ; if there had been time, he 
 would have requested the department to ex- 
 change him for some more promising person. 
 He made up his mind to send the feeble-look- 
 ing little doctor back as soon as he got to 
 Greenland, if he should hold out so long. 
 The doctor was as usual sea-sick. When 
 they touched at Whale-fish Island, after hav- 
 ing been thirty-one days at sea, an English 
 transport ship was found there, in which De 
 Haven benevolently proposed to send the 
 doctor home as an invalid. The doctor looked 
 at the commanding officer in blank dismay, 
 and firmly said, “ I won’t go.” De Haven 
 soon knew him better. 
 
 Immediately after his return, Kane set 
 about organizing a second expedition. Of 
 this he was the commander. He left New 
 York, in the Advance, a brig of 120 tons, 
 May 30th, 1853, his destination being the 
 highest point attainable through the north- 
 ward of Baffin’s Bay, in search of Sir John 
 Franklin. He found a temperature of 100° 
 below the freezing point, and verified by 
 actual si^ht the fact of an open sea in this 
 frigid region, which had long been ques- 
 tioned. The farthest point attained was a 
 precipitous headland, named Cape Independ- 
 ence, in lat. 81° 22' N., and long. 65° 35' W. 
 From it the western coast was seen stretching 
 to 'the north, with an iceless horizon, and a 
 heavy swell rolling on with white caps. Two 
 islands on the eastern threshold of this sea 
 were named after Sir John Franklin and his 
 companion, Captain Crozier. On the west, 
 
468 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the coast was observed to be mountainous, 
 and the farthest distinctly sighted point was 
 a lofty mountain, estimated to be in lat. 82° 
 30', and long. 66 3 west (approximate), which 
 Dr. Kane proposed to name after Sir Edward 
 Parry, who, “as he has carried his name to 
 the most northern latitude yet reached, 
 should have in this, the highest known north- 
 ern land, a recognition of his pre-eminent 
 position among Arctic explorers.” 
 
 The winter of 1854 passed with many 
 trials, and in the following summer it be- 
 came necessary to abandon the brig and 
 retreat. On the 17th of May, Dr. Kane com- 
 menced his return in sledge-boats. On the 
 6th of August, in eighty-three days after 
 leaving the ship, through many perils and 
 escapes, he arrived at Upernavik, where the 
 Danish authorities gave him a cordial wel- 
 come. He returned to New York on the 11th 
 of October, 1855, after an absence of thirty 
 months. Anxiety had begun to be felt for 
 the safety of his party, and in the spring an 
 expedition had been sent out for its relief, 
 under command of Lieut. Hartstene. Kane 
 and Hartstene fell in with each other, Sept. 
 18th, and returned to New York together. 
 The thrill of delight which greeted the for- 
 mer’s appearance was saddened by the low 
 state of his health. He visited England, 
 hoping to be recuperated by the journey. 
 Lady Franklin had hoped he might lead yet 
 one more party upon the search which her 
 devoted heart could not yet give over. But 
 Kane’s strength sank lower and lower. A 
 resort to the mild clime of Cuba was of no 
 avail. He died at Havana, Feb. 16th, 1857. 
 
 Dr. Kane was five feet six inches in height, 
 and in his best health weighed about one 
 hundred and thirty-five pounds. His com- 
 plexion was fair, and his hair soft and silken, 
 of a dark chestnut color. His eyes were dark 
 gray, but lustrous, with a wild light, when 
 his feelings were excited ; and when he was in 
 the torrent-tide of enraptured action, the 
 light beamed from them like flashing scime- 
 tars, and in an impassioned moment they 
 gleamed frightfully. In company, when the 
 talk ran glib, and everybody would be heard, 
 he was silent, but terse and elastic as a steel 
 spring under pressure. He had a way of 
 looking attentive, docile, and as interested as 
 a child’s fresh wonder ; but no one would 
 
 mistake the expression for the admiration of 
 inexperience or incapacity ; yet it cheated 
 many a talker into a self-complaisance that 
 lost him the opportunity of learning something 
 of the man he wanted to know. Idle curi- 
 osity never made anything of him, and he did 
 nothing at gossip ; but inquiry with an aim 
 was never disappointed. 
 
 His biographer, Dr. Elder, asked him once, 
 after his return from his last Arctic expedi- 
 tion, “ for the best proved instance that he 
 knew of the soul’s power over the body ; an 
 instance that might push the hard-baked 
 philosophy of materialism to the conscious, 
 ness of its own idiocy.” He paused a mo- 
 ment, and then said with a spring, “ The soul 
 can lift the body out of its boots, sir. When 
 our captain was dying, — I say dying, I have 
 seen scurvy enough to know r , — every old scar 
 in his body was a running ulcer. If con- 
 science festers under its wounds correspond- 
 ingly, hell is not hard to understand. I 
 never saw a case so bad that either lived or 
 died. Men die of it usually long before they 
 are so ill as he was. There was trouble 
 aboard ; there might be mutiny. So soon as 
 the breath was out of his body we might be at 
 each others’ throats. I felt that he owed even 
 the repose of dying to the service. I went 
 down to his bunk, and shouted in his ear, 
 ‘ Mutiny, captain, mutiny ! ’ He shook off the 
 cadaveric stupor: ‘Set me up,’ he said, ‘and 
 order these fellows before me.’ He heard the 
 complaint, ordered punishment, and from 
 that hour convalesced. Keep that man awake 
 with danger, and he wouldn’t die of anything 
 until his duty was done.” 
 
 Kane was a Christian gentleman. Dr. 
 Elder makes a declaration which few biogra- 
 phers can make : “ Bless the memory of the 
 man for the happiness I have this day, in 
 declaring that I have not been obliged to 
 suppress a letter or a line for the sake of his 
 fame.” His brief life was crowded with 
 action and adventure. He visited India, 
 Africa, Europe, South America, the islands 
 of the Pacific, and twice penetrated the Arc- 
 tic region to the highest latitudes attained by 
 civilized man. He encountered the extremest 
 perils of sea and land, in every climate of the 
 globe; he discharged in turn the severest 
 duties of the soldier and the seaman ; attached 
 to the United States navy as a surgeon, he 
 
 KAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 469 
 
 nevertheless engaged at one time in the coast 
 survey of the tropical ocean, and in a month 
 or two we find him exploring the frigid zone; 
 and all the while that his personal experien- 
 ces had the character of romantic adventure, 
 he was pushing them in the spirit of scientific 
 and philanthropic enterprise, while suffering 
 from an organic disease which might snap 
 his thread of life at any moment. 
 
 KANSAS was organized as a territory of 
 the United States in 1854. It includes a 
 vast tract of country, stretching west to the 
 crests of the Rocky Mountains ; but its rich- 
 est part lies along the western boundary of 
 Missouri, and thence westward for a hundred 
 and fifty miles. This district is watered by 
 the Missouri, the Kansas and its tributaries, 
 and bj' the many headwaters of the Osage 
 and the Arkansas; it is a prairie country, 
 the timber being chiefly confined to the banks 
 of the streams ; though these are so numer- 
 ous that the unwooded tracts are seldom more 
 than five miles across. The prairies are all 
 rolling, and in some spots hilly. The soil is 
 a rich, black loam. Coal crops out on many 
 of the water-courses, and may be found to be 
 abundant. The climate of Eastern Kansas 
 resembles that of Kentucky and Missouri: 
 it is warm in summer, and in winter mild, 
 with now and then a few severe frosty and 
 stormy days and nights. The wet season is 
 in May and June, when the rivers fill, and 
 some overflow their banks. The fall is the 
 dryest season of the year. Snow 7 in winter 
 rarely exceeds tw 7 o or three inches in depth, 
 and soon disappears. The greater part of 
 the territory is salubrious, being high and 
 dry. The low, marshy grounds form but a 
 small portion of Kansas, and consequently 
 there is but little danger from malaria. 
 
 The face of the country is a continual suc- 
 cession of undulating ridges and valleys. In 
 the western section, there is every variety of 
 soil and aspect, and the scenery rises to great 
 sublimity and grandeur. There are spark- 
 ling streams and placid lakes, and an amount 
 of water-power surpassing that of any settled 
 portion of the United States. 
 
 The area is 114,793 square miles. 
 
 Kansas is a portion of the great tract of 
 country ceded to the United States by France 
 in 1803, known as the Louisiana purchase, 
 and including also the states of Louisiana, 
 
 Arkansas, Missouri, Iow T a, and Minnesota, 
 and the Indian and Nebraska territories. 
 After the adoption of the policy of Indian 
 removals, the domain of Kansas, except a 
 small part reserved for the original inhabit- 
 ants, was set apart as the abode of bands 
 who had been removed from their ancient 
 hunting grounds east of the Mississippi. 
 Here were placed the Wyandots, the Pota- 
 watomies, the Kickapoos, the Shawmees, and 
 other tribes, the smoke of w^hose wigwams 
 once wreathed among the forests and prairies 
 north-west of the Ohio. Some of these In- 
 dians became partly civilized, had farms, and 
 lived much in the fashion of the poorer 
 class of Western settlers. They had been 
 induced to remove hither by the promise that 
 this should be their permanent home. But 
 the overland emigration to Oregon and Cali- 
 fornia, passing directly through their terri- 
 tory, made its value known ; the tide of 
 emigration reached the border ; the fine 
 country was seen with greedy eyes ; and the 
 necessity of a communication w r ith the Pa- 
 cific shore, and of a settled country along the 
 road, gave a plausible excuse for a speedy 
 occupation. Treaties were concluded with 
 several of the Indian tribes, by w r hich large 
 tracts w 7 ere opened to settlers ; and in May, 
 1854, the territories of Kansas and Nebraska 
 were organized by act of Congress. The 
 violent contest that sprang up between pro- 
 slavery men and the friends of free labor to 
 obtain the shaping of the destiny and institu- 
 tions of this fertile empire, impelled an un- 
 precedented tide of emigrants over the bor- 
 ders, while it led to many cruel wrongs and 
 unhappy disorders. Civil war desolated the 
 infant settlements, and the blood of freemen 
 was poured upon the soil. 
 
 In 1858 gold w r as discovered at Pike’s Peak, 
 among the mountains in the western section 
 of the territory. A large emigration rushed 
 thither the next spring. Multitudes re- 
 turned disappointed, penniless, and starving. 
 The final result of the Kansas struggle was, 
 that it was admitted to the Union as a free 
 state, Jan. 29, 1861. Its capital is Topeka, 
 and its population in 1870 was 6,869. 
 
 Leavenworth, on the Missouri, three miles 
 below Fort Leavenworth, is the largest- town 
 in Kansas; it contains 17,873 inhabitants. 
 Lawrence has 8,320 inhabitants. 
 
 KAN 
 
470 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOP i D I A OP 
 
 KANT, Imlanuel, a distinguished meta- 
 physician, was born at Konigsberg, in Prus- 
 sia, April 21st, 1724, and there resided during 
 his long and tranquil life, dying Feb. 24th, 
 1804. 
 
 KARS, a town of Turkish Armenia, re- 
 nowned for its defense by Gen. Williams with 
 13,000 Turks, three months’ provisions, and 
 three days’ ammunition, against the Russian 
 general iMouravietf with an army of .40, 000 
 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, from June 18th 
 to Nov. 25th, 1855. The sufferings of the 
 garrison were very great from cholera and 
 want of food. On the 29th of September, 
 the Russians assaulted, four times gaining 
 the redoubt, and being as often driven back. 
 Their loss was above 6,000; that of the 
 garrison 800. They continued the siege, and 
 on the 25th of November famine compelled 
 the garrison to capitulate. The British gov- 
 ernment made the gallant defender a baronet, 
 with the title, Sir William Fenwick Williams 
 of Kars. 
 
 KATSBACH, a rivet of Silesia, near which 
 a battle was fought Aug. 26th, 1818, between 
 the Prussians under Blucher and the French 
 under Macdonald. This was a part of the 
 great conflict known as the battle of Dresden. 
 
 KAUFMAN, Angelica, an eminent French 
 female painter; died 1807, aged sixty -seven. 
 
 KAUNITZ, Wencelaus Anthony, Prince 
 of, a great statesman of Austria, and the able 
 counselor of Maria Theresa, born in 1711, 
 died in 1794. 
 
 KEAN, Edmund, one of the greatest trage- 
 dians that ever trod the English stage, was 
 born in London, 1787. He came upon the 
 boards while yet a lad, and his promise in 
 elocution attracting the attention of Dr. Drury, 
 that gentleman placed him at Eton, where he 
 remained three years. After various provin- 
 cial appearances, he made his debut as Shy- 
 lock, at Drury Lane, Jan. 26th, 1814. The 
 house was thin, but enough were present to 
 render a verdict of fame, which crowded 
 audiences thereafter stamped with approval. 
 Kean visited America in 1820, and again soon 
 after. The career of this meteor in the dra- 
 matic firmament was marked by many errors 
 and weaknesses. The same impulsiveness in 
 which they often originated, was the spring 
 to profuse charities and large-hearted benevo- 
 lence. He died in England, May 15th, 1833. 
 
 His son, Charles Kean, inherited a large share 
 of his talents, while endowed with more 
 prudence and stability. 
 
 KEATS, John, was born in London, Oct. 
 29th, 1796, and in youth was apprenticed to 
 a surgeon. The seeds of consumption were 
 in his frame, and when “Endymion,” his 
 first poem, was savagely cut up in the Quar- 
 terly Review r such was the agony of the 
 sensitive poet that he ruptured a blood vessel 
 in the lungs. The disease progressed apace ; 
 it was not to be checked by the warm Italian 
 clime to which he resorted; the poet “felt 
 the daisies already growing over him,” and 
 died at Rome, Dec. 27th, 1820, 
 
 KEITH, James, a field-marshal in the Rus- 
 sian service, was born in Scotland, in 1696. 
 In 1715 he joined the Pretender, and was 
 wounded at the battle of Sheriff-muir, but 
 made his escape to France. From Paris he 
 went to Spain, and obtained a command in 
 the Irish brigade ; but, on accompanying the 
 Spanish embassy to Russia, he entered into 
 the service of that state, was promoted to the 
 rank of lieutenant-general, and invested with 
 the order of the Black Eagle. By his skill 
 Oczagon was taken ; and, in the war with 
 Sweden, he materially contributed to th«, 
 victory of Wilmanstrand, and the taking of 
 Aland. He had, afterward, a share in raising 
 Elizabeth to the throne; but, not being 
 rewarded according to his services, he left 
 Petersburg for Prussia, where the king made 
 him governor of Berlin, and field-marshal. 
 He was killed at the battle of Hochkirchen, 
 Oct. 14th, 1758. Such was the esteem he won, 
 even from opponents, that Count Daun and 
 Count Lacy, the Austrian commanders, wept 
 at the sight of his lifeless remains, and ordered 
 their burial with military honors. 
 
 KELLERMANN, Francis Christopher, 
 Duke of Valmy, a general of the French revo- 
 lution, was born at Strasburg, in 1735. His 
 victory at Valmy, over the Austrians and 
 Prussians, Sept. 20th, 1792, was the first of 
 the series of victories the French were des- 
 tined to win. After the fall of Napoleon, 
 Kellermann made his peace with the restored 
 dynasty, and died in 1820. 
 
 KEMBLE, John Philip, was born in Lan- 
 cashire, 1757. He came of a theatrical family : 
 Roger, his father, was a country manager ; 
 Sarah, his sister, was Mrs. Siddons, than 
 
 KEM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 471 
 
 which need more be said of her ? Charles and 
 Stephen, his brothers, were actors well liked. 
 John, in his classic rendering of characters in 
 tragedy, approached the greatness of his sis- 
 ter. He died at Lausanne, Feb. 26th, 1823, 
 of a paralytic attack. 
 
 KENT, James, one of America’s greatest 
 jurists, was a native of Duchess county, N. Y., 
 and born July 31st, 1763. He graduated at 
 
 Yale College in 1781, and, entering upon the 
 study and practice of law, rose step by step, 
 till in 1814 he was appointed chancellor of 
 his native state. Attaining the age of sixty 
 in 1823, a constitutional provision demanded 
 his withdrawal from the chair he had adorned 
 by his industry and decisions. He was after- 
 ward law professor in Columbia College, and 
 died in 1847. 
 
 KENTUCKY has an area of 37,680 square 
 miles; population in 1870, 1,321,011, includ- 
 ing all classes. In the east the country is 
 rugged and hilly ; the acclivities soften as 
 you go westward, till they merge into almost 
 a level plain along the Cumberland, Tennes- 
 see, and Mississippi Rivers. The greater 
 portion of Kentucky is unsurpassed for fer- 
 tility, but the region watered by the Lick- 
 ing, Kentucky, and Salt Rivers, is the garden 
 of the state, exceeding in beauty of scenery 
 and richness of soil, abounding with fine 
 springs and streams, and sustaining the 
 largest proportion of the wealth, population, 
 and improvement. A substratum of lime- 
 stone underlies all Kentucky, and as a conse- 
 quence there are many large caverns, sinks, 
 and subterranean waters. Some of the caves 
 are of wonderful dimensions, as the Mammoth 
 cave, in Edmonson country, whose magnifi- 
 cent avenues have been explored many miles, 
 and still stretch into mysterious gloom for 
 unknown spaces beyond. Streams flow 
 through .its recesses, and in their dark 
 depths eyeless fish are found : what need of 
 
 eyes in waters over which broods the black- 
 ness of an eternal night ! 
 
 The mineral resources of Kentucky have 
 not yet been fully explored. Iron, orej bitu- 
 minous coal, and lime are frequent. Salt is 
 cheaply made from the salt springs of the 
 Kanawha region. These springs were called 
 licks by the early settlers, since they were 
 favorite resorts of the deer and other animals, 
 who were fond of licking the saline efflores- 
 cences so abundant around them. The same 
 name was applied to the sulphureted foun- 
 tains that occur. Kentucky has made some 
 advance in manufactures : bagging, bale-rope, 
 and cordage are extensively made ; the 
 Bourbon whiskey is largely distilled from 
 rye. Agriculture is the most prevalent 
 occupation, and maize, wheat, hemp, and 
 tobacco are the great staples. Cattle, horses, 
 sheep, and swine are bred in great numbers. 
 
 Kentucky was originally a part of Vir- 
 ginia. Permanent settlements were begun 
 within its limits in 1774. The border war- 
 fare with the Indians, in which the lives of 
 the pioneers were often lost, gained it the 
 
 KEN 
 
472 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 dreary name of ‘ the dark and bloody 
 ground.’ These dangers and trials sank 
 gradually under the steady stream of immi- 
 gration, and in 1792 Kentucky took her 
 place in the Union. The present constitution 
 was ratified in 1850. A normal school has 
 been established at Lexington. The state 
 institutions for the relief of the unfortunate 
 consist of lunatic asylums at Lexington and 
 Hopkinsville, a deaf-mute asylum at Danville, 
 and a school for the blind at Louisville. 
 
 Kentucky sought to remain “ neutral ” in 
 the rebellion, but was in fact on the side of 
 the South. Bishop Polk fortified Columbus, 
 Sept. 1861, on which Grant with a Union 
 force instantly seized Paducah, and “ neutral- 
 ity” was at an end. The battle of Mill 
 Spring, Jan. 19, 1862, gave the Unionists the 
 command of eastern Kentucky, and the fall 
 of Forts Henry and Donelson (Feb. 6 and 16, 
 1862,) forced Johnston to evacuate the cen- 
 ter of the state and Polk the west of it at 
 once; and the rebels after that time never 
 did more than make incursions into it, secretly 
 raise men and means among their numerous 
 sympathizers within it, and use their aid in 
 obtaining information. 
 
 Frankfort, the capital, on the right bank 
 of the Kentucky River, surrounded by a pic- 
 turesque amphitheatre of hills, had in 1870, 
 5,396 inhabitants. The beautiful town of 
 Lexington is the oldest of the state. A party 
 of hunters while encamped here first heard 
 of the commencement of the Revolution at 
 Lexington and Concord ; hence the name ; 
 population in 1870, 14,801. The largest 
 tow T n in Kentucky is Louisville, founded in 
 1778, and christened two years after in honor 
 of Louis XVI., the ally of America. Its 
 commerce and manufactures are extensive, 
 and in 1 8 70 it had 1 00, 753 inhabitants. Cov- 
 ington, Newport, and Maysville are other 
 thriving towns. 
 
 KIDD, Robert, was sent out with an 
 armed vessel to put down piracy, but the 
 adage, ‘ set a rogue to catch a rogue,’ did not 
 work well, for he turned pirate himself. He 
 was arrested at Boston, in 1699 sent to Eng- 
 land, and there hung in 1701. The legends 
 of treasures Kidd and his comrades buried 
 and sunk along the New England coast or in 
 the Hudson, have not died out even yet 
 
 KILLICRANKIE, Battle of, fought in 
 Scotland July 17th, 1689, between the forces 
 of William III., and the adherents of James 
 II., commanded by Graham of Claverhouse, 
 who fell in the moment of victory. 
 
 KING, Rufus, a distinguished American 
 diplomatist, orator, and statesman, born at 
 Scarborough, Maine, in 1755, and was gradu- 
 ated at Harvard College, in 1777 ; after 
 which he studied law under Theophilus Par- 
 sons of Newburyport. After having served 
 a short time in the army, he commenced the 
 practice of his profession, and obtained a 
 seat in the congress of 1784. In 1787 he 
 went from Massachusetts to the convention 
 assembled for the purpose of framing a con- 
 stitution, and in 1788 removed to New York 
 city. The next year he was elected a mem- 
 ber of the New York legislature, and chosen 
 senator of the United States. In the spring 
 of 1796, Mr. King was appointed by Washing- 
 ton minister plenipotentiary to the court of 
 St. James, and continued in the discharge 
 of the duties of his office until 1803, when 
 he returned to this country. From 1813 to 
 1825 he was again in the federal senate. He 
 was sent by Mr. Adams minister to England 
 once more, but failing health compelled him 
 to return. He died April 29th, 1827, in the 
 seventy -third year of his age. 
 
 KING’S EVIL, supposed to be cured by 
 the touch of the kings of England. This 
 vulgar credulity had in the time of Charles 
 II. arisen to such a height, that, in fourteen 
 years, 92,107 persons were touched; and, 
 according to Wiseman, the king’s physician, 
 they were nearly all cured ! The first who 
 touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 
 1 058. The practice was dropped by George I. 
 
 KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated 
 French general, born at Strasburg, in 1754 
 In the Austrian army he served against the 
 Turks, and rose to the rank of lieutenant. 
 He next enrolled himself under the banners 
 of the French republic, and although he 
 openly expressed his detestation of the policy 
 of the revolutionary government, he experi- 
 enced the favor of the directory, who were 
 loath to part with so able a soldier. Of the 
 nature of his command in Egypt, and the 
 manner of his death, June 14th, 1800, we 
 have already spoken. [See Egypt.] 
 
 KLE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 473 
 
 KLOPSTOCK, Frederick, an eminent 
 German poet, author of “ The Messiah,” born 
 1724, died 1803, aged seventy-nine. 
 
 KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, born at Lubeck 
 about 1 648, was a famous portrait painter in 
 England in the days of the second Charles 
 and James, and William III. He died in 
 1723. 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD, Orders of. We have 
 elsewhere given an account of the rise and 
 decline of Chivalry, of the manner in which 
 Tournaments were conducted, with sketches 
 of the most famous orders, such as those of 
 the Garter and the Bath, the Templars, and 
 the knights of Malta. It will not be inap- 
 propriate, here, briefly to review the other 
 important orders which gave a lustre to the 
 institution of knighthood. 
 
 As regards those knights who, without any 
 other addition, are thus styled, they are of 
 the greatest antiquity. For according to the 
 custom of the Romans (a gowned nation), 
 who bestowed on each entering upon man’s 
 estate a virile gown, the Germans bestowed 
 upon their young men, when fit to handle 
 arms, armor and weapons. Tacitus speaks 
 of this custom : “ The manner was not for 
 any one to take arms in hand, before the 
 state allowed him as sufficient for martial 
 service. An£ then in the very assembly of 
 counsell either some one of the princes, or 
 the father of the young man, or one of his 
 kins folke, furnish him with a shield and a 
 javelin. This with them standeth instead 
 of a virile gown ; this is the first honor done 
 to youth ; before this they seeme to be but 
 part of a private house, but now within a 
 While members of the commonweale.” Hence 
 the origin of knights, or, as they are termed 
 in the German language, icnechts ; which 
 was the simple form of creating a knight, 
 used also in former times by the Lombards, 
 the Franks, and the English, who are de- 
 scended from the Germans. 
 
 Paulus Diaconus says that among the 
 Lombards, “ It is the custom for the king’s 
 son not to dine with his father, unless he 
 have previously received arms from some 
 foreign king.” It is also recorded in the 
 annals of the French nation, that the kings 
 of the Franks gave arms to their sons and 
 others, and girded them with a sword. King 
 Alfred of England, when he dubbed his 
 
 nephew Athelstane a knight, gave him a 
 scarlet mantle set with precious stones, and 
 a Saxon sword with a golden scabbard. In 
 the course of time, the English, before the 
 arrival of the Normans, received their 
 knightly arms with religious ceremonies. 
 Ingulphus says : “ He that was to be conse- 
 crated unto lawful warfare, should the eve- 
 ning before, with a contrite heart, make 
 confession of his sins unto the bishop, abbot, 
 monk, or priest, and being absolved, give 
 himself to prayer, and lodge all night in the 
 church, and on his going to hear divine ser- 
 vice the next day, to offer his sword upon 
 the altar: and after the gospel, the priest 
 was to put the sword, being previously 
 blessed, upon the knight’s neck, with his 
 benediction, and thus after he had heard 
 mass again, or received the sacrament, he 
 became a lawful knight.” This custom did 
 not become absolute among the Normans. 
 
 Kings were afterward accustomed to send 
 their sons to neighboring courts to receive 
 the honors of knighthood. Thus Henry II. 
 sent to David, King of Scots ; and Malcolm, 
 King of Scots, to Henry II. ; and Edward I. 
 of England to the King of Castile. It„was 
 at this time also that to the sword and girdle, 
 already in use, gilt spurs were added as an 
 extra ornament, whence to this day knights 
 are called in Latin Equites aurate. Moreover, 
 they had the privilege of wearing and using 
 a signet. 
 
 In the succeeding age, knights were cre- 
 ated from their wealth. Concerning the 
 creation of knights, Matthew Florilegus, in 
 the time of Edward I., has written as fol- 
 lows: “The king for to augment and make 
 goodly show of his expedition into Scotland, 
 caused public proclamation to be made 
 throughout England, that whosoever were 
 to be made knights by hereditary succession, 
 and had wherewith to maintain that degree, 
 should present themselves in Westminster, 
 at the feast of Whitsuntide, there to receive 
 every one the ornaments of a knight (saving 
 the equipage or furniture that belongeth to 
 horses) out of the king’s wardrobe. When 
 as therefore there flocked thither to the num- 
 ber of three hundred gallant youths, the 
 sons of earls, barons, and knights, purple 
 liveries, fine silk scarfs, robes most richly 
 embroidered with gold, were plentifully be- 
 
 KNI 
 
474 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 stowed among them, according as vras befit- 
 ting each one : an.d because the king’s palace 
 (large though it were) was ‘ streited ’ of room 
 for so great a multitude assembled, they cut 
 down the apple-trees about the new temple 
 in London, laid the walls along, and there set 
 up pavilions and tents, wherein these noble 
 young gallants might array and set out 
 themselves one by one in their gorgeous and 
 golden garments. All the night long also, 
 these foresaid youths, as many as the place 
 would receive, watched and prayed in the 
 said temple. But the Prince of Wales, by 
 commandment of the king his father, held 
 his wake, together with the principal and 
 goodliest men of this company, within the 
 church of AVestminster. Now such sound 
 was there of trumpets, so loud a noise of 
 minstrelsy, so mighty an applause and cry 
 of those that for joy shouted, that the chant- 
 ing of the convent could not be heard from 
 one side of the quire to the other. 
 
 “ AVell, the morrow after, the king dubbed 
 his son knight, and gave him the girdle of 
 knighthood in his own palace, and there- 
 with bestowed upon him the duchy of Aqui- 
 taine. The prince then, thus created knight, 
 went' directly into Westminster church for to 
 grace with the like glorious dignity his peers 
 and companions. But so great was the press 
 of people thronging from the high altar, that 
 two knights were thronged to death, and 
 very many of them fainted, and were ready 
 to swoon ; yea, although every one of them 
 had three soldiers at least to lead and pro- 
 tect him : the prince himself, by reason of 
 the multitude pressing upon him, having 
 divided the people by means of steeds of ser- 
 vice, no otherwise than upon the high altar 
 girt his foresaid companions with the orders 
 of knighthood.” 
 
 At present, a person on whom the title of 
 knight is conferred, kneels down, when the 
 king, with his drawn sword, slightly taps him 
 on the shoulder, saying to him in French, 
 u So is chevalier au nova tie Dieu ,” that is, 
 “Be thou a knight in the name of God;” 
 afterward his majesty adds, “Avancez, chev- 
 alier ,” “Arise, sir knight.” 
 
 The honor of knighthood was formerly so 
 highly and sacredly prized that if anything 
 was promised on the faith and honor of a 
 knight, it was always performed in the most 
 
 scrupulous and punctilious manner, at what- 
 ever risk it was undertaken. AVhen a knight 
 was disgraced for having offended the laws, 
 and sentenced to suffer death, he was first 
 despoiled of his ensigns of knighthood, by 
 taking off his military girdle, taking away 
 his sword, cutting his spurs off with a hatchet; 
 his gauntlets or gloves were then torn from 
 him, and the escutcheon of his arms reversed. 
 
 The first account (according to Sir AVilliam 
 Segar) that we have of ceremonies in making 
 a knight in England, was in the year 506. 
 A stage was erected in some cathedral, or spa- 
 cious place near it, to which the gentleman 
 was conducted to receive the honor of knight- 
 hood. Being seated on a chair decorated with 
 green silk, it was demanded of him if he were 
 of good constitution, and able to undergo the 
 fatigue required of a soldier; also, whether 
 he was a man of good morals, and what cred- 
 ible witnesses he could produce to affirm the 
 same. 
 
 Then the bishop, or chief prelate of the 
 church, administered the following oath: 
 “Sir, you that desire to receive the honor of 
 knighthood, swear, before God and this holy 
 book, that you will not fight against his maj- 
 esty, that now bestoweth the honor of knight- 
 hood upon you ; you shall also swear to main- 
 tain and defend all ladies, gentlemen, widows, 
 and orphans ; and you shall shtin no adven- 
 ture of your person in any way where you 
 shall happen to be.” 
 
 The oath being taken, two lords led him to 
 the king, who drew his sword, and laid it upon 
 his head, saying, “ God and Saint George [or 
 whatever other saint the king pleased to name] 
 make thee a good knight.” After this, seven 
 ladies dressed in white, came and girt a sword 
 to his side, and four knights put on his spurs. 
 These ceremonies being over, the queen took 
 him by the right hand, and a duchess by the 
 left, and led him to a rich seat, placed on an 
 ascent, where they seated him, the king sit- 
 ting on his right hand, and the queen on his 
 left. Then the lords and ladies sat down upon 
 other seats, three descents under the king ; 
 and being all thus seated, they were enter- 
 tained with a delicate collation ; and so the 
 ceremony ended. 
 
 If any knight absented himself dishonorably 
 from his king’s service, leaving his colors, go- 
 ing over to the enemy, betraying castles, forts, 
 
 KNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 475 
 
 &c., for such crimes he was apprehended, and 
 caused to be armed, and then seated on a 
 scaffold erected in the church; where, after 
 the king had sung some funeral psalms, as 
 though he had been dead, they first took off 
 the knight’s helmet to show his face, then his 
 military girdle, broke his sword, cut off his 
 spurs from his heels with a hatchet, pulled off 
 his gauntlets, and afterward his whole armor, 
 and then reversed his coat of arms. After 
 this the heralds cried out, “ This is a disloyal 
 miscreant,” and, with many other ignoble 
 ceremonies, he was thrown down the stage 
 with a rope. 
 
 The Knights of the Thistle is a Scotch or- 
 der. As to the origin of this ancient order, 
 John Lesly, Bishop of Ross, in his “History 
 of Scotland,” says it took its beginning from 
 a bright cross in heaven, like that -whereon 
 St. Andrew the apostle suffered martyrdom, 
 which appeared to Achaius, King of Scots, 
 and Hungus, King of the Piets, the night be- 
 fore the battle was fought betwixt them and 
 Athelstane, King of England, as they were on 
 their knees at prayer; when St. Andrew? 
 their tutelary saint, is said also to have ap- 
 peared, and promised to these kings that they 
 should always be victorious when that sign 
 appeared. These kings prevailing over Ath- 
 elstane in battle the next day, they went in 
 solemn procession, barefooted, to the kirk of 
 St. Andrew, to return thanks to God and his 
 apostle for their victory, vowing that they 
 and their posterity would ever wear the figure 
 of that cross in their ensigns and banners. 
 The place where this battle was fought retains 
 to this day the name of Athelstane’s Ford, in 
 Northumberland. James Y. of Scotland, in 
 1534, received the order of the Golden Fleece 
 from the Emperor Charles V. ; as also that of 
 St. Michael from Francis I. of France, in 1535, 
 and that of the Garter in 1536, from Henry 
 VIII. of England; and in memory of the re- 
 ception of these orders, keeping open court, 
 he solemnized the several feasts of St. Andrew, 
 the Golden Fleece, St. Michael, and St. George 
 of England, that the several princes might 
 know how much he honored their orders. 
 He set the arms of the princes (encircled with 
 their orders) over the gates of his palace at 
 Linlithgow, with the order of St. Andrew. 
 About the time of the reformation this order 
 was scarcely used, the knights then being so 
 
 zealous for the reformed religion, that they 
 left their order ; and it was not resumed till 
 the reign of James VII. (II. of England), who 
 created eight knights, and for their better 
 regulation, signed a body of statutes, and ap- 
 pointed the royal chapel at Holyrood to be 
 the chapel of the order, as it still continues. 
 Queen Anne restored this order to its ancient 
 magnificence. 
 
 The order of Knights of St. Patrick was 
 instituted by George III., Feb. 5th, 1783, con- 
 sisting of the sovereign, a grand master, a 
 prince of the blood royal, thirteen knights, 
 and seven officers. The first investiture of 
 knights of this order was performed the 11th 
 of March, 1783, with much ceremony. Motto, 
 Quis separabit ? “ Who shall part us ? ” 
 
 The order of Knights of St. Michael and St. 
 George was instituted April 27th, 1818, for 
 the united states of the Ionian Islands, and 
 for the ancient sovereignty of Malta and its 
 dependencies, consisting of eight knights- 
 grand-crosses, twelve knights-commanders, 
 and twenty-four knights, exclusive of British 
 subjects holding high and confidential employ 
 in the Ionian Islands, and in the government 
 of Malta and its dependencies. Motto, Aua- 
 picium melioris cevi. Ribbon, red with blue 
 edges. 
 
 The order of knights bachelors is ihe most 
 ancient, though the lowest, in England. It 
 was accounted the first of all military dignity, 
 and the foundation of all honors. The word 
 bachelor was added by Henry III., and the 
 order so styled, because this title of honor 
 dies with the person to whom it is given, and 
 descends not to his posterity. 
 
 We must not omit some account of the 
 Knights of the Round Table. Arthur, King 
 of the Britons, succeeded his father, Uthur 
 Pendragon, who was brother to Aurelius Am- 
 brosius, the third son of Constantine. Uthur 
 married Igren, Duchess of Cornwall, by whom 
 he had this son Arthur (born at Tindagal in 
 Cornwall), who was the eleventh king of Eng- 
 land from the departure of the Romans, and 
 was crowned about the year 506. King Ar- 
 | thur, having expelled the Saxons from Eng- 
 I land, conquered Norway, Scotland, and the 
 greatest part of France, where he was crowned 
 at Paris ; and, returning home, lived with such 
 splendor, that many princes and knights came 
 from all parts to his court, to give proof of 
 
 KNI 
 
476 
 
 C 0 T T A (2 E CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 their valor in the exercise of arms. Upon 
 this he erected a fraternity of knights, which 
 consisted of four and twenty, of whom he was 
 chief; and to avoid controversies about pre- 
 cedency, he caused a round table to be made, 
 from which they were denominated Knights 
 of the Round Table. The said table, accord- 
 ing to tradition, hangs up in the castle of 
 Winchester, where they used to meet; the 
 time of their meeting was at Whitsuntide. 
 
 None were admitted but those who gave 
 sufficient proofs of their valor and dexterity 
 in arms. They were to be always well armed 
 for horse or foot ; “ they were to protect and 
 defend widows, maidens, and children, relieve 
 the distressed, maintain the Christian faith, 
 contribute to the church ; to protect pilgrims, 
 advance honor, and suppress vice; to bury 
 soldiers that wanted sepulchres; to ransom 
 captives, deliver prisoners, and administer to 
 the cure of wounded soldiers, hurt in the ser- 
 vice of their country ; to record all noble en- 
 terprises, that the fame thereof may ever live 
 to their honor and the renown of the noble 
 order.” Upon any complaint made to the 
 king, of injury or oppression, one of these 
 knights, whom the king should appoint, was 
 to revenge the same. If any foreign knight 
 came to court, with desire to show his prow- 
 ess, some one of these knights was to be ready 
 in arms to answer him. If any lady, gentle- 
 woman, or other oppressed and injured person 
 did present a petition, declaring the same, 
 whether the injury was done here, or beyond 
 sea, he or she should be graciously heard, 
 and, without delay, one or more knights 
 should be sent to take revenge. Every knight, 
 for the advancement of chivalry, should be 
 ready to inform and instruct young lords and 
 gentlemen in the exercises of arms. According 
 to Guillim, there was no robe or habit pre- 
 scribed unto these knights, nor could he find 
 with what ceremony they were made, neither 
 what offices belonged to the said order, except 
 a register to record their noble enterprises. 
 
 In June, 1757, the Empress-Queen of Ger- 
 many instituted the Military Order of Maria 
 Theresa, which was at first composed of an 
 unlimited number of knights, divided into 
 two classes ; the first of which wear the badge 
 of the order pendent to a broad striped wa- 
 tered ribbon, of which two-fifths are black 
 and three-fifths yellow, sashway s over the 
 
 right shoulder, and a cross or star embroid- 
 ered in silver on the left breast of their outer 
 garment. The second class wear the badge 
 pendent to a narrow striped ribbon at the 
 button-hole. This order continued from its 
 first institution until the year 1765, when the 
 emperor added an intermediate class, styled 
 knights-commanders, who wear the ribbon 
 sashways, but without any star on the outer 
 garment. The badge of the order is a cross 
 of gold, enameled white, edged with gold ; on 
 the centre are the arms of Austria encircled 
 with the word fortitudine, and on the reverse 
 is a cipher of the letters M. T. F. {Maria The- 
 resa Fundator) in gold, on an enameled 
 ground. This order is conferred on military 
 men only. 
 
 The Ladies’ Order in Honor of the Cross is 
 another German order. A conflagration which 
 happened at the emperor’s palace in the year 
 1668, was the occasion of the foundation of 
 this order. The badge of the order is a golden 
 medal chased and pierced ; in the centre the 
 imperial eagle, over all a cross surmounted 
 with the letters I. H. S., and a small cross over 
 the H., with this motto, Salus et Gloria , 
 “ Safety and Glory.” 
 
 Eleonora di Gonzaga, widow of the Emperor 
 Ferdinand III., instituted the order of Ladies 
 Slaves to Virtue in 1662, and declared herself 
 sovereign# of it. The number that compose it 
 is limited to thirty, all to be of the Romish 
 religion, and of the best nobility. The badge 
 worn by the ladies of this order is a golden 
 sun, encircled with a chaplet of laurel, enam- 
 eled green, with this motto over it, Sola uni- 
 que triumphat. It is worn pendent at the 
 breast to a small chain of gold, or a plain 
 narrow black ribbon. 
 
 The order of the Bear was instituted at the 
 abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland, by the Em- 
 peror Frederick II., in the year 1213. St. 
 Ursus, being the patron of it, communicated 
 the name to the same ; it flourished from its 
 institution until the revolution by which the 
 house of Austria lost the Swiss cantons, when 
 it was abolished. The collar was a gold chain 
 interlaced with oak leaves, from which hung 
 the figure of a black bear on a medallion. 
 
 The order of the Elephant is a Danish order 
 of great celebrity. It was instituted by 
 Christian I., on the marriage of his son John 
 with Christina of Saxony, in the year 1478, 
 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 477 
 
 since which time it has subsisted without in- 
 terruption or degradation. It is now conferred 
 only on princes of the blood, foreign princes, 
 or noblemen of the first rank. The knights 
 of it are addressed by the title of excellency. 
 On ordinary occasions they wear the badge of 
 the order pendent to a sky-blue watered rib- 
 bon, worn sashways over the right shoulder, 
 and a star of eight points embroidered in sil- 
 ver on the left side of their outer garments. 
 But on days of ceremony they wear it pendent 
 to a collar of gold composed of elephants and 
 towers. The badge is an elephant, on his 
 back a castle enameled, and on the side of the 
 elephant a cross of Danebrog in diamonds. 
 
 The order of the Holy Ghost was the most 
 illustrious order of knighthood in France. It 
 was instituted by Henry III., in the year 1579, 
 on Whitsunday, the festival on which he was 
 born in the year 1551, elected King of Poland 
 in 1573, and called to the throne of France in 
 the year 1574. The number of persons that 
 Gomposed it was limited by the statutes to one 
 hundred, exclusive of the sovereign or grand- 
 master. Of these, four cardinals, five prelates, 
 the chancellor, the master of the ceremonies, 
 the treasurer, the register, and the provost, 
 were styled commanders, without being con- 
 sidered as knights, though they usually wore 
 the badges of the order. All were to profess 
 the R.oman Catholic religion ; and the knights 
 were to prove the nobility of their descent for 
 a hundred years and upward ; but no proofs 
 of this kind were required of the commanders, 
 whbse offices or honors were commonly sold 
 at a regulated price. The King of France 
 was sovereign or grand-master of it ; and by 
 the statutes this office was inalienably annexed 
 to the crown, but he could not exercise its 
 functions until after his coronation, when he 
 was installed, with much ceremony, as sover- 
 eign of the order. To be a knight of it, it was 
 necessary, for all except princes of the blood, 
 to have attained the age of thirty-three, and 
 to have been admitted into the order of St. 
 Michael, into which even the princes must 
 enter at sixteen years old. The dauphin only 
 was excepted from this rule, he being received 
 into both orders on the day of his birth. The 
 commanders were not knights of the order of 
 St. Michael, and here arises the difference be- 
 tween their styles and titles and those by 
 which the knights were distinguished; the 
 
 knights being called Chevaliers, des Ordres 
 du Roy ; and the commanders, if ecclesiastics, 
 Commandeur de V Ordre du St. Esprit; if 
 laymen, Commandeur des Ordres du Roy. 
 
 The Royal and Military Order of St. Louis 
 was instituted by Louis XIY. in the year 
 1693, and by the statutes of it the office of 
 the sovereign or grand-master was annexed 
 to the crown. It was conferred on naval and 
 military officers, who had distinguished them- 
 selves in the service at any age or at any 
 time ; but, unless they had done so, they did 
 not obtain it until they had served five and 
 twenty years as commissioned officers : after 
 that period, they expected it as a matter of 
 right, more than of favor ; hence it happened 
 that the number of knights was great and 
 unlimited. In this order were three classes ; 
 the first of forty knights, who were styled 
 Chevaliers Grand Croix. They wore a flame- 
 colored watered ribbon sashways, to which 
 was pendent a cross of eight points, enameled 
 white, edged with gold ; in the angles four 
 fleurs de lis, and on the middle a circle, 
 within which on one side was the image of 
 St.. Louis in armor, with the royal mantle 
 over it, holding in his left hand a crown of 
 thorns, and in his right hand a crown of 
 laurel, and the three passion nails, all proper, 
 with this inscription, Ludovicus Magnus in - 
 stitui anno 1693 ; on the reverse a sword 
 erect, the point through a chaplet of laurel, 
 bound with a white ribbon, enameled with 
 this motto, Bellicce virtutis prcemium : be- 
 sides which they wore, embroidered on the 
 left side of their outer garment, a gold star 
 of eight points with fleurs de lis at the angles 
 and the figures of St. Louis, with the motto 
 on the centre. The second class were eighty 
 in number, and were styled Chevaliers com- 
 mandeurs , &c. These wore the ribbon and 
 
 badge in the same manner as the knights of 
 the former class, but had no star embroidered 
 on their outer garment. The third class was 
 not limited to any number, and the knights 
 of it were styled simply Chevaliers de V Ordre 
 Roy ale et Militaire de St. Louis. These wore 
 the badge of the order pendent to a flame- 
 colored watered ribbon, at the button-hole 
 of their outer garment. The knights of the 
 first class had pensions of from four to six 
 thousand livres a year, and when a vacancy 
 happened among them, it was filled by the 
 
 KNI 
 
478 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 next seniority of the second class. The 
 knights of the second class had pensions of 
 from three to four thousand livres a year, and 
 the vacancies that happened among them 
 were filled up by the king, from among the 
 most favored and deserving of the third class. 
 The knights of the third class had no pen- 
 sions of right, but it frequently happened 
 that the poorest and the most distinguished 
 of them obtained small pecuniary favors, 
 which they termed gratification. It was not 
 necessary to be of a noble family to be ad- 
 mitted into this order ; nor did it ennoble the 
 family of the person who obtained it, though 
 it gave him the privileges of the noblesse , and 
 if there were three knights of it, in regular 
 succession, in a plebeian family, it ennobled 
 all the branches of it. All knights of this 
 order must be Roman Catholics. 
 
 The knights of the order of Bourbon were 
 sometimes called knights of the Thistle, and 
 knights of Our Lady. They were in number 
 twenty-six, were instituted by Louis the 
 Good, Duke of Bourbon, in honor of the Virgin 
 Mary, in the year 1370, and became extinct 
 soon after. Their motto was Allons , and on 
 their collar was the word Esperance. 
 
 The order of the Death’s Head was first 
 instituted by the Duke of W urtemburg, in the 
 year 1652, and both sexes were equally ad- 
 mitted to it; but, having soon fallen into 
 disuse, it was revived again in the year 1709, 
 by Louise Elizabeth, widow of Philip, Duke 
 of Saxe Mersburg, and daughter of the orig- 
 inal founder. The badge of this order is a 
 death’s-head, enameled white, surmounted 
 with a cross pattee black ; above the cross 
 pattee another cross composed of five large 
 jewels, by which it hangs to a black ribbon 
 edged with white, and on the ribbon these 
 words, Memento Mori, worn at the breast. 
 But on the death of any of the order, the 
 survivors wear the badge pendent to a black 
 ribbon over a white one, on which is the 
 name of the deceased. 
 
 Some of the orders of knighthood in Pales- 
 tine and other parts of Asia were very cele- 
 brated. The order of the Holy Sepulchre in 
 Jerusalem, according to Favin, was instituted 
 by Baldwin L, King of Jerusalem, who made 
 the regular canons (which then resided in a 
 convent adjoining to the holy sepulchre) 
 knights of the said order ; they were to guard 
 
 | the holy sepulchre, to relieve and protect 
 ! pilgrims. The patriarch of Jerusalem was 
 ! appointed their grand-master, with power 
 for conferring the order, and receiving the 
 vow made by the knights, which was of 
 chastity, poverty, and obedience. Their 
 habit was white, and on their breast a gold 
 cross potence, cantoned with four crosses of 
 the same without enamel, pendent to a 
 black ribbon. - They wore the cross of ) r ellow 
 embroidery on the left side of their robe. 
 When the city of Jerusalem was taken by the 
 Saracens, the knights retired to Italy, and 
 settled at Pemgia, and were afterward united 
 to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. [ See 
 Malta, Knights of.] 
 
 The Polish order of the White Eagle was 
 first instituted in the year 1325, by Uladis- 
 laus V. ; but, having soon fallen into disuse, it 
 lay in oblivion till the year 1705, w r hen Au- 
 gustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Po- 
 -land, revived it as an instrument to attach 
 to his own interest and person several of the 
 Polish nobility, "who, he feared, were inclined 
 to Stanislaus, his competitor. Motto, Pro 
 fide, rege , lege. 
 
 Alphonso Henriquez, King of Portugal, 
 instituted the order of the Wing of St. Mi- 
 chael in the year 1165, in commemoration of 
 a victory obtained by him over the Moors, 
 whom he imagined he overcame by the 
 direct interposition of St. Michael, who, ac- 
 cording to the legend, appeared fighting in 
 the king’s right wing. 
 
 The order of St. George in Rome was insti- 
 tuted, according to some, by Pope Alexander 
 VI., in the j^ear 1496, or, according to Mi- 
 chaeli, by Pope Paul III., to encourage naval 
 men to defend the coast of the Adriatic against 
 pirates. The badge of it was a cross of gold 
 within a circle of the same, like an open 
 crown. 
 
 The order of St. Peter and St. Paul was 
 instituted by Leo X. in the year 1520, to 
 defend the sea-coasts of his territories against 
 the Turks who threatened them. 
 
 The order of the Black Eagle was instituted 
 by Frederick I. of Prussia, at his coronation 
 in the year 1701. By the statutes of it, the 
 number of knights, exclusive of the prin- 
 ces of the blood, is limited to thirty^, who 
 must all be admitted into the order of 
 Generosity previous to their receiving this, 
 
 KNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 479 
 
 unless they be sovereign princes ; the knights 
 to prove their nobility by sixteen descents. 
 The kings of Prussia are perpetual grand- 
 masters of it. There belong to it a chan- 
 cellor, who is also a knight, a master of the 
 ceremonies, and a treasurer. The ensign of 
 the order is a gold cross of eight points enam- 
 eled blue, having at each angle a spread 
 eagle enameled black, and charged with a 
 cipher of the letters F. R. This each knight 
 wears commonly pendent to a broad orange 
 ribbon, worn sashways over the left shoulder, 
 and a silver star embroidered on the left side of 
 their outer garment, whereon is an escutcheon 
 containing a spread eagle, holding in one 
 claw a chaplet of laurel, and in the other a 
 thunderbolt, with this motto in gold letters 
 round it, Suum cuique. The king chose the 
 Black Eagle, being the arms of Prussia, and 
 the color of the ribbon, on account of his 
 mother, a Princess of Orange. 
 
 First among the Russian orders is that of 
 St. Andrew. Peter the Great instituted this 
 order in the year 1698, and chose for its 
 patron St. Andrew (on account of this apos- 
 tle’s having been, according to tradition, the 
 founder of Christianity among the Musco- 
 vites)! His motive for instituting this order 
 was to animate his nobles and chief officers 
 in their wars against the Turks ; and he con- 
 ferred it on those who had signalized them- 
 selves in his service. 
 
 The order of the Sword in Cyprus was 
 instituted by Guy de Lusignan, about the 
 end of the twelfth century, soon after he had 
 acquired the kingdom of Cyprus by purchase 
 from Richard Coeur de Lion. This order was 
 on its institution conferred on three hundred 
 barons, who were then created : it continued 
 to flourish until it became extinct on the 
 Turks conquering the island of Cyprus. Mot- 
 to, Securitas regni. 
 
 The most celebrated Spanish order was the 
 Order of the Golden Fleece. This order was 
 instituted at Bruges, in Flanders, the 10th of 
 January, 1429 (the day of his marriage with 
 his third wife, Isabella of Portugal), by Philip, 
 Duke of Burgundy. The occasion of its 
 institution is a subject of controversy among 
 antiquaries: but it appears most probable, 
 that, having determined to institute an order 
 of knighthood, he chose for the badge of it 
 the material of the staple*manufactories of his 
 
 country, which was the fleece ; and this em- 
 blem might have been the more agreeable to 
 him from the figure it made in the heroic ages 
 of the world, when the Argonautic expedi- 
 tion was undertaken for it. The order con- 
 sisted of thirty-one knights, including the 
 sovereign, who were of the first families in 
 the Low Countries. The knights wore a 
 scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar 
 opened, and the duke’s cipher, in the form of 
 a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints 
 striking fire, with the motto “ Ante ferity 
 quam flamma micat .” At the end of the 
 collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, 
 “ Pretium non vile Idborum .” When the 
 Netherlands fell to Spain, the king of that 
 country was grand-master, and the order be- 
 came common to all the princes of the house 
 of Austria, as being descended from Mary 
 of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
 last duke of that country. 
 
 The order of St. Mark was conferred by the 
 Doge of Venice, and by the senate, upon 
 persons of eminent quality, or such as had 
 deserved well of the state. In the year 828, 
 the body of St, Mark was removed from Alex- 
 andria in Egypt (where it was buried) to the 
 city of Venice. This saint was taken for their 
 tutelar saint and guardian. His picture was 
 anciently painted upon their ensigns and 
 banners. Motto, Pax tibi , Marce Evangelista 
 Meus. 
 
 The title of knight was sometimes given to 
 women also. As an instance (the first we 
 read of), it was conferred on the women who 
 preserved the city of Tortosa from falling 
 into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their 
 stout resistance to the attacks of the besieged, 
 by which means the Moors were forced to 
 raise the siege. Large immunities and favors 
 were bestowed upon them and their descend- 
 ants for their heroism on this occasion. 
 
 KNOX, John, the celebrated Scotch re- 
 former, was born in 1505, at Gifford, in the 
 county of East Lothian. Though bred a 
 friar, he early embraced the doctrines of the 
 Reformation. He became tutor to some 
 young gentlemen whom he carefully brought 
 up in Protestant principles. Notwithstand- 
 ing his life was sought by Cardinal Beaton, 
 and his successor, Archbishop Hamilton, 
 Knox went on propagating the new doctrines ; 
 and, in 1547, preached publicly at St, An- 
 
 KNO 
 
480 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 drews ; but that place being taken the same 
 year by the French, he was carried off with 
 the garrison. In 1549 he recovered his lib- 
 erty, and landed in England, where he was 
 appointed chaplain to Edward VI. On the 
 accession of Mary, he went to Geneva and 
 thence to Frankfort, where he took part with 
 the English exiles who opposed the use of the 
 liturgy ; but their adversaries prevailing, 
 Knox returned to Geneva, and soon after went 
 to Scotland. While engaged in the ministry, 
 he received an invitation to return to Geneva, 
 with which he complied ; and, in his absence, 
 the bishops passed sentence of death on him 
 for heresy. In 1558 he printed “The First 
 Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous 
 Regiment of Women,” intended as an attack 
 upon Mary of England and his own sovereign ; 
 but it had afterward the effect of provoking 
 Queen Elizabeth and her ministers against 
 the author. The year following he returned 
 to his own country, where he rendered the 
 Reformation triumphant. In 1567 he preach- 
 ed the sermon at the coronation of James 
 VI. He died at Leith, Nov. 24th, 15*72. 
 
 KNOX, Henry, was born at Boston, July 
 25th, 1750. He was a bookseller before the 
 Revolution, but volunteered and served at 
 Bunker Hill. Throughout the war he had 
 command of the artillery department, and 
 distinguished himself by his bravery, par- 
 ticularly at York town, after which he was 
 created major-general by Congress. As sec- 
 retary of war, he served eleven years. His 
 death took place Oct. 25th, 1806, a:t Thomas- 
 ton, Maine. 
 
 KORAN. The Koran, or Alcoran (A1 Ko- 
 ran), of Mahomet was written about a.d. 
 610. Its general aim was to unite the pro- 
 fessors of idolatry and the Jews and Chris- 
 tians in the worship of one God (whose unity 
 was the chief point inculcated), under certain 
 laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to 
 Mahomet as the prophet. It was written in 
 the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which 
 possesses every fine quality, was said to be 
 that of paradise. Mahomet asserted that 
 the Koran was revealed to him during a 
 period of twenty -three years, by the angel 
 Gabriel. The style of this volume is beau- 
 tiful, fluent, and concise, and where the 
 majesty and attributes of God are described, 
 iff is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet 
 
 admitted the divine mission both of Moses 
 and Jesus Christ. The leading article of faith 
 which he preached, is compounded of an 
 eternal truth and a necessary fiction, namely, 
 that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
 is the apostle of God. The Koran was trans- 
 lated into Latin in 1148, and into English 
 and other European languages about 1763, 
 et seq. It is a rhapsody of three thousand 
 verses,' divided into one hundred and four- 
 teen sections. 
 
 KORNER, Theodore, a celebrated Ger- 
 man poet, born in 1791. Feeble and sickly 
 during his early youth, he roamed the garden 
 and forest in pursuit of health, and was not 
 prematurely doomed to study. His earliest 
 instructions were received at Freyburg, but 
 he afterward went to Leipzig, which imprudent 
 conduct compelled him to quit. The month 
 of August, 1811, the date of Korner’ s arrival 
 at Vienna, commenced the most important era 
 of his life. Shielded by the purity of his prin- 
 ciples and the strength of his religious con- 
 victions, he was uninfluenced by the fascinat- 
 ing allurements of that gayest and most light- 
 hearted of cities ; nor did he for a moment for- 
 get that the improvement of his literary taste, 
 and the development of his moral character, 
 was a primary object in his visit to Vienna. 
 The brilliant talents which then encircled the 
 Viennese theatres w T ith a halo of brightness, 
 fired the imagination of Korner, and he re- 
 solved to appear publicly as a candidate for the 
 dramatic laurel. Sixteen pieces, of different 
 kinds, composed or finished in the space of 
 fifteen months, and the greater part performed 
 with a success which far exceeded the expect- 
 ations of the youthful poet, were, together with 
 a few fugitive poems, the first fruits of his resi- 
 dence in a world which was completely litera- 
 ry, as w^ell as the earliest proofs of his talent for 
 easy versification. On the first representa- 
 tion of one of his tragedies, the audience 
 demanded the appearance of the author, an 
 honor to poetic talent rarely accorded in 
 Vienna. Cherished and admired by the 
 public, he was soon made the dramatic poet 
 of the court. This appointment secured his 
 worldly fortune, and, as if to fill his happiness 
 to the brim, he was inspired by an ardent 
 passion for a worthy object, and no dark 
 shadow fell upon the tide of his affections. 
 
 Such was the er^riable situation of Korner, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 481 
 
 when, at the commencement of the y ear 1813, 
 Prussia called upon ker sons to win back for 
 her the priceless guerdon of her national in- 
 dependence. This appeal found an echo in 
 the bosom of the poet. From this moment, 
 all his thoughts, all his affections, turned on 
 the liberation of his country, to whose service 
 he devoted his person and his pen, and to 
 whom he was ready to sacrifice his life, his 
 fortune, and his prospect of glory and love. 
 As soon as he had resolved to fight for the 
 emancipation of Germany, warmed with that 
 enthusiasm which has ever been repaid wfith 
 victory, he wrote thus to his father: “The 
 Prussian eagle, extending his pinions, awakes 
 in every bosom a hope of national liberty. 
 At this moment, when the stars of fate are 
 pouring dowm on me a flood of brightness, 
 when all the fascinating joys of life are within 
 my reach, — at this moment, I swear to God 
 that it is a noble sentiment which animates 
 me ; a firm belief that no sacrifice is too great 
 for the greatest of blessings, the liberty of our 
 beloved country. I feel compelled to rush 
 into the fury of the tempest. Shall I, far 
 from the path of my victorious brethren, 
 send them hymns and songs inspired by a 
 safe and cowardly enthusiasm ? ” 
 
 lie set out from Vienna on the 15th of 
 March, and at Breslau was admitted into the 
 corps of volunteers commanded by Lutzow, 
 whose care had formed the band that bore his 
 name. Youth distinguished by the high tone 
 of their sentiments, and the finish of their 
 education ; officers already known by honor- 
 able services; men of high rank and reputa- 
 tion, filled with a patriotic and religious en- 
 thusiasm, — had assembled in crowds beneath 
 the banners of Lutzow, burning to avenge 
 the humiliation of Prussia. A few days after 
 the admission of Korner, the affecting and 
 inspiring ceremony of the consecration of 
 Lutzow’s corps took place in the village 
 church. 
 
 Ardent, brave, and devoted to his military 
 duties, Korner avoided no fatigues and perils, 
 but, on the contrary, was only wearied with 
 inaction. He rose, by degrees, to the post 
 of adjutant to Lutzow, and owed this ad- 
 vancement only to the intrepidity and intelli- 
 gence which he displayed on every occasion. 
 
 Still, poetry and song occupied his leisure 
 moments; but instead of being his recrea- 
 tions, they had become his arms : his lyre 
 was no less formidable than his sword. The 
 events of the day, his personal emotions, and 
 the patriotism of his country are displayed 
 in his verses. 
 
 On the 26th of August, the corps of Lutzow 
 confronted the French at Kitzen. During an 
 hour’s halt in a forest, Korner composed his 
 famous “Sword Song.” At break of day he 
 wrote it in his portfolio, and was reading it 
 to a friend, when the signal for attack was 
 given. The enemy, although superior in 
 point of numbers, made but a brief resistance. 
 Korner showed himself fiercely eager in the 
 pursuit. Of a shower of balls which the 
 French artillerists poured upon the Prussians, 
 but three took effect, and one of these carried 
 to the bosom of the poet, at the age of twenty- 
 two, that glorious death which he had so 
 poetically prophesied and so religiously de- 
 sired. His mortal remains were interred by 
 the wayside, at the foot of an oak, the tree 
 whose leaves were employed by the ancient 
 Romans to form their civic crowns. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, 
 was born of a respectable family of Lithuania, 
 in 1756, and was educated at the military 
 school of Warsaw, after which he went to 
 France, and next to America, where he served 
 as aid-de-camp to Washington. On his re- 
 turn home he was made major-general, and 
 distinguished himself in the war of 1792 
 against the forces of the royal thieves who 
 had divided Poland among themselves. Two 
 years afterward the Poles again took up arms, 
 and were headed by Kosciusko ; but all his 
 exertions were fruitless, and he was made 
 prisoner by the Russians. Catharine threw 
 him into a dungeon ; Paul released him, and 
 tendered him his own sword, which the illus- 
 trious patriot declined: “I no longer need a 
 sword, for I have no longer a country.” 
 Kosciusko visited America a second time, 
 but, in 1798, returned to France, where he 
 settled. Bonaparte vainly endeavored to pro- 
 cure his services. His death was occasioned 
 by a fall with his horse down a precipice, in 
 the vicinity of Vevay, Switzerland, Oct. 16th, 
 
 1817. 
 KOS 
 
 31 
 
482 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 L. 
 
 LABOR. Some account of the wages 
 which labor received in England in the olden 
 time may not be uninteresting. The wages 
 of sundry workmen were first fixed by act of 
 parliament, 25th Edward III., 1352. Hay- 
 makers had but one penny a day ; a mower 
 of meadows 5 d. per day, or 6d. an acre. 
 Reapers of corn, in the first week of August, 
 2d, in the second 3d, per day, and so till the 
 end of August, without meat, drink, or other 
 allowance, finding their own tools. A master 
 carpenter 3d a day, other carpenters 2d per 
 day ; a master mason 4 d. per day, other ma- 
 sons 3d per day; and their servants 1 id per 
 day. By the 34th Edward III., 1361, chief 
 masters of carpenters and masons, 4d a day, 
 and the others 3d or 2d as they are worth ; 
 13th Richard IT., 1389, the wages of a bailiff 
 of husbandry 13s. 4d per year, and his cloth- 
 ing bnce a year at most ; the carter 10s. ; 
 shepherd 10s. ; oxherd 6s. 8d ; cowherd 6s. 
 8d ; swineherd 6s. ; a woman laborer 6s. ; 
 driver of plough 7s. From this up to the 
 time of 23d Henry VI., the price of labor was 
 fixed by the justices by proclamation. In 
 time of harvest, a mower 4d a day ; without 
 meat and drink 6d ; reaper or carter 3d a 
 day ; without meat and drink 5 d ; woman 
 laborer, and other laborers, 2d a day ; with- 
 out meat and drink 4 id per day. By the 
 11th Henry VII., 1496, there was a like rate 
 of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for 
 instance, a free mason, master carpenter, 
 rough mason, bricklayer, master tiler, plumb- 
 er, glazier, carver, joiner, was allowed from 
 Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d a day, with- 
 out meat and drink, or with meat and drink 
 4d ; from Michaelmas to Easter to abate Id 
 A master having under him six men was 
 allowed Ida day extra. By the 6 th Henry 
 VIII., 1515, the wages of shipwrights were 
 fixed as follows: a master ship-carpenter, 
 taking charge of the work, having men under 
 him, 5 d a day in the summer season, with 
 meat and drink ; other ship-carpenter, called 
 a hewer, 4d ; an able clincher, 3d ; holder, 
 2d ; master caulker, 4d ; a mean caulker, 
 311 . ; a day laborer, by the tide, 4d 
 
 LA FAYETTE, Gilbert Mottier, Marquis 
 de, was born at Chavagnac, near Brionde, in 
 Auvergne, Sept. 6th, 1757. He was educated 
 at Paris, appointed an officer in the guards 
 of honor, and, at the age of sixteen, married 
 the daughter of the Duke de Noailles. In 
 1777 he left France secretly, lest his gener- 
 ous scheme should be thwarted, and hastened 
 to America, arriving at Charleston, S. C., to 
 wield his sword in behalf of liberty. He 
 received a command in the continental army, 
 and raised and equipped a body of men at his 
 own expense. The gallant actions which he 
 performed will forever live in the annals of 
 our country. In 1779 he returned to France, 
 for the purpose of assisting the cause of 
 America, and materially influenced the treaty 
 which was then concluded with France. He 
 returned and assumed the command of a body 
 of 2,000 men, whose equipments were fur- 
 nished partly at his own expense. After 
 displaying chivalric gallantry, as at York- 
 town, the young marquis once more set sail 
 for his native country. In 1784 he complied 
 with the various urgent entreaties to visit 
 this country, and was everywhere received 
 with the most touching marks of gratitude 
 and esteem. During the French revolution 
 he appeared the warm and consistent friend 
 of liberty, but the enemy of licentiousness, 
 and, as commander-in-chief of the national 
 guard of Paris, saved the lives of the ro} r al 
 family at Versailles. He organized the club 
 of Feuillans, in opposition to the infamous 
 Jacobin club, the members of which he open- 
 ly denounced. He was appointed, in 1792, 
 one of the major-generals of the French 
 armies, and vainly endeavored to save the 
 king. His exertions in the cause of human- 
 ity procured his denunciation before the bar 
 of the assembly ; a price was set upon his 
 head, and he was compelled to fly from 
 France. But he was taken by the Austrians, 
 and confined in the castle of Olmutz, until 
 Aug. 27th, 1797, when he was released. La 
 Fayette opposed the usurpations of Napoleon, 
 whose conciliatory offers he refused without 
 a single exception. In 1824, he was once 
 
 LAF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 483 
 
 more the guest of the American nation. He 
 landed at New York in August, and passed 
 triumphantly through each of the states, 
 being received everywhere with every demon- 
 stration of delight. The war-worn veterans 
 of the Revolution hailed his return to the 
 scenes of his earliest exploits, and there was 
 not one dissentient voice in the acclamations 
 which welcomed him. Sept. 7th, 1825, the 
 frigate Brandywine restored him to his coun- 
 try. In the December following, Congress 
 granted him $200,000, and a township of 
 land. During the French revolution of 1830, 
 La Fayette was appointed general-in-chief of 
 the national guards, an office which he re- 
 signed in December. The death of this great 
 man was duly noticed both in France and 
 this country. A political opponent, once out 
 of the arena, was to La Fayette no longer 
 anything but a friend ; the circle of those 
 admitted to share his private hospitality was 
 so ample that it comprised the partisans of 
 nearly every doctrine, and almost the natives 
 of every clime; but no feeling was ever 
 wounded, nor even a prejudice assailed, with- 
 in its sacred limits. It was, doubtless, to 
 this admirable feature in his private charac- 
 ter that he owed much of the affectionate 
 esteem with which every party regarded him, 
 and which turned Paris — frivolous, volatile 
 Paris — into a city of mourning at his death. 
 He died May 21st, 1834, at the age of seventy- 
 seven, of a malignant fever, occasioned by 
 walking bareheaded at the funeral of M. Du- 
 long, a member of the chamber of deputies. 
 
 LAMB, Charles, one of the quaintest hu- 
 morists in modern literature, and the author 
 of the genial and delightful “Essays of Elia,” 
 was a school-mate of Coleridge at Christ'fe 
 Hospital. His life was passed as a clerk in 
 the East India House, London. Crown Office 
 Row in the Inqjer Temple was “ the place of 
 his kindly engender,” Feb. 18th, 1775. He 
 died at Enfield, in September, 1835. 
 
 LANGDON, John, an American patriot, 
 born at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739, was 
 bred up to the business of a merchant, and 
 early entered into the cause of the colonies. 
 In 1775 he took his seat in the general con- 
 gress; in 1776 was appointed navy agent; in 
 1777 was speaker of the assembly of New 
 Hampshire, and in 1785 president of the 
 senate. He was afterward a senator in Con- 
 
 gress, and governor of New Hampshire. lie 
 died Sept. 18th, 1819. 
 
 LANNES, John, marshal of France, and 
 Duke of Montebello, was born in 1769, and 
 in 1792 entered the army as sergeant-major. 
 In Italy, Egypt, and Austria he raised him- 
 self in the estimation of Napoleon, and was 
 created by him marshal of the empire. At 
 the battle of Esslingen, May 22d, 1809, he 
 lost both his legs by a cannon-ball, and ex- 
 pired a few days after. 
 
 LAOCOON. This exquisite piece of sculp- 
 ture, one of the triumphs of Grecian art, was 
 modeled by Agesander, Athenodorus, and 
 Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great em- 
 inence as statuaries. It represents the death 
 of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Nep- 
 tune, and his two sons, in the folds of two 
 monstrous serpents, as described by Virgil in 
 the second book of the iEneid. It was dis- 
 covered in 1506 in the Sette Sale near Rome, 
 and purchased by Pope Julius II. It is now 
 in the Vatican. 
 
 LA PEROUSE, John Francis Galaup de, 
 a French navigator, born in Languedoc, in 
 1741, who, after making a successful voyage 
 of discovery, was probably wrecked on one of 
 the New Hebrides, in 1788. 
 
 LA PLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis de, 
 born near Honfleur in March, 1749, died at 
 Paris, May 5th, 1827. He ranks among the 
 greatest of mathematicians. The “ Mecan- 
 ique Celeste ” is the monument of his mind’s 
 might. 
 
 LATIMER, Hugh, was born at Thurcaston, 
 in Leicestershire, about 1470, the son of a 
 respectable yeoman. He was bred in the 
 Romish faith, but was led to change his 
 views by Thomas Bilney, a strenuous advo- 
 cate of the doctrines of Luther. Being an 
 admired preacher, his influence was of great 
 importance, and in consequence he soon 
 became obnoxious to the papal party. The 
 martyrdom of Bilney, at Norwich, served 
 only to animate Latimer, who had the courage 
 to write a letter of remonstrance to the king, 
 on the evil of prohibiting the use of the Bible 
 in England. Henry VIII. took this in good 
 part, and presented the writer to the living 
 of West Kington, in Wiltshire; but this only 
 redoubled the malice of his enemies, who 
 were still more provoked at his elevation, in 
 1535, to the bishopric of Worcester; for 
 
 LAT 
 
484 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 which he was indebted to the good offices of 
 Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell. Of his 
 plain dealing, the following circumstance is a 
 proof. It was then the custom for the bish- 
 ops to make presents, on new year’s day, to 
 the king, and among the rest Latimer waited 
 at court with his gift, which, instead of a 
 purse of gold, was a New Testament, having 
 the leaf turned down at a passage denouncing 
 the ruling passion of the king. Henry, 
 however, was not offended by this bluntness ; 
 and when, some time afterward, Latimer was 
 called before him to account for a sermon 
 which he had preached at court, he justified 
 it so honestly that the monarch dismissed 
 him with a smile. 
 
 But after the fall of Cromwell, his adversa- 
 ries prevailed, and he was sent to the Tower 
 for speaking against some measures of the 
 king ; and there he remained for the rest of 
 Henry’s reign. On the accession of Edward, 
 he was released ; but though he was now in 
 favor at court, no arguments could induce 
 him to resume the episcopal function. He 
 resided with Cranmer at Lambeth ; and 
 when Mary ascended the throne, “ Father 
 Latimer,” as he was generally called, was 
 cited to appear before the privy-council, by 
 whom he was sent to the Tower. On passing 
 through Smithfield, he said, “This place has 
 long groaned for me ; ” but he was not sacri- 
 ficed there, the triumphant party ordering 
 him to be conveyed to Oxford, with his 
 friends, Ridley and Cranmer. There, after a 
 mock conference and degradation, Latimer 
 and Ridley were brought to the stake, Oct. 
 16th, 1555. On coming to the spot, Latimer 
 said to his companion, “Be of good comfort, 
 master Ridley, and play the man ; we shall 
 this day light such a candle, by God’s grace, 
 in England as, I trust, shall never be put 
 out.” 
 
 LATINUS, a son of Fannus, by Marcia, and 
 king of the Aborigines in Italy, who were 
 called from him Latini. He married Amata, 
 by whom he had a son and a daughter. The 
 son died in his infancy, and the daughter, 
 Lavinia, was secretly promised in marriage 
 by her mother to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, 
 one of her most powerful admirers. The 
 gods opposed this union, and the oracle 
 declared that Lavinia must become the wife 
 of a foreign prince. The arrival of .dSneas in 
 
 Italy seemed favorable to this prediction, and 
 Latinus, by offering his daughter to the for- 
 eign prince, and making him his friend and 
 ally, seemed to have fulfilled the commands 
 of the oracle. Turnus, however, disapprov- 
 ing of the conduct of Latinus, claimed Lavi- 
 nia as his lawful wife, and prepared to 
 support his cause by arms. iEneas took up 
 arms in his own defense, and Latium was 
 the seat of war. After mutual losses, it was 
 agreed that the quarrel should be decided by 
 the two rivals, and Latinus promised his 
 daughter to the conqueror. iEneas obtained 
 the victory, and married Lavinia. Latinus 
 soon after died, and was succeeded by his 
 son-in-law about 900 b.c. 
 
 LxVUD, William, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, and a favorite minister of Charles I., was 
 born at Reading in 1578. Of all the prelates 
 of the time Laud departed farthest from the 
 principles of the reformation, and drew near- 
 est to Rome. His passion for ceremonies ; 
 his reverence for holidays, vigils, and sacred 
 places ; his ill-concealed dislike of the mar- 
 riage of ecclesiastics ; the ardent and not 
 altogether disinterested zeal with which he 
 asserted the claims of the clergy to the rev- 
 erence of the laity, — would have made him an 
 object of aversion to the Puritans, even if he 
 had used only legal and gentle means for the 
 attainment of his ends. But his understand- 
 ing was narrow, and his commerce with the 
 world had been small. He was by nature 
 rash, irritable, quick to feel for his own dig- 
 nity, slow to sympathize with the sufferings 
 of others, and prone to the error, common in 
 superstitious men, of mistaking his own 
 peevish and malignant moods for emotions of 
 pibus zeal. Under his direction every corner 
 of the realm was subjected to a constant and 
 minute inspection. Every little congrega- 
 tion of separatists was tracked Qut and broken 
 up. Even the devotions of private families 
 could not escape the vigilance of his spies. 
 Such fear did his rigor inspire, that the 
 deadly hatred of the church, which festered 
 in innumerable bosoms, was generally dis- 
 guised under an outward show of conformity. 
 On the very eve of troubles fatal to himself 
 and to his order, the bishops of several exten- 
 sive dioceses were able to report to him that 
 not a single dissenter was to be found within 
 their jurisdiction. His attempt to force the 
 
 LAU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 485 
 
 liturgy upon Scotland hurried on the storm 
 already muttering. Laud did not escape. 
 Like Strafford, he was attainted, and on the 
 10th of January, 1644-5, he was beheaded 
 on Tower Hill. 
 
 LAURENS, Henky, was born at Charles- 
 ton, S. C., in 1724. He was a merchant, and 
 amassed an ample fortune by his industry. 
 He was in London at the breaking out of 
 the revolutionary troubles, but returned to 
 America in 1774. In 1776 he took his seat 
 in Congress, of which body he was president 
 until 1778. In 1779 he was appointed minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary of the United States to 
 Holland, but on his way was captured by the 
 British and confined fourteen months in the 
 Tower. He died Dec. 2d, 1792, at nearly 
 seventy years of age. 
 
 LAURENS, John, lieutenant-colonel, son 
 of the preceding, was educated in England, 
 and joined the American army in 1777. In 
 1780 he was sent, as a special minister to 
 France ; by his boldness in presenting to the 
 king a memorial at the levee, he received a 
 definite answer to his application for a loan, 
 and it was satisfactorily arranged. His first 
 essay in arms was at Brandywine. At the 
 battle of Germantown he exhibited prodigies 
 of valor, in attempting to expel the enemy 
 from Chew’s house, and was severely wound- 
 ed. He was engaged at Monmouth, and 
 greatly increased his reputation at Rhode 
 Island. At Coosahatchie, defending the pass 
 with a handful of men, against the whole 
 force of Provost, he was again wounded, and 
 was probably indebted for his life to the gal- 
 lantry of Captain Wigg, who gave him his 
 horse to carry him from the field, when inca- 
 pable of moving, his own having been shot 
 under him. He headed the light infantry, 
 and was among the first to mount the British 
 •lines at Savannah ; displayed the greatest 
 activity and courage during the siege of 
 Charleston ; entered, with the forlorn hope, 
 the British redoubt carried by storm at York- 
 town, and received with his own hand, the 
 sword of the commander; by indefatigable 
 activity thwarted every effort of the British 
 garrison in Charleston, confining them, for 
 upward of twelve months, to the narrow 
 limits of the city and neck, except when, 
 under protection of their shipping, they 
 indulged in distant predatory expeditions; 
 
 and, unhappily, at the very close of the war, 
 too careless by exposing himself in a trifling 
 skirmish, near Combahee, sealed his devotion 
 to his country by death, Aug. 27th, 1781, at 
 the early age of twenty-nine. 
 
 LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, Count de, 
 was born in Paris, in 1769, of obscure 
 parents ; notwithstanding which he received 
 a good education, became the aid-de-camp of 
 Bonaparte, and was intrusted with several 
 important offices, besides being made a peer 
 of France. In 1815, on the restoration of 
 the Bourbons, he was tried, and condemned 
 to death . for high treason ; but. the day 
 before the execution, his heroic wife, who 
 was permitted to visit him for a final farewell, 
 changed clothes with him in prison, and the 
 count passed the guard unnoticed, and entered 
 the sedan-chair with his daughter. He found 
 means to escape to Munich, but the govern- 
 ment had the inhumanity to detain the count- 
 ess in prison, which harshness deprived her 
 of reason. Her husband was pardoned, and 
 returned to France in 1821. Madame Lava- 
 lette was a niece of Josephine’s first husband. 
 
 LAVATER, John Gaspar, the great phys- 
 iognomist, was born at Zurich in 1741, and 
 was pastor of the chief church of that city. 
 When Zurich in 1801 was taken by the 
 French under Massena, Lavater was mortally 
 wounded. 
 
 LAWRENCE, James, was born at Burling- 
 ton, N. J., in 1781. In 1798 he entered the 
 navy as a midshipman, and, for his services 
 in the Tripolitan war, was made first lieuten- 
 ant. Feb. 24th, 1813, Lawrence, in command 
 of the Hornet, took the British brig-of-w 7 ar 
 Peacock, after an action of fifteen minutes. 
 June 1st, 1813, he sailed out of Boston har- 
 bor, in command of the frigate Chesapeake, to 
 accept the challenge of Captain Brooke of the 
 Shannon. The result might have been easily 
 •foretold. The Chesapeake was an inferior 
 vessel, and her crew shipped upon the spur 
 of the moment; while the Shannon was a 
 fine vessel, well manned, with a crew in 
 perfect training. Lawrence was mortally 
 wounded, but survived the action four days. 
 His last words, before he was carried below, 
 were, “ Don’t give up the ship ! ” The flag 
 of the Chesapeake was not hauled down until 
 almost all her officers were killed or wounded. 
 LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, an eminent 
 
 LAW 
 
486 
 
 C0TTAC3 CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 portrait painter, born at Bristol, May 4th, 
 1769, died in London, Jan. 9th, 1830. 
 
 LED YARD, John, a celebrated American 
 traveler, born at Groton, Connecticut, in 
 1751. At the age of nineteen he entered 
 Dartmouth College, for the purpose of acquir- 
 ing the information necessary for his becom- 
 ing a missionary among the Indians. He 
 acquired knowledge with great facility, but 
 poverty forced his withdrawal from college. 
 So ardent a desire did he have for travel, that 
 he shipped as a sailor, went to Gibraltar, 
 enlisted there, procured his discharge, and 
 returned home in one year. He crossed the 
 Atlantic again, working his passage to Ply- 
 mouth, and thence begging his way to Lon- 
 don, where he became acquainted with Capt. 
 Cook, whom he accompanied in his last and 
 fatal voyage. In 1782 he returned to 
 Connecticut. Having formed a plan of mak- 
 ing the tour of the globe on foot, departing 
 from London to the eastward, he went as far 
 as Irkutsk, where he was arrested, by an 
 order from the empress, as a French spy, and 
 conducted to the borders of Poland, and 
 there liberated,, with an intimation that his 
 presence in the dominions of the czarina was 
 so little desirable, that a repetition of his 
 visit would produce a warrant for his execu- 
 tion. He reached London, after an absence 
 of fifteen months, in a destitute condition, at 
 the age of thirty-seven. He immediately 
 accepted a proposal to travel into the interior 
 of Africa, on behalf of the African associa- 
 tion. When Sir Joseph Banks first mentioned 
 the enterprise to him, and asked him how 
 soon he could set out, “ To-morrow morning,” 
 was the reply . He was taken ill at Cairo, 
 and died Jan. 17th, 1789. 
 
 His uncle, Col. William Ledyard, com- 
 manded Fort Griswold when captured by the 
 British, Sept. 6th, 1781, and was murdered 
 by the British officer to whom he delivered his 
 sword. 
 
 LEE, Arthur, brother of Richard Henry, 
 was born in Virginia, Dec. 20th, 1740. He 
 was educated in England at Eton, took the 
 degree ofM. D. at Edinburgh, and commenced 
 the practice of medicine in Virginia. After- 
 ward he returned to England, and studied 
 law at the Temple. He was a secret agent of 
 our government at London and Paris, associ- 
 ated with Deane and Franklin, and, on the 
 
 return of Franklin to America, became the 
 sole agent of Massachusetts. In 1777 he was 
 appointed by Congress commissioner to 
 Spain, and he was subsequently employed in 
 Prussia. He returned to America in 1780, 
 and the next year he was chosen to the 
 assembly, from which he went to Congress. 
 He was called to the board of treasury, of 
 which he continued to be a member from 
 1784 to 1789. He died at his farm, Dec. 12th, 
 1792. 
 
 LEE, Charles, was a native of North 
 Wales, the son of a general in the British 
 army, in which at the age of eleven he also 
 held a commission. He came to America in 
 1756, and distinguished himself in the war 
 with the French. For a time he dwelt among 
 the Mohawks, who made him a chief, with 
 the apt name of Boiling Water. After this 
 he served as a colonel under Burgoyne in 
 Portugal. Several pamphlets that he wrote 
 in opposition to the ministry demolished the 
 hope of promotion which his exploits had 
 earned, and he entered the Polish army as 
 aid to Poniatowski, just then elected king. 
 On one occasion he was sent to accompany 
 the Polish ambassador to Constantinople. 
 The diplomatic gentleman traveled too slowly 
 for him ; so he dashed ahead. When on the 
 frontiers of Turkey, he came near perishing 
 with cold and hunger, among the Bulgarian 
 mountains ; and, after his arrival at Constan- 
 tinople, he was very near being buried in the 
 ruins of his house by an earthquake. He 
 became a major-general. “I flatter myself,” 
 said he, “ that a little more practice will make 
 me a good soldier,” and he tried a severe 
 campaign in the Russian service. After this 
 he led a wandering life through the south 
 of Europe, troubled with gout, rheumatism, 
 and the effects of “a Hungarian fever,” and 
 pestered with a temper more cynical and 
 irascible than ever, embroiling him in many 
 rencontres, in one of which he slew his an- 
 tagonist, and lost two of his fingers. The 
 irony and sarcasm that he vented upon the 
 British ministry through the journals, gained 
 him a reputation sufficient for a conjecture 
 that perchance he was the mysterious Junius. 
 He had early espoused the cause of the colo- 
 nies, and in 1773 he came again to America, 
 where his military renown and his dashing 
 manner made him a welcome acquisition to 
 
 LEE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 487 
 
 the patriot cause, and alarmed even the 
 British ministry. Purchasing an estate in 
 Virginia he was often a guest at Mount Ver- 
 non. When war broke out, Lee was one of 
 the first major-generals commissioned. He 
 was taken prisoner, and remained some time 
 in the hands of the British, but was released 
 Oct. 17th, 1777. At the battle of Monmouth 
 he permitted his command to retreat, and 
 was reproached by Washington, to whom he 
 used disrespectful language. He was tried 
 by a court-martial, and sentenced to a year’s 
 suspension, Aug. 12th, 1778. He died Oct. 
 2d, 1782. He was an able officer, but proud 
 and ambitious. 
 
 LEE, Francis Lightfoot, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was a brother 
 of Richard Henry, and born at Stratford, 
 Va., Oct. 14th, 1734. He was educated at 
 home. He was elected to the house of bur- 
 gesses in 1765, and continued a delegate 
 therein till 1775, when he was sent to Con- 
 gress. He retired to private life in 1779, 
 and died in April, 1797. 
 
 LEE, Henry, was born in Virginia, Jan. 
 29th, 1756, and was graduated at Princeton 
 College in his eighteenth year. In 1776 he 
 obtained the command of a troop of the Vir- 
 ginia light horse, and in 1777 joined the 
 main army under Washington. His conduct 
 throughout the whole revolutionary struggle 
 merits the highest praise. Ever in the front 
 of danger, he performed several daring feats 
 which have been rarely equaled. After the 
 termination of the war, he was alternately a 
 member of Congress, and of the assembly 
 of his state, of which he was governor for 
 three successive years. He died in 1818. 
 
 LEE, Richard E. See Appendix, p. 974. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born at 
 Stratford, Westmoreland county, Va., in 1 732, 
 but was bred in England, where he received a 
 finished education. He returned home at 
 nineteen, and busied himself in philosophical 
 studies. Then he was chosen to the house 
 of burgesses, where he won himself a high 
 position as a talented debater and a patriotic 
 legislator. He was appointed, in 1764, to 
 draw up an address to the king, and brought 
 forth a masterly state paper ; and in 1765 he 
 assisted Patrick Henry’s resolutions against 
 
 the stamp act with great zeal. He was a 
 member of the continental congress, 1774- 
 1780 and 1784-1787; and he has been styled 
 the Cicero of the famous congress of 1776, 
 so graceful and effective was his oratory. 
 June 7th, 1776, he moved “that these united 
 colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
 and independent states; that they are ab- 
 solved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown ; and that all political connection be- 
 tween them and the state of Great Britain is, 
 and ought to be, dissolved ; ” supporting the 
 measure with one of his most eloquent 
 speeches. In 1784 he was chosen president 
 of Congress ; and from 1789 to 1792 he was 
 senator from Virginia. He died June 19th, 
 1794. 
 
 LEGENDRE, Adrian Marie, an illustrious 
 mathematician of France, born in Paris, 
 1751, died there Jan. 16th, 1833. 
 
 LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William, born at 
 Leipsic, July 3d, 1646, died at Hanover, 
 Nov. 14th, 1716. He was the great rival of 
 Newton in science. 
 
 LEIPSIC (Leipzig), the second city in 
 Saxony, founded in the tenth century, and 
 now containing 79,000 inhabitants. It is 
 famous for its fairs, is the centre of the Ger- 
 man book-trade, and is also distinguished by 
 its university. Here was fought an import- 
 ant battle between the allies and the French, 
 Oct. 16th, 17th, and 18th, 1813. Napoleon 
 with 160,000 men contended against 240,000 
 Austrians, Russians, and Prussians. Against 
 such odds he might have conquered, had not, 
 at a critical moment, his Saxon allies gone 
 over to the enemy. Of 80,000 men left dead 
 on the field, more than half were French. 
 Gustavus Adolphus won a great victory over 
 Tilly, on the plain of Leipsic, Sept. 7th, 
 1631. 
 
 LENTULUS, a celebrated family at Rome, 
 which produced many great men in the 
 commonwealth. Publius Lentulus Sura 
 joined Cataline’s conspiracy, was convicted, 
 imprisoned, and afterward executed. 
 
 LEO. There have been twelve popes of 
 this name. The greatest was Leo X. (Gio- 
 vanni de Medici), born at Florence in 1475, 
 being the second son of Lorenzo de Medici. 
 At the age of thirteen he was made a car- 
 dinal. He succeeded Julius II. in 1513, and 
 
 LEO 
 
488 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 assumed the name of Leo. He was a patron 
 of literature, and particularly encouraged 
 the study of the Greek language. He de- 
 sired to complete the church of St. Peter, 
 and the sale of indulgences to raise the 
 money swelled the wave that soon broke in 
 the Reformation. He died in 1521. 
 
 LEONIDAS, a celebrated king of Sparta, 
 sent by his countrymen to oppose Xerxes. 
 When the Persian monarch demanded his 
 arms, Leonidas answered, “Come and take 
 them!” With his three hundred Spartans, 
 and a few auxiliaries, he defended the pass 
 of Thermopylae against the whole Persian 
 army, 480 b.c. He died surrounded by 
 heaps of slain enemies. 
 
 LEPANTO, Gulf of, a narrow sea between 
 the northern coast of the Peloponnesus and 
 the mainland of Greece ; anciently the Gulf 
 of Corinth. The famous sea fight of Le- 
 panto, between the Turks and Spaniards, in 
 which Cervantes lost his hand, was fought 
 Oct. 7th, 1571. The Turks, being at anchor 
 in the gulf, and hearing that the Christians 
 were bearing down upon them from Corfu, 
 reinforced their fleet, which consisted of 250 
 galleys, 70 frigates and brigantines. The 
 Christian fleet consisted of 210 galleys, 28 
 transports, and 6 galeapes, furnished with 
 heavy artillery, commanded by Don John of 
 Austria (natural son of Charles V.), includ- 
 ing the Spanish squadron furnished by 
 Philip II., the Venetian, with the flower 
 of the nobility of Venice, and the pope’s 
 galleys. The two forces engaged with all 
 the ancient and modern weapons of attack 
 and defense, arrows, javelins, grappling-irons, 
 cannon, muskets, pikes, and swords. They 
 fought hand to hand, as most of the galleys 
 grappled together. Don John of Austria 
 and Veniero, the Venetian .commander, at- 
 tacked the Ottoman admiral Ali, and having 
 taken him and his galley, immediately struck 
 off his head, and placed it on the top of his 
 own flag. The Turks lost upward of 150 
 vessels. Their loss in killed was about 
 15,000; as many more were made prisoners, 
 and 5,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty. 
 The Christians are said to have lost about 
 5,000 men. The battle lasted from six in 
 the morning till evening, when the approach- 
 ing darkness, and the roughness of the sea, 
 compelled the victors to put into the nearest 
 
 LEW 
 
 haven, whence they dispatched couriers to 
 all Christian courts, with the news of the 
 triumph. The Christians gave no quarter in 
 the heat of the fight. 
 
 LEPIDUS, Marcus JEmilius, one of the 
 triumvirs with Augustus and Antony. He 
 was sent against Brutus and Cassius, and 
 some time after leagued with Mark Antony, 
 who had gained the hearts of his soldiers by 
 artifice, and their commander by address. 
 He received Africa as his portion in the di- 
 vision of the empire ; but his indolence soon 
 rendered him despicable in the eyes of his 
 soldiers and. of his colleagues, and Augustus, 
 who was well acquainted with the unpopu- 
 larity of Lepidus, went to his camp, and 
 obliged him to resign the power to which he 
 was entitled as triumvir. After this degrad- 
 ing event, he sunk into obscurity, and re- 
 tired, by order of Augustus, to Cerceii, a 
 small town of the coast of Latium, where he 
 ended his days, b.c. 13, forgotten as soon as 
 he had fallen. 
 
 LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, was born 
 in Upper Lusatia, 1729. As a dramatist and 
 a critic on the fine arts, he held a high rank 
 in German literature. His death occurred at 
 Wolfenbiittel in 1781. 
 
 LEUCTRA, a village of Boeotia, famous 
 for the victory which Epaminondas, the The- 
 ban general, here obtained over the superior 
 force of Cleombrotus, King of Sparta, b.c. 
 371. From that time the Spartans lost the 
 ascendency which they had for centuries held 
 in Greece. 
 
 LEWIS, Francis, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born at LlandafF, 
 in the south of Wales, March, 1713. His 
 education was finished at W estminster, and 
 he entered a mercantile house in London. 
 At the age of twenty-one, he came to Amer- 
 ica. He became an active politician, espoused 
 the cause of liberty, and was elected a dele- 
 gate from New York to the continental con- 
 gress in 1775. He suffered the loss of much 
 property on Long Island during the war. He 
 died Dec. 30th, 1803. 
 
 LEWIS and CLARKE. In 1804, Capt 
 Meriwether Lewis and Lieut. William Clarke, 
 with a party of twenty-eight men, were dis- 
 patched by government to explore the north- 
 western territory between the Mississippi and 
 the Pacific. It was the first expedition of 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 4S9 
 
 the kind undertaken. They crossed the 
 Rocky Mountains and reached the mouth of 
 the Columbia, their observations and surveys 
 being eminently successful, and furnishing 
 the first reliable details of that vast region. 
 The expedition was absent two years and 
 three months. 
 
 LEXINGTON, a town of Massachusetts, 
 eleven miles north-west of Boston, where the 
 struggle for liberty was commenced, April 
 19th, 1775. Gen. Gage dispatched a force of 
 900 men on the night of the 18th to seize a 
 magazine of military stores that the patriots 
 had gathered at Concord. The expedition had 
 been planned and prepared with great secresy, 
 yet wind of it had blown, and as the British 
 stealthily crept forth on their nocturnal 
 march, the booming of alarm guns and the 
 clang of village bells told that the country 
 was rising. Lieut. Col. Smith sent back for 
 re-enforcements, and pushed Major Pitcairne 
 forward with six companies to secure the 
 bridges at Concord. He advanced rapidly, 
 capturing every one that he met or overtook. 
 When a little more than a mile from Lexing- 
 ton, a horseman was too quick for him, and 
 galloped into the village with the cry that the 
 redcoats were coming. When the British 
 came marching up the road, between four and 
 five in the gray morning, seventy or eighty 
 yeomen were mustered in military array 
 on the green near the meeting-house. It was 
 a part of the ‘ constitutional army,’ pledged 
 to resist by force any open hostility of British 
 troops. Besides these, there were a number 
 of lookers on, armed and unarmed. The 
 major rode forward, brandishing his sword, 
 and shouted, as his men advanced at double 
 quick time, “ Disperse, ye villains ! Lay down 
 your arms, ye rebels, and disperse.” The 
 yeomanry stood their ground. A scene of 
 confusion ensued, with firing on both sides : 
 by which party commenced it is not certain. 
 Eight of the patriots were killed, ten wounded, 
 and all put to flight. The British formed on 
 the common, discharged a volley, and gave 
 three cheers ; Col. Smith came up ; the whole 
 force pushed on for Concord. There they did 
 the work for which they had been detailed, 
 so far as they could, for many of the stores 
 had been removed. The militia were not 
 strong enough to oppose them, but the minute- 
 men were hurrying in from every quarter. 
 
 About ten o’clock a squad ventured to dis- 
 lodge the British from the north bridge. As 
 they came near, the British fired, killing 
 two ; a skirmish ensued, and the enemy re- 
 treated from the bridge. About noon, the 
 jaded troops commenced their march for Bos- 
 ton. The country was astir. All along the 
 road, from the cover of trees, sheds, houses, 
 fences, rustic marksmen dealt a deadly retali- 
 ation, and a long line of killed, wounded, or 
 fatigued marked the way. 
 
 At Lexington they were joined by 900 
 more troops, sent out from Boston, under 
 Lord Percy. These brought two cannon 
 with them, and the country people were now 
 kept more at bay. They still fired upon the 
 troops, however, with terrible havoc. The 
 regulars, as the English troops were called, 
 scrambled into Charlestown at sunset. Sixty- 
 five of their number had been killed, one 
 hundred and eighty wounded, and twenty- 
 eight made prisoners. Of the provincials, 
 forty-nine were killed, thirty-nine wounded 
 and missing. There were never more than 
 three or four hundred of the latter fighting at 
 one time, and these fought as they pleased, 
 without order. The regulars were obliged 
 to keep in the main road ; but the militia, 
 knowing every inch of the country, flanked 
 them, and fired upon them at all the corners. 
 The British, maddened by the galling fire, 
 burned many dwellings in their retreat. 
 
 Bancroft eloquently narrates the effects pro- 
 duced by this conflict. Darkness closed upon 
 the country and upon the town, but it was no 
 night for sleep. Heralds on swift relays of 
 horses transmitted the war-message from hand 
 to hand, till village repeated it to village ; the 
 sea to the backwoods ; the plains to the high- 
 lands ; and it was never suffered to droop, till it 
 had been borne north, and south, and east, and 
 west throughout the land. It spread over the 
 bays that receive the Saco and the Penobscot. 
 Its loud reveille broke the rest of the trap- 
 pers of New Hampshire, and ringing like 
 bugle-notes from peak to peak, overleaped the 
 Green Mountains, swept onward to Montreal 
 and descended the ocean river, till the re- 
 sponses were echoed from the cliffs of Quebec. 
 The hills along the Hudson told to one another 
 the tale. As the summons hurried to the 
 south, it was one day at New York ; in one 
 more at Philadelphia ; the next it lighted a 
 
 LEX 
 
490 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 watchfire at Baltimore ; thence it waked an 
 answer at Annapolis. Crossing the Potomac 
 near Mount Vernon, it was sent forward 
 without a halt to Williamsburg. It traversed 
 the Dismal Swamp to Nansemond along the 
 route of the first emigrants to North Carolina. 
 It moved onward and still onward through 
 boundless groves of evergreen to Newbern 
 and to Wilmington. “For God’s sake, for- 
 ward it by night and by day,” wrote Corne- 
 lius Harnett by the express which sped for 
 Brunswick. Patriots of South Carolina 
 caught up its tones at the border, and dis- 
 patched it to Charleston, and through pines 
 and palmettoes and moss-clad live oaks, 
 still further to the south, till it resounded 
 among the New England settlements be- 
 yond the Savannah. Hillsborough and the 
 Mecklenburg districts of North Carolina rose 
 in triumph, now that their wearisome un- 
 certainty had its end. The Blue Ridge 
 took up the voice and made it heard from 
 one end to the other of the valley of Vir- 
 ginia. The Alleghanies, as they listened, 
 opened their barriers, that the ‘loud call’ 
 might pass through to the hardy riflemen on 
 the Holston, the Watauga, and the French 
 Broad. Ever renewing its strength, powerful 
 enough even to create a commonwealth, it 
 breathed its inspiring word to the first set- 
 tlers of Kentucky ; so that hunter? who made 
 their halt in the matchless valley of the Elk- 
 horn, commemorated the nineteenth day of 
 April by naming their encampment Lexington. 
 
 With one impulse the colonies sprung to 
 arms; with one spirit they pledged them- 
 selves to each other “to be ready for the 
 extreme event.” With one heart, the conti- 
 nent cried “ Liberty or Death.” 
 
 The first measure of the Massachusetts 
 committee of safety, after the dawn of the 
 20th of April, was a circular to the several 
 towns in Massachusetts. “We conjure you,” 
 they wrote, “ by all that is dear, by all that 
 is sacred, — we beg and entreat, as you will 
 answer it to your country, to your con- 
 sciences, and above all, to God himself, that 
 you will hasten and encourage by all possible 
 means the enlistment of men to form the 
 army ; and send them forward to headquar- 
 ters at Cambridge with that expedition which 
 the vast importance and instant urgency of 
 the affair demands.” 
 
 The people of Massachusetts had not waited 
 for the call. The country people, as soon as 
 they heard the cry of innocent blood from the 
 ground, snatched their firelocks from the 
 walls ; and wives, and mothers, and sisters 
 took part in preparing the men of their house- 
 holds to go forth to the war. The farmers 
 rushed to “the camp of liberty,” often with 
 nothing but the clothes on their backs, with- 
 out a day’s provisions, and many without a 
 farthing in their pockets. Their country was 
 in danger; their brethren were slaughtered; 
 their arms alone employed their attention. 
 On their way the inhabitants gladly opened 
 their hospitable doors, and all things were in 
 common. For the first night of the siege, 
 Prescott of Pepperell with his Middlesex 
 minute-men kept the watch over the entrance 
 to Boston, and while Gage was driven foi 
 safety to fortify the town at all points, the 
 Americans already talked of nothing but 
 driving him and his regiments into the sea. 
 
 At the same time the committee by letter 
 gave the story of the preceding day to New 
 Hampshire and Connecticut, whose assistance 
 they entreated. “We shall be glad,” they 
 wrote, “ that our brethren who come to our 
 aid may be supplied with military stores and 
 provisions, as we have none of either, more 
 than is absolutely necessary for ourselves.” 
 And without stores, or cannon, or supplies 
 even of powder, or of money, Massachusetts 
 by its congress, on the 22d of April, resolved 
 unanimously that a New England army of 
 thirty thousand men should be raised, and 
 established its own proportion at thirteen 
 thousand six hundred. The term of enlist- 
 ment was fixed for the last day of December. 
 
 Long before this summons the ferries over 
 the Merrimack were crowded by men from 
 New Hampshire. “We go,” said they, “to 
 the assistance of our brethren.” By one 
 o’clock of the 20th, upward of sixty men of 
 Nottingham assembled at the meeting-house 
 with arms and equipments, under Cilley and 
 Dearborn ; before two they were joined by 
 bands from Deerfield and Epsom ; and they 
 set out together for Cambridge. At dusk 
 they reached Haverhill ferry, a distance of 
 twenty-seven miles, having run rather than 
 marched; they halted in Andover only for 
 refreshments, and, traversing fifty-five miles 
 in less than twenty hours, by sunrise of the 
 
 LEX 
 
2 1st paraded on Cambridge common, 
 in three days two thousand men volunteered 
 in New Hampshire. 
 
 In Connecticut, Trumbull, the governor, 
 sent out writs to convene the legislature of 
 the colony at Hartford on the Wednesday 
 following the battle. Meantime the people 
 could not be restrained. On the morning of 
 the 20th, Israel Putnam, of Pomfret, in leather 
 frock and apron, was assisting hired men to 
 build a stone wall on his farm, when he heard 
 the cry from Lexington. Leaving them to 
 continue their task, he set off instantly to 
 rouse the militia officers of the nearest towns. 
 On his return, he found hundreds who had 
 mustered and chosen him their leader. Issu- 
 ing orders for them to follow, he himself 
 pushed forward without changing the checked 
 shirt he had worn in the field, and reached 
 Cambridge at sunrise the next morning, hav- 
 ing ridden the same horse a hundred miles 
 within eighteen hours. 
 
 From Wethersfield, a hundred young vol- 
 unteers marched for Boston on the 22d, well 
 armed and in high spirits. From the neigh- 
 boring towns, men of the largest estates, and 
 the most esteemed for character, seized their 
 firelocks and followed. By the second night, 
 several thousands from the colony were on 
 their way. Some fixed on their standards 
 and drums the colony arms, and round it in 
 letters of gold, the motto, that God who 
 brought over their fathers would sustain the 
 sons. In New Haven, Benedict Arnold, 
 captain of a volunteer company, agreed with 
 his men to march the next morning for Bos- 
 ton. “Wait for proper orders,” was the 
 advice of Wooster; but the self-willed com- 
 mander, brooking no delay, extorted supplies 
 from the committee of the town, and on the 
 29th reached the American headquarters 
 with his company. There was scarcely a 
 town in Connecticut that was not represented 
 among the besiegers. 
 
 The nearest towns of Rhode Island were in 
 motion before the British had finished their 
 retreat. At the instance of Hopkins and 
 others, Wanton, the governor, though himself 
 inclined to the royal side, called an assembly. 
 Its members were all of one mind ; and when 
 Wanton, with several of the council, showed 
 hesitation, they resolved, if necessary, to 
 
 491 
 
 e council yielded, and 
 confirmed the unanimous vote of the assem- 
 bly which authorized raising an army of 
 fifteen hundred men. “ The colony of Rhode 
 Island,” wrote Bowler, the speaker, to the 
 Massachusetts congress, “ is firm and deter- 
 mined ; and a greater unanimity in the lower 
 house scarce ever prevailed.” Companies of 
 the men of Rhode Island preceded this early 
 message. 
 
 The conviction of Massachusetts gained the 
 cheering confidence that springs from sympa- 
 thy, now that New Hampshire and Connecti- 
 cut and Rhode Island had come to its support. 
 The New England volunteers were men of 
 substantial worth, of whom almost every one 
 represented a household. The members of 
 the several companies were well known to 
 each other, as to brothers, kindred, and 
 townsmen; known to all the old men who 
 remained at home, and to all the matrons 
 and maidens. They were sure to be remem- 
 bered weekly in the exercises of the congre- 
 gations ; and morning and evening, in the 
 usual family devotions, they were commended 
 with fervent piety to the protection of Heav- 
 en. Every young soldier lived and acted, as 
 it were, under the keen observation of all 
 those among whom he had grown up, and 
 was sure that his conduct would occupy the 
 tongues of his village companions while he 
 was in the field, and perhaps be remembered 
 his life long. The camp of liberty was a 
 gathering in arms of schoolmates, neighbors, 
 and friends ; and Boston was beleaguered 
 round from Roxbury to Chelsea by an unor- 
 ganized, fluctuating mass of men. each with 
 his own musket and his little store of car- 
 tridges, and such provisions as he brought 
 with him, or as were sent after him, or were 
 contributed by the people round about. 
 
 The British officers, from the sense of their 
 own weakness, and from fear of the American 
 marksmen, dared not order a sally. Their 
 confinement was the more irksome, for it 
 came of a sudden before their magazines had 
 been filled, and was followed by “ an imme- 
 diate stop to supplies of every kind.” The 
 troops, in consequence, suffered severely from 
 unwholesome diet; and their commanders 
 fretted with bitter mortification. They had 
 scoffed at the Americans as cowards, who 
 
 LEX 
 
would run at their sight^^^JHMPPBP^^u 
 themselves from destruction only by the 
 rapidity of their retreat. 
 
 Men are prone to fail in equity toward 
 those whom their pride regards as their 
 inferiors. The Americans, slowly provoked 
 and long-suffering, treated the prisoners with 
 tenderness, and nursed the wounded as though 
 they had been members of their own families. 
 They even invited Gage to send out British 
 surgeons for their relief. Yet Percy could 
 degrade himself so far as to calumniate the 
 countrymen who gave him chase, and offici- 
 ally lend himself to the falsehood that “ the 
 rebels scalped and cut off the ears of some 
 of the wounded who fell into their hands.” 
 He should have respected the name which he 
 bore, famed as it is in history and in song ; 
 and he should have respected the men before 
 whom he fled. The falsehood brings dis- 
 honor on its voucher ; the people whom he 
 reviled were among the mildest and most 
 compassionate of their race. 
 
 LIBERIA. In 1821 the American Colo- 
 nization Society established a colony of eman- 
 cipated slaves on the western coast of Africa, 
 east of Sierra Leone. The settlement in 
 1847 became the republic of Liberia. Its 
 area is about 24,000 square miles, and its 
 population in 1863 was 422,000. Its institu- 
 tions are modeled on those of the United 
 States. Whites are not admitted to citizen- 
 ship. Monrovia is the capital. 
 
 LIBRARIES. The first public library of 
 which we have any certain account in history, 
 was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 
 b.c. The first private library known was 
 that of Aristotle, 334 b.c. The great library 
 at Alexandria was founded by Ptolemy Phil- 
 adelphus, 284 b.c., and was nearly destroyed 
 when Julius Caesar set fire to the city, 47 
 b.c., four hundred thousand valuable MSS. 
 being lost. On its ruins a second collection 
 was gathered, consisting of seven hundred 
 thousand volumes. This was totally destroy- 
 ed by the Saracens, who heated the water of 
 their baths for six months, by burning books 
 instead of wood, under orders from the Caliph 
 Omar in 642. The early Chinese literature 
 suffered a similar loss, the Emperor Chee- 
 whang-tee ordering all writings to be de- 
 stroyed, that everything might begin anew 
 from his reign. Pope Gregory I. burned the 
 
 library of the Palatine Apollo, desiring to 
 confine the clergy to the study of the Scrip- 
 tures. From that time all ancient learning 
 not sanctioned by the authority of the church, 
 has been emphatically distinguished as pro- 
 fane, in opposition to sacred. 
 
 The first public library in Italy was found- 
 ed by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great 
 restorers of learning. At his death, he left 
 his library for the use of the public, a.d. 
 1436. Cosmo de Medici enriched it, after 
 the death of Niccoli, with the invaluable 
 Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian 
 MSS. Among the great libraries of Europe 
 are the following : That of the Vatican, at 
 Rome, founded by Pope Nicholas V. in 1446 ; 
 improved by Sixtus V., 1588; it contains 
 
 150.000 volumes, and 40,000 manuscripts. 
 The Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by 
 Frederick III., 1440, and by Maximilian I., 
 1500 ; one of the most choice existing. The 
 Imperial library of Paris, founded by Francis 
 I. about 1520; it contains 900,000 volumes, 
 and 84,000 manuscripts. The Escurial, at 
 Madrid, commenced with the foundation of 
 that sumptuous palace, by Philip II. in 1562 ; 
 the Spaniards regard it as matchless. The 
 library of Florence, by Cosmo de Medici, 
 1560, of great value in illustrated and illumi- 
 nated "works. The library of the University 
 of Munich contains 400,000 volumes, and 
 
 10.000 manuscripts ; and that of Gottingen, 
 
 300.000 volumes, and 6,000 manuscripts. 
 The Imperial Library at St. Petersburgh was 
 founded in 1714, but it consists principally of 
 the spoils of Poland. 
 
 Richard de Bury, chancellor and high 
 treasurer of England, so early as 1341, raised 
 the first private library in Europe. He pur- 
 chased thirty or forty volumes of the Abbot 
 of St. Albans for fifty pounds weight of sil- 
 ver. The following are among the principal 
 libraries in England : The Bodleian, at Ox- 
 
 ford, founded 40 Eliz., 1598 ; opened in 1602 ; 
 this library contains nearly 400,000 volumes, 
 and upward of 30,000 manuscripts. The 
 Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert 
 Cotton, about 1600; appropriated to the 
 public, 13 Will. III., 1701 ; partly destroyed 
 by fire, 1731 ; removed to the British 
 Museum, 1753. The Radcliffeian, at Oxford, 
 founded by the will of Dr. Radcliffe, who 
 left £40,000 to the university, 1714; opened, 
 
1740. The library at'Cambridge, 1720, when 
 George I. gave £5,000 to purchase Dr. Moore’s 
 collection. The library of the Royal Institu- 
 tion, in 1803. That of the London Institu- 
 tion, of Sion College, &c., and the great 
 library of the British Museum, containing 
 above 562,000 volumes and 100,000 manu- 
 scripts, including the Cottonian, the Harleian, 
 and other collections. The library of the 
 University of Dublin, and the Advocates’ 
 Library in Edinburgh, are among the most 
 extensive and valuable in Ireland and Scot- 
 land. 
 
 The Astor Library, New York, contains 
 
 120.000 books; the Boston City Public Li- 
 brary, 112,000; the Congressional Library 
 at Washington, 85,000 ; the Boston Athe- 
 naeum Library, 80,000 ; the New York Mer- 
 cantile Library, 64,000; and the New York 
 State Library at Albany is somewhat larger. 
 Of college libraries in the United States, the 
 largest are: — Harvard University. 140,000: 
 Yale College, 64,000 ; Brown University, 
 
 34.000 ; Dartmouth College, 32,000. 
 
 LINCOLN, Abraham, sixteenth President 
 
 of the United States, v/as born in Hardin 
 Co., Ky., Feb. 12, 1800, of poor parents, 
 in a rude, log cabin. When he was eight 
 years old they removed to Indiana. All the 
 school education of his life, did not exceed 
 one year. But his character was moulded 
 by a noble, Christian mother. He said of her, 
 after her death, with tears in his eyes, “All 
 that I am or hope to be, I owe to my angel 
 mother.” He early became a reader, devour- 
 ing ev^ry book he could find. When 21 
 years old he engaged in flat boating to New 
 Orleans. Removing to Illinois he was em- 
 ployed in a store, where he earned the sou- 
 briquet of “Honest Abe.” In 1832 he was 
 Capt. of a company in the Black Hawk War. 
 He then studied law, was Mem. of the Leg- 
 islature 1834-40, Mem. of Congress 1846, 
 and a successful lawyer in Springfield, 111. 
 In 1858 he had his great contest for the U. 
 S. Senatorship with Mr. Douglas. Though 
 defeated by the unfair apportionment of the 
 legislative districts, yet he fought the “ Little 
 Giant” with such wonderful power as to 
 surprise the- nation. Who is this Illinois 
 lawyer coping with the ablest, most adroit 
 debater of the West with a fairness, mag- 
 nanimity and skill rarely if ever equaled, 
 
 became the question. In his speeches dur- 
 ing this contest, there are passages as noble 
 and sublime as ever fell from the lips of 
 statesmen. Evincing such clear comprehen- 
 sion of the designs of the Slave power, ex- 
 posing the sophistries of its friends with such 
 marvelous skill, putting the claims of man- 
 hood and liberty in such luminous state- 
 ment, he in this contest prepared the way for 
 his nomination for the Presidency. He was 
 elected President in 1860, defeating Mr. 
 Douglas. The southern leaders then hast- 
 ened their treasonable plans. The plotters 
 in Mr. Buchanan’s Cabinet constrained and 
 fettered him, and with congressional conspir- 
 ators in Washington, were in constant com- 
 munication with their respective States, urg- 
 ing on the work of national destruction.^. 
 Floyd, Sec. of War, had the national arms 
 transferred from northern armories to south- 
 ern arsenals. Toucey, Sec. of the Navy, had 
 sent away beyond call, all but two of the 
 vessels of war. Howell Cobb, Sec. of the 
 Navy, resigned on the plea that the finances 
 of the country were hopelessly embarrassed. 
 So. Carolina led off in secession, followed at 
 once by other States. Forts and arsenals 
 were seized in the South, a southern confed- 
 eracy formed, and thus the most fearful and 
 criminal rebellion was inaugurated that ever 
 imperiled a nation. j Washington was full 
 of treason. The governmental departments 
 Were crowded with it. Loyalty was derided 
 and dishonored. Southern sympathizers 
 were scattered over the whole North, and 
 those who loved the Union were oppressed 
 with terrible apprehensions. Such was the 
 condition of the country whqn. Feb. 11, ’61, 
 Mr. Lincoln started from his home in Spring- 
 field, 111., for Washington.’ He had watched 
 the coming storm, and he asked as he bade 
 adieu to his fellow citizens, their prayers to 
 Almighty God, that he might have wisdom 
 and help to see the right path and pursue it. 
 Those prayers were answered. He guided the 
 ship of State safely through the angriest storm 
 that ever demanded a brave and good pilot. 
 He issued his emancipation proclamation 
 Sept. 22, ’62, thus disenthralling 4,000,000 
 slaves, and executing his own words of 1858, 
 that “this government cannot endure per- 
 manently half slave and half free.” He 
 called over a million men to arms, and thus 
 
 LIN 
 
the republic was vindicated, against the 
 fiercest, foulest conspiracy of which history 
 has any record. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln, reelected President, entered 
 upon his second term March, ’65. In April 
 the confederate armies surrendered and the 
 Rebellion was ended. In company with Gen. 
 Grant, he walked unarmed the streets of 
 Richmond, late the capital of the confederate 
 government. But only a few days after, and 
 in the height of the nation’s triumph and 
 joy, having saved his country, he fell a vic- 
 tim to the long nursed and remorseless hate 
 of its foes. As a chief part of the plot to 
 destroy the heads of the government, he was 
 assassinated at Ford’s Theatre, April 14, ’65, 
 by John Wilkes Booth. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln had unsurpassed fitness for 
 the task he had to execute. Without any 
 thing like brilliancy of genius, without 
 breadth of learning or literary accomplish- 
 ments, he had that perfect balance of thor- 
 oughly sound faculties, which give an almost 
 infallible judgment. This, combined with 
 great calmness of temper, inflexible firmness 
 of will, supreme moral purpose, intense pa- 
 triotism, made up just that character which 
 fitted him, as the same faculties fitted Wash- 
 ington, for the salvation of his country in a 
 period of stupendous responsibility and 
 frightful peril. No man ever had a greater 
 trust, and no man ever discharged one with 
 more illustrious success or purer renown. 
 
 He was the least pretentious of men. He 
 never even professed his determination to do 
 his duty. Samson like he could rend a lion, 
 and tell neither father nor mother of it. No 
 thought of self, no sensitiveness for his own 
 good name, ever seemed to enter his mind. 
 An intense, all-comprehensive patriotism was 
 the constant and sole stimulus of all his pub- 
 lic exertions. A public trust was to him a 
 sacred thing. Sublimer moral courage, more 
 resolute devotion to duty, more conscien- 
 tious patriotism, cannot be found in history, 
 than he displayed in the greatest emergen- 
 cies that ever befell a people. 
 
 In every city and town o. prominence, 
 services in sympathy with his funeral solem- 
 nities at Washington, were held, and the 
 great heart of the Republic throbbed with 
 pain and lamentation. Then the martyred 
 President was borne to his final resting place 
 
 in Springfield, 111., with dtmonstrations of 
 love, gratitude and veneration, all along the 
 journey of a 1000 miles, such as no statesman 
 or emperor ever received. “ Never was such 
 a funeral given to a national ruler. He was a 
 statesman without a statesman’s craftiness, 
 a politician without a politician’s meannesses, 
 a great man without a great man’s vices, a 
 philanthropist without a philanthropist’s im- 
 practicable dreams, a Christian without pre- 
 tensions, a ruler without the pride of place 
 and power, an ambitious man without self- 
 ishness, and a successful man without van- 
 ity. Humble man of the backwoods — boat- 
 man, ax-man, hired laborer, clerk, surveyor, 
 captain, legislator, lawyer, debater, orator, 
 politician, statesman, President, saviour of 
 the republic, emancipator of a race, true 
 Christian, true man,” — this is the summary 
 of the pure, patriotic life and grand work of 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 LINCOLN, Benjamin, born at Hingham, 
 Mass., Jan. 13th, 1733, 0. S., was major gen- 
 eral of the provincial militia, and in Feb., 
 1777, received the same rank in the continent- 
 al forces. At Saratoga, he was wounded in 
 the leg. At Yorktown, he distinguished him- 
 self, as he had done throughout the whole 
 Revolutionar}’- struggle. He afterward com- 
 manded the militia which quelled Shaj 7 ’s re- 
 bellion. In 1787, he was elected Lt. Gov. of 
 Mass., and from 1789 till near his death, in 
 1810, was collector of customs in Boston. 
 
 LINNiEUS, (Carl Yon Linne,) the great 
 naturalist, was a native of Sweden. He ex- 
 celled chiefly in botany, and raised errtomol- 
 ogy to the rank of a science. He died Jan. 
 10th, 1778, aged 71. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, Robert Banks Jenkinson, 
 Earl of, premier of England, 1812-1827. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Brockholst, son of Will- 
 iam, Gov. of New Jersey, was born in the 
 city of New York, Nov. 25, 1757, and served 
 with great distinction under Schuyler, and 
 A mold. He was admitted to the bar in 1 783, 
 became judge of the supreme court of New 
 York in 1802, judge of the supreme court of 
 the U. States in 1807, and died Mar. 18, 1823. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Philip, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, born at Albany, 
 Jan. 15th, 1716, became a successful mer- 
 chant in New York, after graduating at Yale 
 He was a Mem. of the colonial assem- 
 
 Coll. 
 LIV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 495 
 
 bly in 1759, chairman of the legislature in 
 1770, Mem. of the Continental Congress 
 1774-8, and died at York, Pa., June 12, 1778. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robert R., born in New 
 York city, Nov. 27, 1746, was graduated at 
 King’s Coll, in 1765. As a lawyer he won a 
 very high reputation, was Mem. of the first 
 general congress, was one of the committee 
 to draw up the Declaration of Independence, 
 in 1780 was Sec. of foreign affairs; for sev- 
 eral years chancellor of N. York, and 1801-5 
 minister to France. He died Mar. 26, 1813. 
 
 LIVY. Titus Livius Patavinus, the illus- 
 trius historian, was born at Patavium, (now 
 Padua) b. c. 59. The greater part of his life 
 was spent in Rome, where he died a. d. 18. 
 
 LOCKE, John, born in 1632, was edu- 
 cated at Westminster and Christ Church, 
 Oxford. This eminent philosopher was a 
 prominent defender of civil and religious lib- 
 erty. The most celebrated of his works is 
 “An Essay Concerning Human Understand- 
 ing.” He died in 1704. 
 
 LODI, a town in Austrian Italy. One of 
 Napoleon’s most daring exploits was per- 
 formed here, May 10, 1796, by forcing the 
 passage of the bridge over the Adda, though 
 defended by 10,000 Austrians. He always 
 spoke of it as “that terrible passage of the 
 bridge of Lodi.” 
 
 LOMBARDS, also called Longobardi, (long- 
 beards) was originally a Scandinavian tribe. 
 About the middle of the sixth century, their 
 king, Alboin, conquered all upper Italy and 
 a part of middle Italy. Desiderius, the last 
 king, was conquered a. d. 774, by Charle- 
 magne, who subverted their kingdom in Italy’. 
 Lombardy belonged to the Austrian empire 
 until 1859, when it was united with Italy. 
 
 The iron crown of Lombardy takes its 
 name from the narrow iron band within it. 
 The outer circlet consists of six equal pieces 
 of beaten gold, united by hinges and set with 
 large rubies, emeralds and sapphires, on a 
 ground of blue gold enamel. Within the 
 circlet is the iron crown, without a speck of 
 rust, though it has been exposed more than 
 1500 3 r ears. 
 
 LONDON, the metropolis of England 
 and the British Empire, is situated on 
 the Thames, about 50 miles from the sea. 
 Its population in 1861, was 2,803,034, 
 having doubled in about forty years. Its 
 
 2,800 streets, if put together, would extend 
 3,000 miles in length. As a compact mass 
 of houses, the metropolis may be considered 
 a parallelogram about six miles in length by 
 three and a half in width, thus covering an 
 area of twenty -one square miles. With the 
 suburbs included in the census returns, it 
 comprised an area of 122 square miles. 
 
 London includes the cities and liberties of 
 London and Westminster, the boroughs of 
 Southwark, Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower 
 Hamlets, and Lambeth, and a number of 
 suburban parishes and precincts on all sides 
 of these central portions. The City proper 
 is that space which lay within the ancient 
 walls and liberties, and is divided from West- 
 minster by Temple Bar. The streets are for 
 the most part narrow and inconvenient, for 
 in old walled towns space was precious. 
 Just outside of the eastern limit of the city 
 is the Tower, once the royal residence, then 
 for centuries the Bastile of England, and the 
 scene of many a historic tragedy, and now 
 little else than an armory and curiosity-shop. 
 In the City is St. Paul's, in whose crypt the 
 great admiral and the great general, Nelson 
 and Wellington, are buried side by side. 
 
 The city and liberty of Westminster com- 
 mences at Temple Bar, and extends to Ken- 
 sington and Chelsea. Here is Westminster 
 Abbey, where lie the ashes of some of Eng- 
 land's greatest men, whether in letters, in 
 war, or in counsel. Over the way is the 
 palace of Westminster, in which parliament 
 meets. In this quarter is St. James’s Pal- 
 ace, a dingy pile of brick, where kings and 
 queens once dwelt, and where the court 
 is yet held. Back of it is St. James’s Park, 
 at whose west end is Buckingham Palace, the 
 town residence of Victoria. Still beyond is 
 Hyde Park, and the fashionable section of 
 London, known as the West End. Our limits 
 would not allow even a meagre catalogue of 
 the spots and buildings in London that have 
 historic or other interest. We can barely 
 notice the most important incidents in its 
 annals. 
 
 London fortified by the Romans, 50. 
 Walled, and a palace built, 306. Made a 
 bishopric, 514. Repaired by Alfred, 884. 
 Greatly damaged by fire, 798, 982, 1086, and 
 1130. Tower built by William I., 1 078. 
 Houses of timber thatched with straw, but to 
 
 LON 
 
496 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 prevent fire, ordered to be built with stone, 
 and covered with slates, 1192, but the order 
 not observed. Awful fire at London Bridge, 
 then covered with buildings ; 3,000 persons 
 were drowned in the Thames, 1212. A char- 
 ter by King John to the Londoners to choose 
 a mayor out of their own body annually 
 (this office formerly was for life), to elect and 
 remove their sheriffs at pleasure, and their 
 common-councilmen annually, 1215. A com- 
 mon hunt first appointed, 1226. Aldermen 
 first appointed, 1 242. The houses still thatch- 
 ed with straw, Cheapside lay out of the city, 
 1246. All built of wood, 1300. Terrible pes- 
 tilence, in which 50,000 citizens die, 1348 to 
 1357. Privileges taken away, but restored on 
 submission, 1366. The first lord mayor sworn 
 at Westminster that went by water, and the 
 lord mayor’s show instituted, 1453. A sheriff 
 fined £50 for kneeling too near the lord mayor, 
 when at prayers in St. Paul’s cathedral, 1486. 
 Streets first paved, 1533. The Thames water 
 first conveyed into the city, 1580. The city 
 yet chiefly built of wood, and in every respect 
 very irregular, 1600. Plague sweeps off 
 30,578 persons, 1602. The New River 
 brought to London, 1613. The lord mayor 
 and sheriffs arrested at the suit of two pre- 
 tended sheriffs, April 24th, 1652. Great 
 plague, in which 68,596 persons perish. The 
 Great Fire broke out near the Monument and 
 burnt three days and three nights, destroy- 
 ing 13,200 houses, the city gates, Guildhall, 
 &c., eighty-nine churches, amongst which 
 was St. Paul’s cathedral, and laying waste 
 400 streets ; the ruins covered 436 acres, and 
 the conflagration was only checked by biow- 
 ing up buildings, Sept. 2d, 1666. Streets 
 first lit by lamps, 1682. Pilkington and 
 Shute, the city sheriffs, sent prisoners to the 
 Tower, for continuing a poll after the lord 
 mayor had adjourned it, 1682. The charter 
 of the city declared forfeited to the crown, 
 June 12th, 1682. Privileges taken away, but 
 restored, 1688. Built a new mansion house, 
 1737. Furnished and inhabited the same, 
 1753. Repaired London bridge, 1758, when 
 government granted them £15,000, and per- 
 mitted them to pull down the gates, 1760. 
 Began Blackfriars bridge, Oct. 31st, 1760. 
 The common council ordered to wear blue 
 mazarine gowns, Sept. 14th, 1761. Lost the 
 cause against the dissenters serving sheriffs, 
 
 July 5th, 1762. The city remonstrated on 
 the king’s paying no attention to their peti- 
 tion for a redress of grievances, and were cen- 
 sured, March, 1770. Brass Crosby, Esq., 
 lord mayor, and Alderman Oliver, sent to the 
 Tower by the house of commons, for commit- 
 ting their messenger, March, 1771. The 
 common councilmen discontinued the wear- 
 ing of their mazarine gowns in court, in 
 1775. The city abandoned to the mercy of 
 Lord George Gordon’s ‘no-popery’ mob, 
 June 2d to 7th, 1780. Gas-lights used in 
 London, August, 1807; Pall Mall lit in 
 1809 ; and the city generally lighted in 1814. 
 Thames Tunnel opened, March 25th, 1843. 
 Great Chartist demonstration, April 10th, 
 1848. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, Battle of. The Brit- 
 ish attacked the Americans at Brooklyn, 
 L. I., Aug. 26th, 1776, and after a severe 
 conflict, in which the raw levies of the latter 
 fought well, drove them into their intrench- 
 ments. Washington, fearing lest the plan 
 included an attack on New York, could send 
 but few re-enforcements. Gen. Sullivan and 
 Lord Stirling were made prisoners. Gen. 
 Howe preferred regular approaches to a 
 bloody assault, and on the 28th, under cover 
 of a dense fog, the Americans retreated over 
 the river to New York. In the battle 5,000 
 Americans w T ere beset by more than twice as 
 many British. The loss of the former in all 
 was nearly 2,000: the latter acknowledged 
 380 killed and wounded. The Hessians, here 
 first introduced on the field, plied the bayonet 
 with sanguinary fury. 
 
 LONGINUS, an eminent Greek philoso- 
 pher and rhetorician, the teacher of Zenobia, 
 put to death by the Roman emperor Aure- 
 lian, a.d. 273. 
 
 LORETTO. At this village, in Italy, there 
 is shown the Casa Santa , or Holy House, in 
 which it is pretended the Virgin Mary lived 
 at Nazareth. According to the legend, it was 
 carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
 in 1291, and next brought here. The famous 
 lady of Loretto stands upon an altar, holding 
 the infant Jesus in her arms, and is surround- 
 ed with gold lamps, whose glare conceals her 
 face. She is clothed with a cloth of gold, set 
 off with jewels, with which the child, though 
 in a shirt, is covered also. Loretto was taken 
 by the French in 1796, and the holy image 
 
 LOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 497 
 
 carried to France; but it was brought back 
 with pious pomp, and welcomed with the dis- 
 charge of cannon and the ringing of bells, 
 borne in procession to the holy house on a rich 
 frame, resting on the shoulders of eight bish- 
 ops, Jan. 5th, 1803. 
 
 LOUDON, Gideon Ernest, an Austrian 
 general, was born at Tootzen, in Livonia, in 
 1716, of a family that originally came from 
 Scotland. He displayed great talents in the 
 seven years’ war, and was made a major- 
 general, and invested with the order of Maria 
 Theresa. In 1757 he contributed to the 
 victory of Hochkirchen, and afterward gained 
 that of Kunersdorf. He next defeated the 
 Prussians at Landshut, and made himself 
 master of Glatz. On the conclusion of the 
 peace, he was created a baron of the empire ; 
 in 1766 nominated an aulic counselor; and 
 in 1778 made field-marshal. Pie next com- 
 manded against the Turks, and in 1789 took 
 Belgrade. He died July 14th, 1790. His 
 modesty was proverbial. The Duke of 
 Aremberg, being once asked by the empress 
 at a court party where Loudon was, an- 
 swered : “ There he is, as usual, behind the 
 door, quite ashamed of possessing so much 
 merit.” 
 
 LOUIS IX. of France, commonly called 
 St. Louis, was the son of Louis VIII., and was 
 born in 1215. Being an infant at the time 
 of his father’s death, the regency was con- 
 fided to Blanche of Castile, the queen-dow- 
 ager. Scarcely had Louis attained the age 
 of twenty-one years, and taken the reins of 
 government into his own hands, when Henry 
 III. of England demanded the provinces 
 which Louis VIII. had promised to restore. 
 A tender was made of Poitou, and part of 
 Normandy ; but Henry was resolved to try 
 the issue of a battle, and his army was de- 
 feated on the banks of the Charente. In 
 1248 Louis undertook a crusade to the holy 
 land, and landed in Egypt. Damietta was 
 abandoned by the Saracens on the approach 
 of his troops, who advanced to Cairo, in full 
 confidence of success. But famine, the 
 sword, and disease so wasted his forces that 
 he fell, with all his nobility, into the hands 
 of the enemy. His ransom was the city of 
 Damietta, and 400,000 francs. Louis re- 
 mained five years in Palestine, repaired the 
 fortifications of some cities, and ransomed 
 
 32 
 
 nearly twelve hundred prisoners; but, on the 
 news of his mother’s death, he returned 
 promptly to France, and employed himself 
 in securing the enjoyment of peace and jus- 
 tice. His piety caused him to build many 
 churches and hospitals, and his subjects 
 blessed a reign which appeared as peaceful 
 as it was happy, when ill news from Palestine 
 roused the enterprising spirit of the king, 
 and another crusade was determined upon. 
 He departed with his three sons, but instead 
 of going directly to Palestine, landed at 
 Tunis, and commenced the siege of that 
 place. The heat of the climate and the 
 plague thinned the ranks of the army ; Louis 
 lost one of his sons, and died himself at the 
 age of fifty-five years, after a reign of forty- 
 four. He was placed among the saints by 
 Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 LOUIS XI. of France, the son of Charles 
 VII., was born in 1423. In 1440 he put 
 himself at the head of a faction against the 
 king his father, and when unsuccessful fled 
 to the court of Burgundy. His father’s 
 death took place July 1st, 1461, and Louis 
 was crowned August 15th. His arbitrary 
 measures against the nobility engaged the 
 principal persons of the kingdom in a com- 
 pact to which they gave the name of League 
 of the Public Good. The Duke of Berri, 
 the king’s brother, the Dukes of Bretagne 
 and Bourbon, and the Count of Charolais, 
 Charles the Bold, afterward Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, were the chiefs of this party. The 
 king, who marched to defend Paris, engaged 
 them July 2d, 1465, without much advan- 
 tage ; but he broke up the league by a peace 
 concluded in October following, at Conflans, 
 in which he agreed to give Normandy to 
 his brother, and to cede some territories to 
 Burgundy. Louis, however, did not keep 
 his pledges ; his brother was soon poisoned, 
 and it was thought that Louis was the author 
 of the atrocious deed. Charles the Bold of 
 Burgundy determined to revenge the death 
 of his friend, but he fell, in the midst of bril- 
 liant projects, in a battle with the Swiss. 
 Louis passed his last years in the chateau 
 of Plessis-les-Tours, a prey to the horrors of a 
 guilty conscience, and died there in 1483. 
 Atrocious executions, tyranny, and sinister 
 intrigues had stained his reign : yet Pope 
 Paul II. bestowed upon him the title of 
 
 LOU 
 
498 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Most Christian King. In his last illness, it 
 is chronicled, he drank the warm blood of 
 infants, in hope of restoring his wasted 
 strength. His intrigues engendering a ne- 
 cessity for speedy intelligence, he established 
 post-houses throughout France in 1470, the 
 first institutions of the kind in Europe. 
 
 LOUIS XII., born in 1462, the son of 
 Charles, Duke of Orleans, and Mary of Cleves, 
 succeeded to the throne of France in 1498. 
 In early life his temper had been violent, but 
 he bravely resolved that the King of France 
 would not revenge the injuries of the Duke 
 of Orleans. He attempted the conquest of 
 Genoa, Naples, and Milan : the issue proved 
 unfortunate. In his war against the Span- 
 iards he was equally unsuccessful. His army 
 won the field of Ravenna, but Gaston de 
 Foix, his nephew and great general, was 
 slain. When courtiers congratulated the 
 king, he said, “I wish my enemies such tri- 
 umphs.” Henry VIII. of England, having 
 waged a successful war on the French terri- 
 tory, suddenly broke with his allies, and 
 made peace with Louis. In the midst of his 
 preparations to recover the loss he had sus- 
 tained in Italy, Louis died in 1515. Louis 
 married in 1473, Jeanne, daughter of Louis 
 XI. He repudiated her upon his accession, 
 in order to wed Anne of Bretagne, the widow 
 of his predecessor, Charles VIII. The latter 
 died in 1514, and he married some three 
 months before his death, Mary, sister of 
 Henry VIII. of England, afterward wife of 
 the Duke of Suffolk, and grandmother of 
 Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 LOUIS XIII., born in 1601, succeeded his. 
 father, Henry IV., in 1610, the state being 
 placed under the regency of his mother, 
 Mary de Medicis. In 1611 Sully retired 
 from the court, and was succeeded by an 
 Italian, Concini, Marshal d’Ancre, who ob- 
 tained an unlimited sway. He supported 
 Mary de Medicis in all her prodigal meas 
 ures ; but his unpopular career was termin- 
 ated by Louis through an assassin, and the 
 queen-mother was exiled to Blois. Richelieu 
 reconciled the queen and Louis, and in 1624 
 was put at the head of the administration. 
 He died in 1642, and his death was soon 
 followed by that of Louis, who survived the 
 cardinal only a few months. Louis married 
 Anne of Austria in 1615. The louis-d’or 
 
 (now called the napoleon) was first struck in 
 his reign. 
 
 LOUIS XIV., son of the preceding, born 
 Sept. 5th, 1638, ascended the throne in 1643, 
 under the regency of his mother, Anne of 
 Austria, who chose Cardinal Mazarin as her 
 minister. In the war against Spain and 
 Austria, the Duke d’Enghien (afterward so 
 gloriously known as Conde) and Marshal 
 Turenne were victorious in Germany and the 
 Netherlands. By the peace of Westphalia, 
 in 1648, France gained Alsace, and Sundgau, 
 Brisaoh, and the right to garrison Phillips- 
 burg. In the same year began the civil war 
 of the Frondeurs, against Mazarin, who was 
 relieved by the great Prince of Conde. In 
 1650 Conde formed an independent party, 
 but was arrested and imprisoned, and in 
 
 1652 was defeated by the royalists, under 
 Turenne, at the battle of St. Antoine. In 
 
 1653 Conde joined the Spaniards, the war 
 against whom was vigorously carried on by 
 Turenne. By the peace of the Pyrenees, in 
 1659, Louis gained Roussillon and Conflans, 
 a great acquisition of territory; and in 1660 
 he received Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip 
 IV., in marriage. In 1661 Mazarin died, and 
 Louis took upon himself the affairs of gov- 
 ernment, appointing Colbert his minister of 
 finance, under whom the arts, commerce, and 
 manufactures greatly flourished. On the 
 death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis began 
 the career of those conquests which acquired 
 him the title of Great. By virtue of his 
 marriage with the infanta, he laid claim to 
 Cambresis, Franche-Comte, Luxemburg, and 
 a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, and 
 entered Flanders at the head of an army of 
 35,000 men. However, the triple alliance of 
 England, Sweden, and Holland compelled the 
 French monarch to renounce all but Flan- 
 ders, and to conclude the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, in 1668. Louvois now became 
 minister of war; and in 1670 Louis effected 
 the dissolution of the triple alliance; pen- 
 sioned off the English king; overran great 
 part of Holland, and compelled the Elector 
 of Brandenburg to conclude a treaty of neu- 
 trality in 1673. In 1674 Louis, being aban- 
 doned by his former allies, formed a league 
 with Sweden, and resolved to humble the 
 republic of Holland. He made a sham at- 
 tack on Bommel by sea ; but the Prince of 
 
 LOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 499 
 
 Concle being compelled to retreat with his 
 army, the united provinces were lost to 
 France. William of Orange was the great 
 leader of the Dutch armies. 
 
 In 1675 Turenne perished before Salzbach. 
 At length, a treaty was signed at Nirneguen, 
 in 167b, whereby all the provinces wrested 
 from the Dutch were restored, and Louis 
 gained Franche-Comte, Dunkirk, and part of 
 Flanders. In 1681 the chambers of reunion 
 were erected; and in 1684 Louis seized 
 Strasburg, Luxemburg, and Deux-Ponts. In 
 the same year Louis sent a fleet against 
 Genoa; and in the following year he bom- 
 barded Tripoli and Tunis. In 1685 he re- 
 voked the edict of Nantes, and the Protest- 
 ants were compelled to fly the kingdom for 
 safety. In 1688 he took possession of Avig- 
 non and the palatinate of the Rhine, which 
 he devastated in the following year. When 
 William of Orange became King of England, 
 the fortune of Louis turned on the decline. 
 Louvois died in 1691, and in 1692 the French 
 fleet was destroyed by the British at La 
 Hogue. The French were, however, victo- 
 rious in Spain and the Netherlands, under 
 Vendome and Luxemburg. 
 
 In 1696 Louis concluded the peace of Turin 
 with Savoy ; and in the following year the 
 peace of Ryswick was concluded, whereby 
 Louis restored his conquests made after the 
 death of Charles II. of Spain. In 1700 the 
 war of the Spanish succession commenced, 
 when Louis declared for Philip of Anjou, his 
 grandson, in opposition to Charles, Archduke 
 of Austria, who was supported by the Euro- 
 pean confederates. W ar was declared against 
 France; the French were defeated at Blen- 
 heim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, 
 and Prince Eugene was everywhere triumph- 
 ant. Louis sued for peace in vain, till a 
 change in the English cabinet gave a new 
 turn to the politics of Europe; and in 1713 
 the peace of Utrecht was concluded, followed 
 by that of Radstadt, between Marshal Villars 
 and Prince Eugene, when Louis ceded his 
 possessions in America to England, and his 
 Italian dominions to Austria and Savoy. In 
 1715 Louis died, in the seventy-second year 
 of his reign, at the age of seventy-seven. 
 
 After the death of Maria Theresa, Louis 
 privately married Madame de Maintenon. The 
 ability of such statesmen as Colbert developed 
 
 the resources of France, in this reign, but the 
 long and costly wars had a terrible harvest of 
 corruption and impoverishment. 
 
 LOUIS XV., the son of the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy and Maria Adelaide of Savoy, was only 
 five years of age at the death of the preceding 
 monarch, his great-grandfather, and was 
 placed under the regency of the Duke of Or- 
 leans. In 1726 the regency of Cardinal Fleury 
 commenced, on whose death Louis took on 
 himself the management of public affairs, and 
 declared war against Germany and Hungary. 
 After a life spent in the greatest voluptuous- 
 ness, he died, an object of general odium, in 
 1774. His queen was Maria Leczenski, daugh- 
 ter of Stanislaus of Poland. 
 
 LOUIS XVI. was the second son of the 
 dauphin (son of Louis XV.) and Maria Jose- 
 pha of Saxony, daughter of Frederick Augus- 
 tus of Poland. He was born in 1754, and 
 succeeded his grandfather. Amiable, but 
 timid, he had to bear the brunt of the crimes 
 of his ancestors, and was guillotined Jan. 21st, 
 1793. [See France and Marie Antoinette.] 
 
 LOUIS PHILIPPE, King of the French, 
 was the eldest son of Philippe Joseph, Duke 
 of Orleans, cousin of Louis XVI., and known 
 to the world by the sobriquet of Philippe 
 Egalite. His mother was Marie, daughter of 
 the Duke of Penthievre, and he was born in 
 Paris, Oct. 6th, 1773. His education was in- 
 trusted to Madame de Genlis. In 1792, being 
 then Due de Chartres, he was commander of 
 a troop of dragoons under Kellermann, making 
 his first campaign, and distinguishing himself 
 against the Austrians at Valmy and Jem- 
 mappes. In April, 1793, he was summoned 
 with Gen. Dumouriez before the committee of 
 public safety, which interfered with a scheme 
 Dumouriez had nursed, for raising the young 
 duke to the French throne. Both fled, and 
 with difficulty escaped to Austria, whence the 
 duke made his way in disguise to Switzerland, 
 to join his sister and Madame de Genlis. The 
 course of Egalite made his children hated by 
 the French royalists. At Zurich, his daugh- 
 ter, being recognized in the public square, 
 was openly insulted by an emigrant, who 
 rudely tore away a part of the poor girl's dress 
 with his spur. Instead of granting protection, 
 the authorities bade them move on. After 
 more insults and sufferings, the ladies sought 
 refuge, under assumed names, in a convent 
 
 LOU 
 
500 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 near Bremgarten, and Louis Philippe became 
 a solitary wanderer. After many straits of 
 indigence, and some curious experiences for a 
 future king, he obtained a professorship n the 
 college at Reichenau. His pay was $258 a 
 year, and he taught history, geography, math- 
 ematics, and the English language. None 
 but the director of the institution was aware 
 of the teacher’s rank. In this quiet retreat he 
 received news of his father’s death by the 
 guillotine : he threw up his professorship, and 
 retired to Bremgarten. He carried with him 
 an honorable testimonial of the services he 
 had rendered at the academy, and was justly 
 proud of the document when he sat upon the 
 throne of France, reputed the wisest monarch 
 of his time. 
 
 Melancholy, and weary of his fate, the exile 
 pined to quit Europe, and in a new world u to 
 forget the greatness and the sufferings which 
 had been the companions of his youth.” But 
 he was literally without a farthing. A friend 
 wrote on his behalf to Mr. Morris, who had 
 been ambassador to France from the United 
 States, had been acquainted with Egalite, and 
 was then at Hamburg, about to return to 
 his native country. Mr. Morris answered 
 promptly and kindly, offering the prince a free 
 passage to America, and his services after 
 arrival there ; and he transmitted an order for 
 £100 to defray the expenses of the journey to 
 Hamburg. Louis Philippe accepted this 
 friendship in the spirit in which it was offered. 
 
 On the 10th of March, 1795, Louis Philippe 
 left Bremgarten, and, traveling- still incognito, 
 reached Hamburg at the end of the month. 
 He missed his kind friend, who was employed 
 upon diplomatic business in Germany. Some 
 months must go before Mr. Morris could return 
 to Hamburg, and these the young adven- 
 turer resolved to employ in exploring North- 
 ern Europe, an undertaking beset with diffi- 
 culties unknown to the tourist* of to-day. 
 From Denmark he crossed to Sweden, and 
 thence passed into Norway, making excursions 
 that were remembered long afterward, to the 
 iron and copper mines of that country. The 
 north ward journey did not end even here : the 
 traveler was not content until he had advanced 
 some degrees beyond the arctic circle. Re- 
 turning southward, he traversed on foot the 
 desert which separates the Northern Ocean 
 from the river Tornea. Fifteen days were 
 
 Occupied in the journey, during which no 
 other nourishment than the milk and flesh of 
 the reindeer could be procured. 
 
 Upon his return from this expedition Louis 
 Philippe received the gratifying intelligence 
 that the French directory were prepared to 
 grant liberty to his brothers, who had been 
 kept close prisoners since their father’s death, 
 upon condition that the Duke of Orleans with 
 them would consent to banishment from Eu- 
 rope. The consent was given as soon as 
 asked, and on the 24th of October, 1796, 
 Louis Philippe landed in Philadelphia. It 
 was not until the 7th of February following 
 that, after a cruel and protracted separation, 
 the three brothers met in the same city. 
 They soon heard, to their dismay, that their 
 mother too had been expelled from her native 
 land. Concluding that she would be sent to 
 Cayenne, they determined to reach that colony 
 before her, and were on their way, when they 
 learned that Spain was her destination. This 
 rendered necessary an alteration of their 
 plans : they would go to Havana, and thence 
 sail direct to Europe. Their route was to 
 New Orleans by the Ohio and Mississippi. 
 The winter had set in severely, and the dan- 
 ger and difficulty of the expedition were fear- 
 ful. On the Ohio the cold was so bitter that 
 the cider and milk were congealed in the cabin 
 of the boat, although it was heated by a large 
 fire, and by the presence of seven or eight 
 passengers. Four of the boatmen, disabled 
 by cold and fatigue, gave way, and the princes 
 took their place. Where the Ohio falls into 
 the Mississippi, matters were even worse ; for 
 the travelers, having no boatmen with them 
 who knew the river, were obliged, in spite of 
 the cold, to keep watch themselves by day 
 and night. For three hundred leagues, at 
 one part of their course, they met with but 
 three habitations. After many hardships, 
 from which two of the three adventurers never 
 thoroughly recovered, New Orleans was 
 reached at last, whence they embarked for 
 Cuba on board an American vessel under a 
 Spanish flag. The devoted young men 
 reached Cuba, to be immediately expelled by 
 the captain-general. Orders had been received 
 to deny them hospitality. They proceeded to 
 the Bahamas, thence to Halifax ; and by the 
 kindness of the Duke of Kent (the father of 
 Queen Victoria), then governor of Nova Scotia, 
 
 LOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 501 
 
 they were enabled finally to set sail for Eng- 
 land. They reached London on the 15th of 
 February, 1800. 
 
 Their destination, however, was Spain, not 
 England. Obtaining a passage in a British 
 frigate as far as Minorca, they sailed from that 
 island in a Spanish ship to Barcelona. They 
 were now within hail of that dear mother 
 whom they had traveled so far to comfort with 
 their presence. Nevertheless, they were not 
 permitted to land at Barcelona ; and the poor 
 woman was not even told that they had 
 reached the harbor on their atfectionate pil- 
 grimage. The princes returned to England, 
 and took up their abode on the banks of the 
 Thames near Twickenham. Not to remain 
 together long. The Due de Montpensier died 
 of consumption in 1807, and was buried in 
 W estminster Abbey. The funeral was scarce- 
 ly over before the Comte de Beaujolais was 
 attacked with the same disease, and ordered 
 to a warmer climate. Louis Philippe accom- 
 panied the invalid to Malta, and there buried 
 him. There was only a sister left. 
 
 After fifteen years’ absence, brother and 
 sister met again at Portsmouth. The meeting 
 is described as most affecting. They vowed 
 to each other never again to separate, and the 
 vow was sacredly kept. In company they 
 went once more in search of their mother. 
 With difficulty they managed to convey a 
 letter to her, fixing a rendezvous at Minorca' 
 and the 7th of September, 1809, they landed 
 at that island to embrace at last the object of 
 such long and anxious search. After a short 
 sojourn in the island, the three set sail for 
 Palermo, where, on the 25th of the following 
 November, Louis Philippe married the daugh- 
 ter of Ferdinand, King of Naples. In Sicily, 
 tranquillity first dawned upon the agitated 
 career of the Duke of Orleans. His mother, 
 his sister, and his wife were at his side ; chil- 
 dren were born to him ; public affairs ceased 
 to harass or depress him ; he sought, and 
 found happiness at the family hearth, where 
 Heaven provides it for all. In the midst of 
 the profound calm there fell a thunderbolt. 
 Napoleon was beaten. Louis XVIII. was set 
 upon the throne of France. Louis Philippe 
 heard the news, and started for Paris that very 
 moment. 
 
 Marvelous vicissitudes of life ! The man 
 who had been refused his bed of straw at a 
 
 farm-house, reached the French metropolis, 
 and hurried to the Palais Royal to set foot 
 again in his magnificent ancestral home. His 
 heart beating high, his soul pierced with a 
 hundred conflicting sensations that expressed 
 themselves in visible tears, the restored heir 
 paced the well known galleries and visited 
 the well remembered gardens. The doors of 
 the grand staircase chanced to be opened. 
 The visitor involuntarily entered, but was 
 stopped by a porter wearing the imperial liv- 
 ery, who said that strangers were not allowed 
 in the private apartments. Louis Philippe, 
 overcome with emotion, fell upon his knees, 
 and in his bewilderment kissed the lowest step 
 of the staircase. He was recognized and 
 admitted. 
 
 That dry stick ofBourbonism, Louis XVIII., 
 was scarcely on the throne before schemes 
 were on foot to overthrow the old dynasty, 
 and to place the Duke of Orleans at the head 
 of a constitutional monarchy. Intriguers on 
 every side were as busy as possible, when 
 the astounding announcement was made that 
 the lion chained at Elba had burst his bonds, 
 and was advancing, with such strides as 
 that lion alone could take, rapidly on Paris. 
 Intrigues were postponed for the present. 
 Louis XVIII. as quick as lightning was 
 beyond the frontier. Louis Philippe, accom- 
 panied by his family, was again at Twicken- 
 ham. Waterloo put matters straight for the 
 Bourbons, had the men been wise enough to 
 keep them so. But they were both imbecile 
 and infatuated* Louis XVIII. was much wor- 
 ried by the popularity of the Duke of Orleans. 
 “ I perceive,” said he, “ that although Louis 
 Philippe does not stir, he advances. How 
 must I manage to prevent a man from walk- 
 ing who appears as if he did not make a 
 step ? ” Charles X. was admirably adapted 
 for completing the ruin of his own fortunes 
 and those of all who belonged to him. Rev- 
 olution became necessary again. France had 
 another struggle for her rights. Fighting 
 again took place in the streets of Paris, whilst 
 Charles X. was playing a rubber of whist 
 at St. Cloud, and Louis Philippe was ner- 
 vously watching the issue of a more intricate 
 game at the palace of Neuilly. The friends 
 of a republic threatened to shoot all who 
 should dare to speak of a monarchy. Odillon 
 Barrot hit upon a happy sentence in reply : 
 
 LOU 
 
502 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 “ The Duke of Orleans is the best of repub- 
 lics.” Louis Philippe was created lieutenant- 
 general of the kingdom, from which it was 
 hardly a step to the throne ; and on the 9th 
 of August, 1830, the great-grandson of the 
 Regent grasped the sceptre which for two 
 centuries the family of Orleans had vainly 
 endeavored to clutch. 
 
 In the presence of God, Louis Philippe, 
 King of the French, swore to govern only 
 by the laws, and “ to cause good and exact 
 justice to be administered to every one accord- 
 ing to his right, and to act in everything with 
 the sole view to the interest, the welfare, and 
 the glory of the French people. It was a 
 great oath, but such as might have been ex- 
 pected from a king cradled in misfortune, and 
 conscious of the crying necessities of the 
 people who had freely elected him to be their 
 chief. Louis Philippe, no doubt, took it in 
 sincerity, and fell a sacrifice afterward to his 
 great good fortune. He, too, gradually forgot 
 the teachings of history. 
 
 A sad event happened in 1842 : the Duke 
 of Orleans, the heir to the throne, was thrown 
 from his carriage, and killed, on the 13th of 
 July. His sister, the Duchess ofWurtem- 
 burg, who excelled in sculpture, had died 
 
 Jan. 2d, 1839. The king was often near 
 death : many attempts for his assassination 
 were made. Oct. 10th, 1846, his son the 
 Due de Montpensier married the infanta of 
 Spain. On the last day but one of 1847, 
 Madame Adelaide, whose counsel had often 
 been serviceable to her royal brother, de- 
 parted from life. In February, 1848, the 
 revolution broke out. On the 24th, Louis 
 Philippe abdicated in favor of his infant 
 grandson. The act was of no use. A repub- 
 lic was proclaimed. The king shaved off his 
 whiskers, put on green spectacles, called 
 himself Smith, and escaped with his family 
 to England. He took up his abode at Clare- 
 mont, where he died Aug. 26th, 1850. 
 
 LOUISBURG, formerly a considerable 
 town and fortress of the island of Cape 
 Breton. It was taken from the French by 
 the English fleet under Sir Peter Warren, and 
 the provincial forces commanded by Sir 
 William Pepperrell, in the year 1745; but 
 afterward was restored to France by the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. It was 
 again taken by the English, under the com- 
 mand of Admiral Boscawen and General 
 Amherst, in 1758, and its fortifications were 
 afterward demolished. It is now deserted. 
 
 LOUISIANA has an area of 41,346 square 
 miles; population in 1870, 726,915, of which 
 362,065 were whites and 364,210 colored. 
 The surface is low, and in general level, with 
 some hilly ranges of slight elevation in the 
 western part, and numerous basins or depres- 
 sions of the soil. Extensive marshes line the 
 southern coast. The Mississippi, as it nears 
 
 the Gulf of Mexico, sends off numerous 
 branches from its main channel, of which the 
 Atchafalaya, Iberville, and La Fourche are the 
 most important, covering the country with a 
 net-work of lakes and streams. The main 
 channel debouches by a delta of six mouths, 
 or passes. The waters of the mighty stream 
 periodically overflow large alluvial tracts. 
 
 LOU 
 

 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 503 
 
 Great dikes, or levees, are necessary to keep 
 the Father of Waters in good behavior, and 
 through these he often bursts deep breaches, 
 or crevasses, as they are termed. The richest 
 region is a strip each side of the Mississippi, 
 extending from a hundred and fifty miles 
 above New Orleans to forty miles below. 
 Here great crops of sugar are raised. All 
 the river bottoms have a fertile soil. The 
 Red River pours its tribute to the great 
 stream within the limits of Louisiana, but 
 soon after leaving Arkansas, it enters a 
 swampy tract, choked with numerous thickets 
 and fallen timber, which is called the Raft. 
 The water scatters in numerous channels 
 and spreads over broad expanses. The Raft 
 extends some seventy miles in length, and is 
 an unfortunate barrier to navigation. At 
 great expense the general government has 
 made a passage for steamboats. The rivers 
 of Louisiana often spread into broad sluggish 
 lagoons, called bayous. The staples of the 
 state are cotton and sugar. Large herds 
 of cattle and horses are raised on the fine 
 pastures of the western prairies. Rice, 
 maize, and tobacco are grown. Large pine 
 forests cover the sandy tracts in the north 
 and west, yielding tar and pitch plentifully. 
 
 The Mississippi River was discovered by 
 land. For two centuries the Spanish marin- 
 ers sailed in the Gulf of Mexico, unaware 
 that one of the largest rivers in the world 
 emptied its waters there. The French after 
 their establishment in Canada, heard of it, 
 and in 1663 reached its upper banks. Louis- 
 iana was explored in 1682 by La Salle, a 
 Frenchman, and its name was bestowed in 
 compliment to Louis XIY., then seated on 
 the throne of France. It was not until 1699 
 that a regular settlement was commenced at 
 Iberville, by M. de Iberville, who discovered 
 the mouth of the great river. It passed into 
 the hands of Spain, by treaty, in 1762, but 
 was restored to France in 1800, and was pur- 
 chased by the United States in 1803, for 
 $15,000,000. The vast territory thus ac- 
 quired includes Louisiana, Missouri, Iowa, 
 Minnesota, Arkansas, and the country be- 
 yond to the Rocky Mountains. Louisiana 
 was admitted into the Union as an indepen- 
 dent state in 1812. It had been organized 
 in 1804 into the territory of Orleans. The 
 state seceded Jan. 25, 1861, the U. S. prop- 
 
 erty within it having been seized a fortnight 
 before. It experienced much of the severi- 
 ties of war, and much actual fighting. The 
 most remarkable of the combats within its 
 border was the tremendous naval combat of 
 April 22, when Farragut with his fleet, after 
 bombarding the forts below New Orleans for 
 four days, broke the rebel boom, passed the 
 forts amid a terrific fire, and enabled the 
 Union forces to occupy the city without re- 
 sistance. Owing to this occupation, the form 
 of establishing a legal government was early 
 gone through with. 
 
 The legislative power is vested in a general 
 assembly, which meets on alternate years. 
 The governor is elected by the people for 
 four years after his term. Dueling disfran- 
 chises. A supreme court of five judges is 
 appointed by the governor by and with the 
 advice and consent of the senate. The judges 
 and officers of inferior courts are elected by 
 the people. The constitution directs the 
 election of a superintendent of education once 
 in four years, and the establishment of free 
 public schools. The state maintains an asy- 
 lum for the deaf, dumb, and blind, at Baton 
 Rouge, in which all such unfortunates in 
 Louisiana can be educated without charge for 
 board or tuition. A state university is also 
 established at New Orleans. 
 
 Baton Rouge, a pretty town with many 
 old houses in the French or Spanish style, on 
 the east bank of the Mississippi, above New 
 Orleans, is the capital. The United States 
 army has barracks here. Population, in 
 1870, 6,498 New Orleans, 'the great com- 
 mercial city of the South-west, is situated on 
 the Mississippi, about one hundred miles 
 from its mouth, following the course of the 
 stream. It contained in 1870, 191,418 in- 
 habitants. A large part of the population 
 are French and Spaniards, and the dwellings 
 and manners of the inhabitants are more 
 European than American. It is built on 
 ground lower than the surface of the river 
 when full, and an embankment, called the 
 levee, protects the city from inundation. 
 The yellow fever periodically visits New 
 Orleans and commits great ravages. A bend 
 in the river gives the city that form which 
 has won it the name of the Crescent City. 
 The city was founded in 1717, and named in 
 honor of the Duke of Orleans who was re- 
 
 LOU 
 
504 : 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 gent of France during the minority of Louis 
 XV. By an extraordinary rise of the Mis- 
 sissippi, a year or two later, the spot on 
 which several buildings had been erected 
 was overflowed, and was for a time aban- 
 doned. In 1722 the settlement was again 
 commenced, with a view of making it the 
 chief town of the province. The next year, 
 when Charlevoix arrived from Canada by 
 way of the river, the place contained about 
 one hundred cabins, without much order, 
 two or three better dwellings, a miserable 
 storehouse occupied as a chapel, a shed being 
 converted into a house of prayer, one large 
 wooden warehouse, and a population of about 
 two hundred. Soon after this, an accession 
 was made to the population by the arrival 
 of a company of Germans, whose descend- 
 ants still remain, occupying what is called 
 the German Coast. In 1727 the Jesuits and 
 Ursuline nuns arrived, and were accommo- 
 dated on a tract of land in the lowest part 
 of the Faubourg St. Mary. In 1763 the 
 Jesuits, being expelled from the dominions 
 of France, Spain, and Naples, were obliged 
 to leave Louisiana. Their property in New 
 Orleans then seized and sold for $180,000, 
 is worth at this day some $15,000,000. In 
 1764 British vessels began to visit New Or- 
 leans, and to trade with the inhabitants. The 
 exports during the last year of its subjection 
 to France amounted to $250,000 ; and the 
 population was 3,190. In 1769 it was occu- 
 pied by the Spaniards. The commerce suf- 
 fered at first by the restrictions of the 
 Spanish ; but shortly afterward, through a 
 more liberal policy, revived again. In 1785 
 the population of the city proper was 4,980. 
 In 1788 a great fire consumed 900 houses. 
 In 1791 academies and schools began to be 
 opened by some of the immigrants, the edu- 
 cation of the young having previously been 
 in the hands of the priests and nuns. In 
 1792 Baron Carondolet arrived, who divided 
 the city into four wards, and recommenced 
 lighting it and employing watchmen. He 
 erected new fortifications, and organized the 
 militia. In 1794 the first newspaper was 
 published here. When it became a posses- 
 sion of the United States, the population of 
 New Orleans did not much exceed 8,000 ; 
 and its revenues were less than $20,000. In 
 
 1804 it was made a port of entry and deliv- 
 ery; and in 1805 it received a charter of 
 incorporation as a city. January 10th, 1812, 
 the first steamboat arrived from Pittsburg. 
 [See New Orleans, Battle of.] 
 
 LOYOLA, Ignatius (Don Inigo Lopez de 
 Recalue), the founder of the Jesuits, was 
 born in 1491, the son of a Biscayan gentle- 
 man, and in early life was a page in the court 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella. A wound at Pam- 
 peluna entailed long confinement, from which 
 he emerged a religious enthusiast ; so that 
 he renounced the world, and begged his wa} r 
 to Palestine. After his return his strange- 
 ness of manner and speech brought him 
 under the ban of the Spanish inquisition, and 
 he repaired to Paris, in 1528. There Fran- 
 cis Xavier became his disciple. Loyola con- 
 ceived the plan of the society of Jesuits. Its 
 history we have already given. [See Jesu- 
 its.] He was its general till his death, July 
 31st, 1556. Loyola and Luther were contem- 
 poraries, the one laboring to exalt the 
 hierarchy which the other was pulling down. 
 
 LUCAN, a Latin epic poet; born at Cor- 
 duba (Cordova) in Spain, a.d. 37, was put to 
 death by Nero in the year 64. He was a 
 nephew of Seneca. 
 
 LUCCA, a small duchy of Italy, originally 
 a colony of the Romans. Its area is only 
 512 square miles, but it supports a popula- 
 tion of 261,000. The city of -Lucca has 
 24,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages 
 Lucca was a republic. It is now a province 
 of Tuscany. 
 
 LUCRETIA, a noble Roman matron, the 
 wife of Collatinus, who lived in the reign of 
 Tarquin the Proud. While other ladies were 
 engaged in frivolous amusements, she was 
 found at work in the midst of her handmaid- 
 ens. Sextus, the son of Tarquin, inflamed 
 by her extreme beauty with a base passion, 
 gained entrance to her apartment at mid- 
 night, during the absence of her husband, 
 and dishonored her. Lucretia, unable to 
 survive her shame, killed herself. Brutus 
 (her kinsman) had the body conveyed to the 
 forum, and delivered so moving and inspir- 
 ing an address, that the populace rose against 
 their oppressors, and the regal dignity was 
 abolished in Rome, b.c. 510. Brutus and 
 Collatinus were the first consuls. 
 
 LUC 
 
HIST OP. Y AND BIOGKAPHY. 
 
 505 
 
 LUCRETIUS, a Latin poet and philoso- 
 pher, born at Rome, b.c. 95, died by his own 
 hand 52, aged forty-three. 
 
 LUCULLUS, Lucius Licinius, a great 
 Roman general, born about b.c. 115, distin- 
 guished himself in the war against Mithri- 
 dates till supplanted by Pompey, b.c. 66. 
 The luxury and elegance of his life in retire- 
 ment have made his name a by-word. When 
 Cicero and Pompey thought to surprise him, 
 he ordered his attendants to serve a slight 
 refection in the hall of Apollo : the sumptu- 
 ous banquet would have sufficed for three 
 hundred patricians. 
 
 LUNDY’S LANE. This obstinate conflict 
 (known also as the battle of Bridgewater) 
 was fought in Canada, near the falls of Niag- 
 ara, between the Americans and British, July 
 25th, 1814, the former gaining a gallant vic- 
 tory. The contest was prolonged by moon- 
 light, and it was not till midnight that the 
 British yielded the field. Generals Brown 
 and Scott of our army, and the British gener- 
 als Drummond and Riall, were severely 
 wounded. The loss in killed and wounded 
 was about 900 on each side. 
 
 LUNEVILLE, an open city of Lorraine, 
 department of Meurthe, containing 12,500 
 inhabitants. A treaty between Austria and 
 the French republic, was concluded here, 
 Feb. 9th, 1801, confirming the cessions of 
 Campo Formio, and making the Rhine to the 
 Dutch territories the boundary of France. 
 
 LUTHER, Martin, was horn Nov. 10th, 
 1483, at Eisleben, in Lower Saxony, the son 
 of a poor miner. Martin, after receiving an 
 excellent education, became an Augustine 
 monk. In 1508 he became lecturer in phi 
 losophy at Wittemberg, and, while thus em- 
 ployed, received orders from his superiors to 
 go to Rome, where he had ample opportunity 
 of observing the corruptions of popery. In 
 1517 Leo X. published indulgences to 
 enable him to complete the building of St. 
 Peter’s, which measure proved the cause of 
 an incurable breach in the Roman church. 
 Tetzel, the Dominican, who had the sale of 
 these pardons in Germany, behaved so scan- 
 dalously that Luther published a thesis in 
 which he denied the validity of papal indul- 
 gences. Tetzel, who was then at Frankfort, 
 caused Luther’s thesis to be burnt, and 
 published another in answer to it, which 
 
 roused the indignation of the students of 
 Wittemberg to such a degree that they burnt 
 his thesis in return. Luther, in the midst 
 of these proceedings, wrote to the pope in 
 terms of respect, and though he did not re- 
 tract his positions, he expressed his readi- 
 ness to submit to authority. Meantime, the 
 contention became fiercer between the cham- 
 pions for indulgences, and their opponents. 
 The pope aggravated the matter by citing Lu- 
 ther to appear at Rome ; but the latter wisely 
 declined putting himself in a place where 
 destruction was certain. He had now se- 
 cured the protection of the Elector of Saxony, 
 who, instead of giving him up, demanded 
 that the cause should be heard in Germany. 
 With this the pope complied, and Cajetan 
 was sent to Augsburg, whither Luther re- 
 paired ; but after two ’conferences, he left the 
 place, from an apprehension of a design upon 
 his life. In 1519 a conference was held at 
 Leipsic, between Luther and Eck, professor 
 of divinity at Ingolstadt, which ended 
 without bringing the parties nearer to each 
 other. 
 
 The pope, on his side, became exasperated, 
 and issued his bull of excommunication 
 against the reformer, who caused it to be 
 publicly burnt in the presence of the whole 
 university of Wittemberg. On his way home 
 from the diet of Worms, in 1521, he was 
 carried off by a party of horsemen to one 
 of the castles belonging to his friend the 
 elector, who adopted this method to secure 
 him from his enemies. In this Patmos, as 
 he called it, Luther remained ten months, 
 and then returned to Wittemberg, where he 
 published a sharp reply to Henry VIII. of 
 England, who had written a book against 
 him on the seven sacraments. In 1529 the 
 emperor assembled a diet at Spires, to check 
 the progress of the new opinions ; and here 
 it was that the name of Protestants first 
 arose, from the protest made by the electoral 
 princes who were in favor of the reformation, 
 against the rigorous measures which were 
 proposed in this assembly. In 1534 Luther’s 
 translation of the whole Bible was published ; 
 and the same year he printed a book against 
 the service of the mass. At length, worn 
 out more by labor than age, this illustrious 
 man died at his native place, February 18th, 
 1546, and his remains were solemnly interred 
 
 LUT 
 
506 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 in the cathedral of Wittemberg. A little 
 before he expired, he thrice repeated, “Into 
 thy hands I commit my spirit. God of truth, 
 thou hast redeemed me.” 
 
 LUTZEN, a small town of Prussian 
 Saxony, in the government of Merseburg, 
 the neighborhood of which is famous for two 
 bloody battles. The first was fought Nov. 
 6th, 1632, in which the Austrians were de- 
 feated by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 
 who was himself killed in the action. This 
 is also called the battle of Lippstadt. In the 
 second, fought May 2d, 1813, the French, 
 under Bonaparte, defeated the combined 
 forces of Prussia and Russia, commanded by 
 Gen. Wittgenstein. 
 
 LUXEMBURG, capital of the Dutch prov- 
 ince of the same name, and now one of the 
 strongest fortresses in the world, was besieged, 
 in 1794, by the victorious armies of France, 
 and capitulated on the 17th of June, 1795. 
 
 LUXURY. The instances of extravagance 
 and luxury are numerous in the history of 
 almost all countries, ancient and modern, and 
 many laws have been enforced to repress them. 
 Horace mentions fo'wls dressed in Falernian 
 wine, mussels and oysters from the Lucrine 
 lake and Circean promontory, and black game 
 from the Umbrian forests. Lucullus, at 
 Rome, was distinguished for the immoderate 
 expenses of his meals. His halls were named 
 from the different gods ; and when Cicero and 
 Pompey attempted to surprise him, they were 
 amazed by the costliness of a supper which 
 had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, 
 who merely ordered his attendants to serve it 
 in the hall of Apollo: this feast for three per- 
 sons casually met, would have sufficed for 
 three hundred nobles specially invited. In 
 England, luxury was restricted by a law 
 wherein the palates and nobility were con- 
 fined to two courses every meal, and two 
 kinds of food in every course, except on great 
 festivals. The law also prohibited all who 
 did not enjoy a free estate of £100 a year from 
 wearing furs, skins, or silk ; and the use of 
 foreign cloth was confined to the royal family 
 alone; to all others it was prohibited, a.d. 
 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of 
 France, which said, “Let no man presume to 
 treat with more than a soup and two dishes,” 
 1840. 
 
 LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name 
 
 from its having been originally a temple of 
 Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gal- 
 lery, built by Lyceus, son of Apollo. The 
 Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks 
 of the Ilissus, in Attica, where Aristotle 
 taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught 
 his pupils while he walked, they were hence 
 called peripatetics, walkers about, and his 
 philosophy was called from this place the 
 philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b.c. 
 
 LYCURGUS, a celebrated lawgiver of 
 Sparta, the son of King Eunomus, and 
 brother to Polydectes, was born 926 b.c. 
 He traveled with the spirit of a philosopher 
 and visited Asia and Egypt without suffering 
 himself to be corrupted by the licentiousness 
 and luxury which prevailed there. He re- 
 turned home at the earnest solicitations 
 of his countrymen. The disorders which 
 reigned at Sparta induced him to reform the 
 government. This happened 884 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. Lycurgus established 
 a senate, composed of twenty-eight senators, 
 whose authority was designed to preserve 
 the tranquillity of the state, and maintain a 
 due and just equilibrium between the kings 
 and the people, by watching over the en- 
 croachments of the former, and checking the 
 seditious convulsions of the latter. All dis- 
 tinctions of rank were destroyed, and by 
 making an equal and impartial division of 
 the land among the members of the common- 
 wealth, Lycurgus banished luxury, and en- 
 couraged' the useful arts. The use of gold 
 or silver was totally forbidden, and the intro- 
 duction of heavy brass and iron coin brought 
 no temptations to the dishonest, and left 
 every individual in possession of his effects , 
 without any fear of robbery or violence. All 
 the citizens dined in common, and no one 
 had greater claims to indulgence and luxury 
 than another. The intercourse of Sparta 
 with other nations was forbidden, and few 
 were permitted to travel. The youths were 
 intrusted to the public master, as soon as 
 they had attained their seventh year, and 
 their education was left to the wisdom of the 
 laws. They were taught early to think, to 
 answer in a laconic manner, to attempt to 
 excel in repartee. They were encouraged to 
 steal, to make them vigilant and self-reliant, 
 and only punished for being discovered. 
 Thus we are told that a youth, who earned 
 
 LYO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 507 
 
 off a fox beneath his cloak, permitted the 
 animal to gnaw into his vitals, rather than 
 disclose his theft by dropping the prize. 
 These laws gave rise to a race of warriors 
 distinguished Tor their intrepidity, fortitude, 
 and independence. 
 
 After promulgating his code, Lycurgus re- 
 tired from Sparta to Delphi, or, according to 
 others, to Crete; and, before his departure, 
 he bound all the citizens of Lacedaemon by a 
 solemn oath, that neither they nor their pos- 
 terity would alter, violate, or abolish the laws 
 which he had established, before his return. 
 He soon after died, having ordered his ashes to 
 be thrown into the sea, fearful lest, if they 
 were carried to Sparta, the citizens would 
 consider themselves freed from the oath which 
 they had taken, and empowered to make a 
 revolution. The wisdom and the good effect 
 of the laws of Lycurgus were well demonstra- 
 ted at Sparta, where, for four hundred years 
 they remained in full force, but the legislator 
 has been censured as cruel and impolitic. 
 Lycurgus has been compared with Solon, the 
 celebrated legislator of Athens, and it has been 
 judiciously observed, that- the former gave to 
 his citizens morals conformable to the laws 
 which he had established, and that the latter 
 gave to the Athenians laws which coincided 
 with their customs and manners. The office 
 of Lycurgus demanded resolution, and he 
 showed himself inexorable and severe. In 
 Solon, artifice was requisite, and he showed 
 himself mild and even indulgent. The mod- 
 eration of Lycurgus is highly commendable ; 
 particularly when we recollect that he treated 
 with the greatest humanity and confidence 
 jAlcander, a youth who had put out one of his 
 eyes in a seditious tumult. The laws of Ly- 
 curgus were abrogated b.c. 188. 
 
 LYDIA, anciently Mseonia, a celebrated 
 kingdom of Asia Minor, whose boundaries 
 were different at different times. It received 
 the name of Lydia from Lydus, one of its 
 kings. It was governed by monarchs, who, 
 after the fabulous ages, reigned 249 years, in 
 the following order: Ardysus began to reign 
 797 b.c. ; Alyattes, 761; Meles, 747; Can- 
 daules, 735; Gyges, 718; Ardysus II., 680; 
 Sadyattes, 631; Alyattes II., 619, and Croe- 
 sus, 562, who was conquered by Cyrus b.c. 
 548, when the kingdom became a province of 
 the Persian empire. Three different races 
 
 feigned in Lj^dia, the Atyadae, the Heraclidae, 
 and the Mermnadae. The history of the first 
 is obscure and fabulous ; the Heraclidae began 
 to reign about the time of the Trojan war, 
 and the crown remained in their family for 
 about five hundred years, and was always 
 transmitted from father to son. Cantbiulcs 
 was the last of the Heraclidae ; and Gyges the 
 first and Croesus the last of the Mermnadae. 
 The Lydians were great warriors in the reign 
 of the Mermnadae. They invented the art of 
 coining gold and silver, and were the first 
 who exhibited public sports, &c. Lydia re- 
 mained a part of the eastern Roman empire 
 until 1326, when it was conquered by the 
 Turks. 
 
 LYMAN, Phinehas, born at Durham, Ct., 
 about 1716, graduated at Yale College in 1738. 
 He was afterward a tutor in this institution, 
 studied law, settled in Suffield, and practiced 
 with success. After serving as a member of 
 the assembly of Connecticut, he was elected 
 toihe council, and, in 1755, appointed major- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the Con- 
 necticut forces. In the battle of Lake George 
 the command devolved upon him, and he also 
 commanded the American forces in the expe- 
 dition to Havana. After spending some years 
 in England, he returned to America, and em- 
 barked for the Mississippi, where a grant of 
 land had been given him in the vicinity of 
 Natchez. He was followed by his family, but 
 died in 1774, before their arrival. 
 
 LYNCH LAWs. There are various accounts 
 of the origin of this designation for summary 
 vengeance upon criminals in cases where the 
 law is considered too slow or too uncertain. 
 According to one, it took its name from the 
 stern act of one James Lynqh Fitz Stephen, 
 a merchant of the Irish town of Galway, and 
 in 1526 its mayor or warden. The son of this 
 Lynch Fitz Stephen, having committed a foul 
 murder, his father, exercising his authority as 
 magistrate, had him arrested and brought for 
 trial before himself. The son was convicted, 
 and the father not only sentenced him to suf- 
 fer the extreme penalty of the law, but fearing 
 a rescue from the prison, caused him to be 
 brought home and to be hanged before his 
 own door. For this harsh act Lynch has 
 sometimes been termed the Irish Brutus. The 
 incident was commemorated by a skull and 
 crossbones sculptured over the door before 
 
 5YN 
 
608 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 which the son was hanged. Another version 
 of the story says that when the pitiless father 
 could not find any person willing to act as 
 hangman, he himself went to the place of his 
 son’s confinement, with his own hands tied 
 the cord about his neck, and swung him off 
 into .the dread hereafter. The father after- 
 ward bitterly repented this deed. 
 
 The American system of Lynch Law began 
 in what is now known as the Piedmont coun- 
 try of Virginia, which was at the time the 
 western frontier. Having no law of its own, 
 and being several miles from the nearest court 
 of criminal jurisdiction, controversies were 
 constantly referred to men of sound judgment 
 and impartiality in the district, whose deci- 
 sions were regarded as final. Prominent 
 among these umpires was a man whose awards 
 were so just, sound, and unbiased that he was 
 known as Judge Lynch throughout the coun- 
 try. In the course of time criminals were 
 brought before him, and he dealt such pun- 
 ishment as he considered due. There Were 
 other persons, in different districts, who acted 
 as arbitrators and who awarded punishments ; 
 but Judge Lynch was the most conspicuous, 
 and consequently the system took his name, 
 and was called Lynch Law. This was a com- 
 pliment to his integrity and high character. 
 But of late years the term has been regarded 
 as a reproach, because violent and unprinci- 
 pled men — such men as Lynch was wont to 
 punish — have set the laws at defiance, and 
 while inflamed with passion, or maddened by 
 a thirst for revenge, have usurped the prerog- 
 atives of the courts of justice. 
 
 LYNCH, Thomas, Jr., one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 St. George’s, S. £!., Aug. 5th, 1749, and edu- 
 cated in England, studying law in London. 
 In 1775 he joined the Revolutionary army, 
 but a severe sickness compelled him to relin- 
 quish his plan of serving his country in the 
 field. He was elected to Congress, and signed 
 the Declaration of Independence, but his 
 health failing, he was advised to go to St. 
 Eustatia, and embarked with his wife in De- 
 cember, 1779, after which date the vessel was 
 not heard of. 
 
 LYSANDER, a great Spartan general, in 
 
 the last years of the Peloponnesian war. He 
 drew Ephesus from the interest of Athens, 
 and gained the friendship of Cyrus the 
 Younger. He gave battle to the Athenian 
 fleet, consisting of 120 ships, at iEgos Pota- 
 mos, and destroyed it all, excepting three 
 ships, with which the enemy’s general fled to 
 Cyprus. In this celebrated battle, which 
 happened 407 b.c., the Athenians lost 3,000 
 men, and with them their empire and influ- 
 ence among the neighboring states. Lysan- 
 der well knew how to take advantage of his 
 victory, and the following year Athens, worn 
 out by a long war of twenty-seven years, and 
 discouraged by its misfortunes, gave itself up 
 to the power of the enemy, and consented to 
 destroy the Piraeus, to give up all its ships 
 except twelve, to recall all who had been ban- 
 ished, and, in short, to submit in everything 
 to the power of Lacedaemon. Besides these 
 humiliating conditions, the government of 
 Athens was totally changed, and thirty ty- 
 rants were set over it by Lysander. This 
 glorious success, and the honor of having put 
 an end to the Peloponnesian war, increased 
 the pride of Lysander. He had already begun 
 to pave his way to universal power, by estab- 
 lishing aristocracy in the Grecian cities of 
 Asia, and now he attempted to make the crown 
 of Sparta elective. The sudden declaration of 
 war against the Thebans saved him from the 
 accusations of his adversaries, and he was 
 sent, together with Pausanias, against the 
 enemy. He was defeated and killed, 394 
 b.c., in the Boeotian war. 
 
 LYSIMACHUS, a son of Agathocles, who 
 was among the generals of Alexander. He 
 sided with Cassander and Seleucus againsb 
 Antigonus and Demetrius, and fought with 
 them at the celebrated battle of Ipsus. He 
 afterward seized Macedonia, after expelling 
 Pyrrhus from the throne, b.c. 286, but his 
 cruelty rendered him odious, and the murder 
 of his son Agathocles so offended his subjects 
 that the most opulent and powerful revolted 
 from him and abandoned the kingdom. He 
 pursued them to Asia, and declared war 
 against Seleucus, who had given them a kind 
 reception. He was killed in a bloody battle, 
 281 b.c., in the eightieth year of his age. 
 
 LYS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 509 
 
 M. 
 
 MACARTNEY, George, Earl, celebrated 
 in diplomatic history, principally for his em- 
 bassy to China in 1793, died in 1806, aged 
 sixty -nine. 
 
 MACBETH, an usurper and tyrant who 
 filled the Scottish throne during a part of the 
 eleventh century. He murdered his kinsman 
 and king, Duncan, 1040, and was slain in 
 battle by Macduff, at Dunsinane in 1057. 
 Shakspeare’s “ Macbeth ” is one of the most 
 powerfully drawn of his tragedies. 
 
 MACDONALD, Stephen James Joseph 
 Alexander, was descended from a Scotch 
 family that fled to France in the time of the 
 rebellion. He was one of Napoleon’s noblest 
 generals, and reached the rank of Duke of 
 Tarentum and marshal of the empire. He 
 died in 1840, at the age of seventy-five. 
 
 MACDONOUGH, Thomas, born in Dela- 
 ware, December, 1783, gained a brilliant vic- 
 tory over the British fleet on Lake Champlain, 
 Sept. 11th, 1814. Commodore Macdonough, 
 on his return from commanding the Mediter- 
 ranean squadron, died of consumption, Nov. 
 10 th, 1825. 
 
 MACEDONIA, an ancient kingdom of Eu- 
 rope, founded by Caranus and Perdiccas, b.c. 
 800. It first became powerful under Philip 
 and his son Alexander the Great (360-323 
 b.c.), the last of whom gave it new splendor, 
 subdued the neighboring states, destroyed the 
 liberties of Greece, and conquered the Persian 
 empire. Macedonia continued in the family 
 ,of Alexander, or of his generals, until 168 b.c., 
 when by the defeat of Perseus it became a 
 Roman province. It continued to belong to 
 the Eastern empire until 1393, when the Turks 
 under Bajazet IV. invaded the country, which 
 was finally conquered by them in 1429. 
 
 MACHIAVELLI, Nicolo, was born of a 
 noble family of Florence, in 1469. His first 
 efforts produced a comedy called Mandragora, 
 which proved so popular, on account of its 
 satire, at Florence, that Leo X. sent for the 
 actors to exhibit it to a Roman audience. 
 Machiavelli acquired, however, greater fame 
 by his political writings. By the influence of 
 the Medicis, and as a recompense for the suf- 
 fering he had endured on the rack on suspi- 
 
 cion of a conspiracy with the Soderim against 
 Julius, afterward Clement VII., he was made 
 secretary and historiographer to the republic 
 of Florence. He died in 1527, of a medicine 
 which he had taken. 
 
 MACKINTOSH, Sir James, was born Oc- 
 tober 24th, 1765, at Alldowne in the county 
 of Inverness, Scotland, and was educated at 
 King’s College, Aberdeen, where he had for 
 a fellow-student the celebrated Robert Hall. 
 He shone as a philosophical historian, critic, 
 and politician. He died in London, rather 
 suddenly, May 30th, 1832. 
 
 MACKLIN, Charles, an eminent actor, 
 born in Ireland 1690, continued on the stage 
 until 1789 ! Shylock was his greatest tri- 
 umph. He died at the age of a hundred and 
 seven. 
 
 MACOMB, Alexander, was born at Detroit 
 in 1782. He commanded the army which co- 
 operated with Macdonough’s squadron on 
 Lake Champlain, in 1814, and won the day at 
 Plattsburg. In 1835 he oecame commander- 
 in-chief. He died in 1841. 
 
 MACPHERSON, James, a Scottish writer, 
 was born in 1738. His fame rests upon his 
 translation from the Gaelic of the poems of 
 Ossian, the authenticity of which, denied by 
 many writers, was partially allowed after a 
 severe literary investigation. The question 
 gave rise to warm dispute between Macpher- 
 son and Dr. Johnson. Macpherson died in 
 1796. 
 
 MADAGASCAR, a large island of Africa, 
 960 miles long, and from 200 to 500 broad ; 
 population, 4,500,000. It is extremely fertile. 
 It was first visited by the Portuguese in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. It is sit- 
 uated in the Indian Ocean, near the southern 
 part of Africa, from which it is separated by 
 the Mozambique Channel. Madagascar yields, 
 in plenty, wheat, tobacco, rice, sugar, grapes, 
 honey, and excellent fruits. Almost all the 
 European animals are kept in abundance. 
 The forests are composed of a prodigious 
 variety of trees, and furnish vast quantities 
 of ornamental wood. The island is divided 
 among many petty kings or chiefs, but most 
 of them have been subjugated by the Ovahs, 
 
 MAD 
 
510 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 The religion is Mohammedan, mingled with 
 idolatry and Judaism. The climate is very 
 hot, but the air is, in most parts of the coun- 
 try, healthful. The French have several times 
 attempted to form settlements, but in general 
 unsuccessfully. 
 
 MADEIRA, an island off the western coast 
 of Africa, belongs to Portugal ; population, 
 100,000. It is situated between the straits of 
 Gibraltar and the Canaries, is fifteen leagues 
 long, and sixty in circumference. It was dis- 
 covered by Zarco, a Portuguese, in 1419. It 
 has been celebrated for its excellent wines. 
 Funchal is the capital. Sugar was formerly 
 grown, but gave way to wine, which now 
 seems to be yielding to coffee. 
 
 MADISON, James, the fourth president of 
 the United States, was born in Orange county, 
 Va., March 16th, 1751. His ancestors were 
 from Wales, and among the early emigrants 
 to Virginia. James received a thorough pre- 
 paratory education, and graduated at Prince- 
 ton, N. J., in 1771, remaining afterward 
 another year at college, and continuing his 
 studies under Dr. Witherspoon, the president. 
 ITis close application impaired his constitu- 
 tion, and for many years his health was feeble. 
 
 He commenced the practice of law in Vir- 
 ginia, but the stirring exigency of the Revo- 
 lution called him early into public life. He 
 was elected a member of the general assem- 
 bly of Virginia in 1776, and in the winter 
 of 1779-80 was chosen a delegate to the con- 
 tinental congress, of which body he continued 
 an active and prominent member till 1784. 
 He was a distinguished member of the con- 
 vention which framed the federal constitution, 
 in whose debates he took a leading part, and 
 his views were the basis of the instrument 
 that was draughted. Mr. Madison repre- 
 sented Virginia in the lower branch of the first 
 federal congress, and bore an active part in 
 the adoption of measures for the organization 
 of the government. He continued a repre- 
 sentative till 1797, opposing the measures of 
 those afterward known as Federalists, and in 
 his views of national policy coinciding with 
 Jefferson, with whom through life he was 
 connected in warm personal friendship. Dur- 
 ing the eight years of Jefferson's, administra- 
 tion, Madison was secretary of state, and he 
 succeeded his friend as president in 1809. 
 He filled the executive chair eight years, 
 during which (1812-1814) our country was 
 
 MAD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 511 
 
 engaged in war with Great Britain. In the 
 latter year the British took Washington, and 
 President Madison, with some other principal 
 officers of the government, barely escaped 
 capture by a hurried flight. The close of 
 Madison’s administration was prosperous and 
 tranquil. Upon the accession of Mr. Monroe 
 to the presidency, Mr. Madison retired from 
 public life to his seat at Montpelier in Orange 
 county, Virginia, where he passed the re- 
 mainder of his days. He died June 28th, 
 1836, at the ripe age of eighty -five. He was 
 an able debater, and unexcelled as a political 
 writer. He survived all other signers of the 
 constitution, and the part he bore in framing 
 that instrument, and his subsequent advo- 
 cacy of it, obtained for him the title of Father 
 of the Constitution. 
 
 In his forty- third year, 1794, Mr, Madison 
 wedded Mrs. Dolly Paine Todd, of Philadel- 
 phia, the daughter of a Virginian Quaker, and 
 the widow of a Pennsylvanian lawyer who 
 had died in less than three years after her 
 first marriage. No children were born to 
 Mr. Madison. His wife was twenty years 
 his junior, and she survived him many years. 
 
 MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the intimate 
 friend and counselor of Augustus, and so 
 great a patron of men of letters, that it has 
 been customary to style every minister of 
 a sovereign prince imitating his °xample, 
 the Maecenas of the age or country in which 
 he lived. According to Horace, he was de- 
 scended from the kings of Etruria. Augus- 
 tus, one day, being on the tribunal, passing 
 sentence of death on several persons, Maece- 
 nas sent him a paper with this inscription, 
 “ Come down, butcher ! ” which struck the 
 emperor so forcibly that he immediately de- 
 scended from his seat. Maecenas was the 
 patron of Virgil and Horace, who immortalized 
 him in their works. He distinguished himself 
 also in the field, particularly at the battles of 
 Modena and Philippi. When Augustus and 
 Agrippa went to Sicily, Maecenas assumed 
 the administration of the government, though 
 he was not ambitious of power. He died 8 
 b.c. In private life his character was stained 
 by a devotion to sensual pleasures. The 
 dedication of books was first introduced in 
 his time. 
 
 MAGALHAENS, or Magellan, Fernando 
 de, a Portuguese navigator, who, having 
 
 served under Albuquerque, obtained the 
 command of a fleet from the Emperor Charles 
 V., and discovered the straits at the extrem- 
 ity of South America which bear his name. 
 He took possession of the Philippine Islands, 
 where he was slain in a skirmish with the 
 natives in 1521. His companions completed 
 the circumnavigation of the globe, which had 
 been Magalhaens’ bold design. It was the 
 first ever performed. 
 
 MAGNA CHART A (the Great Charter), 
 the charter extorted from King John by the 
 English barons at Runnymede, June 15th, 
 12 1 5, which laid the foundation of the public 
 rights of the people of England. 
 
 MAHOMET, or, according to the orthog- 
 raphy and pronunciation of the orientals, 
 Mohammed Glorified), surnamed Aboul 
 Cassem, the founder of the Arabic empire, 
 and of the religion to which he gave his. name, 
 was born at Mecca, the 10th of November, 
 a.d. 570, according to the most probable 
 opinion. He was of the tribe of the Koreish- 
 ites, the noblest and the most powerful of the 
 country. He lost his father before he was 
 two years old, and his mother before he was 
 eight; but their affectionate attention was 
 supplied by the care of his uncle, Abu Taleb, 
 a merchant. In the family of this friendly 
 protector, he was employed to travel with 
 his camels between Mecca and Syria, till his 
 twenty-fifth year, when he entered into the 
 service of Khadijah, a rich widow, whom, 
 though twelve years older than himself, he 
 married three years after. Thus suddenly 
 raised to affluence and consequence above 
 his countrymen, he formed the secret plan 
 of obtaining for himself the sovereign power, 
 and judging there was no way so likely to 
 gain his end as by effecting a change in the 
 religion of his countrymen, he adopted that 
 as his instrument. 
 
 He spent much of his time alone in a cave 
 near Mecca, employed, as he gave out, in 
 meditation and prayer ; though it is said that 
 in reality he called to his aid a Persian Jew, 
 well versed in the history and laws of his sect, 
 and two Christians, one of the Jacobite and 
 the other of the Nestorian sect. With the 
 help of these men he framed his Koran, or 
 the book which he pretended to have received 
 at different times from heaven by the hands 
 of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
 
 MAH 
 
512 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 favored a few with news of his prophetic char- 
 acter, calling himself the Apostle of God. His 
 disciples at first consisted only of his wife, 
 nephew, and servant, but in the course of 
 three years he had greatly increased the 
 number of his followers. On these he im- 
 posed tales generally well adapted to deceive 
 ignorant and superstitious minds. He pre- 
 tended to have passed into the highest heavens 
 in one night, on the back of a beautiful ass 
 called A1 Borak, and accompanied by the 
 angel Gabriel ; and that he there had an 
 interview with Adam, Abraham, Moses, and 
 Jesus Christ, who acknowledged his superi- 
 ority, which was confirmed to him by the 
 Deity himself. This romance staggered even 
 some of his best friends, and a powerful party 
 being formed against him, he was forced to 
 quit Mecca, and to seek refuge in Medina. 
 This expulsion dates the foundation of his 
 empire, and of his religion. The Mohamme- 
 dans adopt it as their chronological era, call- 
 ing it the Hegira, being the 16th of July, 
 a.d. 622. 
 
 Mahomet had still a number 'of disciples, 
 upon whom he inculcated the principle, that 
 they were not to dispute for their religion by 
 words-, but by the sword. No doctrine could 
 possibly be better suited to a lawless and 
 wandering people ; it was soon carried into 
 practice, and the Jewish Arabs were the first 
 to experience its effects. Upon them the 
 followers of Mahomet committed the most 
 shocking cruelties: numbers were put to 
 death, others were sold for slaves, and their 
 goods distributed among the soldiers. 
 
 A faith thus propagated could not but 
 succeed in a country like Arabia. Its adhe- 
 rents were not only rewarded by plunder 
 here, but a sensual felicity hereafter was held 
 out to them. To those who fell in battle he 
 promised a voluptuous immortality, — a para- 
 dise, where cooling fountains tempered the 
 warm air, and where the exertions of the 
 faithful were rewarded by the charms of the 
 divine Houris. He inculcated the doctrine 
 of an irresistible destiny, declaring that ages 
 before his birth the time of each man’s death 
 was fixed ; and by impressing on his follow- 
 ers a belief in this, he enabled them to 
 perform deeds of unequaled bravery, rushing 
 to the charge with an impetuosity almost 
 supernatural, and courting death as the pass- 
 
 port to those transports which were to have 
 no transitory existence, but a blessed im- 
 mortality. Backed by followers whom his 
 instructions inspired with indomitable spirit, 
 he beheld his arms completely triumphant. 
 
 In 627 Mahomet made a treaty with the 
 inhabitants of Mecca; within two years he 
 violated it, and captured the place. Having 
 made himself master of Arabia, he extended 
 his conquests into Syria, where he took sev- 
 eral cities, and laid some of the princes under 
 tribute. His career was stopped only by his 
 death, which was supposed to be occasioned 
 by poison, administered to him by a Jewess, 
 and sprinkled on a shoulder of mutton, of 
 which the prophet partook with a high relish. 
 When the woman was examined she declared 
 that she had perpetrated the deed, on pur- 
 pose to try whether he was a true prophet. 
 The poison is said to have taken effect three 
 years after it had been administered. When 
 he found himself dying, Mahomet caused 
 himself to be supported to the mosque, where 
 he celebrated the praise of God, demanded 
 pardon for his sins, and then, mounting his 
 throne, said : “If any one complaineth that 
 I have stricken him unjustly, lo ! here is my 
 back ; let him return the blows. If I have 
 injured the reputation of any one, let him 
 treat me in the same manner. If I have 
 taken money from any one, I am here ready 
 to restore it.” His last words were, “ Lord, 
 pardon me ; and place me among those whom 
 thou hast raised to grace and favor.” He 
 died the 8th of June, a.d. 632, having lived 
 sixty-three years. 
 
 He was of small stature, and of a sanguine 
 temperament ; he had a large head, regular 
 and decided features ; his eyes were large, 
 black, • and full of fire ; his forehead was 
 large, his nose aquiline, his cheeks full, and 
 his mouth large. His teeth were white, 
 but set a little apart from each other, and 
 between his eye-brows was a vein which 
 swelled when he was in anger. Notwith- 
 standing his corpulency, his gait was easy 
 and graceful. After the death of Khadijah, he 
 had several wives and concubines, by whom 
 he had many children, but left only one 
 daughter, -named Fatima, who married his 
 successor Ali. 
 
 MAHOMET I., Emperor of the Turks, was 
 the son of Bajazet I., and succeeded his 
 
 MAH 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 613 
 
 brother Moses in 1413. He re-established 
 the glory of the Ottoman empire, which had 
 been ravaged by Tamerlane, fixed the seat of 
 government at Constantinople, and died in 
 1421. 
 
 MAHOMET IV. was born in 1642, and 
 became emperor in 1649, after the tragical 
 death of his father, Ibrahim I. He marched 
 in person against Poland, and having taken 
 several places, made peace with that country 
 on condition of receiving an annual tribute. 
 Sobieski, however, defeated him near Choczim, 
 and obtained so many other advantages that 
 
 a peace favorable to Poland was concluded 
 in 1676. The Janizaries, attributing this and 
 other misfortunes to the indolence of the 
 sultan, deposed him in 1 687, and sent him to 
 prison, where he died in 1691. 
 
 *MAHRATTAS, a powerful nation of moun- 
 taineers in India, who maintained a series of 
 wars with the British in the first part of the 
 present century. Their capital, Poona, was 
 taken in 1817. The possessions of the Mah- 
 rattas formerly extended from the coast of 
 Malabar to that of Orissa, in the Ghaut Moun- 
 tains, but they have been much narrowed. 
 
 MAINE occupies almost half the surface 
 of New England, with its area of 31,766 
 square miles. In 18 70 there were 626,915 
 inhabitants. The aspect of the north-western 
 part is decidedly mountainous ; some of the 
 summits have an elevation of 4,000 feet. 
 Mount Katahdin, a rugged and isolated group 
 of hills between the east and west branches 
 of the Penobscot, is 5,335 feet in height. It 
 has been estimated that one-sixth of the sur- 
 face of Maine consists of water. Some of the 
 many lakes are most picturesque. Moose- 
 head is the largest of these sheets. The 
 streams abound with salmon and large trout. 
 The St. John, in its upper course, skirts the 
 northern line of Maine; the St. Croix the 
 eastern. The Penobscot, Kennebec, Andros- 
 coggin, and Saco are fine and important 
 streams ; the former two of which are some 
 ways navigable ; but the frequent falls and 
 rapids in all the rivers, caused by the uneven 
 
 33 
 
 face of the country, interdict their use for 
 internal communication, while furnishing 
 valuable water-power and mill-seats. Along 
 the jagged coast are inlets, harbors, and 
 bays, sheltered from the ocean by headlands 
 and islands, which verdant groves crown and 
 snowy beaches line. 
 
 The great wealth of Maine has been found 
 in her wide forests of pine and cedar, which 
 her hardy loggers and her busy mills turn 
 into lumber and shingles. Beneath the sur- 
 face she has little treasure. Some iron-ore 
 has been found. Granite and marble are 
 quarried and exported. Lime is largely 
 burnt at Camden and Thomaston. Plentiful 
 crops of grain, flax, and hemp are grown, 
 and between the Kennebec and Penobscot is 
 a v^ry fertile country. Maine has more 
 shipping than any other state except Massa- 
 chusetts and New York, and in ship-building 
 she takes the lead of all. 
 
 MAI 
 
514 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Maine was discovered by one of the Cabots 
 in 1497. Afterward the French came, who 
 called the country west of the Kennebec, 
 Maine, and that east of that river, Acadie. 
 About 1 630, English settlements were founded 
 in the former region. The first charter, 
 which was proprietary, was granted to Sir 
 Ferdinand Gorges in 1639; but in 1652 his 
 schemes of colonization had fallen through, 
 and the tract, under the name of the county 
 of Yorkshire, came into the hands of Massa- 
 chusetts, by whom, a quarter-century later, 
 it was purchased from the Gorges family. 
 The wars between the French and English, 
 and the maraudings of the Indians, long re- 
 tarded the growth of the colony. After the 
 Revolution it continued in the jurisdiction 
 of Massachusetts, as the district of Maine, 
 or as a waggish South Carolinian said, in 
 allusion to its noble area, “the main district 
 of Massachusetts.” In 1820 a separation 
 was quietly effected, and Maine came into the 
 Union as a sovereign state. 
 
 Both houses of the legislature, and the 
 usual state officers, are elected annually. A 
 council of seven is chosen by joint ballot 
 of the legislature, to advise the executive. 
 Every male citizen aged twenty-one or more 
 (excepting paupers, persons under guardian- 
 ship, and Indians not taxed), who has had 
 a residence in the state three months, has 
 the right of suffrage. All judicial officers 
 except justices of the peace hold office during 
 good behavior, or until seventy years of age. 
 Good provision is made for education, and a 
 school for the reformation of juvenile delin- 
 quents is supported by the state. 
 
 Angusta at the head of navigation on the 
 Kennebec, is the capital; population in 1870, 
 7,808. Portland, on Casco Bay, is the great 
 commercial city of Maine, with a harbor 
 hardly excelled for capacity and safety on our 
 coast; population in 1870, 31,413. Bangor, 
 at the head of tide-water on the Penobscot 
 River (population, in 1870, 18,289), is a 
 flourishing and pleasant town, and contains a 
 theological seminary. 
 
 MA1NTENON, Frances d’Aubigne, Mar- 
 chioness de, grand-daughter of Theodore 
 Agrippa d’Aubigne, was born in 1635, H^the 
 prison of Niort, where her dissolute miher 
 was confined. On his death, Frances was 
 sent to France, being patronized by her 
 
 parental aunt, Madame de Villctte. From 
 her, however, she was removed by an order 
 of court, lest she should be brought up a 
 Protestant. In 1651 she married the cele- 
 brated Scarron, from whom she learned the 
 Latin, Spanish, and Italian languages. On 
 his death, being in straitened circumstances, 
 she accepted a pension from the queen, which 
 was renewed to her after the death of that 
 princess, through the favor of Madame de 
 Montespan ; and she undertook the education 
 of the children of Louis XIV. by that mis- 
 tress. 
 
 In this situation she acquired the esteem 
 of the king, who in 1674 purchased for her 
 the estate of Maintenon, which name she 
 assumed. In 1685 the king, over whom she 
 had gained a complete ascendency, made 
 her his wife, though the marriage was 
 never publicly avowed. She has been ac- 
 cused of moving him to revoke the edict of 
 Nantes; but this is improbable, as she ex- 
 erted her influence in behalf of the suffering 
 Protestants. 
 
 Her better actions deserve, beyond all 
 doubt, much of the notice which has been 
 given to the meaner part of her story. She 
 exhibited all the characteristics of a woman 
 striving to be great beyond the sphere of her 
 sex, and the usual inconsistencies of famous 
 women were very conspicuous in her: yet 
 many of her acts were undoubtedly great. 
 The royal institution of St. Louis, for the 
 young and indigent female nobility, was 
 founded by Madame de Maintenon, and liber- 
 ally endowed by the king. This was after- 
 ward called the society of St. Cyr, and was 
 distinguished by many excellent regulations. 
 To her influence has been attributed the 
 settlement of that peace so salutary to the 
 French affairs after the destructive effects 
 of the seven years’ war, carried against all 
 the ambitious designs and mortified impa- 
 tience of the French generals. For a con- 
 siderable time she lived on terms of intimacy 
 with Fenelon, and on his recommendation 
 patronized Madame Guion ; but afterwards she 
 joined the persecutors of that excellent man. 
 On the death of Louis she retired to St. Cyr, 
 where she died in 1718. 
 
 MALBONE, Edward G., an eminent 
 miniature painter, resident at Newport, R. I., 
 died 1807. 
 
 MAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 515 
 
 MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, an idealistic 
 philosopher, born at Paris 1638, died 1715. 
 
 MALESHERBES, Christian William de 
 Lamoignon, an eminent French counselor, 
 was born at Paris in 1721. In 1775 he was 
 made minister of state for the interior. Un- 
 der his administration numerous abuses were 
 removed ; but the year following, when Tur- 
 got withdrew, he resigned, and traveled into 
 different countries, in a plain attire, and 
 under an assumed name. Of the revolution, 
 he conceived a hope that it would be produc- 
 tive of good; yet he voluntarily pleaded the 
 cause of Louis XVI., and defended him with 
 all the ardor of conscious rectitude. He was 
 condemned to death, with his daughter and 
 grand-daughter, by the revolutionary tribu- 
 nal, April 22d, 1793. 
 
 MALHERBE, Francis, a French lyric 
 poet, died 1628, aged seventy-two. 
 
 MALPLAQUET, Battle of. This mem- 
 orable battle, ten miles south of Mons, in 
 Belgium, was fought on the 11th of Septem- 
 ber, 1709. Of the allied troops, altogether 
 amounting to almost 120,000 men, two ar- 
 mies had been formed, one commanded by 
 the Duke of Marlborough, and the other by 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy. The French troops 
 were, for the most part, newly raised men, 
 ill clothed, and ill mounted, but in numbers 
 equaling the foe. To re-enforce their army 
 in Flanders, they had drawn 15,000 men 
 from Germany. Marshal Villars was com- 
 mander-in-chief ; Marshal Boufflers had been 
 sent to assist him at the battle, but without 
 encroaching upon his authority. 
 
 The manner in which the French were 
 posted may be thus described. Their right 
 wing was covered by the wood of Taisniere 
 on one side, and by that of Jansart on the 
 other. The latter had thick hedges behind 
 it, with three ditches and artificial intrench- 
 ments one behind another ; the access also 
 was difficult, because of a marshy ground 
 which lav before them. Against this wing 
 the Dutch infantry were to make their at- 
 tack. Their centre took up all the open 
 space between the wood of Jansart and that 
 of Sart. A hamlet toward the middle cov- 
 ered the depth of this centre, which was 
 also defended by a line extending from one 
 wood to the other. Their left wing was 
 posted, partly in the wood of Sart, and 
 
 partly behind in the plain; the wood served 
 as a natural covert, besides which they had 
 felled trees, and raised banks of earth and 
 fascines, fortified with cannon. In the lines 
 of their centre were openings, to let their 
 cavalry advance. Their artillery was posted 
 on advantageous eminences, and they had 
 nothing in their camp to encumber them. 
 
 The signal for the attack was given by the 
 discharge of fifty pieces of cannon. Prince 
 Eugene then advanced with his right, to 
 penetrate into the wood of Sart. In the 
 charges of this wing, General Shulemburg, 
 the Duke of Argyle, and other generals led 
 on eighty-six battalions, and Count Loweem 
 twenty-two other battalions, to attack the 
 intrenchments in the woods of Sart and Tais- 
 niere. General Withers also, with nineteen 
 battalions, attacked the enemy in another 
 intrenchment beyond the woods of Taisniere 
 and in Great Blagniere. The design in both 
 succeeded: the fight, however, was long and 
 obstinate, the enemy defending themselves 
 with equal vigor. The allies were repulsed 
 more than once, but notwithstanding the 
 barricadoes of felled trees and other impedi- 
 ments, the action wavering almost two hours, 
 they saw themselves at last masters of the 
 wood, and had penetrated so far that they 
 could see the hind part of the intrenchments 
 of the enemy’s centre. 
 
 The attack of the left wing did not begin 
 till half an hour after that of the right, but 
 it lasted longer, and was much more bloody. 
 Thirty battalions, sustained by fifteen others, 
 Prussians, Hanoverians, or Hessians, engaged 
 with above seventy. These thirty battalions 
 were commanded by Prince Friso of Nassau, 
 general of the foot, and by Baron Fagel. 
 Following his example, the troops of his 
 attack advanced as far as the third intrench- 
 ment. But these they could not force, as the 
 enemy were well seconded by fresh battal- 
 ions drawn from their centre. The assailants 
 were even driven back to their own post. 
 Nevertheless the prince led on his troops a 
 second time, to attack those intrenchments 
 which he had once gained and lost again. 
 They recovered the two first, but the third still 
 remained impregnable. When the enemy’s 
 left retired, Marlborough directed the Earl 
 of Orkney, with fifteen battalions, to attack 
 and post himself in the intrenchments in the 
 
 MAL 
 
516 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 plain between the woods of Sart and Jansart. 
 This was executed, and gave the horse an 
 opportunity to enter them, and advance into 
 the plain. The first squadrons, led by the 
 Prince of Hesse and the Prince D’Auvergne, 
 were thrown into disorder by the house- 
 hold troops, but rallied, under the fire of 
 those battalions. Advantages and disadvan- 
 tages succeeded alternately six times, till the 
 Prince of Hesse turning to the left, fell upon 
 the rear of the infantry that had been en- 
 gaged with the Prince of Nassau. This was 
 the decisive stroke. On the sight of the 
 diversion made by the Prince of Hesse, the 
 Dutch battalions recovered new strength, 
 broke through the third and last intrench- 
 ment, and drove all opposition before them. 
 In general, the French made their retreat in 
 good order ; but three regiments of Danish 
 cavalry made a terrible slaughter among 
 several battalions of their right that had been 
 surrounded. The allies pursued as far as 
 the village of Quievrain. The enemy lost 
 sixteen of their cannon, twenty colors, 
 twenty-six standards, and left other indis- 
 putable marks of victory, including a number 
 of prisoners. Many were taken next morn- 
 ing in Bavay and the neighboring places, 
 weariness or their wounds not permitting 
 them to follow their army. Great carnage 
 was there on both sides ; the allies lost 
 
 18.000 men. 
 
 MALTA, anciently Melita, and formerly 
 dependent on Sicily, has a population of 
 
 143.000 inhabitants on its narrow limits of 
 115 square miles. Gozo and Comino are two 
 small islands in its vicinity. Yaletta, the 
 capital of Malta, is one of the strongest places 
 in the world, and has a valuable harbor, of 
 great importance in the commerce of the 
 Archipelago and the Levant. The island 
 formerly belonged to the order of Malta, or 
 knights of St. John. The French gained 
 possession of it in 1798, but the English have 
 held it since 1800. The soil of this island, 
 which is rock covered with a light bed of 
 earth, produces all sorts of vegetables, excel- 
 lent fruits (the oranges, in particular, being 
 famous), silk, sugar, and cotton. The cli- 
 mate is mild, and the atmosphere so clear 
 that almost at every sunrise and sunset the 
 summit of iEtna, 128 miles away, can be 
 
 distinctly descried. The Maltese are sober, 
 fine seamen, and devoted to commerce. 
 
 MALTA, Knights of, called also Hospi- 
 tallers of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights 
 of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Cer- 
 tain Christian merchants of Malphis in the 
 kingdom of Naples, who traded to Palestine, 
 ohtained leave from the Caliph of Egypt in 
 1048, to dwell near the Holy Sepulchre of 
 Christ, and to erect a small house for the 
 entertainment of pilgrims, which they named 
 the Hospital of Christians, with a small ora- 
 tory dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Their 
 number increasing, they built another house 
 for women, and dedicated it to St. Mary Mag- 
 dalen. Their number still increasing, they 
 built a more convenient house, the other 
 being too small, and dedicated it to St. John 
 the Baptist. They entertained all pilgrims 
 that came for devotion, and cured the diseased 
 among them. They grew eminent for their 
 devotion, charity, and hospitality. In 1118 
 they became a military order; St. John the 
 Baptist being their patron, they were called 
 Brethren Hospitallers of St. John Baptist of 
 Jerusalem, to distinguish them from the 
 knights of the Holy Sepulchre ; they took the 
 black habit of the Hermits of St. Augustin, 
 and on the left side of the breast, they wore 
 a cross of white cloth, with eight points. In 
 war they wore crimson, with a white cross, 
 but in their monasteries and on the day of 
 their profession the black garment only. 
 This order increased in wealth after the sup- 
 pression of the Templars, most of whose 
 lands were given to them. They had in sev- 
 eral parts of Christendom 20,000 manors; in 
 England the lord prior of the order was 
 accounted the prime baron of the realm. 
 
 Their first great master was Gerald de 
 Sainct Didier, by whom they were founded. 
 After Jerusalem was taken by Saladin, they 
 retired to Acre, valiantly defended by them 
 in 1290. The last master that had his resi- 
 dence in the Holy Land was John de Yilliers, 
 in whose time, being driven out of Palestine, 
 they removed to Cyprus, and then to the isle 
 of Rhodes, which they possessed till the year 
 1522, when they were expelled by Solyman 
 the Magnificent, who took it by force, through 
 want of succor by the Christian princes. 
 The city was admirably defended by the 
 
 MAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 517 
 
 knights, under the conduct of their great 
 master, Philip de Yilliers. 
 
 After the loss of the isle of Rhodes, they 
 removed to the island of Malta, which with 
 Tripoli and Gaza were granted to them in fee 
 by the Emperor Charles V., a.d. 1530, under 
 the tender of one falcon yearly to the viceroy 
 of Sicily, and to acknowledge the King of 
 Spain and Sicily for their protector. In this 
 isle they continued a bulwark to those parts, 
 and from this their settlement, were called 
 Knights of Malta. 
 
 In May, 1566, they were besieged by Soly- 
 man, with a navy of 160 galleys full of 
 Turkish soldiers, and 100 vessels with pro- 
 visions. The siege was sustained for four 
 months by the bravery of the knights, and 
 the conduct of their great master, John de 
 Valete, so that the Turks were obliged to 
 raise the siege, and leave 30,000 of their men 
 behind, and the greater part of their artillery, 
 on the 8th of September in the same year. 
 Upon that day there is annually a procession 
 at Malta, in memory of this deliverance. 
 
 These knights were in number 1,000 ; 500 
 to reside in the island of Malta, the remainder 
 dispersed at their seminaries in Spain, Ger- 
 many, Italy, and France, and at any summons 
 to make their personal appearance. They 
 had a seminary in England till the suppres- 
 sion of it by Henry VIII. ; yet they continued 
 to appoint one to whom they gave the title 
 of the grand prior of England. Out of the 
 following nations they chose their officers : 
 Provence, the grand prior ; Auvergne, the 
 marshal of the order ; Italy, the admiral of 
 the order: Arragon, the conservator of the 
 order; England they used to appoint the 
 great colonel of the cavalry; Germany, the 
 high bailiff of the order; Castile, the high 
 chancellor of the order. 
 
 None were admitted into this order, but 
 such as could prove their gentility for six 
 descents ; they swore to defend the church, 
 to obey their superiors, and to live upon the 
 revenues of their order only. There were 
 sixteen called the great crosses, out of whom 
 the officers of the order, as the marshal, 
 admiral, chancellor, &c., were # chosen, who, 
 together with the master, punished such as 
 were convicted of any crime. 
 
 When the grand master died, they suffered 
 no vessel to go out of the island till another 
 
 was chosen, lest the pope should interfere in 
 their election, which was as follows: the 
 several seminaries named two knights each, 
 allowing also two for the English ; and those 
 sixteen from among themselves chose eight ; 
 those eight chose a knight, a priest, and a 
 friar servant ; and these three, out of the 
 sixteen great crosses, elected the great mas- 
 ter, who, being chosen, was styled ‘The 
 most illustrious and most reverend Prince, 
 the Lord Friar N. N. Great Master of the 
 Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, Prince of 
 Malta and Gaza.’ 
 
 The badge of the order was a gold cross of 
 eight points, enameled white, pendent to a 
 black watered ribbon, worn at the breast. 
 This order having been composed of persons 
 of different countries, the badge was deco- 
 rated so as to distinguish the country of the 
 bearer ; Germany, by an imperial crown 
 and eagle; France, the crown and fleurs-de- 
 lis, & c. 
 
 In 1798 the knights of Malta yielded their 
 dominion to the French power, from whom 
 it was soon after wrested by the British, in 
 which crown it was finally vested by the 
 peace of 1814. 
 
 MAMELUKES (from the Arabic Memalilc, 
 a slave), a body of cavalry, formed in Egypt, 
 1214, from Georgian and Circassian slaves, 
 chosen for their beauty and strength. From 
 1254 they governed that country for two 
 hundred and sixty-three years, and expelled 
 the Christians from Palestine in 1291. They 
 remained a military body in Egypt, till the 
 year 1810, but their chiefs were treacherously 
 destroyed by Mohammed Ali in 1811. They 
 were mounted on superb Turkish horses, 
 which, although spirited and full of fire, were 
 docile, and obedient to the word and bit. 
 The prevailing color of this breed is gray, and 
 the unfailing «. tenderness with which the 
 horses of the Turks are treated, is repaid by 
 astonishing fidelity on the part of these fine 
 animals. The horses of the Mamelukes were 
 splendidly caparisoned, and their studded 
 trappings and rich bits rang in their gallop. 
 The saddles had high pommels and cruppers, 
 and the huge shovel stirrups were occasion- 
 ally gilded and curiously ornamented. The 
 riders wore full turbans, light jackets, loose 
 short sleeves, and flowing trowsers. Their 
 arms were an ataghan, or sabre, of Damascus 
 
 MAM 
 
518 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 steel, which is so finely tempered that a blade 
 composed of it breaks in the hand of an un- 
 skillful swordsman. The Mamelukes were 
 skilled in the use of these sabres, and never 
 gave slight wounds. Besides the ataghan, the 
 Mameluke had a carbine slung at his back, 
 and a brace of pistols at his saddle-bow. 
 
 At the famous battle of the Pyramids, the 
 Mamelukes were almost annihilated by the 
 French infantry under Bonaparte. The im- 
 penetrable squares of the French regiments 
 received them with a most galling fire. The 
 horses reared and plunged, and the riders 
 fell by hundreds. In the very agony of 
 death, while expiring upon the ground, some 
 of the dismounted Moslems dragged them- 
 selves to the feet of the French troops, and 
 cut at their legs with their long crooked 
 sabres. Some backed their chargers upon 
 the infantry, and caused them to strike the 
 soldiers with their heels. But their rout 
 was complete. Many perished in the Nile, 
 and but a remnant escaped to Upper Egypt. 
 Although individually the finest cavalry in 
 the world, they were incapable of acting in 
 concert. 
 
 MANLIUS, Marcus Capitolinus, a Ro- 
 man consul and commander, who, when 
 Rome was taken by the Gauls, retired into 
 the capito and preserved it from a sudden 
 attack made upon it in the night. The dogs 
 which were kept in the capitol made no noise ; 
 but the geese, by their cry, awoke Manlius 
 who had just time to repel the enemy. 
 Geese from that period were always held 
 sacred among the Romans, and Manlius was 
 honored with the surname of Capitolinus. 
 He afterward endeavored to subvert the lib- 
 erties of his country, and was thrown down 
 the Tarpeian rock, 383 b.c. 
 
 MANLIUS, Titus Torquatus, a famous 
 Roman, who displayed great courage in his 
 youth as a military tribune. In the war 
 against the Gauls he accepted a challenge 
 given by one of the enemy, and having slain 
 him took his collar from his neck, on which 
 account he assumed the name of Torquatus. 
 He was the first Roman advanced to the 
 dictatorship without being previously a con- 
 sul. But he tarnished his glory by putting 
 his son to death, for defeating the enemy 
 without having received orders to attack 
 them. This gave great disgust to the Ro- 
 
 mans ; and on account of his severity in his 
 government, all edicts of extreme rigor were 
 called Manliana edicta. He flourished b.c. 
 340. 
 
 MANSFIELD, William Murray, Earl of, 
 was born in Perthshire, March 2d, 1705. He 
 was chief-justice of the King’s Bench from 
 1756 to 1788, in which year he retired; and 
 five years after, he died. 
 
 MANTINEA, a village of Greece, where 
 363 b.c. a battle was fought between the 
 Thebans and Lacedaemonians, in which Epam- 
 inondas was killed. 
 
 MARAT, Jean Paul. The name of this 
 monster revives the recollection of the worst 
 atrocities of the French revolution. He 
 wrote strongly in favor of the worst of parties, 
 and was a member of the convention. Marat, 
 who belonged to the Mountain party, and 
 was deeply implicated in their sanguinary 
 proceedings, was assassinated by Charlotte 
 Corday, in 1793. He was born in Neuf- 
 chatel, Switzerland, in 1746. 
 
 MARATHON, a village of Greece, eighteen 
 miles north-east of Athens. It is famous for 
 the battle fought on its plains Sept. 28th, 490 
 b.c., in which Miltiades, with a small Grecian 
 force, totally defeated the numerous army 
 sent by Darius, King of Persia, to conquer 
 Greece. 
 
 MARCY, William L., was born in South- 
 bridge, Mass., December 12th, 1786. In the 
 war of 1812 he served gallantly as a lieuten- 
 ant of infantry. He was bred to the law in 
 the state of New York, and was thrice elected 
 governor of the state. He was at the head 
 of the war department during Polk’s ad- 
 ministration, and secretary of state under 
 President Pierce. He died suddenly July 
 4th, 1857. 
 
 MARENGO, a village in the Sardinian 
 duchy of Montferrat, celebrated for the victory 
 of Bonaparte over the Austrians, June 14th, 
 1800. Some details of this most severe con- 
 flict, which, perhaps beyond all others, estab- 
 lished the military character of Bonaparte, 
 then consul, are well entitled to a place in a 
 compendium of history. The French head- 
 quarters were removed to Yoghera, which the 
 army passed through on its way to Tortona, 
 taking up a position round Tortona to block- 
 ade it by divisions ; the advance-guard quietly 
 went round the town, and passed without any- 
 
 MAR 
 
HISTORY AtfD BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 519 
 
 thing remarkable having taken place. If the 
 Austrian commander was doubtful as to what 
 line of conduct he ought to pursue, this was 
 his time to determine : the possession of Ge- 
 noa gave him choice either to fight, or shut 
 himself up in the garrison he held; and he 
 should not have forgotten that so long as he 
 held Genoa, his army had a retreat from the 
 port, and to have kept the communication 
 open with that city should have been his chief 
 concern. The French fought for Genoa from 
 a knowledge of its value, and Bonaparte has- 
 tened to derive advantage from the neglect of 
 the Austrians. He ordered the banks of the 
 Po opposite Yalenza to be guarded, lest they 
 should escape that way, and the passes be- 
 tween Piedmont and Genoa to be gained. 
 Massena and Suchet were rapidly advancing 
 to annoy the rear of the Austrians, and the 
 first consul, in his letter to his colleagues, does 
 not seem ignorant of the movements in his 
 favor by the army of Italy. The French army 
 understood that Melas had evacuated Turin, 
 and was advancing to meet them with 60,000 
 men. General Gardanne retired to take post 
 at Marengo, on the plain of which his great 
 body of cavalry would be of much service. 
 Bonaparte skirted Marengo, and was seen 
 examining the ground with attention, by turns 
 meditating and giving orders. 
 
 The army passed that night at St. Julian’s, 
 at the entrance of the plain of Marengo. On 
 the morning of the 14th of June, some dis- 
 charges of cannon roused them from their 
 repose. All was soon in readiness. Gardanne 
 was attacked at seven o’clock ; the enemy 
 showed much vigor of preparation ; a few 
 weak points were touched on, but his inten- 
 tions were unknown till late in the morning. 
 Berthier was first in the field, and wounded 
 soldiers arriving, owned that the Austrians 
 were in force. General Victor’s division was 
 drawn up in order of battle. General Lannes’ 
 division formed the right wing. The French 
 army was in two lines, and the cavalry sup- 
 ported its wdngs. Bonaparte, about eleven 
 o’clock, hastened to the field of battle. Gen- 
 eral Desaix was ordered to support Victor. 
 The Austrians were careful of their position 
 near the bridge, on the Bormida; but the 
 principal point of action was at St. Stefano: 
 from hence they could cut off the retreat of 
 the French, and they gave their attention to 
 
 this point The division under Victor began 
 to give way, and many corps of cavalry and 
 infantry were driven back. The firing came 
 nearer, and a sudden and dreadful discharge 
 was heard on the Bormida ; the French were 
 soon seen retreating, carrying the wounded 
 on their shoulders, and the Austrians gained 
 upon them. Bonaparte advanced, and urged 
 all he met with ; his presence encouraged 
 them; his own guards no longer continued 
 about his person, but near him shared in the 
 battle. The grenadiers of the consular guard 
 advanced against the enemy: although they 
 were only about 500 men, they still advanced, 
 and forced everything in their passage ; they 
 were three times charged by the enemies’ 
 cavalry; they surrounded their colors and 
 wounded, and having exhausted all their am- 
 munition, they then slowly fell back, and 
 joined the rear-guard. 
 
 The army fought retreating in all direc- 
 tions ; the Austrians turned the right wing, 
 the garrison of Tortona made a sortie, and the 
 French were thus surrounded. Bonaparte in 
 the centre, encouraged the gallant corps that 
 defended the defile which crossed the road, 
 shut up on one side by a wood, and on tho 
 other by some thick vineyards of lofty growth ; 
 the village of Marengo was on the left. Of 
 the French artillery, the few gunners that 
 remained had little ammunition left. Thirty 
 pieces of cannon, well served by the enemy, 
 cut up the French. In the midst of this 
 slaughter, the first consul appeared to brave 
 death. The ground was ploughed up by the 
 enemies’ shot, even between the legs of his 
 horse; but undaunted, and with the greatest 
 coolness, he gave his orders as events required : 
 he was urged to retire, but discovered no 
 change. Marengo seemed the prize for which 
 both parties contended. Gardanne flanked 
 the corps going to attack it ; the Austrians 
 for a moment gave way, but being re-enforced, 
 marched on. General Kellerman, the younger, 
 supported the left; a regiment of dragoons 
 routed a column of Austrian cavalry, but was 
 charged by superior numbers, and was giving 
 way, when two more columns advanced to 
 his assistance, and took one hundred prisoners. 
 
 The consul being informed that the reserve 
 of General Desaix was not yet arrived, has- 
 tened to the division of General Lannes to 
 slacken its retreat : he told them it was his 
 
 MAR 
 
520 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 practice to sleep on the field of battle. The 
 enemy, however, advanced; the retreat was 
 absolutely necessary, and took place in good 
 order. Though eighty pieces of cannon were 
 playing on them, this did not annoy the firm- 
 ness of the French : they maneuvred as though 
 they were on parade. At four in the after- 
 noon, not more than 6,000 infantry stood to 
 their colors, and six pieces of cannon only 
 could be made use of ; one-third of the army 
 was unable to combat, and more than another 
 third was occupied in removing the sick and 
 wounded, owing to the want of carriages. 
 
 Every circumstance was eminently discour- 
 aging to the French army, but their fortitude 
 and courage changed their situation in the 
 course of two hours afterward. The divisions 
 of Mounier. and Dcsaix showed themselves ; 
 they arrived on a gallop, after a forced march 
 of ten leagues, anxious to avenge their fallen 
 comrades. The crowd of dead and wounded 
 might well have damped their ardor, but one 
 opinion only reigned among them, and they 
 rushed on to glory. General Melas, ignorant 
 of what passed in the French line, and also 
 ignorant of the re-enforcements that had 
 timely arrived to their succor, changed that 
 disposition which had given him success, and 
 which it was his interest as well as duty to 
 have followed up. lie extended his wings, 
 thinking, by this maneuvre, to cut the enemy 
 off, but it only brought on his ow T n disaster. 
 Bonaparte, whom nothing escaped, seized on 
 this favorable opportunity, and altered his plan 
 accordingly. 
 
 When Desaix reached the heights, the con- 
 sul, the generals, and the staff w r ent through 
 the ranks inspiring confidence. This took up 
 near an hour, w T hile the Austrian artillery 
 was bearing upon their ranks, and many were 
 thus killed without moving, except to cover 
 their comrades’ dead bodies. The signal for 
 charging was at length heard. Desaix, at the 
 head of a light battalion, threw himself upon 
 the Austrians, and charged with the bayonet : 
 all the French were in motion at once, in two 
 lines; their fire carried everything before it; 
 the enemy were in every position overthrown. 
 The French line now presented a formidable 
 front ; as quick as the cannon were brought up, 
 they made dreadful havoc among the affright- 
 ed Austrians ; they fell back, and the cavalry 
 charged with fury ; a powder wagon blew up, 
 
 and their alarm increased ; in fact, all gave 
 way and fled. The French cavalry rushed 
 into the plain, and advanced toward the en- 
 emy. Desaix trampled on all obstacles which 
 opposed him. Victor carried Marengo, and 
 flew toward the Bormida. The centre, under 
 Murat, advanced into the plain ; he much an- 
 noyed the Austrian centre, and kept a great 
 body of cavalry in check. Desaix cut off the 
 left wing of the Austrians completely, and in 
 the moment of his victory received a mortal 
 wound. General Kellerman made 6,000 pris- 
 oners, with two generals and officers of the 
 staff. Night coming on, the Austrians were 
 all in disorder ; all crowded together near the 
 centre, and many w r ere thrown into the river, 
 off the bridge ; their artillery intercepted their 
 retreat. The third line of Austrian cavalry, 
 wishing to save the infantry, came up. * A 
 ditch separated the combatants. The French 
 crossed it, and immediately surrounded the 
 first two platoons. The Austrians were 
 thrown into disorder ; the pursuit continued, 
 and they made a great many prisoners ; the 
 Austrian rear-guard was cut to pieces. Night 
 setting in, and the extreme fatigue of the 
 horses, made Murat determine not to expose 
 his troops more after so successful a day’s 
 w r ork. The armies had been fourteen hours 
 within musket-shot of each other, and wanted 
 rest. Victory waved on each side four times 
 during the day, and sixty pieces of cannon 
 were alternately won and lost. When the 
 battle ended, the French had taken 12 stand- 
 ards, 45 pieces of cannon, and 12,000 prison- 
 ers. The Austrians lost seven generals, 400 
 officers, and 6,000 men killed or wounded. 
 The French lost Generals Desaix and Watrin 
 killed, four generals of brigade wounded, and 
 3,000 men killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 The French army, when the battle began, 
 was reckoned at about 45,000 strong, with 
 about thirty pieces of artillery. The Austrian 
 army was from 55,000 to 60,000 men, includ- 
 ing near 18,000 cavalry, and an immense train 
 of artillery well provided. By this victory 
 Bonaparte became the master of Italy. 
 
 MARGxVRET of Anjou. [ See Plantage- 
 nets, Henry VI. J 
 
 MARGARET, the Countess of Salisbury, % 
 daughter of the Duke of Clarence, brother of 
 Edward IV. ; beheaded May -27th, 1541, aged 
 seventy. 
 
 MAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 521 
 
 Mx\RGARET, Queen of Denmark, Sweden, 
 and Norway, commonly called the Semiramis 
 of the North, vanquished Albert her rival at 
 Falkoping in 1389, and died in 1412. Albert 
 had contemptuously termed her “the king in 
 petticoats.” 
 
 MARIA THERESA, born May 13th, 1717, 
 was the eldest daughter of Charles VI. of Aus- 
 tria. Her succession to the throne, in defiance 
 of the ‘family compact,’ had been guaranteed 
 by all the leading states of Europe : yet upon 
 the decease of her father, she was attacked by 
 Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria, Sardinia, and 
 Sicily, each of whose monarchs had picked 
 out the slice of her domains he would like. 
 A long war ensued. Her husband was her 
 cousin, Francis of Lorraine. At one time the 
 enemy stalked in her capital : she fled to 
 Presburg, and appealed to the Hungarians. 
 “Let us die for our king Maria Theresa,” 
 (they never would acknowledge a queen), was 
 their cry, and by their loyalty and valor the 
 empire was saved. Maria Theresa was pious 
 and just, and her court was a bright contrast 
 to the debaucheries of other kingdoms. The 
 great empress died Nov. 29th, 1780. A little 
 while before she breathed her last, she lay 
 with closed eyes, apparently slumbering. One 
 of the attendants whispered, “ The empress 
 sleeps.” At once she opened her eyes : “No,” 
 she said, “ I do not sleep ; I wish to meet my 
 death awake.” 
 
 MARIAMNE, the wife of Herod the Great, 
 by whom she had two sons, Alexander and 
 Aristobulus, and two daughters. Herod was 
 very fond of Mariamne; but she had little 
 regard for him, especially after he put to death 
 her brother Aristobulus. When Herod went 
 to Rome to court the favor of Augustus, he 
 left secret orders with Josephus and Sohemus, 
 to destroy Mariamne and her mother, if any 
 misfortune should happen to him. Mariamne, 
 having obtained the secret from Sohemus, 
 upbraided Herod at his return, with his in- 
 humanity, for which he put her to death, to- 
 gether with Sohemus, b.c. 22. 
 
 MARIE ANTOINETTE, the accomplished, 
 beautiful, and unfortunate queen of Louis 
 XVI. of France, whom she married while he 
 was dauphin, was the daughter of Francis I. 
 and Maria Theresa, and was born at Vienna 
 in 1755. Her accomplishments, talents, grace, 
 virtue, and uncommon loveliness fitted her 
 
 for the queen of a gallant nation, and as such 
 she would have been honored in France, had 
 she lived before oppression had roused the 
 people to madness. Her mother, in a letter 
 to her future husband, after alluding to the 
 care with which she had formed her mind, 
 says, “ Above all things, I have recommended 
 to her humility before God, because I am 
 convinced that it is impossible for us to secure 
 the happiness of the subjects confided to us, 
 without love to Him, who destroys the scep- 
 tres and the thrones of kings according to his 
 will.” The marriage took place at Versailles, 
 May 16th, 1770, and was celebrated with un- 
 common splendor; but immediately after the 
 ceremony, a thunder-storm of unparalleled 
 violence broke over the palace of Versailles, 
 darkened the surrounding scenery, and struck 
 terror into the hearts of the people for miles 
 around. On May 30th, the festivities at Paris 
 were saddened by a most terrible accident ; a 
 number of citizens being crushed to death in 
 the Rue Royale, by some mismanagement on 
 the part of the proper authorities. Fifty-three 
 persons were found dead, and three hundred 
 more were dangerously injured. 
 
 The magnanimity of Marie Antoinette dis- 
 played itself soon after her elevation to the 
 throne, on the death of Louis XV. An officer 
 of the body-guard, who had given offense on 
 some former occasion, expressed his intention 
 of resigning his commission, but the queen 
 forbade him. “Remain,” said she; “forget 
 the past. Far be it from the queen to avenge 
 the injuries of the dauphiness.” She devoted 
 herself to the interests of her people with an 
 assiduity unparalleled in a sovereign of her 
 age; yet; becoming obnoxious to the court 
 party, her character was assailed in every 
 shape and quarter. She was accused of set- 
 ting on foot conspiracies which never existed, 
 and of entertaining views which never entered 
 her mind. She was termed the Austrian, and 
 it was openly asserted as well as privately in- 
 sinuated, that her heart was estranged from 
 the country of her husband, and her mind 
 solely occupied with the interests of her native 
 land. In her conduct there was matter for 
 gentle reproof, but none for malevolent accu- 
 sation. A gayety which sometimes degener- 
 ated into levity, a passion for fashionable nov- 
 elties, and an unwary contempt for court for- 
 malities, instead of being regarded as the foi- 
 
 MAR 
 
522 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 bles and imprudences of a young and innocent 
 mind, were construed into evidences of the 
 existence of loose principles, unbridled ex- 
 travagance, and hatred for the nation. She 
 was likewise charged with pettishness under 
 reproof; and we can readily conceive how a 
 woman of so high a rank, conscious of the 
 purity of her intentions, and perpetually as- 
 sailed by reckless cavilers, assumed in reply 
 to the unworthy insinuations of her enemies, 
 the tone which her virtue and her birth ap- 
 peared to warrant. The affair of the diamond 
 necklace created an extraordinary sensation. 
 A jeweler at Paris demanded payment for a 
 necklace so costly that the finances of a queen 
 would hardly warrant its purchase. Exami. 
 nation brought proof of the queen’s integrity. 
 A lady of the stature and complexion of the 
 queen had succeeded in disguising herself, 
 and passing herself off as Marie Antoinette, 
 upon a cardinal in a midnight meeting in the 
 park of Versailles. 
 
 The long gathering cloud broke in storm 
 in 1789. On the 6th of October, the mob 
 broke into the palace of Versailles, murdered 
 some of the body-guards, and threatened the 
 queen in the most frightful language. At 
 midnight she received a letter from a friendly 
 clergyman, advising her to seek safety in 
 flight, as her life would be sacrificed early 
 the next morning. She resolved to remain 
 and destroyed the warning letter. She heard 
 the footsteps of the ruffian rabble ; she 
 thought her time had come ; but her life was 
 saved. The progress of the ruffians was 
 arrested at the very door of her bed-chamber, 
 where her faithful guards laid down their 
 lives to secure for their queen a retreat to 
 the chamber of the king. The king and 
 queen showed themselves with their chil- 
 dren in the balcony. The mass of heads 
 beneath for a moment ceased to be agitated ; 
 but it was only for a moment. Silence was 
 broken by a thousand tongues: “No chil- 
 dren ! no children ! The queen ! the queen 
 alone ! ” This was a trying moment ; but 
 Antoinette had firmness for the crisis. Put- 
 ting her son and daughter into her husband’s 
 arms, she advanced alone into the balcony. 
 A spectacle like this filled the fierce people 
 with admiration, and thundering shouts of 
 “ Long live the queen,” succeeded to the 
 imprecations of the preceding'moment. Such 
 
 is the fickleness of a mob! The march to 
 Paris was a succession of terrors. The 
 heads of two faithful guardsmen, elevated on 
 pikes, met the eyes of the poor queen as she 
 looked from her carriage windows. 
 
 The fate of Marie Antoinette darkened 
 rapidly. With the king she fled to Va- 
 rennes. With him she was brought back to 
 Paris. Her courage did not fail in the scene 
 of the legislative assembly, before which 
 body she was present with her husband, 
 heard his deposition pronounced, and then 
 went into the Temple, where he was impris- 
 oned. Here, where the light of heaven 
 faintly fell through grated windows, sur- 
 rounded by her family, she appeared to feel 
 entire resignation to the will of Him on 
 whom the happiness of the humblest indi- 
 vidual depends. When she heard the con- 
 demnation of the king from the lips of the 
 royal victim, she had the firmness to con- 
 gratulate him on the speedy delivery from 
 trouble which awaited him. The eternal 
 separation from her son did not shake her 
 firmness, and, with a heart apparently un- 
 broken, she was consigned to the loathsome 
 depths of a dungeon, Aug. 5th, 1793. The 
 accusations brought against the unhappy 
 queen on her trial, were all unfounded, and 
 were merely advanced because her enemies 
 had still respect enough for justice to mimic 
 its forms in their guilty court. In the in- 
 dictment she was named the Widow Capet. 
 She was charged with having squandered 
 the public money, and with leaguing in secret 
 with the foreign enemies of France. The 
 clearness of her innocence, the falsehood and 
 frivolity qf witnesses, the eloquence of de- 
 fenders, were of no avail: Marie Antoinette 
 was doomed to die upon the scaffold. 
 
 The expression of her countenance as she 
 passed to the place of execution awed the 
 bloodthirsty populace ; but the matchless 
 beauty of that countenance was gone forever. 
 Her hair had turned white in prison ; her 
 dress was tattered. One unacquainted with 
 the ravages of grief could not believe that 
 the haggard and forsaken being now led to 
 sacrifice was the young queen who a short 
 time before held in thrall the chivalry of 
 France, by her exquisite loveliness, her win- 
 ning grace and sportive gayety. Antoinette 
 cast back a long last look at the Tuileries, a 
 
 MAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 523 
 
 look which told of sorrowful remembrance, 
 and of agonizing emotion ; then, with an air 
 of dignified resignation, she ascended the 
 scaffold. “ My God ! ” cried she, as she 
 kneeled on that fatal platform, “enlighten 
 and affect my executioner ! Adieu, my chil- 
 dren — my beloved ones — forever ! I am go- 
 ing to your father 1” This unfortunate 
 woman perished in her thirty-eighth year, 
 October 16 th, 1793. 
 
 MARIE DE MEDICIS, the queen of Henry 
 IV. of France, was the daughter of Francis 
 II., Grand-Duke of Tuscany, and the Arch- 
 duchess Joan of Austria. She was wedded 
 to Henry in 1600, at the age of twenty-seven. 
 At his death in 1610, their son, Louis XIII., 
 was only nine years of age, and Marie acted 
 as regent. Intrigues and discords disturbed 
 her reign ; Richelieu felt his way to supreme 
 power ; and the unhappy dowager was at last 
 driven from France. Abandoned by all her 
 Italian kin, and neglected by her unnatural 
 son, she suffered for the common means of 
 life, and died in a garret at Cologne in 1642. 
 
 MARION, Francis, was born at Winyaw, 
 S. C., in 1732. “He was not larger than a 
 New England lobster, and might easily 
 enough have been put into a quart pot.” 
 He served in expeditions against the Chero- 
 kees and other hostile tribes, and at the 
 opening of the Revolution received a cap- 
 tain’s commission, from which he rose to the 
 rank of brigadier of his native state. The 
 exploits of Marion and his men kept the 
 British and Tories of South Carolina in con- 
 stant terror, and are among the most spirited 
 reminiscences of that thrilling time. The 
 wariness and rapidity of the brave partisan 
 gained him the familiar name of the Swamp 
 Fox. He died Feb. 29th, 1795. His last 
 words were, “Thank God, since I came to 
 man’s estate, I have never intentionally done 
 wrong to any man.” 
 
 MARIUS, Caius, a celebrated Roman 
 general. He conquered Jugurtha, King of 
 Numidia, and afterward, for several suc- 
 cessive years, carried on war with the Cim- 
 bri and Teutones, barbarous nations who 
 attempted to subdue Italy. In his old age 
 he engaged in a civil war with Sylla, and was 
 compelled to flee to Africa. He landed at 
 Carthage. Presently there came a mes- 
 senger from C. Sextilius, the governor of the 
 
 province, ordering him to depart. He sat in 
 silence, glaring sternly at the envoy, and 
 when asked what reply should be made to 
 the praetor, he groaned and said, “ Tell him 
 you saw Caius Marius sitting an exile among 
 the ruins of Carthage.” His party becoming 
 victorious, he returned to Rome, where 
 amidst massacre he died, 86 b.c. He was 
 seven times consul. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, John Churchill, Duke 
 of, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650, 
 and received an indifferent education, for his 
 father took him to court at the age of twelve 
 years. About 1666 he was made an ensign 
 in the guards, owing his colors to the dis- 
 grace of his sister Arabella by the Duke 
 of York, and served for some time at Tan- 
 gier. In 1672 he was with the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth, who served with the French against 
 the Dutch, and was made captain of grena- 
 diers. The conduct of Mr. Churchill at the 
 battle of Nimeguen gained the particular 
 notice of Marshal Turenne, who called him 
 “ the handsome Englishman who would one 
 day make a great general.” At the siege 
 of Maestricht, his bravery was so distin- 
 guished that the French king thanked him 
 particularly at the head of the line. He was 
 madd, 6n his return to England, lieutenant- 
 colonel, gentleman of the bed-chamber, and 
 master of the robes to the Duke of York. 
 He attended that prince to Holland, and 
 into Scotland, and about this time married 
 Miss Sarah Jennings, one of the Princess 
 Anne’s maids of honor. In 1682 he was 
 made a peer, by the title of Baron Eymouth 
 in Scotland; and when James came to the 
 crown, he was sent ambassador to France to 
 announce the event. In 1685 he was created 
 Lord Churchill of Sandridge in the county 
 of Hertford. The same year he took part 
 in the suppression of Monmouth’s rebellion. 
 When the Prince of Orange landed, Churchill 
 assured the king he would shed his last drop 
 of blood in his service. The hypocrite had 
 long been in correspondence with William, 
 had corrupted the army, and shortly after 
 completed his treachery by joining the 
 invaders. The prince was proud of this 
 acquisition, gave his lordship a gracious 
 reception, and intrusted him with the sole 
 regulation of the army. In 1689 he was 
 sworn of the privy council, and made one 
 
 MAR 
 
52L 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber of the 
 king, and created Earl of Marlborough. The 
 same year he was sent to Holland as com- 
 mander of the English forces. He next 
 served in Ireland, and reduced Cork, with 
 other strong places. But notwithstanding 
 these important services, he was dismissed 
 from his employments, and committed to the 
 Tower; from which, however, he was soon 
 released. .The cause of this was supposed 
 to be a suspicion that he favored the Jacobites. 
 
 At the commencement of Queen Anne’s 
 reign, the earl came to England, whence he 
 had been sent ambassador to Holland, and 
 recommended a speedy war with France and 
 Spain, which advice was followed. He went 
 to the continent as captain-general of the 
 English forces, and performed many brilliant 
 actions throughout his various campaigns, 
 too numerous indeed to be detailed here. 
 Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Mal- 
 plaquet were among the greatest of his 
 victories. At the battle of Bamillies, May 
 12th, 1706, he narrowly escaped death, a 
 cannon-shot taking off the head of Colonel 
 Bingly as he was helping the duke to his 
 horse. In 1711 he returned to England, 
 deprived of his employments by Queen Anne, 
 through the intrigues of his enemies. George 
 I. restored him his military appointments. 
 He died June 15th, 1722. 
 
 Marlborough rose fast in the court and in 
 the army, and was early distinguished as a 
 man of fashion and of pleasure. His stature 
 was commanding, his face handsome, his 
 address singularly winning, yet of such dig- 
 nity that the most impertinent fops never 
 ventured to take any liberty with him ; his 
 temper, even in the most vexatious and 
 irritating circumstances, always under per- 
 fect command. His education had been so 
 much neglected that he could not spell the 
 most common words of his own language ; 
 but his acute an(J vigorous understanding 
 amply supplied the place of book learning. 
 He was not loquacious; but, when he was 
 forced to speak in public, his natural elo- 
 quence moved the envy of practiced rhetori- 
 cians. His courage was singularly cool and 
 imperturbable. During many years of anx- 
 iety, and peril, he never, in any emergency, 
 lost even for a moment the perfect use of his 
 admirable judgment. 
 
 Unhappily, the splendid qualities of John 
 Churchill were mingled with alloy of the 
 most sordid kind. Some propensities, which 
 in youth are singularly ungraceful, began 
 very early to show themselves in him. He 
 was thrifty in his very vices, and levied 
 ample contributions on ladies enriched by 
 the spoils of more liberal lovers. He was, 
 during a short time, the object of the violent 
 but fickle fondness of the Duchess of Cleve- 
 land. On one occasion he was caught with 
 her by King Charles, and was forced to 
 leap out of the window. She rewarded this 
 hazardous feat of gallantry with a present 
 of five thousand pounds. With this sum 
 the prudent young hero instantly bought an 
 annuity of five hundred a year, well secured 
 on landed property. Already his private 
 drawers contained heaps of broad pieces, 
 which, fifty years later, when he was a duke, 
 a prince of the empire, and the richest sub- 
 ject in Europe, remained untouched. — Mac- 
 aulay. 
 
 MARMONT, Augustus Frederick, the 
 last survivor of Napoleon’s marshals, com- 
 menced his military career in the army of 
 the monarchy. Napoleon made him Duke 
 of Ragusa. He was the seventh of the im- 
 perial marshals whose laurels were plucked 
 by Wellington in Spain. He surrendered 
 Paris to the allies in 1814, and afterward 
 steadily adhered to the Bourbons. After the 
 revolution of 1830 he was struck from the 
 list of the army. He died at Venice in 1852, 
 at the age of seventy-eight. 
 
 MARMONTEL, John Francis, an eminent 
 French writer, born at Bort, in Limousin, in 
 1723. He was the son of a tailor, but edu- 
 cated at the college of Toulouse, and after- 
 ward made an abbe. He was imprisoned in 
 the Bastile for writing a satire oft an influen- 
 tial person, but escaped the revolutionary 
 fury. He died in 1799 at Abbeville. His 
 literary character depends chiefly on his 
 “Moral Tales,” many of which were not very 
 moral. 
 
 MARRIAGE. Among the Babylonians, 
 at a certain time every year, the marriageable 
 women were assembled, and disposed of to 
 the best bidder by the public erier. The 
 richest citizens purchased at such high prices 
 as pleased them, and the money thus ob- 
 tained was used to portion off the women to 
 
 MAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 525 
 
 whom nature has been less liberal of personal 
 charms. When all the beauties had been 
 struck off, the crier put up the more ordinary 
 lots, beginning with the most ill-favored 
 virgins that remained, and announcing a 
 premium for each. The bidders named 
 sums below this premium, at which they 
 would be willing to take the maid, and he 
 who bid lowest was declared the happy man. 
 Thus every woman was provided for. This 
 custom originated with Atossa, daughter of 
 Belochus, about 1433 b.c. The first institu- 
 tion of union between man and woman for 
 life, with ceremonies of binding and solemn 
 nature, is ascribed to Cecrops, at Athens, 
 1554 b.c. The prevailing ceremony in most 
 countries was that of a man leading home his 
 bride, after a solemn contract with her friends. 
 That ’this contract might be the more sacred, 
 it was made the work of the priest. The 
 Greeks considered full moons, or times of 
 conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons 
 most propitious for marriage. The celebra- 
 tion of marriages in churches was ordained 
 hy Pope Innocent III. Marriage in Lent 
 was forbidden a.d. 364. Celibacy was en- 
 joined upon bishops in 692, and upon priests 
 in 1015. In the early ages concubinage was 
 sanctioned. A Roman might have either a 
 wife or a concubine ( semi-conjux ), but not 
 both together. Constantine the Great gave 
 a check to concubinage, but did not abolish 
 it, for it subsisted many years in the church. 
 In Germany morganatic or left-handed mar- 
 riages are known between princes and women 
 of lower rank, in which it is stipulated that 
 the offspring shall not inherit the condition 
 of the father. Most of the early nations 
 permitted polygamy. It was general among 
 the Jews, and still obtains in the East. In 
 Media it was a reproach to a man to have 
 less than seven wives. Among the Romans 
 Mark Antony is mentioned as the first who 
 took two wives, and the practice became 
 frequent until forbidden by Arcadius, a.d. 
 393. Polygamy has been adopted by the 
 Mormons. 
 
 Wild Will Shakspeare and rare Ben Jon- 
 son were both susceptible youth as well as 
 brother poets; the one wedded his Ann 
 Hathaway at eighteen, the other an unknown 
 sweetheart at twenty. Dr. Sam Johnson, 
 Burke, quaint Fuller, Scott, and Dante wived 
 
 at twenty-six ; Byron, Bonaparte, AVashing- 
 ton, and Wellington at twenty -seven ; Penn 
 and Sterne at twenty-eight; and Burns at 
 thirty. Chaucer, Hogarth, and Peel wedded 
 at thirty-two ; the poetical philosopher Davy, 
 and the philosophical poet Wordsworth, at 
 thirty-three ; Franklin at thirty-four ; Aris- 
 totle and Linnaeus at thirty-nine ; and Martin 
 Luther broke loose from celibacy at forty- 
 two. Addison lived a bachelor till he was 
 forty-four; Swift toyed with Stella and Van- 
 essa till he was forty-nine, and then sopped the 
 former’s love and jealousy with a clandestine 
 marriage ; Buffon, fond as he was of animated 
 nature, waited till he was fifty-five; while 
 old Parr took him a fresh rib at one hundred 
 and twenty. The pious Jerem} r Taylor, who 
 thought “ marriage a die of the greatest con- 
 tingency, and yet of the greatest interest in 
 the world next to the last throw for eternity,” 
 ventured it at twenty-six, and liked his luck 
 so well that, being early left a widower, he 
 tried a second throw. [See Bachelors.] In 
 the feudal law, banns were a solemn procla- 
 mation of anything, and hence (about 1200) 
 arose the custom of asking banns, or giving 
 notice before marriage. Marriages were first 
 solemnized by justices of the peace in the 
 time of Cromwell. [See II t men.] 
 
 MARS, in ancient mythology, the son of 
 Juno, and the god of war. He is represented 
 with a helmet on his head, a spear in his 
 hand, often on a car, animated with the ar- 
 dor of battle. The Romans honored him 
 most, and erected many temples to him. His 
 priests, the Salii, celebrated his festivals by 
 dancing, and beating their bucklers in accord 
 to music. He was the favorite of Venus, and 
 completely supplanted Vulcan, who, however, 
 revenged himself. 
 
 MARSHALL, John, was a Virginian by 
 birth. In the Revolution he bore arms in 
 his country’s behalf, seeing service at Bran- 
 dywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. With 
 Messrs. Pinckney and Gerry, he was sent .on 
 an embassy to France in 1797. During the 
 last year of the elder Adams’s administra- 
 tion he was secretary of state ; and that pres- 
 ident, Jan. 31st, 1801, appointed him chief- 
 justice of the supreme court. This eminent 
 station he adorned till his death in 1836. 
 
 MARSHALS OF FRANCE. The following 
 list of the marshals of France under Napoleon, 
 
 MAR 
 
526 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 will be useful to the reader of French his- 
 tory. Arrighi, Augereau, Bernadotte, Ber- 
 thier, Bessieres, Davoust, Jourdan, Junot, 
 Kellerman, Lannes, Lefebre, Macdonald, 
 Marmont, Massena, Moncey, Mortier, Murat, 
 Ney, Oudinot, Soult, Suchet, and Victor. 
 The following were Napoleon’s chief officers 
 of state : Cambaceres, Caulaincourt, Cham- 
 pagne, Duroc, Fouche, Le Brun, Maret, 
 Savary, and Talleyrand. 
 
 MARSTON MOOR. Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
 and the Scots, under the Earl of Leven, were 
 besieging York, when Prince Rupert deter- 
 mined to raise the siege. The hostile armies 
 met on Marston Moor, July 3d, 1644. The 
 energy of Oliver Cromwell, who here first 
 came into notice, and the steady valor of the 
 warriors whom he had trained, retrieved the 
 day after it had been disgracefully lost by the 
 Presbyterians, and the royalists received a 
 blow from which they never recovered. 
 
 MARTIAL, Marcus Valerius, a Latin sa- 
 tiric poet, died a.d. 104, aged seventy -five. 
 
 MARTIN, Luther, an eminent lawyer, first 
 attorney-general of Maryland, which office he 
 held during the war, and nearly forty years ; 
 became chief-justice of the city court of Bal- 
 timore; died July 10th, 1826, in his eighty- 
 second year. He was one of the convention 
 that formed the constitution of the United 
 States. 
 
 MARVELL, Andrew, a poet, political 
 writer, and patriotic member of parliament, 
 was born at Hull in 1620. He was the friend 
 of Milton, and his associate as Latin secre- 
 tary. Charles II. delighted in the patriot’s 
 society, and once sent Danby the treasurer 
 to him, with an offer of a place at court and 
 an immediate present of a thousand pounds. 
 Inflexible Marvell refused the bribes, and in 
 illustration of his independence called his 
 servant to witness that for three days he had 
 dined on one shoulder of mutton ! When the 
 treasurer was gone, Marvell was forced to 
 send to a friend tomorrow a guinea! He 
 died Aug. 16th, 1678. 
 
 MARY, Queen of Scotland. [See Stuart.] 
 
 MARYLAND. In 1870 the population 
 was 780,894, of whom 605,497 were whites, 
 and 175,391 colored. Its whole area is rather 
 more than 13,600 square miles, though its 
 land surface is only about 11,000. The sec- 
 tion lying east of Chesapeake Bay is locally 
 
 known as the Eastern Shore, and the opposite 
 coast as the Western Shore. The Potomac 
 divides Maryland from Virginia. The cen- 
 tral portion of the state is crossed by the 
 Blue Ridge, and the Alleghanies traverse the 
 western. Large fields of bituminous coal are 
 found in the west, iron ore throughout the 
 state, and fine marble for building is quar- 
 ried. Indian corn and wheat are the agricul- 
 tural staples of the Eastern Shore, and these 
 with tobacco form those of the Western. 
 Cotton, flax, and hemp are also raised. 
 
 George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a Catholic 
 gentleman who desired to found an asylum 
 from persecution for the sect of which he was 
 a distinguished member, visited Maryland, 
 but died in England while preparing for the 
 emigration. His son Cecil obtained a patent 
 of the territory designed for the father. It 
 was to have been called Crescentia, but he 
 named it Maryland, in honor of Henrietta 
 Maria, the wife of Charles I. He appointed 
 his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the 
 colony. The first settlement was made at St. 
 Mary’s on the Potomac, March, 1634, land 
 having been bought from the Indians. The 
 most marked feature in the new colony was 
 its liberality to religious belief. Its toleration 
 was surpassed only by the little band that 
 had gathered about Roger Williams on the 
 plantation of Providence. The general assem- 
 bly of Maryland, in 1649, enacted “that no 
 person or persons within this province, pro- 
 fessing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from 
 henceforth be anywise troubled, molested, 
 or discountenanced for, or in respect of, his 
 or her religion, nor in the free exercise there- 
 of, within this province, nor any way com- 
 pelled to the belief, or exercise of any other 
 religion, against his or her consent.” Among 
 various provisions to secure this statute was 
 a curious one that any person who should, 
 upon any occasion, declare, or call by way of 
 reproach, any other person residing in the 
 province a Heretic, Schismatic, Idolator, 
 Puritan, Presbyterian, Independent, Popish 
 Priest, Jesuit, Jesuited Papist, Lutheran, 
 Calvinist, Anabaptist, Brownist, Antinomian, 
 Barrowist, Roundhead, Separatist, or other 
 name or term, in a reproachful manner, 
 relating to religion, should for every such 
 offense be fined ten shillings sterling, or if he 
 could not pay this, he was to be publicly 
 
 MAR 
 
whipped, and then be imprisoned till he 
 should appease the injured person by pub- 
 licly asking his forgiveness. 
 
 This toleration attracted many colonists ; 
 Puritans from New England and Episcopa- 
 lians from Virginia mingled with the Catholic 
 founders. Gradually the control passed into 
 the hands of the Protestants. During the 
 time of the English commonwealth they ill 
 repaid the previous generosity of their Cath- 
 olic brethren. At the revolution of 1688 the 
 patent of the colony was set aside, and the 
 government assumed by the crown. In 1716 
 the proprietor was restored to his privileges, 
 which were finally abrogated by the people 
 at the commencement of the American Rev- 
 olution. 
 
 The governor of Maryland is chosen by the 
 people for a term of four years, the state be- 
 ing divided into three districts, from each of 
 which, in order, the governor is taken. The 
 general assembly meets biennially, and half 
 the senators are chosen once in two years. 
 Every male citizen of the United States, aged 
 twenty-one or more, who has resided one 
 year in the State, has the right of suffrage. 
 The constitution forbids imprisonment for 
 debt, and lotteries. Vetoed bills can be 
 passed by a three-fifths vote of the Legisla- 
 ture. Ministers of the gospel are not eligible 
 as members of the general assembly. The 
 judicial power is vested in a court of appeals, 
 circuit courts, and inferior tribunals. The 
 iudges of the several courts are elected in the 
 
 counties by the qualified voters of the various 
 judicial circuits. Judges must be thirty years 
 old and have attained a residence of five years 
 in the state and six months in the district. 
 The judges must be persons selected from those 
 learned in the law, and are ineligible at the age 
 of seventy. In the matter of public education, 
 Maryland is behind many of her sister states. 
 
 Annapolis, situated on the south-west side 
 of the Severn, two miles from its mouth, and 
 forty miles north-east of Washington, since 
 1699 has been the seat of the state govern- 
 ment; population in 1870, 5,744. In the 
 venerable state-house the continental con- 
 gress sometimes sat during the Revolution, 
 and in its senate chamber Washington re- 
 signed his commission at the close of the 
 war. Baltimore, a city and port of entry in 
 Baltimore county, Mar}dand, is situated on 
 the north side of the Patapsco, fourteen miles 
 from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It 
 was founded in 1730. The population in 
 1870 was 267,354. It is the third city in the 
 United States, and the centre of most of the 
 trade of Maryland, and of a portion of that 
 of the western states and Pennsylvania. It 
 is built around a basin which affords a safe 
 harbor, the narrow entrance of which, being 
 guarded by Fort M’ Henry, secures the city 
 against a naval enemy. Several of the pub- 
 lic buildings are elegant, and imposing in 
 appearance. The Washington monument is 
 a chaste and conspicuous structure of mar- 
 ble. St. Mary’s College is a Catholic insti- 
 
523 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tution of great repute. During the last war, 
 the city of Baltimore was attacked by the 
 British, and on the 12th of September, the 
 battle at North Point was fought. On the 
 next day Fort M’ Henry was bombarded, the 
 enemy beaten off, and General Ross, the 
 English commander, slain. The bravery man- 
 ifested in defense of Baltimore would prevent 
 the event fr # om falling into oblivion, but to 
 commemorate it, an elegant marble monu- 
 ment, thirty-five feet high, called the Battle 
 monument, has been erected. From the num- 
 ber of its monuments, Baltimore is often 
 called the Monumental City. 
 
 MASANIELLO, the common appellation of 
 Tomaso Aniello, a fisherman of Naples, who 
 headed a revolt of the populace against the 
 Spanish in 1647. Masaniello was then twen- 
 ty-five. He was assassinated, after a few 
 successful days, in which he had 200,000 men 
 in arms. Like many men of low origin who 
 have suddenly risen to sovereign power, he 
 became bewildered by change of his fortunes, 
 and his phrenzy was probably heightened by 
 his intemperate habits, which impelled him to 
 commit many acts of sanguinary violence. 
 
 MASHAM, Abigail, bed-chamber woman 
 to Queen Anne, in which situation she sup- 
 planted the Duchess of Marlborough, her 
 kinswoman, and procured the dismissal of the 
 Whig ministry, which led to the peace of 
 Utrecht in 1713. She died in 1734. 
 
 MASINISSA, king of a small country in 
 Africa, took part with the Carthaginians 
 against Rome, but afterward became the ally 
 of the Romans, who were indebted to him 
 for many victories. At his death he made 
 Scipio iEmilianus guardian of his kingdom. 
 He died b.c. 149. 
 
 MASON AND DIXON’S LINE. The 
 controversy between the heirs of Penn and 
 Lord Baltimore, concerning the boundaries 
 of their proprietary lands, led to the running 
 of a line between Pennsylvania and Mary- 
 land, in 1767, by Mason and Dixon, two 
 skillful surveyors. It is now popularly 
 spoken of as the dividing line between the 
 free and the slave states. 
 
 MASON, George, a statesman of Virginia, 
 member of the convention which framed the 
 constitution of the United States, which he 
 refused to sign on the ground that it tended 
 
 too much toward centralization ; died 1792, 
 aged sixty-seven. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. The Bay State com- 
 monwealth, upon her 7,250 square miles, 
 sustained in 1870 a population of 1,457,351 
 In the west the surface is generally hilly, 
 often rugged, the country being traversed 
 west of the Connecticut by the Iioosac range 
 and a prolongation of the Green Mountains ; 
 while east of that river is a continuation of 
 the White Mountains. Eastward the sur- 
 face is for the most part broken by gentle 
 swells, spreading, as it approaches the ocean 
 in the south-east, into a level sandy plain. 
 Every part is well watered, though the 
 streams are more useful for agricultural and 
 mechanical purposes than as channels of com- 
 munication. Rich and broad meadows skirt 
 the Housatonic, the Connecticut, and the 
 Merrimack, and much of the remaining soil is 
 moderately productive. Though some parts 
 of the west are too rugged, and some in the 
 east too sandy, the central part contains 
 many fine farms, and in the vicinity of the 
 numerous commercial and manufacturing 
 towns of the sea-coast, the cultivation is often 
 higher than is practicable in districts more 
 remote from a market. Taken as a whole, 
 Massachusetts is the best tilled state in the 
 Union, and her husbandry the most thrifty 
 and skillful. In minerals, the recesses of 
 her soil are not productive. There are quar- 
 ries of fine granite at Quincy, and elsewhere 
 of other handsome building stone. 
 
 Fisheries, navigation, commerce, and man- 
 ufactures are the important branches of in- 
 dustry. The tonnage of her shipping is 
 more than one-sixth of the total tonnage of 
 the United States. New Bedford and Nan- 
 tucket have the lead in whaling. The hardy 
 fishermen of Marblehead and Gloucester and 
 ports adjoining, have a like pre-eminence in 
 the cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. In 
 manufactures, Massachusetts is more largely 
 engaged than any other state. Boots and 
 shoes, cottons, woolens, leather, clothing, soap, 
 candles, and oil, straw braid and bonnets, 
 paper, ship-building, machinery and iron man- 
 ufactures of every variety, cabinet ware, are 
 the foremost of the products that her busy 
 towns and villages bring forth. Shall we 
 mention that, according to the last census 
 
 MAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 529 
 
 she distills more than half the rum of the 
 country ? 
 
 Massachusetts was first settled at Ply- 
 mouth in 1620, by the Puritans. “It is to this 
 sect,” remarks the historian Hume, “whose 
 principles appear so frivolous, and whose 
 habits so ridiculous, that the English owe the 
 whole freedom of their constitution.” No 
 less is to be claimed for those who crossed the 
 ocean, and settled in New England. They 
 fled from persecution at home. It was their 
 intention to settle farther south, but either 
 by accident or by treachery they were thrown 
 upon the inhospitable shores of New Eng- 
 land in the dead of winter. The separate 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay was founded at 
 Salem in 1628; Boston vtas settled in 1630, 
 and other towns, such as Charlestown, New- 
 town (now Cambridge 1, Dorchester, Rox- 
 bury, &c., rapidly sprang up. Persecution 
 had not taught the Puritans the lesson of 
 toleration and religious liberty that it gave 
 to Roger Williams and Lord Baltimore. The 
 government which seemed best to these brave, 
 earnest zealots was a theocracy, and they 
 dealt harshly with the Quakers, and other 
 men not in their fellowship. It must be re- 
 membered that very often the Quakers and 
 other enthusiasts ran into excesses as con- 
 trary to the spirit of true religion as were 
 the whippings, the brandings, and the hang- 
 ings wherewith they were punished. 
 
 The two colonies continued under distinct 
 governments until 1692, when a royal char- 
 ter brought them together. Henceforth the 
 
 u 
 
 governor was appointed by the crown. The 
 colonists in the early years suffered severely 
 from the Indian wars, and afterward in the 
 contests with the French possessions in 
 Canada, whereby was echoed the noise of 
 contending nations on the battle-fields of 
 Europe. The men of Massachusetts were 
 foremost in the expeditions undertaken by 
 the British against the French in America. 
 Their blood was shed before Quebec and 
 at Louisburg, and their best and bravest 
 were ever ready in the field to support the 
 interest* of their parent country. At length, 
 when the oppressive measures of Great 
 Britain could no longer be submitted to, 
 Massachusetts was the seat of the earliest 
 conflicts in favor of liberty. The plains of 
 Lexington and Concord, and the heights of 
 Charlestown, have become hallowed by the 
 American blood that bedewed them, and 
 the glorious example of Massachusetts was 
 speedily followed by the sister colonies. 
 
 In 1786 an insurrection broke out under 
 one Shays, but he was defeated at Spring- 
 field, in 1787. Since then nothing has 
 occurred to disturb the tranquillity, or 
 affect the prosperity, of this flourishing and 
 wealthy state. 
 
 The constitution vests the legislative power 
 in a senate and house of representatives, 
 styled the general court, whose sessions are 
 annual. The governor and other state offi- 
 cers are chosen by the people annually. 
 The governor has the title of l his excellency/ 
 and the lieutenant-governor that of ‘his 
 
 MAS 
 
530 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 honor.’ The right of suffrage is granted to 
 every male citizen twenty-one years of age 
 or more (excepting paupers and persons 
 under guardianship), who has resided within 
 the commonwealth one year, and within the 
 town six months, and shall not be in ar- 
 rears for taxes. An executive council of 
 eight members is chosen annually by the 
 people in districts. The judiciary is vested 
 in a supreme court, a court of common pleas, 
 and such inferior tribunals as the general 
 court may establish. The judges are ap- 
 pointed by the governor, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the council, and hold 
 their offices during good behavior. In the 
 matter of education Massachusetts is sur- 
 passed by no state in the Union. Harvard 
 University at Cambridge is the oldest and 
 best endowed institution in the United States. 
 With it are connected a theological, a law, 
 a medical, and a scientific school. Its library 
 is one of the largest in the United States, 
 containing about 140,000 volumes. Wil- 
 liams College, Amherst College, and the 
 theological seminary at Andover, are all 
 valuable institutions, and worthy of the 
 patronage they receive. The towns sustain 
 schools of every grade, from the primary to 
 the academic. The state supports normal 
 schools at Westfield, Framingham, Bridge- 
 water, and Salem; lunatic hospitals at Wor- 
 cester, Taunton, and Northampton ; a reform 
 school for boys at Westborough; an indus- 
 trial school for girls at Lancaster; and a 
 school for idiots at South Boston. 
 
 Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, and 
 the largest city of New England, is situated 
 on a peninsula at the western extremity of 
 Massachusetts Bay. Population, 250,526 in 
 1870. Its extent, inclusive of the peninsula 
 of South Boston, is nearly three square 
 miles. The secure and commodious harbor 
 is gemmed with many islands, some of 
 which are fortified. The streets are quite 
 narrow and irregular. Most of the modern 
 buildings are built of brick or of granite. 
 The state-house, on a hill which commands 
 a view of the city and its environs, is a large 
 building of brick, and contains a fine marble 
 statue of Washington, executed by Chan- 
 trey. Among the public buildings, a patri- 
 otic interest belongs to Faneuil Hall, called 
 “the cradle of liberty,” from the public 
 
 meetings held there previous to the Revolu- 
 tion. Boston contains numerous literary, 
 scientific, and charitable societies. It is the 
 second commercial city of the United States. 
 Ihe common is the principal public square. 
 It is surrounded by the mall, a handsome 
 graveled walk, fenced in, and shaded with 
 fine elm-trees, and contains about fifty acres. 
 
 The first settlement of Boston was in 1630, 
 when John Winthrop, the first governor of 
 Massachusetts, and the company of immi- 
 grants with him, having arrived and tarried 
 for a short time at Charlestown, removed 
 their location to the peninsula. There was 
 one solitary inhabitant there at an earlier 
 date, the Rev. William Blackstone, of whom 
 Mather speaks as “a godly Episcopalian,” 
 who in 1626 had built a cottage near what is 
 now called Spring street, in the western part 
 of the city. In 1634 fifty acres of land were 
 set off to Mr. Blackstone, which was about 
 one-twelfth part of the peninsula, he being 
 “the first European inhabitant.” Not long 
 afterward, when he wished to remove, the 
 town purchased all his “right and title to the 
 peninsula of Shawmut” for £30, each free- 
 holder paying six shillings, and some of them 
 more. Mr. Blackstone afterward settled in 
 Rhode Island. The peninsula was called 
 by the Indians Shawmut, and by the early 
 colonists Tri-mountain, from its three prom- 
 inent hills. The first church was built in 
 1632. In the reign of Charles II., the char- 
 ter of Massachusetts was declared forfeited 
 by a decree of chancery, and Sir Edmund 
 Andros was appointed the first royal gover- 
 nor. In April, 1689, the Bostonians seized 
 upon the governor and imprisoned him, hav- 
 ing first taken possession of the fort and 
 castle in the harbor. In a little more than 
 a month afterward, the news of the revolu- 
 tion in England was welcomed in Boston 
 with general exultation. 
 
 April 17th, 1704, the first number of the 
 Boston News Letter , the earliest newspaper 
 in America, was published by John Camp- 
 bell, the postmaster, a native of Scotland. 
 
 In 1765, when the obnoxious stamp act 
 passed, the person appointed to distribute 
 the stamps in Boston was compelled to 
 decline the office, and the house of the lieu- 
 tenant-governor (Hutchinson) was destroyed 
 by the mob. On the breaking out of these 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 531 
 
 tumults, which appeared to threaten the 
 downfall of authority, Boston was forced to 
 receive a large military and naval force, which 
 it was thought would quell the spirit of in- 
 subordination. The citizens regarded the 
 soldiers with little favor, and only wanted a 
 pretext to show their hostility openly. March 
 5th, 1770, a sergeant’s guard in King (now 
 State) street, being pressed upon and pelted 
 by the mob, fired and killed five men. This 
 is called the Boston massacre. After the 
 tax had been imposed on tea, the Americans 
 resolved, if possible, to prevent the landing 
 and sale of it. When three of the tea ships 
 arrived, December 16th, 1773, a party of 
 men disguised as Indians, went on board 
 and threw all the tea overboard. In the fol- 
 lowing spring, the port of Boston was closed 
 by act of parliament, and the importation and 
 exportation of goods prohibited. The gen- 
 eral court held its sittings in Salem, and 
 more troops, together with a military gover- 
 nor, were sent to Boston. In 1775, after the 
 battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill, British 
 troops, to the number of 10,000 men, were 
 besieged in Boston until the March follow- 
 ing. During this siege, the inhabitants 
 suffered greatly, for many who wished to 
 leave the town were not permitted to do so, 
 but forced to stay against their will, and 
 treated as tories by the American army on 
 their entrance. The British officers amused 
 themselves by acting plays in Faneuil Hall, 
 the “cradle of liberty” being fitted up taste- 
 fully on the occasion. General Burgoyne 
 wrote a farce called the “Boston Blockade,” 
 in which the Yankees were severely satirized, 
 and a happy triumph of the royal arms pre- 
 dicted. The sarcasms on the weakness of 
 the Americans with which this piece was 
 interspersed, received a curious commentary 
 on the frequent explosions of the shells 
 which were thrown into the town by the 
 besiegers. A cannon-ball entered the tower 
 of the Brattle-street church, where it is still 
 preserved. Boston was evacuated by the 
 British, March 17th, 1776, and did not again 
 suffer from their presence. 
 
 We have only room for a list of the other 
 important towns of the state, with their 
 population according to the census of 1870. 
 Salem, 24,117. Lowell, 40,928. Cambridge, 
 39,634. Charlestown, 28,323. New Bedford, 
 
 21.320. Worcester, 41,105. Lynn, 28,233. 
 
 Springfield, 26,703. Newburyport, 12,595. 
 
 Lawrence, 28,921. Fall River, 26,766. 
 
 Taunton, 18,629. 
 
 MASSACRES. . Of all the Carthaginians 
 in Sicily, 397 b.c. 2,000 Tyrians crucified, 
 and 8,000 put to the sword for not surren- 
 dering Tyre to Alexander, 331 b.c. The 
 Jews of Antioch fall upon the other inhabit- 
 ants and massacre 100,000, for refusing to 
 surrender their arms to Demetrius Nicanor, 
 tyrant of Syria, 154 b.c. A dreadful slaugh- 
 ter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near 
 Aix, by Marius the Roman general, 200,000 
 being left dead on the spot, 102 b.c. The 
 Romans throughout Asia, women and children 
 not excepted, cruelly massacred in one day, 
 by order of Mithridates, King of Pontus, 
 88 b.c. A great number of Roman senators 
 massacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 
 and several of the patricians dispatched 
 themselves to avoid the horrid butcheries, 
 86 b.c. Again, under Sulla, and Cataline, 
 his minister of vengeance, 82 and 79 b.c. 
 At Prseneste, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 
 Roman senators and other persons of distinc- 
 tion to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius 
 Caesar, 41 b.c. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 
 Jews were put to the sword, a.d. 70. Cas- 
 sius, a Roman general, under the Emperor 
 M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of the 
 inhabitants of Seleucia, 167. At Alexandria, 
 many thousand citizens, by order of Anto- 
 ninus, 213. The Emperor Probus put to death 
 700,000 of the inhabitants upon his reduction 
 of Gaul, 277. Eighty Christian fathers, by 
 order of the Emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia, 
 were put into a ship, which was set on fire, 
 and driven out to sea, 370. Thessalonica, 
 when upward of 7,000 persons, invited into 
 the circus, were put to the sword by order 
 of Theodosius, 390. Belisarius put to death 
 above 30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a 
 revolt on account of two rapacious ministers 
 set over them by Justinian, 552. Of the 
 Latins, by order of Andronicus, 1184, at 
 Constantinople. The Sicilians massacred the 
 French throughout the whole island, without 
 distinction of sex or age, on Easter day, the 
 first bell for vespers being the signal ; this 
 horrible affair is known in history by the 
 name of the Sicilian vespers, 1282. Of the 
 
 MAS 
 
532 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of Chris- 
 tian II., 1520. Of 70,000 Huguenots, through- 
 out the kingdom of France, attended with 
 circumstances of the most horrid treachery 
 and cruelty; it began at Paris in the night 
 of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 
 24th, 1572, by secret orders from Charles IX., 
 at the instigation of Catharine de Medicis, 
 his mother ; it is styled in history the mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew. Of the Christians 
 in Croatia, by the Turks, when 65,000 were 
 slain, 1592. Of a great number of Protes- 
 tants at Thorn, who were put to death under 
 a pretended legal sentence of the chancellor 
 of Poland, for being concerned in a tumult 
 occasioned by a popish procession, 1724. At 
 Batavia, where 12,000 Chinese were killed 
 by the natives, October, 1740. Of the whites 
 by the insurgent negroes of St. Domingo, 
 March 29th, 1804. Several awful massacres 
 in France during the reign of terror from 
 1789 to 1794. Massacre of 600 negroes by 
 the French at St. Mark’s, 1802. Massacre 
 at Algiers, March 10th, 1806. Insurrection 
 and dreadful massacre of the French at 
 Madrid, May 2d, 1808. Dreadful massacre 
 of the Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, 
 March 1st, 1811. [See Scio.j Massacres 
 of vast numbers of the inhabitants of Cadiz, 
 by the soldiery, whose ferocious disorders 
 continue for some days, March 6th, 1820. 
 
 Massacre of 300 English nobles on Salis- 
 bury Plain by Hengist, a.d. 474. Of the 
 Danes, in the southern counties of England, 
 in the night of November 13th, 1002; at 
 London it was most bloody, the churches 
 being no sanctuary ; among the rest Gunilda, 
 sister of Swein, King of Denmark, left in 
 hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
 newly concluded. Of the Jews, 1189. Some 
 few pressing into Westminster Hall, at the 
 coronation of Richard I., were put to death 
 by the people, and a false alarm being given, 
 that the king had ordered a general massa- 
 cre of them, the people in many parts of 
 England, from an aversion to them, slew all 
 they met. In York, 500 who had taken 
 shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
 rather than fall into the hand of the people. 
 Of the Protestants in Ireland, when 40,000 
 were killed, 1641. Of the Macdonalds at 
 Glencoe, in Scotland, 1691. Of 64 American 
 
 prisoners at Dartmoor, England (disowned 
 by British government), April 6th, 1815. 
 
 Massacre of the first settlers of Virginia, 
 of whom 347 were murdered in one night, 
 1622, by the savages. At Wilkesbarre by 
 the British and savages, July 3d, 1778. By 
 the British and savages at Cherry Valley, in 
 New York, Nov. 11th, 1778. Both these 
 sanguinary acts were done under the direction 
 of Colonel John Butler. Of the Moravian In- 
 dians, by a party from the western part of 
 Pennsylvania, headed by Colonel Williamson, 
 June, 1782. American garrison of Chicago, 
 on their retreat from the place, by the sav- 
 ages, August 15th, 1812. Of the American 
 wounded prisoners at Frenchtown, on the 
 river Raisin, January 22d, 1813, by the Ind- 
 ians, with the privity of the British. 
 
 MASSENA, Andre, Duke of Rivoli, and 
 Prince of Esslingen, marshal of France, born 
 at Nice in 1758, was a favorite general of 
 Napoleon, and, in consequence of his success 
 during his Italian campaign, was called by 
 the emperor the ‘ darling of victory.’ In 1799 
 he defeated the Russians at Zurich, and in the 
 following year defended Genoa during a pro- 
 tracted siege till he was absolutely starved 
 into capitulation. In 1809 he signalized him- 
 self greatly in the battle of Esslingen (or As- 
 pern) in Germany, and by his firmness saved 
 the French imperial army from annihilation. 
 In 1810 he was defeated by Wellington in the 
 Portugal campaign. The Iron Duke called 
 Massena the ablest opponent he ever encoun- 
 tered. Marshal Marmont, a companion in 
 arms of this tenacious, fierce, and invincible 
 soldier, thus describes him. “ His iron frame 
 contained a soul of fire. His glance was 
 piercing, his activity extreme; no man was 
 ever more brave. He troubled himself little 
 in maintaining order among his troops, or in 
 providing for their wants, and his dispositions 
 before battle were mediocre ; but the combat 
 once commenced, they became excellent, and 
 by the advantages he drew from his army in 
 action he soon repaired any previous faults. 
 His education was slight, but he had much 
 natural talent, great subtlety, and a profound 
 knowledge of the human heart. He was very 
 avaricious. His love for women was ardent, 
 and his jealousy resembled that of the Italians 
 of the fourteenth century. He was in friendly 
 
 MAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 533 
 
 relations with General Bonaparte, whom he 
 was far from believing to be the equal of him- 
 self as a soldier. There were not in him the 
 necessary elements of a commander-in-chief of 
 the first class, but there never existed a man 
 superior to Massena in executing, on the 
 grandest scale, operations to which another 
 gave the impulse.” Massena acknowledged 
 the Bourbons upon Napoleon’s first abdication, 
 but joined his old commander at the return 
 from Elba. He died in 1817. 
 
 MASSILLON, Jean Baptiste, a great pul- 
 pit orator of France, was born in Provence, in 
 1663. Louis XIV. said to him, “Father, 
 when I hear other preachers, I go away much 
 pleased with them, but when I hear you, I 
 go away much displeased with myself.” He 
 was made Bishop of Clemont in 1717, where 
 he died in September, 1742. 
 
 MASSINGER, Philip, an English dramatic 
 writer, died in 1640, aged fifty-six. 
 
 MATHER, Increase, an eminent American 
 divine, born at Dorchester, Mass., died in 
 1723, aged eighty-four. 
 
 MATHER, Cotton, son of Increase Mather, 
 also an eminent divine and writer, died in 
 1727, aged sixty-five. 
 
 MATHEW, Theobald, familiarly known 
 as “ Father Mathew,” was born at Thomas- 
 town in Tipperary in 1790. He was bred to 
 the Roman Catholic priesthood. Cork was 
 his post of labor. In 1838 he commenced 
 his public labors against the crjdng evil of 
 drunkenness. His unostentatious effort grew 
 in might, and in a progress through Ireland 
 in 1839 he had the joy of administering the 
 pledge to several hundred thousand of his 
 count^men. The prestige of such success, 
 combined with the purity of his personal 
 character, rendered him an object of wonder- 
 ing veneration among the Irish. He was 
 received with enthusiasm during a visit to 
 this country, whence he returned home in 
 1851. His benevolent crusade reduced him 
 to poverty and debt, and wore him into a long 
 illness, from which death set him free at 
 Queenstown in Ireland, Dec. 8th, 1856. 
 
 MATHIAS CORVINUS, called the Great, 
 King of Hungary and Bohemia, was the son of 
 John Hunniades.. The enemies of his father 
 confined him in prison in Bohemia ; but on 
 regaining his liberty he was elected King of 
 Hungary in 1458, His election, however, 
 
 was opposed by many of the Hungarian lords, 
 who offered the crown to Frederick III. The 
 Turks, profiting by these divisions, invaded 
 the country, but were expelled by Mathias, 
 who compelled Frederick to yield to him the 
 crown of St. Stephen, of which he had ob- 
 tained possession. The war was afterward 
 renewed, and Mathias, overrunning Austria, 
 took Vienna and Neustadt, on which the 
 emperor was obliged to make a peace in 1487. 
 Mathias reformed many abuses, particularly 
 with respect to duels and law-suits, and was 
 preparing an expedition against the Turks, 
 when he died of an apoplexy in 1490. 
 
 MATILDA, or Maud, the daughter of Henry 
 I. of England, and wife of Henry V., Em- 
 peror of Germany, was nominated in 1135 
 successor to the English throne by her father ; 
 but in her absence her cousin Stephen 
 usurped the title. Arriving in England with 
 a large army in 1139, she defeated Stephen, 
 and was acknowledged queen in a parliament 
 held in 1141. Stephen afterward defeated 
 the empress, on which the national synod 
 declared for him, and Matilda was obliged to 
 leave the kingdom. On the death of the 
 emperor she married Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
 Earl of Anjou, by whom she had a son, after- 
 ward Henry II. of England. Matilda died in 
 1177, aged sixty -seven. 
 
 MAURICE, Elector of Saxony, and suc- 
 cessful supporter of the Protestant cause in 
 Germany, killed in the battle of Sievenhausen, 
 1553, aged thirty-two years. 
 
 MAURICE, of Nassau, Prince of Orange, 
 and grandson by his mother .to Maurice of 
 Saxony, was a pre-eminent Dutch general, 
 and died in 1625, aged fifty-eight. He was 
 one of the founders of the independence of 
 Holland from Spain. 
 
 MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Vale- 
 rius, a Roman emperor, was the son of 
 Maximianus Hercules, and declared himself 
 Augustus in 306. He was opposed by Gal- 
 erius Maximianus, who was defeated, and 
 slew himself. Maxentius then marched into 
 Africa, where he became odious by his cruel- 
 ties. Constantine afterward defeated him in 
 Italy, and he was drowned in crossing the 
 Tiber in 312. Before the battle Constantine 
 adopted the cross as his standard, and after 
 the victory he made Christianity the religion 
 of the empire. 
 
 MAX 
 
534 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 MAXIMINUS, Caius Julius Yerus, Em- 
 peror of Rome, was the son of a peasant in 
 Thrace, and having displayed great courage 
 in the Roman armies, he rose to command. 
 On the death of Alexander Severus, he caused 
 himself to be proclaimed emperor, a.d. 235. 
 He was a great persecutor, and put to death 
 above four thousand persons on suspicion of 
 their being concerned in a conspiracy against 
 him. His soldiers assassinated him near 
 Aquileia, a.d. 256. His stature and strength 
 were very extraordinary, and his disposition 
 proportionably brutal. Forty pounds of meat 
 and eighteen bottles of wine were his ordi- 
 nary allowance for a day. His strength was 
 such that he is' said to have stopped a chariot 
 in full speed with one of his fingers. 
 
 MAZARIN, Julius, a Roman cardinal and 
 minister of state, was born in Piscina in Italy, 
 in 1602. Being appointed nuncio extraord- 
 inary to France, he acquired the friendship 
 of Richelieu and the confidence of Louis XIII. 
 In 1641 Pope Urban VIII. made him cardi- 
 nal ; and on the death of Richelieu, Louis 
 appointed him minister of state. He was 
 also nominated one of the executors of the 
 king’s will, and had the principal manage- 
 ment of affairs during the minority of Louis 
 XIY. ; but at length the murmurs of the 
 people rose so much against him, that he 
 found it expedient to quit the kingdom, and 
 a price was set on his head. He afterward 
 recovered power. His application to business 
 produced a disease of which he died in 1661. 
 
 MAZEPPA, John, a Polish gentleman, 
 born in the palatinate of Podolia, was edu- 
 cated as the page of John Casimir. An 
 intrigue with the wife of a Polish gentleman 
 caused him to be bound, naked, to the back 
 of a wild horse. 
 
 “‘Bring forth the horse!’ — the horse was 
 brought ; 
 
 In truth he was a noble steed, 
 
 A Tartar of the Ukraine breed ; 
 
 Who looked as though the speed of thought 
 Were in his limbs; but he was wild, 
 
 Wild as the wild deer and untaught ; 
 
 With spur and bridle undefiled — 
 
 ’Twas but a day he had been caught ; 
 
 And snorting, with erected mane, 
 
 And struggling fiercely, but in vain, 
 
 In the full foam of wrath and dread, 
 
 To him the desert-born was led.” — Byron. 
 
 On being loosed, the horse, which was of the 
 Ukraine, returned thither, bearing Mazeppa 
 
 half dead with hunger and fatigue. Some 
 peasants afforded him succor, and he re- 
 mained a long time among them, signalizing 
 himself in many exertions against the Tar- 
 tars. The superiority of his understanding 
 acquired him the chief command of the Cos- 
 sacks, and, in consequence of his increasing 
 reputation, Peter the Great made him Prince 
 of the Ukraine. He, however, joined Charles 
 XII., and fought for him at the fatal battle 
 of Pultowa. After this defeat he retired into 
 Wallachia, and thence to Bender, where he 
 died in 1709. 
 
 In some parts of Germany, during the feudal 
 times, an infringement of the forest laws was 
 punished by chaining the offender to the 
 back of a wild stag, which bounded away 
 with him, through thorny thickets and wild 
 passes, until death relieved him of his suffer- 
 ings. 
 
 M’KEAN, Thomas, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born March 
 19th, 1734, in the county of Chester, Penn- 
 sylvania, and was admitted to the bar of the 
 supreme court of Pennsylvania, in 1757. 
 For seventeen successive years he was elected 
 a member of the assembly. He was sent to 
 the congress held at New York in 1765, took 
 an active part in the Revolutionary proceed- 
 ings, and served in arms in New Jersey, 
 where he greatly distinguished himself. He 
 was a delegate from Delaware, 1774, 1776, 
 and 1778-83, and in 1781 he was president 
 of that body.- October 23d, 1781, he ad- 
 dressed a letter to Congress, resigning his 
 office of president; Congress next day unani- 
 mously resolved that Thomas M’Kean be 
 requested to resume the chair, and act as 
 president. To this he acceded. He was 
 chief-justice of Pennsylvania twenty-two 
 years, and in 1799 was chosen governor of 
 that state. He was governor of Pennsylva- 
 nia nine years, and died June 24th, 1817, in 
 his eighty -fourth year, being one of four sur- 
 vivors of the signers of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence. 
 
 MECCA, a large city of Arabia, derives its 
 celebrity from being the birth-place of Ma- 
 homet, and the seat of his power ; and accord- 
 ingly every pious Mussulman should make a 
 pilgrimage to it at least once in his life. Here 
 a conspiracy was formed against the prophet, 
 and flight was his only resource. After an 
 
 MEC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 535 
 
 exile of seven years, however, the fugitive 
 missionary was enthroned as the prince and 
 prophet of his native country. 
 
 MEDIA, a country of ancient Asia. It 
 was originally called Aria, till the age of 
 Medus, the son of Medea, who gave it the 
 name of Media. The province of Media was 
 first raised into a kingdom by its revolt from 
 the Assyrian monarchy, b.c. 820; and, after 
 it had for some time enjoyed a kind of repub- 
 lican government, Deioces, by artifice, pro- 
 cured himself to be called king, 700 b. c. After 
 a reign of fifty-three years, he was succeeded 
 by Phraortes, b.c. 647 ; who was succeeded by 
 Cyaxares, b.c. 625. His successor was Asty- 
 ages, b.c. 595, in whose reign Cyrus became 
 master of Media, b.c. 551 ; and ever after the 
 country, was occupied by the Persians. 
 
 The Medes were warlike in the primitive 
 ages of their power ; they encouraged polyg- 
 amy, and were remarkable for the homage 
 which they paid to their sovereigns, who 
 were styled kings of kings. This title was 
 afterward adopted by their conquerors, the 
 Persians ; and it was still in use in the age 
 of the Roman emperors. 
 
 MEDICI, Cosmo de, called the Elder, the 
 founder of an illustrious family at Florence, 
 was a merchant, and was born in 1389. He 
 acquired great wealth, which he appropriated 
 to the noble purposes of advancing learning 
 and supporting learned men. He collected 
 a noble library, which he enriched with 
 inestimable manuscripts. The envy excited 
 against him by his riches, and by his ambi- 
 tion, raised him many enemies, by whose 
 intrigues he was obliged to quit his native 
 country. He retired to Venice, where he 
 was received as a prince. His fellow-citizens 
 afterward recalled him, and he bore a prin- 
 cipal share in the government of the republic 
 for thirty years. He died in 1464. On his 
 tomb was engraved this inscription: “The 
 Father of his People, and the Deliverer of his 
 Country.” 
 
 MEDICI, Lorenzo de, the Magnificent, 
 grandson of Cosmo, born in 1448, died 1492. 
 He was a munificent patron of letters and 
 the arts. 
 
 MEDINA, a city of Arabia, celebrated from 
 its containing the tomb of Mahomet. During 
 his residence there it was attacked by an 
 army of 10,000 enemies, but the prudence 
 
 of Mahomet declined a general engagement, 
 and the confederates at length retired. 
 
 MEDINA SIDONIA, Alfonso Perez Guz- 
 man, Duke of, commander of the celebrated 
 Spanish armada in 1588. 
 
 MELANCTHON, Philip, illustrious re- 
 former, and coadjutor of Luther, born 1497, 
 died 1560, aged sixty-three. His name was 
 Schwartzerd, which, according to the pedan- 
 tic custom of the age, he changed into the 
 Greek Melancthon, both meaning ‘black 
 earth.’ 
 
 MENDELSSOHN, Felix Bartiioldy, the 
 eminent composer, was a native of Hamburg, 
 and died at Leipsic, Nov. 4th, 1847, aged 
 thirty-eight. 
 
 MENZIKOFF, Alexander, a prince of the 
 Russian empire, was the son of a peasant, and 
 the servant of a pastry-cook, who employed 
 him to cry pies about the streets. His ap- 
 pearance pleasing Peter the Great, he took 
 him into his service. Menzikoff soon insin- 
 uated himself into the confidence of his 
 sovereign, who at length conferred on him 
 the title of prince. In 1713 he was accused 
 of peculation, and condemned to pay a heavy 
 fine, which the czar remitted, and restored 
 him to favor. Under the Czarina Catharine 
 he had still more power. His daughter was 
 married to Peter II., who made Menzikoff 
 Duke of Cozel, and grand-master of the 
 imperial hotel. But by the intrigues of 
 Dolgorucki, mistress of the czar, he fell into 
 disgrace, and was banished to his estate ; 
 where he lived in such magnificence that 
 Peter was persuaded to send him, for his own 
 safety, into Siberia, and there he died in a 
 poor hut in 1729. 
 
 MERCATOR, Gerard, a Fleming, im- 
 prover of a method of projecting maps which 
 bears his name, died in 1594, aged eighty- 
 two. 
 
 MERCER, Hugh, a most respectable and 
 valuable general in the Revolutionary war ; 
 killed in the battle of Princeton, January, 
 1777, at the age of fifty-six. He was a native 
 of Scotland, and a physician by profession. 
 Congress resolved that the oldest son of Gen. 
 AYarren, and the youngest son of Gen. Mer- 
 cer, should be educated at the expense of the 
 United States. 
 
 MESS ALINA, Valeria, daughter of Mes- 
 salinus Barbatus, and wife of the Emperor 
 
 MES 
 
536 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Claudius, an abandoned woman. Having 
 espoused her favorite Silius, in the lifetime of 
 her husband, she was put to death by order 
 of the emperor, a.d. 46. 
 
 There was another of this name, who was 
 the third wife of Nero, after her fourth hus- 
 band, Atticus, had been put to death by that 
 tyrant. On the death of Nero she devoted 
 the remainder of her days to study, and 
 acquired a great reputation. 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA, part of the kingdom of 
 Assyria, underwent all the revolutions of this 
 and the Persian empire, till it was conquered 
 by Trajan in 106 ; after which it several times 
 changed masters betwixt the Romans and the 
 Persians, but generally belonged to the latter, 
 till it was conquered by the Saracens, together 
 with 'the rest of Persia, in 651. It was seized 
 by the Seljuks in 1046, and by Genghis Khan 
 in 1218. In 1360 Tur Ali Beg, the Turkman, 
 founded the dynasty called Ak Koyunlu, or 
 the White Sheep, in this country. 
 
 It submitted to Timur Beg in 1400, but hie 
 did not retain the conquest. In 1514 it was 
 conquered by Ismael Sofi the Persian, was 
 half conquered by the Turks in 1554, recov- 
 ered by the Persians in 1613, but completely 
 reduced by the Turks in 1637, when they 
 took Bagdad. 
 
 METALS. The seven metals are mentioned 
 by Moses and Homer. Virgil speaks of the 
 melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians 
 had great skill in working metals. 
 
 Iron was found on Mount Ida by the Dac- 
 tyles, 1432 b.c., after the forest had been 
 burned by lightning. The Greeks claimed 
 the discovery of iron, and ascribed glass to 
 the Phoenicians ; but in the fourth chapter of 
 Genesis, Moses mentions Tubal Cain as “an 
 instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.” 
 Iron furnaces among the Romans were un- 
 provided with bellows, but were placed on 
 eminences, with the grate in the direction of 
 the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very 
 celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest 
 mine of Sweden. Iron was first cast in Eng- 
 land, in Sussex, 1543. Tinning of iron was 
 introduced into England from Bohemia in 
 1681. Iron was first discovered in America, 
 in Virginia, 1715. Railroad iron was first 
 manufactured in the United States in 1841. 
 
 It is said that copper was known before 
 iron. In the eighth chapter of Ezra we read 
 
 of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold. 
 Copper was first found in Sweden in 1396, 
 and the mine of Fahlun is the most surprising 
 artificial excavation in the world. In England 
 copper was discovered in 1561, and it is now 
 an important branch of British trade. In 
 Japan copper is the most common of all the 
 metals. Within the last few years copper 
 has been found in the richest abundance in 
 the vicinity of Lake Superior. Its existence 
 there was known as early as 1636. 
 
 Gold has been obtained abundantly in Af- 
 rica, Japan, and South America. The Rus- 
 sian mines in the Ural Mountains were con- 
 sidered the richest in the world till 1847, 
 when the discoveries okCalifornia dazzled the 
 world. In 1851 similar realms of auriferous 
 wealth were found in Australia. 
 
 Silver exists in most parti of the world, 
 but the mines of South America are by far 
 the richest. A mine was opened in the dis- 
 trict of La Paz in 1660, so rich that the silver 
 was often cut with a chisel. In 1749 a mass 
 of silver weighing three hundred and seventy 
 pounds was sent to Spain. From a mine in 
 Norway, a piece was dug, and sent to the 
 royal museum at Copenhagen, weighing five 
 hundred and sixty pounds, and worth $8,000. 
 In England silver vessels were first used by 
 Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and 
 ambitious man, a.d. 709. Silver knives, 
 spoons, and cups were great luxuries in 1300. 
 
 Mercury, or quicksilver, was known to the 
 ancients, and has been found in Europe, Peru, 
 California, and China. The mines near Car- 
 niola in Austria, and those of Almeida in 
 Spain, are the chief in Europe. The former, 
 discovered by accident in 1497, have some- 
 times yielded twelve hundred tons in a year. 
 The anti-venereal virtues of mercury were 
 found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, 
 in 1512. Calomel was first prepared in the 
 seventeenth century. Pallas congealed mer- 
 cury by artificial cold in 1772. Winter un- 
 aided did the same at St. Petersburg in 1759. 
 The use of quicksilver in refining silver was 
 discovered in 1540. 
 
 The Phoenicians traded with England for 
 tin more than eleven centuries before the 
 Christian era. It also appears to have been 
 known in the day of Moses. Tin is a scarce 
 metal. Cornwall is its most productive 
 source ; it occurs in the mountains between 
 
 MET 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 537 
 
 Spain and Portugal, and in those between 
 Saxony and Bohemia; and it has also been 
 brought from Malacca, Chili, and Mexico. 
 
 Lead, another of the ancient metals, is more 
 abundant. The lead mines of Illinois are 
 among the richest in the world. Leaden 
 pipes for the conveyance of water were 
 brought into use in 1236. 
 
 The discovery of zinc, so far as anything 
 certain is known, is due to the moderns. It 
 is said, however, to have been long known in 
 China, and is noticed by European writers as 
 early as a.d. 1231, though the method of ex- 
 tracting it from the ore was unknown for 
 nearly five hundred years after. 
 
 Brass was known among all the early na- 
 tions. There is a tradition that when Lucius 
 Mummius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 
 b.c., the riches he found were immense, and 
 during the conflagration all the metals in the 
 city melted, and running together, formed the 
 valuable composition called Corinthian brass. 
 This may well be doubted, for the Corinthian 
 artificers had long before obtained great credit 
 for their method of combining gold and silver 
 with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the 
 Bible says that Hiram made the vessels for 
 Solomon’s temple of Corinthian brass. 
 
 METASTASIO, Pietro, an eminent Italian 
 poet, born at Rome, 1698, died at Vienna, 
 1782. In 1729 he was appointed imperial 
 laureate to the Austrian court. 
 
 METON, an astronomer of Athens, inventor 
 of the cycle which bears his name, flourished 
 B.c. 432-410. 
 
 MEXICO, now a republic of North Amer- 
 ica, formerly belonged to Spain, and was then 
 governed by a viceroy. Its area is 1,038,865 
 square miles and its population 7,360,000. 
 The land attains an uncommon elevation in 
 the interior, the city of Mexico, the capital, 
 being 7,000 feet above the ocean. The high- 
 est summit of the Cordilleras of Mexico, is 
 the volcanic peak of Popocatepetl, 17,884 feet 
 high. The climate on the coast is hot, and 
 in general unhealthy, but upon the high table- 
 land in the interior, it is uncommonly salu- 
 brious. A large portion of the soil is fertile, 
 producing maize, wheat, sugar, indigo, to- 
 bacco, agave, different kinds of fruits, bana- 
 nas, manioc, vanilla, cocoa, cochineal, log- 
 wood, and mahogany. The annual produce 
 of the rich gold and silver mines, for which 
 
 Mexico is celebrated, has sometimes been 
 $20,000,000. One of these mines is eight 
 miles in length, and, in one place, 1,640 feet 
 in depth. The religion is Roman Catholic. 
 Education is generally neglected, although 
 there is a university in the city of Mexico. 
 A large portion of the population is composed 
 of subdued Indians. 
 
 Mexico is divided into twenty-one provinces 
 or departments, which correspond to the for- 
 mer states of the federal republic. The capi- 
 tal is the city of Mexico, one of the finest 
 cities in all the world for the uniformity of its 
 site, the breadth and regularity of its streets, 
 and the extent of its squares and public places. 
 The many churches and convents, with their 
 cupolas and towers, add to its splendor. The 
 population is said to amount to 150,000. 
 
 When in 1519 the Spaniards under Cortez 
 commenced the conquest of Mexico, they found 
 the native Mexicans far advanced in civiliza- 
 tion, wealthy, hospitable, liberal, and in gen- 
 eral inoffensive. They appeared to have an 
 instinctive dread of the foreigners, and yet 
 treated them with kindness. They were will- 
 ing to share their wealth with the Spaniards, 
 but nothing less than the whole would satisfy 
 the cupidity of the Christians. After scenes 
 of cruelty and treachery, the Spanish leader 
 completed the conquest in 1521. The coun- 
 try continued under the jurisdiction of a Span- 
 ish viceroy, until it declared itself independent 
 in 1820. 
 
 After the brief empire of Iturbide, a consti- 
 tution modeled on ours was adopted. Of the 
 ups and downs of Mexican politics, the dis- 
 sensions that have torn the country, the am- 
 bitious dictators that have aspired, risen, and 
 fell, we can not here give a sketch. In 1835 
 Texas revolted, and afterward established it- 
 self as an independent state. Its annexation 
 to the United States resulted in a war between 
 Mexico and the latter. The Mexicans fought 
 bravely, but the decision was certain. Of the 
 victories of Taylor, at Palo Alto, Resaca de la 
 Palma, Monterey, and Buena Yista, and those 
 of Scott, at Yera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contre- 
 ras, Churubusco, Chapultepec, and Molino 
 del Rey, we have made separate mention. 
 The triumphs of Scott were crowned by the 
 possession of the city of Mexico. Elsewhere 
 too, in California and in New Mexico, victory 
 perched upon the American standards. Peace 
 
 MEX 
 
538 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was ratified in February, 1848. The Rio 
 Grande was made the boundary of Texas; 
 New Mexico and Upper California were ceded 
 to the United States, and the latter paid 
 $ 1 5, 000, 000 and assumed claims to the amount 
 of $3,250,000. This is known as the treaty 
 of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 Although we still name Mexico a republic, 
 because it is legally and in justice such, yet 
 it was chiefly subdued during 1861-5 by the 
 treacherous and despotic interference of the 
 French emperor. Miramor while president 
 of Mexico, had negotiated a loan with the 
 banking house of Jecker, by which he re- 
 ceived $750,000, for which Jecker was to 
 receive $15,000,000. Louis Napoleon caused 
 Jecker to be admitted a French citizen, took 
 up his claim as a pretence, and induced Spain 
 and England to send troops along with his 
 own to Mexico, on pretence of enforcing pay- 
 ment of the claims against Mexico of all three, 
 in all about $76,000,000. The invading force 
 reached Vera Cruz in December, 1861. The 
 Spanish and English troops were withdrawn 
 9th Apr., 1862, on pretence of distrust of the 
 Jecker claim, but the French went on alone, 
 meeting no effective resistance. Maximilian, 
 an Austrian arch-duke, accepted the emperor- 
 ship of Mexico, which Napoleon now offered 
 him, and crossing the ocean, issued a procla- 
 mation on May 28, 1864, at Vera Cruz, “ac- 
 cepting ” the throne. He relied on the aid 
 of French bayonets to hold it, but was unsuc- 
 cessful and being captured by the Liberal 
 Government, was by its order executed at 
 Queretaro, June 19, 1867. 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO. Michelangelo 
 Buonarroti was of a noble and ancient 
 fanily, and born at Caprese in Tuscany, 
 March 6th, 14 75. Any one of his high qual- 
 ities would have made the fortune of an or- 
 dinary man. He was a distinguished painter, 
 sculptor, architect and poet, and “ cunning 
 of fence.” The beauty of the Sistine Chapel 
 at Rome consists principally in the perfec- 
 tion of his paintings. At fifty, he commenced 
 painting the “ Last Judgment” there, em- 
 bracing a multitude of figures in various atti- 
 tudes, and with different expressions, it is an 
 unwearying object of contemplation for the 
 artist and lover of the fine arts. Between 
 Michelangelo and Raphael, there was a gener- 
 ous rivalry, the former never forgetting that 
 
 Raphael had perfected his style only after 
 having diligently studied the frescoes of the 
 Sistine Cliapel. Raphael is said to have 
 often exclaimed that he thanked God he was 
 born in the days of Michelangelo. 
 
 The Farnesian family had built a house 
 upon the bank of the Tiber. Cardinal Far- 
 nese wished to have the halls adorned by the 
 the pencil of Raphael, to give additional 
 beauty to this charming place. The artist 
 stipulated that no one should inspect his 
 work until it was finished. But the friends 
 of Raphael spread abroad high reports of the 
 triumphs which the painter had achieved; 
 praising in especial, the “Banquet of the 
 Gods,” the “Nuptials of Cupid and Psyche,” 
 and the “Triumph of Galatea.” These re- 
 ports inflamed the curiosity of Buonarroti, 
 and he swore by the “Inferno” of Dante, 
 that he would gain admission into the Far- 
 nesian villa, examine the works of Raphael, 
 and prevent their completion. 
 
 Michelangelo, having discovered that Ra- 
 phael went late to his work, disguised him- 
 self as a vender of brandy, and taking with 
 him a huge basket filled with biscuits and 
 brandy, directed his steps at an early hour 
 to the gate of the Farnesian palace. His 
 cries of “Brandy! brandy!” roused the 
 masons ; the gate was opened. Behold 
 Michelangelo in the interior of the Farne- 
 sina ! The workmen were soon busily em- 
 ployed upon the biscuits and the brandy ; 
 he passed through the corridors, and was 
 soon before the frescoes of Raphael. The 
 fine picture of Galatea attracted his attention, 
 and, noticing a scaffold and a wall in readi- 
 ness for the painter, he ascended and drew 
 with a piece of charcoal a gigantic head of 
 Jupiter, after which he left the % villa precipi- 
 tately, without stopping for his basket. 
 When Raphael arrived at noon, on beholding 
 the splendid head, he exclaimed, “ Michelan- 
 gelo ! ” From that day he painted no more 
 in the Farnesina, and his works remained 
 unfinished. The head of Jupiter remains 
 still upon the wall, covered with a glass, and 
 attracts the admiration of artists and con- 
 noisseurs. 
 
 The great artist was never married. He 
 died at Rome, Feb. 17th, 1564, and his body 
 was entombed in the church of Santa Croce 
 at Florence. 
 
MICHIGAN consists of two distinct penin- 
 sulas, separated by the waters of Lake Huron 
 And Lake Michigan. In all, it has an area 
 of 56,243 square miles, populated in 1870 
 by 1 .84,059 inhabitants. The surface of the 
 southern peninsula is in general slightly un- 
 dulating; the watershed, that divides the 
 streams flowing into Lake Huron and Lake 
 Erie from those running into Lake Michigan, 
 gradually rises in the north, which is more 
 broken. The country is well timbered with 
 oak, hickory, poplar, sugar maple, and white 
 and yellow pine. There are some prairies. 
 The land of southern Michigan is very fer- 
 tile, and all the state is well watered. The 
 northern peninsula has not been fully ex- 
 plored, but it is much more rugged than the 
 southern. The Pictured Rocks are a remark- 
 able sight on the northern coast. A lofty 
 wall of sand-stone extends along the shore 
 for the distance of about twelve miles, rising 
 perpendicularly with an elevation, in some 
 parts, of three hundred feet. The face of 
 the wall discolored by the water, presents 
 the appearance of landscapes, buildings, and 
 various objects delineated by the hand of 
 man, while in some places the cliffs are 
 broken into grotesque forms by the fury of 
 the ever-dashing surge ; groups of overhang- 
 ing precipices, towering walls, caverns, water- 
 falls, and prostrate ruins are here mingled 
 in the most wonderful disorder. One of the 
 most curious formations consists of a tabular 
 mass of sand-stone, about fifty feet in diame- 
 ter and eight feet thick, supported by four 
 
 columns, which are nearly round and exhibit 
 almost the regularity of masonry ; they are 
 from three to seven feet in diameter and 
 about forty feet high, and support four light 
 and lofty arches. 
 
 The most remarkable natural feature of 
 Michigan is the great lakes by which it is 
 nearly surrounded. Lying in the centre of 
 a vast continent, with their surfaces six hun- 
 dred feet above the level of the ocean, they 
 penetrate far down below that level, since 
 they have a depth varying from eight hun- 
 dred to a thousand feet. Lake Michigan lies 
 chiefly in the state that bears its name. This 
 great sheet of water has a width of from 
 eighty to one hundred miles; its length is 
 about three hundred and sixty miles, and it 
 has an area of about 26,000 square miles. 
 In general, it is remarkable for the absence 
 of bays and harbors, the coast being through- 
 out a greater part of its windings unbroken 
 by any considerable indentations. Green 
 Bay in the north-west is, however, a fine 
 expanse, of about twenty-five miles in width, 
 extending far up into the land, and accessible 
 to vessels of two hundred tons burthen. 
 Ships of any size may float in Lake Michigan, 
 but the waters on its shores are shallow. 
 Lake Michigan communicates through the 
 Straits of Michilimackinac, — called in the 
 country Mackinaw, — four miles wide, with 
 Lake Huron. It is remarkably free from 
 islands, but toward its northern extremity are 
 the Manitou Isles and the Beaver Islands. 
 
 The geologists who surveyed the northern 
 
 MIC 
 
540 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLC JDIA OP 
 
 peninsula, by order of the general govern- 
 ment, reported that its beds of iron are of 
 such magnitude, the ore of such purity, and 
 the vast forests so suitable for charcoal, that 
 this region must yet be one of the most 
 valuable in the world for the manufacturing 
 of the finer varieties of wrought iron and 
 steel. Copper is also found in great extent 
 and richness. 
 
 French traders early entered Michigan, and 
 established a post at Detroit. France yielded 
 the country to England in 1763. It was 
 organized as a territory of the United States 
 in 1805, and in 1836 was admitted into the 
 Union. Both branches of the legislature are 
 chosen and meet biennially. The style of 
 the laws is, “ The people of the state of 
 Michigan enact.” The governor is elected 
 biennially. The right of suffrage is held by 
 every male citizen above twenty-one ; every 
 male inhabitant who has resided in the 
 state two years and a half, and declared 
 his intention to become a citizen of the 
 United States six months before the elec- 
 tion ; and every civilized male inhabitant 
 of Indian descent, a native of the United 
 States and not a member of any tribe ; all 
 of whom must have resided in the state three 
 months before an election. The judicial 
 power is vested in a supreme court, circuit 
 courts, probate courts, and justices of the 
 pehce. Good provision is made for common- 
 school education, and the state sustains a 
 normal school, an asylum for the insane, and 
 an asylum for the deaf and dumb and the 
 blind. 
 
 Lansing is the capital of the state ; popu- 
 lation in 1870, 5,241. The largest town of 
 Michigan is Detroit, situated between Lakes 
 Erie and St. Clair on the west side of the 
 river Detroit; population . in 1870,79,577. 
 It is well built on a gentle ascent from the 
 river. It w r as settled by Canadian French 
 in 1683. In 1760 it fell into the hands of 
 the British. In 1784 it became by treaty 
 a possession of the United States, which 
 maintained a garrison there from 1796 untd 
 within a few years past. It was first incor- 
 porated as a city in 1802. In the war of 
 1812 Detroit was captured by the British, 
 and recaptured by the Americans the next 
 year. In 1815 it received a new charter of 
 incorporation. The city has twice been ex- 
 
 tensively devastated by fire; first in 1805, 
 when it was nearly destroyed ; and after- 
 ward in 1837, when the destruction of prop- 
 erty was very great. Population, 79,577. 
 
 MICKLE, William Julius, a Scotch poet, 
 and translator of “ The Lusiad,” born in 1734, 
 died in 1788. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Arthur, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born at 
 Middleton Place in South Carolina, 1743. 
 He was educated in England, returned to 
 America in 1773, was an active republican, 
 and in 1776 was elected to a seat in Con- 
 gress, of which body he was a member till 
 1778, and again from 1781 to 1783. He 
 was in Charleston during the siege of 1780, 
 and was made a prisoner at the time of the 
 surrender. The fires of the Revolution 
 melted away a large portion of his ample 
 fortune. He continued active in public life 
 until his death, Jan. 1st, 1787. 
 
 MIFFLIN, Thomas, major-general in the 
 Revolutionary war; president of Congress 
 in 1783, and in that character received the 
 resignation of Washington in a public audi- 
 ence at Annapolis ; was nine years governor 
 of Pennsylvania ; died Jan. 20th, 1800, in 
 the fifty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 MILAN, formerly a duchy in the north 
 of Italy, was comprised, with several other 
 districts, under the general name of Lom- 
 bardy, until the fourteenth century, when 
 Visconti, a Milanese nobleman, purchased 
 the ducal title from the reigning emperor. 
 The marriage of his daughter to the Duke 
 of Orleans gave rise to the pretensions of 
 the kings of France to this duchy. After 
 the death of the last duke of this line, 
 Francis Sforza, a man of family and talents, 
 so ingratiated himself with the people that 
 he was unanimously chosen duke in 1450. 
 On the extinction of the Sforza family a 
 century after, the Emperor Charles V. gave 
 the Milanese as a fief of the empire to his 
 son Philip II. of Spain, and it remained an 
 appendage to that crown till 1706, when a 
 brilliant campaign of Prince Eugene put it 
 in possession of the house of Austria, to 
 which, with the exception of the Sardinian 
 Milanese, it continued subject during ninety 
 years, until the victories of Bonaparte in 
 1796. On the formation of the Cisalpine 
 republic, the whole of Milan, divided into four 
 
 MIL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 541 
 
 departments, was comprised in ft; but on 
 the restoration of the old order of things in 
 1814, the part belonging to Sardinia was 
 restored, and the remainder incorporated 
 with Austrian Italy. 
 
 Milan, the capital city of the Austrian 
 crownland of Lombardy, contains many 
 splendid public buildings, and 162,000 in- 
 habitants. The French made themselves 
 masters of it in 1796; but were driven out 
 in 1799 by the victorious army of the Aus- 
 trians and Russians. After the battle of 
 Marengo, Milan again fell into the hands of 
 the French, and continued the seat of their 
 viceroy until the fall of Bonaparte in 1814. 
 
 The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon 
 against all continental intercourse with Eng- 
 land, was proclaimed Dec. 17th, 1807. 
 
 MILLER, Hugh, was born at Cromarty, a 
 small seaport town in the north of Scotland, 
 in 1802. He received a scanty schooling and 
 became a stone mason. He was fond of 
 reading and a keen observer of nature. He 
 attracted attention by various contributions 
 to newspapers, and in 1840 became editor 
 of the Witness , a leading Edinburgh journal. 
 Geology was his favorite study, and his 
 treatise, “The Old Red Sandstone,” stamped 
 him with a high and worldwide reputation 
 that was well sustained by his subsequent 
 publications. He shot himself in an insane 
 paroxysm resulting from excessive mental 
 labor, Dec. 81st, 1856. The day previous 
 he had completed a work entitled “The Tes- 
 timony of the Rocks.” 
 
 MILTIADES, an Athenian, married Hege- 
 sipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the king of 
 the Thracians. In the third year of his gov- 
 ernment his dominions were threatened by 
 an invasion of the Scythian Nomades, whom 
 Darius had some time before irritated by 
 entering their country. He fled before them ; 
 but, as their hostilities were but momentary, 
 he was soon restored to his kingdom. Three 
 years after he left Chersonesus, and set sail 
 for Athens, where he was received with 
 great applause. He was present at the cele- 
 brated battle of Marathon, in which all the 
 chief otticers ceded their power to him, and 
 left the event of the battle to depend upon 
 his superior abilities. He obtained an im- 
 portant victory over the more numerous 
 forces of his adversaries ; yet when he had 
 
 demanded of his fellow-citizens an olive 
 crown, as the reward of his valor in the field 
 of battle, he was not only refused, but se- 
 verely reprimanded for presumption. 
 
 Some time after, Miltiades was intrusted 
 with a fleet of seventy ships, and ordered to 
 punish those islands which had revolted to 
 the Persians. He was successful at first; 
 but a sudden report that a Persian fleet was 
 coming to attack him, changed his opera- 
 tions as he was besieging Paros. He raised 
 the siege and returned to Athens, where he 
 was accused of treason, and particularly of 
 holding correspondence with the enemy. 
 The falsity of these accusations might have 
 appeared, if Miltiades had been able to come 
 into the assembly. A wound which he had 
 received before Paros detained him at home ; 
 and his enemies, taking advantage of his 
 absence, became more eager in their accu- 
 sations and louder in their clamors. He was 
 condemned to death ; but the rigor of the 
 sentence was retracted on the recollection of 
 his great services to the Athenians, and he 
 was put into prison till he had paid a fine of 
 fifty talents to the state. His inability to 
 discharge so great a sum detained him in 
 confinement ; his wounds became incurable 
 soon after, and he died about b.c. 489. The 
 crimes of Miltiades were probably aggravated 
 in the eyes of his countrymen when they 
 remembered how he made himself absolute 
 in Chersonesus ; and in condemning the bar- 
 barity of the Athenians toward a general 
 who was the source of their military pros- 
 perity, we must remember the jealousy which 
 ever reigns among a free and independent 
 people, and how watchful they are in defense 
 of the natural rights which they see wrested 
 from others by violence and oppression. 
 
 MILTON, John, was descended from an 
 ancient family at Milton in Oxfordshire. His 
 father, whose desertion of the Roman Cath- 
 olic faith was the cause of his disinheritance, 
 settled in London as a scrivener, and, marry- 
 ing a woman of good family, had two sons 
 and a daughter. John, the eldest son, was 
 born in Bread street, December 9th, 1608. 
 He received the rudiments of learning from 
 a domestic tutor, Thomas Young, afterward 
 chaplain to the English merchants at Ham- 
 burg, whose merits are gratefully commem- 
 orated by his pupil, in a Latin elegy. At a 
 
 MIL 
 
642 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 proper age he was sent to St. Paul’s school, 
 and there began to distinguish himself by his 
 intense application to study, as well as by his 
 poetical talents. In his sixteenth year he 
 Was removed to Christ’s College, Cambridge, 
 Where he was admitted a pensioner. 
 
 Of his course of studies in the university 
 little is known ; but it appears, from several 
 exercises preserved in his works, that he had 
 acquired extraordinary skill in writing Latin 
 verses which are of a purer taste than any 
 preceding compositions of the kind by Eng- 
 lish scholars. He took the degrees both of 
 bachelor and master of arts ; the latter in 1632, 
 when he left Cambridge. He renounced his 
 original intention of entering the church, for 
 which he has given as a reason, that, “ com- 
 ing to some maturity of years, he had per- 
 ceived what tyranny had invaded it ; ” which 
 denotes a man early habituated to think and 
 act for himself. 
 
 He returned to his father, who had retired 
 from business to a residence at Horton, in 
 Buckinghamshire ; and he there passed five 
 years in the study of the best Roman and 
 Grecian authors,, and in the composition of 
 some of his finest miscellaneous poems. This 
 was the period of his “Allegro” and “Pen- 
 seroso,” his “ Comus” and “ Lycidas.” That 
 his learning and talents had at this time 
 attracted considerable notice, appears from 
 an application made to him from the Bridge- 
 water family, w r hich produced his admirable 
 masque of “Comus,” performed in 1634, at 
 Ludlow Castle, before the Earl of Bridgewater, 
 then Lord President of Wales; and also by 
 his “ Arcades,” part of an entertainment pre- 
 sented to the Countess dowager of Derby, 
 at Harefield, by some of her family. 
 
 In 1638 he obtained his father’s leave to 
 improve himself by foreign travel, and set out 
 for the continent. Passing through France, 
 he proceeded to Italy, and spent a considera- 
 ble time in that seat of the arts and of litera- 
 ture. At Naples he w T as kindly received by 
 Manso, Marquis of Villa, who had long before 
 deserved the gratitude of poets by his patron- 
 age of Tasso ; and, in return for a laudatory 
 distich of Manso, Milton addressed to him a 
 Latin poem of great elegance. He left Italy 
 by the way of Geneva, where he contracted 
 an acquaintance with twm learned divines, 
 John Diodati and Frederic Spanheim ; and he 
 
 returned through France, having been absent 
 about a year and three months. 
 
 On his arrival, Milton found the nation 
 agitated by civil and religious disputes w T hich 
 threatened a crisis ; and as he had expressed 
 himself impatient to be present on the theatre 
 of contention, it has been thought extraor- 
 dinary that he did not immediately place 
 himself in some active station. But his turn 
 was not military ; his fortune precluded a 
 seat in parliament; the pulpit he had de- 
 clined ; and for the bar he had made no 
 preparation. His taste and habits were alto- 
 gether literary ; for the present, therefore, 
 he fixed himself in the metropolis, and under- 
 took the education of his sister Philips’s two 
 sons. Soon after, he was applied to by several 
 parents to admit their children to the benefit 
 of his tuition. He therefore took a commo- 
 dious house in Aldersgate street, and opened 
 an academy. Disapproving the plan of edu- 
 cation in the public schools and universities, 
 he deviated from it as widely as possible. He 
 put into the hands of his scholars, instead 
 of the common classics, such Greek and Latin 
 authors as treated on the arts and sciences, 
 and on philosophy ; thus expecting to instill 
 the knowledge of things with that of words. 
 We are not informed of the result of his plan ; 
 but It will appear singular that one w T ho had 
 himself drunk so deeply at the muse’s fount, 
 should withhold the draught from others. 
 We learn that he performed the task of in- 
 struction with great assiduity. 
 
 Milton did not long suffer himself to lie 
 under the reproach of having neglected the 
 public cause in his private pursuits ; and, in 
 1641, he published four treatises relative to 
 church government, in which he gave the 
 preponderance to the Presbyterian form above 
 the Episcopalian. Resuming the same con- 
 troversy in the following 3 T ear, he numbered 
 among his antagonists such men as Bishop 
 Hall and Archbishop Usher. His father, 
 w r ho had been disturbed by the king’s troops, 
 now came to live with him ; and the neces- 
 sity of a female head of such a house caused 
 Milton, in 1643, to form a connection with 
 Mary, the daughter of Richard Powell, Esq., 
 a magistrate of Oxfordshire. This was, in » 
 several respects, an unhappy marriage ; for 
 his father-in-law w r as a zealous royalist, and 
 his wufe had accustomed herself to the jovial 
 
 MIL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 543 
 
 hospitality of that party. She had not, 
 * therefore, passed above a month in her hus- 
 band’s house, when, having procured an 
 invitation from her father, she went to pass 
 the summer in his mansion. Milton’s invita- 
 tions for her return were treated with con- 
 tempt ; upon which, regarding her conduct 
 as a desertion which broke the nuptial con- 
 tract, he determined to punish it by repudia- 
 tion. In 1644 he published a work on “The 
 Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce;” and, 
 in the next year, it was followed by “Tetra- 
 chordon, or Expositions upon the Four Chief 
 Places in Scripture which treat of Marriage.” 
 He farther reduced his doctrine into practice, 
 by paying his addresses to a young lady of 
 great accomplishments ; but, as he was pay- 
 ing a visit to a neighbor and kinsman, he 
 was surprised with the sudden entrance of 
 his wife, who threw herself at his feet and 
 implored forgiveness. After a short struggle 
 of resentment, he took her to his bosom ; and 
 he sealed the reconciliation by opening his 
 house to her father and brothers, when they 
 had been driven from home by the triumph 
 of the republican arms. 
 
 Tn the progress of Milton’s prose works, it 
 will be right to mention his “ Areopagitica ; 
 a Speech of Mr. John Milton, for the Liberty 
 of Unlicensed Printing;” a work, published 
 in 1644, written with equal spirit and ability, 
 and which, when reprinted in 1738, was 
 affirmed to be the best defense that had ever 
 then appeared of that essential article of 
 public liberty. In the following year he took 
 care that his poetical character should not be 
 lost to the world, and published his juvenile 
 poems, Latin and English. 
 
 Milton’s principles of the origin and end of 
 government carried him to a full approbation 
 of the trial and execution of the king ; and, 
 in order to conciliate the minds of the people 
 to that act, he published, early in 1649, a 
 work entitled, “The Tenure of Kings and 
 Magistrates ; proving that it is lawful, and 
 hath been so held through all ages, for any 
 who have the power, to call to account a 
 tyrant or wicked king and, after due con- 
 viction, to depose and put him to death, if 
 the ordinary magistrate have neglected or 
 denied to do it.” Certainly, it would not 
 be easy to express, in stronger terms, an 
 author’s resolution to leave no doubts con- 
 
 cerning his opinion on this important topic. 
 II is appointment to the Latin secretaryship 
 to the council of state was, probably, the 
 consequence of his decision. 
 
 The learned Frenchman, Salmasius, or 
 Saumaise, having been hired by Charles II., 
 while in Holland, to write a work in favor of 
 the royal cause, which he entitled, “ Defensio 
 Regia,” Milton was employed to answer it ; 
 which he did in 1651, by his celebrated “ De- 
 fensio pro Populo Anglicano,” in which he 
 exercised all his powers of Latin rhetoric, 
 both to justify the republican party, and to 
 confound and vilify the famous scholar against 
 whom he took up the pen. By this piece he 
 acquired a high reputation, both at home and 
 abroad ; and he received a present of a thou- 
 sand pounds from the English government. 
 His book went through several editions; 
 while, on the other hand, the work of Sal- 
 masius was suppressed by the States of Hol- 
 land, in whose service he lived as a professor 
 at Leyden. Milton’s intense application to 
 study had, for some 3 r ears preceding, brought 
 on an affection of the eyes, which gradually 
 impaired his sight ; and, before he wrote his 
 “ Defensio,” he was warned by his physi- 
 cians that the effort would probably end in 
 total blindness. This opinion was soon after 
 justified by a gutta serena, which seized both 
 his eyes, and subjected the remainder of his 
 life to those privations which he has so feel- 
 ingly described in some passages of his poems. 
 His intellectual powers, however, suffered no 
 eclipse from this loss of his sensitive faculties ; 
 and he pursued, without intermission, both 
 his official and his controversial occupations. 
 
 Cromwell at length died, and Charles II. 
 returned in triumph. Milton was discharged 
 from his office, and lay for some time con- 
 cealed in the house of a friend. The house 
 of commons desired that his majesty would 
 issue a proclamation to call in Milton’s “ De- 
 fenses of the People,” and “ Iconoclastcs,” 
 together with a book of Goodwyn’s. The 
 books were accordingly burnt by the common 
 hangman ; but the authors were returned as 
 having absconded ; nor, in the act of indem- 
 nity, did the name of Milton appear among 
 those of the excepted persons. 
 
 He now, in reduced circumstances, and 
 under the discountenance of power, removed 
 to a private habitation near his former resi- 
 
 MIL 
 
5U 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dence. He had buried his first wife ; and a 
 second, the daughter of Captain Woodcock, 
 in Hackney, died in childbed. To solace his 
 forlorn condition, he desired h-4> friend, Dr. 
 Paget, to look out a third wife for him, who 
 recommended a relation of his own, named 
 Elizabeth Minshull, of a good family in Chesh- 
 ire. His powerful mind now centered in 
 itself, and, undisturbed by contentions and 
 temporary topics, opened to those great ideas 
 which were continually filling it; and the 
 result was “Paradise Lost.” Much discus- 
 sion has taken place concerning the original 
 conception of this grand performance; but 
 whatever hint may have suggested the rude 
 outline, it is certain that all the creative 
 powers of a strong imagination, and all the 
 accumulated stores of a life devoted to 
 learning, were expended in its completion. 
 Though he appears at an early age to have 
 thought of some subject in the heroic times 
 of English history, as peculiarly calculated 
 for English verse, yet his religious turn, and 
 assiduous study of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 produced a final preference of a story derived 
 from the sacred writings, and giving scope 
 to the introduction of his theological system. 
 It would be superfluous, at this time, to 
 weigh the merits of Milton’s great work, 
 which stands so much beyond competition ; 
 but it may be affirmed, that whatever his 
 other poems can exhibit of beauty in some 
 parts, or of grandeur in others, may all be 
 referred to “Paradise Lost” as the most 
 perfect model of both. 
 
 Not exhausted bj^this great effort, Milton 
 followed it in 1G70 by “Paradise Regained,” 
 and his tragedy of “Samson Agonistes.” 
 With these the record of his poems closes. 
 He sank tranquilly under an exhaustion of 
 the vital powers in November, 1674. 
 
 It is impossible to refuse to Milton the 
 honor due to a life of the sincerest piety and 
 the most dignified virtue. No man ever lived 
 under a more abiding sense of responsibility. 
 No man ever strove more faithfully to use his 
 time and talent “as ever in the great Task- 
 master’s eye.” No man so richly endowed 
 was ever less prone to trust his own pow- 
 ers, or more prompt to own his depend- 
 ence on “ that eternal and propitious throne, 
 where nothing is readier than grace and 
 refuge to the distresses of mortal suppliants. 
 
 His morality was of the loftiest character. 
 He possessed a self-control which, in one 
 susceptible of such vehement emotions, was 
 marvelous. No one ever saw him indulging 
 in those propensities which overcloud the 
 mind and pollute the heart. No youthful 
 excesses treasured up for him a suffering and 
 remorseful old age. From his youth up he 
 was temperate in all things, as became one 
 who had consecrated himself to a life-struggle 
 against vice and error and darkness, in all 
 their forms. He had started with the con- 
 viction “that he who would not be frustrate 
 of his hope to write well hereafter in lauda- 
 ble things, ought himself to be a true poem ; 
 that is, a composition and pattern of the best 
 and honorable things ; ” and from this he 
 never swerved. His life was indeed a true 
 poem ; or it might be compared to an an- 
 them on his own favorite organ — high-toned, 
 solemn and majestic. 
 
 MINDEN, a town of Prussia, containing 
 9,000 inhabitants. Here Prince Ferdinand 
 gained a victory over the French in the cam- 
 paign of 1759. The merit of the victory is 
 principally to be ascribed to the valor and 
 steadiness of the British troops engaged. 
 Min den surrendered on the next day ; and the 
 French retreated to the other side of the 
 W eser. 
 
 MINNESOTA. Among the states that 
 within a few years have been born from the 
 wilderness, the growth of none has been more 
 like that of Aladdin’s palace than that of Min- 
 nesota, the land of ‘ sky-tinted water.’ It was 
 a part of the domain purchased with Louisi- 
 ana in 1803. French missionaries and traders 
 had known of the country for nearly two 
 hundred years, and the Chippewa and Sioux 
 or Dacotah tribes of Indians, who possessed 
 it, saw scarcely any other representatives of 
 the white race, long after the cession. But in 
 1816 Congress passed a law excluding foreign- 
 ers from the Indian trade, and in 1819 Fort 
 Snelling was established. In 1831 Henry R. 
 Schoolcraft traced the Mississippi to its source 
 in Lake Itasca. But though the region which 
 he visited began to be better known, it con- 
 tinued for years to be many miles to the west- 
 ward of civilization. 
 
 In 1849 the territory of Minnesota was or- 
 ganized. In 1857 it was divided nearly in 
 twain. The western portion it is proposed to 
 MIN 
 
call the territory of Dacotah, while in 1858 
 the eastern portion was admitted into the 
 Union as the sovereign state of Minnesota. 
 Area about 80,000 square miles; population 
 about 200,000. The constitution prohibits 
 slavery. The auditor is to be elected for three 
 years ; the other state officers for two. The 
 judicial power is vested in justices of the 
 peace, a supreme court, district, probate, and 
 such other inferior courts as the legislature 
 may establish by a two-thirds vote ; all judges 
 and justices to be elected by the people for 
 terms in no case longer than seven years. 
 The legislature can not grant divorces, author- 
 ize lotteries, or contract a debt over $250,000. 
 It may pass a general banking law, under 
 stringent restrictions and requirements. 
 All males twenty-one years of age, who have 
 resided in the United States one year and in 
 the state four months next preceding an elec- 
 tion, if white citizens of the United States ; or 
 white persons of foreign birth who have de- 
 clared their intention to become citizens ; or 
 persons of mixed white and Indian blood, or 
 of Indian blood, who have adopted the lan- 
 guage, customs, and habits of civilization, — 
 are voters in the district of which they have 
 been ten days residents : no religious or prop- 
 erty qualifications are required. No person 
 shall be rendered incompetent to give evidence 
 in consequence of his opinions on matters of 
 religion. 
 
 With the exception of a ridge, dividing the 
 Mississippi from Lake Superior, called the 
 Hauteurs de Terres, or Highlands, and the 
 magnificent limestone bluffs upon the Missis- 
 
 35 
 
 sippi below St. Paul, Minnesota is a country 
 of high rolling prairies and river bottoms lined 
 with forests. This region is the highest 
 ground north of the Gulf of Mexico, and it 
 forms the watershed of three great basins. 
 The Mississippi, the Red River of the North, 
 and rivers that feed Lake Superior take their 
 rise within its limits, and it is one of the best 
 watered tracts in the Union. The Minnesota 
 or St. Peter’s, the St. Francis, and the St. 
 Croix are important tributaries of the Missis- 
 sippi, and there are myriads of lesser streams. 
 Along the northern portion of the state is a 
 region thickly studded with lakes whose crys- 
 tal depths are the head-waters of the mighty 
 river. The climate of Minnesota is cold in 
 the long winters, but the clearness and dry- 
 ness of the atmosphere, and the absence of 
 sudden or extreme changes, temper the sever- 
 ity so that the winters are not more trying 
 than those of lower latitudes. On the fertile 
 soil, maize, oats, and wheat, wdth the other 
 ordinary cereals, grow well. The pine forests 
 are a source of much wealth and industry. 
 
 In 1766 Jonathan Carver, of Connecticut, 
 conceived the idea of reaching the Pacific from 
 the further extremity of the great chain of 
 inland seas. [ See Carver.] He describes 
 Minnesota as a “most delightful country, 
 abounding with all the necessaries of life that 
 grow spontaneously. Wild rice grows here 
 in great abundance ; and every part is filled 
 with trees, bending under their loads of fruit, 
 such as plums, grapes, and appbs. The 
 meadows are covered with hops, and many 
 sorts of vegetables, while the ground is stored 
 
 MIN 
 
546 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 with useful roots, with angelica, spikenard, 
 and ground-nuts as large as hens’ eggs.” He 
 also speaks of a “milk-white clay” abounding 
 near the south bend of the Minnesota, “out 
 of which china ware might be made, equal in 
 goodness to the Asiatic;” and also of “a blue 
 clay, which serves the Indians for paint.” 
 
 Whittier has briefly sketched the history 
 of the western wilderness, Minnesota, or Iowa, 
 or Wisconsin, or Kansas. 
 
 “Behind the red squaw’s birch canoe 
 The steamer smokes and raves, 
 
 And city lots are staked for sale 
 Above old Indian graves. 
 
 I hear the tread of pioneers 
 Of nations yet to be — 
 
 The first low wash of waves, where soon 
 Shall roll a human sea.” 
 
 The growth of Minnesota especially, since its 
 organization, has been startling. Its whole 
 population, in 1850, was 6,077 ; in 1857, Hen- 
 nepin county alone, in which are the towns 
 of St. Anthony and Minneapolis, contained 
 13,863 inhabitants. St. Paul, on the east bank 
 of the Mississippi, is the capital of the state. 
 In 1846 it contained but ten white inhabit- 
 ants: in 1870, there were 20,030 inhabitants! 
 Fifteen miles above St. Paul, are the falls of 
 St. Anthony. The Indians called this beau- 
 tiful cataract Minnehaha, ‘laughing water.’ 
 As early as 1680 Father Hennepin gave them 
 the name of his patron saint. 
 
 MINORCA, the second of the Balearic 
 Islands in the Mediterranean, contains 44,000 
 inhabitants. It produces some wines, and 
 olive oil, and has mines of iron, lead, and 
 admirable marble. The climate, although 
 hot, is agreeable. In 1708 the English took 
 possession of it, and retained it till 1756, 
 when it was retaken by a French fleet and 
 army, after the failure of an attempt to re- 
 lieve it, which led to the execution of the 
 unfortunate Admiral Byng. At the peace 
 of 1763 Minorca was restored to Britain; 
 but in 1782 it was retaken by the Spaniards. 
 It was once more taken by the British in 
 1798; but was restored at the peace of 
 Amiens in 1802. 
 
 MINOS, a king of Crete, who gave laws 
 to his subjects, b.c. 1015, which still re- 
 mained in full force in the age of the philoso- 
 pher Plato. His justice and moderation 
 procured him the appellation of the favorite 
 of the gods, the wise legislator, in every city 
 
 of Greece; and according to the poets he 
 was rewarded for his equity, after death, 
 with the office of supreme and absolute judge 
 in the infernal regions. 
 
 MIRABEAU, Honore Gabriel Riquetti, 
 Count de, was born in 1749. He was born 
 with a club-foot. In addition to this defect, 
 his tongue, fastened by the froenum, gave 
 little promise of oratorical success. But the 
 size and vigor of his limbs, and the circum- 
 stance of two molar teeth being already 
 formed in his mouth, were sufficiently extraor- 
 dinary. He was also early attacked with 
 the small-pox, which left its usual impress on 
 his face. In a letter from the marquis, his 
 father, to the Countess of Rochefort, the 
 following passage occurs: “A fete is this 
 day given in honor of my mother [the dow- 
 ager-marchioness, widow of Jean Antoine de 
 Mirabeau, then seventy-two years of age]. 
 It is the production of my son’s tutor (an 
 indefatigable author and actor of such fol- 
 lies). You will see a little monster perform 
 therein, whom they call my son ; but who, 
 were he the son of La Thorrillere, could not 
 display a greater aptitude for all sorts of 
 devilment.” In another letter, dated 21st 
 of September, 1758, he writes thus: “My 
 son, whose size, prattle, and ugliness are 
 wonderfully on the increase, grows more 
 exquisitely and peculiarly ugly from day 
 to day, and, withal, a most indefatigable 
 speechifier.” 
 
 At an early age he quarreled with his 
 father, and fled from the paternal mansion, 
 but the old gentleman procured a lettre de 
 cachet , and imprisoned him. He, however, 
 escaped, and lived for a long time in habits 
 of dissipation : in proof of which the fol- 
 lowing anecdote is related. Mirabeau, one 
 day, called up his valet to discharge him. 
 The fellow asked the reason. “It is this,” 
 said Mirabeau. “You were drunk yesterday, 
 as I myself was. Now, sir, you remember 
 you agreed to get drunk only on days when 
 I was sober.” — “I remember it,” replied the 
 valet; “but you will excuse me when you 
 reflect upon the impossibility of my obeying 
 you — for you are drunk every day.” Mira- 
 beau reflected a moment, and retained the 
 domestic. 
 
 He went to Berlin toward the close of the 
 reign of Frederick, and was there when the 
 
 MIR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 547 
 
 French revolution commenced, on which he 
 returned home, and was elected a member 
 of the states-general. He rendered his name 
 memorable by the display of the most polished 
 and powerful eloquence. In 1791 he became 
 president of the national assembly. He died 
 of a fever on the 2d of April, that year. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. The area of Mississippi is 
 47,156 miles; population in 1870, 827,922, ol 
 whom 382,896 were whites and the remainder 
 colored. Numerous ranges of moderate hills 
 give to a greater part of the surface a diversi- 
 fied character. Along the Mississippi River 
 there is an extensive region of swamps, sub- 
 ject to inundation. In the south-east the soil 
 is low, and here the gulf coast, which further 
 west is marshy, begins to appear solid, dry, 
 and covered with pines. There are extensive 
 tracts of pine-lands, in which the soil is light, 
 but not unproductive ; and a large proportion 
 of £he land is fertile. Mississippi is well 
 watered by numerous streams and navigable 
 rivers, which intersect nearly every part of 
 the state. The Mississippi washes the whole 
 western border ; the Tennessee laves the 
 north-eastern corner ; and the Yazoo, Big 
 Black, Pearl, and Pascagoula flow through 
 the interior. Once tobacco and indigo were 
 the great products of Mississippi, but cotton 
 is now the overshadowing staple. Maize and 
 rice are cultivated somewhat largely. 
 
 This region was originally part of French 
 Louisiana, and in 1716 Fort Rosalie was 
 erected at Natchez. In 1763 it was ceded to 
 Great Britain, and twenty years after was 
 claimed by Spain as part of Florida. In 
 
 1 798 that power relinquished it to the United 
 States, and it was received into the Union in 
 1817. The legislature meets biennially, the 
 representatives being elected for two and the 
 senators for four years. The governor holds 
 office for a term of four years, and is ineligi- 
 ble for office more than two terms in succes- 
 sion. Every male citizen of the United 
 States, aged twenty-one or more, who has re- 
 sided in the state one year, is an elector. 
 There is a high court of errors and appeals? 
 consisting of three judges, one chosen by the 
 people biennially ; and a circuit court, a judge 
 being chosen for four years in each judicial 
 district ; and a probate court for each county. 
 The supreme court is the highest court of the 
 state and its judges are appointed for terms 
 of three, six, and nine years by the governor 
 with the consent of the senate. The court is 
 held at the seat of government once in two 
 years. A superintendent of education is 
 elected once in four years. An asylum for 
 the blind, one for the deaf and dumb, and a 
 lunatic hospital, are supported by the state 
 at Jackson. 
 
 Jackson, the capital of the state, had in 
 1870, 4,234 inhabitants. Natchez is the 
 largest and most important town. It con- 
 sists of two distinct parts ; the lower town, 
 called Natchez under the Hill, or the Land- 
 ing, is built on a dead level on the margin of 
 the river, and is occupied by warehouses, 
 tippling-shops, boarding-houses for boatmen, 
 &c. ; the upper town stands on a lofty bank 
 or bluff*. This place has been occasion- 
 ally visited by the yellow fever and other 
 
548 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA C P 
 
 diseases, but it is during the greater part of 
 the year an agreeable and healthful residence. 
 It was visited by a terrible hurricane in 
 1836. Natchez is 285 miles above New 
 Orleans. Its river and inland trade is exten- 
 sive. Its population in 1870 was 9,057. Here 
 was formerly the residence of the Great Sun 
 or principal chief of the Natchez, a powerful 
 and, in comparison with their savage neigh- 
 bors, a polished people ; they had an estab- 
 lished worship, and regular laws, and, on 
 an altar sacred to the sun, they kept up a 
 perpetual fire in honor of the Great Spirit. 
 In 1716 the French, whom they had received 
 with kindness, were allowed to establish a 
 post, called St. Rosalie, in their territory; 
 but bickerings, as usual, soon ensued between 
 the whites and the Indians, and the latter, 
 stung to madness by the injuries they had 
 experienced, surprised the fort and put the 
 garrison to death in 1729. The French sent 
 a great force into the country, and pursued 
 the war with so much vigor that the whole 
 nation was exterminated or sold into slavery, 
 with the exception of a few who joined the 
 Chickasaws and Choctaws. The ruins of 
 Fort St. Rosalie are still to be seen at Nat- 
 chez. In the vicinity there is a group of 
 remarkable mounds, from which numerous 
 relics, such as pipes, weapons, vessels cov- 
 ered with figures, &c., have been obtained. 
 Vicksburg, farther up the river, is the next 
 town in importance population in 1870, 
 12,443. Mississippi was prominent in the 
 rebellion, Jeff Davis having long been a 
 resident, and the leading politician there. 
 It seceded Jan. 10, 1861. It was one of the 
 chief centers of the Union military opera- 
 tions, and was terribly ravaged during the 
 war. The chief military occurrences in it 
 were, Grant’s siege and capture of Vicks- 
 burg, the siege of Port Hudson, Grierson’s 
 raid, Sherman’s march across the state, and 
 Smith’s raid. It returned to the Union in 
 August, 1865, by convention. 
 
 MISSOLONGHI, a fortress in Greece, 
 memorable for its siege, and the heroic resist- 
 ance of the garrison. After a defense of 
 twelve months, the Greeks were so near star- 
 vation that cats and rats were greedily de- 
 voured. They determined by one more 
 sortie to cut their way through the belea- 
 guering camp. On the 22d of April, 1826, 
 
 three thousand fighting men were to rush 
 headlong upon the besiegers, and hew a path 
 for the women and children, while the retreat 
 was to be covered by a thousand men, and the 
 fortress to be guarded by a few heroes who 
 were ready to yield their lives for the safety 
 of their wives and brethren. Treachery re- 
 vealed the plan to the Turkish general ; he 
 prepared for the onset, and amid great car- 
 nage and capture Missolonghi fell. 
 
 MISSOURI has an area of 67,380 square 
 miles, and in 1870 had 1,721,295 inhabit- 
 ants. The country south of the Missouri 
 River is traversed in different directions by 
 the chains of the Ozark Mountains. North 
 of the Osage and the Missouri, the country 
 is undulating and agreeably diversified, while 
 in the south-east, with the# exception of .a 
 narrow strip on the border of the Missis- 
 sippi, there is a low inundated morass, form- 
 ing a portion of the great Arkansas swamp. 
 This inundated tract is for the most part 
 heavily timbered, and the hilly country to 
 the north and west is well covered with pine, 
 sycamore, hackberry, cottonwood, and sugar 
 maple, though some of the hills are rugged 
 and barren. The rest of the state is divided 
 between forest and prairie. Rich alluvial 
 belts, sometimes prairie and sometimes wood" 
 land, generally skirt the rivers ; much of the 
 upland is of the first quality, while a large 
 portion of the inferior land is yet productive 
 and well adapted to farming. Cotton is 
 grown a little in the southern part of the 
 state; tobacco is more extensively raised, 
 and hemp, wheat, Indian corn, and the other 
 cereal grains are cultivated with success. 
 Great herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are 
 reared. 
 
 Missouri is bountifully supplied with navi- 
 gable channels. The great river whose name 
 it bears, flows through its centre, and the 
 Mississippi washes all its eastern line. The 
 Osage, Gasconnade, Grand, and Chariton 
 are the most considerable tributaries of the 
 Missouri. In mineral treasures Missouri is 
 very rich. Lead and iron are obtained abun- 
 dantly in the hilly region south of the Mis- 
 souri. Bituminous coal is extensively found. 
 
 The French visited this country very 
 early, but formed no settlements till the 
 middle of the last century. St. Genevieve 
 was founded in 1763, and St. Louis in 1764. 
 
 MIS 
 
Missouri was included in the Louisiana pur- 
 chase, and in 1821 became a member of the 
 Union, the Missouri compromise being part 
 of the arrangement, but being repealed in 
 1854. Missouri was early and long a seat of 
 hostilities during the rebellion. It refused 
 to secede by vote, February 18, 1861, but 
 only the prompt energy of General (then 
 Captain) Lyon, saved it to the Union. Ly- 
 on’s short but glorious campaign, Fremont’s 
 campaign and command, several rebel inva- 
 sions from Arkansas, and a long series of 
 horrible guerrilla atrocities, constitute the 
 war record of the state. It however passed 
 an emancipation ordinance January 11, 1865, 
 and quietly acquiesced in the restoration of 
 national authority. It is now likely to enter 
 upon a very prosperous career as a free state. 
 
 Jefferson City, on the Missouri, the capital 
 of the state, has about 4,500 inhabitants. The 
 great emporium of the state and of the Missis- 
 sippi valley is St. Louis. Till it came into 
 the hands of the Americans it was a mere vil- 
 lage : since the transfer it has thriven plenti- 
 fully, and in 1870 had 310,864 inhabitants. 
 As prosperous a future would seem to lie 
 before it. 
 
 MITHRIDATES. Mithridates I. was the 
 third king of Pontus. He was tributary to 
 the crown of Persia, and his attempts to make 
 himself independent proved fruitless. He 
 was conquered in a battle, and obtained peace 
 with difficulty. Xenophon calls him merely 
 a governor of Cappadocia. He was succeeded 
 by Ariobarzanes, b.c. 363. 
 
 The second of this name was grandson to 
 
 Mithridates I. He made himself master of 
 Pontus, which had been conquered by Alex- 
 ander, and had been ceded to Antigonus at 
 the general division of the Macedonian empire 
 among the conqueror’s generals. He reigned 
 about twenty -six years, and died at the ad- 
 vanced age of eighty-four, b.c. 302. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Mithridates 
 
 III. This enterprising and powerful monarch 
 enlarged his paternal possessions by the con- 
 quest of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, and 
 died after a reign of thirty-six years. 
 
 The fourth succeeded his father Ariobarza- 
 nes, who was the son of Mithridates III. 
 
 The fifth succeeded his father Mithridates 
 
 IV. and strengthened himself on his throne 
 by an alliance with Antiochus the Great, 
 whose daughter Laodice he married. He was 
 succeeded by his son Pharnaces. 
 
 The sixth succeeded his father Pharnaces. 
 He was the first of the kings of Pontus who 
 made alliance with the Romans. He furnished 
 them with a fleet in the third Punic war, and 
 assisted them against Aristonicus, who had 
 laid claim to the kingdom of Pergamus. He 
 was murdered b.c. 123. 
 
 The seventh, surnamed Eupator, and the 
 Great, succeeded his father Mithridates VI., 
 though only at the age of eleven years. The 
 beginning of his reign was marked by ambi- 
 tion, cruelty, and artifice. He murdered the 
 two sons whom his sister Laodice had had by 
 Ariarathes, King of Cappadocia, and placed 
 one of his own children, only eight years old, 
 on the vacant throne. These violent proceed 
 ings alarmed Nicomedes, King of Bithynia, 
 
 MIT 
 
550 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 who had married Laodice, the widow of Ari- 
 arathes. He suborned a youth to act as King 
 of Cappadocia, as the third son of Ariarathes, 
 and Laodice was sent to Rome to impose upon 
 the senate, and assure them that her third 
 son was still alive, and that his pretensions to 
 the kingdom of Cappadocia were just and well 
 grounded. Mithridates used the same arts of 
 dissimulation. He also sent to Rome Gordius, 
 the governor of his son, who solemnly declared 
 before the Roman people, that the youth who 
 sat on the throne of Cappadocia was the third 
 son and lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that he 
 was supported as such by Mithridates. 
 
 This intricate affair displeased the Roman 
 senate ; and finally, to settle the dispute be- 
 tween the two monarchs, the powerful and 
 rapacious arbiters took away the kingdom of 
 Cappadocia from Mithridates, and Paphlago- 
 nia from Nicomedes. These two kingdoms 
 being thus separated from their original pos- 
 sessors, were presented with their freedom and 
 independence ; but, the Cappadocians refused 
 it, and received Ariobarzanes for king. Such 
 were the first seeds of enmity between Rome 
 and the King of Pontus. 
 
 Mithridates, the more effectually to destroy 
 the power of his enemies in Asia, ordered all 
 the Romans that were in his dominions to be 
 massacred. This was done in one night, and 
 no less than 150,000, according to Plutarch, 
 or 80,000 Romans, as Appian mentions, were 
 made at one blow the victims of his cruelty. 
 This universal massacre called aloud for re- 
 venge. Aquilius, and soon after Sylla, 
 marched against Mithridates, with a large 
 army. The former was made prisoner; but 
 Sylla obtained a victory over the king’s gen- 
 erals, and another decisive engagement ren- 
 dered him master of all Greece, Macedonia, 
 Ionia, and Asia Minor, which had submitted 
 to the victorious arms of the monarch of Pon- 
 tus. This ill fortune was aggravated by the 
 loss of about 200,000 men, who were killed in 
 the several engagements that had been fought ; 
 and Mithridates, weakened by repeated ill 
 success by sea and land, sued for peace from 
 the conqueror, which he obtained on condition 
 of defraying the expenses that the Romans 
 had incurred by the war, and of remaining 
 satisfied with the possessions which he had 
 received from his ancestors. 
 
 While these negotiations of peace were car- 
 
 ried on, Mithridates was not unmindful of his 
 real interests. His distress, and not his in- 
 clinations, obliged him to ask for peace. Soon 
 after the death of Sylla, he took the field with 
 an army of 140,000 infantry and 16,000 horse, 
 which consisted of his own forces and those 
 of his son-in-law Tigranes, King of Armenia. 
 With such a numerous army, he soon made 
 himself master of the Roman provinces in 
 Asia ; none dared to oppose his conquests, as 
 the Romans, relying on his fidelity, had with- 
 drawn the greatest part of their armies from 
 the country. 
 
 The news of his warlike preparations was 
 no sooner heard, than Lucullus, the consul, 
 marched into Asia, and without delay blocked 
 up the camp of Mithridates, who was then 
 besieging Cyzicus. The Asiatic monarch 
 escaped from him, and fled into the heart of 
 his kingdom. Lucullus pursued him with the 
 utmost celerity, and would have taken him 
 prisoner after a battle, had not the avidity of 
 his soldiers preferred the plundering of a mule 
 loaded with gold, to the taking of a monarch 
 who had exercised such cruelties against their 
 countrymen, and shown himself so faithless 
 to the most solemn engagements. 
 
 The appointment of Glabrio to the command 
 of the Roman forces, instead of Lucullus, was 
 favorable to Mithridates, and he recovered the 
 greatest part of his dominions. The sudden 
 arrival of Pompey, however, soon put an end 
 to his victories. A battle, in the night, was 
 fought near the Euphrates, in which the troops 
 of Pontus labored under every disadvantage. 
 An universal overthrow ensued, and Mithri- 
 dates, bold in his misfortunes, rushed through 
 the thick ranks of the enemy, at the head of 
 eight hundred horsemen, five hundred of 
 whom perished in the attempt to follow him. 
 He found a safe retreat among the Scythians ; 
 and, though destitute of power, friends, and 
 resources, he yet meditated the destruction of 
 the Roman empire, by penetrating into the 
 heart of Italy by land. These wild projects 
 were rejected by his followers, and he sued 
 for peace. It was denied to his ambassadors, 
 and the victorious Pompey declared that to 
 obtain it, Mithridates must ask it in person. 
 He scorned to trust himself in thfe hands of 
 his enemy, and resolved to conquer or to die. 
 His subjects refused to follow him any longer, 
 and they revolted from him, and made his son 
 
 MIT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 551 
 
 Pharnaces king. The son showed himself 
 ungrateful to his father, and even, according 
 to some writers, ordered him to be put to 
 death. 
 
 This unnatural treatment broke the . heart 
 of Mithridates ; he obliged his wife to poison 
 herself, and attempted to do the same himself. 
 It was in vain : the frequent antidotes he had 
 taken in the early part of his life strengthened 
 his constitution against the poison. When 
 this was unavailing, he attempted to stab him- 
 self. The blow was not mortal ; and a Gaul, 
 who was then present, at his own request gave 
 him the fatal stroke, about 63 b.c., in the 
 seventy-second year of his age. This prince, 
 who made war against the Romans forty years, 
 and was never entirely vanquished but by 
 Pompey, although he had lost, many battles 
 against Lucullus, has been much praised. 
 Cicero calls him the greatest of kings since 
 the time of Alexander the Great. The tales 
 of his cruelty and lack of faith come to us 
 through the Romans : we do not hear Mithri- 
 dates’ side. 
 
 MODENA, a duchy in the north of Italy, 
 containing 586,500 inhabitants. In 1796 the 
 Duke of Modena was expelled from his domin- 
 ions by the French: in 1797 they were in- 
 corporated with the Cisalpine republic ; in 
 1814 they were restored to the duke; and 
 by the peace of Villa Franca, in 1859, Mo- 
 dena became . part of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 MOHATZ, Battles of, in lower Hungary. 
 In a great battle .here, Louis of Hungary was 
 defeated by the Turks under Solyman II., 
 with the loss of 22,000 men, 1526. Prince 
 Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks here 
 in 1687. 
 
 MOHILOW, Battle of, July 23d, 1812, in 
 which the Russians under Prince Bagration 
 were defeated with immense loss by the 
 French under Marshal Davoust. 
 
 MOLDAVIA, one of the Danubian princi- 
 palities, has an area of 17,000 square miles, 
 and a population of 1,254,500. Jassy, the 
 capital, has about 50,000 inhabitants. 
 
 MOLIERE, John Baptist, a much celebra- 
 ted French dramatic writer, born at Paris, 
 1622, died 1673, aged fifty-one. His pater- 
 nal name was Poquelin. 
 
 MOLINO DEL REY. This strong fortifi- 
 cation, defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
 Santa Anna, was carried by the Americans 
 
 under Gen. Worth, Sept. 8th, 1847. The loss 
 of the Mexicans in killed and wounded was 
 3,000, besides 2,000 who deserted during the 
 conflict. The American loss was 116 killed, 
 665 wounded, and 18 missing. The capture 
 of Molino del Rey was an important step 
 toward gaining the city of Mexico. 
 
 MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands, lie between 
 the Sunda Isles, the Philippines, and New 
 Holland. These islands were discovered by 
 the Portuguese in 1511, but now belong to 
 the Dutch, who obtain from them sandal- 
 wood, cloves, and spices. Ambojma is the 
 largest and most productive of the Molucca 
 Islands. It is thirty or forty miles in length. 
 In 1623 the merchants of the English factory 
 here were tortured and put to death by the 
 Dutch. The United Provinces refused satis- 
 faction to James I. and Charles I., but paid to 
 Cromwell £300,000 as a small indemnity. 
 
 MOLWITZ, Battle of, April 10th (March 
 30th), 1741. Frederick III. obtained a great 
 victory over the Austrians. 
 
 MONCEY, Adrien, Duke of Conegliano 
 and marshal of the empire, was born at Be- 
 sancon in 1754, and entered the army at the 
 age of fifteen. He served variously in the 
 wars of Napoleon. As governor of the Inva- 
 lides he received the ashes of his former em- 
 peror in 1840. He died in 1842. 
 
 MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
 merce in Genesis xxiii., when Abraham pur- 
 chased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the 
 year of the world 2139. In profane history 
 the coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydi- 
 ans. Moneta was the name the Romans gave 
 their silver, it having been coined in the tem- 
 ple of Juno Moneta, 269 b.c. Money was 
 made of different ores, and even of leather 
 and other articles, both in ancient and modern 
 times. It was made of pasteboard by the 
 Hollanders so late as 1574. Charles II. coined 
 tin, and James II. gun metal and pewter. 
 The North American Indians used for money, 
 small beads made of variously colored shells, 
 which they called wampum. [ See Coin.] 
 
 MONGOLS. The name of Mongolia is 
 now given to a vast extent of country in the 
 interior of Asia, between 38° and 53° N. lat., 
 84° and 124° E. long., comprising an area of 
 about 1,250,000 square miles. Like their 
 ancestors, the Mongols of to-day lead a noma- 
 dic life, subsisting on the produce of their 
 
 MON 
 
552 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 herds, without attempting to till the ground. 
 Their wealth consists in their numerous 
 droves of camels, horses, and sheep. All the 
 Mongols speak the same language, and admit 
 that they all belong to the same nation and 
 have a common origin. They are under the 
 government of the Chinese, though there is 
 indelible hatred between the two races. Ac- 
 cording to a rough estimate, it is thought that 
 the Mongols, after having lived in peace for 
 more than a century, can bring to the field 
 500,000 warriors ; and as each man is a war- 
 rior, it is presumed that the whole population 
 does not exceed 2,000,000. The Mongols have 
 been improperly confounded with the Tartars : 
 no two nations could be more distinct phys- 
 ically. The names of Mongols and Tartars 
 did not become known until after the con- 
 quests of Genghis Khan, who honored his 
 tribes with the pompous title of Koelcae Mon- j 
 ghoel (celestial people); whereas the con- 
 quered Turki hordes were called Tartars 
 (tributaries). 
 
 Genghis Khan, born in 1163, became the 
 chief of a petty Mongol clan in the thirteenth 
 year of his age, and having first overcome the j 
 neighboring hordes, he soon united the nu- | 
 merous wandering tribes into a conquering 
 nation, and successively subdued the greatest 
 part of Asia. His son Oktai was equally suc- 
 cessful. In their western expeditions the 
 Mongol armies advanced even to Hungary 
 and Silesia ; so that after the dreadful battle 
 of Wahlstadt (1241) the Mongol empire ex- 
 tended from the northern provinces of China 
 to the frontiers of Poland and Germany. The 
 Khalkha Mongols, under Kublai Khan, con- 
 quered all China, and held it for a century. 
 During the thirteenth century this vast em- 
 pire gradually split into several independent 
 sovereignties, till it was once more united, 
 and even considerably enlarged in the direc- 
 tion of Hindostan, by the famous Tamerlane, 
 after whose brilliant career (1335-1405) the 
 Mongol empire slowly dissolved. In 1519 a 
 lineal descendant from Tamerlane, Zehireddin 
 Mohammed Baber, founded a new monarchy 
 in Hindostan, erroneously called the Mogul 
 empire. 
 
 MONK, George, Duke of Albemarle, was 
 born in Devonshire in 1608. At the age of 
 seventeen, he served under his relation, Sir 
 Richard Grenville, in an expedition against 
 
 Spain; and, in 1630 he went as an ensign 
 to the Low Countries, where he obtained a 
 captain’s commission. In 1639 he attended 
 Charles I. to Scotland, and was made lieu- 
 tenant colonel ; afterward he went to Ireland, 
 and, for his services in the rebellion, was 
 appointed governor of Dublin. On his re- 
 turn to England with his regiment, in 1643, 
 he was made major-general in the Irish bri- 
 gade, then employed in the siege of Nant- 
 wich, in Cheshire, where he was taken pris- 
 oner, and sent to the Tower. After remaining 
 in confinement about three years, he was 
 induced to accept a commission under the 
 parliament against the Irish rebels ; in which 
 service he performed several great exploits, 
 but at last fell under censure, for concluding 
 a treaty with O’Neil. Upon this he gave up 
 the command, and retired to his estate ; but 
 was soon called to serve with Cromwell in 
 Scotland, where he bore a part in the battle 
 of Dunbar ; after which he was left in the 
 command of the English forces in that king- 
 dom. 
 
 In 1653 he was joined with Blake and 
 Dean in the naval service against the Dutch 
 fleet, commanded by Van Tromp, with w T hom 
 two desperate battles were fought that year, 
 in both of which the English were victorious. 
 Peace being soon after concluded, Monk re- 
 turned to the command in Scotland, where 
 he remained during the protectorate of Crom- 
 well, who regarded him with jealousy, and 
 even imparted to him in a letter, the suspi- 
 cions which he entertained of his design to 
 restore the king. Monk took no notice of 
 this, but watched his opportunity ; and when 
 the authority of Richard Cromwell declined, 
 he began his movements, and concluded them 
 with so much judgment as to bring about 
 that important event without bloodshed or 
 confusion. After this he was created Duke 
 of Albemarle, and knight of the garter. The 
 remainder of his life was not spent inactively ; 
 for when hostilities broke out with the Dutch, 
 he again commanded the fleet, and fought 
 De Ruyter and Van Tromp in a tremendous 
 battle, which lasted three days. The duke 
 had scarcely returned into port before he was 
 called to London, in consequence of the dread- 
 ful fire which laid the greatest part of the 
 capital in ashes ; and so acceptable was he to 
 the people, that when he passed along, they 
 
 MON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 553 
 
 cried out, If his grace had been there, the 
 city would not have been burned.” He died 
 Jan. 3d, 1670, and was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. By his duchess, who survived 
 him but a few months, he had one son, 
 Christopher, who died governor of Jamaica, 
 without issue, in 1688. 
 
 MONMOUTH, Battle of. During Sir 
 Henry Clinton’s march to New York through 
 New Jersey in 1778, after evacuating Phila- 
 delphia, Washington hovered upon his rear. 
 An engagement took place at Monmouth 
 court-house, the 28th of June. The retreat 
 of Gen. Lee, who commanded the American 
 advance, embarrassed Washington’s plans, 
 but after a severely contested day the advan- 
 tage rested with the patriots ; and during the 
 night the British hurried away. The day was 
 very hot, and both sides suffered intensely 
 from thirst. 
 
 MONMOUTH, James, Duke of. Charles 
 II., of England, while a wanderer on the conti- 
 nent, fell in at the Hague with Lucy Walters, 
 a Welsh girl of great beauty, but of weak 
 understanding and dissolute manners. She 
 became his mistress, and presented him with 
 a son. A suspicious lover might have had 
 his doubts ; for the lady had several admirers, 
 and was not supposed to be cruel to any. 
 Charles, however, readily took her word, and 
 poured forth on little James Crofts, as the 
 boy was then called, an overflowing fondness, 
 such as seemed hardly to belong to that easy, 
 but cool and careless nature. Soon after the 
 restoration, the young favorite, who had 
 learned in France the exercises then consid- 
 ered necessary to a fine gentleman, made his 
 appearance at Whitehall. He was lodged in 
 the palace, attended by pages, and permitted 
 to enjoy several distinctions which had till 
 then been confined to princes of the blood 
 royal. He was married, while still in tender 
 youth, to Anne Scott, heiress of the noble 
 house of Buccleuch. He took her name, and 
 received with her hand possession of her 
 ample domains. Titles, and favors more sub- 
 stantial than titles, were lavished on him. 
 Nor did he appear to the public unworthy of 
 his high fortunes. His countenance was em- 
 inently handsome and engaging, his temper 
 sweet, his manners polite and affable. 
 
 When Charles II. and Louis XIY. united 
 their forces against Holland, Monmouth com- 
 
 manded the English auxiliaries who were 
 sent to the continent, and approved himself a 
 gallant soldier and a not unintelligent officer. 
 On his return he found himself the most pop- 
 ular man in the kingdom. Nothing was 
 withheld from him but the crown ; nor did 
 even the crown seem to be absolutely beyond 
 his reach. The distinction which had most 
 injudiciously been made between him and 
 the highest nobles had produced evil conse- 
 quences. When a boy, he had been invited 
 to put on his hat in the presence chamber, 
 while Howards and Seymours stood uncov- 
 ered round him. When foreign princes 
 died, he had mourned for them in the long 
 purple cloak, which no other subject, except 
 the Duke of York and Prince Rupert, was 
 permitted to wear. It was natural that these 
 things should lead him to regard himself as a 
 legitimate prince of the house of Stuart. 
 Charles, even at a ripe age, was devoted to 
 his pleasures and regardless of his dignity. 
 It could hardly be thought incredible that he 
 should at twenty have gone through the form 
 of espousing a woman whose beauty had fas- 
 cinated him, and who was not to be won on 
 easier terms. While Monmouth was still a 
 child, and while the Duke of York still passed 
 for a Protestant, it was rumored throughout 
 the country, and even in circles which ought 
 to have been well informed, that the king 
 had made Lucy Walters his wife, and that, 
 if every one had his right, her son would be 
 Prince of Wales. When Monmouth returned 
 from the Low Countries with a high charac- 
 ter for valor and conduct, and when the Duke 
 of York was known to be a member of a 
 church detested by the great majority of the 
 nation, this idle story became important. 
 For it there was not the slightest evidence. 
 Against it there was the solemn asseveration 
 of the king, made before his council, and by 
 his order communicated to his people; but 
 the multitude, always fond of romantic adven- 
 tures, drank in eagerly the tale of secret 
 espousals. 
 
 Some chiefs of the party opposed to the 
 court, countenanced a story which they must 
 have despised. The interest which the pop- 
 ulace took in him whom they regarded as the 
 champion of the true religion, and the right- 
 ful heir of the British throne, was kept up by 
 every artifice. When Monmouth arrived in 
 
 MON 
 
554 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 London at midnight, the watchmen were 
 ordered by the magistrates to proclaim the 
 joyful event through the streets of the city ; 
 the people left their beds ; bonfires were 
 lighted; the windows were illuminated; the 
 churches were opened ; and a merry peal rose 
 from all the steeples. When he traveled, he 
 was everywhere received with not less pomp, 
 and with far more enthusiasm, than had been 
 displayed when kings had made progresses 
 through the realm. He was escorted from 
 mansion to mansion by long cavalcades of 
 armed gentlemen and yeomen. Cities poured 
 forth their whole population to receive him. 
 Electors thronged round him, to assure him 
 that their votes were at his disposal. To 
 such a height were his pretensions carried, 
 that he not only exhibited on his escutcheon 
 the lions of England and the lilies of France 
 without the baton sinister under which, ac- 
 cording to the laws of heraldry, they were 
 debruised in token of his illegitimate birth, 
 but ventured to touch for the king’s-evil. 
 At the same time, he neglected no art of 
 condescension by which the love of the mul- 
 titude could be conciliated. He stood god- 
 father to the children of the peasantry, 
 mingled in every rustic sport, wrestled, 
 played at quarter-staff, and won foot-races in 
 his boots against fleet runners in shoes. 
 
 In the projects that cost Russell and Sid- 
 ney their lives, Monmouth was implicated ; 
 and though forgiven by his easy father, he 
 soon gave new cause of offense, and thought 
 it prudent to go into voluntary exile in Hol- 
 land. He was accompanied by Lady Went- 
 worth, a damsel of high rank and ample 
 fortune, who loved him passionately, who 
 sacrificed for his sake her maiden honor and 
 the hope of a splendid alliance, and whom 
 he declared to be his true wife, rather than 
 her to whom he had been wedded while only 
 a child. After the death of his father, and 
 the development of the tyrannous schemes 
 of James, desperate men sought Monmouth 
 in his banishment, with tempting plans for 
 raising him to the throne. The ambition 
 and love of Lady Wentworth seconded their 
 solicitations, and she placed all her means at 
 his disposal. Monmouth yielded. He re- 
 membered his popularity, and success seemed 
 certain. With a small force, he landed on 
 the coast of Somersetshire, in June, 1685. 
 
 The people flocked to the standard of the 
 good duke, the Protestant duke, the rightful 
 heir whom a vile conspiracy kept from his 
 own. At Taunton he-was proclaimed king. 
 But in the battle of Sedgemoor on the 6th 
 of July, the royal armies commanded by 
 Feversham and Churchill were completely 
 victorious over the colliers and ploughmen 
 who composed the insurgent force. The 
 rebellion was broken ; its retribution followed 
 in the death and terror with which the infa- 
 mous Jeffreys soon darkened the land in the 
 bloody assizes. 
 
 The fugitive and miserable Monmouth was 
 captured after lurking in the fields a few days. 
 His fortitude failed him, and he sunk into 
 pusillanimity. His royal uncle cruelly ad- 
 mitted him to an interview. Monmouth 
 threw himself on the ground, and crawled to 
 the king’s feet. He wept. He tried to em- 
 brace his uncle’s knees with his pinioned 
 arms. He begged for life, only life, life at 
 any price. He owned that he had been 
 guilty of a great crime, but tried to throw 
 the blame on others. By the ties of kindred, 
 by the memory of the late king, who had 
 been the best and truest of brothers, the 
 unhappy man adjured James to show some 
 mercy. James gravely replied that this re- 
 pentance was of the latest ; that he was sorry 
 for the misery which the prisoner had brought 
 on himself, but that the case was not one for 
 lenity. A declaration, filled with atrocious 
 calumnies, had been put forth. The regal 
 title had been assumed. For treason so 
 aggravated there could be no pardon on this 
 side of the grave. The poor terrified duke 
 vowed that he had never wished to take the 
 crown, but had been led into that fatal error 
 by others. As to the declaration, he had not 
 written it. He had not read it. He had 
 signed it without looking at it. “Do you 
 expect me to believe,” said James, with con- 
 tempt but too well merited, “that you set 
 your hand to a paper of such moment without 
 knowing what it contained?” One depth of 
 infamy alone remained, and even to that the 
 prisoner descended. He was pre-eminently 
 the champion of the Protestant religion. 
 The interest of that religion had been his 
 plea for conspiring against the government 
 of his father, and for bringing on his country 
 the miseries of civil war; yet he was not 
 
 MON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 555 
 
 ashamed to hint that he was inclined to be 
 reconciled to the church of Rome. The king 
 eagerly offered him spiritual assistance, but 
 said nothing of pardomor respite. “ Is there, 
 then, no hope s'” asked Monmouth. James 
 turned away in silence. Then Monmouth 
 strove to rally his courage, rose from his 
 knees, and retired with a firmness which he 
 had not shown since his overthrow. 
 
 Soon after Monmouth had been lodged in 
 the Tower, he was informed that his wife had, 
 by the royal command, been sent to see him. 
 She was accompanied by the Earl of Claren- 
 don. Her husband received her very coldly, 
 and addressed almost all his discourse to 
 Clarendon, whose intercession he earnestly 
 implored. Clarendon held out no hopes ; and 
 that same evening two prelates, Turner, 
 Bishop of Ely, and Ken, Bishop of Bath and 
 Wells, arrived at the Tower with a solemn 
 message from the king. It was Monday 
 night. On Wednesday morning Monmouth 
 was to die. He was greatly agitated. The 
 blood left his cheeks ; and it was some time 
 before he could speak. Most of the short 
 time which remained to him he wasted in 
 vain attempts to obtain, if not a pardon, at 
 least a respite. He wrote piteous letters to 
 the king and to several courtiers, but in vain. 
 Some Catholic divines were sent to him from 
 court ; but they soon discovered that, though 
 he would gladly have purchased his life by 
 renouncing the religion of which he had pro- 
 fessed himself in an especial manner the 
 defender, yet, if he was to die, he would as 
 soon die without their absolution as with it. 
 
 Wednesday came ; the hour drew near ; all 
 hope was over ; and Monmouth had passed 
 from pusillanimous fear to the apathy of de- 
 spair. His children were brought to his 
 room that he might take leave of them, and 
 were followed by his wife. He spoke to her 
 kindly, but without emotion. Though she 
 was a woman of great strength of mind, and 
 had little cause to love him, her misery was 
 such that none of the bystanders could refrain 
 from weeping. He alone was unmoved. 
 
 It was ten o’clock : the coach of the lieu- 
 tenant of the Tower was ready. Monmouth 
 requested his spiritual advisers, Turner and 
 Ken, to accompany him to the scaffold, and 
 they consented ; but they told him that, in 
 their judgment, he was about to die in a per- 
 
 ilous state of mind, and that, if they attended 
 him, it would be their duty to exhort him to 
 the last. As he passed along the ranks of 
 the guards he saluted them with a smile, 
 and mounted the scaffold with a firm tread. 
 Tower Hill was covered up to the chimney 
 tops with an innumerable multitude of gazers, 
 who, in awful silence, broken only by sighs 
 and the noise of weeping, listened for the last 
 accents of the darling of the peopie. “I 
 shall say little,” he began. “ I come here not 
 to speak but to die. I die a Protestant of the 
 Church of England.” The bishops inter- 
 rupted him, and told him that, unless he 
 acknowledged resistance to the king to be 
 sinful, he was no member of their church. 
 He went on to speak of his Henrietta. She 
 was, he said, a young lady of virtue and 
 honor. He loved her to the last, and he 
 could not .die without giving utterance to his 
 feelings. The bishops again interfered, and 
 begged him not to use such language. Their 
 general arguments against resistance had no 
 effect on him ; but when they reminded him 
 of the ruin he had brought on his brave and 
 loving followers, of the blood which had been 
 shed, of the souls which had been sent un- 
 prepared to the great account, he was touched, 
 and said, in a softened voice, “I do own that. 
 I am sorry that it ever happened.” They 
 prayed with him long and fervently ; and he 
 joined in their petitions till they invoked a 
 blessing on the king. He remained silent. 
 “ Sir,” said one of the assistants, “ do you not 
 pray for the king with us?” Monmouth 
 paused some time, and after an internal 
 struggle, exclaimed “Amen.” But it was in 
 vain that the prelates implored him to ad- 
 dress to the soldiers and to the people a few 
 words on the duty of obedience to the gov- 
 ernment. “I will make no speeches,” he 
 exclaimed. “ Only ten words, my lord.” He 
 turned away, called his servant, and put into 
 the man’s hand a toothpick-case, the last 
 token of ill-starred love. “ Give it,” he said, 
 “to that person.” He then accosted John 
 Ketch, the executioner, a wretch who had 
 butchered many brave and noble victims, and 
 whose name has, during a century and a 
 half, been vulgarly given to all who have 
 succeeded him in his odious office. “ Here,” 
 said the duke, “ are six guineas for you. Do 
 not hack me as you did my Lord Russell. 
 
 MON 
 
556 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 I have heard that you struck him three or 
 four times. My servant will give you some 
 more gold if you do the work well.” He 
 then undressed, felt the edge of the axe, 
 expressed some fear that it was not sharp 
 enough, and laid his head on the block. The 
 divines in the mean time continued to ejacu- 
 late with great energy, “God accept your 
 repentance ; God accept your imperfect re- 
 pentance.” 
 
 The hangman addressed himself to his 
 office ; but he had been disconcerted by what 
 the duke had said. The first blow inflicted 
 only a slight wound. The duke struggled, 
 rose from the block, and looked reproachfully 
 at the executioner. The head sank down 
 once more. The stroke was repeated again 
 and again ; but still the neck was not sev- 
 ered, and the body continued to move. Yells 
 of rage and horror rose from the crowd. 
 Ketch flung down the axe with a curse. “ I 
 can not do it,” he said ; “ my heart fails me.” 
 “ Take up the axe, man,” cried the sheriff. 
 “ Fling him over the rails,” roared the mob. 
 At length the axe was taken up. Two more 
 blows extinguished the last remains of life ; 
 but a knife was used to separate the head 
 from the shoulders. The crowd was wrought 
 up to such an ecstacy of rage that the execu- 
 tioner was in danger of being torn in pieces, 
 and was conveyed away under a strong 
 guard. In the mean time many handkerchiefs 
 were dipped in the duke’s blood, for by a 
 large part of the multitude he was regarded 
 as a martyr who had died for the Protestant 
 religion. The head and body were placed in 
 a coffin covered with black velvet, and were 
 laid privately under the communion-table of 
 St. Peter’s chapel in the Tower. 
 
 Yet a few months, and the quiet village of 
 Toddington, in Bedfordshire, witnessed a 
 still sadder funeral. Near that village stood 
 an ancient and stately hall, the seat of the 
 Wentworths. The transept of the parish 
 church had long been their burial-place. To 
 that burial-place, in the spring which followed 
 the death of Monmouth, was borne the coffin 
 of the young Baroness Wentworth of Nettle- 
 stede. Her family reared a sumptuous mau- 
 soleum over her remains ; but a less costly 
 memorial of her was long contemplated with 
 far deeper interest. Her name, carved by the 
 hand of him whom she loved too well, was, 
 
 a few years ago, still discernible on a tree in 
 the adjoining park. 
 
 It was not by Lady Wentworth alone that 
 the memory of Monmouth was cherished with 
 idolatrous fondness. His hold on the hearts 
 of the people lasted till the generation which 
 had seen him had passed away. Ribbons, 
 buckles, and other trifling articles of apparel 
 which he had worn were treasured up as pre- 
 cious relics by those who had fought under 
 him at Sedgemoor. Old men who long sur- 
 vived him desired, when they were dying, 
 that these trinkets might be buried with 
 them. Nay, such was the devotion of the 
 people to their unhappy favorite, that, in the 
 face of the strongest evidence by which the 
 fact of a death was ever verified, many con- 
 tinued to cherish a hope that he was still 
 living, and that he would again appear in 
 arms. A person, it was said, who was re- 
 markably like Monmouth, had sacrificed him- 
 self to save the Protestant hero. The vulgar 
 long continued, at every important crisis, to 
 whisper that the time was at hand, and that 
 King Monmouth would soon show himself. 
 In 1686 a knave who had pretended to be 
 the duke, and had levied contributions in 
 several villages of Wiltshire, was apprehended 
 and whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. In 
 1698, when England had long enjoyed con- 
 stitutional freedom under a new dynasty, the 
 son of an innkeeper passed himself on the 
 yeomanry of Sussex as their beloved Mon- 
 mouth, and defrauded many who were by no 
 means of the lowest class. Five hundred 
 pounds were collected for him. The farmers 
 provided him with a horse. Their wives sent 
 him baskets of chickens and ducks. When 
 this impostor was thrown into prison for 
 his frauds, his followers maintained him in 
 luxury. Several of them appeared at the 
 bar to countenance him when he was tried. 
 So long did this delusion last, that, when 
 George III. had been some years on the 
 English throne, Voltaire thought it necessary 
 gravely to confute the hypothesis that the man 
 in the iron mask was the Duke of Monmouth. 
 
 MONRO, Alexander, entitled the father 
 of the medical school of Edinburgh, died 1767, 
 aged seventy. 
 
 MONROE, James, the fifth president of the 
 United States, was descended from one of the 
 most ancient and honorable families in the 
 
 MON 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 557 
 
 Old Dominion, and born in the county of West- 
 moreland, April 2d, 1759. It is remarkable 
 that the tide-water section of Virginia pro- 
 duced four out of the first five presidents; 
 Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe 
 having been born therein, and within a few 
 miles of each other. In his eighteenth year, 
 Monroe left his studies at the college of Wil- 
 liam and Mary, to battle for freedom. He 
 fought at Harlem Heights and White Plains, 
 was wounded at Trenton, and for his gal- 
 lantry received the command of an infantry 
 company. During the campaigns of 1777 
 and 1778 he acted as aid to Lord Stirling, 
 and distinguished himself at Brandywine, 
 Germantown, and Monmouth. From 1783 
 to 1786 he represented his state in the con- 
 tinental congress. Mr. Monroe was a member 
 of the Virginia convention of 1788, called to 
 decide upon the adoption of the federal con- 
 stitution which had been framed. Although 
 he had been convinced of the inefficiency of 
 the existing confederation, and had been 
 earnest for* a radical change in the form of 
 government, he was not willing to adopt the 
 instrument that had been framed, without 
 several alterations. He acted with Patrick 
 Henry and other leading men in opposition 
 to Madison, Edmund Randolph, John Mar- 
 shall, and others. The convention finally 
 assented to the constitution as it was, but 
 recommended, at the same time, certain 
 amendments. Monroe voted nay. Anti- 
 Federalist senators were chosen, and when 
 Mr. Grayson’s time expired in 1790, Mr. 
 Monroe succeeded to his seat in the senate. 
 In this station he continued till 1794, when he 
 was appointed to succeed Gouverneur Morris 
 as minister to France. His course did not 
 coincide with the views of Washington, who 
 therefore recalled him in 1796, appointing 
 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to the post. 
 He was governor of Virginia for three years 
 succeeding 1799 ; in 1803 was selected by 
 Jefferson as envoy to France, and minister to 
 Spain, to take part in the negotiations for 
 the purchase of Louisiana; he succeeded 
 Rufus King as minister to the court of St. 
 James, and returned home in 1807. Mr. 
 Madison appointed him secretary of state in 
 1811, and he continued in that department 
 till the close of the administration. After 
 the capture of Washington by the British, 
 
 and the resignation of Gen. Armstrong, Mr. 
 Monroe assumed the burden of the war de- 
 partment, without, however, relinquishing 
 his previous position in the cabinet. His 
 energy was of great avail. Toward the close 
 of the year 1814 his attention was urgently 
 called to the danger menacing New Orleans, 
 against which the enemy had dispatched a 
 powerful fleet and army. The resources of 
 the government were at a low ebb, and Mr. 
 Monroe w r as compelled to pledge his own 
 credit. He was thus able to furnish the 
 needed supplies, New Orleans was saved, and 
 the war brilliantly closed with the defeat of 
 Packenham. 
 
 In 1817 Mr. Monroe succeeded Madison as 
 chief magistrate of the country. Among the 
 measures which marked his administration 
 was the negotiation of the treaty by which 
 Florida was added to the United States. In 
 1820 he was re-elected with more unanimity 
 than any president except Washington, re- 
 ceiving every vote of the electoral college 
 but one. At the close of his second term, 
 in 1828, he retired to his residence in Lou- 
 don county, Virginia, where he was shortly 
 after appointed county magistrate, the duties 
 of which office he continued to discharge 
 until his departure for the city df New York. 
 Having been elected in 1830, to the conven. 
 tion called for a revision of the state consti- 
 tution, he was chosen to preside over its 
 deliberations ; severe indisposition forced him 
 to retire. The next summer he repaired 
 to New York to reside with his son-in-law, 
 Mr. Gouverneur. There his career on earth 
 ceased, July 4th, 1831, in the seventy-second 
 year of his age. 
 
 Mr. Monroe was not a man of superior 
 talents, but diligent and industrious in all 
 the duties that were laid upon him, and of 
 great honesty and firmness of purpose. 
 
 MONTAGUE, Edward, Earl of Sandwich, 
 was the son of Sir Sidney Montague, and 
 born in 1625. At the age of eighteen he 
 raised a regiment in the service of parliament, 
 and was present in several battles ; but in 
 the Dutch war he left the army for the navy, 
 and was associated with Blake in the Mediter- 
 ranean. Afterward he commanded the fleet 
 in the North Sea, but at his return was 
 deprived of it on suspicion of being in the 
 royal interest. Monk, however, procured 
 
 NOM 
 
*558 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 him to be replaced; and he conveyed the 
 king to England ; after which he was created 
 Earl of Sandwich. In the war of 1664 he 
 commanded under the Duke of York, and 
 had a principal share in the great battle of 
 June 3d, 1665. Soon after this he went to 
 Spain, where he negotiated a peace between 
 that country and Portugal. On the renewal 
 of the Dutch war in 1672, he commanded a 
 squadron under the Duke of York ; but his 
 ship taking fire, he jumped overboard, and 
 was drowned. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michael de, the French 
 essayist, was born in 1533 and died in 1592. 
 He resided almost constantly at his chateau 
 in Perigord, and his essays were the fruit of 
 his reading and musing. In the British 
 Museum there is preserved one of the ear- 
 liest English translations of Montaigne, which 
 has the autograph of Shakespeare on a fly- 
 leaf. 
 
 MONTCALM, Louis Joseph de, killed on 
 the plains of Abraham, 1759; he was com- 
 mander of the French army. [See Wolfe.] 
 
 MONTECUCULI, Raymond de, a great 
 Italian general, died in 1681, aged seventy- 
 three. 
 
 MONTEREAU, Battle of, between the 
 allied army and the French, Feb. 8th, 1814, 
 was one of the last victories of Napoleon. 
 
 MONTEREY. The American army under 
 Gen. Taylor, 4,700 strong, on the 21st of 
 September, 1846, assaulted the city of Mon- 
 terey, which was held by Gen. Ampudia 
 with 10,000 Mexicans. On the morning of 
 the 22d, Gen. Worth’s division stormed the 
 height above the bishop’s palace, and in the 
 afternoon the palace itself was taken, and its 
 guns turned upon the city. The next eve- 
 ning Ampudia, who had concentrated his 
 forces in the citadel and plaza, sent in propo- 
 sitions for surrender. The American loss, 
 in the capture of Monterey, was 120 killed 
 and 368 wounded. That of the Mexicans 
 was much greater. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU, Charles, Baron de, 
 author of the “Spirit of Laws,” born in 
 France, 1689, died in 1755. 
 
 MONTEZUMA, the monarch of Mexico 
 at the time of the invasion of the Spaniards. 
 At a short distance from the city of Mexico, 
 they were met by Montezuma at the head 
 of his nobles, and surrounded by his guards 
 
 and courtiers. Cortez was received by the 
 emperor with hospitality and confidence 
 which he soon forfeited ; for having learned 
 that a traditionary prophecy was current 
 that a powerful nation, children of the sun, 
 would chastise the country, as a punishment 
 for their sins, he readily turned the idea to 
 his own advantage. Cortez came to the de- 
 termination of seizing Montezuma in his 
 palace, which he entered with ten officers 
 and soldiers. He requested Montezuma to 
 take up a temporary residence w T ith the 
 Spaniards, to which demand the monarch 
 reluctantly consented. Here he suffered 
 every indignity ; and Cortez, on a frivolous 
 pretext that the monarch was the instigator 
 of some tumults, ordered him to be fettered 
 and thrown into prison. 
 
 Montezuma remained a prisoner six months, 
 during which period Cortez was actively em- 
 ployed in furthering his own views. The 
 former now acknowledged himself in form a 
 vassal of the Spanish king, and a tumult 
 arising, Cortez placed him in View of his 
 enraged subjects, but in vain. The forlorn 
 monarch was pierced by an arrow, and died 
 broken-hearted and despairing, in 1520. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, Richard, a brave major- 
 general in the Revolutionary army, born in 
 Ireland, in 1737. He settled in this country, 
 after serving under Wolfe, and having em- 
 braced the American cause, was killed in an 
 attack upon Quebec, Dec. 31st, 1775. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, Gabriel, Count, a French 
 nobleman, who, in 1559, had the misfortune 
 to kill Henry II. by accidentally striking him 
 in the eye at a tournament. He then quitted 
 France ; but returned during the civil wars, 
 and placed himself at the head of the Pro- 
 testants. After many vicissitudes he was 
 taken prisoner, and beheaded at Paris in 
 1574. 
 
 MONTROSE, James Graham, Marquis of, 
 one of the most chivalrous partisans of 
 Charles I., who, after the cause of the Stuarts 
 appeared to be hopeless, persevered in excit- 
 ing insurrections in Scotland; but being 
 taken he was brought to Edinburgh, tried, 
 and executed on a gibbet forty feet high, on 
 the 23d of September, 1650. 
 
 MOORE, Sir John, was born at Glasgow in 
 1761. He was the son of Dr. John Moore, a 
 well known physician, the author of “ Zeluco ” 
 
 MOO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 559 
 
 and other works. At the age of fifteen 
 he obtained an ensigncy in the fifty-first 
 regiment of foot; of which, in 1790, he be- 
 came lieutenant colonel, and served with his 
 corps in Corsica, where he was wounded in 
 storming the Mozello fort at the siege of Calvi. 
 In 1796 he went out as a brigadier-general to 
 the West Indies, under Sir Ralph Aber- 
 crombie, who appointed him to the govern- 
 ment of St. Lucie, in the capture of which 
 he had a principal share. 
 
 On his return home, in 1797, he was em- 
 ployed in Ireland during the rebellion, and 
 was raised to the rank of major-general. In 
 1799 he went on the expedition to Holland, 
 where he was again wounded severely ; 
 notwithstanding which, he soon afterward 
 went to the Mediterranean, and at the battle 
 of Alexandria received a cut from a sabre on 
 the breast, and a shot in the thigh. On his 
 return to England he was made a knight of 
 the bath ; and in 1808 he was appointed to 
 command an army in Spain, where, after a 
 signal retreat before Soult’s superior force, 
 he fell, under the walls of Corunna, Jan. 
 16th, 1809. 
 
 The description of the battle of Corunna, 
 and of the death of Sir John Moore, is thus 
 briefly given by Bisset. The British army 
 reached Corunna on the 12th of January, 
 1809, having lost one-fourth of its numbers. 
 Their situation was so disadvantageous that 
 some officers suggested the proposal of terms 
 to Soult, on condition that he should permit 
 the troops to embark unmolested. Sir John 
 Moore rejected the advice, and declared his 
 resolution to accept no terms which should 
 be in the least dishonorable to the army or 
 to his country. In the evening of the 14th 
 the transports from the Vigo hove in sight. 
 After the embarkation of the troops on the 
 16th, orders were issued that, if the French 
 did not move, the embarkation of the reserve 
 should commence at four in the afternoon. 
 
 At mid-day, the general received informa- 
 tion that the enemy were getting under 
 arms. Two columns of the enemy directed 
 their march on the right wing of the British, 
 which was disadvantageously posted. Sir 
 John Moore hastened to this part of the field, 
 when the fourth regiment on the right flank 
 was menaced by a body of the enemy who 
 were hastening up the valley to turn it. He 
 
 proceeded to direct the movements of the 
 other regiments in this division, and was in 
 the act of ordering up the guards to support 
 the forty-second Highlanders, when he was 
 struck from his horse by a cannon-ball, which 
 carried away his left shoulder and part of the 
 collar-bone, leaving the arm hanging by the 
 flesh. He was borne away by six soldiers 
 of the forty-second. 
 
 The troops continued to fight bravely 
 under Sir John Hope, on whom the command 
 devolved, and at nightfall remained masters 
 of the field. This victory was obtained un- 
 der great disadvantages ; the French force 
 exceeded 20,000 men, well appointed and 
 provided with cannon. The British scarcely 
 amounted to 15,000, exhausted by harassing 
 marches, and discouraged by the loss of their 
 military chest, their stores, their baggage, 
 their horses, their sick, their wounded, their 
 wives and children. 
 
 General Moore lived to hear that the battle 
 was won, and in his last moments, after an 
 affecting reminiscence of his mother, ex- 
 pressed a hope that his country would do 
 him justice. His body was removed after 
 midnight to the citadel of Corunna, wrapped 
 in a military cloak and blankets, and buried 
 in a grave dug in the ramparts. 
 
 MOORE, Thomas, was born in Dublin, May 
 28th, 1780, of Roman Catholic parents, to 
 whose faith he continued an adherent through 
 life. After studying at the university of 
 Dublin,- he proceeded to London to enter as 
 a student of law in the Middle Temple. He 
 published a translation of Anacreon, and 
 “ Poems of Thomas Little,” whose looseness 
 he repented in after years. The j ust severity 
 with which these, and another miscellaneous 
 volume of his, were cut up in the Edinburgh 
 Review , produced an- abortive duel between 
 Moore and Jeffrey. In 1803 he obtained a 
 place under government, a registrarship in 
 Bermuda. He went out and entered upon 
 its duties, but soon tired of the “still vexed 
 Bermoothes,” and leaving a deputy in charge 
 of the office, returned to England, having 
 first visited the United States and Canada, 
 where he composed the popular Boat-Song. 
 
 His career was now that of a man of let- 
 ters, much courted in high society. His 
 “Irish Melodies,” lyrics which he wedded to 
 the ancient airs of Erin, brought him both 
 
 MOO 
 
560 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 fame and gold. He had determined to write 
 an eastern tale in verse, and in 1812 the 
 Longmans covenanted to pay him three 
 thousand guineas fjr a poem of which he had 
 not then written a line, nor even settled the 
 subject. He retired to a cottage in Derby- 
 shire, and there buried himself in oriental 
 studies and scenes. He read every work of 
 authority that treated of the topography, cli- 
 mate, zoology, ornithology, entomology, flori- 
 culture, horticulture, agriculture, manners, 
 customs, religious ceremonies, and languages of 
 the East. But this was not all. The task was 
 his to conjure about him an oriental atmos- 
 phere, and amid the snows of bleak Derby- 
 shire winters sun himself in the brightest 
 scenes of the fervid clime of the East. This 
 romance of “Lalla Rookli,” his most elabor- 
 ate poem, was published in 1817, and won 
 great popularity. The patient research of 
 the poet had been eminentty successful. His 
 oriental reading was pronounced by a great 
 Eastern traveler, “ as good as riding on the 
 back of a camel.” The accuracy of the poem 
 in all its details, and its local fidelity, were 
 complete. For recreation after his task, he 
 visited the continent with Rogers. The next 
 year he made another continental tour with 
 Lord John Russell, in the course of which 
 he visited his friend Lord Byron at Venice, 
 and was intrilsted with the autobiography 
 that was afterward burnt. 
 
 Upon his return from this journey, Moore 
 took up his abode in Paris, where he remained 
 till near the close of the year 1822. His 
 deputy in Bermuda had proved a defaulter 
 to the amount of £6,000. Moore’s friends 
 pressed upon him offers of assistance ; among 
 others, Jeffrey, his former antagonist, with 
 whom he was now Cordially intimate, 
 proffered generous help ; but he declined all 
 assistance. The claim was finally compro- 
 mised for a thousand guineas, toward which 
 an uncle of the delinquent deputy contri- 
 buted £300. The remaining £750 were 
 defrayed by the poet from his earnings ; out 
 of which, notwithstanding this drain, he con- 
 tinued to make a liberal allowance to his 
 parents. Fortune smiled upon him, and in 
 1823, the June following, his publishers’ 
 account footed pleasantly. He was credited 
 with £1,000 for “Loves of the Angels,” and 
 £500 for “Fables of the Holy Alliance.” 
 
 These were halcyon days for poets. There 
 was truth as well as jest in Sir Walter Scott’s 
 remark a few years afterward, in reply to 
 Moore’s observation that “ hardly a maga- 
 zine is now published but contains verses 
 which would once have made a reputation.” 
 “Ecod!” exclaimed Sir Walter, “we were 
 very lucky to come before these fellows.” 
 
 A year or two after this, Moore took up 
 his abode at Sloperton Cottage in Wiltshire, 
 about two miles from Devizes. It was here 
 that he wrote the biographies of Lord Ed- 
 ward Fitzgerald, Lord Byron, and Richard 
 Brinley Sheridan. In 1824, five years before 
 the passing of the act for Catholic relief, 
 Moore published “The Memoirs of Captain 
 Rock, written by Himself,” a bitter commen- 
 tary upon English rule in Ireland. The next 
 considerable work of Moore’s — for his light 
 Parthian warfare in the politics of the hour 
 continued as usual, and with about the same 
 success as in his younger days — was “ The 
 Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a 
 Religion,” an earnest defense of the Roman 
 Catholic faith. His last work, and the most 
 successful, so far as a great sale constitutes 
 success, was the prose romance of “ The Epi- 
 curean,” published in 1827. 
 
 In the latter years of life Moore labored 
 under a softening of the brain which removed 
 him from the arena of literature and society. 
 He died early in 1852. 
 
 MORAVIA. The population of this prov- 
 ince of the Austrian empire, is 1,800,000. It 
 was anciently named Q-uadia, and was part of 
 the territory of the Quadi and Marcomanni, 
 who were for several centuries the terror 
 of the Roman frontier. Notwithstanding the 
 many checks they received from the Romans 
 and their barbarian neighbors, these tribes 
 maintained their independence till they were 
 overpowered b}'" Attila in the fifth century. 
 The Sclavonians next founded a republic 
 here, and maintained a precarious indepen- 
 dence, till Swiatopluk united the whole of 
 the Sclavonic republics, and founded the 
 kingdom of Moravia, which comprehended 
 Bohemia, Lusatia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, 
 Silesia, Dalmatia, &c. 
 
 On the death of this prince, in 894, his 
 possessions were divided among his three 
 sons, but dissensions "arising among them, 
 the Boii, or ancestors of the Bohemians, 
 
 MOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 561 
 
 conquered part of them, and threatened the 
 rest. The Magyars, or invaders of Hungary, 
 completely defeated the Moravians in 907, 
 and thus crushed their independence. This 
 fertile country, after being almost reduced to 
 a desert, was seized on by the Dukes of Bohe- 
 mia, who kept it till 1182, when it again 
 became a separate government, and was 
 erected into a marquisate. Moravia next fell 
 into the hands of the Hungarians, but their 
 internal troubles soon obliged them to relin- 
 quish the valuable acquisition. 
 
 Moravia for a time resumed its indepen- 
 dence, but after various changes, became 
 again subject to the kings of Bohemia; in 
 1527 it was added to the possessions of 
 the house of Austria, and has since been 
 subject to the same sovereign. 
 
 MORE, Hannah, was born at Stapleton, 
 in Gloucestershire, in 1745. She was one 
 of the five daughters of a village schoolmas- 
 ter, whose means were not sufficient to give 
 his children many of the advantages of edu- 
 cation ; but this deficiency was supplied by 
 their own talents and perseverance. The 
 literary abilities of Hannah early attracted 
 notice, and a subscription was formed for 
 establishing her and her sisters in a school 
 of their own. 
 
 Her first literary production, “The Search 
 after Happiness,” a pastoral drama, was 
 written when she was only eighteen years 
 of age. By the encouragement of her warm 
 friend, Mr. Garrick, she tried her strength 
 in tragic composition, and wrote “ The Inflexi- 
 ble Captive, a Tragedy,” which was printed 
 in 1764. Her tragedy of “Percy,” the most 
 popular of her dramatic compositions, was 
 brought out in 1778, and ran seventeen 
 nights successively; and her last tragedy, 
 “The Fatal Falsehood,” was produced in 
 1779. Shortly after, her opinions on public 
 theatres underwent a change, and she “did 
 not consider the stage, in its present state, 
 as becoming the appearance or countenance 
 of a Christian.” Early in life she attracted 
 general notice by a brilliant display of liter- 
 ary talent, and was honored by the intimate 
 acquaintance of Johnson and Burke, of Rey- 
 nolds and Garrick, and of many other highly 
 eminent individuals, who equally appreciated 
 her amiable qualities and her superior intel- 
 lect. But, under a deep conviction that to 
 
 36 
 
 live to the glory of God, and to the good of 
 our fellow-creatures, is the great object of 
 human existence, and the only one which 
 can bring peace at the last, she left, in the 
 prime of her days, the bright circles of 
 fashion and literature, and, retiring into the 
 neighborhood of Bristol, devoted herself to a 
 life* of active Christian benevolence, and to 
 the composition of various works, having for 
 their object the religious improvement of 
 mankind. Her practical conduct beautifully 
 exemplified the moral energy of her Christian 
 principles. 
 
 Her first prose publication was “Thoughts 
 on the Manners of the Great,” printed in 
 1788; followed in 1791 by her “Estimate 
 of the Religion of the Fashionable World.” 
 In 1795 she commenced at Bath, in monthly 
 numbers, “The Cheap Repository,” a series 
 of admirable tales for the common people, 
 one of which is the well known “ Shepherd 
 of Salisbury Plain.” The success of this 
 seasonable publication was extraordinary, 
 and within a year the sale reached the num- 
 ber of a million copies. Her “Strictures on 
 the Modern System of Female Education” 
 appeared in 1799; “Hints towards Forming 
 the Character of a Young Princess,” in 
 1805 ; “ Ccelebs in search of a Wife,” in 1809 
 (which passed through at least ten editions 
 in a year); “Practical Piety,” in 1811; 
 “Christian Morals,” in 1812; “Essay on 
 the Character and Writings of St. Paul,” in 
 1815, and “Moral Sketches of the Prevailing 
 Opinions and Manners, Foreign and Domes- 
 tic, with Reflections on Prayer.” The 
 collection of her works comprises eleven 
 volumes octavo. 
 
 Near the beginning of the present century, 
 Mrs. More left Bath and retired to Barley 
 Wood, a cottage delightfully situated in the 
 village of Wrington, the native place of John 
 Locke. In 1819 she lost her last surviving 
 sister Martha, and some years after, being 
 confined to her room, she quitted Barley 
 Wood for Clifton, where, and at Bristol, she 
 had some valuable friends, though not a sin- 
 gle relation of whom she had any knowledge 
 in the world. She is said to have realized 
 upward of £30,000 by her writings; and her 
 charitable bequests exceeded £10,000. She 
 died at Windsor Terrace, Clifton, Sept. 7th, 
 1833, aged eighty-eight. 
 
 MOR 
 
 * 
 
562 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 MORE, Sir Thomas, chancellor of England, 
 was the son of Sir John More, one of the 
 judges of the king’s bench, and was born in 
 London, in 1480. Pie was educated in the 
 family of Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury ; and at the age of twenty -one, 
 he obtained a seat in parliament, where he 
 opposed a subsidy demanded by Henry VII. 
 with such spirit as to incur the resent- 
 ment of the king, who avenged himself on 
 the judge his father, by causing him to be 
 fined and imprisoned. When admitted to 
 the bar, More delivered a lecture in the church 
 of St. Lawrence, Jewry, on part of St. Au- 
 gustin’s works, and the reputation he thereby 
 acquired procured him to be chosen law- 
 reader in Furnival’s Inn. In 1508 he was 
 made judge of the sheriff’s court, and jus- 
 tice of peace. 
 
 Henry VIII. delighted in the conversation 
 ©f More, and conferred upon him the honor 
 of knighthood ; besides which he made him 
 treasurer of the exchequer. Sir Thomas 
 assisted the monarch in his book against 
 Luther, and he afterward defended it in a 
 very able treatise. In 1523 he was chosen 
 speaker of the House of Commons ; and in 
 1530 he succeeded Cardinal Wolsey as 
 chancellor, being the first layman to sit upon 
 the woolsack. He had in the mean time 
 published, among other works, his curious 
 history of Richard III., and his Utopia, 
 which, derived from the Greek for happy 
 land , has given a proverbial expression to 
 our language. 
 
 When Henry began those attacks on the 
 papal supremacy which, however sad his 
 motive might be, were instrumental in pro- 
 curing the refortnation, Sir Thomas at once 
 took up the position which conscience dic- 
 tated to him as a supporter of the old 
 system, and refused to acknowledge the 
 king as the head of the church. Henry 
 marked him out for vengeance as an opponent 
 of his matrimonial views. He endeavored 
 to shield himself by an early resignation 
 of office. He was requested to take oath to 
 maintain the lawfulness of the marriage with 
 Anne Boleyn. Though it was known that 
 he would be the last man to disturb the suc- 
 cession, he refused to take the oath. This 
 was construed into high treason, and he was 
 committed to the Tower. After an imprison- 
 
 ment of fifteen months, he was brought to 
 his trial in the court of king’s bench, where, 
 notwithstanding his eloquent defense, he was 
 found guilty of treason, and sentenced to be 
 beheaded. His behavior, in the interval, 
 corresponded with the uniform tenor of his 
 life ; and, July 6th, 1535, he ascended the 
 scaffold, with his characteristic pleasantry, 
 saying to the lieutenant of the Tower, “I 
 pray you see me safe up ; and as for my 
 coming down, you may let me shift for 
 myself.” In the same spirit, when he laid 
 his head on the block, he told the execu- 
 tioner to wait till he had removed his beard, 
 “For that,” said he, “hath committed no 
 treason.” Thus fell this illustrious English- 
 man, whose learning and virtue entitled him 
 to a better fate. 
 
 This unworldly and extraordinary man was 
 at all times a devout Catholic, insomuch that 
 at one time he was with difficulty restrained 
 from becoming a monk. The Duke of Nor- 
 folk, coming one day to dine with him, 
 found him in Chelsea church, singing in the 
 choir with his surplice on. “ What ! what ! ” ^ 
 exclaimed the abject noble, — “what, what, 
 my lord chancellor a parish clerk! You 
 dishonor the king and his office.” How ex- 
 quisite his reply ! “Nay, you may net think 
 your master and mine will be offended with me 
 for serving God his master, or thereby count 
 his office dishonored.” It must* have been 
 a rare sight to see the chancellor of England 
 sitting with the choir ; and yet there was a 
 fair share of pomp in the manner of his ser- 
 vitor bowing at his lady’s pew, when mass 
 was ended, and saying, “My lord is gone 
 before .” But the day after he resigned the 
 great seal (of which Dame Alice knew noth- 
 ing), Sir Thomas presented himself at the 
 pew-door, and, after the fashion of his servi- 
 tor, quaintly said, “ Madam, my lord is gone.” 
 The vain woman could not comprehend his 
 meaning; and when he fully explained it, 
 during their short walk home, “she was 
 greatly pained thereby, lamenting it with 
 exceeding bitterness of spirit.” 
 
 MOREAU, Jean Victor, one of the great- 
 est generals of the French republic, was born 
 at Morlaix in 1763. After signalizing him- 
 self in many celebrated victories, and in many 
 masterly and successful military operations 
 on the frontiers of Italy and Germany in the 
 
 MOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 563 
 
 campaigns of 1796 and 1799, he invaded 
 Germany in 1800. Here, in co-operation with 
 Bonaparte, he resumed an offensive cam- 
 paigm He took possession of Munich, and 
 laid the Bavarian territories and the duchy 
 of Wurtemburg under heavy contributions. 
 The Emperor of Austria judged it expedient 
 to sue for an armistice, which Moreau granted 
 on the 14th of July. The armistice expired 
 in the November following ; and Moreau, on 
 the 3d of December, gained the decisive vic- 
 tory of Hohenlinden. 
 
 By a turn of circumstances Moreau is found 
 in 1813 in alliance with Bernadotte, his early 
 companion in arms, who commanded the 
 army of the north in Germany against the 
 soldiers of France. On the 27th of August, 
 Napoleon came out of Dresden with 130,000 
 men to attack the allies, having detached a 
 force, under Yandamme, to seize the passes 
 in their rear. In the assault on the preceding 
 day, Napoleon observed Moreau conversing 
 w r ith the Emperor Alexander and some other 
 officers. Turning to a cannoneer, and point- 
 ing out the object of his displeasure, he said, 
 “ Send a dozen balls upon that man ! ” The 
 officers obeyed. A ball struck Moreau, shat- 
 tering both his legs and tearing open the 
 belly of his horse. He bore the amputation 
 of both limbs with great firmness, and was 
 carried in a litter, formed by the lances of the 
 Cossacks, to Toplitz, where he expired. 
 
 MORGAN, Daniel, a Revolutionary officer, 
 was born in New Jersey, but removed to 
 Virginia in 1755. He rose to the rank of 
 brigadier-general. His riflemen rendered 
 themselves formidable to the British through- 
 out the struggle. Morgan died in 1802. 
 
 MORGAN, John, a learned physician, born 
 at Philadelphia, in 1735. In prosecuting his 
 professional studies, he visited many of the 
 most eminent universities of Europe, and 
 while there, though very young, was so dis- 
 tinguished as to be elected a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. He was active in establish- 
 ing the American Philosophical Society in 
 1769, was director-general of hospitals in the 
 army of the United States, and died Oct. 
 15th, 1789. 
 
 MORMONS. [See Smith, Joseph.] 
 
 MOROCCO is the largest of the Barbary 
 states. Its political and social condition is 
 rude and degraded, and in the matter of 
 
 emperors it has been cursed by very many 
 blood-thirsty tyrants. The most important 
 manufacture is that of the leather which 
 bears the name of the country. This the 
 Moors brought from Spain. Woolens are 
 also largely made, as they form the dress of 
 the people. The population of Morocco is 
 
 8.500.000, made up of Berbers, Shelluhs, 
 Arabs, and negroes, and the area is 274,000 
 square miles. Morocco, the capital, on an 
 extensive and fruitful plain, surrounded by 
 beautiful gardens, and diversified with the 
 towers of many mosques, has 100,000 in- 
 habitants. Fez, in the more northerly prov- 
 ince of the same name, long ranked as the 
 splendid and enlightened metropolis of Wes- 
 tern Africa. It was founded in 793 by 
 Prince Edris, and rose to such magnitude 
 that it contained many hundred mosques, of 
 which fifty were magnificent and adorned 
 with marble pillars. Its schools and its 
 baths were also very celebrated. At present 
 its ancient splendor is mingled with modern 
 decay ; though it is the most industrious and 
 commercial town in the empire ; population, 
 
 50.000. The seaports of Morocco have lost 
 the business that piracy gave them. Sallee, 
 once the home of the merciless rover, is now 
 quiet. Mogadore is the chief seat of Euro- 
 pean commerce. Tangiers, once a British 
 colony, has some trade in provisions with 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Morocco, formerly called Mauritania, was 
 possessed by the Romans b.c. 25, and reduced 
 by them to a province in the year 50. It 
 afterward yielded to the Saracens; and, in 
 the eleventh century, a chief of Lamituna 
 assumed the character of a reformer of the 
 Mohammedan religion, and assembled all the 
 neighboring tribes under his standard. His 
 followers, called Almoravides, conquered 
 Morocco, and even Barbary and Spain, thus 
 establishing a vast empire entitled that of 
 Mohgreb, or the AVest. The second monarch 
 of this race founded the city of Morocco. 
 About 1116, Abdallah, the leader of a sect of 
 Mahometans, founded the dynasty of Almah- 
 ides, which ended in the last sovereign’s total 
 defeat in Spain, 1312. At this period Fez and 
 Tremecen, then provinces of the empire, shook 
 off their dependence. Morocco was afterward 
 seized by the King of Fez ; but about 1550, 
 an Arabian chief, who claimed to be a de- 
 
 MOR 
 
564 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 scendant of Mahomet, subdued and united 
 again tiie three kingdoms, and formed what 
 is at present the empire of Morocco. 
 
 MORRIS, Gouvekneur, was born at Mor- 
 risania in New York, Jan. 31st, 1752. He 
 graduated at the college in the city of New r 
 York in iiis sixteenth year, and immediately 
 commenced the study of law. At the age of 
 seventeen he commenced his career as a polit- 
 ical writer. Mr. Morris was chosen a member 
 of the first provincial congress. He was twice 
 elected a member of Congress by the legisla- 
 ture of New York. In 1780 he established 
 himself in Philadelphia in the practice of the 
 law. In this year, he w r as thrown from his 
 carriage, and his leg was so severely injured 
 that it was necessary to perform amputation, 
 an operation which he bore with great forti- 
 tude. In 1781 he was appointed assistant 
 financier to Robert Morris, and performed the 
 duties of his office w ith ability for three years. 
 He w'as a member of the convention which 
 met in 1787 for the purpose of framing a con- 
 stitution for the United States. He was min- 
 ister at the French court from 1792 to 1796, 
 and returned to America in 1798. Here he 
 served some years in the senate of the United 
 States. He married, in 1809, a daughter of 
 Thomas Randolph of Virginia, and died Nov. 
 Cth, 1816, aged sixty -five. 
 
 His acute powers of mind, a thorough con- 
 sciousness of his own strength, and his quick 
 sense of the ridiculous, joined to a lofty inde=- 
 pendence of thought, often betrayed him into 
 a forwardness of manner, a license of expres- 
 sion, and an indulgence of his humor, little 
 suited to soothe the pride, or flatter the vanity, 
 or foster the self-love of those about him. He 
 might dazzle by his genius, surprise by his 
 novel flights of fancy, amuse by his wit, and 
 confound by his arguments, and thus extort 
 the tribute of admiration, but fail in gaining 
 the willing applause of love. No man was 
 better acquainted with the forms and etiquette 
 of society ; none had moved more widely in 
 the circles of fashion and rank, or examined 
 with a keoner scrutiny the deep fountains of 
 the human passions, or knew better how r to 
 touch the springs of men’s motives ; yet this 
 rare intuition, this more rare experience, and 
 this great knowledge did little toward modi- 
 fying the tendencies of his nature, or diverting 
 the first bent of his mind. He was sometimes 
 
 overbearing in conversation. At any rate, 
 w r hen he spoke he expected to be heard. 
 There is an anecdote illustrative of this point. 
 At a breakfast-table, he w r as in close conver- 
 sation with a gentleman, to wffiose harangue 
 he had listened patiently, till it was his turn 
 to reply. He began accordingly, but the 
 gentleman w T as inattentive, and a bad listener. 
 “ Sir,” said Mr. Morr is, “ if you will not listen 
 to my argument, I will address myself to the 
 teapot,” and went on with much animation of 
 tone and gesture, till he had finished his rep- 
 lication. But this defect, after all, was only 
 a spot on the surface. Justice, truth, charity, 
 honor, held an uncontrolled empire in his 
 soul, and never lost their influence or author- 
 ity. — Sparlcs. 
 
 MORRIS, Lewis, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was a brother of Gouver- 
 neur, and born at Morrisania, Westchester 
 county, N. Y., in 1726. After receiving a 
 liberal education at Yale College, he adopted 
 the pursuit of his father, agriculture, at Mor- 
 risania. He was elected to Congress in 1775, 
 and retained his seat two years, wdien he was 
 succeeded by his brother Gouverneur. He 
 died Jan. 22d, 1798. 
 
 There were two other brothers of this fam- 
 ily : Staats, an officer of the British army, 
 and a member of parliament ; and Riciiaud, 
 judge of the vice-admiralty court at New 
 York, and subsequently chief-justice and 
 governor. 
 
 MORRIS, Robert, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born in Lancashire, 
 England, January, 1733 or 1734, came to 
 America wffiile yet a boy of thirteen, and en- 
 tered the counting-house of Charles Willing, 
 an eminent merchant of Philadelphia; on 
 whose death he founded a copartnership with 
 the son, Thomas Willing, and carried on a 
 large commerce for thirty-nine years. He 
 was a member of the continental congress 
 from 1776 to 1778. During the critical strug- 
 gle which ensued, Robert Morris was the 
 chief financial supporter of the cause. In 
 1781 he was made superintendent of finance, 
 and by his extensive credit and commercial 
 skill rendered immense benefit to his adopted 
 country. For the public credit he did not 
 hesitate to sacrifice his private resources. He 
 sustained the credit of the United States, and 
 established the first bank in Philadelphia, the 
 
 MOR 
 
HISTORY A N J 
 
 Bank of North America, 1781, which lent for 
 the public service of the government, within 
 the first six months after its organization, 
 $480,000. Without the financial talents and 
 services of this distinguished man, all the 
 physical force of the country might have 
 proved unavailing to establish the independ- 
 ence of the United States. When the paper 
 of the Congress of United America was worth 
 nothing, the paper of Robert Morris supplied 
 the deficiency ; his personal credit was decid- 
 edly better than the credit of the United 
 States government. He was one of the con- 
 vention which framed the constitution of the 
 United States, and represented Pennsylvania 
 in the senate from 1789 to 1795. Hjs most 
 intimate friends were Washington, Hamilton, 
 and Gouverneur Morris. When offered the 
 appointment of first secretary of the treasury 
 by Washington, he declined, but proposed 
 his friend Alexander Hamilton. His immense 
 fortune had been reduced by his patriotic 
 generosity, and unfortunate land speculations 
 imbittered his old age, which ought to have 
 been surrounded with all the ease and happi- 
 ness that earthly gratitude could bestow. To 
 the shame of the republic, the old man was 
 confined in prison for debt! He died May 
 8th, 1806. 
 
 MORRISON, Robert, LL.D., a Scot by 
 birth, entered in 1807 upon the Chinese mis- 
 sion, and died Aug. 1st, 1834, aged fifty-two. 
 He translated portions of the Scriptures into 
 Chinese, and was the author of a Chinese 
 grammar and dictionary. 
 
 MORTIER, Edmund Adolph Casemir Jo- 
 seph, born in 1768, joined the army of the 
 republic, and served under Kleber, Marceau, 
 Pichegru, and. Moreau. In 1804 Napoleon 
 made him marshal of France, and afterward 
 Duke of Treviso. In conjunction with Mar- 
 mont, Mortier defended Paris against the allies 
 in 1814. He was riding by the side of Louis 
 Philippe at a review, July 28th, 1835, when 
 Fieschi’s infernal machine exploded, killing 
 him among others. 
 
 MORTON. The Earl of Morton was a 
 chief actor in the transactions of the reign of 
 Mary, and in the minority of James VI. of 
 Scotland. He joined in the murder of Rizzio, 
 and, after the death of Darnley, assisted to 
 expel Mary from the throne. In 1572 he was 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 565 
 
 elected regent, and in 1581 he was beheaded 
 at Edinburgh. 
 
 MORTON, John, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born of Swedish parent- 
 age at Ridley, Penn., in 1724. Morton was 
 a member of the colonial congress that con- 
 vened at New York in 1765, in consequence 
 of the passage of the stamp act. He filled 
 various civil offices in Pennsylvania ; was a 
 member of Congress from 1774 to 1777 ; gave 
 the casting vote in the Penns}dvania delega- 
 tion for the Declaration of Independence; 
 was one of the committee that reported the 
 articles of confederation, and died soon after 
 that, in April, 1777. 
 
 MOSCOW, an extensive city of Russia in 
 Europe, founded in the middle of the twelfth 
 century. Population, 400,000. In 1382 it 
 was besieged by Tamerlane, and it soon fell 
 into the hands of the Tartars, who again at- 
 tacked it in 1571. They burnt the city ; but 
 it was afterward rebuilt, and was for a century 
 and a half the capital of the empire, and the 
 residence of the court till 1760. 
 
 In September, 1812, the memorable confla- 
 gration took place, by which three-fourths of 
 the city was consumed. The general plan of 
 the Russians in the war with the French was 
 to abandon and destroy ; and in August and 
 September, when the French continued to 
 advance, and it was thought impossible to 
 check their progress, Count Rostopchin fore- 
 warned the inhabitants of the sacrifices they 
 would be called on to make. The churches 
 and the treasury were stripped of their orna- 
 ments ; the persons belonging to the public 
 establishments were removed to Kasan ; and 
 barks, laden with corn, were sunk in the 
 Moskwa, to prevent their falling into the 
 hands of the enemy. The decisive battle of 
 Borodino was fought on the 8th of September, 
 about seventy miles from Moscow, and the 
 hospitals were soon filled with wounded. On 
 the news of the retreat of the -Russian army, 
 a general movement took place in Moscow. 
 
 On the 13th of September the enemy drew 
 near, and the mass of the population of Mos- 
 cow fled into the surrounding country. On 
 the 14th the French entered the city, and that 
 night a fire broke out, which was soon got 
 under. On the 15th fires burst forth from 
 the shops ; and on the following night a gen- 
 
566 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 eral conflagration took place. Explosions in 
 different places, and fagots thrown from tow- 
 ers, showed that means were employed to 
 spread destruction in every quarter. During 
 the next day smoke rolled in thick clouds 
 over the town, and at night a vast globe of 
 flame illuminated the atmosphere several 
 leagues round. The conflagration was rapidly 
 spread by a violent wind, the buildings fell in 
 with a tremendous crash, and the immense 
 stones, calcined and blackened, only remained 
 to denote their site. The French sentinels 
 were, however, unable to detect the incendia- 
 ries : several stragglers were arrested, tried, 
 and shot ; but all the men taken in attempting 
 to spread the flames, declared they had acted 
 under the direction of Rostopchin and the 
 director of police. The French officers, on find 
 ing it impracticable to extinguish the flames, 
 authorized a systematic pillage. The pi under 
 was immense; but the greater part was aban- 
 doned in the disastrous . retreat. The fire 
 raged till the 19th. Bonaparte now remained 
 at Moscow a month, in the hope of prevailing 
 on the Russians to conclude a peace. Baffled 
 in this attempt, he quitted the city on the 18th 
 of October. The young guard, which formed 
 the garrison left by Bonaparte, intrenched it- 
 self in the Kremlin ; and, having undermined 
 part of the walls and interior buildings, blew 
 them up on the 23d of October, the day of the 
 final evacuation. The rebuilding of the city 
 proceeded but slowly till 1814, when the 
 greatest exertions were made ; by the begin- 
 ning of 1818 the new city seemed to have 
 risen from the ruins, and by the end of that 
 year the whole was completed. 
 
 MOULTRIE, William, a major-general in 
 our Revolution, came to South Carolina from 
 England at an early age. He served against 
 the Indians prior to 1775, and, during the 
 Revolution distinguished himself at Charles- 
 ton, Beaufort, and Sullivan’s Island, the fort 
 on which was named after him. He was sev- 
 eral times governor of South Carolina. He 
 died at Charleston, Sept. 27th, 1805, aged 
 seventy-five. 
 
 MOZART, Johann Chrysostomus Wolf- 
 gang Gottlieb, wras born at Salzburg, Jan. 
 25th, 1756. He evinced the most precocious 
 genius for music, and it was strengthened by 
 instruction and culture. When at Rome in 
 1770, during passion week, he heard the 
 
 “ Miserere ” at the Sistine chapel. This piece 
 was prohibited to be copied, or in any manner 
 published, on pain of excommunication. Mo- 
 zart went a second time to hear, having a 
 manuscript copy that he had made from mem- 
 ory, concealed in his hat for the opportunity 
 of noting corrections. It was considered a 
 great feat to thus obtain this difficult music. 
 The last years of Mozart’s life were spent at 
 Vienna in the service of the emperor. There 
 he died Dec. 5th, 1792, leaving compositions 
 that are immortal. 
 
 MURAT, Joachim, the son of a pastry- 
 cook, was born at Achers in 1771. At a 
 very early age he was a fine horseman, and 
 fond of military exercises. It is not surpris- 
 ing, therefore, that he escaped from the 
 convent where he w r as placed to study theol- 
 ogy, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons. 
 His merit raised him from the ranks, and he 
 fought brilliantly under Napoleon throughout 
 his career. Murat married Caroline, Napo- 
 leon’s youngest sister, and w r as created mar- 
 shal of the empire and Grand Duke of Berg 
 and Cleves. On the elevation of Joseph to 
 the Spanish throne, in 1809, Bonaparte trans- 
 ferred the crown of Naples to his brother- 
 in-law. In December, 1812, Murat was 
 appointed to the chief command of the French 
 army at Wilna, after their memorable but 
 ill-fated retreat from Moscow. In 1814 Mu- 
 rat basely joined the alliance against France 
 by opening the Neapolitan ports to the Eng- 
 lish, and engaging to assist Austria with an 
 army of 30,000 men. 
 
 When Napoleon returned from Elba, Mu- 
 rat once more took up his cause, and, by an 
 enterprise against the Austrians in Italy, lost 
 the crown of Naples. When the expedition 
 from Elba reached France, he had assembled 
 his cabinet, and declared his resolution to 
 support the allies ; but on learning that Bo- 
 naparte had entered Lyons, he demanded 
 leave of the pope to march a force through 
 his territories. Pius VII. refused ; on w 7 hich 
 two Neapolitan divisions penetrated to Rome, 
 and his holiness, hastily retiring, placed 
 himself under the protection of the English 
 at Genoa. Murat himself advanced to An- 
 cona, and his army marched in four columns 
 on the routes of Bologna, Modena, Reggio, 
 and Ferrara, while a fifth division drove the 
 Austrian garrisons from Cesena and Rimini. 
 
 MUR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 567 
 
 Harassed on all sides by the British and 
 Austrian forces, and having in vain solicited 
 an armistice, he attacked Bianchi, near To- 
 lentino, in which contest his army was totally 
 ruined. After a disastrous retreat of ten 
 days, he found, on approaching Naples, that 
 the inhabitants had declared for the King of 
 Sicily wherever the Austrians appeared ; that 
 Colonel Church was raising against him 
 an army of his late subjects ; and that 
 everything, in short, was going against him. 
 Leaving his followers, who were now reduced 
 to 4,000 men, he hastened to Naples, and 
 arrived at the palace exhausted with fatigue. 
 He escaped in disguise with a few adherents 
 to the isle of Ischia, and embarking thence for 
 France, landed on the 25th of May at Cannes. 
 
 Murat, after the battle of Waterloo, made 
 his retreat in an open boat to Corsica. In 
 September, proposals were made to Joachim, 
 that he should assume the name of a private 
 person ; that he should choose his abode either 
 in Bohemia, Moravia, or Upper Austria ; and 
 that he should engage not to quit those 
 states without the consent of the emperor. 
 He rejected this overture, and undertook, in 
 imitation of Bonaparte, an expedition for 
 the recovery of hfs kingdom. When he 
 landed at Pizzo on the 8th of October, he 
 could only muster about thirty officers. 
 Thus disappointed he proceeded to Monte- 
 leone. He was overtaken half-way by a very 
 strong party, and after fighting desperately, 
 broke through his pursuers, and hastened to 
 the beach, where he was seized and conveyed 
 before GeneralNanziante, the commandant of 
 Calabria. On the 15th, pursuant to orders 
 from Naples, he was tried by court-martial, 
 and shot in half an hour. 
 
 MURILLO, Bartholome Esteban, was 
 born at Seville, Jan. 1st, 1618. After some 
 education, he was placed with Juan del Cas- 
 tillo, a kinsman, to learn painting, for which 
 he had shown a decided ability. Velasquez, 
 then the greatest painter of Spain, who 
 was Murillo’s fellow-townsman, very kindly 
 aided him in his studies at Madrid. In 
 1645 Murillo returned to Seville, and there 
 his life was spent in the pursuit of his art. 
 He married, in 1648, a wealthy lady of Pilas, 
 and his house became the resort of people of 
 taste and fashion. The academy of Seville 
 was established by him. In his latter years he 
 
 changed both his style and his subjects. His 
 earlier pictures, which are painted in a forci- 
 ble manner, are chiefly illustrative of humble 
 life : his latter works, with equal truth, are 
 in a more elevated and chaste style, and are 
 almost exclusively scriptural or religious in 
 their subjects. He occasionally painted land- 
 scapes. His favorite masters were Spagno- 
 letto, Vandyck, and Velasquez. The last 
 work of Murillo was the large altar-piece of 
 St. Catharine, painted at Cadiz for the church 
 of the Capuchins ; a picture never completed, 
 for a fall from the scaffolding while engaged 
 upon it, forced his return to Seville, where 
 he died not long afterward, April 3d, 1682. 
 
 MURRAY, Alexander, was born at Ches- 
 tertown, Maryland, in 1755. At the age of 
 eighteen he commanded a merchant-vessel. 
 At twenty-one he was appointed a lieutenant 
 in the navy, but fought on shore until he 
 could obtain a vessel. He commanded 
 several letters-of-marque during the Revolu- 
 tionary struggle, and served some time under 
 Barry. When in command of the Constella- 
 tion, he beat off some Tripolitan gunboats 
 with great spirit and success. His last ap- 
 pointment was to the post of commandant of 
 the navy -yard at Philadelphia. He died Oct. 
 6th, 1821. 
 
 MURRAY, James Stuart, Earl of, was the 
 natural son of James V-, King of Scotland, 
 and the unnatural brother of Queen Mary. 
 He was a powerful supporter of the refor- 
 mation. After the return of Mary from 
 France, he administered her affairs until her 
 marriage with Darnley, which he opposed by 
 force of arms, and was obliged to flee into 
 England. After the murder of Rizzio, he 
 was again restored to favor. He went abroad 
 to France on the murder of Darnley in 1556, 
 and returned on being elected regent by his 
 party. This election was confirmed by parlia- 
 ment, and he soon established his authority. 
 Mary, escaping from Lochleven Castle, col- 
 lected her friends, who were defeated at Lang- 
 side, near Glasgow, and she was compelled to 
 flee into England in 1568. Murray was sup- 
 ported by the alliance of Queen Elizabeth. 
 In 1569 he was murdered by Hamilton, 
 whose wife he had seduced. 
 
 MURRAY, Lindley, a noted grammarian, 
 was born in Pennsylvania in 1745, and died 
 in England in 1826. 
 
 MUR 
 
568 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 MURRAY, William Vans, was born in 
 Maryland 1761, died 1803, aged forty-two. 
 He was a distinguished and eloquent member 
 of Congress; minister to the Batavian re- 
 public; and with Chief-Justice Ellsworth 
 and Mr. Davie as envoys extraordinary, he 
 assisted in negotiating the treaty of Paris, 
 in 1800. 
 
 MUSCAT, a state on the east coast of 
 Arabia. During the present century the 
 Imaum of Muscat has so extended his terri- 
 tories, naval power, and commercial import- 
 ance, as to rank among the greatest of.the 
 independent countries of Asia. The town 
 of Muscat has about 60,000 inhabitants. 
 
 MUSIC. According to the Mosaic records, 
 Jubal, the son of Lamech, played on musical 
 instruments even before the deluge. At a 
 later period, we find mention made of the 
 harp, the trumpet, and the drum. The oldest 
 song is that which Miriam sang after the 
 passage of the Red Sea. Music reached its 
 highest perfection among the Hebrews, at the 
 time of David and Solomon. 
 
 The Greeks are said to have received the 
 art of music from Lydia and Arcadia. But 
 it was not till the sixth century that much 
 of the science of music was understood. 
 Labus, a Greek, who lived about 546 b.c., 
 wrote something on the theory of music. 
 In the time of Pericles, Damon is said to have 
 been a distinguished teacher of music. 
 
 In the time of Plato and Aristotle, many 
 improvements in music were made; these 
 philosophers considering music useful as a 
 means of education. At the time of Alexan- 
 der, Aristoxenus distinguished himself as a 
 writer on music. He composed many trea- 
 tises, and made many great changes and 
 improvements. He introduced the chromatic 
 scale. We have on the whole but little 
 light on the subject of the music of the an- 
 cients, as the existing writings are very 
 obscure and unintelligible. 
 
 The Romans seem to have received their 
 sacred music from the Etruscans, and their 
 warlike music from the Greeks. Stringed 
 instruments were introduced into Rome, 186 
 b.c. Under Nero, music was cultivated as a 
 luxury. After his death, five hundred sing- 
 ers and musicians were dismissed. 
 
 In the middle ages, the progress of music 
 
 was promoted by its being consecrated to the 
 service of religion, and education was not 
 thought complete without some knowledge 
 of music. Guido, of Arezzo, made great im- 
 provements in the manner of writing the 
 notes in music, and in the fifteenth century 
 still farther improvement was made by Jo- 
 hannes de Muris. 
 
 At the same period, music was treated 
 scientifically in the Netherlands, France, and 
 Spain. The invention of the opera in the 
 sixteenth century, has chiefly contributed to 
 the splendor and variety of modern vocal 
 music, and in the eighteenth century there 
 were immense improvements made in musical 
 instruments. • 
 
 The merit of the advancement of vocal 
 music is claimed by the Italians ; that in 
 instrumental music by the Germans and 
 French. Musical notes as now used were 
 invented in 1338. 
 
 MUTIUS SCiEVOLA (the left-handed). 
 When Porsenna, King of Etruria, had be- 
 sieged Rome to reinstate Tarquin in all his 
 rights and privileges, Caius Mutius Cordus 
 determined to deliver his country from so 
 dangerous an enemy. He disguised himself 
 in the habit of a Tuscan, and as he could speak 
 the language fluently, he gained an easy intro- 
 duction into the camp, and soon into the royal 
 tent. Porsenna sat alone with his secretary 
 when Mutius entered. The Roman rushed 
 upon the secretary and stabbed him to the 
 heart, mistaking him for his royal master. 
 This occasioned a noise, and Mutius, unable 
 to escape, was seized and brought before the 
 king. He gave no answer to the inquiries of 
 the courtiers, and only told them that he was 
 a Roman ; to give them a proof of his for- 
 titude he laid his right hand on an altar of 
 burning coals, and sternly looking at the 
 king, and without uttering a groan, he boldly 
 told him, that three hundred young Romans 
 like himself had conspired against his life, and 
 entered the camp in disguise, determined 
 either to destroy him or perish in the attempt. 
 This extraordinary confession astonished 
 Porsenna ; he made peace with the Romans 
 and retired from their city. Mutius obtained 
 the surname of Sccevola, because he had lost 
 the use of his right hand by burning it in the 
 presence of the Etrurian king. 
 
 MUT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 569 
 
 NAMUR. [See Belgium.] 
 
 NANTES, a seaport of France, capital of 
 the department of the Lower Loire, pleasantly 
 situated on the Loire thirty miles from the At- 
 lantic; population, 91,000. Its manufactures 
 are extensive, and its public institutions im- 
 portant. In history it is celebrated for the 
 act called the Edict of Nantes, granted by 
 Henry IV., by which Protestants enjoyed 
 toleration in France, April 30th, 1598. It 
 was revoked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24th, 1685 ; 
 by which bad policy thousands of industrious 
 Huguenots were obliged to seek refuge in 
 England, Holland, and different parts of Ger- 
 many, where they established various manu- 
 factures, much to the injury of France. 
 
 NAPIER, Sir Charles James, a distin- 
 guished lieutenant-general in the British 
 army, born in 1782, fought desperately under 
 Moore and Wellington in the Spanish penin- 
 sula, but won his laurels as an administrator 
 and conqueror in Afghanistan. He died 
 Aug. 29th, 1855. 
 
 NAPIER, John, Baron of Merchiston, the 
 inventor of logarithms, born in Scotland, 
 1550, died in 1617. 
 
 NAPLES, the Kingdom of, is the name 
 commonly given to the continental part of 
 the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. [See Sic- 
 ily.] It comprises the southern half of Italy. 
 A portion we have already described under 
 Abruzzo. Although the climate is singu- 
 larly genial, and the soil corresponds in fer- 
 tility, the ignorance and laziness of the 
 peasantry, and the miserable rule under 
 which they live, turn these blessings into a 
 curse. The kingdom was brutally misgov- 
 erned by its Bourbon rulers, but was an- 
 nexed to the kingdom of Itaty in 1860, Fran- 
 cis II. absconding to Rome, Nov. 7th of that 
 year. The population of the whole kingdom 
 is 8,705,000. 
 
 The city of Naples, the capital and royal 
 residence of the Two Sicilies, containing 
 450,000 inhabitants, is charmingly situated 
 on the brink of the most beautiful bay in the 
 world, whioh is thus eloquently described by 
 a traveler. 
 
 It is evening, and scarcely a breeze ruffles 
 the bosom of the beautiful bay, which resem- 
 bles a mirror, reflecting on its glassy surface 
 the bright sky and the thousand glittering 
 stars with which it is studded. Naples, with 
 its white colonnades, seen amidst the dark 
 foliage of its terraced gardens, rises like an 
 amphitheatre ; lights stream from the win- 
 dows, and fall over the sea beneath like 
 columns of gold. The castle of St. Elmo 
 crowning the centre; Vesuvius, like a sleep- 
 ing giant in grim repose, whose awaking all 
 dread, is to the left ; and to the right are the 
 vine-crowned heights of beautiful Varmero, 
 with their palaces and villas peeping forth 
 from the groves that surround them ; while 
 rising above it, the convent of Camaldoli lifts 
 its head to the skies. Resina, Portici, Castel- 
 a-Mare, and the lovely shores of Sorrento, 
 reach out from Vesuvius, as if they tried to 
 embrace the isle of Capri, which forms the 
 central object; and Pausilippo and Misenum, 
 which in the distance seemed joined to Pro- 
 cida and Ischia, advance to meet the beauti- 
 ful island on the right. The air as it leaves 
 the shore is laden with fragrance from the 
 orange-trees and jessamine, so abundant round 
 Naples ; and the soft music of the guitar, or 
 lively sound of the tambourine, marking the 
 brisk movements of the tarentella, steals on 
 the ear. " . 
 
 The climate of Naples is delightful, and 
 such of the lazzaroni as are unable to procure 
 shelter experience no painful results from 
 sleeping in the open air. The nobles are 
 opulent and luxurious, and a love of pleasure 
 pervades alike all classes. The necessaries 
 of life are easily obtained, and the lazzaroni 
 live from day to day on their casual earnings 
 and beggings. A shirt and pair of loose 
 trowsers are costume enough for them. 
 
 Naples, or Neapolis (that is, ‘ new city ’), 
 was colonized at some unknown time by 
 Greeks from Cumae. After the fall of the 
 Roman empire Naples was subject to the 
 Goths, and afterward to the Lombards. In 
 the ninth century it became tributary to the 
 Duke of Beneventum. During the govern- 
 
570 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 ment of Pandulph II., as Prince of Benevento, 
 a.d. 1003, the Normans first arrived in Italy, 
 and established themselves in this country. 
 Landulph V., the son of Pandulph, was ex- 
 pelled from the government by Richard I., 
 the Norman Count of Aversa, who caused 
 himself to be proclaimed Prince of Benevento. 
 Thus the dominion of the Lombards in this 
 principality terminated, a.d. 1059. Richard 
 was succeeded in the government of Bene- 
 vento by Jordanus, Richard II., Robert, 
 Richard III., Jordanus II., Robert II., and 
 Roger, who assumed the title of king, and 
 obtained the investiture of the dukedom of 
 Naples. Some years after, Roger, having 
 taken Pope Innocent prisoner, obliged his 
 holiness to confirm to him the title of king. 
 
 To him succeeded William in 1154; Wil- 
 liam II. in 1166; Tancred, Count of Lecce, 
 in 1190 ; Frederick in 1208, who enlarged 
 and embellished the city of Naples, which he 
 made the chief place of his residence ; and 
 Conrad in 1250. Four years after, Conrad 
 die'd, and was succeeded by Conradin, whose 
 army was attacked and dispersed by Manfred. 
 In 1253 Manfred assumed the crown of Sic- 
 ily ; and in 1266 he was defeated and slain 
 by the army of Charles of Anjou, on whom 
 Pope Urban had conferred the title of king. 
 Soon after, Conradin laid claim to Sicily, and 
 marched with an army into Italy, but was 
 entirely defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Charles, who caused him and the Duke of 
 Austria to be publicly beheaded upon the 
 scaffold in the market-place of Naples, a.d. 
 1269. 
 
 Charles, by his arbitrary and oppressive 
 government, so entirely lost the affections of 
 the Sicilians, that they offered their allegiance 
 to Peter, King of Arragon, who was soon 
 after crowned at Palermo, and from this 
 period the history of Naples is an unvaried 
 and uninteresting detail of scenes of war and 
 invasion, during nearly two hundred years. 
 
 At length, in 1442, after a long separation, 
 Alphonso of Arragon united both Sicily and, 
 Naples under his dominion. Upon the death 
 of Ferdinand, the Emperor Charles Y. suc- 
 ceeded to Naples, as well as to the rest of the 
 Spanish monarchy. During his reign, and 
 that of his successors, Philip II., Philip III., 
 and Philip IV., this country was governed 
 by the viceroys of Spain, and suffered greatly 
 
 from their oppression. On the death of 
 Philip IV., a.d. 1664, Charles II. succeeded 
 to the crown of Spain, and adopted Philip of 
 Anjou, afterward Philip V., as the heir of all 
 his dominions. 
 
 In 1700 Philip succeeded to the crown of 
 Naples and Sicily ; but his title was opposed 
 by the house of Austria, and a conspiracy 
 procured the government of Naples for Charles 
 II., son of the Emperor Leopold. However, 
 by the conditions of the general peace, Na- 
 ples again owned the sway of Philip in 1719 ; 
 but Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy. 
 Some years after, the Emperor Charles VI. 
 again seized upon Naples, and by cession 
 obtained also Sicily. He continued to reign 
 over them for several years, till Don Carlos 
 of Spain, being vested with the rights of his 
 father, who was yet alive, conquered these 
 two kingdoms in 1734, and fixed the seat of 
 his government among his subjects. Don 
 Carlos changed the face of his kingdoms, 
 which, on his taking possession of the crown 
 of Spain, he left in a flourishing condition 
 to his son Ferdinand IV., in 1759. 
 
 In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from 
 Naples, and were all conveyed into the pope’s 
 dominions, the vicinity of whose territories 
 rendered every scheme of opposition fruitless. 
 During the invasion of Italy by the French, 
 after some immaterial hostilities, a suspen- 
 sion of arms was agreed to between the King 
 of Naples and the republican commander in 
 1796 ; and soon after, a peace was concluded 
 between the two powers, Naples being re- 
 quired to pay a sum of eight millions, either 
 in money or in naval stores. 
 
 In 1798 the King of Naples commenced 
 hostilities against the French, attacked the 
 new Roman republic, and entered Rome in 
 triumph ; but in the year following, he was 
 obliged to conclude an armistice with the 
 enemy on very hard conditions. Naples was 
 reduced under the power of the French in 
 1799, who constituted it a republic, and estab- 
 lished a provisionary government. However, 
 a few months afterward the great successes 
 of the Austro-Russian army forced the French 
 to evacuate Naples ; and, by the aid of the 
 English, the King of the Two Sicilies, who had 
 hoisted his flag on board the Foudroyant, the 
 English admiral’s ship, was enabled to return 
 once more to his capital. But the victory of 
 
 NAP 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 571 
 
 Bonaparte at Marengo, and the conditions of 
 the treaty of Lunev ille, gave the French a 
 great ascendency in Italy. 
 
 In 1805 Bonaparte issued a proclamation, 
 declaring that the Neapolitan dynasty had 
 ceased to reign, and ordered his troops to 
 subject the whole of Italy to his laws or those 
 of his allies. In consequence of this, a 
 French army, under the command of Joseph 
 Bonaparte, entered Naples, and occupied all 
 the principal fortresses in the kingdom. The 
 king and the royal family were obliged to 
 seek an asylum in Sicily. Under the Prince 
 of Hesse, Gaeta made a long and memorable 
 defense against the French troops, and was 
 taken only in consequence of that commander 
 being badly wounded, and some of his offi- 
 cers proving treacherous. On the translation 
 of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain, 
 in 1808, Joachim Murat, who had married a 
 sister of Napoleon, was nominated to the king- 
 dom of Naples. 
 
 After an extraordinary career, in which 
 some of the martial talent and vigor of Murat 
 was displayed, but was ill seconded by his 
 troops, Naples was invested by land, w'hilst 
 an English naval force entered i.ts port, and 
 compelled a surrender of the ships and 
 arsenal. The Neapolitan commanders, and 
 those of Austria and England, signed a con- 
 vention, of which the prominent feature w'as 
 the abdication of Joachim. Naples was oc- 
 cupied by the allies, who were joined by an 
 armament of English and Sicilians ; and Fer- 
 dinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, after an 
 absence of nine years, was restored in 1815. 
 
 NAPOLI DI ROMANIA, or Nauplia, a 
 port and city on the eastern coast of the 
 Morea, on the Gulf of Nauplia, or Argolis, 
 containing about 5,000 inhabitants. It was 
 taken by the Greeks during their revolution, 
 and in 1824 became for a time the seat of 
 government. 
 
 In 1205 it was taken by the French and 
 Venetians; and a little after, King Gianno- 
 viza seized and plundered it. The Venetians 
 bought it of Peter Cornaro’s widow in 1383, 
 made it their chief settlement in the Morea, 
 and defended it gallantly against Mahomet 
 II. in 1460, obliging him to raise the siege. 
 Sultan Solyman took it from them in 1637. 
 
 NARVA, Battle of. Peter the Great, 
 with 70,000 Russians, was badly defeated by 
 
 Charles XII. with on y 20,000 Swedes, Nov. 
 30th, 1700. The ‘madman of the north,’ 
 then only nineteen years of age, attacked the 
 Russians in their intrenchments. He had 
 several horses shot under him, and as he 
 mounted a fresh one, he said, “ These fellows 
 seem disposed to give me exercise.” 
 
 NASEBY, a village of Northamptonshire, 
 England, famous for the decisive and well 
 disputed battle fought there, June 14th, 1645, 
 between the army of Charles I. and the par- 
 liamentary troops, with nearly equal forces 
 on both sides. The king commanded in 
 person, and displayed all the conduct of a 
 prudent general and stout soldier. Fairfax 
 and Skippon were his opponents ; and Crom- 
 well behaved with his usual prudence and 
 gallantry. The royal infantry were entirely 
 discomfited; and though the king cried 
 aloud to the cavalry, “ One charge more and 
 we recover the day ! ” they could not be pre- 
 vailed on to renew the combat, and the king 
 was obliged to quit the field, losing all his 
 cannon and baggage, and 5,000 prisoners. 
 The slain on the side of the parliament, how- 
 ever, exceeded those of the king. Among 
 the spoils was found the king’s cabinet, with 
 copies of his letters to the queen. 
 
 NASH, Francis, a brigadier-general in the 
 American Revolution, killed at Germantown 
 in 1777. He was a citizen of North Carolina. 
 
 NASH, Richard, commonly called Beau 
 Nash, was a native of Swansea in "Wales, 
 1674. After a brief life at the bar and in the 
 army, he made pleasure and fashion his busi- 
 ness, and in 1704 was appointed master of 
 ceremonies at Bath, then the great watering- 
 place of England. Here he bore arbitrary 
 sway more than fifty years. When his health 
 failed, and his vivacity and taste fled, his 
 fickle position gave way, and he expired in 
 indigence and neglect in 1761. 
 
 NASSAU, a small duchy of Germany, with 
 an area of 1,736 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 432,039. The boast of Nassau is its 
 wine, — its hock, and the wines of Riidesheim 
 and Johannisberg. Wiesbaden is the chief 
 town. Otho, brother of Conrad I., in the 
 tenth century, is considered the founder of 
 the house of Nassau, which after the death 
 of Henry II. divided into two branches. 
 The dukes of Nassau are descended from 
 the elder branch, and the house of Orange- 
 
 NAS 
 
672 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Nassau, the royal family of Holland, from 
 the younger. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES in modern history. 
 The most important engagements at sea are 
 described separately, as Lepanto, Aboukir, 
 or the Nile, Trafalgar, St. Vincent, Navarino, 
 Sinope, &c. 
 
 897. Fight between English and the Danes, 
 when Alfred defeated 120 ships off the 
 coast of Dorsetshire. 
 
 1389. Eighty French ships taken by the English. 
 1416. The Duke of Bedford took 500 French and 
 3 Genoese vessels. 
 
 1459. The French fleet taken by the Earl of 
 Warwick in the Downs. 
 
 1571. Between the Christian powers and the 
 Turks, in the Gulf of Lepanto, Oct. 
 7th. 
 
 1588- Between the English fleet and the Spanish 
 Armada, July 19th. 
 
 1653- Between Blake and Van Tromp, July 29th. 
 
 The Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and Ad- 
 miral Van Tromp was killed. 
 
 1664- The Duke of York took 130 of the Bor- 
 deaux fleet, Dec. 4th. 
 
 1692- The French fleet entirely defeated, and 
 twenty-one large men-of-war destroyed 
 by the English and Dutch, off Cape La 
 Hogue, May 19th. 
 
 1702. The Vigo fleet taken by the Dutch and 
 English, Oct. 12th. 
 
 1704. The French are beaten by the English, off 
 Malaga, and entirely relinquish to them 
 .the dominion of the sea, Aug. 24th. 
 1779. Paul Jones captured the British frigate 
 Serapis, Sept. 23d. 
 
 1782. Admiral Rodney defeated the French go- 
 ing to attack Jamaica, April 12th. 
 
 1794. Lord Howe totally defeated the French 
 fleet off Ushant, June 1st. 
 
 1797. The Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St. 
 
 Vincent, by Sir J. Jervis, Feb. 14th. 
 
 The Dutch fleet defeated by Admiral Dun- 
 can on the coast of Holland, at Cam- 
 perdown, Oct. 11th. 
 
 1798. The famous battle of Aboukir, or the Nile, 
 
 The French fleet of 17 ships totally 
 defeated by Nelson, Aug. 1st. 
 
 1801. The Danish fleet of 23 sail taken by Lord 
 Nelson off Copenhagen, April 2d. 
 
 1804. Stephen Decatur succeeded in obtaining 
 
 possession of the frigate Philadelphia 
 from the harbor of Tripoli. He then set 
 fire to her; twenty of the enemy were 
 destroyed. Lieutenant Decatur did not 
 lose a man. The same year in August 
 and September, Commodore Preble 
 made several famous attacks upon the 
 town, fortress, and naval forces of 
 Tripoli. 
 
 1805. French and Spanish fleets totally defeated 
 
 off Cape Trafalgar, and Lord Nelson 
 was killed in the action, Oct. 21st. 
 
 1811. Rencontre between the British sloop of 
 war Little Belt, and the United States 
 
 frigate President, Commodore Rodgers, 
 May 16 th. 
 
 1812. The British sloop of war Alert taken by 
 
 the United States frigate Essex, Cap- 
 tain Porter, Aug. 13th. 
 
 The British frigate Guerriere taken by the 
 United States frigate Constitution, 
 Captain Hull, Aug. 19th. 
 
 The British brig Frolic, by the United 
 States sloop Wasp, Captain Jones; 
 same day, the Wasp and Frolic were 
 captured by the British 74 Poictiers, 
 Captain Beresford, Oct. 18th. 
 
 British frigate Macedonian captured by 
 the frigate United States, Commodore 
 Decatur, Oct. 25th. 
 
 British frigate Java captured by the 
 United States frigate Constitution, Cap- 
 tain Bainbridge, Dec. 29th. 
 
 1813. Peacock, British sloop of war, captured by 
 
 the United States sloop of war Hornet; 
 the Peacock sunk with part of her 
 crew ; Feb. 24th. 
 
 United States frigate Chesapeake captured 
 by the British frigate Shannon ; the gal- 
 lant commander of the Chesapeake, 
 James Lawrence, fell; June 1st. 
 
 United States armed vessels Growler and 
 Eagle taken, after a smart action, by 
 the British gun-boats, June 3d. 
 
 United States sloop of war Argus taken 
 by the British sloop of war Pelican, 
 Aug. 14th. 
 
 British brig Boxer taken by the United 
 States brig Enterprise, Sept. 4th. 
 
 Commodore Oliver H. Perry, in a gallant 
 action of the United States squadron 
 under his command, captured the British 
 fleet on Lake Erie, Sept. 13th. 
 
 1814. The United States frigate Essex taken by 
 
 the British frigate Phoebe and sloop of 
 war Cherub, after a desperate and san- 
 guinary defense, March 28th. 
 
 United States sloop of war Frolic taken 
 by a British squadron, April 21st. 
 
 British brig Epervier taken by the United 
 States brig Peacock, April 29th. 
 
 British sloop of war Reindeer taken by the 
 U. S. sloop of war Wasp, June 28th. 
 
 McDonough’s victory over the British 
 squadron on Lake Champlain, Aug. 
 11th. 
 
 1815. United States frigate President, Decatur 
 
 commander, captured by a British 
 squadron, consisting of the Endymion, 
 Tenedos, and Pomona frigates, and the 
 Majestic razee ; Decatur, after being 
 captured, refused indignantly to deliver 
 his sword to any other than the com- 
 mander of the squadron ; Jan. 15. 
 
 The British ships Cyane and Levant taken 
 bv the United States frigate Constitu- 
 tion, Feb. 20. 
 
 The United States ship Hornet captures 
 the British ship Penguin, March 23d. 
 
 1831-4. (For the principal naval actions of the 
 rebellion, see Chronology, end book.) 
 
 NAV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 573 
 
 NAVARINO, or Neocastro, a small town 
 and fortress on the south-west coast of the 
 Morea, with a large harbor. In 1715 it was 
 in the hands of the Venetians, who fortified it 
 against the Turks. Here, Oct. 20th, 1827, 
 the combined Russian, French, and English 
 fleet, commanded by Admiral Coarington, 
 defeated the Turco-Egyptian fleet after a 
 warm engagement. The battle of Navarino 
 caused the independence of Greece, but almost 
 annihilated the naval power of Turkey. 
 
 NAXOS, now Naxia, in very ancient times 
 Dia and Strovgyle , the largest island of the 
 Cyclades, contains 169 square miles, and 
 
 20.000 inhabitants. The Naxians were an- 
 ciently governed by kings, but they after- 
 ward exchanged this form of government for 
 a republic, and enjoyed their liberty till the 
 age of Pisistratus, who appointed a tyrant 
 over them. During the Peloponnesian war> 
 they supported the interest ot Athens. The 
 capital was also called Naxos ; and near it, 
 n. c 377, the Lacedaemonians were defeated 
 by Chabrias. 
 
 N AYLER, James, an enthusiastic and ex- 
 travagant convert to Quakerism, born in 
 1616. lie was sentenced by parliament to 
 be whipped, branded, and bored in the 
 tongue with a hot iron, and imprisoned for 
 life for blasphemy, lie died in 1G66. 
 
 NEANDER, Joiiann Augustus, the cel- 
 ebrated church historian, and famous Protes- 
 tant theologian, was born at Gottingen, 
 Jan. 13th, 1789, and died at Berlin, July 
 13th, 1850. lie was of Jewish descent, but 
 embraced the Christian religion, was publicly 
 baptized, and assumed the name Neander, 
 from two Greek words signifying “a new 
 man.” After a course of study he was made 
 the chief professor of theology at the royal 
 university of Berlin, which post he held to 
 the time of his death. 
 
 NEBRASKA. Nebraska has an area of 
 
 76.000 square miles. It became one of the 
 United States March 1st, 1867, and in 1870 
 contained a population of 122,993. The 
 country consists chiefly of elevated prairies, 
 which are moderately undulating, being high- 
 est in the western portion of the state, and 
 sloping gradually eastward toward the Mis- 
 souri river. The resources of the State are 
 chiefly agricultural and the soil is well adapt- 
 ed to the raising of corn and wheat, large 
 
 quantities of each being brought into the 
 market every year. 
 
 Lincoln is the capital of the state and con- 
 tains 2,441 inhabitants. The chief towns, 
 with the population of each, are as follows : 
 Plattsmoutli, 2-, 448 ; Omaha, 16,083; Ne- 
 braska, 6,050, and Brownsville, 2,386. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR I., or Nabuchodo- 
 nosar, King of Nineveh and Babylon. He 
 is supposed to be the same with Nabopolas- 
 sar, governor of Babylon, who founded the 
 kingdom of Nineveh. Hesent Holophernes 
 against Judea, who was slain by Judith. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR II., King of As- 
 syria and Babylon, is supposed to have been 
 the son of the preceding. He invaded Judea, 
 took Jerusalem, and carried the treasures 
 of the temple, and a number of captives, to 
 Babylon. After this he set up a golden statue 
 in the plain of Dura, which he commanded 
 all his subjects to adore, on pain of being 
 cast into a fiery furnace. Three young 
 Jews, named Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed- 
 nego, refused to submit to this idolatry, and 
 the sentence was executed upon them ; but 
 they were preserved amidst the flames. 
 Having lost his senses, he became an outcast 
 from the society of men, and lived among 
 wild beasts in the forest ; but on recovering 
 his reason, he again ascended the throne, and 
 died, b.c. 562, after reigning forty-three years. 
 
 NECHO, King of Egypt, called in Scrip- 
 ture, Pharaoh Necho, succeeded his father, 
 Psammeticus, b.c. 616. He undertook to 
 make a canal from the Nile to the Arabian 
 gulf, which undertaking he was forced to 
 abandon, after it had cost the lives of 120,000 
 men. Herodotus says that the ships of Necho 
 sailed from the Red Sea, around the coast 
 of Africa, into the Mediterranean ; and re- 
 turned to Egypt, after a voyage of three 
 years. This monarch invaded Assyria, and 
 on his march was attacked by Josiah, King 
 of Judah, who was slain in the battle. The 
 King of Egypt was defeated in his turn by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and obliged to return to 
 his own country, where he died, b.c. 600. 
 
 NECKER, a famous minister of finance in 
 France, was a native of Geneva. He foresaw 
 the storm of the French revolution, and in 
 1790 retired to his native land, where he 
 died in 1804, at the age of seventy-two. He 
 was the father of Madame de Stael. 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 674 
 
 NELSON, Horatio, the greatest of Eng- 
 land’s admirals, was the fourth son of the 
 rector of Burnham Thorpe in Norfolk, where 
 he was born Sept. 29th, 1758. At the age 
 of twelve years he was taken to sea by his 
 maternal uncle, Captain Suckling, of the 
 Kaisonable man-of-war. In 1773, in a voyage 
 undertaken for the discovery of a north-west 
 passage, the young midshipman distinguished 
 himself by his skill, courage, and prompti- 
 tude. Soon after his return he was ap- 
 pointed to a station in the Seahorse, in which 
 he sailed to the East Indies. 
 
 He passed for a lieutenant in 1777, and 
 received his commission as second of the 
 Lowestoff frigate, in which he cruised against 
 the Americans. In 1779 he obtained the 
 rank of post-captain, and was appointed to 
 the command of the Hinchinbrooke, with 
 which he sailed to the West Indies, and 
 while there essentially contributed to the 
 taking of Fort Juan in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 We find him next commanding the Boreas, 
 stationed in the West Indies, having under 
 him the Duke of Clarence (afterward Wil- 
 liam IV.), who was captain of the Pegasus. 
 
 While thus engaged he married Mrs. Nes- 
 bit (the daughter of William Woodward, 
 judge of the island of Nevis), by whom he 
 never had any issue. On the breaking out 
 of the war with France he was nominated 
 to the Agamemnon of sixty-four guns, on 
 board of which he sailed to the Mediterra- 
 nean, and was present at the possession of 
 Toulon. He took part on shore in the at- 
 tempt to wrest Corsica from the French, 
 and was present at the siege of Bastia, where 
 •he served at the batteries with a body of 
 seamen ; as he afterward did at Calvi, and 
 while employed before that place he lost an 
 eye. He. was so active on that station that 
 his name was dreaded throughout the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 He was with Admiral Hotham in the ac- 
 tion with the French fleet, March 15th, 
 1795 ; and the same year he took the island 
 of Elba. In 1796 he was appointed commo- 
 dore on board La Minerve, in which frigate 
 he captured La Sabine, a ship of forty guns. 
 Soon after this he descried the Spanish fleet, 
 and steered with the intelligence to Sir John 
 Jervis off St. Vincent. He had scarcely 
 communicated the news, and shifted his flag 
 
 on board the Captain, seventy-four guns, 
 when the enemy hove in sight. A close 
 action ensued, which terminated in a com- 
 plete victory on the side of the British, who 
 were inferior in numbers. On this occasion 
 Commodore Nelson attacked the Santissima 
 Trinidada, one hundred and thirty-six guns; 
 and afterward he boarded and took the San 
 Nicholas, eighty guns ; whence he proceeded 
 in the same manner to the San Josef, one 
 hundred and twelve guns ; both of which 
 surrendered to him. For his share in this 
 glorious victory, the commodore was honored 
 with the order of the Bath ; and having soon 
 afterward hoisted his flag as rear-admiral 
 of the blue, he was appointed to command 
 the inner squadron at the blockade of Ca- 
 diz. He there made a bold but unsuccessful 
 attempt to bombard the city, heading his men 
 himself. 
 
 The next exploit in which he was engaged 
 was an attempt to get possession of Teneriffe, 
 which was beaten off, the British sustaining 
 severe loss. Admiral Nelson lost his right 
 arm by a cannon shot, and was carried off to 
 the boat on the back of his son-in-law, Cap- 
 tain Nesbit. Some years before Nelson had 
 become intimate with a person on board ship 
 who was officially engaged in writing, which 
 he accomplished with his left hand. Captain 
 Nelson, attentively observing him one day 
 while thus occupied, said, “Parnell, I can 
 not think how you manage to write with 
 your left hand.” The result of this remark 
 was that Nelson was taught to perform the 
 task which had excited his wonder; little 
 dreaming that the disastrous loss of his arm 
 at Teneriffe would leave him no other alter- 
 native in committing his ideas to paper than 
 to write with the left hand. 
 
 The hero now returned to England for the 
 recovery of his health, and received the grant 
 of a pension of £1,000 a j 7 ear. He did not, 
 however, long remain inactive: in 1798 he 
 rejoined Earl St. Vincent in the Mediterra- 
 nean, who, on receiving intelligence of the 
 sailing of Bonaparte from Toulon, detached 
 him with a squadron in pursuit. 
 
 After exploring the coast of Italy, the inde- 
 fatigable commander steered for Alexandria, 
 where to his great mortification not a French 
 ship was to be seen. He then sailed to Sicily, 
 and having taken in a fresh supply of water, 
 
 NEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 575 
 
 and obtained more correct information, re- 
 turned to Alexandria, which he descried 
 Aug. 1st, 1798, at noon. The enemy were 
 discovered in Aboukir Bay, lying at anchor 
 in line of battle; and supported by strong 
 batteries on an island, and strengthened by 
 gun-boats. Notwithstanding this formidable 
 appearance, the British admiral made the 
 signal for battle ; and, by a masterly and 
 bold maneuvre, gave directions for part of his 
 fleet to lead inside the enemy, who were thus 
 exposed between two fires. The contest was 
 hot and bloody. Several of the French ships 
 were soon dismasted; and, at last the admi- 
 ral’s ship L’ Orient, one hundred and twenty 
 guns, took fire, and blew up. The firing, 
 however, continued, but by the dawn of day 
 only two sail of the line were discovered with 
 their colors flying, all the rest having struck. 
 For this victory he received a peerage, by 
 the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. 
 
 Soon after this he sailed for Sicily, and 
 from thence to Naples, where he quelled a 
 rebellion, and restored the king. It was 
 at this time that he formed his unhappy 
 intimacy with Lady Hamilton. Upon return- 
 ing to England, he was received with enthu- 
 siastic joy. A confederacy of the northern 
 powers having alarmed the government, a 
 fleet was fitted out, the command of which 
 was given to Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, 
 assisted by Lord Nelson. On their arrival 
 off the Cattegat, and being refused a passage, 
 Lord Nelson offered his services for conduct- 
 ing the attack on the Danish force which 
 was stationed to oppose an entrance. This 
 being accepted, he shifted his flag to the Ele- 
 phant, and passed the Sound with little loss. 
 On the 2d of April the action commenced at 
 ten o’clock, and after a sharp conflict -seven- 
 teen sail of the Danes were sunk, burnt, or 
 taken. A negotiation was then entered into 
 between his lordship and the crown prince ; 
 in consequence of which the admiral went 
 ashore, and an armistice was settled. 
 
 He returned to England, and was created 
 a viscount. In August, 1801, he bombarded 
 the enemy’s flotilla of gun-boats at Boulogne, 
 but without any material effect. A treaty 
 suddenly taking place, his lordship retired, 
 but hostilities recommencing he sailed for 
 the Mediterranean, and in March, 1803, took 
 the command of that station on board the 
 
 Victory. Notwithstanding all his vigilance, 
 the French fleet escaped from Toulon, and 
 was joined by the Spanish fleet off Cadiz ; 
 of which being apprised, he pursued them 
 to the West Indies with a far inferior force, 
 in unremitting but unsuccessful chase. The 
 combined squadrons, struck with terror, re- 
 turned without effecting anything; and, after 
 a partial action with Sir Robert Calder off 
 Ferrol, re-entered Cadiz. Admiral Nelson 
 returned to England, but soon set sail to join 
 his fleet off Cadiz. 
 
 The French under Admiral Villeneuve, and 
 the Spaniards under Gravina, ventured out 
 with a number of troops on board, Oct. 19th, 
 1805, and on the 21st, about noon, the great 
 action began off Cape Trafalgar. Nelson’s sig- 
 nal to his fleet just before the fight began, was 
 the sentence, “England expects every man 
 to do his duty.” He ordered his ship the 
 Victory to be carried alongside his old antago- 
 nist, the Santissima Trinidada, where he was 
 exposed to a severe fire of musketry ; and, 
 not having the precaution to cover his coat, 
 which was decorated with his star, and other 
 badges of distinction, he became an object 
 for the riflemen placed purposely in the tops 
 of the Bucentaur, which lay on his quarter. 
 A shot from one of these entered just below 
 his shoulder, of which he died in about two 
 hours. He survived long enough that victory 
 was completely won, and his last words were, 
 “ Thank God, I have done my duty.” In 
 this action the enemy’s force consisted of 
 thirty-three ships of the line, several of ex- 
 traordinary magnitude, and seven frigates ; 
 while the British only had twenty-seven, and 
 five frigates. After the fall of Lord Nelson* 
 the command devolved on Admiral Colling- 
 wood, by whose bravery and skill a complete 
 victory was obtained. The remains of Lord 
 Nelson were interred with great pomp in St. 
 Paul’s cathedral, the 9th of January follow- 
 ing. 
 
 NELSON, Thomas, Jr., one of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 at York, Va., Dec. 26th, 1738. He was sent 
 to England at an early age, and completed 
 an excellent education at the university of 
 Cambridge. Returning to Virginia in 1761, 
 he soon entered into political life, and in 
 1775 was chosen a member of Congress; a 
 post w^iich his delicate health compelled him 
 
 NEL 
 
576 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to resign in 1777. He was chosen for 1779 
 and 1780, and in 1781 succeeded Jefferson as 
 governor of Virginia, He held a commission 
 as brigadier-general in the Virginia militia, 
 was active in the taking of Cornwallis, and 
 his services were particularly noticed by 
 Washington in the general orders issued after 
 the capture of Yorktown. He died Jan. 4th, 
 1789. 
 
 NEPOS, Cornelius, a Latin historian, who 
 flourished in the time of Julius Caesar. 
 
 NEPTUNE, in ancient mythology, the god 
 of the sea, the brother of Jupiter, from whom 
 he derived his sovereignty. He was gener- 
 ally represented as a bearded old gentleman, 
 with a trident in his hand, seated in a huge 
 marine shell which was drawn over the wa- 
 ters by sea-horses. 
 
 NERO, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
 after his adoption called Claudius Drusus, 
 the son of Caius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and 
 Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, was 
 born at Antium, a.d. 37. After the marriage 
 of his mother with her uncle, the Emperor 
 Claudius, he was adopted by the emperor, 
 a.d. 50, wedded his daughter Octavia, and 
 four years after succeeded him on the throne, 
 Agrippina poisoning her husband to make 
 room for him. The beginning of his reign 
 was marked by acts of the greatest kindness 
 and condescension, by affability, complais- 
 ance, and popularity. The object of his 
 administration seemed to be the good of his 
 people ; and when he was desired to sign his 
 name to a list of malefactors that were to be 
 executed, he exclaimed, “ I wish to heaven I 
 could not write.” He was a professed enemy 
 •to flattery, and when the senate had liberally 
 commended the wisdom of government, Nero 
 desired them to keep their praises till he 
 deserved them. These promising virtues 
 were soon discovered to be artificial, and 
 Nero displayed the propensities of his nature. 
 He delivered himself from the sway of his 
 wretched mother, and at last ordered her to 
 be assassinated. 
 
 This unnatural act of barbarity might as- 
 tonish some of the Romans, but Nero had his 
 devoted adherents ; and when he declared 
 that he had taken away his mother’s life to 
 save himself from ruin, the senate applauded 
 his measures, and the people signified their 
 approbation. Many of his courtiers shared 
 
 the unhappy fate of Agrippina, and Nero 
 sacrificed to his fury or caprice all such as 
 obstructed his pleasure. He sacrificed to 
 his wantonness his wife Octavia, and the 
 celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan, Petro- 
 nius, &c. The Christians also did not escape 
 his barbarity. 
 
 He had heard of the burning of Troy, and 
 as he wished to renew that dismal scene, he 
 caused Rome to be set on fire in different 
 places. The conflagration became soon uni- 
 versal, and during nine successive days the 
 fire was unextinguished. All was desola- 
 tion ; nothing was heard but the lamentations 
 of mothers whose children had perished in 
 the flames, the groans of the dying, and the 
 continual fall of palaces and buildings. Nero 
 was the only one who enjoyed the general 
 consternation. He placed himself on the top 
 of a high tower, and he sang on his lyre the 
 destruction of Troy, a dreadful scene which 
 his barbarity had realized before his eyes. 
 He attempted to avert the public odium from 
 his head, by a feigned commiseration of the 
 miseries of his subjects, and attributing the 
 incendiarism to the Christians. He began to 
 repair the streets and the public buildings at 
 his own expense. He built himself a cele- 
 brated palace, which was profusely adorned 
 with gold, and precious stones, and with 
 whatever was rare and exquisite. The en- 
 trance of this edifice could admit a large 
 colossus of the emperor one hundred and 
 twenty feet high ; the galleries were each a 
 mile long ; and the whole was covered with 
 gold. The roofs of the dining-halls repre- 
 sented the firmament in motion as well as in 
 figure, and continually turned round night 
 and day, showering down all sorts of per- 
 fumes and sweet waters. When this grand 
 edifice, which occupied a great part of the 
 city, was finished, Nero said that now he 
 could lodge like a man. His profusion was 
 not less remarkable in all his other actions. 
 When he went a fishing, his nets were made 
 with gold and silk. He never appeared twice 
 in the same garment, and when he undertook 
 a voyage, there were thousands of servants 
 to take care of his wardrobe. 
 
 This continuation of debauchery and ex- 
 travagance at last roused the resentment of 
 the people. Many conspiracies were formed 
 against the emperor, but they were generally 
 
 NER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 577 
 
 discovered, and such as were accessory suf- 
 fered the greatest punishments. The most 
 dangerpus conspiracy against Nero’s life, was 
 that of Piso, from which he was delivered 
 by the confession of a slave. The conspiracy 
 of Galba proved more successful ; and the 
 conspirator, when he was informed that his 
 plot was known to Nero, declared himself 
 emperor. The unpopularity of Nero favored 
 his cause ; he was acknowledged by all the 
 Roman empire, and the senate condemned the 
 tj r rant that sat on the throne to be dragged 
 naked through the streets of Rome, and 
 whipped to death, and afterward to be thrown 
 down from the Tarpeian rock like the mean- 
 est malefactor. This, however, was not done, 
 Nero, by a voluntary death, having prevented 
 the execution of the sentence. He killed 
 himself, a.d. 68, in the thirty-second year of 
 his age, after a reign of thirteen years and 
 eight months. 
 
 Rome was filled with acclamations at the 
 intelligence, and the citizens, more strongly 
 to indicate their joy, wore such caps as were 
 generally used by slaves who had received 
 their freedom. Their vengeance was not only 
 exercised against the statues of the deceased 
 tyrant, but his friends were the objects of the 
 public resentment, and many were crushed to 
 pieces in such a violent manner, that one of 
 the senators, amid the universal joy, said that 
 he was afraid they should soon have cause to 
 wish for Nero. Though his death seemed to 
 be the source of universal gladness, yet many 
 of his favorites lamented his fall, and were 
 grieved to see that their pleasures and amuse- 
 ments were stopped by the death of the patron 
 of debauchery and extravagance. Even the 
 Parthian king sent ambassadors to Rome to 
 condole with the Romans, and to beg that they 
 would honor and revere the memory of Nero. 
 His statues were also crowned with garlands 
 of flowers, and many believed that he was not 
 dead, but that he would soon make his ap- 
 pearance, and take a due vengeance upon his 
 enemies. 
 
 NERO, Claudius, a Roman general sent 
 into Spain to succeed the two Scipios. He 
 suffered himself to be imposed upon by As- 
 drubal, and was soon after succeeded by young 
 Scipio. He was afterward made consul, and 
 intercepted Asdrubal, who was passing from 
 Spain into Italy with a large re-enforcement 
 
 37 
 
 for his brother Annibal. An engagement 
 was fought near the river Metaurus, in which 
 56,000 of the Carthaginians were left on the 
 field of battle, and great numbers taken pris- 
 oners, 207 b.c. 
 
 NERVA COCCEIUS, a Roman emperor 
 after the death of Domitian, a.d. 96. He 
 rendered himself popular by his mildness, his 
 generosity, and the active part he took in the 
 management of affairs. He suffered no stat- 
 ues to be raised to his honor, and he applied 
 to the use of the government all the gold and 
 silver statues which flattery had erected to 
 his predecessor. In his civil character he 
 was the pattern of good manners, of sobriety, 
 and temperance. He made a solemn declara- 
 tion that no senator should suffer death during 
 his reign ; and this he observed with such 
 sanctity that when two members of the senate 
 had conspired against his life, he was satisfied 
 to tell them that he was informed of their 
 wicked machinations. He also conducted 
 them to the public spectacles, and seated him- 
 self between them, and, when a sword was 
 offered to him, according to the usual custom, 
 he desired the conspirators to try it upon his 
 body. Such goodness of heart, such confi- 
 dence in the self-conviction of the human 
 mind, and such reliance upon the consequence 
 of his lenity and indulgence, conciliated the 
 affection of all his subjects. Yet, as envy and 
 danger are the constant companions of great- 
 ness, the praetorian guards at last mutinied, 
 and Nerva nearly yielded to their fury. He 
 uncovered his aged neck in the presence of 
 the incensed soldiery, and bade them wreak 
 their vengeance upon him, provided they 
 spared the life of those to whom he was in- r 
 debted for the empire, tind whom his honor 
 commanded him to defend. His seeming sub- 
 mission was unavailing, and he was at last 
 obliged to surrender to the fury of his soldiers, 
 some of his friends and supporters. The in- 
 firmities of his age, and his natural timidity, 
 at last obliged him to provide himself against 
 any future mutiny or tumult, by choosing a 
 worthy successor. He had many friends and 
 relations, but he did not consider the aggran- 
 dizement of his family, and he chose Trajan, 
 a man of whose virtues and greatness of mind 
 he was fully convinced. This voluntary 
 choice was approved by the acclamations of 
 the people; and the wisdom and prudence 
 
 NER 
 
 > 
 
578 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 which marked the reign of Trajan showed how 
 discerning was the judgment and how affec- 
 tionate were the intentions of Nerva for the 
 good of Rome. He died a.d. 98, in his sev- 
 enty-second year, and his successor showed 
 his respect for his merit and his character by 
 raising him altars and temples in Rome and 
 in the provinces, and by ranking him in the 
 number of the gods. Nerva was the first 
 Roman emperor who was of foreign extraction, 
 his father being a native of Crete. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, the kingdom of the, often 
 called Holland, consists of the territory of the 
 former republic of the Seven United Provinces, 
 the duchy of Limburg, and the grand-duchy 
 of Luxemburg, which the King of the Nether- 
 lands possesses, with the title of grand-duke, 
 as a part of the German confederation. The 
 area of the entire kingdom is 18,558 square 
 miles, and it has 3,618,459 inhabitants. The 
 Dutch have also extensive colonies in the East 
 Indies, and some possessions in the West 
 Indies. This country, fitly called the Low- 
 lands, has by untiring labor been rescued from 
 the sea, against whose inroads it is guarded 
 by immense dikes. Large tracts once arid 
 deserts, and others once slimy marshes, have 
 been transformed into fertile pastures and 
 productive fields. Canals traverse the coun- 
 try in every direction. The reclaimed lands 
 are called ‘polders,’ and are often much below 
 the level of the sea, or the adjacent rivers. 
 They are first diked about, and then drained 
 by pumps worked by windmills or steam-en- 
 gines, lifting the water to the nearest river or 
 canal. It is a strange sight to see luxuriant 
 corn and rich grass growing, and fat cattle 
 grazing, and fine sheep pastured, where water 
 would naturally lie ; while the large sails of 
 the canal barges glide by high above dikes, 
 houses, and trees. 
 
 The principal manufactures are linen, wool- 
 ens, silks, leather, refined sugar, .tobacco- 
 pipes, gin (distilled in vast quantities at 
 Schiedam and Delft), cottons, and jewelry. 
 In the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 Holland was the first commercial state and 
 the greatest maritime power in the world. 
 Of late its commerce has revived, though not 
 to the former magnitude. Calvinism is the 
 established religion, but there are many Cath- 
 olics. Education is very generally diffused 
 throughout the kingdom. The great univer- 
 
 sities are those of Leyden, Utrecht, and Gro- 
 ningen. The government is a hereditary 
 male monarchy. The legislative power is 
 vested in the king, and the states-general, a 
 body consisting of two chambers ; the mem- 
 bers of the first of which are appointed for life 
 by the king ; those of the second are chosen 
 by the assemblies of the provinces. The 
 kingdom is divided into the provinces of North 
 Brabant, Guelderland, North Holland, South 
 Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Over- 
 yssel, Groningen, Drenthe, and Limburg. 
 
 The Hague (’« Gravenhage ), the capital of 
 the kingdom, is situated near the coast, a 
 stately town, stirred by no commerce or man- 
 ufactures; population, 64,000. Amsterdam, 
 once the commercial mistress of the world, at 
 the commencement of the thirteenth century 
 was nothing more than an insignificant fishing 
 village. It was formerly called Amstelre- 
 damme, the dam or dike of the Amstel. It is 
 situated at the Amstel’s influx into the arm 
 of the sea called the Y, forming a capacious 
 port, two leagues from' the Zuyder Zee. The 
 city stands upon a marshy soil, in consequence 
 of which the buildings are supported on oaken 
 piles ; w T hence the jest of Erasmus, who said 
 that in his country the people lived on the 
 tops of trees. 
 
 In 1490 Mary of Burgundy encompassed 
 the city w r ith a brick wall, to protect it from 
 the incursions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, 
 who were frequently involved in quarrels with 
 the Hollanders. Soon after the erection of 
 this wall, the city was burnt to the ground. 
 In 1512 it was besieged by the people of 
 Guelderland, who, finding themselves baffled 
 in their attempt to take the city, fired the 
 vessels in the harbor. The scene presented 
 by the burning ships was awfully grand ; the 
 waters appeared like a sea of molten gold, over 
 which a thousand volcanoes poured their vol- 
 umes of fire, while the roaring of the confla- 
 gration was like the voice of a tempest. The 
 Anabaptists, in 1512 and 1525, filled the city 
 with commotion and bloodshed. An insur- 
 gent chief, Van Geelen, headed a conspiracy 
 which had for its object the subversion of the 
 magistracy of Amsterda m, and the assumption 
 of power by the rebels. Van Geelen fixed 
 his head-quarters in the town house, where 
 his fanatical troops displayed their banners, 
 and gave every evidence that they considered 
 
 NET 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 579 
 
 their victory certain. But the burghers at- 
 tacked them with great spirit and resolution, 
 and the fanatics being surrounded, were put 
 to death to a man. 
 
 In 1578 Amsterdam, after a siege of ten 
 months, capitulated to the Hollanders, stipu- 
 lating that the Roman Catholics should be 
 allowed the free observance of their religious 
 rites. The Protestants, however, did not 
 maintain the agreement, but drove the Cath- 
 olics from the city, destroying the altars and 
 the images. From that time, persons of all 
 sects and nations came to the city, raising it 
 to a high rank, and rendering it famous for 
 ODulence and industry. It snatched the com- 
 merce of Antwerp ; its merchants conquered 
 kingdoms and islands in Asia; the costly 
 spices of the East were dealt to Europe from 
 its warehouses, and left the fragrance of 
 wealth; the gold, the pearls, and the dia- 
 monds of the Indies floated hither; Amster- 
 dam became the centre of the exchanges, 
 funds, and banking transactions of the world ; 
 till at the close of the eighteenth century its 
 unparalleled prosperity received a death-blow 
 through the French revolution, and London 
 bore away the palm. Amsterdam has still 
 important manufactures and trade, but it is 
 now surpassed by Rotterdam. 
 
 The aspect of Amsterdam has not changed 
 in a century. It is intersected by numerous 
 canals, which divide the city into islands, be- 
 tween which are built numerous bridges, of 
 stone or wood. Of great commercial impor- 
 tance, these canals give the streets through 
 which they pass a picturesque and pleasant 
 appearance, filling the air with freshness, and 
 mirroring the long rows of trees and houses 
 which line their banks. Complaints, however, 
 are made of the effluvia arising from them in 
 calm and warm weather. Another singular 
 feature in the scenery of Amsterdam is the 
 inclosure of the city on the side of the haven, 
 by means of piles, which are driven into the 
 ground, and connected with immense horizon- 
 tal beams, affording openings sufficiently am- 
 ple for the ingress and egress of ships. These 
 are closed every evening. The port is a mile 
 and a half long, and towering masts attract 
 the eye, and give a lively appearance to the 
 scene. The new canal from Amsterdam to 
 Niewdiep, opposite the Texel, is an immense 
 Work. The canal is fifty miles and a half long, 
 
 and so broad as to admit of one frigate passing 
 another. This has removed the necessity of 
 unloading large vessels, which must be done 
 before they can pass through the harbor. 
 
 The streets of Amsterdam, although narrow, 
 are well paved, and exhibit that neatness 
 which is peculiar to the Dutch, and which is 
 equally conspicuous in their walks and in 
 their smart brick or stone buildings. The 
 population is estimated at more than 212,000 
 persons. 
 
 The New Church, dedicated to St. Catha- 
 rine, is said to have been begun in 1408, or 
 1414, and to have occupied a century in its 
 erection. The interior is adorned with sculp- 
 ture, and the paintings on the glass windows 
 are of the richest description. The superb 
 organ has been celebrated throughout the 
 world. The church contains a marble monu- 
 ment, erected to the memory of Admiral de 
 Ruyter. The Stadthouse, now a royal palace, 
 is a beautiful building, erected in 1648. The 
 whole of this imposing edifice exhibits proofs 
 of the characteristic neatness and industry of 
 the Dutch. It is said to have a foundation of 
 13,695 piles. The Beurs, or Exchange, which 
 is built of free-stone, stands upon five arches 
 over the Amstel; the interior galleries rest 
 upon twenty-six marble columns. The prin- 
 cipal houses of correction are the Rasphuis 
 and the Spinhuis. In the former offenders 
 were, in old times, employed sawing and rasp- 
 ing Brazil-wood. Those who obstinately re- 
 fused to work were carried into a cellar into 
 which water was flowing, and, unless they 
 worked briskly at the pump, they were in 
 danger of drowning. In the spin-house women 
 were compelled to spin wool, flax, and hemp. 
 
 Rotterdam, on the right bank of the Maas, 
 about twenty miles from its mouth, is now 
 the most commercial town in Holland ; popu- 
 lation 90,000. Haarlem, or Haerlem, on the 
 river Spaaren, about four miles from the sea, 
 contains many fine public edifices and some 
 scientific institutions, is a thriving place, and 
 has 24,000 inhabitants. The organ of the 
 cathedral of St. Bavon at Haarlem, the largest 
 church in Holland, is famous for its size. In 
 the southern suburb of Haarlem are the flow- 
 er-gardens whence, when tulips and hyacinths 
 were the rage, all Europe was supplied. 
 
 The earliest accounts of the Netherlands 
 are from the Romans, by whom all the south- 
 
 NET 
 
5S0 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ern and central part (called Belgia) was kept 
 in subjection till the decline of their empire in 
 the fifth century. North of the Rhine dwelt 
 the Batavi, who were also subjugated by 
 Rome. The country was incorporated with 
 the duchy of Burgundy at the close of the 
 fourteenth century. Mary of Burgundy, the 
 only daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, 
 the last duke, married Maximilian, and the 
 Netherlands came under the dominion of the 
 house of Austria. Charles V. united the sev- 
 enteen provinces with Spain ; but the bigotry 
 of his son Philip II. produced the separation 
 of the Dutch provinces, and great dissension 
 and distress in the others. The Spanish tyr- 
 anny being insupportable, the seven provinces- 
 revolted, and formed the republic called the 
 United Provinces, by the union of Utrecht, 
 1579. These were Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
 Guelderland, Friesland, Overyssel, and Gro- 
 ningen. The others remained subject to 
 Spain. 
 
 The ten southern provinces remained under 
 the Spanish crown until the middle of the sev- 
 enteenth century, when arduous exertions 
 were made by Conde and Turenne to add 
 them to the dominions of Louis XIV. The 
 quadruple alliance, concluded at the Hague 
 in 1668, however, put a stop to their prog- 
 ress, but the wars from 1672 to 1679, and 
 1689 to 1697, were prosecuted chiefly for the 
 Netherlands. At length, in 1702, Louis ob- 
 tained them, but the French being defeated 
 by the Duke of Marlborough at the battle of 
 Ramillies, in 1706, the southern provinces 
 were brought under the power of the allies, 
 and assigned to Austria at the peace of 
 Utrecht. A peace ensued, until the war of 
 1741 was transferred to the Netherlands, and 
 the French under Marshal Saxe recovered 
 them. Bergen-op-Zoom was captured by the 
 French in September, 1747, and Maestricht in 
 the following year, when the successes of the 
 British navy, and the persevering aspect of 
 the coalition, led to the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle in 1748, and the southern Netherlands 
 thus became restored to Austria. By the 
 treachery of Austria in 1756 they were once 
 more nearly ceded to France, but the scheme 
 was not carried into effect. In the campaign 
 of 1792, Austria again lost the Netherlands, 
 and though recovered in 1793, they again 
 passed ovor to France in 1794. The hope of 
 
 recovering them was the cause of the coali- 
 tions of 1799 and 1805, both baffled in their 
 object. The disasters of the French army in 
 Russia in 1812, at length opened the long 
 wished for prospect. In 1813 Germany 
 occupied all the exertions of the allies, but in 
 1814 the Netherlands were detached by a 
 consequence of the revolution by which the 
 Bourbons was restored. 
 
 Meantime the republic of Holland, or the 
 United Provinces, attained great maritime 
 power, contended with England, and partici- 
 pated in the wars against Louis XIV. Re- 
 publican jealousy of the desire of the house 
 of Orange to increase its might, often con- 
 vulsed the land with intestine struggles. In 
 1747 the house of Orange triumphed, and 
 the office of stadtholder, or captain-general 
 of all the provinces, was made a hereditary 
 dignity in it. In 1794 the republican party, 
 cheered by the approach of the victorious 
 armies of France, rose against the stadtholder. 
 Pichegru aided them, and the stadtholder 
 fled. The provinces were organized as the 
 Batavian republic. England, at that time, 
 played the part of Don Quixote, ready to 
 break a lance in behalf of all princes kicked 
 from their thrones. The commerce of Hol- 
 land was sadly shattered in the war, and for 
 a time she lost her colonies. Napoleon made 
 his brother Louis her king. This moody 
 scholar studied the welfare of the country till 
 he abdicated. Holland was then incorporated 
 with the French empire. In 1813 the Dutch, 
 encouraged by the disasters of Napoleon, 
 revolted, and recalled the Prince of Orange. 
 The British cabinet accomplished the union 
 of all the seventeen provinces after a separa- 
 tion of two hundred years, and their erec- 
 tion into an independent state, under the 
 Prince of Orange, in 1815. The prince, 
 therefore, assumed the title of King of the 
 Netherlands, and Grand-Duke of Luxem- 
 burg. In 1830 the Belgians broke from his 
 rule and became an independent state. [See 
 Belgium.] 
 
 KINGS OF THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 1815. William, Prince of Orange; abdicated in 
 favor of his son, Oct. 7th, 1840; died 
 Dec. 1 2th, 1843. 
 
 1840. William II., born Dec. 6th, 1792; died 
 March 17 th, 1849. 
 
 1849. William III., born Feb. 19th, 1817. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 581 
 
 NEVADA. Nevada has an area of 112,- 
 600 square miles, and had in 1870 a popula- 
 tion of 42,491. It lies in a mountainous 
 portion of the United States, being bounded 
 by the Sierra Nevada mountains on the west 
 and the Humboldt on the east. In its east- 
 ern portion is the great Interior Basin which 
 extends into Utah. Gold and silver are 
 found in large quantities throughout the state, 
 and its mineral resources are extensive. 
 
 The governor of the state is elected for 
 four years. The members of the legislature 
 are chosdh, the senators for four and the 
 representatives for two years. Suffrage is 
 bestowed upon all male citizens of the United 
 States twenty-one years of age, after six 
 months residence. The judicial power of 
 the state is vested in the supreme court, dis- 
 trict courts, justices of the peace ; and the 
 legislature may establish courts in incorpo- 
 rated towns and cities for municipal purposes 
 only. The supreme court has three justices 
 who hold office for six years. The state 
 has a uniform system of public schools and a 
 superintendent of public instruction. 
 
 Nevada was admitted to the Union in 1864, 
 Its capital is Carson City, which has a popu- 
 lation of 8,042. The principal towns are 
 Austin, Reno, Gold Hill, and Virginia. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK., a British province 
 of North America; population 319,398. In 
 the interior of the country the soil is good, 
 and the uplands are well timbered. Grass 
 and. grain are the principal agricultural pro- 
 ductions, and the main exports are timber and 
 fish. The river St. Johns is the principal 
 str eam. Frederickton, the capital, has 6,000 
 
 that of the parliament under Essex. A sec- 
 ond, equally dubious in result, was fought 
 here, Oct. 27th, 1644. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, a large island in 
 the North Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, discovered by Sebas- 
 tian Cabot in 1497. The population is esti- 
 mated at about 130,000. The face of the 
 country is rugged and the climate is cold and 
 dreary. The fisheries off the banks employ 
 more than 100,000 men. St. John’s, the cap- 
 ital, contains about 30,000 inhabitants. 
 
 NEW GRENADA, formerly a viceroyalty 
 of South America, and more recently a por- 
 tion of Colombia, is now a separate repub- 
 lic. Together with Venezuela, it was for- 
 merly called Terra Firma. It has an area of 
 
 380.000 square miles, and a population of 
 
 9.363.000 souls. The mountains are rich in 
 the precious metals. 
 
 Santa Fe de Bogota is the capital. The 
 population has been variously estimated at 
 from 30,000 to 60,000. It lies on an elevated 
 plain to the east of the Andes, 8,000 feet 
 above the sea, and contains, besides a superb 
 cathedral, many fine buildings. The lands 
 in the environs yield two harvests annually. 
 Bogota was founded in 1538. In the vicinity 
 is the cataract of Tequendama, formed by the 
 river Bogota, as it descends from its native 
 plain to mingle with the current of the Mag- 
 delena. Here, too, is the bridge of Icon- 
 onzo, a natural arch over a chasm 360 feet 
 deep, at the bottom of which flows a rapid 
 torrent, which would otherwise have been im- 
 passable. The bridge appears to have been 
 formed by three masses of rock detached from 
 
 inhabitants. St. John, the principal town, has j their original bed, and thrown together by an 
 a population of 35,000. The province was 1 earthquake, 
 set off from Nova Scotia in 1785. Several forty broad, 
 thousand British soldiers settled here, after 
 
 It is about fifty feet long, and 
 
 the close of the American Revolution. In 
 
 The ancient route across the isthmus be- 
 tween the oceans, was from Panama to Porto 
 
 October, 1825, a tract 
 
 extending 
 
 above a Bello. These places bore a great name in the 
 
 hundred miles along the Miramichi River, was days when the treasure of Peru passed this 
 
 swept by a great conflagration ; a violent way to Spain. But when the wealth of the 
 wind drove the flames through the forest ; ! mines diminished, and the bullion was borne 
 the towns of Douglas and Newcastle were ; around Cape Horn, their consequence declined 
 
 wholly consumed, many lives were lost, and 
 a vast amount of property was destroyed. 
 
 NEWBURY, Battle of, fought despe- 
 rately, but uncertain in its issue, Sept. 20th, 
 1643, between the army of Charles I., and 
 
 When the gold seekers began to hurry over 
 the isthmus on their way to California, Pan- 
 ama revived ; it became a depot for steamers ; 
 a railway connects it with the Atlantic shore 
 at Aspinwall on Navy Bay. 
 
 NEW. 
 
582 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE is one of the New 
 England states, having an area of 8,030 
 square mii.es, and a population in 1870 of 
 318,300. It has a sea-coast of only eighteen 
 miles, behind which there is a narrow, level 
 tract of twenty -five or thirty miles in width : 
 beyond, the hills increase in height until 
 they swell into the lofty grandeur of the 
 White Mountains, whose snow-white sum- 
 mits have been seen in a clear day more than 
 fifty miles out at sea, skirting the horizon 
 like a silvery cloud. The highest is Mt. 
 Washington, 6,428 feet above the level of the 
 ocean. New Hampshire is well watered ; 
 the Connecticut washes its western border; 
 and fine mill streams abound. There are 
 quite a number of lakes, of which the pic- 
 turesque and pellucid Winnipiseogee (‘ Smile 
 of the Great Spirit ’), studded with more than 
 three hundred isles, is the greatest. The bulk 
 of the population of New Hampshire reside in 
 the southern part "much of the north being un- 
 improved, and a large portion of it too sterile 
 and rugged for cultivation. The occupation 
 of the people is chiefly agricultural, and 
 though their hilly farms can not vie with the 
 virgin soil of the West, intelligent industry 
 wrests from them subsistence and comfort. 
 There are many valuable pastures, and the 
 grazing interest is very considerable. The 
 source of wealth is found in the inexhausti- 
 ble quarries which have given the common- 
 wealth the name of the Granite State. Busy 
 manufactures fill with thrift such towns as 
 Manchester, Nashua, and Doyer. In the 
 
 cotton manufacture New Hampshire stands 
 next to Massachusetts. 
 
 John Smith visited New Hampshire in 
 1614, but its name was bestowed by John 
 Mason, to whom and Sir Ferdinand Gorges 
 grants of land were made by the crown in 
 1622. The country was thence popularly 
 termed the Hampshire Grants. The first 
 settlements were made in 1623 at Hover and 
 Portsmouth. From 1641 to 1679, the settle- 
 ments formed a portion of Massachusetts. 
 Charles II. separated them. It was afterward 
 reunited to Massachusetts, but finally separ- 
 ated in 1741. In 1775 the provincial conven- 
 tion declared the royal government dissolved. 
 
 New Hampshire bore its part in the strug- 
 gle for independence, and was one of the first 
 colonies to shake off the royal governor. By 
 its present constitution the legislative power 
 is vested in a senate and house of representa- 
 tives, which together are styled the general 
 court. The executive power is vested in a 
 governor and council. The governor, coun- 
 cil, and general court are chosen by the 
 people annually. Every male inhabitant pf 
 twenty-one years of age (except paupers, and 
 persons excused from paying taxes at their 
 own request) has the right of suffrage. The 
 governor is styled ‘ his excellency,’ and, with 
 the members of the council, and of both 
 branches of the legislature, must be “of the 
 Protestant religion.” The judiciary consists 
 of a supreme court and other lesser tribu- 
 nals. The judges are appointed by the 
 governor and council, and hold office during 
 
 NEW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 583 
 
 good behavior, though not beyond the age of 
 seventy. In the matter of common schools, 
 New Hampshire is outdone by few states. 
 Dartmouth College, at Hanover, is an institu- 
 tion of high repute. 
 
 Concord is the capital of the state, on the 
 right bank of the Merrimack ; it is the termi- 
 nus of several railways, and is steadily in- 
 creasing in prosperity; population in 1870, 
 12,241. Manchester, lower down the Merri- 
 mack, just below the Amoskeag falls, is the 
 seat of extensive cotton manufactures, to 
 
 which it owes its growth and life : it has 
 sprung up since 1838, and in 1870 had 23,536 
 inhabitants. Portsmouth is the only port 
 of the state ; ship-building is largely engaged 
 in; here is located an United States navy- 
 yard; population in 1870, 9,211. On Bad- 
 ger’s Island, in the harbor of Portsmouth, 
 during the Revolution, there was built the 
 North America, the first line-of-battle ship 
 launched in the western hemisphere. Dover 
 and Nashua are thriving manufacturing 
 towns. 
 
 NEW JERSEY has an area of 6,851 square 
 miles; population in 1870, 906,096. The 
 northern part is hilly, being traversed by the 
 prolongation of several mountain ridges from 
 Pennsylvania, which nowhere* reach a great 
 height, yet abound in bold and varied sce- 
 nery, interspersed with fertile and pleasant 
 valleys, comprising some of the best land in 
 the state. The southern part, from Raritan 
 Bay and Trenton to Cape May, is a great 
 sandy plain. From Sandy Hook to Cape 
 May, the Atlantic coast consists of a long 
 line of sandy beaches, sometimes interrupted 
 by inlets, and enclosing narrow, shallow 
 lagoons, behind which for several miles in- 
 land is a low marshy tract. This coast is the 
 scene of many and dangerous shipwrecks. 
 A number of small rivers, such as the Hack- 
 ensack, Passaic, and Raritan, water the state. 
 It has the noble Delaware River and Bay on 
 its western border, and the Hudson on the 
 north-east. Valuable iron, zinc, and copper 
 
 ores are mined, the pines that cover the 
 sandy tracts furnishing fuel for the smelting- 
 furnaces. The middle district of the state is 
 the most highly tilled, and fruits and vegeta- 
 bles are there raised for the markets of New 
 York and Philadelphia. The northern coun- 
 ties contain much good pasture land, and 
 numerous handsome farms. The apples and 
 cider of the north are as noted for their excel- w 
 lence as are the peaches of the south. There 
 are large manufactures of iron, glass, cottons, 
 and woolens. Carriages, harnesses, and 
 leather are also largely produced. 
 
 Settlements were made by the Swedes, at 
 an early period, in the southern part of the 
 state, near Salem, where some of their de- 
 scendants are still found, and some names of 
 places given by them still retained. The 
 Dutch occupied the north-east, which was 
 included in New Netherlands. The whole 
 country was comprised in the grant macle to 
 the Duke of York, and a settlement was made 
 
 NEW 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 684 
 
 at Elizabethtown in 1GG4. In 1676 the coun- 
 try was divided by the Duke of York into 
 East and West Jersey, which were separate 
 proprietary governments, and not united 
 until 1702, at which time the name of New 
 Jersey was given to the colony. In the 
 measures of our Revolution this state was 
 ever active and forward, and she suffered 
 severely from the war. 
 
 The legislature is styled “ the senate and 
 general assembly of the state of New Jersey.” 
 The senators are elected for three years, one- 
 third annually ; the assemblymen are elected 
 annually. The governor is chosen by the 
 people once in three years. The right of 
 suffrage is exercised by every male citizen 
 of the United States, who has resided in the 
 State one year, paupers, idiots, lunatics, and 
 criminals excepted. The judiciary consists 
 of a court of errors and appeals, a court of 
 chancery, a supreme court, and courts of com- 
 mon pleas. The judges of the higher courts 
 are appointed by the governor, with the ap- 
 proval of the senate. A superintendent of 
 public schools is chosen by the people bien- 
 nially. The college at Princeton is a venera- 
 ble and excellent institution. 
 
 Trenton, on the Delaware, is the capital ; 
 population in 1870, 22,874. [ See Trenton, 
 
 Princeton.] New Brunswick, at the head 
 of navigation on the Raritan, is a handsome 
 city. Population in 1870, 15,058. Here is 
 Rutger’s College, founded in 1770 under the 
 name of Queen’s. Newark, the largest and 
 most important town of the state, is situated 
 on the Passaic, three miles from Newark Bay ; 
 population in 1870, 105,059. Its streets 
 are broad and straight, and ornamented with 
 lofty elms and spacious public squares. It 
 * is very largely busied in producing shoes, 
 boots, saddlss, harnesses, hats and caps, 
 vehicles, cutlery, and jewelry. Newark was 
 settled in 1666 by thirty families from Guil- 
 ford, Branford, Milford, and New Haven, in 
 Connecticut. Paterson on the Passaic, near 
 the falls, has stolen the wild grandeur of the 
 cascade, and by the immense water-power 
 thus purloined from nature, has become the 
 seat of great manufactures. In 1870 it had 
 33,579 inhabitants. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, Battle of. Early in 
 December, 1814, a, large British force entered 
 Lake Pontchar train, near New Orleans, de- 
 
 feating after an obstinate conflict, the small 
 American naval force stationed there. The 
 British forces were commanded by Gen. 
 Packenham ; the American by Gen. Jackson. 
 Several skirmishes took place in which the 
 British suffered* severely. On Sunday morn- 
 ing early, Jan. 8th, a grand attack was made 
 by the British on the American troops in 
 their intrenchments. After an engagement 
 of upward of an hour, the enemy were cut to 
 pieces to a degree almost beyond example, 
 and fled in confusion, leaving their dead and 
 wounded on the field of battle. The loss of 
 the British was 293 killed, 1,267 wounded, 
 and 484 taken prisoners, making a total of 
 2, 600. The American loss in the engagement 
 was 13 killed, and 39 wounded. Sir Edward 
 Packenham and Major General Gibbs were 
 among the slain. The attack was not re- 
 newed, and in a short time the British left 
 the coast, news arriving that peace had been 
 concluded before the conflict. 
 
 NEWTON, Sir Isaac, justly called the 
 creator of natural philosophy, was born at 
 Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, Dec. 25th (o.s.), 
 1G42. He evinced, in early youth, a great 
 fondness for mechanical pursuits, and a re- 
 markable aptitude for drawing, and con- 
 structing machinery, being his own instructor 
 in all his pursuits. At the age of eighteen 
 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. Here 
 his fondness for mathematical studies enabled 
 him to make a great proficiency in them, and 
 before completing his twenty-third year, he 
 made some great discoveries in the science 
 to which ha was attached. The fall of an 
 apple led him to a train of reflections which 
 resulted in his elucidation of the principles 
 of gravitation which he proved to affect vast 
 orbs on high not less than the smallest thing 
 on earth. He was the first to divide light 
 into rays of seven colors, differently refran- 
 gible. It is impossible for us to follow him 
 through his scientific career, tracing out the 
 brilliant discoveries he made in optics, chem- 
 istry, natural philosophy, and mathematics. 
 In 1688 Newton was elected by his univer- 
 sity to the convention parliament In 1695 
 he was made warden of the mint. In 1703 
 he was chosen president of the royal society, 
 and in 1705 was knighted by Queen Anne. 
 He died March 20th, 1727, and was interred 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 NEW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 585 
 
 The following is Pope’s epitaph on this 
 great man : — 
 
 Isaacus Newton hic jacet, 
 
 QUEM IMMORTALEM CCELI, NATURA, 
 
 Tempus OSTENDUNT,. 
 
 Mortaleh hoc marmor fatetur. 
 
 Nature and all her works lay hid in night : 
 
 God said, let Newton be— and all was light. 
 
 This great man was mild and good-natured 
 in his private life. He had constructed a 
 small laboratory for prosecuting his chemical 
 investigations, and seems, after his publication 
 of his “ Principia,” to have devoted almost all 
 his time to them. One morning (1692), he 
 had accidentally shut up his little pet dog 
 Diamond in his room, and, on returning, found 
 that the animal, by upsetting a candle on his 
 desk, had destroyed the labors of several years. 
 On perceiving his loss, he only exclaimed, 
 “Oh, Diamond! Diamond! thou little know- 
 est the mischief thou hast done ! ” The mis- 
 chief done was so great as for a time to unset- 
 tle his powerful mind, injured already by ex- 
 cessive study, and he never recovered his full 
 vigor of intellect, although enough remained 
 for an ordinary mortal. 
 
 Newton’s modesty was equal to his merit. 
 While he was aware of the value of his dis- 
 coveries, he knew also how vast a region lay 
 
 unexplored beyond. A short time before his 
 death he uttered this memorable sentiment: 
 “ I do not know what I may appear to the 
 world ; but to myself I seem to have been only 
 like a boy playing on the seashore, and divert- 
 ing myself in now and then finding a smoother 
 pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, wdiile 
 the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered 
 before me.” The Latin epitaph on his monu- 
 ment may be thus translated: “Here lies 
 Isaac Newton, knight, who, by a vigor of mind 
 almost supernatural, first demonstrated the 
 motions and figures of the planets, the paths 
 of the comets, and the tides of the ocean. He 
 discovered, what before his time no one had 
 even suspected, that rays of light are differ- 
 ently refrangible, and that this is the cause of 
 colors. An assiduous, sagacious, and faithful 
 interpreter of nature, antiquity, and the holy 
 Scriptures, he asserted in his philosophy the 
 majesty of God, and exhibited in his conduct 
 the simplicity of the gospel. Let mortals re- 
 joice that there has existed such and so great 
 an ornament of human nature.” His greatest 
 work is entitled “ Philosophise Naturalis Prin- 
 cipia Mathematica.” 
 
 NEWTON, Thomas, Bishop of Bristol, au- 
 thor of “Dissertations on the Prophecies,” 
 born in 1704, died in 1782. 
 
 NEW YORK has a territory of 46,000 
 square miles; population in 1870, 4,382,759. 
 It forms a portion of the elevated table-land 
 which runs parallel with the Atlantic coast, 
 broken in some places by prolongations of 
 the Alleghanies, mountainous ridges of con- 
 
 siderable elevation, and containing some re- 
 markable depressions, which form the basins 
 of lakes or channels for rivers. Through the 
 fertile intervales flow large rivers, among 
 which may be mentioned the Hudson, Mo- 
 hawk, St. Lawrence, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
 
 NEW 
 
5S6 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Tioga, Alleghany, Genesee, Oswego, and the 
 Niagara, with its stupendous cataract. The 
 picturesque beauty of the Hudson, and the 
 legendary and historic interest clusteringalong 
 its banks, render it the Rhine of America. 
 The inland seas of Erie and Ontario bathe the 
 north-western borders of New York ; in the 
 north-east Lake Champlain divides her from 
 Vermont, and the bright waters of Lake 
 George nestle among lofty hills, and about its 
 islets ; and in the centre of the state is a row 
 of lakes, that fortunately retain the names of 
 the tribes which once dwelt on their shores, 
 Canandaigua, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, 
 Oneida, and lesser sheets. The lakes and 
 rivers are linked together by a magnificent 
 system of canals, connecting the great central 
 basin of the St. Lawrence, and the seas it 
 drains, with the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Iron ore of good quality and great quantity 
 is found in the north-eastern part, and occurs 
 also in some of the central, eastern, and south- 
 western counties. Gypsum, limestone, mar- 
 ble, and slate are procured. St. Lawrence 
 county is rich in lead. The salt springs about 
 Syracuse yield large quantities of salt annu- 
 ally. Most of the soil in the state is of a use- 
 ful quality, and much of it is highly fertile. 
 Wheat is the great agricultural staple, and 
 flour and provisions are largely exported. 
 About one-third of all the buckwheat, two- 
 thirds of the barley, one-fourth of the rye, 
 one-sixth of the oats, and one-eighth of the 
 wheat grown in the United States, are raised 
 in New York. In manufactures New York 
 occupies a proportional rank, having her share 
 of factories, mills, foundries, and workshops, 
 with intelligent and thrifty mechanics. Her 
 commerce is on a great scale, far exceeding 
 that of any other state ; since, in addition to 
 her own wants and productions, she imports 
 and exports for all the Union through her 
 great commercial metropolis. Her foreign 
 commerce is surpassed by her inland and 
 coasting trade. 
 
 New York was visited by Henry Hudson, 
 an English navigator, in 1609. He sailed up 
 the river which bears his name, to the dis- 
 tance of 150 miles, and on his return to Eu- 
 rope communicated the results of his enter- 
 prise to his employers, the Dutch East India 
 Company. Dutch trading establishments 
 were immediately formed at different places. 
 
 The earliest establishment of the kind was 
 Fort Orange, founded in 1613, on the site of 
 the city of Albany. New Amsterdam (now 
 the city of New York) was formed a few years 
 later. The East India Company, having ob- 
 tained from the government of Holland a grant 
 of the exclusive right to trade in America, 
 called the country which they settled, New 
 Netherlands. In 1664 Charles II. of England 
 granted to his brother, the Duke of York and 
 Albany, an extensive territory which included 
 the colony of New Netherlands. A small 
 armament was fitted out in England to act 
 against the Dutch in America, who, however, 
 speedily submitted to the English. The latter 
 changed the name of New Amsterdam to 
 New York, and Fort Orange to Albany. 
 While Canada was held by the French, New 
 York was the theatre of bloody struggles with 
 them and their Indian allies. In 1775 the 
 inhabitants of New York asserted their inde- 
 pendence, and through the Revolutionary 
 war took a distinguished part. 
 
 The governor is chosen for two years. The 
 legislature meets annually ; half the senators 
 are chosen each year. Every male citizen, 21 
 years of age, who has resided in the state 
 one year, has the right of suffrage. No per- 
 son except a citizen ot the United States 
 is eligible to the office of Governor and every 
 candidate must be thirty years of age and a 
 resident of the state five years next preceding 
 his nomination. The governor is commander- 
 in-chief of the military and naval forces and 
 has power to convene the legislature on extra- 
 ordinary occasion. The judiciary consists 
 of the court of appeals, the supreme and 
 circuit courts, county courts, and the criminal 
 courts, of sessions, and oyer and terminer. 
 Judges, clerks, attorneys, &c., are chosen by 
 the people. Education is liberally provided 
 for, and beside a system of public schools, aid 
 is extended to academies and colleges. There 
 is a normal school at Albany, a lunatic asylum 
 at Utica, an as)dum for idiots at Syracuse, 
 and indigent deaf-mute youth are sustained 
 by the state at the institution in New York. 
 The military academy at West Point, under 
 the direction of the national government, is 
 an admirable institution. The annual expend- 
 iture made for the common schools exceeds 
 $3,500,000. 
 
 Albany, the capital, is pleasantly seated on 
 
 NEW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 587 
 
 an eminence on the west bank of the Hudson, 
 144 miles above New York city ; population 
 in 1870, 76,217. The river is navigable to 
 Albany, for steamers. The Erie and Cham- 
 plain canals unite above the city, and are 
 connected with a basin at Albany. The 
 facility of communication which it possesses, 
 renders it a great thoroughfare. The Dutch 
 settled Albany in 1614, calling it Fort Orange. 
 After it came into English hands, it was 
 named in honor of James II., then Duke of 
 York and Albany. It was built up with the 
 disregard to elegance so common among the 
 Dutch, but its modern buildings, both private 
 and public, are beautiful and tasteful. 
 
 Brooklyn, on Long Island, is separated from 
 the city of New York by the East River. In 
 1870 it had 396,099 inhabitants. The houses 
 of recent date are spacious and elegant, and 
 the heights which overhang the river and 
 command a view of New York, are studded 
 with neat and pretty dwellings, embowered 
 in shrubbery and flowers. The healthiness 
 of Brooklyn, and its contiguity to New York, 
 have tended to increase its population largely 
 within a few years. Its many houses of wor- 
 ship have given it the name of the City of 
 Churches. The first settlement of Brooklyn 
 was made at the Wallabout Bay, by George 
 Jansen Rapelje, in 1625. The earliest deed 
 for lands on record is to Thomas Besker, in 
 1639. Oct. 18th, 1667, Governor Nicholls 
 granted a patent “to certain inhabitants of 
 the town Breukelen, for and in behalf of them- 
 selves and their associates, the freeholders 
 and inhabitants, for all the lands in the town 
 not taken up in severalty.” This patent was 
 confirmed by Governor Dongan in 1686. In 
 1670 license was given by Governor Lovelace 
 to the inhabitants to purchase the Indian title. 
 
 The city of Buffalo lies on the outlet of Lake 
 Erie at the head of Niagara River, and on 
 Buffalo Creek, which constitutes its harbor, 
 288 miles west of Albany, or 363 by the Erie 
 Canal. It was originally laid out by the Hol- 
 land Land Company in 1801. It was entirely 
 burned by the British in 1813, excepting two 
 buildings. The commencement of the rapid 
 growth and great importance of this place 
 may be dated from the opening of the Erie 
 Canal. The city is laid out in broad and reg- 
 ular streets. The land rises, by a very gentle 
 ascent, two miles from the water, to an exten- 
 
 sive plain, and from the elevated parts of the 
 city are fine views of the lake, of Niagara 
 River, of the Erie Canal, and the Canada 
 shore. There are three public squares which 
 add much to the beauty of the city. The 
 harbor of Buffalo is spacious and safe, having 
 twelve or fourteen feet of water a mile from 
 its entrance into the lake. Buffalo stands as 
 a great gate between the East and the West, 
 through which much of their commerce must 
 pass ; and it is a great depot for the western 
 country. Population in 1870, 117,714. 
 
 NEW YORK, the city of, the largest, most 
 wealthy, most flourishing of the cities of our 
 continent, and the commercial metropolis of 
 America, is situated at the mouth of the 
 Hudson, on Manhattan Island. In the bay 
 that opens before it to the Atlantic, navies 
 might lie in safety. Toward its harbor 
 throng the ships of all nations, freighted 
 with merchandise and emigrants from almost 
 all the earth. The navigable waters of the 
 Hudson, long lines of canals, and a network 
 of rail-roads give it the amplest facilities for 
 inland trade. In 1870 it had 942,292 inhab- 
 itants. This does not include Brooklyn, Jer- 
 sey City, and its other suburbs. 
 
 The first settlement made on Manhattan 
 Island, with a view to permanent occupancy, 
 was by the Dutch in 1615. In 1629, being 
 resolved to establish a colony at New Amster- 
 dam, as New York was then called, they 
 appointed Walter Yan Twiller governor, who 
 held the office nine years. In 1635 the gov- 
 ernor erected a substantial fort; and in 1643 
 a house of worship was built in the south- 
 east corner of the fort. In 1644 a city hall 
 or stadthouse was erected, which was on the 
 corner of Pearl street and Coenties Slip. In 
 1653 a wall of earth and stone was built from 
 Hudson River to East River, designed as a 
 defense against the Indians, immediately 
 north of Wall Street, which from that circum- 
 stance received its name. The first public 
 wharf was built in 1658, where Whitehall 
 Street now is. 
 
 The administration of Governor Stuyve- 
 sant, the last of the Dutch governors, ter- 
 minated, after a continuance of seventeen 
 years, with the capture of the colony by the 
 English in 1664, when the city was named 
 New York in honor of James, Duke of York. 
 The property of the Dutch West India Trad- 
 
 NEW 
 
588 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ing Company was all confiscated. The num- 
 ber of inhabitants was then about 3,000. 
 
 * In 1073 the Dutch took the city from the 
 English, it having been surrendered by Cap- 
 tain Manning without firing a gun. It was 
 restored to the English the next year ; and 
 Manning was tried for cowardice and treach- 
 ery, and sentenced to have his sword broken 
 over his head. The inhabitants were all then 
 required to take the oath of allegiance to the 
 English government. As descriptive of the 
 commercial condition of the city at that period, 
 Governor Andros, in his report to the govern- 
 ment in England, in 1678, says: “Our princi- 
 pal places of trade are New York and Kingston, 
 except Albany for the Indians. Our buildings 
 most wood, some lately stone and brick ; good 
 country houses, and strong of their severall 
 kindes. A merchant worth £1,000, or £500, 
 is accompted a good substantiall merchant, 
 and a planter worthe half that in moveables is 
 accompted rich ; all estates may be valued att 
 about £150,000 ; there may lately have traded 
 to ye colony, in a yeare, from 10 to 15 ships 
 or vessells of about togeather 100 tunns each, 
 English, New England, and oure own built, 
 of which five small shipps, and a ketch now 
 belonging to New Yorke, foure of them built 
 there.” 
 
 In 1686 James II. abolished the represent- 
 ative system, and prohibited the use of print- 
 ing-presses. A meeting of commissioners, 
 denominated a congress of the several colo- 
 nies, was this year assembled at New York. 
 A regulation for lighting the city was estab- 
 lished in 1697, requiring that lights be put 
 in the windows of the houses fronting on the 
 streets, on a penalty of ninepence for every 
 night’s omission ; and that a lighted lantern 
 be hung out upon a pole at every seventh 
 house, the expense to be borne equally by 
 the seven intervening houses. In 1703 Wall 
 Street was paved from William Street to the 
 English (Trinity) Church. The Presbyterian 
 ministers were prohibited from preaching by 
 Governor Cornbury, in 1707, and two of 
 their number were arrested and tried for 
 violating this prohibition ; but they were dis- 
 charged on their paying $220 costs. In 
 1719 a Presbyterian Church was built in 
 Wall Street. In 1725 the Neto York Gazette, 
 a weekly newspaper, was established. The 
 
 first stage began to run between New York 
 and Boston in 1732. It made its trips once 
 a month, and took two weeks for the journey. 
 In 1745 Lady Murray owned the only coach 
 in town. The following year there were 
 1,834 houses and 11,717 inhabitants, all 
 below the Park. This was an increase of 
 about a thousand people in nine years. A 
 theatre was opened in 1750. During the 
 next quarter of a century streets were laid 
 out and built upon more or less as far north 
 as Murray Street. 
 
 After the disastrous battle of Long Island 
 in August, 1776, the British entered the 
 city, and remained its masters till the con- 
 clusion of peace. They evacuated it on the 
 25th of November, 1783, and the same day 
 Gen. Washington marched in at the head of 
 the American army. A t this time there were 
 23,614 inhabitants, an increase of 2,000 in 
 fifteen years. In 1785 the first congress 
 held after the war met in the city hall, where 
 the custom-house now stands ; and here, four 
 years after, when the federal constitution had 
 been adopted, Washington was inaugurated 
 president of the United States. 
 
 For a place of such magnitude, New York 
 can not be considered unhealthy. It has 
 enjoyed as great an exemption as cities of 
 this class in most countries from the ravages 
 of epidemic diseases. It has been four times 
 visited by yellow fever, viz., in 1742, in 1798, 
 in 1805, and in 1822. The disease was the 
 most fatal in 1798, when it prevailed from 
 July to November. The city, with other 
 cities large and small, suffered severely from 
 Asiatic cholera in the years 1832, 1834, and 
 1849. 
 
 The most extensive and destructive fire 
 which has ever occurred in New York was 
 that of the 16th of December, 1835, which 
 swept over between thirty and forty acres of 
 the most valuable part of the city, densely 
 occupied with stores and filled with the 
 richest merchandise. About 674 buildings 
 were consumed, and the amount of property 
 destroyed was estimated, by a committee 
 appointed to ascertain the loss, at nearly 
 $20,000,000. Under this heavy calamity, 
 the wealth and recuperative energies of the 
 city were in a wonderful manner demon- 
 strated, as in an incredibly short time the 
 
 4 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 589 
 
 whole burned district was covered again with 
 stores and with public edifices, more costly, 
 convenient and elegant than before. 
 
 NEY, Michael, Duke of Elchingen, Prince 
 of Moscow, marshal, and peer of France, 
 grand-cross of the legion of honor, knight of 
 St. Louis, &c., was bora in Alsace, in 1769. 
 He rose from the ranks to the chief command 
 of the armies, but was more distinguished for 
 his bravery than his tactics. He opposed 
 Wellington in Spain, and pursued the British 
 army to the lines of Torres Yedras. He after- 
 ward served under Napoleon in Russia, and 
 at the great battle of the Moskwa acquired 
 the name of “ the bravest of the brave.” His 
 bravery was signal in the terrible retreat 
 from Moscow. He commanded the rear- 
 guard of the army. At one point he was 
 attacked by an overwhelming force of Rus- 
 sians, and summoned to surrender. “ A mar- 
 shal of France never surrenders,” was his 
 heroic answer, and by strategy and hard 
 fighting he reached the wreck of the main 
 army, with a handful of his original corps. 
 Napoleon welcomed him with joy, for he had 
 given up all hope of him, as captive or slain. 
 The retreat continued, and with indomitable 
 courage and energy Ney still covered the 
 rear. With only thirty men he defended the 
 gate of Kowno, the last Russian town in the 
 march of the French, while his comrades 
 escaped at the other end. He was the last 
 man to leave the soil of Russia. On the 
 abdication of Napoleon, Ney promised to 
 Support the Bourbons. At the return of Na- 
 poleon from Elba, the command of the royal- 
 ist army was confided to him, but when Na- 
 poleon summoned him to his standard as the 
 bravest of the brave, he could not resist, and 
 went over to the emperor. He was second in 
 command at Waterloo, where he fought with 
 desperate tenacity, till night and defeat com- 
 pelled him to flee. Five horses were shot 
 under him, and his clothes were torn with 
 bullets. Contrary to the general amnesty 
 that was decreed, the Bourbons ordered his 
 arrest : he was condemned to die, and was 
 shot Aug. 16th, 1815. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a republic of Central Amer- 
 ica, bounded north by Honduras ; east by the 
 Caribbean Sea; south by Costa Rica, and 
 west by the Pacific. The country is fertile, 
 and rich in forests. The population is 400, 000, 
 
 and the. area 44,000 square miles. Through 
 the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, a 
 route was opened, communicating on each 
 coast by steamers with the Atlantic cities 
 and California. Civil contentions and filibust- 
 ering expeditions of piratical vagabonds from 
 the United States have retarded the progress 
 of this unhappy country. 
 
 NICHOLAS, Czar of Russia. [ See Ro- 
 
 manoff.] 
 
 NICHOLS, Charlotte Bronte, the daugh- 
 ter of Rev. Patrick Bronte, a Yorkshire cler- 
 gyman, was born April 21st, 1816. There 
 is but little incident in her life, which was 
 mostly passed at Haworth, a rough village 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1847 
 the reading world was startled by three 
 novels, “Jane Eyre,” “ Wuthering Heights,” 
 and “Alice Gray,” whose title-pages bore 
 respectively the names of Currer Bell, Ellis 
 Bell, and Acton Bell. The secret of their 
 authorship was kept well and long, notwith- 
 standing the eagerness of the public to dis- 
 cover it. The brother Patrick died, then 
 Emily, then Anne, and Charlotte Bronte was 
 left alone with her father in 1849. In 1854, 
 she wedded Mr. Bronte’s curate, Rev. Arthur 
 Bell Nichols. Then, after the nine happiest 
 months of her life, the knell from Haworth 
 church early on Saturday morning, March 
 31st, 1855, told the villagers that Charlotte 
 Bronte was no more. She had written two 
 novels after “Jane E} r re,” — “Shirley” and 
 “ Villette.” She is the most remarkable writer 
 of all the women of English literature. Her 
 novels display a startling vigor. 
 
 NICHOLSON, James, an Americal naval 
 officer, born at Charlestown, Maryland, in 
 1737. Throughout the Revolutionary war, 
 he served with distinction in our infant navy. 
 June 2d, 1780, Nicholson, with the Trumbull, 
 a frigate of thirty-two guns, manned with only 
 199 men, fought a severe action with the 
 British frigate Wyatt. This engagement 
 lasted three hours, at the expiration of which 
 the disabled state of the Trumbull’s masts 
 compelled Nicholson to withdraw, with a 
 loss of nine men killed, and twenty-one 
 wounded. In 1781 Captain Nicholson in the 
 Trumbull was captured by the Iris and Gen- 
 eral Monk, after a severe engagement at 
 night. He was carried to England, and not 
 released till peace was concluded. 
 
 NIC 
 
590 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 NIEBUHR, Barthold George, an eminent 
 historian, diplomatist, and philologist, was 
 born at Copenhagen, 1776; entered the civil 
 service of Prussia in 1806; was successively 
 professor of history in the universities of 
 Berlin and Bonn ; and died at Bonn in 1831. 
 He was the master of twenty languages. 
 
 NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian 
 empire, was one of the largest and most pop- 
 ulous cities of the ancient world. It stood 
 on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite the 
 modern town of Mosul. After the dissolu- 
 tion of the Assyrian monarchy by the 
 Medes, it fell into decay, and even its site 
 became a matter of conjecture. Within a 
 few years the researches of M. Botta and Mr. 
 Layard have brought to light the long buried 
 city. The curious sculptures and vessels 
 which have been exhumed are full of interest. 
 Modern science finds in the long cuneiform 
 inscriptions the records of the wars, customs, 
 life, and manners of one of the greatest 
 nations of antiquity. 
 
 NINES, a son of Belus, who built a city to 
 which he gave his own name, and founded 
 the Assyrian monarchy, of which he was the 
 first sovereign, b.c. 2059. He was very war- 
 like, and extended his conquests from Egypt 
 to the extremities of India and Bactriana. 
 Ninus reigned fifty-two years, and at his 
 death he left his kingdom to the care of his 
 wife Semiramis, by whom he had a son. The 
 history of Ninus is very obscure, and even 
 fabulous according to the opinion of some. 
 Ninus after death received divine honors, and 
 became the Jupiter of the Assyrians and 
 the Hercules of the Chaldeans. 
 
 NOAH, Mordecai Manasseh, an American 
 journalist and an active politician, was born 
 at Philadelphia, July 19th, 1784; died in 
 New York, March 28th, 1851. He was con- 
 sul to Tunis in 1813. About 1829 he con- 
 ceived the project of collecting his brethren 
 the. Jews, and rebuilding Jerusalem. He 
 issued a singular proclamation, appointing 
 Grand Island, near Niagara Falls, as the 
 place of rendezvous, and summoned the scat- 
 tered tribes to transmit their contributions. 
 The scheme came to nothing. 
 
 NORMANDY, an ancient province in the 
 north of France, now divided into five depart- 
 ments. In the latter part of the ninth cen- 
 tury the Northmen, led by Kollo, settled 
 
 here, and were governed by their own dukes ; 
 the most renowned of whom was William, 
 who achieved the conquest of England in 
 1066. Normandy was lost to England by the 
 weakness of King John. The English still 
 retain, however, the islands on the coast, 
 Jersey, Guernsey, &c. In 1346 Normandy 
 was overrun by Edward III. ; and in 1418 it 
 was held by Henry V., who conquered the 
 whole province, and obtained its formal ces- 
 sion to England by the peace of 1420. It 
 was wrested from the English in 1449 ; and 
 from that time Normandy was exempt from 
 the evils of war until the religious contests 
 of the sixteenth century. It escaped the 
 revolution, though, in 1794, a Yendean army 
 entered its western frontier, for they were 
 soon put to flight. Normandy had, until the 
 revolution, its separate parliaments, which 
 sat at Rouen ; and its provincial laws and 
 usages were preserved under the name of 
 Coutumier d^formmMie. , . 
 
 NORRIS, Sta ^ofewf second son of Henry, 
 the first Lord Norris, famous for his valor, 
 was first trained up in military exercises un- 
 der Admiral Coligni in the civil wars of 
 France; next in Ireland, under Walter, Earl 
 of Essex; then served in the Netherlands 
 under Matthias, Archduke of Austria, in 
 1579 ; afterward under the Duke of Lorraine, 
 1582; next under William of Nassau; and, 
 in the twenty-seventh year of Queen Eliza- 
 beth’s reign he was constituted colonel- 
 general of all the horse and foot sent out 
 of England to the relief of Antwerp, then 
 besieged by the Spaniards, and empowered 
 to treat with the states-general for the enter- 
 taining of the English foot appointed to serve 
 in those parts. In the 30th of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, being then president of the council in 
 the province of Munster, in Ireland, he had a 
 commission giving him power to constitute 
 such principal officers as well by sea and 
 land, as he thought fit for the defense of the 
 kingdom. In the 33d of Queen Elizabeth he 
 was constituted captain-general of those Eng- 
 lish auxiliaries that were sent to King Henry 
 IV. of France, against his rebellious subjects 
 in Bretagne. Having deported himself with 
 great prudence and courage in all these emi- 
 nent employments, to the great honor of the 
 English nation as well as of his own name, 
 he expected that upon the recalling of Sir 
 
 NOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 591 
 
 William Russell, knight, afterward Lord Rus- 
 sell, he should have been deputy of Ireland; 
 but, finding that Thomas, Lord Borough, was 
 preferred to that command, and himself re- 
 quired to continue still in Munster, he became 
 so highly discontented, as to occasion his 
 premature death. 
 
 NORTH, Frederick, second Earl of Guil- 
 ford, better known as Lord North, was the 
 eldest son of Francis, the first earl, and was 
 born in 1732. He was educated at Eton, and 
 at Trinity College, Oxford ; after which he j 
 went to Leipsic. On his return home he was 
 
 elected into parliament, and in 1759 he be- 
 came a commissioner of the treasury. In 
 1767 he was appointed chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, and in 1770 first lord of the treasury, 
 both which offices he held during the Ameri- 
 can war, till 1782. Not long after this, the 
 same statesmen who had repeatedly threat- 
 ened his lordship with an impeachment, 
 formed a coalition with him; but this motley 
 administration lasted a very few months. In 
 1790 Lord North succeeded his father in the 
 earldom, and died in 1792, having been blind 
 some years. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA is bounded on the 
 north by Virginia, on the east by the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean, on the south by South Carolina, 
 and on the west by Tennessee. It is of con- 
 siderable extent, comprising 45,500 square 
 miles, with a population, in 1870 of 1,071,361 
 souls, of whom 678,1*70 were whites, and 391,- 
 650 colored. The state is divided into seventy- 
 nine counties, and Raleigh is the seat of 
 government. This place is pleasantly situ- 
 ated, and laid out with great regularity. The 
 state-house, built upon the model of the Par- 
 thenon, is celebrated for the completeness 
 and beauty of its architecture. Raleigh has 
 7,790 inhabitants. A senate and house of 
 commons are the legislative branches of gov- 
 ernment. Elections are biennial. There is 
 a common-school system which is rapidly 
 growing in usefulness ; besides, there are 
 several respectable academies at various 
 places, and, at Chapel Hill, an institution 
 
 styled the University of North Carolina, 
 which is well endowed and in high repute. 
 The face of the country is extremely diver- 
 sified ; a wide belt, skirting the sea, is 
 perfectly level, while in other parts the 
 surface is broken and rough, presenting in 
 some places considerable elevations. One of 
 these, Black Mountain, 6,476 feet high, is said 
 to be the highest peak east of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Pilot Mountain, or Ararat, w T hich 
 is of a pj^ramidal form, rises 1,550 feet from 
 a wide and level area, commanding a most 
 imposing view of the surrounding country. 
 
 The coast of North Carolina is made dan- 
 gerous by its capes and shoals, the names of 
 some of which indicate the terror they excite. 
 This state contains a portion of that swamp 
 which is justly called the Great Dismal 
 Swamp, a marshy tract whose low brush- 
 wood, in many parts impenetrable, covers a 
 space of nearly thirty miles in extent. Parts 
 
 NOR 
 
592 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 of the soil of North Carolina are extremely 
 productive, and the earth has been found to 
 possess a treasure in gold mines of considera- 
 ble extent and value. The commerce of this 
 state is not extensive, but many of the plant- 
 ers are very wealthy. The pine forests yield 
 not only lumber, but great quantities of tur- 
 pentine, rosin, tar, and pitch. 
 
 The first colony within the limits of North 
 Carolina was English, and settled on Roanoke 
 Island, (since the scene of Burnside’s vic- 
 tory,) in 1587. It soon perished, however, 
 for it was never heard from. Some Virgi- 
 nians made a permanent settlement near Al- 
 bemarle sound in 1650. 
 
 North Carolina joined the South in the 
 rebellion, and seceded May 20, 1861, after a 
 good deal of adjourning and delaying. The 
 IT. S. forts in the state had been seized 
 in January. The state did not suffer much 
 during most of the war, being covered by 
 land and coast; but a good deal of dam- 
 age was done during Sherman’s last great 
 march from Savannah, and the North Caro- 
 lina campaign against Bragg and Johnston. 
 Gen. Butler and Commodore Stringham took 
 the forts at Ilatteras, in August, 1861, and 
 Burnside’s expedition, in Feb., 1862, took 
 Roanoke Island, and on March 14th succeed- 
 ing captured Newbern. From that time the 
 Union forces held the sea approaches, except 
 Wilmington, which it was found impossible 
 to close to blockade runners, until the glori- 
 ous bombardment and storming of Fort 
 Fisher, Jan. 15, 1865, soon followed by the 
 fall of Wilmington. The state soon after 
 returned formally into the Union. 
 
 NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The belief 
 in a passage to China and the Indies through 
 the Arctic seas followed close upon the dis- 
 covery of the western continent. Cortereal, 
 a Portuguese, sought the north-west passage 
 in 1500. England made the essay in 1553, 
 at the instance of Sebastian Cabot. In May 
 of that year, Hakluyt has chronicled, gallant 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure on 
 his fatal voyage for discovering the north-east 
 passage to China. He sailed with great pomp 
 by Greenwich, where the court then resided. 
 Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The 
 council and courtiers appeared at the win- 
 dows, and the people covered the shores. 
 
 The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the 
 noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his 
 death-bed ; so that the principal object of the 
 parade was disappointed. The three vessels 
 separated: Sir Hugh with his crew perished 
 on the coast of Lapland ; but Chancellor en- 
 tered the White Sea, a discovery of impor- 
 tance, inasmuch as it led to the establishment 
 of a trade between England and Archangel, 
 and to the design of carrying on commerce 
 with India by means of the Volga and the 
 Caspian Sea, which project so engrossed the 
 attention of the merchants of London that all 
 farther attempts at discovering the North- 
 East Passage were abandoned. The Dutch 
 merchants afterward resolved to try if the 
 East Indies could be reached in this direction. 
 William Barents made two voyages (1594- 
 1596), but was unable to proceed east of Nova 
 Zembla on account of the ice. 
 
 Frobisher tried the North-West Passage in 
 1576. The project was greatly encouraged 
 by Elizabeth in 1585, and a company formed 
 called the “Fellowship for the Discovery of 
 the North-West Passage.” In that and the two 
 following years John Davis made three voy- 
 ages, discovering the well-known straits which 
 ever since have borne his name. He retained 
 full faith, and would have sailed again, had 
 not the Spanish armada interrupted. From 
 1607 to 1610 Hudson made several voyages, 
 some for English merchants and one in the 
 service of the Dutch ; during which he dis- 
 covered the noble river and the broad bay 
 now known by his name. In 1616 Baffin 
 discovered and in great part traced the ex- 
 tensive bay called after him. A number of 
 enterprises undertaken by various countries 
 followed. From 1745 to 1818 there was a 
 standing offer of £20,000 from the British 
 government for the discovery of the north- 
 west passage. Samuel Hearne, an agent of 
 the Hudson Bay company, undertook a land 
 expedition in 1769. Seven years later the 
 celebrated Captain Cook tried to solve the 
 mystery. He sailed to the Pacific, discovered 
 the Sandwich Islands, and early in the sum- 
 mer of 1778 reached Behring’s Strait. He 
 was able to penetrate no farther than lat. 
 70° 44'. On his return he lost his life. 
 Mackenzie, in 1789, headed an overland ex- 
 pedition, traced the great river named after 
 
 NOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 .593 
 
 him, and reached the Arctic Ocean in latitude 
 69°. Hearne had gained it at the mouth 
 of the Coppermine eighteen years before. 
 
 In 1818 the attention of the English gov- 
 ernment was turned anew to the possibility 
 of finding a north-west passage to the Pacific 
 seas, and the standing reward was modified 
 by proposing that £5,000 should be paid 
 whenever either 110°, 120 J , or 130° W\ long, 
 should be passed. Two expeditions were 
 dispatched, that of Buchan and Fra iklin, 
 and that of Ross and Parry. Many others 
 have followed. 
 
 Capt. Buchan and Lieut. Franklir’s expedition 
 in the Dorothea and Trent, 1818. 
 
 Capt. Ross and Lieut. Parry, in the Isabella and 
 Alexander, 1818. 
 
 Lieutenants Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and 
 Griper, May 4th, 1819. They crossed the 
 meridian of 110 D long. W., and were entitled 
 to the reward of £5,000. They returned to 
 Leith, Nov. 3d, 1820. 
 
 Captains Parrv and Lyon, in the Fury and Ilecla, 
 May 8th, 1521. 
 
 Captain Parry’s third expedition with the Hecla, 
 May 8th, 1824. 
 
 Captains Franklin and Lyon, after having at- 
 tempted a land expedition, again sailed from 
 Liverpool, Feb. 16th, 1825. 
 
 Captain Parry, again in the Hecla, sails from 
 Deptford, March 25th, 1827. And returns, 
 Oct. 6th, 1827. 
 
 Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his return from 
 his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four 
 years, and when all hope of his return had 
 been nearly abandoned, Oct. 18th, 1833. 
 
 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
 pool from their perilous Arctic Land Expedi- 
 tion, after having visited the Great Fish River, 
 and examined its course to the Polar Seas, Sept. 
 8th, 1835. 
 
 Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of 
 his majesty’s ship Terror, on an exploring ad- 
 venture to Wager River, June 21st, 1836. 
 
 Sir John Franklin and Captains Crozier and Fitz- 
 james, in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave 
 England, May 24th, 1845. 
 
 Commanders Collinson and M‘Clure, in the Enter- 
 prise and Investigator,’ sailed eastward in 
 search of Sir John Franklin, Jan. 20th, 1850. 
 North-West Passage discovered by M‘Clure, 
 Oct. 26th, 1850. 
 
 The anxiety felt as to the fate of Sir John 
 Franklin and his comrades led to many expe- 
 ditions to the polar seas. Sir John, with 
 Captains Crozier and Fitzjames, in H.M. 
 ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
 persons), sailed on an Arctic expedition 
 of discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, 
 May 24th, 1845. Their last dispatches were 
 
 38 
 
 from the Whalefish Islands, dated July 12th, 
 1845. On the 26th of July, they were seen 
 by a passing whaler moored to an iceberg 
 near the centre of Baffin’s Bay. Since that 
 time no certain intelligence of their fate has 
 been received. Franklin contemplated an 
 absence of three years, so that, although 
 nothing was heard of the expedition, no anx- 
 iety was felt for its safety until 1848. Then 
 the protracted absence began to cause in- 
 tense anxiety throughout Europe, and numer- 
 ous expeditions were sent from England 
 and elsewhere to various parts of the polar 
 regions in search. Quantities of coals, pro- 
 visions, clothing, and other comforts were 
 deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as 
 the crews of the Erebus and Terror might 
 visit, so as to afford them immediate relief, 
 by the British and American governments, 
 by Lady Franklin, and by numerous private 
 persons. The Truelove, Capt. Parker, which 
 arrived at Hull Oct. 4th, 1849, from Davis’s 
 Straits, brought intelligence (not afterward 
 confirmed) that the natives had seen Sir 
 John Franklin’s ships as late as the previous 
 March, ‘beset or frozen up by the ice in Prince 
 Regent’s Inlet. Other like accounts were 
 equally illusory. Her majesty’s government, 
 March 7th, 1850, offered a reward of £20,000 
 to any party, of any country, that should 
 render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
 missing ships. Sir John’s first winter quar- 
 ters were found at Beechey Island by Cap- 
 tains Ommanney and Penny. The following 
 expeditions were sent out in search. 
 
 H. M. S. Plover, Capt. Moore (afterward under 
 Capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Beh- 
 ring’s Straits, Jan. 1st, 1848. 
 
 Land expedition under Sir John Richardson, and 
 Dr. Rae of the Hudson’s Bay Company, left 
 England, March 25th, 1848. Sir John Rich- 
 ardson returned to England in 1849, and Dr. 
 Rae continued his search till 1851. 
 
 Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and Investi- 
 gator (June 12th, 1848), having also sailed in 
 search to Barrow’s Strait, returned to England, 
 Nov. 3d, 1849. 
 
 The Enterprise, Capt. Collinson, and Investigator, 
 Commander M‘Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 
 Behring’s Straits, Jan. 20th, 1850. Both of 
 these ships proceeded through to the eastward, 
 and the North-West Passage was discovered by 
 M‘Clure, Oct. 26th, 1850. M‘Clure returned 
 to England in October, 1854, and Collinson in 
 May, 1855. 
 
 Capt. Austin’s expedition (Resolute, Capt. Austin, • 
 C. B. ; Assistance, Capt. Ommanney ; Intrepid, 
 
 NOR 
 
59i 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Com. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, Com. Sherard 
 Osborne) sailed from England for Barrow’s 
 Straits, April 25th, 1850, and returned in 
 September, 1851. 
 
 The Lady Franklin, Capt. Penny, and Sophia, 
 Capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Bar- 
 row’s Straits, April 13th, 1850, and returned 
 home in September, 1851. 
 
 The first American expedition, in the Advance 
 and Rescue, under Lieut. De Haven and Dr. 
 Kane, toward which Mr. Grinnell gave $30,000, 
 sailed for Lancaster Sound and Barrow’s 
 Straits, May 25th, 1850. After drifting in the 
 pack down Baffin’s- Bay, the ships were re- 
 leased in 1851 uninjured. 
 
 The Felix, Sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by 
 the Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same, 
 locality, May 22d, 1850, and returned in 1851. 
 
 H.M.S. North Star, Commander Saunders, which 
 had sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
 Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spit- 
 head, Sept. 28th, 1850. 
 
 H.M.S. Herald, Capt. Kellett, C.B., which had 
 sailed in 1848, made three voyages to Beh- 
 ring’s Straits, and returned in 1851. 
 
 Lieut. Pirn went to St. Petersburg in November, 
 
 1851. with the intention of traveling through 
 Siberia to the mouth of the river Kolyma; but 
 he was dissuaded from proceeding by the Rus- 
 sian government. 
 
 Sir Edward Belcher’s expedition (Assistance, Sir 
 Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, Capt. Kel- 
 lett, C.B. ; North Star, Capt. Pullen’; Intre- 
 pid, Capt. M‘Clintoek; Pioneer, Capt. Sherard 
 Osborne) sailed from Woolwich, April 15th, 
 
 1852. 
 
 Lady Franklin, from her own resources, 
 
 aided by a few friends (and by the “ Tasma- 
 nian Tribute of £1,500), equipped four sepa- 
 rate private expeditions. 
 
 The Prince Albert, Capt. Forsyth, sailed from 
 Aberdeen to Barrow’s Straits, June 5th, 1850; 
 returned Oct. 1st, 1850. 
 
 The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
 by Lieut. Bellot of the French navy and John 
 Hepburne, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
 Regent’s Inlet, June 4th, 1851 ; returned in 
 October, 1852. 
 
 The Isabel, Commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
 head of Baffin’s Bay, Jones’s Sound and the 
 Wellington Channel, July 6th, and returned in 
 November, 1852. 
 
 Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel on a re- 
 newed search to Behring’s Strait, 1853. 
 
 H.M.S. Rattlesnake, Commander Trollope, dis- 
 patched to assist the Plover, Capt. Maguire 
 (who succeeded Capt. Moore) at Point Barrow 
 in April, met with it in August, 1853. 
 
 The second American expedition, the Advance, 
 under Dr. Kane, early in June, 1853. 
 
 The Phoenix (with the Breadalbane transport), 
 Commander Inglefield, accompanied by Lieut. 
 Bellot, sailed in May, and returned in October, 
 
 1853. 
 
 The Phoenix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
 
 command of Captain Inglefield, sailed in May, 
 and returned in October, 1854. 
 
 The third American expedition, in search of Dr. 
 Kane, consisted of the Release and the steamer 
 Arctic, the barque Eringo, and another vessel, 
 under the command of Lieut. H. J. Hartstene, 
 accompanied by a brother of Dr. Kane as sur- 
 geon, May 31st, 1855. On the 17th of May, 
 1855, Dr. Kane and his party left the Advance, 
 and journeyed over the ice, 1,300 miles, to the 
 Danish settlement. On their way home in a 
 Danish vessel, they fell in with Lieut. Hart- 
 stene, Sept. 18th, and arrived with him at 
 New York, Oct. 11th, 1855. [See Kane.] 
 
 The eighteenth British expedition (equipped by 
 Lady Franklin and her friends, the govern- 
 ment having declined), consisting of the screw 
 steamer Fox, Captain M^Clintock, R. N., sailed 
 from Aberdeen, July 1st, 1857. 
 
 In the spring of 1853, Dr. Rae again pro- 
 ceeded toward the magnetic pole, and in July, 
 1854, he reported to the Admiralty that he 
 had purchased from a party of Esquimaux a 
 number of articles, which had belonged to 
 Sir John Franklin and his party, namely, Sir 
 John’s star or order, part of a watch, silver 
 spoons, and forks with crests, &c. He also 
 reported the statement of the natives, that 
 they had met with a party of white men about 
 four winters previous and had sold them a 
 seal, and that four months later, in the same 
 season, they had found the bodies of thirty 
 men (some buried) who had evidently per- 
 ished by starvation ; the* place appears, from 
 the description, to have been in the neighbor- 
 hood of the Great Fish River of Back. Dr. 
 Rae arrived in England in Oct. 22d, 1854, 
 with the melancholy relics, which have since 
 been deposited in Greenwich Hospital. Dr. 
 Rae and his companions received the reward 
 of £10,000 for discovering these remains, as 
 the first clue. 
 
 All the ships of Sir Edward Belcher’s 
 expedition were finally abandoned. Capt. 
 Kellett’s vessel, the Resolute, was found 
 adrift a thousand miles from where she was 
 left, by a New London whaler, and 'was 
 brought home. It was bought by order of 
 Congress, thoroughly repaired and equipped, 
 and intrusted to Capt. H. J. Hartstene to be 
 presented to Queen Victoria, It arrived at 
 Southampton, Dec. 12th, 1856, and was vis- 
 ited by her majesty on the 16th. 
 
 The honor of completing the north-west 
 passage is due to Capt. M‘Clure, who sailed 
 in the Investigator in company with Com. 
 
 NOR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 595 
 
 Collinson in the Enterprise, in search of Sir 
 John Franklin, Jan. 20th, 1850. On Sept. 
 6th he discovered high land which he named 
 Baring’s land ; on the 9th, other land which 
 he named after Prince Albert; on the 30th 
 the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong 
 conviction that the waters in which the 
 Investigator then lay communicated with 
 Barrow’s Strait, he set out on Oct. 21st with 
 a few men in a sledge, to test his views. 
 On Oct. 26th, he reached Point Russell (73-° 
 31' N. lat., 114° 14' W. long.), where from 
 an elevation of 600 feet he saw Parry or Mel- 
 ville Sound beneath them. The strait con- 
 necting the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans he 
 named after the Prince of Wales. The In- 
 vestigator was the first ship which traversed 
 the Polar Sea from Behring’s Straits to Baring 
 Island. Intelligence of this discovery was 
 brought to England by Com. Inglefield, and 
 the admiralty chart was published Oct. 14th, 
 1853. Capt. McClure returned to England 
 in September, 1854. Fie was knighted for 
 his discovery. In 1855 parliament ordered 
 £5,000 to be paid to Captain M‘Clure, and 
 £5,000 to be distributed between the officers 
 and crew. 
 
 NORWAY, an extensive kingdom of the 
 north of Europe. Its area is 122,711 square 
 miles, and its population 1,490,000. The 
 face of the country is broken by mountain 
 ridges, the summits of which are covered 
 with snow and ice. The climate presents the 
 extremes of heat and cold, and a great 
 proportion of the soil is barren. In fact, the 
 wealth of Norway consists in timber, cattle, 
 fisheries, and minerals. The chief towns are 
 Bergen, Christiana, Drontheim, Konigsberg, 
 Christiansand, and Fredericshall. Norway 
 was divided into petty principalities until the 
 nirith century, and was little known except 
 for piracies. In 1029 Norway was conquer- 
 ed by Canute the Great, King of Denmark, 
 and was governed by Sueno, as regent. On 
 the death of Canute, Norway recovered its 
 independence. In 1397 it was incorporated 
 with Denmark. Their peaceful union con- 
 tinued till 1814, when it was interrupted by 
 the treaty which the King of Denmark was 
 compelled to make with Great Britain, re- 
 signing the sovereignty of Norway to the 
 King of Sweden, to which Norway was 
 forced to submit; but as an integral state, 
 
 and with the preservation of its constitution 
 and laws. 
 
 NOYA SCOTIA, a British province of 
 North America, a peninsula, jutting out into 
 the Atlantic, containing about 18,660. square 
 miles. It is about 280 miles in length, and 
 partially separated from New Brunswick by 
 the Bay of Fundy. The country is somewhat 
 rough, but the soil in the interior is good. 
 The exports consist principally of fish, tim- 
 ber, and plaster of Paris. Estimated pop. 
 in 1870, 389,343. Nova Scotia was discov- 
 ered by John Cabot in 1497. The French, 
 who gave it the name of Acadia, were the 
 first settlers. Sir William Alexander received 
 a grant of the peninsula, under the name of 
 Nova Scotia, in 1621, but it was surrendered 
 to the French by Charles I. on the family 
 alliance between him and that court in 1632. 
 
 It was recovered by Major Sedgwick, under 
 Cromwell, in 1654; delivered again to the 
 French by Charles II. in 1667 ; recovered by 
 Sir William Phipps in 1690; ceded to France 
 at the peace of Ryswick in 1697; but con- 
 quered again by the English in 1710, and 
 continued to them by the treaty of Utrecht 
 in 1714. Afterward, in conjunction with the 
 Indians, the French gave great disturbance 
 to the English settlers in this country ; but 
 their possession was again confirmed by the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Many loy- 
 alists from the United States settled here at 
 the close of the Revolution. 
 
 Halifax, the capital and chief port of the 
 province, on Chebucto Bay, has one of the 
 finest harbors in the world. It was founded 
 in 1749 by Gen. Cornwallis. It is the chief 
 naval station in British America, and has a * 
 large dockyard and a fine naval arsenal. 
 There are about 32,000 inhabitants. 
 
 NOVGOROD, an ancient city of European 
 Russia, containing now only 7,000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is the capital of a government of the 
 same name, and formerly enjoyed many priv- 
 ileges under an independent prince. In the 
 fifteenth century it had 400,000 inhabitants, 
 and was once so rich and powerful, that a 
 common proverb was, “Yfho can oppose 
 God, or the great city of Novgorod ? ” Vithold, 
 Great Duke of Lithuania, was the first who, 
 in 1427, obliged the city to pay a tribute of 
 200,000 crowns. Ivan Wassiliewitsch I., 
 tyrant of Muscovy, made himself master if 
 
 NOY 
 
596 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 it in 1477, and placed a governor in it; and, 
 some time after, came in person and plun- 
 dered the city, carrying away with him to 
 Moscow, 300 wagons loaded with gold, silver, 
 and precious stones, and other rich goods 
 and furniture ; to which place also he trans- 
 ported the inhabitants of Novgorod, send- 
 ing Muscovites to inhabit their city. Ivan 
 Basilowitz, Great Duke of Muscovy, in 1569, 
 upon a groundless suspicion of their design- 
 ing to revolt, slew many of its inhabitants, 
 besides a vast number that were trodden to 
 death by a party of his horse, let in upon 
 them. After having plundered the rich 
 church of Sancta Sophia, and all the treas- 
 ures of the other churches, he also pillaged 
 the archbishopric, and then commanded the 
 archbishop to ride upon a white horse, with 
 a fiddle tied about his neck, and a flute in his 
 hand ; and in this posture conducted him to 
 Moscow. The city was taken by the Swedes 
 in 1611, and restored to the Russians in 
 1634. In 1664 it was populous, and a place 
 of good trade, encompassed with a timber 
 wall, well stored with ammunition and brass 
 ordnance, and defended by a castle. The 
 building of St. Petersburg struck the final 
 blow to Novgorod. This duchy, once the 
 greatest in Russia, was assigned by lot to 
 Ruruk Varegus, their first duke, whose pos- 
 terity have enlarged their dominions as far as 
 the Greek empire on one side, and Norway 
 on the other. 
 
 N.UMA POMPILIUS, a Sabine, the second 
 king of Rome, reigned from 714 to 672 b.c. 
 At the death of Romulus, the Romans fixed 
 upon him to be their new king ; and two sen- 
 * ators were sent to acquaint him with the 
 decision of the senate, and of the people. 
 Numa refused their offer ; and it was only 
 at the repeated solicitations and prayers of 
 his friends, that he was prevailed upon to 
 accept the royalty. The beginning of his 
 reign was popular, and he dismissed the 300 
 body guards which his predecessor had kept 
 
 around his person ; observing, that he did 
 not distrust a people who had compelled him 
 to reign over them. He was not, like Romu- 
 lus, fond of war and military expeditions ; 
 but he applied himself to tame the ferocity 
 of his subjects, to inculcate in their minds a 
 reverence for the Deity, and to quell their 
 dissentions, by dividing all the citizens into 
 different classes. 
 
 NUMANTIA, a town of the Celtiberi in 
 Spain, near the sources of the river Durius 
 (Duero), celebrated for the war of fourteen 
 years, which, though unprotected by walls 
 and towers, it bravely maintained against the 
 Romans. The inhabitants obtained some 
 advantages over the Roman forces, till Scipio 
 Africanus was empowered to finish the war, 
 and to see the destruction of Numantia. He 
 began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, 
 and was bravely opposed by the besieged, 
 who were no more than 4,000 men able to 
 bear arms. Both armies behaved with un- 
 common valor, and the courage of the Nu- 
 mantines was soon changed into despair and 
 fury. Their provisions began to fail, and 
 they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and 
 afterward of that of their dead companions, 
 and at last were necessitated to draw lots to 
 kill and devour one another. The melancholy 
 situation of their affairs obliged some to 
 surrender to the Roman general. Scipio de- 
 manded them to deliver themselves upon the 
 morrow; they refused, and when a longer 
 time had been granted to their petitions, they 
 retired and set fire to their houses, and all 
 destroyed themselves, b.c. 133, so that not 
 even one remained to adorn the triumph of 
 the conqueror. Some historians, however, 
 deny that, and maintain that a number of 
 Numantines delivered themselves into Scipio’ s 
 hands, and that fifty of them were drawn in 
 triumph at Rome, and the rest sold as slaves. 
 The fall of Numantia was more glorious than 
 that of Carthage or Corinth. 
 
 NUM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 597 
 
 0 . 
 
 OATES, Titus, was born about 1619. He 
 was the son of an Anabaptist preacher, was 
 educated at Cambridge, and afterward took 
 orders. Dismissed from his chaplaincy in 
 disgrace, in 1677, he turned Roman Catholic, 
 and was admitted into the society of Jesuits. 
 On his return to England, in 1678, however, 
 he declared himself a Protestant, and in con- 
 junction with one Dr. Ezrael Tongue, gave 
 information of a pretended popish plot ; 
 which met with too ready a belief, and caused 
 the execution and imprisonment of many 
 innocent men. Oates was rewarded with a 
 pension of £1,200 a year, but when James 
 II. came to the throne, he was found guilty 
 of perjury. He was sentenced to be stripped 
 of his clerical habit, to be pilloried in Palace 
 Yard, to be led round Westminster Hall with 
 an inscription declaring his infamy over his 
 head, to be pilloried again in front of the 
 Royal Exchange, to be whipped from Aldgate 
 to Newgate, and, after an interval of two 
 days, to be whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. 
 
 If, against all probability, he' should happen 
 to survive this horrible infliction, he was to 
 be kept a close prisoner during life. Five 
 times every year he was to be brought forth 
 from his dungeon and exposed on the pillory 
 in different parts of the capital. The wretch 
 barely survived his terrible flogging. In the 
 reign of William III. he obtained his liberty, 
 and a pension of £400 a year. He died in 
 1705. 
 
 OBERLIN, John Frederic, was born at 
 Strasburg, August 1st, 1740. Under the 
 training of devout parents and a beloved pas- 
 tor, the boy early cherished the wish to give 
 his life to the ministry, and for that he was 
 educated. He obtained a curacy in the Ban 
 de la Roche, or Steinthal, a wild, mountainous 
 district in Alsace. His field was an exten- 
 sive valley, lying in the primeval roughness 
 of nature, and divided into two parishes, of 
 which the Waldbach was one, and comprising 
 nearly a hundred families. Completely se- 
 questered from the world, the people were 
 little better than savages, ignorant, filthy, and 
 lazy. They knew nothing of the Bible, ex- 
 
 come from God. In this neglected nook, was 
 the opportunity for the labor of good that 
 Oberlin sought, and here he passed his days. 
 He bestirred himself for the physical and 
 social welfare of his children, as he called his 
 parishioners, as well as their spiritual, and 
 he was rewarded by awaking them from the 
 stupor of barbarism to intelligence and indus- 
 try. Roads took the place of the rude foot- 
 paths ; bridges were built where before were 
 only stepping stones, under water three- 
 quarters of the year ; agricultural imple- 
 ments were introduced; the youth were 
 taught useful trades ; neat cottages were 
 reared in place of. wretched cabins of turf ; 
 till Oberlin’s cure was no longer a dreary 
 waste. He wrought a similar betterment in 
 the moral condition of the people. Schools 
 and libraries were established, and aided him 
 in his simple, earnest, evangelical teachings. 
 His people grew to number three thousand. 
 During the terrors of the French revolution, 
 when elsewhere all worship was at an end, 
 Oberlin was not molested in his work ; an 
 immunity *which he owed both to the obscure 
 position of his parish and to his own excel- 
 lence of character. He died in 1826, aged 
 eighty-six, leaving to the world an eminent 
 example of a life wholly consecrated to the 
 highest benevolence, and illuminated by 
 fidelity to both God and man. 
 
 OCCUM, Sampson, a Mohegan Indian, con- 
 verted to Christianity ; a missionary among 
 the Indians of New York; died 1792. 
 
 O’CONNELL, Daniel, was born in the 
 county of Kerry, Ireland, August 6th, 1775. 
 He was educated at St. Omers and Douay in 
 France, and was at first destined for the 
 church, but the relaxation that admitted Ro- 
 man Catholics to the bar, opened for him a 
 more brilliant career. He was admitted to 
 the Irish bar in 1798, and became the first 
 advocate of the day. He was prominent in 
 the movement for the political emancipation 
 of the Catholics, and after the reform bill be- 
 came conspicuous as the head of a parliament- 
 ary body, acknowledging his leadership and 
 voting together, called “O’Connell’s Tail.” 
 About 1840 he commenced agitating the re- 
 
 ceDt that it was a large book said to have 
 
 OCO 
 
598 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 peal of the union, and in January, 1844, the 
 British government procured his trial for trea- 
 son. A conviction was obtained, followed by 
 a sentence of imprisonment, but it was re- 
 versed in the House of Lords. O’Connell, 
 however, was now an old man : the trial shook 
 his nerves and his position. It was followed 
 by the miseries’ of the potato blight. On the 
 15th of May, 1847, he died during a sojourn 
 in Italy, which was called a pilgrimage, and 
 supposed to partake of a penitential or relig- 
 ious character. 
 
 OCTAYIA, a Roman lady, sister to the 
 Emperor Augustus, and celebrated for her 
 beauty and virtues. Her marriage with An- 
 tony was a political step to reconcile her 
 brother and her husband. Antony proved 
 for some time attentive to her, but he soon 
 after despised her for Cleopatra. After the 
 battle of Actium and the death of Antony, 
 Octavia, forgetful of the injuries -she had re- 
 ceived, took into her house all the children of 
 her husband, and treated them with maternal 
 tenderness. The death of her son Marcellus 
 continually preyed upon the mind of Octavia, 
 and she died of melancholy about ten years 
 before the Christian era. Her brother paid 
 great regard to her memory, by pronouncing 
 himself her funeral oration. The Roman 
 people also showed their respect for her vir- 
 tues, by their wish to pay her divine honors. 
 
 (EDIPUS, son of Laius, King of Boeotia, 
 and Jocasta. Laius was induced to believe 
 that his son would be his murderer, and the 
 infant was accordingly exposed on Mount 
 Cithaeron. He was educated at the court of 
 Polybus, king of Corinth. Being reproached 
 by a haughty nobleman with not being the son 
 of Polybus, he resolved to satisfy himself by 
 making inquiries at the shrine of the Delphic 
 oracle. The answer was as follows: “Avoid 
 thy country if thou wouldst escape the sin of 
 murdering thy father and marrying thy 
 mother.” (EJipus, looking on Corinth as his 
 country, fled thence to Thebes, where he 
 killed his father, without knowing him, b.c. 
 1276, and received the hand of his mother 
 Jocasta. Discovering the horrible calamity 
 which had befallen him, (Edipus put out his 
 eyes, and died far from the scene of his mis- 
 fortunes. Jocasta hanged herself. 
 
 OEIILENSCHLAEGER, Adam, the great- 
 est dramatic poet in Scandinavian literature, 
 
 born at Copenhagen, J777, died there Jan. 
 28th, 1850. He rewrote many of his works 
 in German, and thus holds a high place in 
 German letters. 
 
 OGLETHORPE, James Edward, an English 
 general, was born in London, in 1G98. He 
 served under Prince Eugene. He was the 
 founder of the colony of Georgia, for which 
 he obtained the royal charter. He died at 
 the age of eighty-seven. His private life was 
 exceedingly amiable, and he has been etilo- 
 gized by Thomson, Pope, and Johnson. 
 
 OHIO comprises 39,964 square miles. In 
 1870 it contained 2,665,260 inhabitants. A 
 slightly elevated ridge divides the waters flow- 
 ing into Lake Erie from those feeding the 
 Ohio, and the eastern and the south-eastern 
 parts are much diversified with hill and valley, 
 but the country is nowhere mountainous. 
 Swamps and morasses occasionally occur, but 
 nine-tenths of the state is susceptible of culti- 
 vation, and three-fourths eminently produc- 
 tive. The river bottoms are of exuberant rich- 
 ness. In the centre and north-west are many 
 prairies, but the greater part of the country 
 was originally covered with forests of gigantic 
 trees. The chief are the Ohio, Muskingum, 
 Hockhocking, Scioto, Miami, Maumee, San- 
 dusky, and Cuyahoga. Ohio is amply provi- 
 ded with the most useful of minerals, iron and 
 coal, and lime. Valuable salt-springs occur. 
 The fertile soil gives abundant crops of maize, 
 wheat, rye, and other grains. The vintage is 
 becoming an important harvest. Droves of 
 fat cattle come to eastern markets from the 
 valleys of the Scioto, and beef is largely packed. 
 Swine are a staple production, and Cincinnati, 
 where their flesh is largely cured and packed, 
 has been jocosely called Porkopolis. 
 
 The history of Ohio belongs almost to the 
 present century. Its growth is among the 
 marvels of our country. The first permanent 
 settlement in its limits was made at Marietta, 
 April, 1788, by a party of emigrants from 
 New England. In 1791 a body of French 
 emigrants founded Gallipolis. In 1796 several 
 towns along Lake Erie were settled by bands 
 from New England. In 1799 the first territo- 
 rial legislature was assembled at Cincinnati. 
 In 1802 it was erected into an independent 
 state. 
 
 The general assembly and state officers are 
 chosen biennially by the people. The elective 
 
 OHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 599 
 
 franchise is enjoyed by all males after! 
 twenty-one years ot age who shall have been 
 a resident of the state one year. The judi- 
 cial power is vested in a supreme court, 
 district court, courts of common pleas, 
 courts of probate, justices of the peace, and 
 such tribunals inferior to the supreme 
 court as the general assembly may estab- 
 lish. The judges and justices are chosen 
 by the people. The constitution provides that 
 there shall be a thorough and efficient system 
 of common schools established throughout the 
 state. An asylum for the deaf and dumb is 
 sustained at Columbus, and an institution for 
 the blind. 
 
 Columbus, the capital, is pleasantly situated 
 on the Scioto, in a rich and beautiful district. 
 It is built on a regular plan, with a pretty 
 square in the centre, about which stand some 
 of the principal public buildings. In 1870 it 
 had 31,274 inhabitants. The largest city of 
 Ohio, and the metropolis of the West, is Cin- 
 cinnati, on the north bank of the Ohio River, 
 116 miles south-west from Columbus. Pop- 
 ulation in 1870, 216,239. It has grown with 
 great rapidity, and now ranks as the third 
 place in population in the United States. It 
 is an extensive manufacturing place ; although 
 destitute of water power, yet this destitution 
 has been extensively compensated by the em- 
 ployment of steam. From the position Cin- 
 cinnati holds as the great emporium of the 
 West, it must continue to increase with the 
 growth of the rapidly rising country with 
 which it is connected. Seventy years ago 
 Cincinnati was a mere military outpost. 
 
 On the 28th of December, 1788, a band of 
 emigrants from New England and New Jersey 
 landed on the north bank of the Ohio, oppo- 
 site the mouth of Licking River, to commence 
 the settlement of a town. Their first log 
 cabin was built on a spot which is now on 
 Front Street, a little east of Main Street. In 
 January, 1789, they proceeded to lay off' their 
 town, which was then covered with a dense 
 forest; the lower bottom bearing huge syca- 
 more and sugar maple trees, and the upper, 
 beech and oak. The streets were run, and 
 the corners marked upon the trees. To their 
 projected city they gave the name of Losanti- 
 ville, which was afterward changed to Cincin- 
 nati. In 1802 it was incorporated as a town, 
 with a population of less than 1,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Thus recent is the origin, and thus 
 rapid has been the growth, of this beautiful 
 city, which long since obtained the name of 
 the Queen City of the West. 
 
 Cleveland is the most important port of the 
 state on Lake Erie. Its trade is great and 
 growing, and in 1870 it had 92.829 inhabit- 
 ants. It derives its name from General Moses 
 Cleveland, an agent of the Connecticut land 
 company, who accompanied the first surveying 
 party to the Connecticut Reserve, and under 
 whose direction the town was first surveyed 
 in 1796. Cleveland was incorporated as a 
 village in 1814, and as a city in 1836. Pop- 
 ulation in 1796, three; in If 58, 60,000. 
 
 OLDCASTLE, Sir John, also known as 
 Lord Cobham, was an adherent of Wickliffe, 
 the head of the Lollards, and esteemed by 
 Henry IV. and Henry V. The latter monarch 
 
 OLD 
 
600 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 at the instance of the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury expostulated with him, and endeavored 
 to reconcile him to the Catholic faith. But 
 Cobham persevered in his opinion, and was 
 at length condemned to the flames for his 
 religious tenets. Cobham escaped from the 
 Tower and four years afterward was retaken. 
 He was hung by the waist in chains from a 
 gallows, his legs having been previously 
 broken, and was thus roasted and consumed, 
 1417. 
 
 OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy in the north 
 of Germany, containing 2,470 square miles, 
 and 287,000 inhabitants. The house of Old- 
 enburg is one of the most illustrious in Eu- 
 rope ; the Emperor of Russia, the King of 
 Denmark, and the late royal family of Swe- 
 den are descended from it. 
 
 OLYMPIAS, a celebrated woman, who 
 was daughter of a king of Epirius, and who 
 married Philip, King of Macedonia, by whom 
 he had Alexander the Great. Her haughti- 
 ness, and more probably her infidelity, 
 obliged Philip to repudiate her, and to marry 
 Cleopatra, the niece of King Attalus. Olym- 
 pias was sensible of this injury, and Alexan- 
 der showed his disapprobation of his father’s 
 measures by retiring from the court to his 
 mother. The murder of Philip, which soon 
 followed this disgrace, and which some have 
 attributed to the intrigues of Olympias, was 
 productive of the greatest extravagances. 
 The queen paid the highest honor to her hus- 
 band’s murderer. She gathered his mangled 
 limbs, placed a crown of gold on his head, 
 and laid his ashes near those of Philip. 
 
 When Alexander was dead, Olympias 
 seized the government of Macedonia; and, 
 to establish her usurpation, she cruelly put 
 to death Aradseus, son of Philip, with his 
 wife Eurydice, as also Nicanor, the brother 
 of Cassander, with a hundred leading men 
 of Macedon, who were inimical to her inter- 
 est. Such barbarities did not long remain 
 unpunished; Cassander besieged her in 
 Pydna, where she had retired with the 
 remains of her family, and she was obliged 
 to surrender after an obstinate siege. The 
 conqueror ordered her to be put to death. A 
 body of two hundred soldiers were directed 
 to put the bloody command into execution, 
 but the splendor and majesty of the queen 
 
 disarmed their courage, and she wae at last 
 massacred by those whom she had cruelly 
 deprived of their children, about 816 b.c. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES were celebrated by 
 the ancient Greeks in honor of Jupiter Olym- 
 pius, on the banks of the Alpheius, in the 
 Peloponnesus. They occurred once in every 
 four years, and the Greeks computed time 
 from them. The competitors contended for 
 glory only, and the prize was a wreath from 
 the sacred olive-tree near Olympia, and the 
 honor of being proclaimed victor. No 
 females, except the priestesses of Ceres, 
 were permitted to witness them, death being 
 denounced to the woman who should oe 
 present. The competitors prepared *' '.em- 
 selves by ten months’ exercise in the 0 ymna- 
 sium at Elis. The games consisted of races 
 on horseback and on foot, leaping, throwing 
 the discus, wrestling, boxing, musical and 
 poetical contests. 
 
 Racing was considered in Greece a matter 
 of the highest national importance; had it 
 not been so,. Sophocles would have been 
 guilty of a great fault in his Electra, where 
 he puts into the mouth of the messenger who 
 comes to recount the death of Orestes, a long 
 description of this sport. Of the training and 
 management of the Olympic race-horse we 
 are unfortunately left in ignorance : all that 
 can be inferred being the fact that the eques- 
 trian candidates were required to enter their 
 names and send their horses to Elis at least 
 thirty days before the celebration of the 
 games commenced, and that the charioteers 
 and riders, whether owners or proxies, went 
 through a prescribed course of exercises 
 during the ensuing month. They had their 
 course for full aged horses, and their course 
 for colts, and their prize for which mares 
 only started, resembling in these respects our 
 degenerate selves. It is true that the race 
 with riding-horses was neither so magnificent 
 nor so expensive, and consequently not con- 
 sidered so royal, as the race with chariots 
 yet they had their gentlemen-jockeys in those 
 days, and noted ones too, for among the 
 number were Philip, King of Macedon, and 
 Hiero, King of Syracuse. The -want of stir- 
 rups alone must have been a terrible defi- 
 ciency. But horsemanship was an art in 
 which the Greeks excelled. Homer, although 
 
 OLY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 601 
 
 he mentions only chariots in his account of 
 the siege of Troy, speaks of riding so famil- 
 iarly in some parts of his Iliad and Odyssey, 
 that it must have been practiced among the 
 Greeks before the composition of either of 
 these poems. In the fifteenth book of the 
 Iliad, he represents the strength and activity 
 of Ajax, when he fought in defense of the 
 Grecian ships of war that were attacked by 
 the Trojans, and leaped from one ship to 
 another, by the readiness and address with 
 which a skillful horseman would vault from 
 the back of one horse to that of another ; and 
 his ability to defend many ships at once by 
 that of an accomplished rider, who is capa- 
 ble of managing and controlling several horses 
 at the same time. 
 
 High on the decks, with vast gigantic stride, 
 
 The god-like hero stalks from side to side. 
 
 So when a horseman from the watery mead 
 (Skilled in the manage of the bounding steed,) 
 Drives lour fair coursers, practiced to obey, 
 
 To some great city through the public way ; 
 
 Safe in his art, as side by side they run, 
 
 He shifts his seat, and vaults from one to one, 
 And now to this, and now to that he flies ; 
 Admiring numbers follow with their eyes. 
 
 Pope's Homer. 
 
 The Olympiad from which the Greeks be- 
 gan to reckon, was, according to Petavius, 
 777 ; according to Usher, 772 ; and accord- 
 ing to Calvisius, 774 b.c. Gatterer and most 
 of the moderns call it 776. An Olympiad 
 was a period of four years. 
 
 OMAR I., the second caliph, or successor 
 of Mahomet. He was raised to this dignity 
 after the death of Abubeker in 634. Soon 
 after his entering upon the government, he 
 carried on wars with Ali, who was the lawful 
 successor of Mahomet, and who had retired 
 into Arabia. Omar having defeated Ali, 
 taken the city Bosra, and many other places 
 of Arabia, turned his arms against the Chris- 
 tians, and entered Syria, where he gained a 
 victory over Theodorus Bogarius, brother to 
 the Emperor Heraclius, and afterward re- 
 turned victorious into Arabia. The emperor, 
 who was then at Jerusalem, desirous to pro- 
 vide for his own safety, took the relics and 
 most precious ornaments of the temple ; and 
 leaving Theodorus with Bahamus, retired to 
 Constantinople. In 635 Omar gathered his 
 forces, and marched against Damascus, which 
 he took the year following, and afterward all 
 
 Phoenicia, and committed a thousand vio- 
 lences to force people to embrace his religion. 
 A part of his army subdued Alexandria, 
 burning the great library, and not long after 
 all Egypt. In the mean time, Omar went 
 in person to attack Jerusalem, and after two 
 years’ siege entered it victoriously in 638. 
 Omar thus reduced all Judqp, to his obedience, 
 and Jerusalem was, from that time, possessed 
 by infidels till the conquest of it by Godfrey 
 of Bouillon in 1099. In 639 he subdued all 
 Mesopotamia, and at the same time built the 
 city of Cairo, near the ruins of Memphis, in 
 Egypt. And lastly, in 643, he made himself 
 master of Persia. From the time of his tak- 
 ing Jerusalem he made his ordinary residence 
 in that city, and built a magnificent temple 
 there in honor of Mahomet ; and, after having 
 reigned ten years, he was killed by a Persian, 
 one of his domestics, and buried at Medina 
 in 644. 
 
 OMAR II., the tenth caliph, or successor 
 of Mahomet, was chosen after the death of his 
 cousin, Solyman Hascoin, in the beginning 
 of the year 721, at the time Constantinople 
 was besieged. He collected all his forces,, and 
 attacked that city ; but the besieged made so 
 stout a resistance, and so good use of their 
 fire-works, that he was forced to raise it. 
 And scarcely was Marvan, or Masalma, the 
 general of the army, safe out of the channel 
 of Constantinople, when a dreadful tempest 
 destroyed most of his ships, and many others 
 were consumed by fire ; so that of 300 ships 
 only fifteen escaped, five of which were taken 
 by the Christians, and the other ten pro- 
 ceeded with the news of this defeat to the 
 caliph, who, imagining that God was angry 
 with him for permitting Christians the exer- 
 cise of their religion in his dominions, made 
 all those whose fathers or mothers were Mo- 
 hammedans, embrace Mohammedanism on 
 pain of death, and upon great penalties for- 
 bade the eating of swine’s flesh, and the use 
 of wine. He discharged all Christians that 
 turned Mohammedans from paying taxes 
 and customs, and cruelly persecuted the 
 others ; and pushed on by a false zeal, he 
 sent letters to Leo Isauricus, the emperor at 
 Constantinople, to embrace Mohammedanism, 
 and sent a renegade to instruct him in the 
 way of it ; but he died soon after, having 
 reigned two years. 
 
 OMA 
 
602 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 OPIE, Amelia, was the daughter of Dr. 
 Alderson, of Norwich, England, and the 
 spouse of John Opie, the eminent historical 
 painter, whom she survived nearly half a 
 centnry. She was the authoress of many 
 moral tales, of which “ Illustrations of Ly- 
 ing” was considered the best The last 
 twenty -five years' of her life she was a mem- 
 ber of the society of Friends, and lived in the 
 strictest retirement at Norwich, where she 
 died in 1853, over eighty years of age. 
 
 ORACLES were impostures of the ancient 
 priesthood, supported by the policy of gov- 
 ernments, and apparently credited by habit 
 and education ; but constantly used to im- 
 pose on the soldiery and ignorant multitudes. 
 No institutions were more famous than the 
 ancient oracles of 'Egypt, Greece, and Rome. 
 They were impudently said to be the will of 
 the gods themselves, and were consulted, not 
 only upon every important matter, but even 
 in the affairs of private life. To make peace 
 or war, to introduce a change of government, 
 to plant a colony, to enact laws, to raise 
 an edifice, or to marry, were all sufficient 
 reasons to consult the pretended will of the 
 gods. 
 
 The small province of Boeotia could once 
 boast of twenty-five oracles, and the Pelopon- 
 nesus of the same number. Not only the 
 chief of the gods gave oracles, but in process 
 of time heroes were admitted to enjoy the 
 same privileges ; and the oracles of a Tropho- 
 nius and an Antinoiis were soon able to 
 rival the fame of those of Apollo and Jupiter. 
 The temple of Delphi seemed to claim a supe- 
 riority over the other temples ; its fame was 
 once so extended, and its riches were so great, 
 that not only private persons, but even kings 
 and numerous armies, made it an object of 
 plunder and of rapine. 
 
 The manner of delivering oracles was differ- 
 ent. A priestess at Delphi was permitted to 
 pronounce the oracles of the god, and her 
 delivery of the answers was alw r ays attended 
 with acts of apparent madness and desperate 
 fury. Not only women, but even doves, 
 were the ministers of the temple of Dodona ; 
 and the suppliant votary was often startled 
 to hear his questions readily answered by the 
 decayed trunk or the spreading branches of 
 a neighboring oak. Ammon conveyed his 
 answers in a plain and open manner; but 
 
 Amphiaraus required many ablutions and 
 preparatory ceremonies, and he generally 
 communicated his oracles to his suppliants in 
 dreams and visions. Sometimes the first 
 words that were heard, after issuing from the 
 temple, were deemed the answers of the 
 oracles, and sometimes the nodding or shak- 
 ing of the head of the statue, the motions of 
 fishes in a neighboring lake, or their reluct- 
 ance in accepting the food which was offered 
 to them, were as strong and valid as the most 
 express and most minute explanations. 
 
 Some have believed that all the oracles of 
 the earth ceased at the birth of Christ. It 
 was, indeed, the beginning of their decline ; 
 but they remained in repute, and were con- 
 sulted, though perhaps not so frequently, till 
 the fourth century, when Christianity began 
 to triumph over paganism. The oracles often 
 suffered themselves to be bribed. Alexander 
 did it ; but it is well known that Lysander 
 failed in the attempt. Herodotus, who first 
 mentioned the corruption which often pre- 
 vailed in the oracular temples of Greece and 
 Egypt, has been severely treated for his 
 remarks by the historian Plutarch. Demos- 
 thenes is also a witness of the corruption ; 
 and he observed, that the oracles of Greece 
 were servilely subservient to the will and 
 pleasure of Philip, king of Macedon, as he 
 beautifully expresses it by the word Philip- 
 pized. 
 
 When in a state of inspiration, the eyes of 
 the priestess at Delphi suddenly sparkled, 
 her hair stood on end, and a shivering ran 
 over all her body. In this convulsive state 
 she spoke the oracles of the god, often with 
 loud howlings and cries, and her articulations 
 were taken down by the priest, and set in 
 order. Sometimes the spirit of inspiration 
 was more gentle, and not always violent; 
 yet Plutarch mentions one of the priestesses 
 who was thrown into such an excessive fury, 
 that not only those that consulted the oracle, 
 but also the priests that conducted her to the 
 sacred tripod, and attended her during the 
 inspiration, were terrified, and forsook the 
 temple ; and so violent was the fit, that she 
 continued for some days in the most agoniz- 
 ing situation, and at last died. 
 
 At Delphos, the Pythia, before she placed 
 herself on the tripod, used to wash her whole 
 body, and particularly her hair, in the waters 
 
 ORA 
 
HISTORY A^D BIOGRAPHY. 603 
 
 of the fountain Castalia, at the foot of Mount 
 Parnassus. She also shook a laurel-tree that 
 grew near the place, and sometimes ate the 
 leaves, with which she crowned herself. 
 
 The priestesses of Delphi always appeared 
 in the garments of virgins, to intimate their 
 purity and modesty ; and they were solemnly- 
 bound to observe the strictest laws of tem- 
 perance and chastity, that neither fantastical 
 dresses nor lascivious behavior might bring 
 the office, the religion, or the sanctity of the 
 place, into contempt. There was originally 
 but one Pythia, besides subordinate priests ; 
 but afterward two were chosen, and some- 
 times more. The most celebrated of all these 
 is Phemonoe, who is supposed by some to 
 have been the first who gave oracles at 
 Delphi. The oracles were delivered in hex- 
 ameter verse, a custom which was some time 
 after discontinued. The Pythia was con- 
 sulted only one month in the year, about the 
 spring. It was always required that those 
 who consulted the oracle should make large 
 presents to Apollo, and from thence arose the 
 opulence, splendor, and magnificence of the 
 celebrated temple of Delphi. Sacrifices were 
 also offered to the divinity ; and, if the omens 
 proved unfavorable, the priestess refused to 
 give an answer. There were generally five 
 priests who assisted at the offering of the 
 sacrifices ; and there was also another who 
 attended the Pythia, and assisted her in 
 receiving the oracle. 
 
 The most celebrated of the ancient oracles 
 were Delphos, Delos, Ammon, Dodona, the 
 Roman Augurs, and the Sibylline Books. W e 
 give an account derived from the credulous 
 descriptions of antiquity. 
 
 Delphos, now called Castri , the capital 
 of Phocis, in Greece, was anciently much 
 celebrated for its temple and oracle of Apollo. 
 It was also called Pytho by the poets, from 
 the serpent Python, which Apollo killed in 
 this place. Pausanias, however, says that 
 this name Pytho was given to the city of 
 Delphos b} r Pythis, son of Delphus, and 
 grandson of Lycorus. The Greek historians 
 gave to this city the name of Delphos, which 
 some suppose to have been so called from 
 adelphoi , ‘brethren,’ because Apollo and his 
 brother Bacchus were both worshiped there ; 
 and others, with greater probability, derive 
 the name from delphos , single or solitary, 
 
 referring to the retired situation of the city 
 among the mountains. 
 
 Justin questions which was the most 
 worthy of admiration, the fortification of the 
 place, or the majesty of the god who here 
 delivered his oracles. The temple of Apollo 
 occupied a large space, and many streets 
 opened to it. The first discovery which laid 
 the foundation of the extraordinary venera- 
 tion in which the oracle of Delphos was held, 
 and of the riches accumulated in the temple, 
 is said to have been occasioned by some goats 
 which were feeding on Mount Parnassus, near 
 a deep and large cavern with a narrow en- 
 trance. These goats having been observed 
 by the goatherd, Coretas, to leap and frisk 
 after a strange manner, and to utter unusual 
 sounds immediately upon their approach to 
 the mouth of the cavern, he had the curiosity 
 to view it, and found himself seized with the 
 like fit of madness, skipping, dancing, and 
 foretelling things to come. 
 
 At the news of this discovery multitudes 
 flocked thither, many of whom were possessed 
 with such frantic enthusiasm, that they threw 
 themselves headlong into the opening of th.e 
 cavern, insomuch that it was necessary to 
 issue an edict, forbidding all persons to 
 approach it. This surprising place was 
 treated with singular veneration, and was 
 soon covered with a kind of chapel, which 
 was originally made of laurel boughs, and 
 resembled a large hut. This, according to 
 the Phocian tradition, was surrounded by 
 one of wax, raised up by bees ; after this a 
 third was built of solid copper, said to have 
 been the workmanship of Vulcan. 
 
 This last was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 or (according to some authors) by fire, which 
 melted the copper; and then a sumptuous 
 temple, altogether of stone, w T as erected by 
 two excellent architects, Trophimus and Ag- 
 amedes. This edifice was destroyed by fire 
 in the 58th Olympiad, or 548 b.c. The Am- 
 phictyons proposed to be at the charge of 
 building another ; but the Alcmeonides, a 
 rich family of Athens, came to Delphos, ob- 
 tained the honor of executing the building, 
 and made it more magnificent than they had 
 at first proposed. The riches of this temple, 
 amassed by the donations of those w r ho fre- 
 quented it and consulted the oracle, exposed 
 it to various depredations. At length the 
 
 ORA 
 
604 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Gauls, under the conduct of Brennus, came 
 hither for the same purpose, about 278 b.c. ; 
 but they were repulsed, with great slaugh- 
 ter. Last of all, Nero robbed it of five 
 hundred of its most precious brazen and 
 golden statues. 
 
 It has not been ascertained at what time this 
 oracle was founded. It is certain, however, 
 that Apollo was not the first who was con- 
 sulted here. JEschylus, in his tragedy of 
 “ Eumenides,” says Terra was the first who 
 issued oracles at Delphi ; after her, Themis ; 
 then Phoebe, another daughter of Terra, and, 
 as it is said, mother of Latona, and grand- 
 mother to Apollo. Pausanias says, that be- 
 fore T^hemis, Terra and Neptune had delivered 
 oracles in this place, and some say that Sat- 
 urn had also been consulted here. At length 
 the oracle of Apollo became established and 
 permanent ; and such was its reputation, and 
 such were the multitudes from all parts that 
 came to consult it, that the riches which were 
 thus brought into the* temple and city, be- 
 came so considerable as to be compared with 
 those of the Persian kings. 
 
 About the time when this oracle was first 
 discovered, the whole mystery requisite for 
 obtaining the prophetic gift, is said to have 
 been merely to approach the cavern and inhale 
 the vapor that issued from it, and then the 
 god inspired all persons indiscriminately ; 
 but at length, several enthusiasts, in the ex- 
 cess of their fury, having thrown themselves 
 headlong into the cavern, it was thought 
 expedient to contrive a prevention of this 
 accident, which frequently occurred. Ac- 
 cordingly, the priests placed over the hole, 
 whence the vapor issued, a machine which 
 they called a tripod, because it had three feet, 
 and commissioned a woman to seat herself in 
 it, where she might inhale the vapor without 
 danger, because the three feet of the machine 
 stood firmly upon the rock. This priestess 
 was named Pythia, from the serpent Python, 
 slain by Apollo, or from the Greek puthes- 
 thai , signifying to inquire, because people 
 came to Delphi to consult this deity. The 
 females first employed were virgins, selected 
 with great precaution ; but the only qualifi- 
 cation necessary was to be able to speak and 
 repeat what the god dictated. 
 
 This was done by placing her ear close to 
 one of the horns of the altar, and listening to 
 
 the voice of one of Apollo’s priests, to whom 
 the question had been communicated. This 
 priest, who stood near the altar, in the inte- 
 rior of the temple, having been assisted by 
 his brethren in the necessary devotions and 
 sacrifices, opened the Book of Fate, which 
 was deposited in the temple, and after many 
 prayers worked the required problems. The 
 answer, which from the nature of the case in 
 hand, was often conditional, being communi- 
 cated to the priestess on the tripod, was, 
 after various ceremonies, delivered to the 
 inquiring multitude, or to the individual who 
 came privately to consult the oracle. 
 
 The custom of choosing young virgins 
 continued for a long time, till one of them, 
 who was extremely beautiful, was dishonored 
 by a young Thessalian. An express law was 
 then enacted, that none should be chosen but 
 women above fifty years old. At first there 
 was only one priestess, but afterward there 
 were two or three. The oracles were not 
 delivered every day : but gifts and sacrifices 
 were in some cases presented for a long time, 
 and even for a whole year ; and it was only 
 once a year, in the beginning of spring, that 
 Apollo inspired the priestess. Except at this 
 time she was forbidden, under pain of death, 
 to go into the sanctuary to consult Apollo. 
 
 Alexander, before his expedition into Asia, 
 came to Delphi on one of those days w'hen 
 the sanctuary was shut, and entreated the 
 priestess to mount the tripod ; which she 
 steadily refused, alleging the law which for- 
 bade her. The prince became impatient, and 
 drew the priestess by force from her cell, and 
 whilst he was conducting her to the sanc- 
 tuary, she took occasion to exclaim, u My 
 son, thou art invincible ! /” As soon as 
 these words were pronounced, Alexander 
 cried out that he was satisfied, and would 
 have no other oracle. 
 
 It is here to be observed, however, that 
 great but unnecessary preparations were 
 often made, for giving mysteriousness to the 
 oracle, and for commanding the respect that 
 was paid to it. Among other circumstances 
 relating to the sacrifices that were offered, 
 the priestess herself fasted three days, and 
 before she ascended the tripod, she bathed 
 herself in the fountain Castalia. She drank 
 water from that fountain, and chewed laurel- 
 leaves gathered near it. She was then led 
 
 ORA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 605 
 
 into the sanctuary by the priests, who placed 
 her upon the tripod. 
 
 As soon as she began to be agitated by the 
 divine exhalation, said to arise from the cav- 
 ern, but which was merely the vapor of in- 
 cense burnt there, in order to give more 
 mystery to the affair, her hair stood on end, 
 her aspect became wild and ghastly, her 
 mouth began to foam, and her whole body 
 was suddenly seized with violent tremblings. 
 In this condition she attempted to escape 
 from the priests, who detained her by force, 
 while her shrieks and howlings made the 
 w r hole temple resound, and filled the bystand- 
 ers with a sacred horror. 
 
 At length, unable to resist the impulse of 
 the god, she surrendered herself up to him, 
 and at certain intervals uttered from the 
 bottom of her stomach, by the faculty or 
 power of ventriloquism, some unconnected 
 wordsj which the priests ranged in order, 
 and put in form of verse, giving them a con- 
 nection which they had not when they were 
 delivered by the priestess. The oracle being 
 pronounced, the priestess was taken off the 
 tripod, and conducted back to her cell, where 
 she continued several days, to recover her- 
 self. Lucan tells us, that speedy death was 
 frequently the consequence of her enthusi- 
 asm. The oracles pronounced by the priest- 
 ess being generally delivered to the poets, 
 who attended on the occasion, and being put 
 by them into wretched verse, gave occasion 
 to the raillery that “ Apollo, the prince of 
 the muses, was the worst of poets.” The 
 priests and priestesses, to whose conduct the 
 responses of the oracle were committed, were, 
 however, frequently guilty of fraud and im- 
 posture. And many instances might be 
 mentioned, in which the Delphic priestess 
 was not superior to corruption. Hence she 
 persuaded the Lacedaemonians to assist the 
 people of Athens in the expulsion of the 
 thirty tyrants. Hence, also, she caused 
 Demaratus to be divested of the royal dignity 
 to make way for Cleomenes ; and supported 
 the impostor Lysander, when he endeavored 
 to change the succession to the throne of 
 Sparta. It is not improbable, that Themis- 
 tocles, who well knew the importance of 
 acting against the Persians by sea, inspired 
 the god with the answer he gave, “to defend 
 themselves with walls of w r ood.” 
 
 The answers were likewise, on many occa- 
 sions, equivocal. Thus, when Croesus was 
 about to invade the Medes, he consulted this 
 oracle upon the success of the war, and re- 
 ceived for answer, that by passing the river 
 Halys, he should ruin a great empire. But 
 he was left to conjecture, or to determine by 
 the event, whether this empire was his own or 
 that of his enemies. Such was also the same 
 oracle’s answer to Pyrrhus, — ‘ Aio te, sEaci- 
 de, Romanos vincere posse ,' — which meant, 
 “I say, 0 son of HLacus, that thou canst 
 overcome the Romans,” or, “ I say, 0 son 
 of iEacus, that the Romans can overcome 
 thee.” 
 
 The oracle of Apollo, in Delos, was 6ne of 
 the most famous oracles in the world, not 
 only for its antiquity, but for the richness 
 of the sacred presents dedicated to the god, 
 and the numbers of persons that resorted 
 hither from all parts for advice; in which 
 respect it surpassed not only all the oracles 
 of other gods, but even others of Apollo 
 himself, — that of Delphos alone excepted. 
 Some writers say that the island had the 
 name of Delos from the clear and simple 
 terms in which the answers were here given 
 by the oracle, contrary to the ambiguity ob- 
 served in other places ; but it was consulted 
 only while Apollo made Delos his summer 
 residence, for his winter abode was at Patara, 
 a city of Lycia. The presents offered by the 
 votaries to Apollo, were laid on the altar, 
 which some said was erected by Apollo him- 
 self, w r hen he w r as only four 3 'ears old, and 
 formed of the horns of goats, killed by Diana 
 on Mount Cynthus. It was preserved pure 
 from blood and every kind of pollution, as 
 offensive to Apollo. The whole island was 
 an asylum, which extended to all living 
 creatures, dogs excepted, which were not 
 suffered to be brought on shore. 
 
 The native deities, Apollo and Diana, had 
 three very magnificent temples erected for 
 them in this island. That of Apollo was, 
 according to Strabo (lib. x.), begun by Erysi- 
 apthus, the son of Cecrops, v/ho is said to 
 have possessed this island 1558 b.c. ; but it 
 was afterward much enlarged and embellished 
 at the general charge of all the Grecian states, 
 but Plutarch says that it was one of the 
 most stately buildings in the universe, and 
 describes its altar as deserving a place among 
 
 ORA 
 
606 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPAEDIA OF 
 
 the seven wonders of the world. The in- 
 scription in this temple, as Aristotle informs 
 us (Ethic., 1. i., c. 9), was as follows: “Of all 
 things the most beautiful is justice; the most 
 useful is health ; and the most agreeable is 
 the possession of the beloved object.” Round 
 the temple were magnificent porticoes, built 
 at the charge of various princes, as appears 
 from the still legible inscriptions. To this 
 temple the neighboring islands sent yearly a 
 company of virgins to celebrate with dancing 
 the festival of Apollo and his sister Diana, 
 and to make offerings in the name of their 
 respective cities. Delos was held in such 
 reverence by most nations, that even the 
 Persians, after having laid waste the other 
 islands, and everywhere destroyed the tem- 
 ples of the gods, spared Delos ; and Datis, 
 the Persian admiral, forebore to anchor in the 
 harbor. 
 
 The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the 
 deserts of Libya, nine days’ journey from 
 Alexandria. It had a famous oracle, which, 
 according to ancient tradition, was established 
 about eighteen centuries before the time of 
 Augustus, by two doves which flew away 
 from Thebais in Egypt, and came, one to 
 Dodona, and the other to Libya, where the 
 people were soon informed of their divine 1 
 mission. The oracle of Ammon was con- 
 sulted by Hercules, Perseus, and others ; but 
 when it pronounced "Alexander to be the son 
 of Jupiter, such flattery used up its long 
 established reputation, and in the age of Plu- 
 tarch it was scarcely known. The situation 
 of the temple was pleasant ; and there was 
 near it a fountain whose waters were cold at 
 noon and midnight, and warm in the morning 
 and evening. There were above 100 priests 
 in the temple, but the elders only delivered 
 oracles. There was also an oracle of Jupiter 
 Ammon in ^Ethiopia. 
 
 Dodona was a town of Thesprotia in Epirus. 
 There was in its neighborhood, upon a small 
 hill called Tmarus, a celebrated oracle of 
 Jupiter. The town and temple of the god 
 were first built by Deucalion, after the uni- 
 versal deluge. It was supposed to be the 
 most ancient oracle of all Greece, and accord- 
 ing to the traditions of the Egyptians men- 
 tioned by Herodotus, it was founded by a 
 dove. Two black doves, as he relates, took 
 their flight from the city of Thebes in Egypt, 
 
 one of which flew to the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon, and the other to Dodona, where 
 with a humap voice they acquainted the 
 inhabitants of the country that Jupiter had 
 consecrated the ground, which in future 
 would give oracles. The extensive grove 
 which surrounded Jupiter’s temple was en- 
 dowed with the gift of prophecy, and oracles 
 were frequently delivered by the sacred oaks, 
 and the doves which inhabited the place. 
 This fabulous tradition of the oracular power 
 of the doves is explained by Herodotus, who 
 observes that some Phoenicians carried away 
 two priestesses from Egypt, one of whom 
 went to fix her residence at Dodona, where 
 the oracle was established. It may further 
 be observed, that the fable might have been 
 founded upon the double meaning of the word 
 pcleiai , which signifies doves in most parts 
 of Greece, while in the dialect of the Epirots, 
 it implies old women. In ancient times the 
 oracles were delivered by the murmuring of 
 a neighboring fountain, but the custom was 
 afterward changed. Large kettles were sus- 
 pended in the air near a brazen statue, 
 which held a lash in its hand. When the 
 wind blew strong, the statue was agitated 
 and struck against one of the kettles, which 
 communicated the motion to all the rest, and 
 raised that clattering and discordant din 
 which continued for a while, and from which 
 the priests drew their predictions. Some 
 suppose that the noise was occasioned by the 
 shaking of the leaves and boughs of an old 
 oak, which the people frequently consulted, 
 and from which they pretended to receive 
 the oracles. It may be observed with more 
 probability that the oracles were delivered by 
 the priests, who, by concealing themselves 
 behind the oaks, gave occasion to the multi- 
 tude to believe that the trees were endowed 
 with the power of prophecy. As the ship 
 Argo was built with some of the oaks of the 
 forest of Dodona, there were some beams in 
 the vessel which gave oracles to the Argo- 
 nauts, and warned them against the approach 
 of calamity. Within the forest of Dodona 
 there was a stream with a fountain of cool 
 water, which had the power of lighting a 
 torch as soon as it touched it. This fountain 
 was totally dry at noon-day, and was restored 
 to its full course at midnight, from which 
 time till the following noon it began to de- 
 
 ORA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 607 
 
 crease, and at the usual hour was again 
 deprived of its waters. The oracles of Do- 
 dona were originally delivered by men, but 
 afterward by women. 
 
 The Roman Augurs were certain priests at 
 Rome who foretold future events, and took 
 their name, ab avium garritu. They were 
 first created by Romulus to the number of 
 three. Servius Tullius added a fourth ; the 
 tribunes of the people, a.u.c. 454, increased 
 the number to nine ; and Sylla added six more 
 during his dictatorship. They had a particu- 
 lar college, and the chief amongst them was 
 called magister collegii. Their office was 
 honorable ; and if any one of them was con- 
 victed of any crime, he could not be deprived 
 of his privilege ; an indulgence granted to no 
 other sacerdotal body at Rome. The augur 
 generally sat on a high tower, to make his 
 observations. His face was turned toward 
 the east, and he had the north to his' left, and 
 the south at his right. 'With a crooked staff 
 he divided the face of the heavens into four 
 different parts, and afterward sacrificed to the 
 gods, covering his head with his vestment. 
 There were generally five things from which 
 the augurs drew omens : the first consisted in 
 observing the phenomena of the heavens, such 
 as thunder, lightning, comets, &c. The second 
 kind of omen was drawn from the chirping or 
 flying of birds. The third was from the sa- 
 cred chickens, whose eagerness or indifference 
 in eating the bread which was thrown to them, 
 was looked upon as lucky or unlucky. The 
 fourth was from quadrupeds, from their cross- 
 ing or appearing in some unaccustomed place. 
 The fifth was from different casualties, which 
 were called dira , such as spilling salt upon a 
 table, or wine upon one’s clothes, hearing 
 strange noises, stumbling or sneezing, meeting 
 a wolf, hare, fox, or pregnant bitch. Thus 
 did the Romans draw their prophecies ; the 
 sight of birds on the left hand was always 
 deemed a lucky object, and the words sinister 
 et Icevus. though generally supposed to be 
 terms of ill luck, were always used by the 
 augurs in an auspicious sense. 
 
 A strange old woman came once to Tarquin- 
 ius Superbus, king of Rome, with nine books, 
 which she said were the Oracles of the Sibyls, 
 and proffered to sell them. But the king 
 making some scruple about the price, she went 
 away and burnt three of them, and returning 
 
 with the six, asked the same sum as before. 
 Tarquin only laughed at the humor; upon 
 which the old lady left him once more, and 
 after she had burnt three others, came again 
 with those that were left, but still kept* to her 
 old terms. The king began now to wonder 
 at her obstinacy, and thinking there might be 
 something more than ordinary in the business, 
 sent for the augurs to consult what was to be 
 done. They, when their divinations were 
 performed, soon acquainted him what a piece 
 of impiety he had been guilty of, by refusing 
 a treasure sent to him from heaven, and com- 
 manded him to give whatever she demanded 
 for the books that remained. The woman re- 
 ceived her money, and delivered the writings, 
 and only charging them by all means to keep 
 them sacred, immediately vanished. Two of 
 the nobility were presently after chosen to be 
 the keepers of these oracles, which were laid 
 up with all imaginable care in the capitol, in 
 a chest under ground. They could not be 
 consulted without a special order of the senate, 
 which was never granted, unless upon the re- 
 ceiving some notable defeat, upon the rising 
 of any considerable mutin) r or sedition in the 
 state, or upon some other extraordinary occa- 
 sion. The number of priests in this, as in 
 most other orders, was several times altered. 
 The duumviri continued till about the year 
 of the city 388, when the tribunes of the peo- 
 ple preferred a law, that there should be ten 
 men elected for this service, part out of the 
 nobility, and part out of the commons. We 
 meet with the decemviri all along from hence, 
 till about the time of Sylla the dictator, when 
 the quindecemviri occur. It were needless 
 to give any further account of the Sibyls, than 
 that they are generally agreed to have been 
 ten in number ; for which we have the author- 
 ity of Yarro, though some make them nine, 
 some four, some three, and some only one. 
 They all lived in different ages and countries, 
 were all prophets, and, according to common 
 opinion, foretold the coming of our Saviour. 
 As to the writing, Dempster tells us it was on 
 linen. 
 
 Solinus acquaints us that the books which 
 Tarquin bought were burnt in the conflagra* 
 tion of the capitol, the year before Sylla’s dic- 
 tatorship. Yet there were others of their 
 inspired writings, or at least copies or extracts 
 of them, gathered up in Greece and other 
 
 ORA 
 
608 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 parts, upon a special search made by order of 
 the senate ; which were kept with the same 
 care as the former, till about the time of The- 
 odosius the Great, when the greatest part of 
 the senate having chosen the Christian faith, 
 they began to grow out of fashion ; till at last 
 Stilicho burnt them all under Honorius, for 
 which he is severely censured by the poet 
 Rutilius. 
 
 ORDEAL. In the dark ages, when judicial 
 proceedings were exceedingly imperfect, it 
 was believed that on extraordinary occasions, 
 the guilt or innocence of a suspected person 
 would be manifested by a direct interposition 
 of the Deity, and various methods were re- 
 sorted to, to procure conviction or acquittal. 
 These were termed ordeals, or judgments of 
 God. 
 
 The ordeal was of various kinds ; that of 
 fire, that of red-liot iron, that of cold water, 
 that of judicial pottage, that of the cross, 
 and that of dice laid on relics covered with a 
 woolen cloth. There were particular masses 
 for each species of ordeal. 
 
 Fire ordeal was performed either by taking 
 •up iu the hand, unhurt, a piece of red hot 
 iron, of one, two, or three pounds weight; 
 or else by walking barefoot and blindfold, over 
 nine red-hot ploughshares, laid lengthwise, at 
 unequal distances ; and if the party escaped 
 without injury, he was adjudged innocent, 
 but if otherwise, as without collusion it gen- 
 erally happened, he was then condemned as 
 guilty. 
 
 The ordeal of water was performed either 
 by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in 
 boiling water, or by casting the suspected 
 person into a river or pond of cold water, 
 and if he floated therein, without any action 
 of swimming, it was deemed an evidence of 
 his guilt, but if he sunk he was acquitted! 
 The latter ordeal was adopted with regard 
 to witches and sorcerors, and was thought 
 infallible ! The Chinese, Africans, Tartars, 
 and Hindoos have their ordeals. 
 
 OREGON. Oregon comprises 95,000 
 miles. In 1870 it contained 90,923 inhabit- 
 ants. Oregon is situated in the extreme 
 north-western portion of the United States, 
 and its western shores are watered by the 
 Pacific Ocean. The state is traversed by the 
 Cascade Range and Blue Mountains and is 
 
 well watered by the tributaries of the Colum- 
 bia and Oregon. It presents many varieties 
 of soil, climate, and scenery, and between the 
 Cascade Mountains and the ocean the soil is 
 particularly fertile. The climate of the state 
 is also milder than most countries in the same 
 latitude. The mineral resources of the state 
 are great. Oregon was admitted to the Union 
 on the 14th of February, 1859. The gover- 
 nor of the state is chosen for four years and 
 cannot hold office for more than eight in a 
 period of twelve years. Senators hold office 
 for four years. Representatives are chosen 
 biennially. The right of suffrage is granted 
 to all male citizens of the United States 
 twenty-one years of age, after a residence of 
 six months within the state. The judicial 
 power is vested in a supreme court, circuit 
 and county courts, which are courts of record, 
 and other lesser tribunals. There are five su- 
 preme justices who hold office for six years. 
 The state has a superintendent of public 
 instruction and possesses a large school fund. 
 
 Willamette, the capital, contains 333 inhab- 
 itants. The principal towns are Portland, 
 having a population of 8,293, Astoria of 903, 
 and Oregon City of 1,382. 
 
 ORIGEN, surnamed Adamantius, was 
 born at Alexandria about a. d. 186. His fath- 
 er was a Christian martyr. Origen early be- 
 came famous as a student and teacher of 
 Christianity. lie practiced peculiar austeri- 
 ties, and suffered a strange mutilation agree- 
 ably to what he thought the meaning of Mat- 
 thew xix. 12. Through his life he was in 
 danger from the rage of heathen enemies 
 and the jealousy of theological opponents. 
 He died at Tyre, in the year 253. 
 
 ORKNEY ISLANDS, or Orcades, a clus- 
 ter of small islands north of Scotland, about 
 sixty-seven in number, only twenty-seven of 
 which are inhabited. The population of the 
 group is 31,500: Pomona, or Mainland, the 
 principal island, sustains about half this. 
 Kirkwall, on Pomona, is the chief town, hav- 
 ing some 3,500 inhabitants. These islands 
 are scattered over a space fifty miles long 
 and thirty broad. Little of the soil is adapted 
 for agriculture, although it affords good pas- 
 turage. Game is abundant ; red grouse, 
 plovers, and snipe, eagles, wild ducks, geese, 
 solan geese or gannets, swans, &c., thronging 
 
 ORK 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 609 
 
 to the Orkneys. They are mentioned by 
 several Roman writers, and were visited by 
 the fleets of Agricola, sent to explore the 
 island. The first inhabitants were the Piets, 
 but they were subdued by the Norwegians, 
 or Northmen, at the time that that enterpris- 
 ing people effected conquests through almost 
 every part of Europe. Orkney, after this, 
 was governed by a succession of warlike 
 earls, who kept up a powerful fleet, with 
 which they ravaged the coasts of England, 
 Ireland, and Scotland ; in the latter they 
 conquered several of the northern counties. 
 The black raven, which was the flag of Ork- 
 ney, continued to be an object of terror till 
 the time of James III. of Scotland, in 1474, 
 when the Orkneys were ceded to that mon- 
 arch as part of the marriage portion of Mar- 
 garet of Denmark ; and this treaty was 
 afterward confirmed on the marriage of 
 James VI. with Anne of Denmark. The 
 piratical expeditions were then suppressed, 
 and the group has long been a well regulated 
 and peaceable portion of the British empire. 
 
 ORLEANS, an ancient dukedom borne by 
 princes of the blood royal in France. There 
 are two distinct lines. The first commenced 
 with Louis, second son of Charles V., who 
 became regent in consequence of the mental 
 incapacity of his brother Charles VI. in 1393, 
 and was murdered by his kinsman the Duke 
 of Burgundy in 1407. His grandson came 
 to the throne as Louis XII. The second line 
 began with Philip, second son of Louis XIII., 
 created Duke of Orleans in 1660. His son 
 Philip was regent during the minority of 
 Louis XV. His great-gtandson, Louis Joseph 
 Philip, was born in 1747, and bore the title 
 of Duke of Chartres until his father’s death 
 in 1787. He was rich and handsome, and, 
 although not deficient in intelligence, igno- 
 rant, credulous, selfish, sensual, and de- 
 bauched. In the revolution he took part 
 against the royal family, rendering himself 
 infamous by his libels on Marie Antoinette. 
 After the death of the king, for which he 
 voted, the Jacobins, who had no farther 
 use for him, procured his condemnation by 
 the revolutionary tribunal. He met his fate 
 with firmness, Nov. 6th, 1793. He is well 
 known by his assumed name of Egalite , or 
 Citizen Equality. He was the father of the late 
 King of the French. [See Louis Philippe.] 
 
 39 
 
 ORLOFF, Gregory, a Russian general and 
 political intriguer, instrumental in elevating 
 his mistress, Catharine II., to the throne. 
 She loaded him with honors and titles. Being 
 disappointed in his hope of sharing the crown 
 with her, he refused a private marriage, 
 and was ordered to travel. He died insane, 
 1783. He had one son by the empress, 
 named Bobrinski. Alexis, his brother and 
 fellow-conspirator, was a man of gigantic 
 stature and strength, and is said to have 
 strangled the emperor Peter with his own 
 hands. 
 
 ORONO, a chief of the Penobscot tribe, 
 labored to promote Christianity, died at 
 Oldtown, Me., in 1801, aged 113 years. His 
 wife died in 1809, aged 115. 
 
 ORPHEUS,' an ancient Greek poet and 
 musician, flourished before Homer. Many 
 fables are related of him. 
 
 ORTHEZ, Battle of, Feb. 27th, 1814, in 
 which the Marquis of Wellington, command- 
 ing the British and Spanish armies, gained a 
 decisive victory over the French under Mar- 
 shal Soult. The battle of Toulouse soon fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 OSSIAN, a Gaelic poet, supposed to have 
 flourished in the third century. 
 
 OSSOLI, Margaret Fuller d’, was born 
 in Massachusetts in 1810. In 1847, while 
 on a tour in Italy, she became the wife of the 
 Marquis d’Ossoli. She was at Rome during 
 the revolution, and took deep interest in the 
 struggles of that time. On returning to 
 America in 1850, she perished with her hus- 
 band and child, by shipwreck on the beach 
 of Fire Island, July 19th. She was remark- 
 able for her thorough intellectual cultivation, 
 the vigor of her mind, her conversational 
 powers, and her enthusiastic devotion to 
 letters, art, and progress. 
 
 OSTEND, a fortified and well-built seaport 
 in the Belgic province of West Flanders; 
 population, 15,000. It is noted for the sieges 
 which it has withstood; particularly for a 
 terrible siege of three years, from July 5th, 
 1601, to Sept. 22d, 1604, against the armies 
 of Spain, when the town was valiantly de- 
 fended by the troops of the Prince of Orange, 
 assisted by the forces of Queen Elizabeth, 
 under the command of Sir Francis Vere, who 
 was chief general for five months. The loss 
 of the Spaniards was immense, being little 
 
 OST 
 
610 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 short of 100,000 men; and although they 
 afterward succeeded in taking the place, it 
 was yet at such an expense of men and treas- 
 ure, that this siege is justly considered as one 
 great cause of the ruin of their affairs in the 
 Netherlands, and of the establishment of the 
 independence of the United Provinces. On 
 the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French 
 seized Ostend : but in 1706, after the battle 
 of Ramillies, it was retaken by the allies. 
 The Emperor Charles VI. established an East 
 India Company here, but it met with such 
 a powerful opposition from the maritime 
 powers, that after many negotiations it was 
 abolished in 1731. Ostend was taken by 
 the French in 1745, but given up at the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. In the 
 war of 1756 the French garrisoned the town 
 for the Empress Maria Theresa. The Empe- 
 ror Joseph again attempted to establish an 
 East India trade, but was not very successful. 
 In 1792 it was taken by the French, and re- 
 taken by the English in 1793, who garri- 
 soned it for the Emperor Francis II. When 
 the French conquered Belgium, Ostend fell 
 into their hands. In the course of the war, 
 a detachment of British troops landed, and 
 destroyed the sluices of the canals through 
 which the French were collecting a naval 
 force. The detachment, after effecting their 
 object, were made prisoners of war, 1798. 
 
 OTHO, Marcus Salvius, a Roman empe- 
 ror, descended from the ancient kings of 
 Etruria. After Nero’s death he attached him- 
 self to Galba ; but that emperor having 
 adopted Piso as his heir, Otho excited an 
 insurrection, murdered Galba and Piso, and 
 ascended the throne in 69. He was acknowl- 
 edged by the senate and the Roman people, 
 but the sudden revolt ofVitellius, in Ger- 
 many, rendered his situation precarious, and 
 it was mutually resolved that their respective 
 rights to the empire should be decided by 
 arms. Otho obtained three victories over his 
 enemies, but in a general engagement near 
 Brixellum, his forces were defeated, and he 
 stabbed himself when all hopes of success 
 were vanished, having reigned three months. 
 
 OTHO I., eldest son of Henry the Fowler, 
 Duke of Saxony, elected Emperor of Germany 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle in 936. At the earnest 
 solicitation of the Italians, Otho repaired in 
 person to Rome, where he was solemnly 
 
 crowned emperor of the Romans in 962, dig- 
 nified with the appellation of Augustus, and 
 honored with the homage of the senate and 
 people. He died in 973. 
 
 OTHO II., his son, surnamed the Sanguin- 
 ary, succeeded his father on the imperial 
 throne : but his authority was warmly dis- 
 puted by Henry, Duke of Bavaria, and the 
 commencement of his reign was disturbed by 
 some hostile incursions of the Danes and 
 Bohemians. In 979 he led a numerous body 
 of forces into Italy, in order to punish a 
 revolt of the Romans. He died in 983, and 
 was succeeded by his son Otho III., at the 
 age of twelve years. 
 
 OTIS, James, was born in Massachusetts, 
 Feb. 5th, 1725, and was graduated at Har- 
 vard College, after which he studied law, and 
 was admitted to the bar in Plymouth. He 
 removed to Boston in 1750, and rose rapidly 
 in his profession. His speech against the 
 “writs of assistance,” in 1761, was the first 
 public proof which Mr. Otis gave of his 
 attachment to the cause of liberty. That 
 spring he was chosen to the legislature, 
 where he at once became a leader of the 
 popular party. He was a member of the 
 congress of 1765 in New York, and in the 
 same year published a masterly defense 
 of the rights of the colonies in opposition to 
 the stamp act. In 1767 he resigned the 
 office of judge advocate, and declined all 
 other employment under a government that 
 encroached upon the liberties of his country. 
 His severe strictures gained him strong hate 
 from the crown officials in Boston. Meeting 
 John Robinson, one of the commissioners of 
 customs, at a public room, one evening in 
 1769, an affray followed, in which Mr. Otis 
 was assaulted and beaten on the head by 
 several ruffians, who left him and a friend 
 who interposed in his defense, covered with 
 wounds. The fine mind of Mr. Otis was laid 
 in ruins, and he lingered in imbecility through 
 the arduous struggle for liberty to whose 
 success he had devoted himself. A stroke 
 of lightning ended his life at Andover, May 
 23d, 1783. It has been well said of him that 
 he was a man of powerful genius and ardent 
 temper, with wit and humor that never failed ; 
 as an orator, he was bold, argumentative, 
 impetuous, and commanding, with an elo- 
 quence that made his own excitement irresist- 
 
 OTI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 611 
 
 ibly contagious ; as a lawyer, his knowledge 
 and ability placed him at the head of his 
 profession ; as a scholar, he was rich in acqui- 
 sition, and governed by a classic taste ; as a 
 statesman and civilian, he was sound and just 
 in his views ; as a patriot, he resisted all 
 allurements that might weaken the cause of 
 that country to which he devoted his life, and 
 for which he sacrificed it. 
 
 OTWAY, Thomas, was born March 3d, 
 1651, at Trotting in Sussex, the son of a 
 clergyman. He is remembered as the author 
 of “ The Orphan ” and “Venice Preserved,” 
 two tragedies of great power and pathos. 
 Otway’s life, passed either in excesses or 
 want, closed in 1685, in the straitest indi- 
 gence. He is said to have choked in hastily 
 swallowing a crust after long fasting. 
 
 OUDENARDE, Battle of, July 11th, 1708, 
 between the English and allies under Marlbo- 
 rough and Prince Eugene, and the French 
 who were besieging Oudenarde in Flanders. 
 The latter were routed with great loss. 
 
 OUDINOT, Charles Nicholas, Duke of 
 Reggio, and one of Napoleon’s marshals, was 
 the son of a merchant, and born in 1767. 
 He early reached the rank of general, and was 
 on Massena’s staff in the expedition to Italy 
 in 1799, distinguishing himself in the defense 
 of Genoa. At Austerlitz he covered himself 
 with glory. After the battle of Wagram, Na- 
 poleon made him marshal of the empire and 
 created him Duke of Reggio. On the capit- 
 ulation of Paris in 1814, Oudinot swore 
 allegiance to the restored dynasty. When 
 Napoleon returned from Elba, he headed the 
 
 grenadiers. Finding it impossible to secure 
 their fidelity to Louis XVIII., he retired to 
 his seat at Montmorenci. He held various 
 posts under the Bourbons, in 1830 adhered 
 to the new dynasty, and in 1842 succeeded 
 Marshal Moncey as governor of the Invalides. 
 He died in 1847. 
 
 OVID (Publius Ovidius Naso), the love 
 poet of the Romans, was born at Sulmo (now 
 Sulmone), a town in the country of the Pe- 
 ligni, about ninety miles south-east from 
 Rome, March 20th, b.c. 45. His father was of 
 an old equestrian family, and the future poet 
 was the second son. With his elder brother 
 he was educated at Rome under the best mas- 
 ters, and, as was usual, repaired to Athens 
 to complete his studies. Before returning to 
 Rome, he visited the magnificent cities of 
 Asia Minor. He early displayed a high poet- 
 ical genius, and devoted himself to the culti- 
 vation of the muses. Till the end of his 
 fiftieth year his life had been happy and 
 quiet. Falling then, for some unknown 
 cause, under the resentment of Augustus, 
 whose imperial favor he had hitherto enjoyed, 
 he was sent into exile. He died in banish- 
 ment, in the sixtieth year of his age. 
 
 OXENSTIERN, Axel, a Swedish states- 
 man, was born in 1583. He was the friend 
 and favorite minister of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 after whose death during the minority of 
 Christina, he conducted the affairs of the 
 kingdom with equal ability and integrity. 
 Christina continued him at the head of 
 affairs. He died in 1654, shortly after her 
 abdication. 
 
 OXE 
 
 / 
 
612 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 P. 
 
 PACA, William, one of the signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, born at Wyke 
 Hill, Md., Oct. Blst, 1740. After graduating 
 at the college of Philadelphia, he studied law, 
 and commenced practice in Annapolis. From 
 1774 to 1778 he was a member of Congress, 
 and vacated his seat when he was appointed 
 chief-justice of the supreme court of his state, 
 of which he was chosen governor in 1782. 
 
 In 1788 he was a member of the Maryland 
 convention which ratified the federal consti- 
 tution. In 1789 he was appointed by Wash- 
 ington judge of the district court of the 
 United States for Maryland, and held that 
 important post until his death, which took 
 place ten years after, in the sixtieth year of 
 his age. 
 
 PAGANINI, Nicolo, a wonderful violinist, 
 was born at Genoa in 1784. After a wan- 
 dering life he died at Nice in 1840, leaving 
 great wealth, acquired by his wizardry of 
 fiddling and his avarice. 
 
 PAGE, John, governor of the colony of 
 Virginia, an ardent patriot, member of Con- 
 gress after the adoption of the federal 
 constitution, and governor of the state of 
 Virginia, died in 1808. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, one of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 at Boston, in 1731. For some time after 
 graduating from Harvard College, he kept a 
 public school. Having studied theology, he 
 became a chaplain in the provincial forces in 
 1755, but soon studied law, in which he made 
 great proficiency, and settled at Taunton. 
 After having served at the general representa- 
 tive assembly, he was chosen member of the 
 continental congress which met at Philadel- 
 phia in 1774. He was several ) r ears in Con- 
 gress, and was an active member of the 
 committee that framed the constitution of 
 Massachusetts. He held the office of attor- 
 ney-general for several years ; after which he 
 was made judge of the supreme court, an 
 office which he held until 1804. He died 
 May 11th, 1814. 
 
 His son, of the same name, was a popular 
 lyric p<5et. His song of “Adams and Lib- 
 
 erty” brought him the handsome sum of 
 $750. He died in 1811, at the age of thirty- 
 eight. 
 
 PAINE, Thomas, a political and deistical 
 writer, was born in 1737 at Thetford in Nor- 
 folk, where he was brought up to his father’s 
 business of a stay maker. He afterward be- 
 came an exciseman at Lewes ; but being 
 dismissed for keeping a tobacconist’s shop at 
 the same time, he went to America in 1774 
 at the instance of Dr. Franklin, became editor 
 of the Pennsylvania Gazette, and aided on 
 the Revolution by a pamphlet called “ Com- 
 mon Sense,” for which he was rewarded with 
 £500 by the legislature of Pennsylvania. 
 He was also appointed clerk to the commit- 
 tee for foreign affairs. He afterward wrote 
 a series of pamphlets called “The Crisis.” 
 In 1780 he w r as appointed clerk to the assem- 
 bly of Pennsylvania, and in 1785 received 
 $3,000 from Congress, and 500 acres of land 
 from the state of New York. 
 
 In 1790 he went to London and excited 
 considerable notice by his “Rights of Man,” 
 written in answer to Burke’s “ Reflections on 
 the French Revolution.” Advocacy of the 
 rights of man was sedition in the England of 
 that day, and a prosecution being commenced 
 against him, he fled to France. He was 
 chosen a member of the national convention, 
 but incurred the displeasure of the Jacobins 
 for recommending a lenient course toward 
 Louis XVI., and was thrown into prison. 
 Here he narrowly escaped death. The jailor, 
 when he received orders for a batch of pris- 
 oners to be carried to execution, was in the 
 habit of marking the doors of their cells 
 with chalk. One day, Paine had left his cell 
 to visit a fellow-prisoner, and the door stood 
 wide open. The drunken jailor, having occa- 
 sion to single out some victims, chalked 
 the inside of Paine’s door, which was after- 
 ward closed, and thus he escaped notice 
 wffien, on the ensuing day, the devoted pris- 
 oners were delivered up to the proper author- 
 ities. By the publication of his “Age of 
 Reason,” a work leveled at revelation, he 
 forfeited the esteem of many Americans who 
 
 PAI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 613 
 
 had been his warm friends. He fell into dis- 
 repute when, on his return to America, he 
 gave himself up to intemperate habits. He 
 died June 8th, 1809, the victim of his ex- 
 cesses, and was buried on his own farm, 
 interment on their ground having been re- 
 fused by the Society of Friends, to whom 
 application was made. Cobbett, who pro- 
 fessed an unbounded admiration for Paine, 
 dug up his bones, and carried them to Eng- 
 land. While reprobating the latter life of 
 Paine, it should not be forgotten that the 
 vigorous paragraphs of “Common Sense” 
 and “The Crisis” had an important effect in 
 stirring the American people to a determined 
 struggle for independence. 
 
 PAINTING. The earliest account we 
 have of the existence of painting is in the 
 reign of Ninus, about 2,000 b.c. Egypt was 
 decidedly the birthplace of the arts and 
 sciences, though but few of its paintings 
 remain, and their date is uncertain. The 
 Greeks were very little advanced in the art 
 of painting at the time of the Trojan war. 
 The first important fact in the history of 
 painting is, that 700 b.c. a king of Lydia 
 purchased a picture of a Greek artist, and 
 paid him its weight in gold. In the year 
 400, Zeuxis introduced a new style of paint- 
 ing into Greece, and at this period much 
 progress was made in the art. About the 
 year 828 b.c. Apelles commenced a new era 
 in painting, and many distinguished painters 
 were his contemporaries. Before Greece was 
 taken by the Romans, the art of painting had 
 arrived at a high degree of perfection, but at 
 that time the spirit which had animated her 
 arts had departed, and with her liberty her 
 arts perished. 
 
 The first name worthy of record in the 
 annals of Italian painting is Cimabue, a na- 
 tive of Florence, who painted in fresco, a.d. 
 1300. In 1452 Leonardo da Vinci was born 
 at Florence. Many subsequent painters are 
 indebted to this great artist for his im- 
 provements in the art. Michael Angelo 
 Buonarotti was born in the year 1475. He 
 erected an academy of painting and sculpture 
 at Florence, and is considered as the founder 
 of the Florentine school. Raphael, born 1483, 
 was the founder of the Roman school. Titian, 
 born 1477, was the founder of the Venetian 
 school. Correggio, born 1494, founded the 
 
 Lombard school. The establishment c/f these 
 four schools embraces the golden age of paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Of the German schools there are three dis- 
 tinct ones, the German, Flemish, and Dutch. 
 The Gothic style of painting originated in 
 Germany, and terminated at the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century. Albert Durer, born in 
 1471, was the prince of German artists, and 
 the Da Vinci of his country. The head of the 
 Flemish school was Sir Peter Paul Rubens, 
 born at Antwerp in 1577. What Rubens did 
 for the Flemish school, Rembrandt did for the 
 Dutch : he gave it a character. He died in 
 1669. » 
 
 There seems to have been noregularSpanish 
 school of painting, although many Spanish 
 artists distinguished themselves, particularly 
 Velazquez and Murillo. The Spanish style 
 held an intermediate rank between the Vene- 
 tian and Flemish. 
 
 It is difficult to assign a decided era to the 
 beginning of painting in France. The first 
 name worthy of particular mention, is Jacques 
 Blanchard, who was born in Paris, a.d. 1600. 
 His paintings were very popular, and one of 
 them is still preserved in the church of Notre 
 Dame. Poussin flourished about the same 
 time, and painted many pictures for the gal- 
 lery of the Louvre. At this period also Claude 
 Lorraine flourished. Louis XIII. founded 
 the first school of France. Of this, the great 
 master was Le Brun, born in 1690. His best 
 performances are five large pictures from the 
 life of Alexander. In the eighteenth century, 
 French painters were numerous, but the art 
 gradually sunk into mediocrity. The name 
 of Vernet, however, deserves to be mentioned. 
 He excelled in marine pieces. The founder 
 of the modern school of painting in France 
 was David, who was born in 1750. He rem- 
 edied many of the defects of his contempora- 
 ries, and produced many fine pictures. 
 
 Painting did not begin to flourish in Eng- 
 land till the reign of Henry VIII. Before that 
 period, nothing like genius was observable in 
 the rude productions of the artists. During 
 this reign, Hans Holbein, under the patronage 
 of the monarch, settled in England as a por- 
 trait painter. During the reign of Charles I. 
 a gallery of pictures by the great masters, 
 was established at Whitehall. Vandyke 
 flourished at this time. In 1697 Hogarth 
 
 PAI 
 
614 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was b| ra His style was one in which he 
 acquired lasting celebrity, and was wholly 
 his own. A royal academy was planned in 
 England in 1768, of which Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds was made president. Gainsborough 
 and Wilson laid the foundation of the English 
 school of landscapes. Barry was a historical 
 painter of great eminence. The close of the 
 eighteenth century produced many names 
 worthy of record. Fuseli was made keeper 
 of the Royal Academy. Among other pic- 
 tures, he painted forty-seven pictures from 
 Milton’s works, in the year 1790. Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence was considered the first portrait 
 painter in Europe. He was president of the 
 Royal Academy at the time of his death in 
 1830. The celebrated artist John Martin, 
 was born in 1789. Most of his pictures were 
 engraved by himself. Turner is another illus- 
 trious name in modern British art. 
 
 The United States has produced many art- 
 ists of reputation ; among others, Sir Benja- 
 min West, who died in 1820, aged eighty-two ; 
 Gilbert C. Stuart, born 1755, who was one of 
 the first portrait painters of his time ; Allston, 
 Copley, Malbone, Newton, Leslie, not men- 
 tioning living men. 
 
 PALESTINE [see Jews] is the name com- 
 monly given to the country once occupied by 
 the Israelites. It extends from Ccelo-Syria to 
 Arabia Petrea ; on the west it has the Medi- 
 terranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. 
 Before the conquest by Joshua it was called 
 Canaan. The country is mountainous, and 
 there is only one principal river, the Jordan, 
 which rising on Mount Hermon, falls into the 
 Lake of Gennesareth, Sea of Tiberias, or Sea 
 of Galilee ; after which it loses itself in a more 
 spacious one, the Bituminous Lake, or Dead 
 Sea. On the western side of Jordan were 
 Judea on the south, Samaria in the middle, 
 and Galilee in the north ; on the eastern side 
 was Gilead, and the land of the Moabites and 
 Ammonites. The Philistines were mostly on 
 the coast toward Egypt. I n the kingdom of 
 Judah stood llierosolyma, or Jerusalem, built 
 on several hills, the largest of which was 
 Mount Sion ; it formed the southern part of 
 the city. On the east of the second, or lowen 
 city, was Mount Moriah. Jerusalem, when 
 enlarged and beautified by David, Solomon, 
 &c., became a most renowned city, and as such 
 is mentioned by Herodotus under the name of 
 
 Cadytis. [See Jerusalem. It subsists at 
 present, but in a deplorable condition, inhab- 
 ited by a motley group of Turks, Jews, and 
 Christians. A mosque has supplanted the 
 temple. North-east of Mount Moriah was 
 the Mount of Olives, beyond the brook and 
 valley of Kedron ; on the south was the valley 
 of Hinnom, and on the notth Mount Calvary. 
 Six miles to the south-east was Bethlehem. 
 A rugged mountainous country lay between 
 Jerusalem and Jericho, famous for its balm. 
 For this, and for their palm-trees, both Judea 
 and Idumea were celebrated. Hebron, a place 
 of high antiquity, was the sepulchre of Abra- 
 ham and his family. In the time of the cru- 
 sades it bore the name of St. Abraham ; and 
 the Arabs, who always respect their primitive 
 names, call it Cabr Ibrahim, or the tomb of 
 Abraham. Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, 
 preserve their names, as also Ekron. Gath is 
 more inland. Azotus was the ancient Ashdod. 
 Lydda, in the interior, has the name of Lud. 
 South of it is Arimathea. Toward the south 
 lay the country of Idumea, or Edom: the 
 natives were subdued by the Maccabees, and 
 incorporated with the Jewish nation. In Je- 
 rome’s time the country was deserted, the few 
 inhabitants having their dwellings in caverns. 
 
 PALEY, William, an eminent divine of the 
 English church, author of “ A View of the 
 Evidences of Christianity,” and otherexcellent 
 works, born at Peterborough in 1743, died 
 May 25 th, 1805. 
 
 PALMYRA, the ruins of a splendid city of 
 Asia, in the desert of Syria, said to have been 
 destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. The only 
 brilliant part of its history was under Odena- 
 tus and his queen Zenobia. [See Zenobia.] 
 It afterward fell under the power of the Mo- 
 hammedans, but at what period it sank into 
 its present state of desolation is uncertain. 
 By some Palmyra is supposed to be the Tad- 
 mor in the wilderness which Solomon built. 
 Its ruins are of white marble. 
 
 PALO ALTO, Battle of, May 8th, 1846, 
 between the Americans under Gen. Taylor, 
 and the Mexicans ; the former were victorious. 
 This was the first of the battles in the Mexican 
 war. 
 
 PAMPAS, vast level plains in South 
 America, extending from the La Plata nearly 
 to the Andes, a thousand miles long, and four 
 hundred and fifty broad. Part of these plains 
 
 PAM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 615 
 
 are covered with grass, part with thistles and 
 clover, and part with open forests. They 
 contain herds of wild horses and cattle and 
 some beasts of prey, and are inhabited by the 
 Guachos, a race of men of Spanish origin who 
 live on horseback and subsist by hunting, and 
 the fierce Indians who lead the life of the 
 Guachos, but are constantly at war with them. 
 Sir Francis Head’s “Hough Notes of some 
 rapid journeys across the Pampas, and among 
 the Andes,” contain the best and most amus- 
 ing account we have of them. 
 
 The Guachos make use of the lasso in hunt- 
 ing. The lasso, so called from the Spanish 
 lazo , or noose, consists of a rope made of 
 twisted strips of untanned hide, varying in 
 length from fifteen to twenty yards, and is 
 about as thick as the little finger. It has a 
 noose or running-knot at one end, the other 
 extremity being fastened by an eye and button 
 to a ring in a strong hide belt or surcingle, 
 bound tightly round the horse. The coil is 
 grasped by the horseman’s left hand, while 
 the noose, which is held in the right, trails 
 along the ground except when in use, and then 
 it is whirled round the head with considerable 
 velocity, during which, by a peculiar turn of 
 the wrist, it is made to assume a circular form ; 
 so that, when delivered from the hand, the 
 noose preserves itself open until it falls over 
 the object at which it has been aimed. 
 
 The unerring precision with which the lasso 
 is thrown, is perfectly astonishing, and to one 
 who sees it for the first time, has a very mag- 
 ical appearance. Even when standing still it 
 is by no means an easy thing to throw the 
 lasso ; but the difficulty is vastly increased 
 when it comes to be thrown from horseback 
 and at a gallop, and when, in addition, the 
 rider is obliged to pass over uneven ground, 
 and to leap hedges and ditches in his course. 
 Yet such is the dexterity of the Guachos, that 
 they are not only sure of catching the animal 
 they are in chase of, but can fix the lasso on 
 any particular part they please. 
 
 Suppose that a wild bull is to be caught, 
 and that two mounted horsemen, guassos, as 
 they are called in Chili, or guachos on the 
 Pampas, undertake to kill him. As soon as 
 they discover their prey, they remove the coil 
 of the lasso from behind them, and, grasping 
 it in the left hand, prepare the noose in the 
 right, and dash off, at full gallop, each swing- 
 
 ing his lasso round his head. The first who 
 comes within reach aims at the bull’s horns, 
 and when he sees, which he does in an instant, 
 that the lasso which he has thrown will take 
 effect, he stops his horse and turns him half 
 round, the bull continuing his course till the 
 whole cord has run out. The horse, mean- 
 while, knowing by experience what is going 
 to happen, leans over as much as he can in 
 the opposite direction from the bull, and 
 stands trembling in expectation of the violent 
 tug which is to be given him by the bull 
 when brought up by the lasso. So great, in- 
 deed, is the jerk which takes place at this 
 moment, that were the horse not to lean over 
 in the manner described, he would certainly 
 be overturned; but standing, as he does, 
 across the road, with his feet planted firmly 
 on the ground, he offers sufficient resistance 
 to stop the bull as instantaneously as if he 
 had been shot, though, the instant before, he 
 was running at full speed. 
 
 If the intention be to kill the animal for the 
 sake of the tallow and hide alone, as is often 
 the case, one of the Guachos dismounts, and 
 running in, cuts the bull’s hamstrings with 
 a long knife which he always wears in his 
 girdle, and instantly dispatches him by a 
 dexterous cut across the back of the neck. 
 The most surprising thing is the manner in 
 which the horse, after being left by his rider, 
 manages to preserve the lasso always tight ; 
 this would be less difficult if the bull were to 
 remain always steady, but it sometimes hap- 
 pens that he makes violent struggles to dis- 
 entangle himself from the lasso, rushing back- 
 ward and forward in a furious manner. The 
 horse, however, with wonderful sagacity, al- 
 ters his pace, and prances about, as if con- 
 scious of what he is doing, so as to resist 
 every movement of the bull, and never to 
 allow the lasso to be relaxed for a moment. 
 
 When a wild horse is to be taken, the lasso 
 is always placed round the two hind legs, and, 
 as the Guacho rides a little on one side, the 
 jerk pulls the entangled feet laterally, so as 
 to throw him on his side, without endangering 
 his knees or his face. Before the horse can 
 recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and 
 snatching the poncho or cloak from his shoul- 
 ders, wraps it round the prostrate animal’s 
 head ; he then forces into his mouth one of 
 the powerful bits of the country, straps a sad- 
 
 PAM 
 
616 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 die on his back, and, bestriding him, removes 
 the poncho ; upon which the astonished horse 
 springs on his legs, and endeav.ors, by a thou- 
 sand vain efforts, to disencumber himself of 
 his new master, who sits quite composedly 
 on his back, and, by a discipline which never 
 fails, reduces the horse to such complete obe- 
 dience that he is soon trained to lend his 
 speed and strength in the capture of his wild 
 companions. 
 
 The equestrian education of the dwellers on 
 the Pampas commences early. At the age 
 of four the Guacho is mounted on horseback, 
 and assists in driving the cattle to the inclos- 
 ure. Even then he is adventurous, and can 
 bring back by force those horses that attempt 
 to escape. As his years increase, he becomes 
 more daring and manly, and spends his time 
 in galloping after the ostrich, the gama, the 
 hare, and the tiger. 
 
 The Pampas Indians, a daring and hardy 
 race of men, who have never been conquered, 
 and to whom the great changes of the seasons 
 appear to come with singularly little incon- 
 venience, are always on horseback, whether 
 beneath the burning skies of summer, or the 
 piercing cold of winter ; and they are at all 
 seasons wholly without clothing. They are 
 formed into tribes, under the command of 
 caciques, and are a warlike people. Mounted 
 on their fleet and sure-footed horses, with 
 their spears eighteen feet long, which they 
 can manage with great power and dexterity, 
 they are most formidable. On foot they are 
 almost powerless; as their habitual riding 
 deprives them of the faculty of walking. 
 When mounted, however, their fleetness is 
 almost incredible. When they march for an 
 attack, they collect a great troop of horses, 
 and, raising their war-cry, set off at a gallop. 
 If the march be long, they change horses 
 several times, and always reserve their best 
 ones to be mounted fresh when they are in 
 sight of the enemy. The horses only are used 
 for riding, but they drive mares along with 
 them to serve as food. Their onset is destruc- 
 tive, and, until their horses are worn out with 
 fatigue, to resist them is no easy matter. 
 
 Riding in the Pampas is rendered dangerous 
 by the numerous holes which the bisacho 
 burrows in the ground like a rabbit. Their 
 holes frequently cause great injury to the feet 
 of the horses, but custom renders the horse 
 
 cautious amidst these dangers; and, as for 
 the Guacho, it is impossible to eject him from 
 the saddle, unless the horse shall actually fall. 
 Sir Francis Head tried the rapid mode of trav- 
 eling practiced by the Guachos, and survived 
 to describe it. At first he found his head a 
 little confused with the constant galloping, 
 and when he dismounted he was so giddy that 
 he could not stand ; but he in time got accus- 
 tomed to it, and found it more pleasant. He 
 found the young men the worst drivers in 
 point of speed. The children had no fear, 
 and therefore always dashed on at the most 
 rapid rate, and the old men made up in skill, 
 while the young men wanted alike the daring 
 forwardness of the children, and the experi- 
 ence of the old men. Sir Francis (then Cap- 
 tain) Head must have traveled at a prodigious 
 rate. From Mendoza he determined to gallop 
 to Buenos A} r res, and, attended by a single 
 Guacho, mounted horse to recross the Pam- 
 pas. It was now that the captain tried the 
 velocity and felt the pleasure of really inde- 
 pendent traveling across the Pampas; and 
 his speed can be compared to nothing upon 
 record — even that of the Guacho who accom- 
 panied him, or of Mazeppa as he was bound 
 to the wild horse. Starting from Mendoza 
 before daybreak, he found himself at half past 
 seven in the evening, at the distance of one 
 hundred and fifty -three miles ; which, as he 
 had been just fourteen hours and a half on 
 horseback, was nearly at the rate of ten miles 
 an hour. He was fatigued, and could get 
 nothing to eat, and so, taking his saddle into 
 a shed, he laid down his head on it, and was 
 asleep in an instant. The voice of the Guacho 
 roused him an hour before daylight, and he 
 again galloped off at the rate of the preceding 
 day. It is needless to follow the course of 
 this adventurous traveler: enough has been 
 said to show the mode of life and traveling in 
 the Pampas. 
 
 PAPAL STATES, are the dominions of 
 which the pope is the temporal sovereign. 
 They occupy a position on the middle of the 
 southwestern coast of Italy, and are only one- 
 fourth as large as before the year 1860, when 
 the Romagna, the Marches and Umbria were 
 transferred to the kingdom of Italy. The tem- 
 poral dominions of the pope have since occu- 
 pied only 4,502 square miles, and contain but 
 690,000 inhabitants. The former area was 
 
 PAP 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 617 
 
 15,381 square miles, and the population 
 
 3.000. 000. On the 2d of Oct., 1870, after 
 the conquest by the Italians, the States voted 
 in favor of a union with Italy, 133,681 to 
 1,507. [Nee Popes, Rome.] 
 
 PAOLI, Pascal a native of Corsica, bore 
 a prominent part in the war waged tor inde- 
 pendence against the arbitrary rule of the 
 Genoese. He retired to England, where he 
 died in 1807, at the age of eighty-one. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a state of South America 
 south of Brazil, between the rivers Parana 
 and Paraguay. It contains 74,000 square 
 miles, and 1,500,000 inhabitants. It was dis- 
 covered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, was set- 
 tled by the Spaniards at Assuncion in 1535, 
 and in 1776 formed a province of the viceroy- 
 alty of Buenos Ayres. When South America 
 generally threw off the rule of Spain, Paraguay 
 asserted its independence. In 1814 Dr. Fran- 
 cia was made dictator, and ruled till his death 
 in 1840. He adopted a policy as exclusive as 
 that of Japan. Paraguay has in 1865 made 
 war with Brazil and the Argentine Republic. 
 
 PARIS, the capital of France, lies upon 
 both banks and two islands of the Seine, 110 
 miles south-east of Havre. The population 
 
 1.750.000. It is an archiepiscopal 
 see, the residence of the court, the legislative 
 body, the ministers and ambassadors, one of 
 the largest, most populous, and richest cities 
 in the world, containing some most superb 
 monuments. Including its suburbs, it is 
 eighteen miles in circumference, and is much 
 superior to London in palaces and public 
 edifices. Not only does it enjoy a literary 
 and scientific pre-eminence : it is one of the 
 gayest capitals in Europe. The houses are 
 lofty and built of the stone taken from the 
 quarries that extend beneath the city, thus 
 forming the celebrated catacombs. It was 
 very strong, when, under the name of Lute- 
 tia, it resisted a Roman detachment sent 
 against it by Caesar. The Romans strength- 
 ened the fortifications ; in the fifth century 
 it w*as taken by the Franks ; and in 508 was 
 constituted the capital of the kingdom. It 
 was improved by Charlemagne, and sur- 
 rounded with walls at the end of the twelfth 
 century. Under Louis XIY. some improve- 
 ments w'ere made: but Versailles being then 
 the chief care of the Bourbons, Paris received 
 only slow and partial embellishments. Na- 
 
 poleon did much for its improvement and 
 decoration, and the plans which he projected 
 have pointed a path for his successors. 
 
 PARK, MuNGb, a native of Scotland, born 
 near Selkirk, Sept. 10th, 1771, fell a victim 
 to the cause of science, being murdered in 
 Africa, while engaged in his second expedition 
 to find the source of the Niger, 1805. 
 
 PARMA, a duchy in the north of Italy, 
 with an area of 2,391 square miles, and 
 503,000 inhabitants. Parma, the capital, has 
 
 40,000. It was founded by the ancient Etru- 
 rians. In the sixteenth century, Paul III. 
 gave the duchy to his son Luigi Farnese, 
 whose descendants continued to reign as 
 dukes of Parma till the extinction of the 
 male branch. In 1714 Elizabeth Farnese 
 married Philip V. of Spain, and brought him 
 the duchy as a dowry. Her son Don Carlos 
 took possession of it in 1731 ; but it being 
 settled in 1735, that Don Carlos should be 
 made king of the two Sicilies, the duchies 
 of Parma and Piacenza were ceded to the em- 
 peror, and governed by the house of Austria 
 till 1748, when they were given up to Don 
 Philip, son of Philip V. By the peace of 
 Luneville, the Duke of Parma was raised to 
 the throne as King of Etruria, in 1801. In 
 1805 Parma and Piacenza were united to 
 France, and in 1814 were given to Maria 
 Louisa, the ex-empress ; and after her death 
 Parma was given to the Duke of Lucca, be- 
 ing annexed to Tuscany. Parma became a 
 part of the kingdom of Italy by virtue of 
 the peace of Villa Franca, in 1859. 
 
 PARR, Samuel, a distinguished classical 
 scholar of England, long head-master of Nor- 
 wich school, born 1747, died in 1825. His 
 celebrated Spital sermon, when printed, pre- 
 sented the singular anomaly of fifty-one 
 pages of text, and two hundred and twelve 
 of notes. 
 
 PARR, Thomas, familiarly called ‘ Old 
 Parr,’ died in 1635, aged one hundred and 
 fifty-tw r o, having lived in ten reigns. 
 
 PARRY, Sir William Edward, the dis- 
 tinguished Arctic explorer, died in 1855. 
 
 PARSONS, Theopiiilus, was the son of a 
 minister of Byfield, Mass., and was born in 
 February, 1750. After completing his legal 
 studies, he opened an office in Newburyport, 
 and assumed a high standing in his profes- 
 sion ; in 1806 he succeeded Mr, Dana ip the 
 
 PAR 
 
618 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 chief-justiceship of the supreme court of Mas- 
 sachusetts. He died at Boston, Oct. 30th, 
 1813. 
 
 PARTHIA, a celebrated kingdom of an- 
 tiquity, was situated south-east of the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and was bounded on the north by 
 Hyrcania, on the south by Aria, on the east 
 by Carmania, and on the west by Media. 
 The ancient Parthians were originally a tribe 
 of Scythians, who, being expelled from the 
 land of their nativity, took up their abode in 
 this part of Asia. They were subject to the 
 Persian empire in the time of Xerxes and 
 Darius. Arsaces, the founder of the Parthian 
 monarchy, assumed the regal dignity b.c. 
 256. His son, Arsaces II., subdued Media, 
 but was soon dispossessed of this acqui- 
 sition. 
 
 On the death of Arsaces, the government 
 devolved on his son Priapatius, who be- 
 queathed the crown to his elder son, Phraates. 
 This last prince subdued the Mardi, a warlike 
 people of the east. He left the kingdom to 
 his brother Mithridates, who soon reduced 
 Bactria, Persia, Media, Elymais, and several 
 other countries, and carried his victorious 
 arms into India, even beyond the boundaries 
 of Alexander’s conquests. He afterward 
 made himself master of Babylonia and Meso- 
 potamia; and his reign is regarded as the 
 epoch of the Parthian grandeur. 
 
 We pass over a few unimportant reigns till 
 we come to that of Orodes, who engaged in 
 war with M. Licinius Crassus, which was 
 attended with a vast effusion of blood, and 
 proved extremely disastrous both to the Par- 
 thians and the Romans. At length Crassus 
 was overthrown with a great slaughter, and 
 his head sent to Orodes; whilst his van- 
 quished troops tamely surrendered or were 
 put to the sword. Orodes sent an army to 
 besiege the city of Antioch, which, however, 
 the Parthians could not take. To revenge the 
 death of Crassus, the Romans entered Syria, 
 b.c. 50, and, after some partial engagements, 
 succeeded in defeating Pacorus, the son of 
 Orodes, who was killed in the battle. Orodes 
 appointed his son Phraates his successor, 
 b.c. 36. 
 
 Phraates no sooner attained to this height 
 of power than he caused all his brothers by 
 the daughter of Antiochus Eusebes to be put 
 to death, and attempted to dispatch Orodes 
 
 also, by poison ; this proving ineffectual, he 
 ordered him to be stifled in his bed, and 
 exercised the same cruelty upon the prime 
 nobility, his eldest son, and the other branches 
 of the royal family. To elude the vengeance 
 of this barbarian, many of the Parthian no- 
 bles emigrated into Syria, and prevailed on 
 Marc Antony to invade their unhappy king- 
 dom. The Romans, however, were so har- 
 rassed by the enemy, that they were reduced 
 to the most pitiable extremities, and nar- 
 rowly escaped destruction. 
 
 The Parthian monarch continuing to exer- 
 cise the most wanton cruelties upon his own 
 subjects, the nobles entered into a conspiracy 
 and chased him from the country, conferring 
 the sovereignty on Tiribates, one of their 
 own body. Phraates, however, returned, and, 
 defeating his rival in a pitched battle, recov- 
 ered his paternal inheritance. 
 
 At length this tyrant was poisoned by his 
 wife, that her son Phraatices might ascend 
 the throne. Phraatices had scarcely assumed 
 the diadem, when his subjects, resolving to 
 revenge the crime to which he had been 
 accessory, rose in arms, and placed one 
 Orodes, who was of the Arsacidan family, on 
 the throne. This prince was assassinated. 
 
 On the death of Orodes II., the Roman 
 emperor Augustus was requested by the Par' 
 thians to send one of the sons of Phraates, 
 who had been educated at Rome, to assume 
 the government. Accordingly, he sent them 
 Yonones, but the Parthians growing weary 
 of him, persuaded Artabanus, king of Media, 
 to chase him from the throne. Artabanus, 
 at length, firmly established himself in the 
 government of Parthia, and died in the thirty- 
 first year of his reign. He was succeeded by 
 his son Bardanes, who made war upon Izates, 
 king of Adiabene, a.d. 47, who had greatly 
 assisted in restoring Artabanus to the throne 
 of Parthia. This ingratitude was so warmly 
 resented by the Parthian nobles, that they 
 caused Bardanes to be assassinated, and 
 bestowed the crown on his brother. 
 
 Gotarzes was succeeded by one Yen ones, 
 governor of Media, a.d. 49. On the demise 
 of this last prince, the government devolved 
 on Yologeses, the son of Gotarzes, who main- 
 tained a bloody war against the Romans, on 
 account of the crowns of Armenia and Syria, 
 which he had bestowed on Tiridates and Pa- 
 
 PAR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 619 
 
 corus, two of his brothers. Artabanus III. 
 next ascended the throne. He was succeeded 
 by his son Pacorus. 
 
 Cosdroes, the son of Pacorus, invaded Ar- 
 menia in the beginning of his reign, and 
 expelled Exadares, who had been placed on 
 the throne of that country by the Roman 
 emperor Trajan. To revenge this insult, 
 Trajan marched into the East, recovered 
 Armenia, made himself master of Mesopo- 
 tamia, pursued his route to Babylon and 
 Ctesiphon, and bestowed their crown on 
 Parthanaspates, a prince of the Arsacidan 
 family. 
 
 On the death of Trajan, however, the Par- 
 thians recalled Cosdroes, and pitched Partha- 
 naspate from the throne. After a very long 
 reign, Cosdroes was succeeded by his eldest 
 son, Vologeses II., who, after carrying on 
 hostilities against Rome for about four years, 
 with various success, consented to acknowl- 
 edge the sovereignty of the Roman people. 
 
 On the demise of the Parthian king, his 
 nephew, Vologeses III., ascended the vacant 
 throne. Having incensed the Emperor Se- 
 verus, he was stripped of his treasures, his 
 wives, and his children. Artabanus, the son 
 and successor of Vologeses, had scarcely es- 
 tablished himself in the kingdom, when the 
 Emperor Caracalla, desirous of signalizing 
 himself against the Parthians, sent ambassa- 
 dors to demand his daughter in marriage. 
 This was readily granted ; and the king, be- 
 ing informed that the emperor was coming 
 to solemnize the nuptials, went out to meet 
 him, with the chief of the Parthian nobility, 
 all unarmed and habited in splendid dresses. 
 This peaceable train no sooner approached 
 the Roman troops, than they were attacked 
 with the utmost fury, and Artabanus himself 
 was compelled to elude destruction by a 
 precipitate flight. 
 
 On account of this exploit, the base Cara- 
 calla assumed the surname of Parthicus. Ar- 
 tabanus swore irreconcilable hatred to the 
 perfidious emperor, and inspired the whole 
 nation with the same spirit of vengeance. 
 An engagement was fought between the 
 Parthians and the Romans, which was ter- 
 minated only by darkness. Caracalla dying, 
 an alliance between the two empires was 
 proposed, and peace was concluded. At this 
 juncture, a.d. 226, a Persian named Artax- 
 
 erxes, pretended to be a descendant of the 
 ancient kings of Persia, and called upon the 
 Persians to recover their independence. 
 After a dreadful engagement, he defeated Ar- 
 tabanus at the head of all the Parthian forces. 
 Artaxerxes caused Artabanus to be put to 
 death, and restored the empire to the Per- 
 sians, after they had been subject to the 
 princes of Parthia for the space of 475 years. 
 The royal family of Arsaces, however, con- 
 tinued to reign in Armenia till the time of 
 the Emperor Justinian. Artaxerxes was the 
 founder of the new Persian empire usually 
 known as that of the Sassanidae. 
 
 PASCAL, Blaise, born at Clermont, Au- 
 vergne, in 1623, died in 1662. He excelled 
 in mathematics and physical philosophy. In 
 the great controversy between the Jansenists 
 and the Jesuits, Pascal battled for the former. 
 His “Provincial Letters,” a merciless expo- 
 sure of the Jesuits, first appeared in 1656. 
 
 PATAGONIA, a vast country occupying 
 the southern extremity of South America, 
 discovered by Magellan in 1519. The climate 
 is cold and the natives are wandering savages. 
 Some of the tribes are large-bodied, though 
 not the giants which they have been described. 
 
 PATRICK, Saint, apostle and saint of 
 Ireland, supposed a native of Wales, died in 
 460 or 493. Others say he was a native of 
 Cornwall, or Scotland, or Brittany. Little is 
 really known of him, save that he preached 
 the gospel to the Irish in the fifth century. 
 
 PAUSANIAS, a Spartan general, who 
 greatly signalized himself at the battle of 
 Plataea, against the Persians. He was after- 
 ward set at the head of the Spartan armies, 
 and extended his conquests in Asia; but the 
 haughtiness of his behavior created him 
 many enemies, and the Athenians soon ob- 
 tained a superiority in the affairs of Greece. 
 Pausanias was dissatisfied with his coun- 
 trymen, and he offered to betray Greece to 
 the Persians, if he received in marriage, as 
 the reward of his perfidy, the daughter of 
 their monarch. His intrigues were discov- 
 ered by means of a youth, who was intrusted 
 with his letters to Persia, and who refused to 
 go, on the recollection that such as had been 
 employed in that office before had never 
 returned. The letters were given to the 
 Ephori of Sparta, and the perfidy of Pausa- 
 nias laid open. He fled for safety to a temple 
 
 PAU 
 
620 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of Minerva, and as the sanctity of the place 
 screened him from the violence of his pursu- 
 ers, the sacred building was surrounded with 
 heaps of stones, the first of which was carried 
 there by the indignant mother of the unhappy 
 man. He was starved to death in the temple, 
 and died about b.c. 471. 
 
 PAVIA, Battle of, in Lombardy, Feb. 
 24th, 1525, between the French and the 
 forces of the Emperor Charles V. Francis I., 
 the French monarch, after maintaining the 
 contest with great gallantry, was defeated, 
 and became a prisoner. He sent to his mother, 
 Louisa of Savoy, who was regent in his ab- 
 sence, news of his misfortune in these memor- 
 able words, “ All is lost, madam, save honor.” 
 
 PEABODY, George. See Ap’x, p. 974. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, was the son of an emi- 
 nent English manufacturer, who bequeathed 
 to him a princely fortune. He was born 
 February, 1788, and was educated at Har- 
 row (where he was a school-fellow of Byron) 
 and at Oxford, taking a high stand as a bril- 
 liant student. When just of age he entered 
 parliament, and thenceforth the sphere of his 
 exertions and triumphs was the house of 
 commons. He was no orator, nor was he, 
 properly speaking, a natural and simple de- 
 bater. His manner was the artificial one of 
 thorough training ; but for an artificial one 
 it was a good one. He could state his case 
 clearly and forcibly, but he seldom liked to 
 abandon a subject until he had discussed it 
 at great length. In 1811 he became under- 
 secretary for the colonies in the Perceval 
 cabinet, and in 1812, though only twenty- 
 four years of age, he was made principal 
 secretary for Ireland, then an office of the 
 greatest difficulty and importance. After 
 carrying his celebrated currency measure 
 (establishing it on its present metallic basis) 
 in 1819, he became home secretary in 1822, 
 which he continued till the overthrow of 
 Lord Liverpool in 1827, when he retired, in 
 consequence, as it is alleged, of the elevation 
 of Mr. Canning, who favored the abolition of 
 the Roman Catholic disabilities. Upon the 
 accession of the Duke of Wellington to power 
 in 1828, Mr. Peel returned to the home of- 
 fice, and in conjunction with the premier, con- 
 ceded Catholic emancipation. This brought 
 a storm of abuse upon him from his party, w T ho 
 
 accused him of tergiversation, since he had 
 been so strongly opposed to the measure. 
 
 The skirts of the Gallic storm of 1830 that 
 drove the Bourbons from the throne of France, 
 destroyed the Wellington ministry, and the 
 whigs entered office under Earl Grey, with 
 the reform bill as their prominent measure. 
 Meantime the elder Peel had died, and the 
 son had succeeded to the baronetcy and an 
 enormous patrimony. Sir Robert was fiercely 
 assailed with the maledictions of Ireland, the 
 censures of the high tory party, — whom he 
 was alleged to have betrayed, — and the 
 clamors of the advocates for a paper currency. 
 His party imputed to him the rise of the re- 
 form bill, as a consequence of his vacillation 
 in reference to the emancipation of the Cath- 
 olics. Nevertheless he was an active oppo- 
 nent of the new ministry and the reform 
 bill; and nothing dismayed by the angry 
 elements about him, or the new political 
 vista of England and the continent, he dis- 
 played all the resources of his statesmanship 
 in concentrating the new conservative party. 
 When a conservative government, through 
 various accidental and pewonal causes, was 
 established in 1834, he gallantly undertook 
 to conduct it, though conscious that the task 
 was hopeless. He became prime minister in 
 1841 with better prospects. Though he was 
 at the head of a protectionist government, 
 established to defeat and suppress the free 
 trade party, he opened the ports, and repealed 
 the corn laws forever, to the consternation 
 of the world, and in opposition to all the 
 opinions of his life. This was in 1845. 
 After carrying some other measures in the 
 same spirit, he resigned office to the party 
 to whom his later opinions legitimate^ be- 
 longed, in the summer of 1846. After that 
 his position in parliament was that of a dis- 
 tinguished debater, an accomplished finan- 
 cier, and the expositor of opinions which 
 neither of the great parties heartily espoused. 
 He died July 2d, 1850, of internal injuries 
 caused by a fall from his horse. 
 
 His talents were great, his moral integrity 
 of a high order, and his private life most 
 exemplary. It is a singular fact that he 
 spent eleven years in parliamentary opposi- 
 tion to the bullion doctrine he adopted in 
 1822 ; that he waged strenuous war for eight- 
 
 PEE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 621 
 
 een years against the repeal of the Roman 
 Catholic disabilities, and at last carried it in 
 spite of his own party ; and that for thirty 
 years in the house of commons he maintained 
 that the prosperity of Great Britain depended 
 on the retention of her corn laws, which he 
 abolished in 1845. It would therefore seem 
 that his final measures in reference to these 
 three great departments of his political life, 
 were rather concessions to the force of events, 
 than the voluntary policy of his own mind. 
 His wisdom is shown in the concession. 
 Many of his chief colleagues, in each of these 
 instances, would have blindly rushed upon 
 destruction. Sir Robert’s greater sagacity 
 foresaw the gulf and turned away, choosing 
 to show the courage of relinquishing his life’s 
 opinions, rather than that of courting the 
 dangers of resistance. 
 
 PELOPIDAS, a celebrated general of 
 Thebes, son of Hippocles. No sooner had 
 the interest of Sparta prevailed at Thebes, 
 and the friends of liberty and national inde- 
 pendence been banished from the city, than 
 Pelopidas, who was in the number of the 
 exiles, resolved to free his country from for- 
 eign slavery. His plan was bold and ani- 
 mated, and his deliberations were wise. 
 Meanwhile, Epaminondas, who had been left 
 by the tyrants at Thebes, as being in appear- 
 ance a worthless and insignificant philosopher, 
 animated the }muths of the city; and at 
 last Pelopidas, with eleven of his associates, 
 entered Thebes, easily massacred the friends 
 of the tyranny, and freed the country from 
 foreign masters. After this successful enter- 
 prise, Pelopidas was unanimously placed at 
 the head of the government; and so confi- 
 dent were the Thebans of his abilities as a 
 general and a magistrate, that they succes- 
 sively re-elected him thirteen times to fill 
 the honorable office of governor of Boeotia. 
 Epaminondas shared with him the sovereign 
 power, and it was to their valor and prudence 
 that the Thebans were indebted for a cele- 
 brated victory at the battle of Leuctra. In 
 a war which Thebes carried on against Alex- 
 ander, tyrant of Pherse, Pelopidas was ap- 
 pointed commander ; but his imprudence, in 
 trusting himself unarmed into the enemy’s 
 camp, proved fatal to him. He was taken 
 prisoner, but Epaminondas restored him to 
 liberty. The perfidy of Alexander irritated 
 
 him, and he was killed bravely fighting in a 
 celebrated battle in which his troops obtained 
 the victory, b.c. 864. Pelopidas is admired 
 for his valor, as he never engaged an enemy 
 without obtaining the advantage. It has 
 been justly observed that with Pelopidas and 
 Epaminondas, the glory and the independ- 
 ence of the Thebans rose and set. 
 
 PELOPONNESUS, a celebrated peninsula 
 which comprehends the most southern parts 
 of Greece. It included the states of Laconia 
 (Sparta), Achaia, Elis, Arcadia, Argolis, Cor- 
 inth, and Messenia. It received its name from 
 Pelops, who settled there as the name indi- 
 cates (the island of Pelops). It had been 
 called before, Apia, Pelasgia, and Argos. 
 Its present name is the Morea, which seems 
 to be derived from a word signifying a mul- 
 berry-tree, which is found there in great 
 abundance. The Peloponnesus was con- 
 quered, some time after the Trojan war, by 
 the Heraclidae, or descendants of Hercules, 
 who had been forcibly expelled from it. The 
 inhabitants of this peninsula rendered them- 
 selves illustrious like the rest of the Greeks, 
 by their genius, their fondness for the fine 
 arts, the cultivation of learning, and the pro- 
 fession of arms ; but in nothing more than 
 by a celebrated war which they carried on 
 against Athens and her allies for twenty-seven 
 years, and which received the name of the 
 Peloponnesian war. It ended with the taking 
 of Athens by the Lacedaemonians, b.c. 401. 
 
 PENDLETON, Edmund, an eminent lawyer 
 and statesman of Virginia, member of Con- 
 gress in 1774, died in 1803. 
 
 PENN, John, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born in Caroline county, 
 Virginia, May 17th, 1741. His early educa- 
 tion was defective, but a strong mind over- 
 came obstacles. He studied law with Edmund 
 Pendleton, went to North Carolina in 1774, 
 became at once an active politician and a 
 lawyer of note, and was a delegate in Con- 
 gress, 1775-76 and 1777-79. He retired 
 from public life in 1783, and died in Septem- 
 ber, 1788. 
 
 PENN, William, the son of Admiral Penn, 
 was born in London, in 1644. At an early 
 age he joined the society of Friends or 
 Quakers, and was expelled from the univer- 
 sity of Oxford as a nonconformist. His un- 
 shaken adherence to the principles he had 
 
 PEN 
 
622 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 adopted drew upon him the indignation of 
 his father, which was a source of grief to 
 Penn, although it did not induce him to 
 relinquish the faith which he had chosen. 
 In 1668 he appeared as a preacher, and also 
 assumed his pen to make known and defend 
 his principles, for which he was fined and 
 imprisoned. Afterward, through the influ- 
 ence of his family, he obtained immunity for 
 his belief. In 1781 Charles II. granted him 
 the patent of Pennsylvania in liquidation of 
 an old debt from the crown to his father. 
 He went among the Indians to propitiate them 
 and assure them of his good intentions, and 
 having displayed the plausibility of his 
 
 scheme, induced a large number of respecta- 
 ble families to embark for the New World. 
 He remained in America two years, regulat- 
 ing the alfairs of Philadelphia, and establish- 
 ing amicable relations with his neighbors. 
 The treaty which Penn concluded with the 
 Indians was never violated. He was intimate 
 at the court of James II., and procured many 
 privileges for his Quaker brethren. In 1699 
 he made a second visit to Pennsylvania, but 
 the machinations of his enemies at home in- 
 duced him to return in 1701. In consequence 
 of his former intimacy with the exiled mon- 
 arch, Penn was suspected of being a Jacobite. 
 He died in 1718. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. The Keystone State 
 has an area of 47,000 square miles, on which 
 in 1870 dwelt 3,521.761 people. The broad 
 Alleghanian or Appalachian system of moun- 
 tains passes through Pennsylvania, and the 
 state is thus naturally divided into three 
 clearly defined regions, the eastern or Atlan- 
 tic slope, the central mountainous district, 
 and the western table-land. The whole 
 mountain region is interspersed with beau- 
 tiful and productive valleys. The soil of the 
 eastern coast is in part light and sandy, but 
 the inland plains and valleys are composed 
 of a deep rich loam. The state is well 
 watered: the Delaware, Schuylkill, Susque- 
 hanna, Lehigh, Juniata, Alleghany, Monon- 
 gahela, and Ohio are the large rivers ; while 
 there are an abundance of smaller streams, 
 ■which serve a useful purpose as feeders to 
 
 the great system of canals by which the state 
 is threaded. Pennsylvania is affluent in 
 mineral wealth : her mines of iron, and her 
 beds of coal, both anthracite and bituminous, 
 seem inexhaustible in centuries. Wheat is 
 her great agricultural staple, though the other 
 cereal grains are extensively grown, as also 
 flax and hemp. Her manufactures, especially 
 in iron, are also flourishing and of great 
 extent. In foreign commerce she ranks 
 fourth among the states : Philadelphia is her 
 only port. 
 
 At an early period Swedes settled within 
 the limits of Pennsylvania. They were sub- 
 dued by the Dutch, the country was annexed 
 to the colony of New Netherlands, and with 
 that fell into English possession. The coun- 
 try was granted to William Penn by Charles 
 II. in 1681. A number of Friends Were the 
 
 PEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 623 
 
 first colonists, and in 1682 Penn himself 
 came over and laid out his ‘ city of brotherly 
 love.’ Among the articles of government 
 which he drew up for his infant state was 
 the provision, “ That all persons in this prov- 
 ince, who confess and acknowledge the one 
 almighty and eternal God to be the creator, 
 upholder, and ruler of the world, and that 
 hold themselves obliged in conscience to live 
 peaceably and justly in society, shall in no 
 ways be molested or prejudiced for their relig- 
 ious persuasion, or practice in matters of 
 faith and worship ; nor shall they be com- 
 pelled, at any time, to frequent, or maintain, 
 any religious worship, place, or ministry 
 whatever.” Penn entered into a treaty of 
 peace and friendship with the Indians, pay- 
 ing them fair prices for the land needed for 
 his colony. The policy of this honesty was 
 shown in the freedom from Indian wars which 
 Pennsylvania long enjoyed. Ilis descendants 
 held their proprietary rights in the govern- 
 ment until the Revolution, when the com- 
 monwealth bought their interest for $580,000. 
 A considerable proportion of the people of 
 Pennsylvania are of German extraction : in 
 some counties the German patois is largely 
 used. Two characteristics are said to mark 
 invariably the farms of these thrifty Ameri- 
 can Teutons ; to wit, huge stone barns, far 
 larger than the substantial dwellings, and 
 gigantic horses immoderately fat, fatter even 
 than the well-fed, comfortable owners. 
 
 The first state constitution was adopted in 
 1776. By the present, there is a general 
 assembly, meeting annually. The senators 
 are chosen for three years, one-third each 
 year. The governor also is chosen for three 
 years, and can not hold the office longer than 
 six years in any term of nine years. The 
 right of suffrage is exercised by every free- 
 man, twenty-one years of age, who has re- 
 sided in the state one year. The judicial 
 power is vested in a supreme court, in courts 
 of common pleas, &c. The justices of the 
 supreme court are chosen by the people of 
 the state lor fifteen years. The judges of 
 the several courts of common pleas are 
 chosen by the people of the judicial district 
 over which they are to preside, for a term 
 of five years. The school system is improv- 
 ing in- efficiency. There is an institution for 
 the deaf and dumb at Philadelphia. In 
 
 1799 the seat of government was removed 
 from Philadelphia to Lancaster, and again, in 
 1812, to Harrisburg, on the east bank of the 
 Susquehanna. Little more than half a cen- 
 tury ago, the site of Harrisburg was a wil- 
 derness: in *1870 it had 23,104 inhabitants. 
 It was laid out in 1785, and named for the 
 original proprietor, John Harris. 
 
 The largest city of Pennsylvania is Phila- 
 delphia, about five miles above the junction 
 of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. The 
 population of Philadelphia, in 1870, was 
 674,022. It is one of the most regular cities 
 in the world, being handsomely built of brick, 
 marble, and granite, on a rectangular plan ; 
 it is a place of great trade and opulence, and 
 ranks as the second city in the Union. Phila- 
 delphia was laid out by Penn in 1682. When 
 he returned to England two years after, it 
 contained 200 houses and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 In the annals of the Revolution Philadelphia 
 has an illustrious share. The first conti- 
 nental congress assembled here, in Carpenter 
 Hall, Sept. 5th, 1774. The bell of Independ- 
 ence Hall, July 4th, 1776, did “proclaim 
 liberty throughout this land, to all the inhab- 
 itants thereof,” when its glad clangor assem- 
 bled the people to hearken to the Declaration 
 of Independence, just resolved upon in the 
 adjoining hall. The convention that formed 
 the constitution in 1787 sat here. From 1790 
 to 1800 Philadelphia was the seat of the 
 federal government. 
 
 The great city of western Pennsylvania is 
 •Pittsburg, beautifully situated on a plain at 
 the junction of the Alleghany and Mononga- 
 hela Rivers. It was incorporated a city in 
 1816. The principal cause which has con- 
 tributed, aside from its eligible location, to 
 insure the prosperity of Pittsburg, is the ex- 
 haustless mass of mineral coal that exists in 
 its neighborhood. The great abundance of 
 this valuable material has converted Pittsburg 
 into a vast workshop, and a warehouse for 
 the immense country below, upon the Ohio 
 and other large rivers of the valley. The city 
 contains, according to the last census, 86,076 
 inhabitants. Pittsburg occupies the site of 
 the former French post, Fort Du Quesne, so 
 important a spot in the history of the early 
 frontier wars. It was christened in honor of 
 William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham. 
 PEPIN, surnamed the Fat, mayor of the 
 
 PEP 
 
62 T 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 palace in France, was the son of Anchises, 
 and grandson of St. Arnold, afterward Bishop 
 of Metz. He began to govern in Austrasia, 
 and was vanquished in the year 681, by Eb- 
 roih ; but in 687, he defeated King Thierri, 
 and acted his part so well that hre had all the 
 authority in the two kingdoms, under Clovis 
 
 111., Childebert, and Dagobert III. ; and it 
 must be confessed he was worthy of the em- 
 pire of the Franks. He gained several battles 
 against Berthairus, in 691 ; Radbord, Duke 
 of Friesland, in 707; and Wiler, Duke of Sua- 
 bia, whom he defeated in 709 and 712. He 
 died in 714, near Liege. 
 
 PEPIN, surnamed the Short, King of 
 France (grandson of the preceding), the first 
 of the Carlovingian dynasty, was the son of 
 Charles Martel, and brother of Carloman. 
 The two brothers divided the power between 
 them after the death of their father, but Car- 
 loman retiring afterward into Italy, Pepin re- 
 mained sole manager, and carried his design 
 farther ; in short, seeing that all concurred to 
 set the crown upon his head, and to dethrone 
 the foolish Childeric III., he called a parlia- 
 ment that he might have their consent, which 
 was unanimously granted him, and in the 
 mean time deputed Bouchard, Bishop of 
 Wurtzburg, and Fulrad, Abbot of St. Denys, 
 and chaplain to the prince, to go to Rome, in 
 order to be informed of Pope Zachary, who 
 was the worthiest to be on the throne, he 
 who took no care of the affairs of the kingdom, 
 or he who, by his prudence and valor, gov- 
 erned it wisely, and kept it from the oppres-* 
 sions of the enemy. Zachary, who stood in 
 need of Pepin’s forces, declared in his favor. 
 This answer being related in France, the 
 bishops who were assembled at Soissons with 
 Boniface, Archbishop of Mayence, having the 
 suffrage and universal consent of the grandees 
 and people, crowned Pepin on the 1st of May, 
 752. At the same time Childeric was deposed, 
 and afterward put into a monastery. After 
 the performance of this ceremony, the new 
 king put a stop to the revolt of his brother 
 Griphon, and took Yannes. Pope Stephen 
 
 11., who succeeded Zachary, finding himself 
 extremely incommoded by the Lombards, had 
 recourse to Pepin, whom he came into France 
 to see. The king received him at the castle 
 of Poictier near Vitri, and sent him to the 
 abbey of St. Dennis; and some time after, 
 
 this pope anointed and crowned him, with 
 his two sons Charles and Carloman, at Fer- 
 rieres, J uly 28th, 754. Next year Pepin went 
 into Italy, and having forced Astulphus, King 
 of the same Lombards, to £ive up all that he 
 had taken from the church of Rome, he re- 
 turned into France, and sent back Pope Ste- 
 phen into Italy ; but the Lombards failing to 
 keep their word, Pepin repassed the Alps in 
 756, and constrained them to give all manner 
 of satisfaction to the pope of Rome. Being 
 come back into France, he spent the rest of 
 his life in making war upon the Saxons, and 
 upon Gaifre, or Waifer, Duke of Aquitain, 
 whom he defeated six or seven times, till the 
 year 768, when this prince being killed by 
 his own subjects, the king remained master 
 of all his dominions. He died of a dropsy, 
 the 24th of September, in the same year, aged 
 fifty-four. The illustrious Charlemagne, his 
 son, succeeded him. 
 
 PERCEVAL, Spencer, second son of John, 
 Earl of Egmont, was born in 1762. He was 
 educated at Harrow school, and next at Trin- 
 ity College, Cambridge, where he took his 
 master’s degree in 1782, and the year follow- 
 ing became a student of Lincoln’s Inn. He 
 commenced practice as a barrister in the king’s 
 bench, from whence he removed to the court 
 of chancery. In 1796 he was made king’s 
 counsel, and about the same time attracted 
 the notice of Mr. Pitt, by a pamphlet proving 
 that an impeachment of the house of commons 
 does not abate by a dissolution of parliament. 
 The same year he was returned for Northamp- 
 ton. In 1801 he was made solicitor-general, 
 and the next year attorney-general. On the 
 change of administration, in 1807, he headed 
 the new ministry as chancellor of the excheq- 
 uer, in which situation he displayed great 
 political talents, particularly in the settlement 
 of the regency. He was shot in the lobby of 
 the house of commons, by an assassin named 
 Bellingham, May 11th, 1812. Mr. Perceval 
 was haughty, ungenial, and intolerant and 
 illiberal in his views. 
 
 PERICLES, an Athenian of a noble family, 
 son of Xanthippus and Agariste. When he 
 took a share in the administration of public 
 affairs, he rendered himself popular by oppos- 
 ing Cimon, who was the favorite of the aris- 
 tocracy ; and to remove every obstacle which 
 stood in the way of his ambition, he lessened 
 
 PER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 6nO 
 
 the dignity and the power of the court of the 
 Areopagus, which the people had been taught 
 for ages to respect and to venerate. He also 
 attacked Cimon, and caused him to be ban- 
 ished by ostracism, b.c. 468. Thucydides also, 
 who had succeeded Cimon on his banishment, 
 shared the same fate, and Pericles remained for 
 fifteen years the sole minister, and as it may 
 be said, the absolute sovereign, of a republic 
 which always showed itself so jealous of her 
 liberties, and which distrustedsomuchthe hon- 
 esty of her magistrates. He ruled vigorously 
 and with splendor. He paid especial attention 
 to the maritime superiority of the republic. 
 Architecture, sculpture, the drama, and poetry 
 found in him a munificent patron. The Par- 
 thenon, that most perfect example of Grecian 
 art, the magnificent Propylaea, and other edi- 
 fices that make Athens the admiration of the 
 world, were ereeted during his administration. 
 
 He made war against the Lacedaemonians, 
 obtained a victory over the Sicyonians near 
 Nemaea, and waged a successful war against 
 the inhabitants of Samos. The Peloponnesian 
 war was fomented by his ambitious views, 
 and when he had warmly represented the 
 flourishing state, the opulence, and Actual 
 power of his country, the Athenians did not 
 hesitate a moment to undertake a war against 
 the most powerful republics of Greece, a war 
 which continued for twenty -seven years, and 
 which was concluded by the destruction of 
 their empire and the demolition of their walls. 
 
 The arms of the Athenians were for some 
 time crowned with success ; but an unfortu- 
 nate expedition raised clamors against Peri- 
 cles: the enraged populace attributed all 
 their losses to him, and to make atonement 
 for their ill success, they condemned him to 
 pay fifty talents. 
 
 This loss of popular favor did not so much 
 affect Pericles as the recent death of all his 
 children ; and when the tide of unpopularity 
 was passed by, he condescended to come into 
 the public assembly, and to view with secret 
 pride the contrition of his fellow-citizens, who 
 universally begged his forgiveness for the vio- 
 lence which they had offered to his ministerial 
 character. He was again restored to all his 
 honors ; but the dreadful pestilence which 
 had diminished the number of his family, 
 proved fatal to him, and about b.c. 429, in 
 his seventieth year, he fell a sacrifice to that 
 
 40 
 
 terrible malady which robbed Athens of lo 
 many of her citizens. 
 
 Pericles was for forty years at the head of 
 the administration, twenty-five years with 
 others, and fifteen alone ; and the flourishing 
 state of affairs during his government, gave 
 occasion to the Athenians publicly to lament 
 his loss and venerate his memory. As he 
 was expiring, and seemingly senseless, his 
 friends that stood around his bed expatiated 
 with warmth on the most glorious actions of 
 his life, and the victories which he had won ; 
 when he suddenly interrupted their tearful 
 panegyric, by saying that in mentioning the 
 exploits that he had achieved, and which were 
 common to him with all generals, the) 7 had 
 forgot to mention a circumstance which re- 
 flected far greater glory upon him as a minis- 
 ter, a general, and above all, as a man. “It 
 is,” said he, “ that not a citizen in Athens has 
 been obliged to put on mourning on my 
 account.” 
 
 PERIER, Casimir, prime minister of France 
 under Louis Philippe, the son of a rich mer- 
 chant; born Oct. 12th, 1777, at Grenoble, 
 and died at Paris, of cholera, May 16th, 1832. 
 
 PERRY, Oliver Hazard, a distinguished 
 captain in the American navy, gained a signal 
 victory over the British naval forces on Lake 
 Erie in 1813. He was born at Newport, R. 
 I., in 1785, and died in 1820. 
 
 PERSIA (called Iran by the natives), a 
 country of western Asia, is an elevated table- 
 land, surrounded by mountain ranges. At a 
 rough estimate it contains 500,000 square 
 miles, and is supposed to have 8,000,000 in- 
 habitants ; some say 15,000,000. One-fourth 
 of the people are nomadic tribes. Those who 
 have fixed dwellings consist of Persians, Ar- 
 menians, Arabs, and a few Parsees, or fire- 
 worshipers. The Persians profess the Mo- 
 hammedan religion, of the sect of Ali. Persia 
 has excellent fruits, cotton, fine wool, silk, 
 horses, camels, pearls, vines ; mines of pre- 
 cious stones and different minerals. Much of 
 the soil is sandy. The Persians are true Asi- 
 atics, effeminate and fond of pleasures ; they 
 are of small size. 
 
 Persia has ever been a country of great in- 
 terest, and its early history is crowded^with 
 events of importance. Chance and change 
 were not unfelt by its inhabitants of former 
 days. The early Persians were hardy, tem- 
 
 PER 
 
626 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 psrate, and well educated. Education received 
 early and strict attention among them, and 
 their magi, or wise men, are famous in the 
 history of learning. The land has been a 
 battle-ground for rival chieftains and contend- 
 ing factions. The khans or chiefs attained 
 their elevation to the throne by a wanton ex- 
 penditure of blood and life. When Ispahan 
 was the capital of Persia, and famous for its 
 commerce and splendor, it was taken by 
 Tamerlane, and 70,000 persons slain by the 
 cruel Tartars. The modern Persians exhibit 
 a very marked difference from those of the 
 early ages, from whom they are descended. 
 The latter, stern, temperate, and warlike, dis- 
 regarded both the luxuries and elegancies of 
 life. Inured to toil, living upon the plainest 
 food, and taught to face death and danger 
 without quailing, they became formidable to 
 their neighbors, and acquired for themselves 
 a military reputation, which only their subse- 
 quent degeneracy could destroy. At the time 
 of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, the Per- 
 sian monarch relied more upon the immense 
 numbers of his army and their splendid equip- 
 ments, than upon their valor. The event 
 proved the superiority of the Greeks, sternly 
 brave and proudly patriotic. In later times, 
 the Persians have shown themselves capable 
 of luxury, refinement, and the more elegant 
 ar s of peace. 
 
 Persia abounds with the hallowed re- 
 mains of antiquity. Among the most cele- 
 brated ruins which occur are those of the 
 ancient Persepolis, a city formerly of im- 
 mense extent, and conspicuous in the history 
 of Alexander of Macedon. It was the royal 
 palace of this city that the Grecian conqueror, 
 inflamed with wine, and urged by the wild 
 persuasion of an abandoned woman, destroyed 
 by fire, aided by his companion. She beheld 
 the flames rolling around the most beautiful 
 edifices, consuming splendid palaces, and 
 hurling to the ground long-venerated col- 
 umns, with the mad delight which the 
 unprincipled seem to take in the works of 
 destruction. 
 
 The Persian empire anciently extended 
 about 2,800 English miles in length, from the 
 Hellespont to the mouth of the Indus, and 
 about 2,000 miles in breadth, from Pontus to 
 the mouth of the Arabian Gulf. The Per- 
 sians are supposed to have descended from 
 
 Elam, the son of Shem; and, in Scripture, 
 they are sometimes denominated Elamites. 
 The first king of Elam mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture is Chederlaomer, who conquered many 
 of the Asiatic provinces, and held the kings 
 of Sodom, Gomorrah, Bela, Admah, and 
 Zeboim, in subjection for twelve years. He 
 was, however, vanquished by the patriarch 
 Abraham, and lost the sovereignty of the 
 Pentapolis. From this period to the reign 
 of Cyrus, the history of Elam or Persia is 
 clouded with fiction. Tradition says that 
 the country received the name of Persia from 
 Perseus, a son of Perseus and Andromeda, 
 who settled here, and probably established a 
 petty sovereignty. Persia was included in 
 the first Assyrian monarchy, and upon its 
 dismemberment by Arbaces, appertained to 
 the kingdom of Media. 
 
 Cyrus, styled the Great, on account of his 
 extensive conquests, and his restoration of 
 the captive Jews, was the son of Cambyses, 
 a Persian grandee, and of Mandane, daugln 
 ter of Astyages, king of the Medes. In the 
 fortieth year of his age, he was called to the 
 assistance of his uncle Cyaxares, who had 
 ascended the throne of Media, and who ap- 
 pointed him generalissimo both of the Medes 
 and Persians. The powerful alliance formed 
 against the Medes, b.c. 557, induced the king 
 of Armenia to withhold his usual tribute. 
 Cyrus, therefore, marched against him, and 
 compelled him to pay his tribute, and to fur- 
 nish his customary quota of auxiliaries. 
 
 The Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, Thra- 
 cians, and other nations of Lesser Asia, 
 having entered into an alliance against Cyax- 
 ares, chose Croesus, king of Lydia, to be their 
 general. The confederates assembled in the 
 vicinage of the river Pactolus, and advanced 
 to Thymbra, whither Cyrus also marched 
 with one hundred and thirty thousand troops, 
 besides three hundred armed chariots, several 
 moving towers, and a considerable number 
 of camels, upon which were mounted Ara- 
 bian archers. The forces of Croesus, however, 
 were twice as numerous as those of Cyrus, 
 and amounted to four hundred thousand men. 
 The battle was extremely bloody, and Cyrus 
 himself was some time in imminent danger ; 
 but at length the confederates gave way on 
 all sides. After this engagement, Cyrus 
 took Sardis, the capital of Lydia, and Croesus 
 
 PER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 627 
 
 prisoner, whom he replaced on the throne, i 
 After subduing S} r ria and Arabia, he marched 
 against' Babylon, which he reduced after a 
 siege of two years, and put an end to the 
 Babylonian empire. 
 
 About two years after the reduction of 
 Babylon, Cyaxares died, and left the whole 
 government of the empire to Cyrus, b.c. 534, 
 who at this time published the famous decree 
 by which the Jews w T ere permitted to return 
 to their native country, and restored all the 
 vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had brought 
 from Jerusalem. 
 
 Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, 
 who, soon after his accession to the throne, 
 resolved to undertake an expedition against 
 Egypt, and in that kingdom committed great 
 cruelties and devastations. Cambyses was 
 returning into Persia, to quell a revolt which 
 had been occasioned by Smerdis, one of the 
 magi, who pretended to be the brother of 
 the king, when he accidentally received a 
 wound from his sword, of which he died. 
 The counterfeit Smerdis was injured by his 
 excessive precautions. Cyrus having for- 
 merly caused the ears of the magi to be cut 
 off, this mutilation occasioned a discovery ; 
 and a conspiracy of seven of the principal 
 Persian grandees being formed against Smer- 
 dis, he was assassinated. 
 
 When the public tumults had subsided, 
 the conspirators held a council on the kind 
 of government which should be established, 
 and, after some debate, they determined in 
 favor of monarchy. They agreed, therefore, 
 to meet next morning on horseback, at an 
 appointed place near the city, and to ac- 
 knowledge him whose horse first neighed, 
 as king. This plan was adopted, and Darius, 
 by a stratagem of his groom, obtained the 
 sovereignty, b.c. 522. Darius had scarcely 
 entered the fifth year of his reign, when he 
 was compelled to lead all his forces against 
 Babylon, wdiich had revolted, and made great 
 preparations for sustaining a regular siege. 
 To prevent the consumption of their provis- 
 ions, the Babylonians collected all their old 
 men, women, and children, and strangled 
 them without distinction, only reserving one 
 wife for each man, and a female servant. 
 
 After Babylon had been besieged a year 
 and eight months, it was taken by the con- 
 trivance of Zopyrus, who cut off his own 
 
 nose and ears, and pretending that he was 
 thus mangled by the Persian .monarch for 
 advising him to relinquish his undertaking, 
 was admitted into the city by the inhabit- 
 ants, and betrayed it to Darius. 
 
 Having settled the affairs of Babylon Darius 
 undertook an expedition against the Scythi- 
 ans, b.c. 514, on pretense of revenging the 
 calamities which that people brought upon 
 Asia, about one hundred and twenty years 
 before. By means of a bridge of boats, he 
 transported his army across the Bosphorus, 
 and subdued Thrace ; and having appointed 
 his fleet to join him at the Ister, or Danube, 
 he also passed over that river into Scythia. 
 The Scythians avoided an engagement, and 
 retired before him, laying waste the country, 
 and filling up all the wells and springs, till 
 the Persian troops were quite exhausted with 
 tedious and fatiguing marches. At last, 
 Darius resolved to abandon this wild enter- 
 prise, and causing a great number of fires to 
 be lighted, he left the old men and invalids 
 in the camp, and marched with all expedition 
 to regain the pass of the river. The king 
 recrossed the Danube, and returned into 
 Thrace, where he left Megabyzus, one of his 
 generals, to complete the conquest of that 
 country, and, repassing the Bosphorus, took 
 up his quarters at Sardis. Afterward, the 
 Athenians having sent a fleet to the assist- 
 ance of certain Grecian cities in Asia Minor 
 that had revolted from the Persian rule, 
 Darius resolved upon their chastisement. 
 But the powerful army he sent into Greece 
 was defeated by a handful of Athenians on 
 the plain of Marathon, b.c. 490, and the 
 remnant fled ingloriously back to Asia. 
 
 Darius declared his son Xerxes, who was 
 born after his father’s exaltation to the 
 throne, successor in the kingdom, setting aside 
 Artabazanes, the eldest son. Xerxes as- 
 cended the throne b.c. 485, and at once began 
 to prepare to retrieve the disgrace of Mara- 
 thon. He entered into an alliance with the 
 Carthaginians, who were to attack the Greek 
 colonies in Sicily and Italy, and ’who raised 
 an army of three hundred thousand men in 
 Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Africa. To prevent 
 a repetition of a former disaster which befell 
 the Persian fleet, Xerxes commanded a pas- 
 sage for his galleys to be cut through Mount 
 Athos. He also ordered a bridge of boats 
 
 PER 
 
628 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to be laid across the Hellespont for the pas- 
 sage of his troops into Europe. 
 
 Having made the necessary preparations, 
 the Persian monarch began his march against 
 Greece, b.c. 480, with a land army of 1,800,000 
 men. His fleet consisted of 1,207 large 
 ships, and 3,000 galleys and transports, 
 which contained 517,600 men; so that the 
 whole body of forces amounted to 2,317,600 
 men. This number was so much increased 
 on the march by such nations as made their 
 submission, that Xerxes arrived at Thermop- 
 ylae with 2,641,000 men, besides servants, 
 eunuchs, women, &c. 
 
 The Grecian fleet was victorious over that 
 of Persia in some partial engagements, and 
 afterward completely at the battle of Salamis, 
 in which the dispersion was so general, and 
 the defeat so decisive, that Xerxes, afraid of 
 not being able to preserve a single vessel to 
 carry him from Europe, made an expeditious 
 retreat, and was conveyed into Asia in a small 
 boat. This success inspired the other Greeks 
 with new courage ; and they joined the 
 Athenians and Lacedaemonians in harassing 
 the Persians on all sides. The land army 
 ventured a decisive battle at Plataea in Bceo- 
 tia, b.c. 479, where, out of three hundred 
 thousand, only three thousand Persians es- 
 caped. The same day the Persian fleet was 
 defeated at Mycale on the coast of Asia Minor. 
 
 The dissolute conduct of Xerxes rendered 
 him obnoxious to his subjects and he was 
 murdered by his chief favorite, Artabanus, 
 who persuaded Artaxerxes, the king’s third 
 son, that Darius, his eldest brother, had been 
 guilty of the crime of parricide. Artax- 
 erxes, therefore, killed Darius, and finding 
 that Artabanus entertained a design against 
 him, he put him to a horrible death, b.c. 465. 
 
 The new monarch having thus removed 
 one formidable competitor, endeavored to 
 secure his crown against the attempts of his 
 brother Hvstaspes, who held the government 
 of Bactria. Artaxerxes attacked and de- 
 feated the adherents of Artabanus. He then 
 sent an army into Bactria, which had declared 
 in favor of Hvstaspes ; and though victory 
 was doubtful in the first battle, Artaxerxes 
 was successful in the second, and firmly 
 established himself in the empire. This 
 Artaxerxes, surnamed Longimanus, is sup- 
 posed to be the Ahasuerus of Scripture. 
 
 During his reign peace was restored between 
 Persia and Athens, after a war of fifty-one 
 years. He died in peace, and left the succes- 
 sion to Xerxes, b.c. 424, the only son he had 
 by his queen, though by his concubines he 
 had seventeen, among whom were Sogdianus, 
 Ochus, and Arsites. Xerxes II. had assumed 
 the diadem only forty -five days, when, being 
 inebriated at a public entertainment, Sogdi- 
 anus seized an opportunity to assassinate 
 him. The regicide was scarcely seated on 
 the throne, when Ochus having declared his 
 intention of revenging the murder of Xerxes, 
 Sogdianus was deserted by all his subjects, 
 and finally doomed to expiate his crimes by 
 a cruel death. 
 
 Ochus, being now invested with supreme 
 authority, assumed the name of Darius, and 
 is mentioned by historians under the appel- 
 lation of Darius Nothus, or Darius the bas- 
 tard. In this reign, the Egyptians shook off 
 the Persian yoke, and the Medes also revolted. 
 Darius, having settled the affairs of the rebell- 
 ious provinces, bestowed the supreme com- 
 mand of Asia Minor on his youngest son, 
 Cyrus, b.c. 407, who was ordered to assist 
 the Lacedaemonians against the Athenians. 
 This order, however, soon exposed the weak- 
 ness of the king’s politics ; for the Lacedae- 
 monians, after conquering the Athenians, 
 invaded the Persian provinces in Asia. 
 
 Darius died, b.c. 404, and left the imperial 
 diadem to his son Arsaces, who assumed the 
 name of Artaxerxes, and received the ap- 
 pellation of Mnemon, on account of his extra- 
 ordinary memory. Cyrus resolved to exert 
 all his abilities to drive his brother from the 
 throne, and having procured a number of 
 Grecian auxiliaries, marched his troops to 
 the plains of Cunaxa, in the province of 
 Babylon, where he found Artaxerxes, at the 
 head of nine hundred thousand men, ready 
 for battle. 
 
 A sanguinary contest immediately com- 
 menced ; and Cyrus, on seeing his brother, 
 engaged him with such fury as seemed to 
 change the battle into a single combat. The 
 rebellious prince, however, fell by the hands 
 of the king and his guards. The ten thou- 
 sand Greeks, under the conduct cf Xeno- 
 phon, effected that memorable retreat, which 
 has always been considered as a noble 
 achievement among military operations. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 629 
 
 Darius, the eldest son of the king, was 
 executed for a conspiracy : whereupon three 
 of the princes, Ariaspes, Ochus, and Arsames, 
 became competitors for the crown. Ochus 
 practiced so effectually on the credulity of 
 Ariaspes, that he poisoned himself ; and Ar- 
 sames was assassinated by the son of Tiriba- 
 zus. These acts of cruelty overwhelmed 
 Artaxerxes with such insupportable grief 
 that he died. Ochus concealed the death 
 of the king, and assumed the administration 
 of government in the name of Artaxerxes. 
 He caused himself, in the name of the king, 
 to be declared his successor ; and after ten 
 months, he published the death of Artax- 
 erxes. An insurrection in several of the 
 provinces immediately followed ; but the 
 leaders of the confederacy disagreeing among 
 themselves, the rebellion terminated without 
 any effusion of blood. Ochus no sooner pos- 
 sessed absolute authority, than he began to 
 fill his capital and the whole empire with 
 carnage and misery. He caused his own 
 sister to be buried alive ; he shut up one of 
 his uncles, with a hundred of his sons and 
 grandsons, in a court of the palace, where 
 they were massacred by a body of archers ; 
 and he put all the branches of the royal 
 family to death. This insupportable tyranny 
 occasioned another rebellion, which was not 
 quelled without much difficulty. This revolt 
 was scarcely terminated, when the Sidonians 
 and other natives of Phoenicia joined the 
 Cypriots ' and Egyptians in a confederacy 
 against Persia. Ochus effected the reduction 
 of Sidon, and compelled all the other cities 
 to make submissions. He also reduced the 
 city of Jericho, and having concluded a peace 
 with the kings of Cyprus, he led his victori- 
 ous troops into Egypt, which he completely 
 subdued. Apis, the sacred bull, was butch- 
 ered, and the holy beef served up at a royal 
 banquet. Ochus passed his time amidst 
 every species of luxury and voluptuousness. 
 Bagoas, an Egyptian eunuch, prevailed on the 
 king’s physician to administer a strong poison, 
 instead of medicine, to his royal benefactor. 
 Having thus accomplished his purpose, he 
 caused the flesh of the king to be cut in 
 pieces and thrown to dogs and cats, and had 
 swcrd handles made from his bones. He 
 then placed on the throne Arses, the youngest 
 prince, and condemned all the rest to death. 
 
 But Arses, sensible of the slavery in which 
 he was held, concerted measures to free him- 
 self from it. Bagoas, therefore, effected his 
 destruction in the second year of his reign, 
 b.c. 336, and bestowed the imperial diadem 
 on Darius Codomanus, who was a descendant 
 of Darius Nothus, and at that time governor 
 of Armenia. 
 
 This prince, however, had not long enjoyed 
 the sovereignty, when the ambitious eunuch 
 determined to remove him, and with this 
 design provided a deleterious potion ; but 
 Darius, being apprised of his danger, com- 
 pelled Bagoas to drink the poison, and thus 
 established himself on the throne. In the 
 second year of this reign, Alexander of Mace- 
 don crossed the Hellespont at the head of 
 a well-disciplined army, with the design of 
 revenging the injuries which Greece had 
 received from the Persians during three hun- 
 dred years. On his arrival at the Granicus, 
 he found on the opposite bank a numerous 
 Persian army, amounting to 100,000 foot 
 and 10,000 horse. Though Alexander had 
 not more than 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse, 
 he crossed the Granicus at the head of his 
 cavalry, and attacked with impetuosity the 
 whole Persian force. An obstinate conflict 
 ensued, in which the Persians were defeated 
 with the loss of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse, 
 and in which Alexander exposed his life to 
 the most imminent danger. The invasion 
 having assumed a serious aspect, Darius led 
 his army into Cilicia, b.c. 333, and advanced 
 to the city of Issus, near which Alexander 
 drew up his troops on an advantageous ground. 
 Victory clung to Macedon, and Darius re- 
 treated precipitately to the adjoining moun- 
 tains, where he mounted a horse, and con- 
 tinued his flight. Alexander was now entire 
 master of the field, and of the Persian camp, 
 in which the mother, wife, and son of Darius 
 were taken prisoners. 
 
 In 331 b.c., the Persian monarch, having 
 assembled a numerous army, prepared for 
 battle in a large plain near the city of Arbela, 
 on the confines of Persia. The Persians 
 commenced the attack, but were totally 
 routed, and Darius was again compelled to 
 seek safety in flight. At Ecbatana, in Me- 
 dia, he collected another army, with which 
 he intended to make a last effort, b.c. 330. 
 He was, however, prevented by Bessus, gov- 
 
 PER 
 
630 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 ernor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes, a Persian 
 nobleman, who entered into a conspiracy 
 against him, and binding him with golden 
 chains, shut him up in a covered cart, and 
 retreated precipitately toward Bactria. They 
 intended, if Alexander pursued them, to 
 deliver up the object of his resentment ; or, 
 if they escaped the Macedonian conqueror, 
 to murder Darius, and, usurping the impe- 
 rial diadem, to renew the war. When 
 Alexander was informed of the base designs 
 of Bessus and Nabarzanes, he advanced with 
 a small body of light-armed cavalry ; and, 
 as soon as the Macedonians came within 
 sight of the enemy, they immediately took to 
 flight, and having discharged their darts at 
 the unfortunate Persian monarch, left him 
 weltering in his blood. Thus died Darius, 
 in the fiftieth year of his age, and the sixth 
 of his reign, and with him ended the Persian 
 empire, after it had existed 206 years. 
 
 After the dissolution of the Macedonian 
 empire, Persia fell to the Seleucidse, and 
 next to Parthia. After the Persians had 
 been subject to the Parthians for the space 
 of 475 years, Artaxerxes, a Persian of mean 
 descent and spurious birth, excited a revolt 
 among his countrymen ; and, the reigning 
 monarch being dethroned and put to death, 
 a new Persian monarchy was founded. The 
 Roman emperor, Alexander Severus, attacked 
 and defeated Artaxerxes, and wrested from 
 him several of his provinces. Artaxerxes, 
 however, recovered these provinces, and, after 
 swaying the sceptre with great reputation for 
 the space of twelve years, died in peace. 
 
 Pie was succeeded by his son Sapor, a.d. 
 242, who was equally famous for his personal 
 strength and mental abilities, but was of a 
 fierce, cruel, and untractable disposition. lie 
 waged severe wars with the Romans. Sa- 
 por left his kingdom to his son Plormisdas, 
 who, refusing to interfere in the affairs of the 
 Romans, died in peace, a.d. 273, after a 
 reign of one year and ten days. His son 
 Vararanes I. enjoyed the regal dignity three 
 years, without being disturbed by the Ro- 
 mans, or attempting to extend the limits of 
 his empire. Vararanes II. meditated an inva- 
 sion of the Roman provinces, a.d. 277, but 
 on the approach of the Emperor Probus, he 
 abandoned his design, and sued for peace. 
 Vararanes III. was denominated Segansaa, or 
 
 king of the Segans, and was succeeded by 
 Narses, a.d. 294, a prince of great abilities 
 and resolution. 
 
 Sapor II., a.d. 308, was a zealous assertor 
 of the dignity of the Persian crown, and en- 
 deavored to unite all the provinces of the 
 ancient empire under his authority. This 
 restless and ambitious monarch was suc- 
 ceeded by Artaxerxes, a.d. 380, who lived in 
 amity with the Romans, and enjoyed the 
 regal dignity about four years. Vararanes 
 IV. succeeded his father Saporos, and gov- 
 erned his dominions eleven years. Isdigertes 
 was deservedly celebrated for his virtuous 
 disposition, and, at the death of his friend 
 the Emperdr Arcadius, a.d. 401, was in- 
 trusted with the care of his son Theodosius 
 II. and the Roman empire. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Vararanes V., a.d. 421. 
 In this reign, the indiscreet zeal of a Chris- 
 tian, who set fire to a Persian temple, 
 renewed the war with the Romans. The 
 Persian monarch obtained the assistance of 
 the Saracens, and, notwithstanding the de- 
 feats which he experienced from the Romans, 
 he rendered even victory disadvantageous to 
 the enemy. 
 
 Vararanes VI. was next invested with the 
 diadem, a.d. 442, which he wore for seven- 
 teen years apd four months. His son and 
 successor, Peroses, being incensed against the 
 Euthalites or White Huns, marched an army 
 into their country ; but the Euthalites cutting 
 off his retreat, obliged him to swear that he 
 would never more invade them. Peroses, 
 however, assembled his forces, and marched 
 a second time toward the northern frontiers ; 
 but the Euthalites, rushing unexpectedly 
 upon him, slew and took captive most of his 
 army, and put him to death. The nobles 
 bestowed the crown on his brother V alens, 
 who, at the expiration of four years, fell a 
 victim to the oppressive cares of government. 
 He was succeeded by Cavades, the son of 
 Peroses, a.d. 486. On the death of Cavades, 
 his son Chosroes ascended the throne, a.d. 
 531. The Persian monarch, however, was 
 almost constantly engaged in hostilities with 
 the eastern empire. He raised the empire 
 to great power, and the excellence of his 
 government gained him the name of the 
 Just. The Romans having given him a com- 
 plete defeat, he was so deeply affected with 
 
 PER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 631 
 
 his ill success, that he sickened and died. 
 He was succeeded by his son Horraisdas, 
 a.d. 579. 
 
 Hormisdas was dethroned by a person of 
 the royal blood, named Bindoes, who had 
 been loaded with chains for a slight offense. 
 The unfortunate monarch being heard in his 
 own defense, recommended his younger son 
 Hormisdas as his successor, in preference to 
 his elder son Chosrodes. The assembly,, 
 however, at the instigation of Bindoes, caused 
 his son Hormisdas, and the prince’s mother, 
 to be cut in pieces ; and ordered the eyes of 
 the deposed monarch to be put out with a 
 hot iron. 
 
 Chosroes IT. ascended the throne a.d. 592. 
 On the death of the Emperor Mauritius, he 
 took up arms against the Romans, a.d. 605, 
 and such was his success, that, in nine years, 
 he plundered the provinces of Syria, Mesopo- 
 tamia, Phoenicia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Gala- 
 tia, Paphlagonia, and all the country as far 
 as Chalcedon. He also ravaged Judea, pil- 
 laged the cit}^ of Jerusalem, and sold ninety 
 Christians to the Jews, who put them all to 
 death. These conquests induced him to 
 make an expedition into Egypt ; he reduced 
 Alexandria and all the country toward Libya, 
 and added the empire of Africa to that of 
 Asia. At last his star waned. He was de- 
 feated in several battles, and finally murdered 
 in a dungeon by command of his own son, 
 Siores, who having ascended the throne, a.d. 
 626, concluded a treaty of perpetual peace 
 with Heraclius ; but he was murdered by one 
 of his generals after twelve months’ reign. 
 His son, Ardeser, was next invested w T ith the 
 government, but was assassinated in the 
 seventh month of his reign by Sarbas, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Persian forces, who 
 seized the diadem for himself. A civil war, 
 however, crushed the ambitious projects of the 
 usurer, and elevated to the throne Isdigertes 
 II., a.d. 630. The reign of this prince was 
 short and unhappy. The Moslems were then 
 commencing their career of conquest. He 
 defended his country with becoming resolu- 
 lution against them, till the spirits of his 
 subjects were entirely broken by repeated 
 defeats. At last he was slain in battle ; and 
 in him ended the royal line of Artaxares. 
 With his death terminated the last Persian 
 
 empire, which had maintained a splendid 
 existence for upward of four hundred years. 
 
 The Persians imbibed the literature and 
 religion of the Arabs, and for two centuries 
 the country was a province of the caliphate. 
 After the power of the caliphs decayed, the 
 land was possessed by various chiefs. The 
 Seljookian Turks, among whom were the 
 distinguished kings Togrel-Beg and Alp- Ars- 
 lan, ruled from 1028 till 1 194:. The famous 
 Genghis Khan included Persia in the Mogul 
 empire, which held it till the end of the 
 fourteenth century, when the Tartars under 
 Tamerlane conquered the country, and estab- 
 lished a rule which lasted, with few inter- 
 ruptions, till 1502. 
 
 The founder of the djmasty of shahs in 
 Persia, was Ismael, surnamed Sooffee, who 
 was remotely descended from the Caliph 
 Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed. He was 
 a Turkoman, but he belonged to the sect of 
 his ancestor, and hence partly the national 
 enmity which has subsisted between the 
 Sheah and Sooni, or Persian and Turkish 
 Mohammedans. In 1500 there was a great 
 number of the sectaries of Ali among the 
 Mohammedans of Asia. Ismael assembled 
 about 700, who were attached to his family ; 
 and attacking his father’s murderer, slew 
 him in battle, and took possession of his do- 
 minions. He was a monster of inhumanity 
 and cruelty, and reigned twenty-three years ; 
 during which period began the struggle for 
 power between the Persians and the Turks. 
 Ismael was succeeded by his son Tahmasp, 
 a.d. 1523. He was succeeded by Ismael IL 
 his son, a.d. 1575. Mohammed, the brother 
 and successor of Ismael, had spent his life in 
 privacy, wholly devoted to religious duties ; 
 and assumed the sceptre, a.d. 1577. Mo- 
 hammed left three sons, the two eldest of 
 whom, Hamzeh and Ishmael, merely appeared 
 upon the throne, about 1584, and are scarcely 
 numbered among the shahs. 
 
 Shah Abbas the Great began to reign in 
 1582. By the contrivance of a vizier named 
 Kouli Khan, Shah Abbas prosecuted the war 
 against the Turks, which he conducted in 
 person, with great success and glory ; retook 
 Tauris, and ‘defeated his enemies in several 
 engagements. In his dying moments, he 
 sent for four of the chief lords of his council 
 
 PER 
 
632 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to his bed-side, and told them that it was his 
 will that his grandson Mirza should succeed 
 him, and assume the name of his father. 
 After assembling all the lords in the neigh- 
 borhood of Ispahan, they crowned him, a.d. 
 1628. On his accession to the throne, he 
 assumed the name of Soofee. This prince 
 was a second Nero ; bearing in his counte- 
 nance every mark of clemency and good- 
 ness, he cherished in his heart the vicious 
 inclinations of a savage and inexorable tyrant. 
 He reigned thirteen years, and left a son, 
 named Abbas, who succeeded him in 1641, 
 and whom his father had ordered to be 
 deprived of sight ; but the compassion of the 
 executioner had spared him. 
 
 Under this Abbas II., intoxication, pas- 
 sion, and an uncontrollable love of power 
 rendered life not more secure than under his 
 brutal father. On the death of Abbas, his 
 eldest son Safi was immediately saluted em- 
 peror, a.d. 1666, but afterward assumed the 
 name of Solyman. Solyman died a natural 
 death after a reign of twenty-nine years, a.d. 
 1694, and was succeeded by his son Shah 
 Husseyn, the most merciful and most unfor- 
 tunate prince of his race. History furnishes 
 few instances of a dissolution so entire as that 
 of the kingdom of Persia, under the feeble 
 and inactive Husseyn. 
 
 At length, after a series of disasters, Hus- 
 seyn was obliged to abdicate the throne to Mah- 
 moud. Before this ceremony took place, the 
 king traveled through the principal streets of 
 Ispahan on foot, deploring the misfortunes of 
 his reign, and consoling the people who sur- 
 rounded him, by endeavoring to excite in them 
 hopes of better fortune under a new govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In dispossessing Husseyn, a.d. 1723, Mah- 
 moud avenged himself on all those who, by 
 negligence, ignorance, party spirit, coward- 
 ice, or treason, had contributed to the ruin 
 of the state. The conduct of Mahmoud tended 
 to excite the odium of his subjects ; and he 
 saw his projects defeated, and himself begin- 
 ning to be treated with general hatred. In 
 order to avert these misfortunes, which he 
 imputed to the anger of heaven, he imposed 
 on himself a sort of penance, which continued 
 fifteen days, and which had the effect of com- 
 pletely deranging his senses. His captains, 
 seeing him at the point of death, turned their 
 
 thoughts on his cousin Ashraf, who refused the 
 crown except the head of Mahmoud should be 
 brought to him. Mahmoud, therefore, who 
 could not have lived many hours longer, was 
 put to death ; and the destroyer of the 
 dynasty of the Shahs enjoyed his triumph 
 only two years. Ashraf ordered all the 
 guards, ministers, and confidants of Mah- 
 moud to be executed ; and did not spare even 
 those who had placed him on the throne. 
 
 About this time, Kouli Khan became dis- 
 tinguished ; and having tendered his services 
 to Tahmasp, in three campaigns he made him 
 master of all the possessions of the Afghans. 
 Ashraf offered to abdicate the throne, and 
 to restore the treasures which he had inher- 
 ited after Mahmoud’s death ; but Kouli 
 Khan, refusing to listen to any terms of ac- 
 commodation, pursued his enemy even to 
 death, and with him ended the transitory 
 dynasty of the Afghans. Tahmasp was re-es- 
 tablished on the throne by the power of Kouli 
 Khan, a.d. 1730, who in a short time de- 
 posed him, and introduced into his place his 
 infant son, by the name of Abbas III. The 
 infant emperor dying within six months, Kouli 
 Khan was elected to the vacant throne ; and, 
 on his accession, took the name of Nadir Shah. 
 
 The reign of this prince was marked with 
 glory and conquest. His government was 
 despotic and tyrannical ; and he formed the 
 design of a general massacre of the principal 
 Persians. He conquered Candahar and Af- 
 ghanistan, and invading India in 1739 bore 
 from Delhi a booty estimated at $160,000,000. 
 He conquered Usbec Tartary, but was not 
 so successful against the Daghistan Tartars. 
 He beat the Turks in several engagements, 
 but was unable to take Bagdad. His conduct 
 became so intolerable, that he was assassin- 
 ated in his tent, in the year 1747. 
 
 Manj T pretenders, upon his death, started 
 up ; but the fortunate one was Kerim Khan. 
 His death gave rise to another disputed suc- 
 cession, with civil wars. At length, Aga 
 Mohammed raised himself to the sovereignty. 
 He fixed the capital at Teheran. His cruelty 
 provoked his attendants to his assassination 
 in 1797. His nephew, Futtah Ali, became 
 shah. This reign was marked by two disas- 
 trous wars with Russia, who had already seiz- 
 ed Georgia, and now obtained fresh slices of 
 Futtah Ali died in 1834, and was 
 
 territory. 
 PER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 633 
 
 succeeded by his grandson, Shah Mohammed, i 
 at whose death in 1848 his son Nasr-ul-Din, | 
 or Nausser-ood-deen, became shah. 
 
 The Persian possession of Herat in the fall 
 of 1856, brought on a rupture with England. 
 The Persians were defeated at Bushire, Dec. 
 10th, and at one or two other encounters, and 
 peace was ratified at Teheran, April 14th? 
 1857. 
 
 PERU, like the other South American 
 provinces of Spain, achieved its independ- 
 ence in the early part of this century. The 
 southern part of ancient Peru is now the 
 republic of Bolivia; the remainder, also a 
 republic, retains the old name, having an area 
 of 580,000 square miles, and a population of 
 2,400,000. The surface of the country is 
 of the boldest and most varied description. 
 The lofty Andes crowd close to the Pacific, 
 leaving but a narrow desert between them 
 and the shore, brightened by the luxuriant 
 verdure of the valleys through which the 
 torrents roll from the mountains to the sea. 
 East of the mountains is a vast region, inhab- 
 ited by independent Indian tribes, with all 
 the luxuriant vegetation and animal life that 
 belong to the tropics. Peru is considered 
 the native land of the potato : here it bears 
 pure white blossoms free from the purple hue 
 so common in cultivated varieties. This is 
 not an agricultural country : its mines of 
 gold, silver, and mercury, have been the 
 source of its wealth. They are seated in the 
 inmost depths of the Andes, approached only 
 by deep and perilous passes, and in moun- 
 tains which tower into the regions of perpet- 
 ual snow. They are by no means exhausted, 
 though of late years, wars and political con- 
 vulsions caused a diminution of their prod- 
 ucts. Guano has become an important 
 export of late. 
 
 The population of Peru is made up of 
 Spaniards or Creoles, Indians, mixed races, 
 and negroes. Much of the commerce at 
 Callao and Lima is carried on by English 
 and American merchants. The Spanish 
 ladies of Peru are famed for their love of 
 intrigue and coquetry, which is greatly aided 
 by a dress originally intended to secure re- 
 serve and seclusion : the say a , a light gown 
 fitted close to the frame, being covered with 
 the manto, a large loose cloak of black silk 
 gauze, which is wrapped round even the face. 
 
 Under this disguise they sally forth, and 
 amuse themselves by addressing their friends 
 without being known, mixing with the crowd 
 tg see whatever attracts their curiosity, and 
 too liable to trip in more culpable indiscre- 
 tions. 
 
 The Indians, or native Peruvians, are the 
 most numerous class. They have small fea- 
 tures, little feet, well-turned limbs, sleek, 
 coarse, black hair, and scarcely any beard. 
 Conquest and oppression plunged them in 
 apathy, ignorance, and degradation. An en- 
 lightened government could easily raise them 
 to a higher civilization, for many of them 
 have courage, patience, industry, and inge- 
 nuity. The monks largely converted them 
 to something which was called Christianity. 
 They celebrated the festivals of the Romish 
 church by drinking enormous potations of 
 chica (a liquor made from corn, the Indian 
 women helping on the fermentation by first 
 chewing the kernels), dancing through the 
 streets to the sound of the pipe, with bells 
 fastened to their legs, and cudgels for thwack- 
 ing any who stood in their way : in which 
 devout exercises a whole week was sometimes 
 consumed. During the war of independence 
 the missions were mostly broken up. It is 
 said that amid their gloomy debasement, 
 the natives yet retain a mournful recollec- 
 tion of the estate of their anceestors, and in 
 the more remote districts, the death of the 
 last inca is annually observed by a sort of rude 
 tragedy, accompanied by plaintive strains 
 of their wild music. 
 
 Lima, next to Mexico the most splendid 
 city of Spanish America, is the capital of 
 Peru; population 60,000. Lima was founded 
 in 1534 by Pizarro, and has been visited by 
 severe earthquakes. It stands six miles from 
 the coast. Callao, its port, is itself a consid- 
 erable town, having 20,000 inhabitants. The 
 most interesting town in Peru is Cuzco, the 
 metropolis of the ancient empire, situated in 
 the interior upon a table-land of the Andes, 
 surrounded by valleys, and even extended 
 plains, rich in pasturage and the grains of 
 temperate climates. In its fallen state, it is 
 still rioble. The cathedral is a stately pile. 
 On the site of the ancient temple of the sun 
 and from its materials, the Dominican monks 
 reared a church ; their altar took the place 
 of the image of the Peruvian deity. On an 
 
 PER 
 
634 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 mantled walls of the great fortress of the 
 incas. They were raised to a great height, 
 and built of truly astonishing masses of stone, 
 placed upon one another without cement, but 
 fitted with such nicety as not to admit the 
 insertion of a blade between them. Cuzco 
 has some 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The ancient Peruvians enjoyed a degree of 
 civilization far above the savage state, equaled 
 on the continent only by that of Mexico, and 
 with that contrasting remarkably. Instead 
 of the fierce and lofty spirit, the bloody 
 wars, the uncouth deities, and the ferocious 
 rites of that singular nation, the Peruvians 
 were united in tranquil subjection to a mild 
 superstition, which represented to them their 
 • inca as one to whom their unreserved submis- 
 sion was due. They venerated the memory 
 of Manco Capac, and Mama Ocello his wife, 
 children of the sun, who came among them 
 in the tenth or eleventh century, to teach 
 the women how to spin and the men how to 
 till the ground, and established peace, order, 
 and religion. The truth hidden in this tradi- 
 tion, is hidden from us forever. The un- 
 known history of the world is greater than 
 that which is written. We may repeat the 
 question of quaint Sir Thomas Browne : 
 “ Who knows whether the best of men be 
 known? or whether there be not more re- 
 markable persons forgot than any that stand 
 remembered in the known account of time ? ” 
 
 The incas were the posterity of Manco 
 Capac, and thus sacred as descendants of the 
 sun. Their government was a theocracy, 
 despotic though not cruel. They were at 
 once temporal and spiritual sovereigns. “ The 
 empire of the incas,” Humboldt says, “was 
 like a great monastic establishment : there 
 prevailed a state of general ease with little 
 individual happiness; a resignation to the 
 decrees of the sovereign, rather than a love 
 of country ; a passive obedience without the 
 courage for great undertakings ; a spirit of 
 order, which directed with great minuteness 
 the most indifferent acts of life, but no ex- 
 pansion of mind, no elevation of character.” 
 The religion was a worship of the sun and 
 other heavenly bodies, rarely stained by hu- 
 man sacrifices. The empire attained domin- 
 ion over a territory more than two thousand 
 miles in length. The land was carefully 
 
 As moisture was the chief want, 
 all the rivers were diverted into canals for 
 irrigation ; mountains were formed into ter- 
 races to receive them; walls were built to 
 prevent the waters from escaping ; and thus 
 large tracts were made to blossom and smile, 
 which under Spanish indolence have relapsed 
 into deserts. From Cuzco to Quito, a dis- 
 tance of 1,500 miles, a road was constructed, 
 which though only eighteen feet broad, and 
 not fitted for carriages, — which indeed were 
 not known to the Peruvians, — was yet a won- 
 derful work, from the natural obstacles which 
 had been overcome, jgid the flying bridges 
 that gave a' passage over the deep ravines. 
 The country is subject to earthquakes, and 
 to this the structure of the edifices was 
 adapted. The walls were formed of huge 
 blocks of stone, and seldom rose to more than 
 twelve feet in height. But they inclosed 
 immense spaces of ground, and were divided 
 into many apartments. The people were 
 decently clad. They had manufactures of 
 earthenware, and woolen and cotton cloth. 
 They had tools made of copper. To the 
 Mexican paintings and hieroglyphics, the 
 Peruvians had nothing analogous. Their 
 quipos, or strings, on which the colors repre- 
 sented objects, and the knots their number, 
 were apparently first used for purposes 
 of calculation, and afterward employed as a 
 rude record of events. Amid the mildness 
 of their rites and habits, there remained one 
 decided relic of barbarism. On the death 
 of an inca, or even of any great chief, a num- 
 ber of his vassals, often very considerable, 
 were buried with his corpse. A portion of 
 his wealth was also deposited, and many pre- 
 cious and useful articles, destined for his use 
 in the world to which he had gone. In later 
 days the opening of these huacas, or tombs, 
 often proved a great prize to European ad- 
 venturers, and in one instance there was found 
 a treasure in gold amounting to $750,000. 
 
 Rumors of a region that vied with the 
 Indies in wealth reached the Spaniards. In 
 1531 Pizarro led his band into the quiet 
 realm, whose unsuspecting people received 
 them with hospitality and venerated them as 
 superior beings. The inca Huayna Capac 
 had violated the ancient usage forbidding him 
 to wed beyond the lineage of Manco Capac. 
 His second wife was the daughter of the 
 
 PER 
 
 eminence north of the town stand the dis- 1 cultivated. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 635 
 
 vanquished king of Quito, and the son whom 
 she had borne him, named Atahualpa, he 
 made his successoi in that kingdom, while 
 Huascar, his eldest son by a princess of the 
 sacred race, reigned over the other domin- 
 ions. The contest between the half-brothers 
 smoothed the way for Spanish ambition. 
 The conquest was soon made. Atahualpa, 
 the last of the incas, was held a captive. 
 The Spaniards promised to ransom him on 
 the payment of an immense sum of money ; 
 when the loyalty of the people had pro- 
 duced the treasure, Pizarro accepted it, but 
 refused to release his prisoner, who was mur- 
 dered in his palace at Caxamarca. In that 
 town still dwells an Indian family who boast 
 a descent from the incas, and inhabit the re- 
 mains of the ancient palace. The room in 
 which Atahualpa was confined is shown, and 
 especially the mark on the wall, to which the 
 room was to be filled with silver as his ran- 
 som. The Peruvians were degraded into a 
 cruel bondage, and their country became the 
 centre of the wealth and power of Spain in 
 South America. It was the last of the vice- 
 royalties to throw oif the Spanish rule. 
 The battle of Ayacucho, Dec. 9th, 1824, 
 overthrew the last army of Spain. Peru has 
 since shared the unhappy lot of all the South 
 American republics. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Henry, the celebrated in- 
 structor, born at Zurich, Jan. 12th, 1745, died 
 in 1827. 
 
 PETER the Hermit, a French enthusiast of 
 the eleventh century, who made a pilgrimage 
 to Palestine, and, on his return to Europe, 
 preached up a crusade for the recovery of 
 the holy city from the infidels. His success 
 was such as might have been expected in an 
 ignorant age. He passed through Hungary 
 with an immense crowd of followers, thou- 
 sands of whom perished miserably by the 
 way. Peter, however, entered Syria, and dis- 
 played great bravery at the taking of Jerusa- 
 lem. He then returned to France, where he 
 died, in the abbey of Noirmoutier, of which 
 he was the founder. 
 
 PETERS, Richard, was born near Phila- 
 delphia, Aug. 22d, 1744, and was graduated 
 at the University of Pennsylvania. He stud- 
 ied law, and, having served a short time as 
 captain in the revolutionary army, he was 
 transferred to the board of war, where his 
 
 services were of high worth to the patriot 
 cause. For thirty-six years he held the sta- 
 tion of judge of the district court of Pennsyl- 
 vania. He made many agricultural experi- 
 ments, most of which were highly successful. 
 He was particularly distinguished for a fertile 
 fancy and wit. 
 
 PETRARCA, Francesco, or, as he is gen- 
 erally termed by English writers, Petrarch, 
 was an Italian poet and scholar who adorned 
 the fourteenth century. He was born at 
 Arezzo in Tuscany, July 4th, 1304. he stud- 
 ied law and theology, entering into the eccle- 
 siastical state in 1326. His platonic affection 
 for the beautiful Laura led him to write ama- 
 tory sonnets in his native tongue, which trib- 
 utes of affection were continued after the death 
 of the virtuous lady who inspired them. Pe- 
 trarch died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18th, 
 1374. 
 
 PETRONIUS, Arbiter, a licentious Roman 
 author, bled to death by order of Nero, a.d. 65. 
 
 PHARSALIA, Battle of, fought May 12th, 
 b.c. 48, in which Caesar defeated Pompey, 
 who fled into Egypt, and was there slain. 
 
 PHIDIAS, the greatest of Grecian sculptors, 
 was born at Athens about b.c. 490. Under 
 the patronage of Pericles, he executed his 
 greatest works. He superintended the build- 
 ing of the Parthenon, whose sculptures, known 
 in the British Museum as the Elgin marbles, 
 eloquently extol his genius. Phidias died 
 432 b.c. 
 
 PHILIP I. of France, born in 1053, the son 
 of Henry I., was crowned at Rheims, 1059. 
 His jealousy against William the Conqueror 
 laid the foundations of the wars between Eng- 
 land and France. He died at Milan, July 
 29 th, 1108. 
 
 PHILIP II. of France, surnamed Augustus, 
 son of Louis VII. and of Alix, daughter of the 
 Count of Champagne, was born August 22d, 
 1165. He began to reign in 1180. He made 
 war with the English ; but some time after, 
 he joined Richard I. in the crusade in 1190. 
 He returned about Christmas, 1191, and in- 
 vaded Normandy during Richard’s captivity. 
 Afterward he seized all King John’s posses- 
 sions in France. In 1214 the Emperor Otho 
 IV., a Count of Flanders, and several confed- 
 erate princes raised an army of 150,000 men 
 against him, whei! the king engaged them at 
 Bovines, and gained the victory. The king 
 
636 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 fought with great intrepidity at Bovines, and 
 had his horse kiiled under him. He died at 
 Mante upon the Seine, July 14th, 1223, after 
 a reign of forty-two years. 
 
 PHILIP III. of France, surnamed the 
 Hardy, the son of St. Louis and Margaret of 
 Provence, was born in 1 245. After his father’s 
 death before Tunis, he brought the army 
 home to France, where he was crowned in 
 1271. He engaged in war with Peter of Ara- 
 gon, went in person against the Aragonese, 
 took Girone, and on his return died of a ma- 
 lignant fever at Perpignan in the sixteenth 
 year of his reign, aged forty -one. 
 
 PHILIP IV. of France, surnamed the Fair, 
 as also le Grand , born at Fontainebleau in 
 1268, was the son of the preceding by Isabella 
 of Aragon, and succeeded his father in 1285. 
 The ill conduct of James of Castillon, Earl of 
 St. Paul, caused a sedition at Bruges. The 
 king sent an army to reduce it, under the 
 command of Robert, Earl of Artois ; but they 
 were defeated at the battle of Courtray in 
 1302. Philip recovered himself in some 
 measure again, especially on the 18th of Au- 
 gust, 1304, in the memorable battle at Mons 
 in Puelle, where above 25,000 Flemings were 
 slain. At length peace was made, in 1305. 
 Philip also waged war with England, and 
 quarreled with the pope, by whom he was 
 excommunicated. Philip died at Fontaine- 
 bleau, in 1314. 
 
 PHILIP V. of France, surnamed the Long, 
 youngest son to Philip the Fair, succeeded to 
 the crown in 1317, but died after a reign of 
 five years. IIe renewed his alliance with the 
 Scots in 1318, and cruelly expelled the Jews 
 from his dominions. He died at Long-Champ, 
 1322, aged twenty-eight years. 
 
 PHILIP VI. of France succeeded in 1328. 
 He was the son of Charles of Valois, a son of 
 Philip III. Edward III. of England claiming 
 the c'own, war broke out in 1338. Next year 
 Cambray was besieged by the English. The 
 king had taken the part of Charles de Blois, 
 his nephew, and had received homage for 
 Brittany, which John de Montfort pretended 
 to ; but the latter was supported by Edward, 
 who made a descent into Normandy, took 
 Caen, and gained a great victory at Cressy. 
 The English, flushed with this victory, took 
 Calais. Philip died at Nogent le Potrou, 
 1350, aged fifty-seven. 
 
 PHILIP II. of Spain, born at Valladolid in 
 1527, was son of the Emperor Charles V. and 
 Isabel of Portugal. He was married first to 
 the Princess Mary of Portugal, and in 1554 
 to Queen Mary of England. He was dis- 
 satisfied with this last match; he soon re- 
 turned to the continent, and by his father’s 
 abdication received the crown of Spain and 
 the Indies. He made a league with the Eng- 
 lish, and sent 40,000 men into Picardy, who 
 gained a victory over 18,000 French at St. 
 Quintin in 1557. Peace was made at Chateau 
 Cambresis in 1559. In 1580 Philip made 
 himself master of the kingdom of Portugal ; 
 and his troops contributed to the defeat of the 
 Turks at the battle of Lepanto. He also re- 
 duced the Moors who revolted against him in 
 1561. His bigotry caused the revolt of the 
 Netherlands. Queen Elizabeth gave them 
 succor, and Philip sent out a fleet of above 
 fourscore ships, which was called the Invinci- 
 ble Armada, against England. They sailed 
 from Lisbon, May 29th, 1588, and were de- 
 stroyed partly by storms and partly by the 
 valor of the English. Philip received the 
 news without the least discomposure. He 
 calmly thanked God that he was able to rig 
 out such another. Philip died at the Escurial, 
 Sept. 13 th, 1598. 
 
 PFIILIP III. of Spain, born at Madrid, 1578, 
 succeeded his father Philip II. in 1598, re- 
 formed the courts of judicature, expelled the 
 Moors out of Spain, and made a peace in the 
 Low Countries, and afterward lived in repose. 
 He died on the 31st of March, 1621. 
 
 PHILIP of Macedon, the second king of 
 that name, was the fourth son of Amyntas. 
 He was sent to Thebes as an hostage by his 
 father, where he learned the art of war under 
 Epaminondas, and studied with the greatest 
 care the manners and the pursuits of the 
 Greeks. He was recalled to Macedonia, and 
 ascended the throne, b.c. 360. The neigh- 
 boring nations, ridiculing the youth and inex- 
 perience of the new king of Macedonia, ap- 
 peared in arms ; but Philip soon convinced 
 them of their error. Unable to meet them as 
 yet in the field of battle, he suspended their 
 fury by presents, and soon turned his arms 
 against Amphipolis, a colony tributary to the 
 Athenians. 
 
 Amphipolis was conquered, and added to 
 the kingdom of Macedonia ; and Philip medi- 
 
 PHI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 637 
 
 tated no less than the destruction of the re- 
 public which had rendered itself so formidable 
 to the rest of Greece, and had even claimed 
 submission from the princes of Macedonia. 
 He made himself master of a Thracian colony, 
 to which he gave the name of Philippi. 
 
 In the midst of his political prosperity, 
 Philip did not neglect the honor of his family. 
 Everything seemed now to conspire to his 
 aggrandizement; and historians have ob- 
 served, that Philip received in one day the in- 
 telligence of three things which could gratify 
 the most unbounded ambition, and flatter the 
 hopes of the most aspiring monarch, — the 
 birth of a son, an honorable crown at the 
 Olympic games, and a victor}' over the bar- 
 barians of Illyricum. 
 
 But all these increased rather than satiated 
 his ambition ; he declared his inimical senti- 
 ments against the power of Athens, and the 
 independence of all Greece, by laying siege to 
 Olynthus, a place which, on account of its 
 situation and consequence, was most advan- 
 tageous to the intrigues of every Macedonian 
 prince. 
 
 The Athenians sent seventeen vessels and 
 2,000 men to the assistance of Olynthus, but 
 the money of Philip prevailed over all their 
 efforts. The greatest part of the citizens suf- 
 fered themselves to be bribed by the Macedo- 
 nian gold, and Olynthus surrendered to the 
 enemy, and was instantly reduced to ruins. 
 In his attempts to make himself master of 
 Euboea, Philip was unsuccessful; and Pho- 
 cion, who despised his gold, obliged him to 
 evacuate an island whose inhabitants were as 
 insensible to the charms of money, as they 
 were unmoved at the horrors of war and the 
 bold efforts of a vigilant enem} r . From Eu- 
 boea he turned his arms against the Scythians, 
 but the advantages which he obtained over 
 this indigent nation were inconsiderable. 
 
 He next advanced far into Boeotia, and a 
 ’general engagement was fought at Chseronea. 
 The fight was long and bloody, but Philip ob- 
 tained the victory. At the battle of Chseronea 
 the independence of Greece was extinguished ; 
 and Philip, unable to find new enemies in Eu- 
 rope, formed new enterprises and meditated 
 new conquests. 
 
 He was appointed general of the Greeks 
 against the Persians, and was called upon to 
 revenge those injuries which Greece had suf- 
 
 fered from the invasions of Darius and of 
 Xerxes. But he was stopped in the midst of 
 his warlike preparations, being stabbed by 
 Pausanias at the instance of his repudiated 
 spouse Olympias (the mother of Alexander 
 the Great), as he entered the theatre, at the 
 celebration of the nuptials of his daughter 
 Cleopatra. He was murdered in the forty- 
 seventh year of his age, and the twenty-fourth 
 of his reign, 336 years before the Christian 
 era. 
 
 PHILIP, sachem of Pokanoket, was the 
 youngest son of Massasoit. In 1675 he com- 
 menced a war with the colonists of New Eng- 
 land, who suffered severely from his enmity. 
 He was killed Aug. 12th, 1676. 
 
 PlIILIPPT, Battles of, both fought in Oc- 
 tober, b.c. 42, between the forces of Octavius 
 Caesar and Mark Antony, and those of Brutus 
 and Cassius. In the first battle the illness of 
 Caesar confined him to the camp. Antony 
 defeated the troops of Cassius, but Brutus 
 with the other wing routed Caesar’s forces. 
 Cassius, thinking all was lost, withdrew into 
 a lonely hut and made his freedman strike off 
 his head. In the second battle both sides 
 fought with desperation, but victory finally 
 declared for Caesar and Antony. Brutus 
 sought refuge in a glen with a few of his 
 friends. Looking up at the sky, which the 
 night had gemmed with the silent stars, he 
 repeated two Greek verses, one from the 
 “Medea” of Euripides: — 
 
 “ Zeus ! may the cause of all these ills escape thee 
 not.” 
 
 He passed the night in enumerating and 
 mourning over those who had fallen. Toward 
 morning he fell upon his sword, and expired. 
 
 PHILIPPINES, a group of islands in the 
 Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by 
 Magellan in 1521, who here lost his life, and 
 the first settlements were made by the Span- 
 iards in 1570. The population is composed 
 of Chinese, Spaniards, mestizoes, and Malays, 
 and amounts to about three and a half mill- 
 ions. These islands are fruitful and produc- 
 tive, but subject to ravages from hurricanes, 
 earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. Luzon, 
 the largest, is very mountainous. Manilla 
 on Luzon, the capital of the Spanish posses- 
 sions, is a great mart of commerce. Three 
 thousand persons perished here by an earth- 
 quake in 1645, and the town was nearly 
 
 PHI 
 
638 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 # 
 
 destined by a shock, Sept. 22d, 1852. Pop- 
 ulation 150,000. 
 
 PHOCION, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
 virtues, private as well as public. He often 
 checked the violent and inconsiderate meas- 
 ures of Demosthenes, and when the Athen- 
 ians seemed eager to make war against Philip 
 of Macedon, Phocion observed that war 
 should never be undertaken without the 
 strongest and most certain expectations of 
 success and victory. 
 
 He was forty-five times appointed governor 
 of Athens, and no greater encomium can be 
 passed upon his talents as a minister and 
 statesman, than that he never solicited that 
 high though dangerous position. It was 
 through him that Greece was saved from an 
 impending war, and he advised Alexander 
 rather to turn his arms against Persia, than 
 to shed the blood of the Greeks, who were 
 either his allies or his subjects. But not 
 totally to despise the favors of the monarch, 
 he begged Alexander to restore to their lib- 
 erty four slaves that were confined in the 
 citadel of Sardis. 
 
 When the Piraeus was taken, Phocion was 
 accused of treason, and therefore, to avoid 
 the public indignation, he fled for safety to 
 Polyperchon. Polyperchon sent him back 
 to Athens, where he was immediately con- 
 demned to drink the fatal poison. He re- 
 ceived the indignities of the people with 
 uncommon composure ; and when one of his 
 friends lamented his fate, Phociqn exclaimed, 
 “This is no more than what I expected; this 
 treatment the most illustrious citizens of 
 Athens have received before me.” He died 
 about 318 b.c. 
 
 It has been observed of Phocion, that he 
 never appeared elated in prosperity, or de- 
 jected in adversity ; he never betrayed pusil- 
 lanimity by a tear, nor joy by a smile. His 
 countenance was stern and unpleasant, but 
 he never behaved with severit} 7- , his expres- 
 sions were mild, and his rebukes gentle. At 
 the age of eighty he appeared at the head of 
 the Athenian armies like the most active 
 officer, and to his prudence and cool valor in 
 every period of life his fellow-citizens con- 
 fessed themselves much indebted. His merits 
 were not buried in oblivion ; the Athenians 
 repented of their ingratitude, and honored his 
 
 memory by raising him statues, and putting 
 to a cruel death his guilty accusers. 
 
 PHOCIS, an ancient country of Greece, 
 bounded north by Thessaly, east by Locris 
 and Boeotia, south by the Gulf of Corinth, 
 and west by Doris and the country of the 
 Ozolian Locrians. Phocis was rendered 
 famous by a war which it maintained against 
 some of the Grecian republics, and which has 
 received the name of the Phocian war. 
 When Philip, of Macedon, had fomented 
 divisions in Greece, and disturbed the peace 
 of every republic, the Greeks universally 
 became discontented in their situation, and 
 jealous of the prosperity of the neighboring 
 states. The Amphictyons, who were the 
 supreme rulers of Greece, and who at that 
 time were subservient to the views of the 
 Thebans, the inveterate enemies of the Pho- 
 cians, showed the same spirit, and like the 
 rest of their countrymen, were actuated by 
 the same jealousy and ambition. As the sup- 
 porters of religion, they accused the Pho- 
 cians of impiety for ploughing a small portion 
 of land which belonged to the god of Delphi. 
 They immediately commanded that the sacred 
 field should be laid waste, and that the Pho- 
 cians, to expiate their crime, should pay a 
 heavy fine to the community. 
 
 The inability of the Phocians to pay the 
 fine, and that of the Amphictyons to enforce 
 their commands by violence, gave rise to 
 new events. The people of Phocis resolved 
 to oppose the Amphictyonic council by force 
 of arms. During two years hostilities were 
 carried on between the Phocians and their 
 enemies, the Thebans and the people of 
 Locris, but no decisive battles were fought. 
 
 Philip of Macedon, who had assisted the 
 Thebans, was obliged to retire from the field 
 with dishonor, but a more successful battle 
 was fought near Magnesia, and the monarch, 
 by crowning the head of his soldiers with 
 laurel, and telling them that they fought in 
 the cause of Delphi and heaven, obtained a 
 complete victory. This fatal defeat, however, 
 did not ruin the Phocians : Phallus took the 
 command of their armies, and doubling the 
 pay of his soldiers, he increased his forces by 
 the addition of 9,000 men from Athens, 
 Lacedaemon, and Achaia. 
 
 But all this numerous force at last proved 
 
 PHO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 639 
 
 ineffectual ; the treasures of the temple of 
 Delphi, which had long defrayed the expenses 
 of the war, began to fail, dissensions arose 
 among the ringleaders of Phocis, and when 
 Philip had crossed the Straits of Thermopylae, . 
 the Phocians, relying on his generosity, 
 claimed his protection, and implored him to 
 plead their cause before the Amphictyonic 
 council. His feeble intercession was not 
 attended with success, and the Thebans, the 
 Locrians, and the Thessalians, who then 
 composed the ximphictyonic council, unani- 
 mously decreed that the Phocians should 
 be deprived of the privilege of sending mem- 
 bers among the Amphictyons. 
 
 The Phocians, ten years after they had 
 undertaken the sacred war, saw their country 
 laid desolate, their walls demolished, and 
 their cities in ruins, by the wanton jealousy 
 of their enemies, and the inflexible crueltjr 
 of the Macedonian soldiers, b.c. 348. They 
 were not, however, long under this disgrace- 
 ful sentence : their well known valor and 
 courage recommended them to favor, and 
 they gradually regained their influence and 
 consequence by the protection of the Athen- 
 ians, and the favors of Philip. 
 
 PTKENICE, or Pikenicia, a small country 
 of Asia, at the east of the Mediterranean, 
 whose boundaries varied in different ages. 
 According to Ptolemy, it extended on the 
 north as far as the Eleutherus, a small river 
 which falls into the Mediterranean a little 
 below the island of Araddus, and it had Pe- 
 lusium, or the territories of Egypt, as its 
 more southern boundary, and Syria on the 
 east. Sidon and Tyre were the chief towns. 
 The inhabitants planted colonies on the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, particularly 
 Carthage, Marseilles, and Utica ; and their 
 manufactures acquired such superiority over 
 those of other nations, that among the an- 
 cients, whatever was elegant, great, or pleas- 
 ing, either in apparel or domestic utensils, 
 received the epithet of Sidonian. The Phoe- 
 nicians were originally governed by kings. 
 They were subdued by the Persians, and 
 afterward by Alexander, and remained trib- 
 utary to his successors and to the Romans. 
 The Phoenicians surpassed all the other 
 nations of antiquity in commercial adven- 
 ture. Their vessels are supposed to have 
 sought Cornwall for tin. 
 
 PICTIEGRU, Charles, a French general, 
 was born at Arbois. in 1761, in Franche Comte. 
 His parentage was mean, but he received a 
 good education under the monks in his native 
 town, and at Brienne ; after which he entered 
 into the army, and became a sergeant. In 
 the revolution he was elevated to the rank of 
 a general. In 1793 he gained a victory over 
 the allies at Hagenau, in consequence of 
 which he succeeded to the command of the 
 army of the north. His most celebrated 
 exploit was the subjugation of Holland, after 
 which he was elected a member of the na- 
 tional assembly. At length he fell under 
 suspicion of being a ro}’alist, and was ban- 
 ished to Cayenne, whence he escaped to 
 England. He engaged in a conspiracy against 
 Napoleon, and in the spring of 1804 he went 
 secretly to Paris, but was soon seized, and 
 thrown into a dungeon of the Temple, where 
 he probably strangled himself on the 6th of 
 April of the same year. 
 
 PICKENS, Andrew, a celebrated Revolu- 
 tionary officer, born of Irish parents, in Bucks 
 county, Pennsylvania, Sept. 13 th, 1739. 
 While he was still young, his father removed 
 to South Carolina. He had fought against 
 the French and the Cherpkees before the 
 breaking out of the Revolution. He was one 
 of the most active of the patriot partisans 
 of the South, and acted a gallant part at the 
 battle of Cowpens, as well as at that of Eu- 
 tavy Springs. At the conclusion of the war, 
 he served his country in various civil offices, 
 and died, full of years and honors, Oct. 11th, 
 1817. 
 
 PICKERING, Timothy, was born at Sa- 
 lam, Mass., July 17th, 1745 ; and was edu- 
 cated at Harvard College. He served with 
 distinction as adjutant-general during the 
 Revolutionary war, toward the close of which 
 he succeeded General Greene as quarter-mas- 
 ter-general, and contributed greatty to the 
 surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. In 
 1794 he was made postmaster-general, in 
 1794 secretary of war, and at the end of the 
 year he succeeded Edmund Randolph as sec- 
 retary of state, in which department he re- 
 mained till nearly the close of Washington's 
 administration. In 1803 he was chosen 
 senator to Congress from Massachusetts, and 
 in 1811, when his term of office had expired, 
 he was made member of the executive council. 
 
 PIC 
 
610 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 During the ensuing war with Great Britain 
 he was a member of the board of war for 
 the defense of the state. From 1814 to 1817 
 he was in the lower house of Congress. 
 He died Jan. 29th, 1829. 
 
 PIERCE, Franklin. See Ap’x, p. 975. 
 
 PIKE, Zebulon, brigadier general of the 
 United States army, killed at York, in Upper 
 Canada, 1813. Gen. Pike was a native of 
 New Jersey. 
 
 PILES, Roger de, an eminent French 
 painter, born 1635, died in 1709. 
 
 PINCKNEY, Charles Cotesworth, was 
 born in South Carolina, Feb. 25th, 1746, and 
 educated in England, where he studied law. 
 He returned to his native state in 1769. He 
 held a colonel’s commission during the Rev- 
 olutionary war, and aided in the defense of 
 Charleston. At its fall he was taken prisoner, 
 and not released till 1782. After the conclu- 
 sion of the war he was appointed minister 
 plenipotentiary to France, where his treat- 
 ment by the French directory was insulting. 
 He was ordered to leave the French territo- 
 ries. In 1797 he was appointed the second 
 major-general in the army under Washing- 
 ton. He died Aug. 16th, 1825. 
 
 PINCKNEY, Thomas, a major-general in 
 the army of the United States, brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Charleston, South 
 Carolina, Oct. 23d, 1750. He studied law in 
 England. During the Revolution, he served 
 with distinction, and at the conclusion of the 
 war he was elected second governor of South 
 Carolina. At the expiration of his term of 
 office, he was appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to the court of St. James. After a few 
 years he was appointed minister to the court 
 of Spain. He returned to America in 1796, 
 and was soon elected to Congress. In the 
 war of 1812 he received the commission of 
 major-general. He died Nov. 2d, 1828. 
 
 PINDAR, the great lyric poet, died 442 
 b.c., aged eighty. He was a native of Boeo- 
 tia, and when Alexander the Great took 
 Thebes, he ordered the house of Pindar to 
 be spared. 
 
 PINKNEY, William, a distinguished law- 
 yer and statesman, born at Annapolis, in 
 Maryland, March 17th, 1765. He was twice 
 ambassador to England between 1806 and 
 1815; and to Russia from 1815 to 1818. He 
 commanded a volunteer company during the 
 
 war of 1812, receiving a severe wound in the 
 battle of Bladensburg. He died Feb. 25th, 
 1822. 
 
 PIRON, Alexis, French poet and satirist, 
 died in 1773, aged eighty -four. 
 
 PISISTRATUS, an Athenian, son of Hip- 
 pocrates, early distinguished himself by his 
 valor in the field and by his address and 
 eloquence at home. After he had rendered 
 himself the favorite of the populace by his 
 liberality, and by the intrepi lity with which 
 he had fought their battles, particularly near 
 Salamis, he resolved to make himself master 
 of his country. Pisistratus was not dis- 
 heartened by the measures of his kinsman 
 Solon, but he had recourse to artifice. The 
 people too late perceived their credulity ; 
 yet, though the tyrant was popular, two of 
 the citizens, Megacles and Lycurgus, con- 
 spired together against him, and by their 
 means he was forcibly ejected from the city. 
 
 The private dissensions of the friends of 
 liberty proved favorable to the expelled 
 tyrant, and Megacles, who was jealous of 
 Lycurgus, secretly promised to restore Pis- 
 istratus to all his rights and privileges in 
 Athens, if he would marry his daughter. 
 Pisistratus consented, and by the assistance 
 of his father-in-law, he was soon enabled to 
 expel Lycurgus, and to re-establish himself. 
 In the midst of his triumph, however, Pisis- 
 tratus felt himself unsupported, and some 
 time after, when he repudiated the daughter 
 of Megacles, he found that not only the citi- 
 zens, but even his very troops, were alienated 
 from him by the influence, the intrigues, and 
 the bribery of his father-in-law. 
 
 He fled from Athens, where he could no 
 longer maintain his power, and retired to 
 Euboea. Eleven years after, he was drawn 
 from his obscure retreat by means of his son 
 Hippias, and he was a third time received by 
 the people of Athens as their master and sov- 
 ereign. He died about b.c. 527, after he had 
 enjoyed the sovereign power at Athens for 
 thirty -three years, including the time of his 
 banishment. He ruled beneficently, and to 
 him we owe the collection and preservation 
 of the poems of Homer. He also founded 
 the first public library of which we have any 
 certain account in history. 
 
 PITCAIRN’S ISLAND, in the South Pa- 
 cific Ocean, is six miles long and three broad, 
 
 PIT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 641 
 
 and remarkably fertile, possessing a fine 
 climate. It was "discovered by Carteret in 
 1767, but was then uninhabited. In 1789, 
 however, it was settled by some of the muti- 
 neers of the English ship Bounty. The 
 Bounty was an armed vessel sent to Otaheite 
 by the British government for bread-fruit 
 plants. An account of the mutiny may not 
 be uninteresting. It is best described by 
 the narrative of Captain Bligh. 
 
 “We discovered the island of Otaheite on 
 the 25th, and, before casting anchor next 
 morning in Matavai Bay, such numbers of 
 canoes had come off, that after the natives 
 ascertained we were friends, they came on 
 board, and crowded the deck so much that 
 in ten minutes I could scarce find my own 
 people. The whole distance which the ship 
 had run, in direct and contrary courses, from 
 the time of leaving England until reaching 
 Otaheite, was twenty-seven thousand and 
 eighty-six miles, which, on an average, was 
 one hundred and eight miles each twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 “On Monday, the 5th of January, the 
 small gutter was missed, of which I was 
 immediately apprised. The ship’s company 
 being mustered, we found three men absent, 
 who had carried it off. They had taken with 
 them eight stand of arms and ammunition ; 
 but with regard to their plan, every one on 
 board seemed to be quite ignorant. I there- 
 fore went on shore, and engaged all the chiefs 
 to assist in recovering both the boats and 
 the deserters. Accordingly, the former were 
 brought back in the course of the day, by 
 five of the natives ; but the men were not 
 taken until nearly three weeks afterward. 
 Learning the place where they were, in a 
 different quarter of the island of Otaheite, I 
 went thither in the cutter, thinking there 
 would be no great difficulty in securing them 
 with the assistance of the natives. However, 
 they heard of my arrival ; and when I was 
 near a house in which they were, they came 
 out wanting their fire-arms, and delivered 
 themselves ^ip. Some of the chiefs had for- 
 merly seized and bound these deserters, but 
 had been prevailed on, by fair promises of 
 returning peaceably to the ship, to release 
 them. But finding an opportunity again to 
 get possession of their arms, they set the 
 natives at defiance. * * 
 
 41 P 
 
 “ The object of the voyage being now com- 
 pleted, all the bread-fruit plants, to the 
 number of one thousand and fifteen, were got 
 on board on Tuesday the 81st of March. 
 Besides these, we had collected many other 
 plants, some of them bearing the finest fruits 
 in the world ; and valuable, from affording 
 brilliant dyes, and for various properties 
 besides. At sunset of the 4th of April, we 
 made sail from Otaheite, bidding farewell to 
 an island where for twenty-three weeks we 
 had been treated with the utmost affection 
 and regard, and which seemed to increase in 
 proportion to our stay. That we were not 
 insensible to their kindness, the succeeding 
 circumstances sufficiently proved ; for to the 
 friendly and endearing behavior of these 
 people may be ascribed the motives inciting 
 an event that effected the ruin of our expe- 
 dition, which there was every reason to believe 
 would have been attended with the most 
 favorable issue. 
 
 “Next morning we got sight of the island 
 Huaheine ; and a double canoe soon coming 
 alongside, containing ten natives, I saw 
 among them a young man who recollected 
 me, and called me by my name. I had been 
 here in the year 1780, with Captain Cook, in 
 the Resolution. A few days after sailing from 
 this island, the weather became squally, and 
 a thick body of black clouds collected in the 
 east. A water-spout was in a short time seen 
 at no great distance from us, which appeared 
 to great advantage from the darkness of the 
 clouds behind it. As nearly as I could 
 judge, the upper part was about two feet in 
 diameter, and the lower about eight inches. 
 Scarcely had I made these remarks, when I 
 observed that it was rapidly advancing to- 
 ward the ship. We immediately altered our 
 course, and took in all the sails except the 
 foresail ; soon after which it passed within 
 ten yards of the stern, with a rustling noise, 
 but without our feeling the least effect from 
 its being so near. It seemed to be traveling 
 at the rate of about ten miles an hour, in the 
 direction of the wind, and it dispersed in a 
 quarter of an hour after passing us. It is 
 impossible to say what injury we should have 
 received, had it passed directly over us. 
 Masts, I imagine, might have been carried 
 away, but I do not apprehend that it would 
 have endangered the loss of the ship. 
 
 T 
 
642 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 “ Passing several islands on the way, we 
 anchored at Anamooka, on the 23d of April ; 
 and an old lame man called Tepa, whom I 
 had known here in 1777, and immediately 
 recollected, came on board, along with the 
 others from different islands ill the vicinity. 
 They were desirous to see I'.j ship, and on 
 being taken below, where the bread-fruit 
 plants were arranged, they testified great sur- 
 prise. A few of these being decayed, we 
 went on shore so procure some in their place. 
 
 “The natives exhibited numerous marks 
 of the peculiar mourning which they express 
 on losing their relatives; such as bloody 
 temples, their heads being deprived of most 
 of the hair, and what was worse, almost the 
 whole of them had lost some of their fingers. 
 Several fine boys, not above six years old, 
 had lost both their little fingers ; and several 
 of the men, besides these, had parted with 
 the middle finger of the right hand. 
 
 “The chiefs went off with me to dinner, 
 and we carried on a brisk trade for yams ; 
 we also got plantains and bread-fruits. But 
 the yams were in great abundance, and very 
 fine and large. One of them weighed above 
 forty-five pounds. Sailing canoes came, 
 some of which contained not less than ninety 
 passengers. Such a number of them gradu- 
 ally arrived from different islands, that it was 
 impossible to get anything done, the multi- 
 tude became so great, and there was no chief 
 of sufficient authority to command the whole. 
 I therefore ordered a watering party, then 
 employed, to come on board, and sailed on 
 Sunday the 26th of xipril. 
 
 “We kept near the island of Kotoo all 
 the afternoon of Monday, in hopes that some 
 canoes would come off to the ship, but in 
 this we were disappointed. The wind being 
 northerly, we steered to the westward in the 
 evening, to pass south of Tofoa ; and I gave 
 directions for this course to be continued 
 during the night. The master had the first 
 watch, the gunner the middle watch, and 
 Mr. Christian the morning watch. This was 
 the turn of duty for the night. 
 
 “ Hitherto the voyage had advanced in a 
 course of uninterrupted prosperity, and had 
 been attended with circumstances equally 
 pleasing and satisfactory. But a very differ- 
 ent scene was now to be disclosed; a con- 
 spiracy had been formed, which was to ren- 
 
 der all our past labor productive only of 
 misery and distress ; and it had been con- 
 certed with so much secrecy and circumspec- 
 tion, that no one circumstance escaped to 
 betray the impending calamity. 
 
 “ On the night of Monday, the watch was 
 set as I have described. Just before sunrise, 
 on Tuesday morning, while I was yet asleep, 
 Mr. Christian (the third mate), with the mas- 
 ter-at-arms, gunner’s mate, and Thomas 
 Burkitt, seaman, came into my cabin, and 
 seizing me, tied my hands with a cord behind 
 my back ; threatening me with instant death 
 if I spoke or made the least noise. I never- 
 theless called out as loud as I could, in hopes 
 of assistance ; but the officers not of their 
 party were already secured by sentinels at 
 their doors. At my own cabin door were 
 three men, besides the four within ; all ex- 
 cept Christian had muskets and bayonets; 
 he had only a cutlass. I was dragged out 
 of bed, and forced on deck in my shirt, suf- 
 fering great pain in the mean time from the 
 tightness with which my hands were tied. 
 On demanding the reason of such violence, 
 the only answer was abuse for not holding 
 my tongue. The master, the gunner, sur- 
 geon, master’s mate, and Nelson the gardener, 
 were kept confined below, and the fore hatch- 
 way was guarded by sentinels. The boat- 
 swain and carpenter, and also the clerk, were 
 allowed to come on deck, where they saw me 
 standing abaft the mizzen-mast, with my 
 hands tied behind my back, under a guard, 
 with Christian at their head. The boatswain 
 was then ordered to hoist out the launch, 
 accompanied by a threat, if he did not do it 
 instantly, to take care of himself. 
 
 “The boat being hoisted out, Mr. Hayward 
 and Mr. Hallet, two of the midshipmen, and 
 Mr. Samuel, the clerk, were ordered into it. 
 I demanded the intention of giving this or- 
 der, and endeavored to persuade the people 
 near me not to persist in such acts of vio- 
 lence ; but it was to no effect ; for the con- 
 stant answer was, ‘Hold your tongue, sir, 
 or you are dead this moment.’ 
 
 “The master had by this time sent, re- 
 questing that he might come on deck, which 
 was permitted ; but he was soon ordered back 
 again to his cabin. My exertions to turn the 
 tide of affairs were continued ; when Chris- 
 tian, changing the cutlass he held for a bay- 
 
 PIT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 6-13 
 
 onet, and holding me by the cord about my 
 hands wilh a strong gripe, threatened me 
 with immediate death if 1 would not be 
 quiet ; and the villains around me had their 
 pieces cocked and bayonets fixed. 
 
 “ Certain individuals were called on to get 
 into the boat, and were hurried over the 
 ship's side ; whence I concluded that along 
 with them I was to be set adrift. Another 
 effort to bring about a change produced 
 nothing but menaces of having my brains 
 blown out. The boatswain and those seamen 
 who were to be put into the boat, were al- 
 lowed to collect twine, canvas, lines, sails, 
 cordage, and a twenty-eight gallon cask of 
 water ; and Mr. Samuel got one hundred and 
 fifty 7 pounds of bread, with a small quantity 
 of rum and wine, also a quadrant and com- 
 pass ; but he was prohibited on pain of death, 
 to touch any map or astronomical book, and 
 any instrument, or any of my surveys and 
 drawings. 
 
 “ The mutineers having thus forced those 
 of the seamen whom they wished to get rid 
 of into the boat, Christian directed a dram to 
 be served to each of his crew. I then un- 
 happily saw that nothing could be done to 
 recover the ship. The officers were next 
 called on deck, and forced over the ship’s side 
 into the boat, while I was kept apart from 
 every one abaft the mizzen-mast. Christian, 
 armed with a bayonet, held the cord fastening 
 my hands, and the guard around me stood 
 with their pieces cocked ; but on my daring 
 the ungrateful wretches to fire, they uncocked 
 them. Isaac Martin, one of them, I saw had 
 an inclination to assist me ; and as he fed me 
 with shaddock, my lips being quite parched, 
 we explained each other’s sentiments by 
 looks. But this was observed, and he was 
 removed. He then got into the boat, at- 
 tempting to leave the ship ; however, he was 
 compelled to return. Some others were also 
 kept contrary to their inclination. 
 
 “It appeared to me that Christian was 
 some time in doubt whether he should keep 
 the carpenter or his mate. At length he 
 determined on the latter, and the carpenter 
 was ordered into the boat. He was permit- 
 ted, though not without opposition, to take 
 his tool chest. 
 
 “Mr. Samuel secured my journals and 
 commission, with some important ship pa- 
 
 pers ; this he did with great resolution, 
 though strictly watched. He attempted to 
 save the time-keeper, and a box with my sur- 
 veys, drawings, and remarks, for fifteen years 
 past, which were very numerous, when He 
 was hurried away with ‘Damn your eyes, 
 you are well off to get what you have.’ 
 
 “Much altercation took place among the 
 mutinous crew during the transaction of this 
 whole affair. Some swore, ‘ I’ll be damned 
 if he does not find his way home, if he gets 
 anything with him,’ meaning me; and when 
 the carpenter’s chest was carrying away, 
 
 ‘ Damn my eyes, he will have a vessel built 
 in a month ;’ while others ridiculed the help- 
 less situation of the boat, which was very 
 deep in the water, and had so little room for 
 those w T ho were in her. As for Christian, 
 he seemed as if meditating destruction on 
 himself and every one else. 
 
 “ I asked for arms, but the mutineers 
 laughed at me, and said I was well acquainted 
 with the people among whom I was going ; 
 four cutlasses, however, were thrown into the 
 the boat, after we were veered astern. 
 
 “ The officers and men being in the boat, 
 they only waited for me, of which the master- 
 at-arms informed Christian, who then said, 
 ‘ Come, Captain Bligh, your officers and men 
 are now in the boat, and you must go with 
 them ; if you attempt to make the least resis- 
 tance, you will instantly be put to death ; ’ 
 and without further ceremony, I was forced 
 over the side by a tribe of armed ruffians, 
 where they untied my hands. Being in the 
 boat, we were veered astern by a rope. A 
 few pieces of pork were thrown to us, also 
 the four cutlasses. The armorer and carpen- 
 ter then called out to me to remember that 
 they had no hand in the transaction. After 
 having been kept some time to make sport 
 for these unfeeling wretches, and having un- 
 dergone much ridicule, we w r ere at length 
 cast adrift in the open ocean. 
 
 “Eighteen persons were with me in the 
 boat, — the master, acting surgeon, botanist, 
 gunner, boatsw T ain, carpenter, master, and 
 quartermaster’s mate, two quartermasters, 
 the sailmaker, two cooks, my clerk, the 
 butcher, and a boy. There remained on 
 board, Fletcher Christian, the master’s mate, 
 Peter Haywmod, Edward Young, George 
 Stewart, midshipmen, the master-at-arms, 
 
 PIT 
 
QU 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gunner’s mate, boatswain’s mate, gardener, 
 armorer, carpenter’s mate, carpenter’s crew, 
 and fourteen seamen, being altogether the 
 most able men of the ship’s company. 
 
 * “ Having little or no wind, we rowed pretty 
 fast toward the island of Tofoa, which bore 
 north-east about ten leagues distant. The 
 ship while in sight steered west-north-west, 
 but this I considered only as a feint, for when 
 we were sent away, ‘Huzza for Otaheite!’ 
 was frequently heard among the mutineers. 
 
 “ Christian, the chief of them, was of a 
 respectable family in the north of England. 
 This was the third voyage he had made with 
 me. Notwithstanding the roughness* with 
 which I was treated, the remembrance of past 
 kindnesses produced some remorse in him. 
 While they were forcing me out of the ship, 
 I asked him whether this was a proper return 
 for the many instances he had experienced 
 of my friendship? He appeared disturbed 
 at the question, and answered with much 
 emotion, ‘ That — Captain Bligh — that is the 
 thing — I am in hell — I am in hell.’ His 
 abilities to take charge of the third watch, as 
 I had so divided the ship’s company, were 
 fully equal to the task. 
 
 “ Haywood was also of a respectable family 
 in the north of England, and a young man 
 of abilities, as well as Christian. These two 
 had been objects of my particular regard and 
 attention, and I had taken great pains to in- 
 struct them, having entertained hopes that, 
 as professional men, they would have become 
 a credit to their country. Young w r as well 
 recommended ; and Stewart of creditable 
 parents in the Orkneys, at which place, on 
 the return of the Resolution from the South 
 Seas in 1780, we received so many civilities, 
 that in consideration of these alone I should 
 gladly have taken him .with me. But he had 
 always borne a good character. 
 
 “When I had time to reflect, an inward 
 satisfaction prevented the depression of my 
 spirits. Yet, a few hours before, my situa- 
 tion had been peculiarly flattering; I had 
 a ship in the most perfect order, stored with 
 every necessary, both for health and service; 
 the object of the voyage was attained, and 
 two-thirds of it now completed. The remain- 
 ing part had every prospect of success. 
 
 “it will naturally be asked, what could be 
 
 the cause of such a revolt ? In answer, I can 
 only conjecture that the mutineers had flat- 
 tered themselves with the hope of a happier 
 life among the Otaheitans, than they could 
 possibly enjoy in England ; w T hich joined to 
 some female connections, most probably occa* 
 sioned the whole transaction. 
 
 “ The women of Otaheite are handsome, 
 mild, and cheerful in manners and conversa- 
 tion ; possessed of great sensibility, and have 
 sufficient delicacy to make them be admired 
 and beloved. The chiefs were so much at- 
 tached to our people, that they rather en- 
 couraged their stay among them than other- 
 wise, and even made them promises of large 
 possessions. Under these, and many other 
 concomitant circumstances, it ought hardly 
 to be the subject of surprise that a set of 
 sailors, most of them void of connections, 
 should be led away, where they had the 
 power of fixing themselves in the midst of 
 plenty, in one of the finest islands in the 
 world, where there was no necessity to labor, 
 and where the allurements of dissipation are 
 beyond any conception that can be formed 
 of it. The utmost, however, that a com- 
 mander could have expected, was desertions, 
 such as have already happened more or less 
 in the South Seas, and not an act of open 
 mutiny. 
 
 “But the secrecy of this mutiny surpasses 
 belief. Thirteen of the party who were now 
 with me had always lived forward among the 
 seamen ; yet neither they, nor the messmates 
 of Christian, Stewart, Haywood, and Young, 
 had ever observed any circumstance to excite 
 suspicion of what was plotting ; and it is not 
 wonderful if I fell a sacrifice to it, my mind 
 being entirely free from suspicion. Perhaps, 
 had marines been on board, a sentinel at my 
 cabin-door might have prevented it; for I 
 constantly slept with the door open, that the 
 officer of the watch might have access to me 
 on all occasions. If the mutiny had been 
 occasioned by any grievances, either real or 
 imaginary, I must have discovered symptoms 
 of discontent, which would have put me on 
 my guard ; but it was far otherwise. With 
 Christian, in particular, I was on the most 
 friendly terms ; that very day he was engaged 
 to have dined with me ; and the preceding 
 night he excused himself from supping with 
 
 
 PIT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 645 
 
 me on pretense of indisposition, for which I 
 felt concerned, having no suspicions of his 
 honor or integrity.” 
 
 Captain Bligh and his fellow-sufferers 
 reached the island of Timor, south of the 
 Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of 
 nearly four thousand miles, during which 
 their preservation was next to miraculous. 
 A part of the mutineers were tried Sept. 15th, 
 1792, six condemned, and three executed. 
 Ten others settled upon solitary Pitcairn’s 
 Island. They remained unknown until acci- 
 dentally discovered in 1814, when an English 
 ship nearing the island was hailed by a 
 swarthy youth in the English language. It 
 appeared that the mutineers had obtained 
 themselves dusky wives, and finally under 
 the guidance of John Adams, one of their 
 number, had become an orderly and pious 
 community. Adams was the last survivor 
 of the mutineers. As the population in- 
 creased, the island proved incapable for its 
 support. In 1856, by permission of the 
 English government, the colony removed to 
 Norfolk Island, which had been given to 
 them (the convict establishment being with- 
 drawn) and stocked with sheep, cattle, and 
 horses for their use. They numbered 96 men 
 and 102 women. 
 
 PITT, W [lliam, the second son of the Earl 
 of Chatham, was born May 28th, 1759. In 
 1780, he obtained a seat in parliament, where 
 he exerted the power of his eloquence against 
 Lord North. On the removal of that minister, 
 Mr. Pitt did not obtain a place: but when 
 the Earl of Shelburne succeeded the Marquis 
 of Rockingham, he became chancellor of the 
 exchequer. This ministry, however, was soon 
 displaced by the coalition of Lord North and 
 Mr. Fox, in 1782; but the famous India bill 
 of the latter producing another change, at the 
 end of 1788, Mr. Pitt became first lord of the 
 treasury, as well as chancellor of exchequer. 
 Though in this situation he had to encounter 
 an extraordinary combination of talents and 
 influence, he overcame all obstacles, and car- 
 ried many important measures, particularly 
 his own India bill, a commercial treaty with 
 France, the acts against smuggling, and the 
 establishment of a sinking fund. The illness 
 of the king, in 1788, threatened an end of his 
 ministry. The recovery of his majesty, how- 
 ever, fixed him more firmly in his seat. The 
 
 next great event in his life was that of being 
 called to oppose the power of revolutionary 
 France. He was the mainspring of the con- 
 tinuous coalitions against Napoleon. At 
 length he acceded to the wish that an experi- 
 ment for peace should be tried in 1801, and 
 yielded the ministry to Mr. Addington; but 
 in 1804 Mr. Pitt was recalled to power. His 
 health was now in a very precarious state, 
 and he died at Putney, Jan. 23d, 1806. His 
 remains were deposited in Westminster Ab- 
 bey. Very honorable eulogiums were pro- 
 nounced on his memory by all parties, and 
 his debts were paid at the public expense, 
 according to a vote of parliament. 
 
 PIUS YI. (or Giovanni Angelo Braschi) 
 was born at Cesena in 1717. He succeeded 
 Pope Clement XIV. in 1775. When the Em- 
 peror Joseph II. decreed that all the religious 
 orders in his dominions were free from papal 
 jurisdiction, Pius, apprehensive of the conse- 
 quences .of such a measure, went in person to 
 Vienna in 1782 ; but though he was honorably 
 received, his remonstrances were ineffectual. 
 The French revolution, however, was of more 
 serious consequence to the papal see. The 
 pope having favored the allies, Bonaparte en- 
 tered the ecclesiastical territory, and com- 
 pelled him to purchase a peace. Basseville 
 was then sent from the republic to Rome, 
 where the people assassinated him in 1793. 
 This furnished the pretext for another visita- 
 tion, and accordingly Bonaparte again entered 
 Italy, made the pope prisoner in his capital, 
 and hurried him over the Alps to Valence, 
 where he died, Aug. 29th, 1799. 
 
 PIUS VII. (Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chi- 
 aramonti) was also a native of Cesena, and 
 born in 1740. He succeeded Pius VI. in the 
 papacy. He went to Paris to crown Napoleon 
 emperor, and was under his power till the 
 restoration of the Bourbons. He died Aug. 
 20th, 1823. 
 
 PIZARRO, Francisco, the conqueror of 
 Peru, was the illegitimate son of a Spanish 
 colonel, and was born at Truxillo, 1471. He 
 embarked for America as a soldier, and served 
 in many perilous adventures. In 1524, he asso- 
 ciated at Panama with Diego de Almagro, and 
 Hernandez Lucque, a priest, in an enterprise 
 to make discoveries. In this voyage they fell 
 in with the coast of Peru, but being too few 
 to make any attempt at a settlement, Pizarro 
 
 PIZ 
 
6io 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 returned to Spain, where all that he gained 
 was a power from the court to prosecute his 
 obj ect. However, having raised some money, 
 tie was enabled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, 
 where a civil war was then raging between 
 the Inca Huasca, the legitimate monarch, and 
 his half-brother Atahualpa. The invading 
 force did not exceed 110 foot soldiers, 67 
 horsemen, and two small pieces of artillery. 
 Pizarro, by pretending to take the part of the 
 tatter, was permitted to march into the inte- 
 rior, where he made the unsuspecting chief 
 his prisoner, and exacted an immense ransom. 
 Soon after, Pizarro murdered the unfortunate 
 Atahualpa, by burning him at a stake. In 
 1535 the conqueror laid the foundation of 
 Lima. In 1537 a contest arose between him 
 and Almagro, who was defeated and executed. 
 The son and friends of Almagro, however 
 avenged his death, and June 26th, .1541, 
 Pizarro was assassinated in his palace. 
 
 PLAGUE. In early times dreadful pesti- 
 lences often prevailed, which are known in 
 history by the general name of plague. 
 
 The first recorded general plague in all 
 parts of the world occurred 767 b.c. At Car- 
 thage a plague was so terrible that people 
 sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 
 534 b.c. At Rome prevailed a desolating 
 plague, carrying off a hundred thousand per- 
 sons in and round the city, 461 b.c. At 
 Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and 
 Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 
 430 b.c. Another, which raged in the Greek 
 islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 2,000 
 persons every day, 188 b.c. 
 
 At Rome, a most awful plague; 10,000 persons 
 perish daily, a.d. 78. 
 
 The same fatal disease again ravaged the Roman 
 empire, a.d. 167. 
 
 In Britain a plague raged so formidably, and 
 swept away such multitudes, that the living 
 were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, a.d. 
 430. 
 
 A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, extended 
 all over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not 
 cease for many years. 
 
 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabit- 
 ants perished, a.d *746. . This plague raged for 
 three years, and was equally fatal in Calabria, 
 Sicily, and Greece. , 
 
 At Chichester in England, an epidemical disease 
 carried off 34,000 persons, a.d. 772. 
 
 In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a pesti- 
 lence, a.d. 954. 
 
 I.\ London, a great mortality, a.d. 1094; and in 
 > Ireland, 1095. 
 
 Again in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, 
 and other domestic animals, 1111. 
 
 In Ireland: after Christmas this year, Henry II. 
 was forced to quit the country, 1172. 
 
 Again in Ireland, When a prodigious number per- 
 ished, 1204. 
 
 A general plague raged throughout Europe, caus- 
 ing a most extensive mortality. Britain and 
 Ireland suffered grievously. In London alone, 
 200 persons were buried daily in the Charter- 
 house-yard. 
 
 In Paris and London a dreadful mortality pre- 
 vailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ireland in 
 1370. 
 
 A great pestilence in Ireland, called the Fourth ' 
 destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 
 
 30.000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence 
 in London, 1407. 
 
 Again in Ireland, superinduced by a famine; 
 great numbers died 1466; and Dublin was 
 wasted by a plague, 1470. 
 
 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and through- 
 out England a plague which destroyed more 
 people than the continual wars for the fifteen 
 preceding years, 1478. 
 
 The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, 
 very fatal at London, 1485. 
 
 The plague at London, so dreadful that Henry 
 VII. and his court removed to Calais, 1500. 
 
 Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in three 
 hours). In most of the capital towns in Eng- 
 land half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
 depopulated, 9 Hen. VIII., 1517. 
 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when many 
 thousands perished, 1522. 
 
 A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525; and the 
 English sweat, 1528; and a pestilence in Dub- 
 lin, 1575. 
 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in London 
 alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 
 
 200.000 perished of a pestilence at Constantino- 
 ple, in 1611. 
 
 In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 
 persons perished, 1625. 
 
 In France, a general mortality; at Lyons 60,000 
 persons died, 1632. 
 
 The plague, brought from Sardinia to Naples 
 (being introduced by a transport with soldiers 
 on board), raged with such violence as to carry 
 off 400,000 of the inhabitants in six months, 
 1656. 
 
 Memorable plague, which carried off 68,596 per- 
 sons in London, 1665. [/See below .] Fires 
 were kept up night and day to purify the air 
 for three days; and it is thought the infection 
 was not totally destroyed till the great confla- 
 gration of 1666. 
 
 60.000 persons perished of the plague at Mar- 
 seilles and neighbourhood, brought in a ship 
 from the Levant, 1720. 
 
 Qne of the most awful plagues that ever raged, 
 prevailed in Syria, 17 60. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 
 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 
 
 In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died of 
 plague, 1792. 
 
 In Barbary, 3,000 died daily and at Fez 247,000 
 perished, 1799. 
 
 PLA 
 
IIISTCRY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 647 
 
 In Spain and at Gibraltar, immense numbers were 
 carried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 
 1805. 
 
 Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much re- 
 sembling the plague, causad great mortality, 
 1828. 
 
 The Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in 
 England, at Sunderland, Oct. 26th, 1831; in 
 Scotland, at Haddington, Dec. 23d, same year ; 
 and in Ireland, at Belfast, March 14th, 1832. 
 The cholera again visited England, 1848 and l'>49. 
 
 The awful and memorable scourge called 
 the Great Plague in London, commenced in 
 December, 1604. In the months of- May, 
 Jun.e, and July, it had continued with great 
 severity; but in August and September it 
 quickened into dreadful activity, sweeping 
 away 8,000 persons in a week. Then it was 
 that the whole British nation wept for the 
 sufferings of the metropolis. In some houses 
 carcasses lay waiting for burial ; and in others, 
 persons were seen doubled up in their last 
 agonies. In one room were heard dying 
 groans ; and in the next, the ravings of delir- 
 ium mingled with the wailings of relatives 
 and friends, and the apprehensive shrieks of 
 children. Infants passed at once from the 
 womb to the grave. The }^et healthy child 
 hung upon the putrid breast of a dead mother ; 
 and the nuptial bed was changed into a sep- 
 ulchre. Some of the infected ran about stag- 
 gering like drunken men, and fell and expired 
 in the streets ; while others calmly laid them- 
 selves down, never to rise but at the call of 
 the last trumpet. At length, in the middle 
 of September, more than 12,000 perished in 
 one week; in one night 4,000 died; and in 
 the whole, not 68,000, as has been stated, but 
 100,000, perished of this plague. 
 
 The hearses were but dead-carts which con- 
 tinually traversed the streets, while the ap- 
 palling cry, “ Bring out you? dead” thrilled 
 through every soul. Then it was that parents, 
 husbands, wives, and children saw all those 
 that were dear to them thrown with a pitch- 
 fork into a cart, like the offal of the slaughter- 
 house, to be conveyed without the walls, and 
 flung into one promiscuous heap, without the 
 rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and with- 
 out a shroud! Some graves were dug so 
 large as to hold a thousand bodies each ; and 
 into these huge holes, the living, wrapt in 
 blankets and rags, threw themselves among 
 the dead, in their agonies and delirium. They 
 were often found in this state hugging the 
 
 flesh of their kindred that had not quite per- 
 ished. People, in the intolerable torment of 
 their swellings, ran wild and mad, laying 
 violent hands upon themselves; and even 
 mothers in their lunacy murdered their own 
 children. When the carts were insufficient 
 for their office, the houses and streets were 
 rendered tenfold more pestilential by the un- 
 buried dead. — Defoe. 
 
 PLANETS. The planet Jupiter was known 
 as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans ; 
 to the former, it is said, 3000 b.c. ; and cor- 
 rectly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made 
 about 600 b.c. and in which 1,460 stars are 
 accurately described ; this chart is said to be 
 in the imperial library at Paris. The satel- 
 lites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, 
 a.d. 1610; but Janssen, it is affirmed, claimed 
 some acquaintance with them about twenty 
 years before. We have now eleven primary 
 planets, viz. : Mercury, Venus, the Earth, 
 Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Georgium Sidus, 
 Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta; and more 
 than thirty secondary planets, or small plan- 
 ets belonging to our solar system. The fol- 
 lowing is a list of the late discoveries : — 
 
 Georgium Sidus, called also Iler- 
 schel and Uranus ; discovered 
 by Herschel, Marcl^l3, 1781. 
 
 Neptune, discovered (in conse- 
 quence of the calculations of 
 Le Verrier and Adams) Sept. 
 23, 1816, by Dr. GaUe at Ber- 
 lin. 
 
 MINOK PLANETS. 
 
 Ceres, discovered by Piazzi. Jan. 
 1, 1801. This planet is visible 
 to the naked eye. 
 
 Pallas, discovered at Bremen, by 
 Olbers, March 29, 1802. 
 
 Juno, discovered by Harding, 
 Sept. 1, 1S04. 
 
 Vesta, discovered by Olbers (his 
 second discovery), March 29, 
 1807. 
 
 Astroea, Dec. 8, 1845, Hencke. 
 
 Hebe, July 1, 1847. Hencke. 
 
 Iris, Aug. 13, 1847, Hind. 
 
 Flora, Oct. 18, 1847, Hind. 
 
 Metis, April 26, 1848, Graham. 
 
 Hygeia, Apr. 12, '49, De Gasparis. 
 
 Parthenope, May 11, 1850, De Gas- 
 paris. 
 
 Victoria, Sept. 13, 1850, Hind. 
 
 Egeria, Nov. 2, 1850, De Gasparis. 
 
 Irene, May 19, 1851, Hind. 
 
 Eunemia, July 29, 1851, De Gas- 
 paris. 
 
 Psyche, March 17, 1852, De Gas- 
 paris. 
 
 Thetis, April 17, 1852, Luther. 
 
 Melpomene, June 21, 1852, Hind. 
 
 Fortuna, Aug. 22, 1852, Hind. 
 
 Massilia, Sept. 19, 1852, Gasparis. 
 
 Circe, April 6, 1855, Chacoruac. 
 t Leucothea , April 19, 1855, Luther. 
 jFides, Oct. 5, 1855, Luther. 
 
 ; Atalania, Oct. 5, '55, Goldschmidt, 
 j Leda, Jan. 12, 1856, Chacornac. 
 Lcetitia, Feb. 8, '56, Chacornac. 
 Daphne, May 22, '56, Goldschmidt. 
 Isis, May 23, 1856, Pogson. 
 Ariadne, April 15, 1857, Pogson. 
 
 May 27, 1857, Goldschmidt. 
 
 Euqenia, June 28, '57, Goldschmidt 
 Hestia, Aug. 16, 1857, Pogson. 
 
 — ■ Sept. 15, 1857, Luther. 
 
 Pales, Sept. 19, '57, Goldschmidt. 
 Doris, Sept. 19, '57, Goldschmidt. 
 Virginia, Oct. 5, '57, Ferguson. 
 
 January, 1858, at Nismes. 
 
 Feb. 4, 1858, Goldschmidt. 
 
 Nysa, May 27, 1857. 
 
 Agalia, Sept. 15, 1857. 
 
 Nemausa, Jan. 22, 1858, Laurent. 
 Europa, Feb. 4, 1858. 
 
 Calypso, April 4, 1858, Sutlier. 
 Alexandra, Sept. 11, 1858, Gold- 
 schmidt. 
 
 Pandora, Sept. 11, 1858, Searle. 
 Melete, Sept. 9, ’57, Goldschmidt. 
 Miremosyne, Sept. 22,'59, Luther, 
 Concordia, March 24, '60, Luther. 
 Olympia, Sept. 12, '60, Chacornac. 
 Echo, Sept. 15, 1860, Ferguson. 
 Danae, Sept. 19, '60, Goldschmidt, 
 Erato, Oct. 10, 1860, Forster. 
 Ansonia, Feb. 10,1861, Gasparis. 
 Angelina, March 2, 1861, Temper 
 Cybele , March 4, 1861, Tempel. 
 Maia, April 9, ’861, Tuttle. 
 
 Asia, April 17, 1361, Pogson. 
 
 PLA 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 648 
 
 Lutetia, Nov. 15, 1853, Gold- 
 schmidt. 
 
 Calliope, Nov. 16, 1852, Hind. 
 Thalia, Dec. 15, 1852, Hind. 
 Themis, April 6, '53, De Gasparis 
 Phocea, April 6, 1853, Chacornac. 
 Proserpine, May 5, 1853, Luther. 
 Euterpe. Nov. 8, 1853, Uind. 
 Bellona, March 1, 1854, Luther. 
 Amphitrite, March 1, 1854, Marth. 
 Urania, July 22, 1854, Hind. 
 Euphrosyne, Sept. 1, 1854, Fergu 
 son. 
 
 Pomona, Oct. 26, '54. Goldschmidt. 
 Polyhymnia, Oct. 28, 1854, Cha- 
 cornac. 
 
 Beatrice, April 26, '65, Gasparis. 
 Clio, April 25, 1885, Luther. 
 
 Jo, Sept. 13, 1885, Peters. 
 
 Semele, Jan. 4, 1868, Tictjen. 
 Sylvia, May 16, 1883, Pogson. 
 Thisbe, June 15, 1866, Peters. 
 Julia, Aug. 6, 1886, Stephan. 
 Antiope, Oct. 1, 1866, Luther. 
 jEgina, Nov. 4, 1886, Stephan. 
 Undina, July 7, 1837, Peters. 
 Minerva, Aug. 24, 1867, Watson. 
 Aurora, Sept. 6, 1867, Watson. 
 Arethusa, Nov. 23, 1867, Luther. 
 jEgle, Feb. 17, 1868, Coggia. 
 Ciotho, Feb. 17, 1868, Tempel. 
 Janthe, April 13, 1868, Peters. 
 Dike, May 28, 1868, Borelly. 
 
 Leto, April 17, 1861, Luther. 
 Hesperia, April 29, 1861, Schiapa- 
 relli. 
 
 Panopcca, TAa.y 5, '61, Goldschmidt. 
 Niobe, May 29, 1861, Peters. 
 Feronia, Aug. 13, 1861, Luther. 
 Clytia, April 8, 1862, Tuttle. 
 Galatea , Aug. 29, 1862, Tempel. 
 Eurydice, Sept. 22,1862 Peters. 
 Freya , Oct. 21 1862. D Arrest. 
 Frigga, Nov. 12. 1862. Peters. 
 Diana, March 15. 1863. Luther. 
 Eurynome. Sep. 44, 1863, Watscn. 
 Sappho, May 2. 1864, Pogson. 
 Terpsichore, Sept. 30, '64, Tempel. 
 Alcemene, Nov. 27, 1864, Luther. 
 Hecate, July 11, 1868, Watson. 
 Helena, Aug. 15, 1868, Watson. 
 Miriam, Aug. 22, 1868, Peters. 
 Hera, Sept >, 1868, Watson. 
 Clymenc, Sept. 13, 1868, Watson. 
 Artemis, Sept. 16, 1868, Watson. 
 Dione, Oct. 10, 1868, Watson. 
 Camilla, Nov. 17, 1868, Luther. 
 
 Hccerba, April 2, 1869, . 
 
 Fclicitas, Oct. 9, 1869, Peters. 
 Lydia, April 19, 1870, Borelly. 
 Ate, Aug. 14, 1870, Peters. 
 Tphigenia, Sept. 19, 1870, Peters. 
 .4 malthea, March 12, 1871, Luther. 
 Cassandra, July 23, 1871, Peters. 
 
 Aug. 6, 1871, Watson. 
 
 Sept. 8, 1871, Peters. 
 
 PLANTAGENET, House of, a race of 
 fourteen English kings, from Henry II. to 
 Richard III. The first called Plantagenet 
 was Fulke Martel, Earl of Anjou, in the tenth 
 century. That noble having contrived the 
 death of his nephew, the Ea$l of Brittany, 
 in order to succeed to that earldom, his con- 
 fessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, 
 to Jerusalem, attended by only two servants, 
 one of whom was to lead him by a halter to 
 the holy sepulchre, the other to strip and 
 whip him there, like a common malefactor. 
 Broom (in French genet, in Latin genista) 
 being the only tough pliant shrub in Pales- 
 tine, the knightly criminal was smartly 
 scourged with it, and from this instrument 
 of his chastisement, he (and his descendants 
 after him) was called Planta-genista , or Plan- 
 tagenet. 
 
 Henry II., born in 1133, was the son of 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The only son 
 of the English monarch having perished at 
 sea, Matilda was the heir to the crown, and 
 her infant son was invested with the rights 
 of both his parents. Upon the death of the 
 usurper Stephen in 1154, he ascenckd the 
 throne. He had previously married Eleanor, 
 the repudiated queen of Louis VII. of France, 
 the heiress ofGuienne, Aquitaine, and Poitou 
 
 in her own right. These acquisitions to his 
 hereditary domain made him master of the 
 larger portion of France, and his possessions 
 were far more extensive than those of the 
 French king, to whom he owed feudal alle- 
 giance. In 1170 he had his son Hemy 
 crowned King of England. In 1172 he 
 reduced Ireland to subjection. During his 
 reign great improvement was made in the 
 administration of the laws, and England was 
 divided into three judicial circuits. The 
 king attempted so to limit the ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction, that the clergy should be amen- 
 able to the royal tribunals in temporal mat- 
 ters, without any appeal to the pope. This 
 met strong opposition from Thomas a Becket, 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury. The anath- 
 emas of the obstinate ecclesiastic exasperated 
 Henry into exclaiming, “ What an unhappy 
 prince am I, wdio have not about me one 
 man of spirit enough to rid me of this inso 
 lent prelate.” Four barons who heard 
 departed at once for Canterbury, where they 
 murdered the archbishop before the altar. 
 The superstitious horror aroused by this 
 bloody sacrilege, and the fear of excommuni- 
 cation, forced Henry into unconditional sub- 
 mission to the pope, and for the intemperate 
 speech which had instigated the assassina- 
 tion, he atoned by a vow to serve three years 
 against the infidels in Palestine, should the 
 pope demand it. Afterward, when his sons 
 were armed against him, he trudged bare- 
 foot to the tomb of Becket, fasted and prayed 
 all day, watched all night, and bared his 
 shoulders that the monks might scourge him. 
 A great victory obtained by his army over 
 the Scots that day was considered a sure 
 token that Heaven and the murdered Becket 
 accepted his penitence. The jealousy of 
 Queen Eleanor against Henry’s famous mis- 
 tress the Fair Rosamond, and the unnatural 
 rebellions of his sons, troubled the last years 
 of Henry’s reign, and embittered his closing 
 days. He died at the castle of Chinon in 
 Normandy, July 6th, 1189, in the thirty- 
 fifth year of a reign wherein he had displayed 
 great wisdom and bravery. Two of his sons 
 (Henry and Geoffre}”) had died during his 
 lifetime ; the other two successively held the 
 sceptre. 
 
 Richard I., born at Oxford in 1157, suc- 
 ceeded the father whom his haughty, rebel- 
 
 PLA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 649 
 
 lious conduct had helped to lay in the grave. 
 Martial enthusiasm led him to join the cru- 
 sade against Saladin. Pledges were inter- 
 changed between him and Philip Augustus 
 of France, that neither should invade the 
 other’s kingdom while the holy expedition 
 lasted. The French and English forces ren- 
 dezvoused before Messina, in the latter part 
 of the year, and took that city from the Sara- 
 cens. Then took place the romantic episode 
 of Richard’s expedition against Cyprus, and 
 his marriage with Berengera, daughter of the 
 King of Navarre. At last, in the summer 
 of 1101. Richard arrived before St Jean d’ 
 Acre, whose walls the crusaders had now 
 beleaguered for two weary years. Freder- 
 ick Barbarossa, the Emperor of Germany, 
 had been drowned in the previous year, and 
 the vacant leadership was assumed by the 
 English monarch. The vigor with which he 
 entered into the siege effected the downfall 
 of the Saracenic stronghold and aroused the 
 envy of the French sovereign, who soon 
 after set out for home, maddened by the 
 exploits of his rival. The prowess of Rich- 
 ard gained him the surname of Cmur de Lion 
 (the lion-hearted). Gaining the great battle 
 of Ascalon over Saladin, he burned to press 
 forward to the capture of Jerusalem. Bick- 
 erings among the Christian leaders prevented 
 this glorious consummation of his successes, 
 and news of the perfidy of his brother John 
 and PLilip of France, induced him to con- 
 clude a truce with Saladin and voyage home 
 in the autumn of 1192. Shipwrecked on the 
 coast of Italy, he disguised himself as a pil- 
 grim, and set out for England by land. Near 
 Vienna the itinerant king was discovered and 
 imprisoned by Leopold, Duke of Austria, 
 in revenge both for Richard’s capture of the 
 King of Cyprus, Leopold’s brother-in-law, 
 and for the contempt Richard had shown for 
 the Austrian banner at Acre. The place of 
 Richard’s captivity was carefully concealed, 
 and his fate was long in doubt. The story 
 of his release is romantic. Blondel, a min- 
 strel, who had been his servant and friend, 
 wandered through Palestine and Germany in 
 search of his royal master. Placing himself 
 beneath a grated window of the castle of 
 Lowestein, and singing one of the lays which 
 he had formerly taught the king, he but just 
 completed the first stanza, when, to his great 
 
 delight, he heard the voice of Richard, re- 
 plying in the same strain. He received the 
 name of the faithful Blondel. Richard was 
 ransomed by his subjects for a hundred thou- 
 sand marks (about $2,000,000), having lain 
 two years in bondage. John, who had as- 
 sumed the crown in his absence, was advised 
 of his return by Philip Augustus, with the 
 pithy warning to “ take care of himself, for 
 the devil had broke loose.” Richard’s re- 
 venge, however, was bestowed upon Philip, 
 and for the remainder of his life war sub- 
 sisted between France and England. In the 
 battle of Gisors, in 1198, Richard gave Dieu 
 et mon droit (“God and my right”) to his 
 army as the parole of the day, and so signal 
 was his success in the contest that he made 
 the watchword the motto of the royal arms 
 of England, in which it has ever since been 
 retained. A truce with France the next year, 
 Richard occupied in quarreling with his vas- 
 sal Vidomar, Count of Limoges, w r ho having 
 found a treasure, sent only a part to the king 
 as his feudal superior, whereas the king 
 claimed all. Coeur de Lion invested the 
 count’s castle of Chaluz, and haughtily refus- 
 ing all overtures, threatened to hang the 
 whole garrison. While reconnoitering the 
 fortress, he was‘shot in the shoulder with an 
 arrow by a crossbowman, named Bertrand de 
 Gourdon. The wound proved mortal, and 
 Richard expired in the tenth year of his 
 reign, April 16th, 1199. Before he died the 
 castle was taken, and he magnanimously 
 ordered that Gourdon should go unharmed. 
 On the contrary the hapless man was flayed 
 alive, and then hung. Richard, in his love 
 for war, had paid but little heed to the welfare 
 or concerns of England. His violence and 
 cruelty were mantled by his intrepid courage 
 and the deeds in arms whose renown spread 
 through Asia as well as Europe. Arabian 
 chroniclers recorded with unwilling admira- 
 tion the fall of Acre, the defense of Joppa, 
 and the victorious march to Ascalon; and 
 Arabian mothers long awed their infants to 
 silence with the name of the lion-hearted 
 Plantagenet. 
 
 Coeur de Lion dying without issue, his 
 brother John ascended the throne he had 
 before usurped. The new king w*as then in 
 the thirty-fourth year of life. Although he 
 had been his father’s favorite son, he had 
 
 PLA 
 
650 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 none of the qualities which had rendered 
 the royal Plantagenets illustrious. In the 
 place of his father’s wisdom, John was cursed 
 with weakness. While he was as cruel and 
 violent as his brother, the daring which had 
 gained Richard the name of the lion-hearted 
 was contrasted in John by a cowardice and 
 an irresolution that brought him misfortune 
 and the name of Lackland. Arthur of Brit- 
 tany, son of John’s deceased brother Geoffrey, 
 laid claim to the crown. The youthful aspi- 
 rant was captured and murdered, but the 
 revolt ended in the loss of Normandy to 
 England. John having resisted the pope’s 
 nomination of Stephen Langton to the see of 
 Canterbury, sentence of excommunication 
 was pronounced against him ; the kingdom 
 was placed under an interdict, and given by 
 the offended pope to Philip of France. John 
 advanced to Dover with sixty thousand men, 
 to meet the French king, who was preparing 
 an army to take possession of England. In 
 this posture of affairs, the pope, whose high 
 • authority in temporal as well spiritual con- 
 cerns was considered to be then almost om- 
 nipotent, intimated to John, by his legate, 
 that there was but one way to secure himself 
 from the threatened danger ; which was to 
 put himself entirely under the papal protec- 
 tion, and to perform whatever the pope should 
 command. John, accordingly, resigned his 
 crown and dominions to Innocent III., get- 
 ting in return absolution for the murder of 
 his nephew Arthur; and having, in a full 
 assembly of clergy and nobles, submitted to 
 the humiliation of receiving them again from 
 the papal legate, he paid homage for them, 
 and took an oath upon his knees, with his 
 hands raised between those of the legate, 
 to hold them as the pope’s vassal, under a 
 yearly tribute of a thousand marks. By 
 this scandalous concession, John once more 
 averted the threatened blow ; but he had 
 now incurred the detestation of his subjects. 
 The barons and bishops, incensed at such 
 indignity and roused by his exactions, con- 
 federated against him, rose in arms, and on 
 the field of Runnymede, June 19th, 1215, 
 forced him to sign that famous bulwark of 
 English liberty, the Magna Gharta. John, 
 however, refused to be governed by this 
 charter. This produced a second civil war, 
 in which the barons had recourse to the 
 
 JPI 
 
 King of France for assistance. John directed 
 his route toward Lincolnshire with an army, 
 but being obliged to keep close to the sea- 
 shore, and not being apprised of the influx 
 of the tide at a particular place, he lost all 
 his carriages, treasure, and baggage. Grief 
 for the loss he had sustained, threw him into 
 a fever, of which he died at Newark, in the 
 fifty-first year of his age, and the eighteenth 
 of his detested reign, Oct. 18th, 1216. 
 
 It is noticeable that the use of the plural 
 pronoun we, now the style royal of all mon- 
 archs as well as editors, was begun by John. 
 Before his time sovereigns had used the sin- 
 gular person in all their edicts. 
 
 Henry III. was a lad of ten years at the 
 decease of his father; he was crowned at 
 Gloucester, Oct. 28th, 1216, and married 
 Eleanor, daughter of the Count of Provence, 
 Jan. 14th, 1236. His long reign was favora- 
 ble to the growth of liberty, although the 
 kingdom was in a disturbed condition. His 
 extravagant profuseness to favorites, and the 
 exactions of the priesthood, drove the people 
 to rebel and seize upon the person of the 
 king. He was rescued by the bravery of 
 Prince Edward, regained his power, and died 
 at Westminster, Nov. 16th, 1272. 
 
 His chivalrous son, Edward I., had won 
 great warlike reputation, both in the civil con- 
 tests at home and in Palestine, and to this he 
 added during his reign. He subjugated the 
 hitherto independent principality of W ales, in 
 1282. He promised the conquered Welsh a 
 countryman of their own to rule over them. 
 His queen was brought to bed at Caernarvon, 
 and the wily king presented the son to whom 
 she gave birth, to the subjugated chieftains as 
 their future prince. This prince, by the 
 death of his elder brother, afterward became 
 king of England; and since that time the 
 heir apparent to the English throne has 
 borne the title of Prince of Wales. When 
 the quarrel for the Scottish crown broke out 
 between Robert Bruce and John Baliol, Ed- 
 ward, being chosen umpire, decided in favor 
 of the latter, who was ready to do him hom- 
 age as a vassal. The Scots, proud of their 
 independence, were aroused by the Norman 
 tyranny ; they bared the sword, and led by 
 heroic champions like Wallace, fought many 
 a battle now of renown in song and legend. 
 Blood drenched the border; Wallace was 
 <A 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 651 
 
 taken prisoner and hanged at London ; the 
 stone on which for ages the Scottish kings 
 had been crowned at Scone was brought to 
 Westminster Abbey, where it still remains; 
 Edward’s victorious host marched through 
 the Lowlands of Scotland ; and yet the Scots 
 held out. Robert Bruce, the grandson of 
 Baliol’s competitor, obtained the crown after 
 many vicissitudes. Edward I. died July 7th, 
 1307, in the sixty -ninth year of his age. He 
 w r as about to invade Scotland anew, and his 
 last words to his son were that the war 
 might be earnestly waged. 
 
 Edward IT., however, could neither win 
 conquests abroad nor keep order at home. 
 The barons repeatedly rose in arms against 
 him, killing his obnoxious favorites, Piers 
 Gaveston and Hugh Spencer. Edward had 
 v/edded in 1308, Isabella, daughter of the 
 ICing of France. The queen deserted her 
 husband, invaded his realm with a foreign 
 force, and aided by her paramour, Roger 
 Mortimer, Earl of March, thrust him from 
 the throne in 1327. After several months of 
 close imprisonment at Kenilworth, he was 
 inhumanly murdered in Berkeley Castle the 
 September following. This atrocity was 
 avenged by his energetic son, Edward III., 
 who was at once proclaimed king, being in 
 his fourteenth year. Mortimer was gibbeted, 
 and the queen immured for life. 
 
 The reign of the third Edward was glo- 
 rious in vigor and renown. He withstood 
 the encroachments of the pope, profiting by 
 the advice of an Oxford professor, John 
 Wickliffe. The. wars which he and his great 
 son, the Black Prince, waged with France, 
 crowned the English arms with success. 
 Calais was reduced, and the memorable fields 
 of Cressy and Poitiers were won. The king 
 renewed the war of his grandfather with 
 Scotland, raising Edward Baliol to a tribu- 
 tary throne, and imprisoning David Bruce. 
 Two kings were at one time captives at the 
 English court, David of Scotland and John 
 of France. The Black Prince did not sur- 
 vive to reach the throne which his stout arm 
 and heroic heart had defended and magnified. 
 He died in 1376; his father followed him 
 the next year. 
 
 The eldest son of the Black Prince reigned 
 as Richard II. During his minority of 
 eleven years, his uncles the Dukes of Lan- 
 
 caster and Gloucester ruled as regents. The 
 line of the Plantagenets thus far is curiously 
 chequered ; first an able king, then a weak 
 one. The reign of the feeble and irresolute 
 Richard was harassed by domestic troubles, 
 and ended w r ith his dethronement in 1399, 
 by his cousin Henry, son of John of Gaunt, 
 the Duke of Lancaster. The fallen mon- 
 arch perished in Pomfret Castle. Henry IV. 
 w*as the first king of the Lancaster branch, 
 and his unlawful seizure of the crowu en- 
 tailed upon England in after years the wars 
 of the roses. Various rebellions against his 
 pow r er he quelled ; among others that of 
 Northumberland and Hotspur. To gain for 
 himself and family the good will of the Ro- 
 mish priesthood, he persecuted the disciples 
 of Wickliffe, called Lollards, and his reign 
 is blackened by the first martyrdom in Eng- 
 land for religion. At his death in 1443, he 
 left the house of Lancaster firmly seated on 
 the throne, and its power was still increased 
 by his valiant son, Henry V., the Prince 
 Hal of Shakspeare. His victory over the 
 French at Agincourt revived the ancient 
 glories of Cressy and Poitiers. He pushed 
 his conquests in France, till he w’edded the 
 Princess Catherine, was made regent of the 
 kingdom, and was declared the heir of the 
 insane Charles VI. Just as he had reached 
 this summit of power, death leveled him to 
 the dust. In the same year died the crazy 
 Charles, and the infant Henry VI. was pro- 
 claimed king of both England and France, 
 his uncle the Duke of Bedford, acting as 
 regent. But this sixth Henrj'' w T as more un- 
 fortunate than his father had been successful. 
 Inspirited by Joan of Arc, the French wrested 
 from him all his possessions in France except 
 Calais, and the English crowm was snatched 
 from him by the house of York. This was 
 the commencement of the intestine wars by 
 which England w r as so long wasted. The 
 partisans of the faction of Lancaster chose the 
 red rose as their symbol ; those of York, the 
 white rose ; and the contest thus came to be 
 know-n as the w r ar of the Roses. Henry VI. 
 w r as the great-grandson of John of Gaunt, 
 the third son of Edward III. Richard, Duke 
 of York, grandson of Lionel, the second son 
 of Edward III., asserted his better claim to 
 the crown. Margaret of Anjou, Henry’s 
 queen, a woman of great strength of char- 
 
 PLA 
 
652 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 acter, compensated for her spouse’s ineffi- 
 ciency. The sun of success shone now upon 
 the red rose, and now upon the white. 
 Richard was captured by the forces of Mar- 
 garet, who mocked his gory head with a 
 paper crown, and set it on the battlements of 
 York. 
 
 Edward IV., his son, was proclaimed king 
 in 14G0, after winning the bloody field of 
 Towton. The stout Earl of Warwick, who 
 had aided to raise him to the throne, hurled 
 him down in 1470, and Henry VI. was re- 
 stored. Edward finally established himself 
 on the throne, after Henry, who had four 
 times exchanged the throne for a dungeon, 
 had ended his miserable existence in the 
 Tower, Margaret had fled, and their boy met 
 a cruel death. Edward IV., died April 9th, 
 1483, leaving two infant princes, the oldest 
 of whom was proclaimed as Edward V., 
 his uncle Richard, the Duke of Gloucester, 
 being made protector. This protectorate 
 ended with the assumption of royalty by 
 Gloucester in the following year, his young 
 nephews having been smothered in the 
 Tower. Historians are divided concern- 
 ing the character of Richard III. Some 
 make him out nothing but an ambitious, un- 
 scrupulous, and bloodthirsty monster; and 
 others contend, that although he was cruel 
 and vicious, he was no more so than Ed- 
 ward IV. or Henry VII., while the bravery, 
 policy, and statesmanship of his short reign 
 augured well for what he would have done 
 had he gained the day at Bosworth. But 
 Richmond was victorious there ; the crown 
 of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush on 
 the plain where the fight was waged ; and so 
 impatient was the victor to be crowned, that 
 he had the ceremony performed on the spot 
 with that very crown. Thus, on the 22d of 
 August, 1485, the throne was forever lost to 
 the Plantagenet race. Thus, too, were ended 
 the civil wars, in which many of the most 
 ancient families in the land had been extin- 
 guished, and in which no less than a hund- 
 red thousand human beings had lost their 
 lives. Plantagenets had sat on the throne 
 for more than three hundred years : there 
 had been fourteen kings of the dynasty ; 
 seven of them were deposed, and five lost 
 their lives as well as their crowns. 
 
 PLASSEY, Battle of, June 23d, 1757, 
 
 fought between Lord Clive with little more 
 than 3,000 British, and Surajah Dowlah with 
 
 70.000 Hindoos. The victory laid the corner- 
 stone of the British empire in India. 
 
 PLATiEA, a town of Boeotia, near Mount 
 Cithaeron, on the confines of Megaris and 
 Attica, celebrated for a battle fought there, 
 between Mardonius, the commander of the 
 army of Xerxes, King of Persia, and Pausa- 
 nias the Lacedaemonian and the Athenians. 
 The Persian army consisted of 300,000 men, 
 
 3.000 of whom scarce escaped with their 
 lives by flight. The Grecian army, which 
 was about 110,000, lost but few men; and 
 among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two 
 Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the 
 only soldiers found in the number of the 
 slain. The plunder w T hich the Greeks ob- 
 tained in the Persian camp was immense. 
 Pausanias received the tenth of all the spoils, 
 on account of his uncommon valor during the 
 engagement, and the rest were rewarded each 
 according to their respective merit. This 
 battle was fought on the 22d of September, 
 the same day as the battle of Mycale, b.c. 
 479, and by it Greece was delivered from the 
 continual alarms to which she was exposed 
 on account of the Persian invasions, for from 
 that time none of the princes of Persia dared 
 to appear with a hostile force beyond the 
 Hellespont. Plataea was taken by the Lace- 
 daemonians, after a famous siege, in the 
 beginning of the Peloponnesian war, and 
 afterward destroyed by the Thebans, b.c. 427. 
 Alexander rebuilt it, and paid great encomi- 
 ums to the inhabitants, on account of their 
 ancestors, who had'so bravely fought against 
 the Persians at the battle of Marathon, and 
 under Pausanias. 
 
 PLATO was a disciple of Socrates. After 
 the death of his master he traveled and stud- 
 ied in Egypt. Upon his return to Athens 
 he set up his school in a grove called the 
 Academy. He visited Sicily several times. 
 The elder Dionysius, offended at his freedom, 
 sold him as a slave. The philosopher was 
 ransomed by his friends. His teachings were 
 reverenced by the most illustrious of the an- 
 cients. He died at Athens in his seventy- 
 ninth year, b.c. 438. 
 
 PLATTSBURG, Battle of. On the 11th 
 of September, 1814, Plattsburg, N. Y., was 
 the scene of an important conflict between 
 
 TLA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 653 
 
 the Americans and British forces, both on 
 the land and on the water, in which the 
 Americans were victorious. The land forces 
 of the enemy, consisting of about 14,000 
 men, were led on to the attack by Sir George 
 Prevost, and were successfully repulsed by 
 about 3,000 men, under the command of 
 General Macomb. The engagement on the 
 lake was between Commodore McDonough, 
 of the American navy, and Commodore 
 Downie, of the British. The fleet under 
 McDonough carried 86 guns and 820 men, 
 and the British fleet 95 guns and 1050 men. 
 The action lasted, without any cessation, on 
 a smooth sea, at close quarters, two hours 
 and twenty minutes, in full view of both the 
 armies fighting on land. The fortune of the 
 day was in a great measure decided by the 
 issue on the lake. When the British army 
 saw their fleet completely conquered, they 
 were at once dispirited, and commenced their 
 retreat. Their loss in the mean time had 
 been more than six times as great as that 
 of the Americans. Among the slain in the 
 naval engagement was the British command- 
 ant, Commodore Downie, who was a brave 
 and skillful officer. The fact is stated as 
 showing the frame of mind in which the 
 brave McDonough entered the battle, and in 
 whom he put his trust for success, that, 
 “after the enemy’s fleet hove in sight, the 
 men of his ship were assembled on the quar- 
 ter deck, when he kneeled down, and, in 
 humble and fervent prayer, commended him- 
 self, his men, and the cause in which they 
 were engaged, to the God of battles.” 
 
 PLAYFAIR, JonN, born in Scotland, 1749, 
 professor of mathomatics and natural philoso- 
 fthy at Edinburgh, died in 1819. 
 
 PLINY, the Elder, after Aristotle the most 
 learned of ancient writers in natural philoso- 
 phy and history, was born at the modern 
 Como, a.d. 23. His love of science cost him 
 his life in the year 79. During the great erup- 
 tion of Vesuvius by which Pompeii and Her- 
 culaneum were overwhelmed, his desire to 
 save the poor people threatened by the burn- 
 ing torrents, and also to witness the awful 
 spectacle, led him to sail too near the coast, 
 and he was suffocated by the smoke and 
 ashes. 
 
 PLINY, the Younger, a nephew and 
 adopted son of the foregoing, and distin- 
 
 guished as a Roman orator, historian, and 
 statesman, was born a.d. 62, and died in 116. 
 He was a pro-consul in Bithynia in the reign 
 of Trajan. 
 
 PLUTARCH, the philosopher and histo- 
 rian, born in Boeotia, died a.d. 120, aged 
 seventy. 
 
 POCAHONTAS, an Indian princess, cele- 
 brated in the annals of Virginia, married Mr. 
 Rolfe, and from them descended families in 
 Virginia: she died in England in 1616. 
 
 POET LAUREATE. The origin of this 
 appointment is not known. It is said to be 
 peculiar to England. In the reign of Henry 
 III. there was a ‘king’s versifier,’ to whom 
 was paid an annual stipend of one hundred 
 shillings. It is said that the first mention 
 of a Poet Laureate occurs in the reign of Ed- 
 ward IV., when John Kay was laureate. 
 Andrew Bernard was laureate in the time of 
 Henry VII., and John Skelton in the succeed- 
 ing reign. The following poets and versifi- 
 ers have since held the post. Edmund 
 Spenser, died 1598 ; Samuel Daniel, died 
 1619; Ben Jonson, died Aug. 6th, 1637 ; Sir 
 William Davenant, died Apr. 7th, 1668; 
 John Dryden, dismissed as a papist, 1688; 
 Thomas Shadwell, died December, 1692; 
 Nahum Tate, died Aug. 12th, 1715 ; Nicholas 
 Rowe, died Dec. 6th, 1718; Rev. Lawrence 
 Eusden, died 1730 ; Colley Cibber, died 1757 ; 
 William Whitehead (appointed on the refusal 
 of Gray), died Apr. 14th, 1785; Rev. Thomas 
 Warton, D. D., died May 21st, 1790; Henry 
 James Pye, died 1813 ; Robert Southey, died 
 Mar. 21st, 1843; William Wordsworth, died 
 Apr. 23d, 1850; Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 James I. granted the Laureate a yearly 
 pension of a hundred marks. Charles I. in* 
 creased the stipend to £100, and added a 
 tierce of Spanish wine. Southey commuted 
 the tierce for £27 a year. 
 
 James II., when he came to the throne, 
 ordered, with characteristic parsimony,’ that 
 the annual butt of sack originally granted to 
 Jonson, and continued to Rare Ben’s suc- 
 cessors, should be omitted. But when Dry- 
 den, then the laureate, became a Catholic, 
 James granted him a pension of a hundred 
 pounds a year. 
 
 POITIERS, anciently Pictavi , a town of 
 France, now capital of the department of the 
 Vienne, containing 26,000 inhabitants. It is 
 
 POI 
 
654 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOTEDIA OF 
 
 memorable for a battle between the English 
 under Edward the Black Prince, and the 
 French under John II., fought here Sept. 
 19th, 1356. The van of the English army 
 (which consisted altogether of only 8,000 
 men) was commanded by the Earl of War- 
 wick ; the rear by the Earls of Salisbury and 
 Suffolk ; the main body by the Black Prince 
 himself. The first division of John’s army 
 (which was 50,000 strong) was commanded 
 by the Duke of Orleans, the king’s brother; 
 the second by the dauphin ; the third by the 
 king himself. A French detachment which 
 advanced first to the charge was discomfited 
 and overthrown ; one of the marshals was slain, 
 the other taken prisoner ; and the remainder 
 of the detachment fell back, and put every- 
 thing into disorder. In that critical moment, 
 the Captal de Buch unexpectedly appeared 
 and attacked the dauphin’s line, which fell 
 into confusion. Landas, Bodenai, and St. 
 Yenant now set the example of flight, which 
 was followed by that of the whole division. 
 The Duke of Orleans, seized with a panic, 
 thought no longer of fighting, but carried off 
 his division by a retreat which soon after 
 turned into a flight. The division under King 
 John was still, however, more numerous than 
 the whole English army ; and the only resist- 
 ance made that day was by his line of battle. 
 The Black Prince fell with impetuosity on 
 some German cavalry placed in the front; a 
 fierce battle ensued : but the German generals 
 falling in the engagement, that body of cavalry 
 gave way, and left the king himself exposed 
 to the whole fury of the enemy. The king, 
 spent with fatigue, and overwhelmed by num- 
 bers, might easily" have been slain, but every 
 English gentleman, ambitious of taking alive 
 the royal prisoner, spared him in the action, 
 exhorted him to surrender, and offered him 
 quarter. Several who attempted to seize him 
 suffered for their temerity. In this dilemma 
 he cried out, “Where is my cousin, the Prince 
 of Wales?” and seemed unwilling to become 
 prisoner to any person of inferior rank; but 
 being told that the prince was at a distance, 
 he threw down his gauntlet, and yielded him- 
 self, together with his son, to Dennis de Mor- 
 bec, a fugitive knight of Arras. The modera- 
 tion which Edward displayed on this occasion, 
 has forever stamped his character. At a re- 
 past which was prepared in his tent for his 
 
 royal prisoner, he served behind his chair, as 
 if he had been one of his retinue. He refused 
 to seat himself at table with his majesty : 
 and John received, when a captive, those 
 honors which had been denied him when on 
 a throne. 
 
 POLAND, in Polish Polska, a country in 
 the northern part of Europe, was formerly of 
 vast extent; although now dismembered, a 
 part of it retains the ancient name, as an im 
 tegral part of the Russian empire. It is a 
 vice-roj^alty with an area of 49,000 square 
 miles, and 4,852,000 inhabitants. [See War- 
 saw.] Poland was formerly called the gran- 
 ary of Europe; but this was when its bound- 
 aries extended from the Baltic to the Black 
 Sea; and when the Ukraine and Lithuania 
 were included. At present its limits are so 
 circumscribed and its arable surface so indif- 
 ferently cultivated, or naturally so infertile, 
 that the kingdom of Poland, strictly speaking, 
 furnishes little more corn than supplies its 
 own population. The immense supplies of 
 wheat sent to Dantzic are chiefty from the 
 detached provinces of Galicia, united to Aus- 
 tria, and from Volhynia and Podolia, now be- 
 longing to Russia. 
 
 The climate of Poland, though severe, is 
 much less precarious than that of the south 
 of Germany or of France. A winter of from 
 five to seven months, during the greater part 
 of which the ground is covered with snow, is 
 succeeded by a rapid spring and warm sum- 
 mer; and these are followed by a short, cold, 
 wet autumn. The surface of Poland is re- 
 markably even ; to the traveler passing 
 through the country it appears an intermina- 
 ble forest. Wheat is raised only in the hilly 
 southern region; elsewhere rye, oats, buck- 
 wheat, and some barley are cultivated. 
 Horses and cattle are of inferior size, but 
 rather numerous ; and cattle, as well as hides 
 and tallow, are articles of export. Hogs also 
 are numerous, and bacon to a considerable 
 amount is exported. Sheep and goats are less 
 abundant; the wool is coarse. As much of 
 the country is still covered with forests, 
 chiefly of pine and fir, timber is an important 
 export. Wild animals are numerous, espe- 
 cially wolves. 
 
 The early history of Poland is obscure. In 
 the year 842 Piastus, a peasant, was chosen 
 duke. Under his descendants Poland became 
 
 POL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 655 
 
 a kingdom, and Christianity was introduced 
 in the latter years of the tenth century. The 
 dynasty ended with Casimir the Great in 
 1370. He was succeeded by his nephew 
 Louis, King of Hungary, who neglected his 
 new acquisition, only visiting Poland twice 
 during his reign. After his death, 1382, his 
 youngest daughter, the beautiful and gracious 
 Hedvige, was crowned Queen of Poland. She 
 wedded Jagellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania, 
 who thereupon renounced his paganism for 
 the Christian faith. 
 
 On the death of Sigismund, the last of the 
 Jagellon family, in 1572, Henrj^ Duke of An- 
 jou, and brother to Charles IX. of France, 
 was elected to the Polish throne; but the 
 death of Charles giving him the French crown, 
 he quitted Poland, and was succeeded by Ste- 
 phen Bathori. This prince subdued the bar- 
 barian Cossacks. 
 
 Poland was often engaged in war, with the 
 Swedes or the Muscovites or the Turks. In 
 1668 Michael Wiesnowiski was chosen to suc- 
 ceed John Casimir as king. The Turks in- 
 vaded Poland in great force, but were stoutly 
 withstood by brave John Sobieski. On the 
 death of Michael in 1673, Sobieski was chosen 
 his successor. [See Sobieski.] 
 
 After a glorious reign, Sobieski died ; when 
 Frederic Augustus, Elector of Saxony, was 
 chosen king, in opposition to the Prince of 
 Conti. Augustus was dethroned by Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, who placed on the throne 
 Stanislaus ; but Augustus was afterward re- 
 established by the Czar of Russia. On his 
 death, Stanislaus was chosen king a second 
 time ; but through the influence of Germany 
 and Russia, his election was annulled; and 
 the son of the late king was invested with the 
 sovereignty, by the name of Augustus III. 
 At his death, through the intervention of 
 Russia, Count Poniatowski was elected king, 
 and proclaimed by the title of Stanislaus Au- 
 gustus ; but his reign was one continued scene 
 of confusion and distress. 
 
 The weak kingdom was elbowed by power- 
 ful neighbors. The first partition of Poland, 
 in 1772, was planned by Frederick II. of 
 Prussia. Russia, Prussia, and Austria, in a 
 most unprincipled manner, divided among 
 themselves the greater part of this unfortu- 
 nate country. The brave Kosciusko and 
 Poniatowski struggled vainly against the 
 
 armies of the imperial thieves. In 1 7 95 the 
 trio completed this great political crime, by 
 seizing on the remaining part, and expunging 
 Poland from among independent nations. At, 
 the congress held at Vienna in 1815, part of 
 Poland was united to the Russian empire, 
 with the preservation of its own constitution ; 
 and, on this event, Alexander, Emperor of 
 Russia, assumed the title of King of Poland. 
 The rule of Russia became less and less lib- 
 eral ; her determination to crush out the 
 nationality of the Poles was more and more 
 evident. Smouldering dissatisfaction broke at 
 last into the flame of revolt. 
 
 The unhappy struggle for independence, 
 with the most powerful empire of Europe, 
 aroused the world’s attention. The revolution 
 commenced with an insurrection at Warsaw, 
 Nov. 29th, 1830. The Polish diet, on the 
 24th of January, 1831, declared the indepen- 
 dence of their country. The spirit of resist- 
 ance was not quelled without a long struggle 
 and a horrible effusion of blood on both sides. 
 Nicholas severely punished the insurgents 
 and their country. Siberia was filled with 
 exiled Poles; others, little more fortunate, 
 wandered in penury through Europe, or to 
 the shores of America. The universities of 
 Wilna and Warsaw, whose students had been 
 conspicuous in patriotism, were abolished; 
 public libraries and museums were carried to 
 St. Petersburg ; the Polish language was pro- 
 hibited; the Catholic religion, long the na- 
 tional faith, was assailed and burdened with 
 restrictions; the last vestige of national in- 
 dependence was swept off, and Poland was 
 declared an integral part of the great Russian 
 empire. There was one more attempt for in- 
 dependence at Cracow in 1846, soon put down 
 by Austria and Russia. 
 
 What a melancholy task is his who seeks 
 for the records of Poland on the historical 
 tablet for the last fifty years! The nation 
 which once carried its conquests as far as 
 Dacia, made the divan tremble, and chased 
 the flying Spahi beyond the Danube; the 
 king who once paternally planned his coun- 
 try’s weal ; the nobles who once appeared at 
 the signal of foreign invasion, clad in brass 
 and steel; the peasant who once bared his 
 brawny breast and stood in the last rampart 
 of his country, — where are their names re- 
 corded ? Can we avoid recurring to the past, 
 
 POL 
 
656 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to that moment which promised to be so pro- 
 pitious, when the hopes of the country were, 
 after a long interval of death-like sleep, awak- 
 ened, but awakened to slumber again, perhaps 
 in eternal sleep ? The giant warrior of Cor- 
 sica spread before the Poles a golden vision, 
 lie mocked Poland with the name of liberty! 
 At the head of his myriad men of war he said 
 to the Polish mother, “That son, which is in 
 thy cradle, shall be free! Poland shall be 
 free ! ” Six months passed, and the dome 
 which had echoed these words was filled with 
 the lances of the Cossacks. 
 
 POLE, Reginald, was a younger son of 
 Lord Montacute, cousin of Henry VII. He 
 was born at Stourton Castle in Staffordshire, 
 1500, and educated at Oxford and in Italy. 
 Pole could not stoop to abet the plans and 
 deeds of Henry VIII., — not to gain the mitre 
 of York. Therefore it was safer that he 
 should dwell in Italy, where he rose to be 
 cardinal. Higher honors seemed within his 
 reach. It was said, that whereas Cardinal 
 Wolsey would have been pope if he could, 
 Cardinal Pole could have been pope if he 
 would. He returned to England, upon the 
 accession of Mary, and succeeded the martyred 
 Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury. For 
 the cruel fires that bigotry fed during Mary’s 
 time, Pole is not responsible. His humanity 
 and his inclination toward the Protestant 
 doctrines led him to advocate lenient and 
 moderate measures. He died the day after 
 Mary, Nov. 17th, 1558. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Jules, Prince de, was born in 
 1 783. He passed through various vicissitudes 
 and dangers during the French revolution and 
 the empire of Bonaparte, for which he tasted 
 his reward after the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons. In 1829 he became premier. His policy 
 brought on his overthrow and the deposition 
 of Charles X. The remainder of his life was 
 chiefly spent in exile. He died in 1847. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Melchior de, a cardinal, was 
 born in 1061, at Puy, in Languedoc. He 
 studied at Paris, after which he was employed 
 in diplomatic concerns, in which he gave such 
 satisfaction as to be rewarded with the pur- 
 ple. During the regency he was banished to 
 his abbey of Anehin ; but afterward he was 
 recalled, and appointed agent for French af- 
 fairs at Rome. In 1726 he was made Arch- 
 bishop of Auch. He died in 1741. 
 
 POLK, James Knox, the eleventh president 
 of the United States, was born Nov. 2d, 1795, 
 in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina. The 
 name was originally Pollock, and his ances- 
 tors came from the north of Ireland, early in 
 the eighteenth century. James was the old- 
 est of ten children. His father, a modest 
 farmer, removed in 1806 to Tennessee, where 
 he was one of the pioneers of the fertile valley 
 of Duck River, a branch of the Cumberland ; 
 then a wilderness, but now among the most 
 populous parts of the state. Two obstacles 
 lay in James’s way to knowledge — scanty 
 means of instruction, and an organic affection 
 from which he did not find relief till after 
 years of suffering. Nevertheless he fitted for 
 college, and entered the universitj r of North 
 Carolina, where he graduated in 1818, sur- 
 passing his fellows both in the mathematics 
 and the classics. With the same closeness of 
 application which had won his collegiate 
 honors he devoted himself to the study of law, 
 under Felix Grundy (a leading lawyer and 
 citizen of Tennessee), and commenced practice 
 in Maury county in 1820. He was highly 
 successful in his profession. After a couple 
 of terms in the state legislature, he was picked 
 by the Democratic party to represent his dis- 
 trict in congress. He took his seat in De- 
 cember, 1825, being then thirty years of age. 
 He was prominent among the most decided 
 Democratic members, and in 1835 was made 
 speaker, the arduous duties of which station 
 he discharged with eminent ability till his re- 
 tirement from congress in March, 1839. The 
 autumn of that year he was elected governor 
 of Tennessee. Being nominated for the office 
 of president by the Democratic party in 1844, 
 he was elected over his competitor, Mr. Clay, 
 and administered the national affairs for four 
 years from the 4th of March, 1845. The dis- 
 tinguishing measures of his administration 
 were the annexation of Texas, the ensuing 
 war with Mexico, and the treaty of peace with 
 that republic by which California and New’ 
 Mexico w r ere added to our domain. Having 
 declined a renomination to the presidency, he 
 retired to Nashville, Tennessee. The earthly 
 rest w r hich he sought after the severe fatigues 
 of his high office, was suddenly cut short. 
 Seized by a chronic diarrhea, he suffered a 
 few days, and died June 15th, 1849, in the 
 fifty-fourth year of his age. Public honors 
 
 POL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 657 
 
 were paid to his memory throughout the 
 Union. His wife survived him, but they had 
 no offspring. 
 
 Mr. Polk was of middle stature, with a full, 
 angular brow, and a quick, penetrating eye. 
 His countenance was grave, though often re- 
 lieved by a pleasant smile, betokening the 
 amenity of his disposition ; and at the close of 
 his official career, he was worn with care. 
 He was an intimate personal and political 
 friend of Gen. Jackson. 
 
 POLLTO, Caius Asinius, a Roman con- 
 sul under the reign of Augustus, who distin- 
 guished himself as much by his eloquence 
 and writings, as by his exploits in the field. 
 He was with Caesar when he crossed the Ru- 
 bicon. He defeated the Dalmatians, and 
 favored the cause of Antony against Augus- 
 tus. He was greatly esteemed by Augustus, 
 when he had become one of his adherents, 
 after the ruin of Antony. He died in the 
 eightieth year of his age, a.d. 4. 
 
 POLO, Marco, was a Venetian merchant 
 of the thirteenth century. Commercial enter- 
 prise led his father and uncle to the court of 
 
 Kublai Khan, the great Mongol emperor, and 
 Marco accompanied them. He dw'elt at the 
 Mongol court in China from 1275 to 1292. 
 As he enjoyed the eminent favor of the great 
 monarch, and was often sent on missions to 
 remote princes, he had great advantages for 
 becoming acquainted with eastern Asia, then 
 an unknown land to Europeans. Kublai 
 Khan reluctantly allowed the Poli to return. 
 Marco published an account of those distant 
 realms, which modern discovery has shown 
 to be wonderfully accurate. It materially 
 influenced the views of Columbus, and in- 
 spired Vasco de Gama to seek his path to 
 India. 
 
 POMPADOUR, Jeanne Antoinette Pois- 
 son, Marchioness of Pompadour, the mistress 
 of Louis XV., was the daughter of a finan- 
 cier, and the wife of M. d’Etioles when she 
 attracted the notice of the king, who made 
 her a marchioness in 1745. She liberally 
 encouraged the arts, and collected a valuable 
 cabinet of curiosities. She died in 1764, 
 aged forty -four. 
 
 S -'4 ^ 
 
 TEMPLE OF ISIS AT POMPEII. 
 
 POMPEII. This ancient city of Campania 
 was partly demolished by an earthquake in 
 a.d. 63. It was afterward rebuilt, but was 
 swallowed up, like Herculaneum, by an awful 
 eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an 
 
 42 
 
 earthquake, on the night of the 24th of Au- 
 gust, a.d. 79. Many of the principal citizens 
 happened at the time to be assembled at a the- 
 atre where public spectacles were exhibited. 
 The ashes buried the whole city, and covered 
 
 POM 
 
658 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the surrounding country. After a lapse of 
 fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was 
 turning up the ground, accidentally found a 
 bronze figure ; and this discovery attracting 
 the attention of the learned, further search 
 brought numerous productions to light, and 
 at length the city was once more shone on by 
 the sun. Different monarchs have contrib- 
 uted their aid in uncovering the buried city ; 
 the part first cleared, a.d. 1750, was sup- 
 posed to be the main street. 
 
 POMPEY, Cneius, surnamed the Great, 
 from the greatness of his exploits, was the 
 son of Cneius Pompeius Strabo and Lucilia, 
 and was born b.c. 106. He early distin- 
 guished himself in the field of battle, and 
 fought with success and bravery under his 
 father, whose courage and military prudence 
 he imitated. In the disturbances which agi- 
 tated Rome, by the ambition and avarice of 
 Marius and Sylla, Pompey followed the inter- 
 est of the latter, and by levying three legions 
 for his service gained his friendship and his 
 protection. In the twenty-sixth year of his 
 age, he conquered Sicily, which was in the 
 power of Marius and his adherents, and in 
 forty days he regained all the territories of 
 Africa which had forsaken the interest of 
 Sylla. 
 
 After the death of Sylla, Pompey supported 
 himself against the remains of the Marian 
 faction, which were headed by Lepidus, and 
 afterward by Sertorius in Spain. He was 
 soon made consul, and in that office he re- 
 stored the tribunitial power to its original 
 dignity ; and in forty days he removed the 
 pirates from the Mediterranean, where they 
 had reigned for many years, and by their 
 continual plunder and audacity almost de- 
 stroyed the whole naval power of Rome. 
 
 While he extirpated these maritime rob- 
 bers, Pompey was called to greater under- 
 takings, and empowered to finish the war 
 against Mithridates, king of Pontus, and 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia. His operations 
 against the king of Pontus were bold and 
 vigorous ; and in a general engagement the 
 Romans so totally defeated the enemy, that 
 the Asiatic monarch escaped with difficulty 
 from the field of battle. Pompey did not 
 lose sight of the advantages which dispatch 
 would insure : he entered Armenia, and re- 
 ceived the submission of Tigranes. 
 
 Part of Arabia was subdued ; Judea became 
 a Roman province; and when he had now 
 nothing to fear from Mithridates, who had 
 voluntarily destroyed himself, Pompey re- 
 turned to Italy with all the pomp and majesty 
 of an eastern conqueror. The Romans 
 dreaded his approach ; they knew his power, 
 and his influence among his troops, and they 
 feared the return of another tyrannical Sylla. 
 Pompey, however, banished their fears; he 
 disbanded his army, and the conqueror of 
 Asia entered Rome like a private citizen. 
 
 Pompey soon after united his interest with 
 that of Caesar and Crassus, and formed the 
 first triumvirate, all solemnly swearing that 
 their attachment should be mutual, their 
 cause common, and their union permanent. 
 But this powerful confederacy was soon after 
 broken ; the sudden death of Julia, the wife 
 | of Pompey, and daughter of Caesar, and the 
 total defeat and death of Crassus in Syria by 
 the Parthians, shattered the political bands 
 which held the jarring interests of Caesar and 
 Pompey united. 
 
 Pompey dreaded his father-in-law, and yet 
 he affected to despise him ; and, by suffering 
 anarchy to prevail in Rome, he convinced 
 his fellow-citizens of the necessity of invest- 
 ing him with dictatorial power. The ene- 
 mies of Caesar unjustly demanded that he 
 should resign the command in Gaul. His 
 friends claimed, either that the consulship 
 should be given to him, or that he should be 
 continued in the government of Gaul. This 
 would perhaps have been granted, but Cato 
 opposed it. The breach became more wide, 
 and a civil war was inevitable. 
 
 Caesar was privately preparing to meet his 
 enemies, while Pompey remained indolent, 
 and gratified his pride in seeing all Italy cel- 
 ebrate his recovery from an indisposition by 
 universal rejoicings. But he was soon roused 
 from his inactivity ; and it was now time to 
 find his friends, if anything could be obtained 
 from the caprice and the fickleness of a people 
 which he had once delighted and amused by 
 the exhibition of games and spectacles in a 
 theatre which could contain twenty thousand 
 spectators. 
 
 Caesar was near Rome ; he had crossed the 
 Rubicon, upon hearing of the hostile meas- 
 ures with which the senate threatened him. 
 Pompey, who had once boasted that he could 
 
 POM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 659 
 
 raise legions to his assistance by stamping 
 with his foot, fled from the city with precipi- 
 tation, and retired to Brundusium with the 
 consuls and part of the senators. Caesar was 
 master of Rome; in sixty days all Italy ac- 
 knowledged his power, and the conqueror 
 hastened to Spain, there to defeat the interest 
 of -Pompey, and alienate the hearts of his 
 soldiers. He was too successful ; and when 
 he had gained to his cause the western parts 
 of the Roman empire, he crossed Italy, and 
 arrived in Greece, whither Pompey had re- 
 tired, supported by all the power of the east, 
 the wishes of the conservative Romans, and 
 a numerous and well-disciplined army. 
 
 Pompey at first met with success ; and 
 he might have decided the war if he had con- 
 tinued to pursue the enemy while their 
 confusion was great, and their escape almost 
 impossible. Want of provisions obliged Cae- 
 sar to advance toward Thessaly ; Pompey 
 pursued him, and in the plains of Pharsalia 
 the two armies engaged. The cavalry of 
 Pompey soon gave way, and the general 
 retired to his camp overwhelmed with grief 
 and shame. But here there was no safety ; 
 the conqueror pushed on every side, and 
 Pompey disguised himself and fled to the sea- 
 coast, whence he passed to Egypt, where he 
 hoped to find a safe asylum, till better and 
 more favorable moments returned, in the 
 court of Ptolemy, a prince whom he had 
 once protected and insured on his throne. 
 When Ptolemy was told that Pompey claimed 
 his protection, he consulted his ministers, and 
 had the baseness to betray and deceive him. 
 A boat was sent to fetch him on shore ; the 
 Roman general left his galley after an affec- 
 tionate and tender parting with his wife 
 Cornelia. The Egyptian sailors sat in sullen 
 silence in the boat ; and when Pompey disem- 
 barked, Achillas and Septimius assassinated 
 him. His wife, who had followed him with 
 her eyes to the shore, was a spectator of the 
 bloody scene ; and she hastened away from 
 the bay of Alexandria, not to share his 
 miserable fate. He died b.c. 48, in the 
 fifty-eighth year of his age, the day after his 
 birth-day. 
 
 PONDICHERRY, a city on the sea-coast 
 of the Carnatic in India, since 1672 a French 
 colony. Ineffectually besieged by the Brit- 
 ish, under Admiral Boscawen, in<*1748. In 
 
 1761 it was taken, after a tedious siege and 
 blockade, by the English under Colonel 
 Coote, when 2,000 Europeans were made 
 prisoners, and 5,000 pieces of cannon and 100 
 mortars taken. In 1763 it was restored to 
 the French. Subsequently it has been sev- 
 eral times taken by the British, but in 1814 
 it was finally restored to France. Pondi- 
 cherry is the principal seat of the French 
 power in the East Indies. The population 
 of the town and district is 80,000. 
 
 PONIATOWSKI, Joseph, a nephew of 
 Stanislaus Augustus, the last king of Poland, 
 was born at Warsaw in 1763. He stood by 
 the side of Kosciusko in the resistance to the 
 dismemberment of his native land. Prince 
 Poniatowski commanded the Polish forces 
 which joined the army of Napoleon, and par- 
 ticipated in the varied campaign of 1812 in 
 Russia. After the battle of Leipsic, during 
 which Napoleon made him a marshal of the 
 empire, he was ordered to cover the retreat. 
 The enemy were already in possession of the 
 suburbs, and had thrown light troops over 
 the Elster, when Prince Poniatowski ar- 
 rived wth a few followers at the river. The 
 bridge had already been blown up by the 
 French. The brave Pole, wounded as he was, 
 spurred his steed into the rapid current, and 
 was drowned, Oct. 19th, 1814. His body 
 was found on the 24th, and having been 
 embalmed, was buried at Warsaw, with all 
 the honors of his rank, by order of the Em- 
 peror Alexander. 
 
 PONTUS, an ancient kingdom of Asia Mi- 
 nor. This country came into subjection to 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, about 560 b.c., and 
 underwent the revolutions of the Lydian and 
 Persian empires till about 300 b.c., when it 
 became independent of the Macedonians 
 under Mithridates II. It grew very consid- 
 erable under Mithridates VI., who extended 
 his empire over all Asia Minor, but could not 
 retain his conquests against the Romans, be- 
 ing defeated successively by Sylla, Lucullus, 
 and Pompey. The Roman conquest was 
 complete on his death in 63 b.c. Upon the 
 taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 
 1204, Alexius Comnenus established atTrebi- 
 zond, in this country, a new empire of the 
 Greeks, which continued till Mohammed II. 
 put an end to it in 1459. 
 
 POPES. The title of pope was origin- 
 
660 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 ally given to all bishops. It was first adopted 
 by Hyginus, Bishop of Rome, a.d. 138. Bon- 
 iface III. induced Phocas, Emperor of the 
 East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 
 and by the connivance of Phocas, also, the 
 Romish bishop’s supremacy over the Chris- 
 tian church was established. The custom 
 of kissing the pope’s toe was introduced in 
 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of 
 Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money 
 to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. 
 was the first pope who changed his name on 
 his election, in 844. Some contend that it 
 was Sergius I., and others John XII. or XIII. 
 John XVIII., a layman, was made pope, 
 1024. The first pope who kept an army was 
 Leo IX., 1054. The pope’s authority was 
 firmly fixed in England, 1079. Appeals from 
 English tribunals to the pope were introduced 
 19 Stephen, 1154. The pope collected the 
 tenths of the whole kingdom of England, 
 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avig- 
 non, in France, in 1308, for seventy years. 
 The holy see’s demands on England were 
 refused by parliament, 1363. Appeals to 
 Rofne from England were abolished, 1533. 
 The words “ Lord Pope” were struck out of 
 all English books, 1541. The papal author- 
 ity declined about 1600. Kissing the pope’s 
 toe, and other ceremonies, were abolished by 
 Clement XIV., 1773. The pope became des- 
 titute of all political influence in Europe, 
 1787. Pius VI. was burned in effigy at 
 Paris, 1791. He made submission to the 
 French republic, 1796; was expelled from 
 Rome, and deposed, Feb. 22d, 1798, and 
 died at Valence, Aug. 19th, 1799. Pius 
 VII. was elected in exile, March 13th, 1800; 
 was dethroned, May 13th, 1809 ; remained 
 a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napoleon’s 
 overthrow ; and was restored May 24th, 1814. 
 
 752. Stephen IT. ; the first who was carried to 
 the Lateran on men’s shoulders. 
 
 757. Paul I. 
 
 768. Stephen III. 
 
 772. Adrian I.; sanctioned images; caused 
 money to be coined with his name, 780. 
 795. Leo III. $ 
 
 816. Stephen IV. 
 
 817. Pascal I. 
 
 824. Eugenius II. 
 
 827. Valentine. 
 
 828. Gregory IV. 
 
 844. Sergius II. ; the first that changed his 
 name on his election. 
 
 847. Leo IV. ; defeated the Saracens. 
 
 855. Benedict III. opposed by an anti-pope 
 called Anastasius. 
 
 858. Nicholas I., styled the Great. 
 
 867. Adrian II. 
 
 872. John VIII. 
 
 882. Martin II. 
 
 884. Adrian III. 
 
 885. Stephen V. 
 
 891. Formosus; died detested; his corpse 
 thrown into the Tiber. 
 
 896. Boniface VI. ; deposed. 
 
 897. Romanus, anti-pope. 
 
 897. Stephen VI.; strangled in prison. 
 
 898. John IX. 
 
 900. Benedict IV. 
 
 903. Leo V. ; deposed in a few months, and 
 
 died in prison. 
 
 904. Sergius III. ; disgraced by his vices. 
 
 911. Anastasius III. 
 
 913. Landonius, or Lando. 
 
 914. John X.; resigned, and was stifled by 
 
 Guy, Duke of Tuscany. 
 
 928. Leo VI. 
 
 929. Stephen VII. 
 
 931. John XI.; imprisoned in the castle of St. 
 
 Angelo, where he died. 
 
 936. Leo VII. ; great in zeal and piety. 
 
 939. Stephen VIII. ; of ferocious character. 
 942. Martin III. 
 
 946. Agapetus II. ; of holy life. 
 
 956. John XII., the Infamous; deposed for 
 adultery and cruelty, and finally mur- 
 dered. By some he is said to be the 
 first that changed his name upon com- 
 ing to the papal chair. 
 
 963. Benedict V. chosen, but opposed by Leo 
 VIII., who was successfully supported 
 by the Emperor Otho. 
 
 965. John XIII. ; elected by the imperial au- 
 thority. 
 
 972. Benedict VI. ; murdered in prison. 
 
 974. Boniface VII. 
 
 974. Domnus II. 
 
 975. Benedict VII. 
 
 983. John XIV. 
 
 984. John XV. 
 
 985. John XVI. 
 
 996. Gregory V. 
 
 999. Silvester II. 
 
 1003. John XVII.; died same year. 
 
 1003. John XVIII.; abdicated. 
 
 1009. Sergius IV. 
 
 1012. Benedict VIII. 
 
 1024. John XIX. ; a layman, made pope by dint 
 of money. 
 
 1033. Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, 
 at twelve years of age; expelled.* 
 
 1044. Gregory VI. ; abdicated. 
 
 1046. Clement II. ; died next year. 
 
 1047. Benedict IX. again; again deposed. 
 
 1048. Damasus II. ; died soon after. 
 
 1048. Leo IX.; canonized; the first pope that 
 kept an army. 
 
 1054. [The throne vacant one year.] 
 
 1055. Victor II. 
 
 1057. Stephen IX. 
 
 1058. Bewdict X. ; anti-pope, who was expelled 
 1058. Nicholas II. 
 
 POP 
 
HISTORY AN] 
 
 1061. Alexander II.; the papal power greatly 
 increased. 
 
 1073. Gregory VII., the celebrated Hildebrand. 
 Now began the pretensions to the power 
 of excommunicating and deposing sov- 
 ereigns. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
 IV., Emperor of Germany, to stand three 
 days in the depth of winter, barefooted, 
 at his castle-gate, to implore his pardon, 
 1077. 
 
 1085. [Throne vacant one year.] 
 
 1086. Victor III. 
 
 1088. Urban II. ; in whose pontificate commenced 
 the great crusade. 
 
 1099. Pascal II. 
 
 1118. Gelasius II. ; retired to a monastery. 
 
 1119. Calixtus II. 
 
 1124. Ilonorius II. 
 
 1130. Innocent II. 
 
 1143. Celestine II. ; ruled five months. % 
 
 1144. Lucius II. ; killed by accident in a popular 
 
 commotion. 
 
 1145. Eugenius III. ; canonized. 
 
 1153. Anastasius IV. 
 
 1154. Adrian IV.; Nicholas Brakespeare, the 
 
 only Englishman that ever obtained the 
 tiara. He arrogantly obliged Frederick 
 I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss 
 his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the 
 white palfrey on which he rode. 
 
 1159. Alexander III. ; avenger of the murder of 
 Thomas a Becket; Henry II. of England 
 held the stirrup for him to mount, in 
 token of repentance. 
 
 1181. Lucius III. 
 
 1185. Urban III. 
 
 1187. Gregory VIII.; ruled only two months. 
 
 1187. Clement III. 
 
 1191. Celestine III. ; kicked the Emperor Henry 
 VI.’s crown off his head, while kneeling, 
 to show his prerogative of making and 
 unmaking kings. 
 
 1198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti); excommu- 
 nicated King John of England. 
 
 1216. Honorius III. ; demanded an annual sum 
 for every cathedral and monastery in 
 Christendom, but was refused, 1226; 
 collected the tenths of the whole king- 
 dom of England, 1226. 
 
 1227. Gregory IX. ; caused a new crusade to be 
 undertaken. 
 
 1241. Celestine IV. ; died in eighteen days after 
 his election. 
 
 1241. [The throne vacant one year and seven 
 months.] 
 
 1243. Innocent IV. ; first bestowed the red hat 
 upon cardinals, and made them princes 
 of the church. 
 
 1254. Alexander IV. 
 
 1261. Urban IV. 
 
 1265. Clement IV.; an enlightened Frenchman, 
 previously cardinal and legate to Eng- 
 land; discouraged the crusades. 
 
 1268. [Throne vacant two years and nine months.] 
 
 1271. Gregory X.; elected while he was with 
 Edward I. of England in Palestine. 
 
 1276. Innocent V.; died soon. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 661 
 
 1276. Adrian V.; legate to England in 1254 ; died 
 soon. 
 
 1276. Vicedominus; died the next day. 
 
 1277. John XX. or XXI. ; died in eight months. 
 
 1277. Nicholas III. ; died in 1280. 
 
 1281. Martin IV. 
 
 1285. Honorius IV.; promoted the crusades. 
 
 1288. Nicholas IV.; endeavored in vain to stir 
 up a new crusade. 
 
 1292. [Throne vacant two years, three months.] 
 
 1294. Celestine V. ; resigned from fear. 
 
 1294. Boniface VIII. ; proclaimed that “God had 
 set him over kings and kingdoms,” im- 
 prisoned his predecessor, and laid France 
 and Denmark under interdict. 
 
 1303. Benedict XI. ; a pious and liberal pontiff, 
 
 poisoned by ambitious cardinals shortly 
 after his election. 
 
 1304. [Throne vacant eleven months.] 
 
 1305. Clement V.; Bertrand the Goth; he re- 
 
 moved the papal court from Rome to 
 Avignon. 
 
 1314. [Throne vacant two years and four months.] 
 
 1316. John XXII. 
 
 1334. Benedict XII. [Nicholas V. anti-pope at 
 Rome.] 
 
 1342. Clement VI. ; eulogized by Petrarch as a 
 learned prelate, a generous prince, and 
 an amiable man. 
 
 1352. Innocent VI. 
 
 1362. Urban V.; illustrious as a patron of learning. 
 
 1370. Gregory XI. ; also an eminent protector of 
 learning ; he restored the papal chair to 
 Rome. 
 
 1378. Urban IV. ; so severe and cruel that the 
 cardinals chose Robert of Geneva, under 
 the name of Clement VII., which led to 
 great violence. 
 
 1389. Boniface IX. 
 
 1394. Benedict (called XIII.), anti-pope at Avig- 
 non. 
 
 1404. Innocent VII. ; died in 1406. 
 
 1406. Gregory XII. ; elected during the schism 
 in the east, Benedict XIII. being the 
 other pope. Both were deposed. 
 
 1409. Alexander V.; supposed to have been 
 
 poisoned. 
 
 1410. John XXIII.; elected during the great 
 
 schism; deposed. 
 
 1417. Martin V. (Otho Colonna). 
 
 1431. Eugenius IV. (Gabriel Condolmera); de- 
 posed by the council of Basle, and Ama- 
 deus of Savoy chosen as Felix V. in 1439. 
 
 1447. Nicholas V. 
 
 1455. Calixtus III. 
 
 1458. Pius II. (iEneas Silvius Piccolomini). 
 
 1464. Paul II., a noble Venetian. 
 
 1471. Sixtus IV. 
 
 1484. Innocent VIII., a noble Genoese. 
 
 1492. Alexander VI. ; the infamous Roderic Bor- 
 gia, poisoned at a feast by quaffing a 
 bowl he had prepared for another. 
 
 1503. Pius III. (Francis Todeschini); died in 
 twenty-one days. 
 
 1503. Julius II. (Julian de la Ruvere). 
 
 1513. Leo X. (John de Medici); he was made 
 cardinal while a lad of fourteen: his 
 
662 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 grant of indulgences for crime hurried 
 on the Reformation. 
 
 1522. Adrian VI. 
 
 1523. Clement VII. (Julius de Medici); refused 
 
 to divorce Catharine of Aragon from 
 Henry VIII. of England, and denounced 
 the marriage with Anne Boleyn; he 
 brought pluralities to their cousumma- 
 
 / tion, making his nephew Hippolito, Cardi- 
 
 nal de Medici, commendatory universal, 
 granting to him all the vacant benefices 
 in the world, for six months, and ap- 
 pointing him usufructuary from the first 
 day of his possession. Rome sacked, 
 and Clement imprisoned, 1527 ; moved 
 his residence to Avignon, 1531. 
 
 1534. Paul III. (Alexander Farnese). 
 
 1550. Julius III. 
 
 1555. Marcellus II. ; died soon after election. 
 
 1555. Paul IV. (John Peter Caraffa). When 
 Elizabeth of England sent him an ambas- 
 sador to announce her accession, he an- 
 swered, “ that to the holy see, and not 
 to her, belonged the throne, to which 
 she had no right, as being a bastard;” 
 by which impolitic arrogance the queen 
 was confirmed in her father’s opposition 
 to papal supremacy. 
 
 1559. Pius IV. (Cardinal de Medici). 
 
 1566. Pius V. 
 
 1572. Gregory XIII.; the greatest civilian and 
 canonist of his time, under whom the 
 calendar was reformed. 
 
 1585. Sixtus V. ; an extraordinary man. 
 
 1590. Urban VII. ; died twelve days after election. 
 
 1590. Gregory XIV. (Nicolas Sfondrate). 
 
 1591. Innocent IX. ; died in two months. 
 
 1592. Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 
 
 1605. Leo XI.; died same month. 
 
 1605. Paul V. (Camille Borghese). 
 
 1621. Gregory XV. (Alexander Ludovisio). 
 
 1623. Urban VIII. ; gave the title of ‘eminence’ 
 to cardinals. 
 
 1614. Innocent X. (John Baptist Pamphilus). 
 
 1655. Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi). 
 
 1667. Clement IX. 
 
 1670. Clement X. (John Baptiste Emile Altieri). 
 
 1676. Innocent XI. 
 
 1689. Alexander VIII. 
 
 1691. Innocent XII. (Antonio Pignatelli). 
 
 1700. Clement XI. (John Francis Albani). 
 
 1721. Innocent XIII. (Michael Angelo Conti); 
 the eighth pontiff of his family. 
 
 1724. Benedict XIII. 
 
 1730. Clement XII. 
 
 1740. Benedict XIV. ; the amiable Lambertini. 
 
 1758. Clement XIII. (Charles Rezzonico). 
 
 1769. Clement XIV. ; the illustrious Ganganelli; 
 
 he abolished kissing the toe, and some 
 other ridiculous ceremonies, in 1773, and 
 suppressed the Jesuits. 
 
 1775. Pius VI. (Angelo Braschi); dethroned by 
 Napoleon. 
 
 1800. Pius VII. (Cardinal Chiaramonte); deposed 
 by Napoleon in 1809; restored in 1814. 
 
 1823. Leo XII. (Annibal della Ganga), Sept. 28th. 
 
 1829. Pius VIII. (Francis Xavier Castiglioni), 
 March 31st. 
 
 1831. Gregory XVI. (Mauro Capellari), Feb. 2d; 
 died June 1st, 1846. 
 
 1846. Pius IX. (Mastai Fere tti), elected June 16th. 
 Pius IX. fled in disguise to Gaeta from 
 an insurrection at Rome, Nov. 24th, 
 1848. The provisional government de- 
 clared him divested of all temporal power, 
 Feb. 8th, 1849. French bayonets put 
 down the republic, and the pope returned 
 April 12th, 1850. 
 
 POPE, Alexander, a celebrated English 
 poet, born in London, May 22d, 1688. His 
 application and talent for versification were 
 manifested at an early age, his “Pastorals” 
 being written at the age of sixteen. His 
 translation of Homer’s Iliad, his “Epistle from 
 Eloisa to Abelard,” the “Essay on Man,” and 
 “The Dunciad,” are well known to every 
 English scholar. He died at Twickenham, 
 May 30th, 1744. His temper was soured by 
 his bodily infirmities, for he was sickly and 
 deformed from youth. Yet there is nothing 
 finer in literary biography than his undeviat- 
 ing affection and reverence for his venerable 
 parents. 
 
 PORSENNA, a powerful Etrurian prince, 
 who declared war against the Romans because 
 they refused to restore Tarquin to his throne, 
 and to his royal privileges. He was at first 
 successful, the Romans were defeated, and 
 Porsenna would have entered the gates of 
 Rome, had not Codes stood at the head of a 
 bridge over the Tiber, and supported the fury 
 of the whole Etrurian army, while his com- 
 panions behind were cutting off the commu- 
 nication with the opposite shore. This act of 
 bravery astonished Porsenna; but when he 
 had seen Mutius Scaevola enter his camp with 
 an intention to murder him, and when he had 
 seen him burn his hand without emotion, to 
 convince him of his fortitude and intrepidity, 
 he no longer dared to make head against a 
 people so £>rave and so generous. He made 
 a peace with the Romans, and never after 
 supported the claims of Tarquin. The gen- 
 erosity of Porsenna’s behavior to the captives 
 was admired by the Romans, and to reward 
 his humanity they raised a brazen statue to 
 his honor. 
 
 PORSON, Richard, professor of the Greek 
 language, in the university of Cambridge, 
 had the reputation of being the best Greek 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 663 
 
 scholar in England, yet his learning scarcely 
 produced him a living ; born in 1759, and died 
 in 1808. Porson had wit as well as scholar- 
 ship. He once said that he could pun on any 
 subject; he was defied to do so upon the Latin 
 gerunds, which, however, he immediately did 
 in this admirable couplet: — 
 
 “When Dido found ACneas would not come, 
 
 She mourned in silence, and was di-do-dum.” 
 
 PORTA, John Baptist, a philosopher and 
 mathematician of Naples, invented the camera 
 obscura, born in 1540, died in 1616. 
 
 PORTER, David, a brave commodore in 
 our navy, was born in Boston, February, 1780. 
 During the w'ar of 1812 with Great Britain, 
 he commanded the frigate Essex, and made a 
 brilliant cruise in the Pacific, ending in his 
 capture off Valparaiso by a British frigate and 
 two sloops of war. He afterward served a 
 while under the Mexican flag, and was our 
 minister at Constantinople from 1831 till his 
 death in 1843. 
 
 PORTUGAL, a kingdom of Europe, having 
 an area of 35,189 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 3,500,000. The separation of Brazil 
 deprived Portugal of its most important colo- 
 nial possession. It still retains the Azores, 
 Madeira, and the Cape Verde Isles, Macao in 
 China, Goa, &c., in India, and various estab- 
 lishments on the coast of Africa in Guinea, 
 Angola, Benguela, and Mozambique. 
 
 Portugal is a mountainous country, several 
 bold ranges crossing it from east to west. 
 The principal rivers have the same direction, 
 entering from Spain and flowing to the Atlan- 
 tic ; the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana 
 are the chief. The warm clime of the valleys, 
 and the generally fertile soil, are abused by a 
 slovenly husbandry. The cultivation of the 
 vine is the most important branch of industry. 
 Salt is made in large quantities by evaporation 
 in the marshes on the coast. Wine is the 
 great export : fruits and cork rank next. 
 
 The religion of the state is Roman Catholic, 
 but other creeds are tolerated. The govern- 
 ment is a constitutional monarchy, the parlia- 
 ment consisting of a chamber of peers and a 
 chamber of deputies. Education is at a low 
 ebb. The peasantry in the northern and 
 mountainous districts are active and spirited : 
 in the lower districts they are indolent and 
 dejected, dirty in their persons and dwellings, 
 and ill fed with coarse bread, dried fish, goat- 
 
 milk cheese, chestnuts, garlic, and oil. The 
 educated classes are polished and courteous. 
 The provincial nobility are very numerous, 
 but mostly poor. 
 
 Lisbon (Lisboa), the capital, near the mouth 
 of the Tagus, whose broad estuary gives it a 
 safe and spacious harbor, has 280,000 inhab- 
 itants. The city rises from the river on a 
 succession of hills, like an amphitheatre, 
 massive buildings that were convents in former 
 time crowning the summits. The streets are 
 steep, irregular, and crooked, shadowed by 
 high, old-fashioned houses. Exception must 
 be made for the section rebuilt since the great 
 earthquake, which is regular and handsome. 
 Of that terrible throe of the earth we have 
 already spoken. [See Earthquakes, 1755.] 
 The Moors are said to have called the city 
 Lisboa. It became the capital of the kingdom 
 in 1506. Oporto (O Porto, ‘the port’), the 
 second city of Portugal, lies on both sides of 
 the Douro, about 175 miles north of Lisbon. 
 It contains 80,000 inhabitants. It was in the 
 possession of the French in 1808 and 1809 ; 
 and its commerce suffered much from the ty- 
 rannical regulations of Don Miguel. Its prin- 
 cipal trade is in wines, the red wine of the 
 adjacent districts taking from Oporto the name 
 of ‘ port.’ Abrantes, in the province of Estre- 
 madura, on the right bank of the Tagus, has 
 a population of 5,000. The abruptness of the 
 hills, the strength of the castle, and the state 
 of the river, render it a place of great impor- 
 tance in a military point of view. In 1762 
 the Portuguese defended it against the Span- 
 iards ; and in 1808 it was garrisoned by Junot, 
 one of Napoleon’s generals, who, from the 
 perseverance with which he marched to this 
 place, in spite of many obstacles, and the gal- 
 lantry with which he made himself master of 
 Lisbon with 1,500 grenadiers, was named 
 Duke of Abrantes. When the place was sur- 
 rendered to the English, they strengthened it 
 to such a degree that it was believed to be 
 almost impregnable. 
 
 The Romans knew Portugal by the name 
 of Lusitania. After their day it was success- 
 ively subject to the Suevi, the Goths, and the 
 Moors. About the beginning of the twelfth 
 century, it regained its liberty by the valor of 
 Henry of Lorraine (grandson of Robert, King 
 of France), who possessed it with the title of 
 count. His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having 
 
 POR 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 6GJ 
 
 obtained a decisive victory at Ourique over 
 five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king by 
 the soldiers. On the death of Ferdinand, in 
 1383, the states gave the crown to his natural 
 brother John, surnamed the Bastard, who 
 was equally politic and enterprising, and in 
 whose reign the Portuguese first projected 
 discoveries in the western ocean. In the reign 
 of his great-grandson, John II., who was a 
 prince of profound sagacity and extensive 
 views, the Portuguese made conquests in the 
 interior of Africa, and discovered the Cape of 
 Good Hope. Emmanuel adopted the plan of 
 his predecessors, and sent out a fleet under 
 Vasco de Gama, which, ranging through un- 
 known seas, arrived at the city of Calicut on 
 the coast of Malabar. Others of his vessels 
 discovered Brazil, in 1501. 
 
 These princes had the merit of exciting that 
 spirit of discovery which begot many subse- 
 quent improvements of navigation and com- 
 merce. Their discoveries on the coast of Af- 
 rica led to the voyage of Columbus and the 
 disoovery of America. They also established 
 valuable colonies in Africa and America, and 
 an extensive empire in India. John III., the 
 son of Emmanuel, extended the Indian discov- 
 eries and commerce still further. But the in- 
 troduction of the Inquisition, in 1536, and the 
 admission of the Jesuits, were fatal errors, 
 and aided on the commencing decadence of 
 the realm, already evinced by the maladmin- 
 istration of the colonies. To the Jesuits was 
 intrusted the education of John’s grandson 
 Sebastian, the heir to the throne ; and thus 
 he imbibed the fanaticism which buried him 
 in an early grave. He led an army against 
 the Moors in Africa, where he perished in 
 battle. 
 
 Sebastian, leaving no issue, was succeeded 
 by his uncle, Cardinal Henry, who also dying 
 without children, Philip of Spain obtained 
 the crown, a.d. 1580. In 1604 Portugal ren- 
 dered itself independent of Spain ; and John, 
 Duke of Braganza, a descendant of the old 
 royal line, ascended the throne, by the title of 
 John IV. His son, Alphonso VI., was deposed 
 on account of his cruelties ; and the sceptre 
 was transferred to his brother. Peter II. 
 reigned peaceably thirty years ; and under 
 the mild government of his son, John V., the 
 arts began to flourish. In the reign of Joseph 
 I., in 1755, the city of Lisbon was laid in ruins 
 
 by an earthquake, in which ten thousand per- 
 sons lost their lives. In this reign, too, the 
 Jesuits were banished. He was succeeded by 
 his daughter, Mary Frances Isabella ; who for 
 many years was so infirm in body and mind 
 that the affairs of the kingdom were managed 
 by a regency. In 1807, when in consequence 
 of the Portuguese alliance with England, the 
 French mastered the country, the prince re- 
 gent retired with the queen, his mother, and 
 the rest of the royal family, to the Brazils, in 
 South America. Rio de Janeiro then became 
 the seat of the Portuguese government. Por- 
 tugal was, however, wrested by the English 
 out of the hands of the French in 1808. 
 
 John VI. returned to Portugal in 1821. 
 The people succeeded in substituting a con- 
 stitutional government for the old absolutism. 
 Brazil became an independent empire, John 
 retaining only the imperial title. John died 
 in March, 1826. His son Pedro, after grant- 
 ing a new constitution, very soon abdicated 
 the Portuguese throne in favor of his daugh- 
 ter Dona Maria da Gloria (he remaining king 
 during her minority), on condition of her 
 marrying her uncle Dom Miguel. But a fac- 
 tion secretly favored by Spain, aimed at the 
 overthrow of the constitution. At its head 
 was Dom Miguel, who during the life of his 
 father John VI., had clutched at supreme 
 power. He assumed the royal title, claiming 
 that Pedro had forfeited all right to the 
 crown, as well as to the appointment of a 
 successor, by becoming a Brazilian citizen, 
 and not residing in Portugal. The civil war 
 ended in 1834 with the expulsion of Miguel* 
 
 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 1093. Henry, Count or Earl of Portugal. 
 
 1111. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 
 
 1 1 28. Alfonso, Count of Portugal, alone. 
 
 1139. Alfonso declared king, having obtained a 
 signal victory over a prodigious army 
 of Moors on the plains of Ourique. 
 
 1185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 
 
 1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 
 1223. Sancho II., or the Idle: deposed. 
 
 1248. Alfonso III. 
 
 1279. Denis or Dionysius, styled the Father of 
 his country. 
 
 1325. Alfonso IV. 
 
 1357. Peter the Severe: succeeded by his son. 
 1367. Ferdinand I.: succeeded by his natural 
 brother. 
 
 1384. John I., the Bastard, and the Great: mar* 
 ricd Philippa, daughter of John of 
 Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. 
 
 POR 
 
HISTORY AND 
 
 1433. Edward. 
 
 1438. Alfonso V., the African. 
 
 1481. John II., whose actions procured him the 
 titles of the Great, and the Perfect: 
 succeeded by his cousin. 
 
 1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
 
 1521. John III., son of Emmanuel ; he admitted 
 into his kingdom the religious institu- 
 tion of the Inquisition. 
 
 1557 . Sebastian; slain in the great battle of Al- 
 cazar, in Africa, Aug. 4th, 1578 ; when 
 the crown reverted to his great-uncle. 
 1578. Henry, the Cardinal, son of Emmanuel. 
 1580. Anthony, Prior of Crato, son of Emman- 
 uel : deposed by Philip II. of Spain, 
 who united Portugal to his other do- 
 minions, till 1640. 
 
 1640. John IV., Duke of Braganza : dispos- 
 sessed the Spaniards in a bloodless 
 revolution, and was proclaimed king, 
 Dec. 1st. 
 
 1656. Alfonso VI.: deposed in 1668, and his 
 brother and successor Peter made re- 
 gent; the latter ascended the throne in 
 1683. Peter II.: succeeded by his son. 
 
 1706. John V. : succeeded by his son. 
 
 1750. Joseph. The daughter and successor of 
 this prince married his brother, by dis- 
 pensation from the pope, and they as- 
 cended the throne as 
 
 1777. Maria (Frances Isabella) and Peter III., 
 jointly. 
 
 1786. Maria, alone: this princess afterward falls 
 into a state of melancholy and derange- 
 ment. 
 
 1792. Regency. John, son of the queen, and 
 afterward king, declared regent of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 1816. John VI., previously regent. He had 
 withdrawn in 1807, owing to the French 
 invasion of Portugal, to his Brazilian 
 dominions; but the discontent of his 
 subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
 died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son of John VI. : 
 making his election of the empire of 
 Brazil, abdicated the throne of Portu- 
 gal in favor of his daughter. 
 
 1826. Maria II. (da Gloria), who became queen 
 at seven years of age. 
 
 1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurp- 
 ed the crown, which he retained, amid 
 civil contentions^ until 1 833. 
 
 1833. Maria II. restored: declared in September, 
 1834 (being then fifteen), to be of age, 
 and hence ascended the throne ; died 
 Nov. 15th, 1853 : succeeded by her son. 
 1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), born Sept. 16th, 
 1837. 
 
 1861. Louis I. 
 
 POTEMKIN, Gregory Alexandrovitsch, 
 a Russian prince and field-marshal. He suc- 
 ceeded Orloff as the favorite of Catharine II., 
 and died in 1791, aged fifty- five. 
 
 POTTER, Paul, a celebrated Dutch pain- 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 665 
 
 ter of cattle and landscapes, born in 1625, 
 died in 1654. 
 
 POUSSIN, Nicholas, was born at Andely 
 in Normandy. He studied painting at Paris 
 and Rome, and after various vicissitudes 
 gained great fame and fortune by his art. 
 He excelled in landscapes as well as figures, 
 and an antique simplicity marks his works. 
 He died at Rome, Nov. 19th, 1665. His 
 brother-in-law and pupil, Gaspard Duchet 
 (1613-1675), commonly called Poussin, was 
 also an eminent painter of sombre landscapes. 
 
 POWHATAN, a pow erful Indian chief in 
 Virginia, hostile to the English ; he was the 
 father of Pocahontas, and on her marriage 
 became reconciled to the whites ; he died in 
 1618. 
 
 PRAGA, a towrn of Poland, taken by 
 storm by Suwarrow 7 , Oct. 10th, 1794, when 
 it w r as plundered, set on fire, and the inhab- 
 itants and the troops of the Polish insurgents 
 w 7 ho had taken refuge there, together amount- 
 ing to 30,000, w ere barbarously massacred. 
 
 PRAGUE, the ancient capital of Bohemia ; 
 population, 143,000. In size and beauty it 
 is the third city in Germany, and at a dis- 
 tance its commanding site, its many and lofty 
 steeples, and its fine palaces and public 
 edifices, produce a striking effect.. It has 
 been a memorable spot in warfare. The 
 great battle of Prague was fought May 6th, 
 1757, w 7 hen the Austrians w r ere defeated by 
 Prince Henry of Prussia, their whole camp 
 taken, their illustrious commander General 
 Browne mortally wounded, and the brave 
 Prussian marshal Schwerin killed. After this 
 victory the Prussian king besieged Prague, 
 but was soon compelled to raise the siege. 
 
 PREBLE, Edw 7 ard, a celebrated American 
 naval officer, was born in Falmouth (now 
 Portland), Maine, Aug. 15th, 1761. In 
 1779 he obtained a midshipman’s warrant 
 on board the Protector, a state ship of twen- 
 ty-six guns, which was captured by the 
 English. Preble, how'ever, w’as released at 
 New York, and returned home. When first 
 lieutenant of the Winthrop sloop of war, he 
 displayed great gallantry, in cutting out a 
 hostile brig of war in Penobscot harbor. 
 After performing various services, in 1803, 
 he w\as invested with the command of the 
 Constitution, and being stationed in the 
 Mediterranean, he not only prevented a w T ar 
 
 PRA 
 
666 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 between Morocco and the United States, 
 but bombarded Tripoli, and brought the 
 bashaw to terms. For this service he receiv- 
 ed the thanks of Congress, and an emblemati- 
 cal medal. He died Aug. 25th, 1807, in the 
 forty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 PRESCOTT, William, one of the heroes 
 of the American Revolution, was born at 
 Groton, Mass., in 1726. He was a lieuten- 
 ant in the provincial forces at the taking of 
 Cape Breton in 1758, and greatly distin- 
 guished himself on that occasion. He com- 
 manded in the redoubt at the battle of 
 Bunker Hill, and was the last to leave the 
 intrenchments. He resigned his colonel’s 
 commission in 1777, but was present at the 
 capture of Burgoyne, as a volunteer under 
 Gates. He died Oct. 13th, 1795. 
 
 William II. Prescott, the eminent histo- 
 rian, is his grandson. 
 
 PRESTON-PANS, a Scotch village ten 
 miles east of Edinburgh, memorable for the 
 defeat of the royalists under Sir John Cope, 
 by the troops of the Pretender, Sept. 21st, 
 
 1745. 
 
 PRETENDER. The person known in 
 English history by this name, or as the Chev- 
 alier de St. George, was the son of James II., 
 born in 1688, and acknowledged by Louis 
 XIV. as James III. of England in 1701. 
 He was proclaimed, and his standard set up, 
 at Braemar and Castletown, in Scotland, 
 Sept. 6th, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, 
 in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage 
 the rebellion that the Earl of Mar and his 
 other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26th the 
 same year. This rebellion was soon sup- 
 pressed. The Pretender died at Rome, Dec. 
 30 th, 1765. 
 
 His son, Prince Charles Edward, the 
 Young Pretender, was born in 1720. Ho 
 landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father 
 king, in June, 1745. His arms were victo- 
 rious at Preston Pans and Falkirk, but after 
 the disastrous defeat of Culloden, April 16th, 
 
 1746, he .sought safety in flight, and finally 
 escaped to the continent. He died March 
 3d, 1788. His natural daughter assumed the 
 title of Duchess of Albany; she died in 
 1789. His brother, the Cardinal York, call- 
 ing himself Henry IX. of England, born 
 March, 1725, died at Rome in August, 1807. 
 
 PRICE, Richard, an eminent dissenting 
 
 divine in England, born in Wales, died in 
 1791, aged sixty -eight. 
 
 PRIESTLY, Joseph, a very celebrated dis- 
 senting clergyman, philosopher, and chemist. 
 His religious and political views forced him 
 to leave his native England, and he died in 
 1804 in Pennsylvania, aged seventy-one. He 
 was the discoverer of oxygen, among many 
 important services he rendered for science. 
 
 PRINCETON, Battle of. Gen. Wash' 
 ington, withdrawing at night from his camp 
 at Trenton, where he was threatened with an 
 attack by Cornwallis, fell suddenly upon a 
 corps of the British at Princeton, Jan. 3d, 
 1777. In the brief but brilliant action the 
 British were routed. Gen. Mercer was 
 among the slain of the Americans. 
 
 PRINTING. The honor of the invention 
 of this, the greatest of all the arts, has been 
 claimed by Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Ven- 
 ice, Rome, Basle, and Augsburg; but only 
 the three first are entitled to attention. Lau- 
 renzes John Roster, of Haerlem, is said to 
 have printed, with blocks, a book of images 
 and letters, Speculum Humana Salvationist 
 and compounded an ink more viscous and 
 tenacious than common ink (which blotted), 
 about 1438. The leaves of this book, being 
 printed on one side only, were afterward 
 pasted together. John Faust printed the 
 Tractatus Petri Hispani at Mentz in 1442. 
 John Guttenberg invented cut metal types, 
 and used them in printing the earliest edition 
 of the Bible, which was commenced in 1444, 
 and finished in 1460. Peter Schaeffer cast the 
 first metal types in matrices, and was there- 
 fore the inventor of complete printing, 1452. 
 [See Books.] 
 
 Book of Psalms, printed a.d. 1457. The 
 Durandi Rationale , first work printed with 
 cast metal types, 1459. The types were uni- 
 formly Gothic, or old German (whence our 
 old English, or Black Letter), until 1465. 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first used 
 in the same year. Cicero de OJficiis printed, 
 1466. Roman characters, first used, at 
 Rome, 1468. 
 
 William Caxton, a mercer at London, set 
 up the first press at Westminster, 1471. 
 He printed “Willyam Caxton’s Recuyel of 
 the Hystoryes of Troy, by Raoul le Feure,” 
 1471. His first pieces were, “A Treatise on 
 the Game of Chess” and “Tully’s Offices” 
 PRI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 667 
 
 FAUST TAKING FIRST PROOF FROM MOVEABLE TYPES. 
 
 1474. “ JEsop’s Fables,” printed by Caxton, 
 
 is supposed to be the first book with its 
 leaves numbered. 
 
 Aldus cast the, Greek alphabet, and a 
 Greek book was printed, 1476. He intro- 
 duced the Italic. The Pentateuch, in He- 
 brew, 1482. Homer, in folio, beautifully 
 done at Florence, eclipsing all former printing, 
 by Demetrius, 1488. 
 
 Printing used in Scotland, 1509. The first 
 edition of the whole Bible was, strictly speak- 
 ing, the Complutensian Polyglot of Cardinal 
 Ximenes, 1517. The Liturgy, the first book 
 printed in Ireland, by Humphrey Powell, 
 1550. Printing in Irish characters intro- 
 
 duced by Nicholas Walsh, Chancellor of St. 
 Patrick’s, 1571. The first newspaper printed 
 in England, 1588. First patent granted for 
 printing, 1591. First printing-press im- 
 proved by William Blaeu, at Amsterdam, 
 1601. First printing in America, in New 
 England, when the Freeman’s Oath and an 
 Almanac were printed, 1639. First Bible 
 printed in Ireland was at Belfast, 1704. 
 First types cast in England by Caslon, 1720. 
 Stereotype printing suggested bj r William 
 Ged, of Edinburgh, 1735. The present mode 
 of stereotype invented by Mr. Tilloch, about 
 1779. By others the invention is ascribed to 
 Francis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about the 
 
 PRI 
 
6,68 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 same year ; and still others say that stereo- 
 type printing was in use in Holland, in the 
 last century. The invention is also claimed 
 for Cadwallader Colden, of New York, who 
 sent the details of his plan in 1779 to Dr. 
 Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin commu- 
 nicated the plan to Didot, the famous printer, 
 and Herbau, a German, who had been an 
 assistant to Didot, took it up in opposition to 
 him. 
 
 In the oldest mode of printing, the writ- 
 ing is carved on wooden tables ; they are 
 then covered with ink, the paper is put upon 
 them, and an impression is taken. This 
 ancient method of printing, is still in use 
 in China, Japan, and Thibet. The Chi- 
 nese, even in the reign of the Emperor Wu- 
 Wang, who lived abo-ut 1100 b.c., are said to 
 have been well acquainted with this way of 
 printing; but the Japanese assume the merit 
 of the invention. In Thibet, also, according 
 to the accounts of various travelers, this art 
 has been exercised from time immemorial. 
 Although it had been the custom, for thou- 
 sands of years, to make impressions with seals 
 on wax, which might have easily led to the 
 invention of the art of printing, Guttenberg 
 first made this discovery about three centuries 
 and a half ago ; for it may justly be ques- 
 tioned whether the Europeans had then any 
 knowledge of the art of printing among the 
 Chinese: although it is not to be denied, 
 that before the time of Guttenberg, and even 
 in 1423, the art of cutting images on wood 
 with a few lines of text, was well known. 
 
 Caxton and Wynkyn de Worde were the 
 earliest English printers. The titles of some 
 of their books may not be uninteresting. 
 
 The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated 
 out of the Frenche and emprynted by me 
 William Caxton Fynysshid the last day of 
 Marche the yer of our Lord God a thousand 
 foure hondrea and Ixxiiij. 
 
 TULLY. 
 
 The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me 
 simple persone William Caxton in to Englyshe 
 as the plaijsir solace and reverence of men 
 growyng in to o'd age the xij day of August 
 the yere of our lord M.cccc dxxxj. 
 
 THE POLYCRONYCON. 
 
 The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and 
 Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Boles. Im- 
 printed by William Caxton after having some- 
 what chnunged the rude and olde Englysshe, that 
 is to wete [to witj certayn Words wlitch in these 
 
 Bayes be neither vsyd ne understanden. Ended 
 the second day of Juyll at Westmestre the xxij 
 yere of the Regne of Kynge Edward the fourth, 
 and of the Incarnacion of oure Lord a Thou- 
 sand four Hondred four Score and tweyne 
 [1482]. 
 
 THE CHRONICLES. 
 
 The Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyll- 
 yam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london 
 the v day of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of 
 our lord god m.cccc. lxxx. 
 
 POLYCRONYCON. 
 
 Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of 
 Apryll the tenth yere of the reyne of kinge 
 Harry the seuenth And of the Jncarnacyon of 
 our lord mcccclxxxxv Emprynted by Wynkyn 
 Tkeworde at Westmestre. 
 
 HILL OF PERFECTION. 
 
 The Ilylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance 
 of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of 
 the hous of St. Ann , the order of the charterouse 
 Accomplysshe\d\ and fynysslie\d\ att West- 
 mynster the uiii day of janeuer the yere of our 
 lord Thousande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the 
 xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn 
 de worde. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
 Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthy- 
 nesse of the same Fynysshed and enprynted 
 in Flete strete in the syne of the Sonne by me 
 Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our lord a 
 m.ccccc and ij. mensis May Us [mense Maii]. 
 
 THE FESTIVAL. 
 
 The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holi- 
 dais taken out of the golden legend enprynted 
 at london in Fletestrete at y e syne of y e Sonne 
 by wynkyn de w r orde. In the yere of our lord 
 m.ccccc. viii. And ended the xi daye of May e 
 
 THE LORD’S PRAYER. 
 
 [As printed by Caxton in 1483.] 
 
 Father our that art in heavens , hallowed be thy 
 name: thy kingdome come to us; thy will be 
 done in earth as is in heaven : oure every days 
 bred give ws to day ; and forgive us oure tres- 
 passes , as we forgive them that trespass against 
 us; and lead us not in to temptation , but 
 deliver us from all evil sin, amen. 
 
 Among the early printers, the only points 
 used were the comma, parenthesis, interroga- 
 tion, and full stop. To these succeeded the 
 colon ; afterward the semicolon ; and last the 
 note of admiration. The sentences were full 
 of abbreviations and contractions ; and there 
 were no running titles, numbered leaves, or 
 catch-words. Our punctuation appears to 
 have been introduced with the art of printing. 
 
 PRIOR, Matthew, an English poet and 
 statesman, born 1664, and died in 1721. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 669 
 
 PRUSSIA consists of two great divisions, 
 unconnected with one another. The western 
 and smaller, comprising Westphalia and 
 Rhenish Prussia, lies on both sides of the 
 Rhine, between Belgium and Hanover; the 
 main portion borders upon Russia. The en- 
 tire kingdom has an area of 107,954 square 
 miles, and a population of 17,203,000. The 
 principal rivers are the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, 
 Vistula, and Niemen. The situation of Prus- 
 sia debars her from prominence in maritime 
 commerce, but her transit and inland traffic 
 is extensive. There is, properly speaking, 
 no state religion in Prussia ; that of the royal 
 family, and of a majority of the people, is 
 Calvinism, but men of all denominations are 
 equally admissible to all public employments. 
 In 1817, the three hundredth year of the 
 Reformation, the Calvinists, Lutherans, and 
 other Protestant sects in Prussia, and in some 
 other parts of Germany, united themselves 
 into one religious body, under the name of 
 Evangelical Christians. The system of edu- 
 cation maintained by the state is thorough, 
 extending from primary schools to the great 
 universities of Berlin, Bonn, Greifswald, 
 Halle, Mii ns ter, and Konigsberg. The at- 
 tendance of children at school is enforced by 
 law. All male subjects are bound to military 
 service. The government was until recently 
 an unlimited monarchy. Various struggles 
 for greater freedom have succeeded in obtain- 
 ing from the king a species of constitutional 
 liberty based upon representation. 
 
 Berlin, the capital of the Prussian domin- 
 ions, is situated in the provence of Branden- 
 burg, on the Spree. It is twelve miles in 
 circuit, including six quarters, and four sub- 
 urbs. In 1852 it contained 441,931 inhabit- 
 ants. Berlin Proper was built in 1163, by 
 the Margrave Albert the Bear. Koln or 
 Cologne , on the Spree, was so called from the 
 Icollnen (piles), on which the Vandals had built 
 their huts. Friedrichswerder was founded by 
 the Elector Frederick William the Great. 
 Neu or Dorotheenstadt was built by the same 
 elector and named in honor of his wife. 
 Friedrichsstadt, founded in 1688 by the 
 Elector Frederick III., is the most extensive 
 and handsome division of this vast city. The 
 number of its public establishments of va- 
 rious kinds, makes Berlin very interesting. 
 
 The university of Berlin, founded in 1809, 
 when Prussia was groaning beneath the yoke 
 of the French, is at present one of the first 
 literary institutions of the continent. Berlin 
 has thirty squares and market-places, sixteen 
 gates (that of Brandenburg, modeled on the 
 Propylsea at Athens, but larger, being the 
 most beautiful), forty bridges, &c. On the 
 top of the Mountain of the Cross, before the 
 Halle gate, a monument of iron was erected 
 in 1820 in commemoration of the wars against 
 France. In the Dorothenstadt is the cele- 
 brated street called Unter-den-Linden, 2,744 
 feet long, 174 broad, and shaded. by two 
 double lines of linden-trees. Berlin is one 
 of the finest cities in Europe. Besides its 
 numerous public edifices of elegance, it has 
 many literary, scientific, and charitable insti- 
 tutions. Its manufactures and commerce 
 are also important. 
 
 Dantzic (Danzig), on the Vistula near the 
 Baltic, population 70,000, is one of the 
 strongest fortresses and most flourishing 
 towns in Prussia. It was founded in the 
 tenth century, and formerly belonged to Po- 
 land. In 1709 it was ravaged by the plague, 
 and in 1734 taken by the Russians and Sax- 
 ons. May, 1807, the French captured it 
 after a long siege. It was occupied by a 
 French garrison until Napoleon’s disastrous 
 campaign in Russia, after which it was block- 
 aded, and bravely defended by Gen. Rapp. 
 It surrendered, however, and in 1814 re- 
 verted to Prussia. 
 
 Prussia was anciently inhabited by the Bo- 
 russi, who denominated it Prussia, which has 
 been corrupted to Prussia. They were con- 
 quered by the knights of the Teutonic order ; 
 whom Casimir IV. of Poland compelled to 
 acknowledge themselves his vassals, and to 
 allow Polish Prussia to continue under the 
 protection of Poland. Albert, Margrave of 
 Brandenburg and grand-master of the order, 
 renounced his vows, embraced Protestantism, 
 and had the dukedom of East Prussia given 
 to hinj, by Sigismund I. of Poland, 1525. 
 It was united with Brandenburg in 1594. 
 
 Frederick William, Elector of Branden- 
 burg, surnamed the Great, was freed from 
 paying any homage to the crown of Poland. 
 His son Frederick raised the duchy of Prus- 
 sia to a kingdom, 1701. His son, Frederick 
 
 PRU 
 
670 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 William, was a wise and politic prince, who 
 amassed a prodigious treasure, though he 
 maintained an army of 60,000 men. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son, Frederick 
 IT., one of the first military, political, and 
 literary characters that ever filled a throne, 
 but very despotic in his administration. His 
 reign was pregnant with striking historical 
 events. In 1756, Russia, Austria, and France 
 leagued against him, and he maintained 
 against them the famous seven years’ war. 
 
 He was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick 
 William II., a weak and unwise prince. 
 
 Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by Fred- 
 erick William III., who unhappily revived 
 some obsolete pretensions to Hanover, in 
 1805. Napoleon proposing to restore that 
 electorate to England, in 1806, Frederick took 
 the field ; but being totally defeated at Jena, 
 his kingdom was conquered by Napoleon. 
 Prussia, in conjunction with the other powers 
 of Europe, twice assisted in deposing Napo- 
 leon, and recovered the conquered provinces. 
 
 The revolutionary wave of 1848 rolled 
 through Prussia, but the king, by bowing to 
 the popular will for a time, allayed the tumult. 
 
 As the result of the war with Austria in 
 1866, (see Austria p. 90,) Prussia, that on 
 the 14th of June was the tail of the Pentar- 
 chy, had, on the 4th of July, by a sudden 
 and brilliant stride, leaped to a commanding 
 place among European nations. Her cam- 
 paign was a swift and splendid success. This 
 was achieved by the statesmanship of Count 
 Bismarck, premier of William I, and by the 
 aid of a gallant soldiery. Since 1866 Prus- 
 sia has been enlarged by the Duchy of 
 Schleswig-Holstein and by Lauenburg; by 
 the electorate of Cassel, and by the free city 
 of Frankfort. A small part of the northern 
 portion of Bavaria has also been added. 
 
 PRUSSIA. See Appendix, p. 000. 
 
 ELECTORS AND DUKES. 
 
 1616. John Sigismond. 
 
 1619. George William. 
 
 1640. Frederick William, his son, generally 
 styled the great elector. 
 
 1688. Frederick, his son ; crowned king, Jan. 
 18th, 1701. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1701. Frederick I. 
 
 1713. Frederick William I., his son. 
 
 1740. Frederick the Great, his son. 
 
 1786. Frederick William £ II., nephew of the 
 great Frederick. 
 
 1797. Frederick William III. 
 
 1840. Frederick William IV., his son. 
 
 1861. William I., his brother. 
 
 PAYNNE, William, an eminent Puritan 
 lawyer and a writer in the reign of Charles I., 
 born in 1600; tried by the star chamber, 
 1633 ; stood in the pillory, and was heavily 
 fined, May, 1634 ; again, 1637 ; took his seat 
 in the long parliament, Nov. 28th, 1640 ; 
 died Oct. 24th, 1669. 
 
 PTOLEMY I., surnamed Soter, was the 
 natural son of Philip of Macedon by Arsi- 
 noe. When Alexander invaded Asia, the son 
 of Arsinoe attended him as one of his gener- 
 als. During the expedition, he behaved with 
 uncommon valor, and killed one of the In 
 dian monarchs in single combat. After the 
 conqueror’s death, in the general division of 
 the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy obtained, 
 as his share, the government of Egypt, with 
 Libya and part of the neighboring territo- 
 ries of Arabia. He made himself master of 
 Coelosyria, Phoenicia, and the neighboring 
 coast of Syria; and when he had reduced 
 Jerusalem, he carried about 100,000 prison- 
 ers to Egypt, to people the extensive city of 
 Alexandria, which became the capital of his 
 dominions. He made war with success 
 against Demetrius and Antigonus, who dis- 
 puted his right to the provinces of Syria. 
 The bay of Alexandria being dangerous of 
 access, he built a tower to conduct the sailors 
 in the obscurity of the night; and that his 
 subjects might be acquainted with literature, 
 he laid the foundation of a library, which, 
 under the succeeding reigns, became the most 
 celebrated in the world. He also established 
 in the capital of his dominions, a society 
 called Museum , , of which the members, main- 
 tained at the public expense, were employed 
 in philosophical researches, and in the ad- 
 vancement of science and the liberal arts. 
 Ptolemy died in the eighty-fourth year of 
 his age, after a reign of thirty-nine years, 
 about b.c. 284. 
 
 PTOLEMY II., the second son of Ptolemy 
 1., succeeded his father on the Egyptian 
 throne, and was called Philadelphus by 
 antiphrasis, because he killed two of his 
 
 PTO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 671 
 
 brothers. While he strengthened himself 
 by alliances with foreign powers, the inter- 
 nal peace of his kingdom was disturbed by 
 the revolt of Magas, his brother, king of 
 Cyrene. The sedition, however, was stopped, 
 though kindled by Antiochus, king of Syria ; 
 and the death of the rebellious prince re-es- 
 tablished peace for some time in the family 
 of Philadelphus. Philadelphus died in the 
 sixty -fourth year of his age, b.c. 246. Dur- 
 ing the whole of his reign, Philadelphus was 
 employed in exciting industry, and in encour- 
 aging the liberal arts and useful knowledge 
 among his subjects. The inhabitants of the 
 adjacent countries were allured by promises 
 and presents, to increase the number of the 
 Egyptian subjects ; and Ptolemy could boast 
 of reigning over 33,339 well-peopled cities. 
 He gave every possible encouragement to 
 commerce ; and by keeping two powerful 
 fleets, one in the Mediterranean, and the 
 other in the Red Sea, he made Egypt the 
 mart of the world. His army consisted of 
 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, besides 300 
 elephants, and 2,000 armed chariots. His 
 palace was the asylum of learned men, whom 
 he admired and patronized. He increased 
 the library w r hich’his father had founded, 
 and showed his taste for learning and his 
 wish to encourage genius. This celebrated 
 library, at his death, contained 200,000 vol- 
 umes of the best and choicest books ; and it 
 was afterward increased to 700,000. Part of 
 it was burnt by the flames of Caesar’s fleet, 
 when he set it on fire to save himself ; a cir- 
 cumstance, however, not mentioned by the 
 general ; the remainder was again magnifi- 
 cently repaired by Cleopatra, who added to 
 the Egyptian library that of the kings of 
 Pergamus. It is said that the Old Testament 
 was translated into Greek during this reign ; 
 a translation which has been called the Sep- 
 tuagint, because translated by the labors of 
 seventy different persons. 
 
 PTOLEMY III., surnamed Euergetes, suc- 
 ceeded his father Philadelphus on the Egyp- 
 tian throne. He early engaged in a war 
 against Antiochus Theus, for his unkindness 
 to Berenice, the Egyptian king’s sister, whom 
 he had married with the consent of Philadel- 
 phus. With the most rapid success he con- 
 quered Syria and Cilicia, and advanced as far 
 as the Tigris ; but a sedition at home stopped 
 
 his progress, and he returned to Egypt loaded 
 with the spoils of conquered nations. The 
 last years of Ptolemy’s reign were passed in 
 peace, if we except the refusal of the Jews to 
 pay the tribute of twenty silver talents, which 
 their ancestors had always paid to the Egyp- 
 tian monarchs. Euergetes (as he was called 
 by the Egyptians) died b.c. 221, after a reign 
 of twenty -five years. Like his two illustrious 
 predecessors, he was the patron of learning, 
 and, indeed, he is the last of the Lagides w T ho 
 gained popularity among his subjects by clem- 
 ency, moderation, and humanity, and w T ho 
 commanded respect even from his enemies, by 
 valor, prudence, and reputation. 
 
 PTOLEMY IV. succeeded his father Euer- 
 getes, and received the surname of Philopator 
 by antiphrasis; because, according to some 
 historians, he destroyed his father by poison. 
 He began his reign with acts ol the greatest 
 cruelty and debauchery. In the midst of his 
 pleasures, Philopator was called to war against 
 Antiochus, king of Sj r ria; at the head of a 
 powerful army, he soon invaded his enemy’s 
 territories, and might have added the kingdom 
 of Syria to Egypt, if he had made a prudent 
 use of the victories which attended his arms. 
 In the latter part of his reign, the Romans, 
 whom a dangerous war with Carthage had 
 weakened, but at the same time roused to su. 
 perior activity, renewed, for political reasons, 
 the treaty of alliance which had been made 
 with the Egyptian monarchs. Philopator at 
 last, weakened and enervated by intemperance 
 and continual debauchery, died in the thirty- 
 seventh year of his age, after a reign of seven- 
 teen years, b.c. 204. 
 
 PTOLEMY V. was the son of Philopator, 
 whom he succeeded as king of Egypt, though 
 only in the fourth year of his age. The Ro- 
 mans renewed their alliance with him after 
 their victories over Hannibal, and the conclu- 
 sion of the second Punic war. When Ptolemy 
 had reached his fourteenth } 7 ear, according to 
 the laws and customs of Egypt, the years of 
 his minority expired. He received the sur- 
 name of Epiphanes, or Illustrious, and w T as 
 crowned at Alexandria, with the greatest so- 
 lemnity. Young Ptolemy was no sooner de- 
 livered from the shackles of his guardian, than 
 he betrayed the same vices which had charac- 
 terized his father. His cruelties raised sedi- 
 tions among his subjects; but these were 
 
 PTO 
 
672 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 twice quelled b} T tlie prudence and the mod- 
 eration of Polycrates, the most faithful of his 
 corrupt ministers. In the midst of his ex- 
 travagance, Epiphanes did not forget his alli- 
 ance with the Romans ; above all others, he 
 showed himself eager to cultivate friendship 
 with a nation from whom he could derive so 
 many advantages; and during their war 
 against Antiochus, he offered to assist them 
 with money against a monarch whose daugh- 
 ter Cleopatra he had married, but whom he 
 hated on account of the seditions he raised in 
 the very heart of Egypt. After a reign of 
 twenty-four years, b.c. 180, Ptolemy was 
 poisoned by his ministers, whom he had 
 threatened to rob of their possessions, to carry 
 on a war against Seleucus, king of Syria. 
 
 PTOLEMY VI., the son of Epiphanes, re- 
 ceived the surname of Philometor, on account 
 of his hatred against his mother Cleopatra. 
 He made war against Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 king of Syria, to recover the provinces of Pal- 
 estine and Coelosyria, and after several suc- 
 cesses, he fell into the hands of his enemy, 
 who detained him in confinement. During 
 the captivity of Philometor, the Egyptians 
 raised to the throne his younger brother, 
 Ptolemy Physcon ; but he was no sooner es- 
 tablished in his power, than Antiochus turned 
 his arms against Egypt, drove out the usurper, 
 and restored Philometor to all his rights and 
 privileges as king of Egypt. This' artful be- 
 havior of Antiochus was soon comprehended 
 by Philometor ; and when he saw that Pelu- 
 sium, the key of Egypt, had remained in the 
 hands of his Syrian aily, he recalled his 
 brother Physcon, made him partner on the 
 throne, and concerted with him how to repel 
 their common enemy. This union of interest 
 in the two royal brothers incensed Antiochus ; 
 he entered Egypt with a large army, but the 
 Romans checked his progress, and obliged him 
 to retire. No sooner were they delivered from 
 tire impending war, than Philometor and 
 Physcon, -whom the fear of danger had united, 
 began with mutual jealousy to oppose each 
 other’s views. Physcon was at last banished 
 by the superior power of his brother ; and as 
 he could find no support in Egj^pt, he imme- 
 diately repaired to Rome. To excite more 
 effectually the compassion of the Romans, and 
 to gain their assistance, he appeared in the 
 meanest dress, and took his residence in the 
 
 most obscure corner of the city. He received 
 an audience from the senate ; and the Romans 
 settled the dispute between the two royal 
 brothers, by making them independent of one 
 another, and giving the government of Libya 
 and Cyrene to Physcon, and confirming Phi- 
 lometor in the possession of Egypt and the 
 island of C}^prus. The death of Philometor, 
 b.c. 145, left Physcon master of Egypt and 
 all the dependent provinces. 
 
 PTOLEMY VII., surnamed Physcon, as- 
 cended the throne of Egypt after the death of 
 his brother Philometor ; and as he had reigned 
 for some time conjointly with him, his succes- 
 sion was approved, though Cleopatra, the wife, 
 and Ptotemy Eupator, the young son, of the 
 deceased monarch, laid claim to the crown. 
 Physcon wedded the one and slew the other ; 
 
 : Cleopatra was also the sister of Philometor 
 and Physcon. He ordered himself to be called 
 Euergetes , but the Alexandrians refused to do 
 it, and stigmatized him with the appellation 
 of Kakergetes , or evil-doer, a surname which 
 he deserved by his tyranny and oppression. 
 A series of barbarities rendered him odious ; 
 but as no one attempted to rid Egypt of her 
 tyranny, the Alexandrians abandoned their 
 habitations, and fled from a place which con- 
 tinually streamed with the blood of their mas- 
 sacred fellow-citizens. Physcon endeavored 
 to repeople the city which his cruelty had laid 
 desolate ; but the fear of sharing the fate of 
 the former inhabitants, prevailed more than 
 the promise of riches, rights, and immunities. 
 He died at Alexandria in the sixty-seventh 
 year of his age, after a reign of twenty -nine 
 years, about b.c. 116. 
 
 PTOLEMY VIII., surnamed Lathyrus, from 
 an excrescence, like a pea, on the nose, suc- 
 ceeded his father Physcon as king of Egypt. 
 He had no sooner ascended the throne, than 
 his mother Cleopatra, who reigned conjointly 
 with him, expelled him, and placed the crown 
 on the head of his brother, Ptolemy Alexan- 
 der, her favorite son. Lathyrus, after he had 
 exercised the greatest cruelty upon the Jews, 
 by his conquest of Judea, and made vain at- 
 tempts to recover the kingdom of Egypt, re- 
 tired to Cyprus till the death of his brother 
 Alexander restored him to his native domin- 
 ions. In the latter part of his reign, Lathyrus 
 was called upon to assist the Romans with a 
 navy for the conquest of Athens ; but Lucal- 
 
 PTO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 673 
 
 lus, who had been sent to obtain the wanted 
 supply, though received with kingly honors, 
 was dismissed with evasive and unsatisfactory 
 answers, and the monarch refused to part with 
 troops which he deemed necessary to preserve 
 the peace of his kingdom. Lathyrus died b.c. 
 81, after a reign of thirty-six years since the 
 death of his father Physcon ; eleven of which 
 he had passed with his mother Cleopatra on 
 the Egyptian throne, eighteen in Cyprus, and 
 seven after his mothers death. He left the 
 crown to his daughter Berenice, called also 
 Cleopatra. 
 
 PTOLEMY IX., who was surnamed Alex- 
 ander, usurped the kingdom a short time dur- 
 ing the reign of his brother Lathyrus, and 
 was dethroned, after murdering his mother 
 Cleopatra, b.c. 88. 
 
 PTOLEMY X., son of the preceding and 
 also surnamed xYlexander, succeeded Ptolemy 
 VIII. under the protection of the Romans in 
 the time of Sylla. He wedded his cousin Ber- 
 enice Cleopatra, and had her assassinated, for 
 which he was himself massacred, after a reign 
 of nineteen days. 
 
 PTOLEMY XI. After the above tragedy 
 the only scion of the race of Ptolemy w r as an 
 illegitimate son of Lathyrus. He was not 
 acknowledged king till b.c. 59. He received 
 the surname of Auletes, because he played 
 skillfully on the flute. His rise showed great 
 marks of prudence and circumspection ; and 
 as his predecessor,' by his will, had left the 
 kingdom of Egypt to the Romans, Auletes 
 knew that he could not be firmly established 
 on his throne, without the approbation of the 
 Roman senate. When he had suffered the 
 Romans quietly to take possession of Cyprus, 
 the Egyptians revolted, and Auletes was 
 obliged to fly from his kingdom, and seek 
 protection among the most powerful of his 
 allies. The senators of Rome decreed to re- 
 establish Auletes on his throne. He was no 
 sooner restored to power, than he sacrificed 
 to his ambition his daughter Berenice, and 
 behaved with the greatest ingratitude and per- 
 fidy to Rabirius, a Roman who had supplied 
 him with money when expelled from his king- 
 dom. Auletes died four years after his resto- 
 ration, about b.c. 51. 
 
 PTOLEMY XII., surnamed Dionysius, or 
 Bacchus, ascended the throne of Egypt con- 
 jointly with his sister Cleopatra, whom he 
 
 43 PI 
 
 had married, according to the directions of 
 his father. He was in the thirteenth year of 
 his age, when Pompey, who had aided his 
 father Auletes to the throne, came to the 
 shores of Egypt, after the fatal battle of Phar- 
 salia, and claimed his protection. He refused 
 to grant the required assistance ; and by the 
 advice of his ministers, he basely murdered 
 Pompey, after he had brought him to shore 
 under the mask of friendship and cordiality. 
 To obtain the favor of the conqueror of Phar- 
 salia, Ptolemy cut off the head of Pompey ; 
 but Csesar turned with indignation from such 
 perfidy, and when he arrived at Alexandria, 
 he found the Egyptian king as faithless to his 
 cause as to that of his fallen enemy. Caesar 
 sat as judge to hear the various claims of the 
 brother and sister to the throne ; to satisfy 
 the people, he ordered the will of Auletes to 
 be read, and confirmed Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
 in the possession of Egypt, and appointed the 
 two younger children masters of the island of 
 Cyprus. This fair and candid decision might 
 have left no room for dissatisfaction ; but 
 Ptolemy refused to acknowledge Caesar as a 
 judge or a mediator. The Roman enforced 
 his authority by arms, and three victories 
 were obtained over the Egyptian forces. 
 Ptolemy, who had been for some time a pris- 
 oner in the hands of Caesar, now headed his 
 armies ; but a defeat was fatal, and as he at- 
 tempted to save his life by flight, he was 
 drowned in the Nile, about b.c. 46, and three 
 years and eight months after the death of 
 Auletes. [, See Cleopatra.] 
 
 PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a celebrated civil- 
 ian, a native of Saxony, was for a time in the 
 diplomatic service of Sweden. He died at 
 Berlin in 1674, aged sixty-three. 
 
 PULASKI, Count Casimir, a noble-minded 
 Pole, who having been banished from his 
 native land, entered the service of the United 
 States, was made a brigadier, and was mor- 
 tally wounded in the attack on Savannah, 
 Oct 9th, 1779. 
 
 Pulaski was as chivalrous as a baron of ro- 
 mance. He landed upon our shores an exile, 
 and threw the energies of his character into 
 our cause — the cause of freedom and man. 
 He preferred the wilds of America to the re- 
 finements of European courts, to most of 
 which he would have been welcome. With 
 the enthusiasm of a crusader, he drew his 
 
674 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 sword in our cause. Military glory and love 
 of freedom were the strong passions of his 
 soul. His ancestors were soldiers ; and many 
 of them fell, foremost in the fight, while the 
 glow of early manhood was upon them, and 
 slept in the bed of honor. He felt and de- 
 clared, that to be alive with a head white with 
 the snows of age, was a stain on his family 
 name ; and he feared, in the wild and romantic 
 valor of his soul, that a winding-sheet unstained 
 with blood would be disgraceful to him. If 
 Pulaski saw not the close of the contest, he 
 died as he wished, in the fury of the fight, 
 and rests in his grave in a warrior’s shroud. 
 No solemn dirge, no peaceful requiem, soothed 
 the hero’s shade ; the hasty funeral rites of 
 the battle-field were his. Such honors only 
 were suited to the genius of the dead. 
 
 PULTOWA, a fortified jtown of Russia, 450 
 miles south-west of Moscow, with 16,000 in- 
 habitants, before which Peter the Great de- 
 feated Charles XII. of Sweden, July 8th, 1709. 
 Charles, who had been wounded in a former 
 engagement, was much indisposed. The litter 
 in which he caused himself to be carried was 
 twice overturned, and the second time broken 
 by the enemy’s cannon. After an obstinate 
 and bloody engagement, the Swedish army 
 was entirely routed and dispersed; 9,000 of 
 the vanquished were left dead on the field of 
 battle, and a great number surrendered them- 
 selves prisoners of war. Charles, with 300 
 of his guards, escaped with difficulty to Ben- 
 der, a Turkish town in Moldavia. 
 
 PULTENEY, William, Earl of Bath, was 
 born of an ancient family, in 1682. After 
 traveling through Europe, he was elected into 
 parliament, and became distinguished as a 
 zealous whig. On the accession of George I. 
 he was appointed a privy-councilor and secre- 
 tary at war, being then the friend of Sir Rob- 
 ert Walpole ; but afterward a difference arose 
 between them, and Pulteney became the leader 
 of opposition. He also joined Bolingbroke in 
 conducting a paper called The Craftsman , the 
 object of which was to annoy the minister. 
 This produced a duel between Pulteney and 
 Lord Hervey ; and the king was so much dis- 
 pleased with the conduct of the former, that 
 he struck his name out of the list of privy- 
 councilors, and also from the commission of 
 the peace. On the resignation of Walpole, in 
 1741, Pulteney was created Earl of Bath ; but 
 
 from that time his popularity ceased. He died 
 June 8th, 1764. 
 
 PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was 
 undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, 
 b.c. 264. Sicily, an island of the highest con- 
 sequence to the Carthaginians as a commercial 
 nation, was the seat of the first dissensions. 
 The Mamertini, a body of Italian mercenaries, 
 were appointed by the king of Syracuse to 
 guard the town of Messana ; but this tumult- 
 uous tribe, instead of protecting the citizens, 
 basely massacred them, and seized their pos- 
 sessions. This act of cruelty raised the indig- 
 nation of all the Sicilians against the Mamer- 
 tini ; Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had em- 
 ployed them, prepared to punish their perfidy ; 
 and the Mamertini, besieged in Messana, with- 
 out friends or resources, resolved to throw 
 themselves for protection into the hands of 
 the first power that could relieve them. They 
 were, however, divided in their sentiments ; 
 while some implored the assistance of Car- 
 thage, others called upon the Romans for pro- 
 tection. Without hesitation or delay, the 
 Carthaginians entered Messana, and the Ro- 
 mans also hastened to give to the Mamertini 
 that aid which had been claimed from them 
 with as much eagerness as from the Cartha- 
 ginians. At the approach of the Roman 
 troops, the Mamertini, who had implored their 
 assistance, took up arms, and forced the Car- 
 thaginians to Evacuate Messana. 
 
 From a private quarrel the war became 
 general. The Romans obtained a victory in 
 Sicily, but as their enemies were masters at 
 sea, the advantages which they gained were 
 small and inconsiderable. Duilius at last ob- 
 tained a naval victory, and he was the first 
 Roman who ever received a triumph after a 
 battle by sea. The losses which they sus- 
 tained induced the Carthaginians to sue for 
 peace; the Romans, whom an unsuccessful 
 descent upon Africa, under Regulus, and other 
 defeats, had rendered diffident, listened to the 
 proposal, and the first Punic war was con- 
 cluded b.c. 241, on the following terms. The 
 Carthaginians pledged themselves to pay to 
 the Romans, within ten years, the sum of 
 3,200 Euboic talents; they promised to re- 
 lease all the Roman captives without ransom, 
 to evacuate Sicily 7 ", and the other islands of 
 the Mediterranean, and not to molest Hiero, 
 king of Syracuse, or his allies. 
 
 PUN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 675 
 
 The Romans, to stop the progress of the 
 Carthaginians toward Italy, made stipulations 
 with them by which they were not permitted 
 to cross the Iberus, or to molest the cities of 
 their allies the Saguntines. When Hannibal 
 succeeded to the command of the Carthaginian 
 armies in Spain, he spurned the boundaries 
 which the jealousy of Rome had set to his 
 arms, and immediately formed the siege of 
 Saguntum. The Romans were apprised of 
 the hostilities which had been begun against 
 their allies, but Saguntum was in the hands 
 of the active enemy before they had taken 
 any steps to oppose him. 
 
 Without delay, b.c. 218, Hannibal marched 
 an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse, 
 toward Italy, resolved to carry on the war to 
 the gates of Rome. The battles of Trebia, of 
 Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, threw 
 Rome into the greatest apprehensions, but the 
 prudence and dilatory measures of the dictator 
 Fabius soon taught them to hope for better 
 times.. Yet the conduct of Fabius was uni- 
 versally censured as cowardice, and the two 
 consuls who succeeded him in the command, 
 pursuing a different plan of operations, 
 brought on a decisive action at Cannae, b.c. 
 21 6, in which 45,000 Romans were left on the 
 field of battle. This bloody victory caused 
 so much consternation at Ronje, that some 
 authors have declared that if Hannibal had 
 immediately marched from the plains of Can- 
 nae to the city, he would have met with no 
 resistance, but could have terminated a long 
 and dangerous war with glory to himself, and 
 the most inestimable advantages to his coun- 
 try. The news of this victory was carried to 
 Carthage by Mago, and the Carthaginians re- 
 fused to believe it, till three bushels of golden 
 rings were spread before them, which had 
 been taken from the Roman knights in the 
 field of battle. 
 
 Affairs now took a different turn, and 
 Marcellus, who had the command of the Ro- 
 man legions in Italy, taught his countrymen 
 that Hannibal was not invincible in the field. 
 In different parts of the world the Romans 
 were making very rapid .conquests. Hanni- 
 bal no longer appeared formidable in Italy ; 
 if he conquered towns in Campania or Magna 
 Grsecia, he remained master of them only 
 while his army hovered in the neighborhood ; 
 and if he marched toward Rome, the alarm 
 
 he occasioned was but momentary ; the Ro- 
 mans were prepared to oppose him, and his 
 retreat was therefore the more dishonorable. 
 The conquests of young Scipio in Spain raised 
 the expectations of the Romans, and he had 
 no sooner returned to Rome than he proposed 
 to remove Hannibal from the capital of Italy 
 by carrying the war to the gates of Carthage. 
 This was a bold and hazardous enterprise, but 
 though Fabius opposed it, it was universally 
 approved by the Roman senate, and young 
 Scipio was empowered to sail to Africa. 
 
 The conquests of the young Roman were as 
 rapid in Africa as they had been in Spain, and 
 the Carthaginians, apprehensive for the fate 
 of their capital, recalled Hannibal from Italy. 
 Hannibal received their orders with indigna- 
 tion, and with tears in his eyes he left Italy, 
 where for sixteen years he had known no su- 
 perior in the field of battle. At his arrival in 
 Africa, the Carthaginian general soon collect- 
 ed a large army, and met his exulting adver- 
 sary in the plains of Zama. The battle was 
 long and bloody ; one nation fought for glory, 
 and the other for the dearer sake of liberty ; 
 the Romans obtained the victory, and Hanni- 
 bal, who had sworn to the gods eternal hatred 
 of Rome, fled from Carthage, after he had ad- 
 vised his countrymen to accept the terms of 
 the conqueror. This battle of Zama w r as 
 decisive ; the Carthaginians, sued for peace, 
 which the haughty conquerors granted with 
 difficulty, 201 b.c. 
 
 During the fifty years which followed the 
 conclusion of the second Punic war, the Car- 
 thaginians were employed in repairing their 
 losses by unwearied application and indus- 
 try ; but they found still in the Romans a 
 jealous rival and a haughty conqueror, and 
 in Masinissa, the Numidian ally of Rome, 
 an intriguing and ambitious monarch. The 
 king of Numidia made himself master of one 
 of their provinces ; but as they were unable to 
 make war without the consent of Rome, the 
 Carthaginians sought relief by embassies, and 
 made continual complaints in the Roman 
 senate of the tj^ranny and oppression of Mas- 
 inissa. Commissioners were appointed to 
 examine the cause of their complaints ; but 
 as Masinissa was the ally of Rome, the in- 
 terest of the Carthaginians was neglected, 
 and whatever seemed to depress their repub- 
 lic was agreeable to the Romans. Cato, who 
 
 PUN 
 
676 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was in the number of the commissioners, 
 examined the capital of Africa with a jealous 
 eye; he saw it with concern, rising as it 
 were from its ruins ; and when he returned 
 to Rome, he declared in full senate, that the 
 peace of Italy would hever be established 
 while Carthage was in being. Henceforth he 
 concluded all his speeches in the senate with 
 these words, “ I also think that Carthage 
 should be destroyed.” Most of the senators 
 agreed with him, and waited only for a pre- 
 text to make war. A few were for moderate 
 measures. 
 
 But while the senate were debating about 
 the existence of Carthage, and while they 
 considered it a dependent power, and not as 
 an ally, the wrongs of Africa were without 
 redress, and Masinissa continued his depre- 
 dations. Upon this the Carthaginians re- 
 solved to do their cause that justice which 
 the Romans had denied them ; they entered 
 the field against the Numidians, but they 
 were defeated in a bloody battle by Masinissa, 
 who was then ninety years old. In this bold 
 measure they had broken the peace ; and as 
 their late defeat had rendered them desperate, 
 they hastened with all possible speed to the 
 capital of Italy to justify their proceedings, 
 and to implore the forgiveness of the Roman 
 senate. The news of Masinissa’s victory had 
 already reached Italy, and immediate!}?- forces 
 were sent to Sicily, and thence ordered to 
 pass into Africa. The ambassadors of Car- 
 thage received evasive and unsatisfactory 
 answers from the senate : and when they saw 
 the Romans landed at Utica, they resolved 
 to purchase peace by the most submissive 
 terms which even the most abject slaves could 
 offer. 
 
 The Romans acted with the deepest- policy : 
 no declaration of war had been made, though 
 hostilities appeared inevitable ; and in answer 
 to the submissive offers of Carthage the con- 
 suls replied, that to prevent every cause of 
 quarrel, the Carthaginians must deliver into 
 their hands three hundred hostages, all chil- 
 dren of senators, and of the most noble and 
 respectable families. The demand was great 
 and alarming ; yet it was no sooner granted, 
 than the Romans made another demand, and 
 the Carthaginians were told that peace could 
 not continue, if they refused to deliver up all 
 their ships, their arms, engines of war, with 
 
 all their naval and military stores. The Car- 
 thaginians complied; 40,000 suits of armor, 
 20,000 large engines of war, with a plentiful 
 store of ammunition and missile weapons, 
 were surrendered. After this duplicity had 
 succeeded, the Romans laid open the final 
 resolutions of the senate, and the Carthagin- 
 ians were then told, that, to avoid hostilities, 
 they must leave their ancient habitations, 
 retire into the inland parts of Africa, and 
 found another city, at the distance of not less 
 than ten miles from the sea. This was heard 
 with horror and indignation ; the Romans 
 were fixed and inexorable, and Carthage was 
 filled with tears and lamentations. 
 
 But the spirit of liberty and independence 
 was not yet extinguished in the capital of 
 Africa, and the Carthaginians determined to 
 sacrifice their lives for the protection of their 
 gods, the tombs of their forefathers, and the 
 place which had given them birth. Before 
 the Roman army approached the city, prepa- 
 rations to support a siege were made, and the 
 ramparts of Carthage were covered with 
 stones, to compensate for the weapons and 
 instruments of war which they had igno- 
 rantly betrayed to the duplicity of their 
 enemies. The town was blocked up by the 
 Romans, and a regular siege begun. Two 
 years w T ere spent in useless operations, and 
 Carthage seemed still able to rise from its 
 ruins, to dispute for the empire of the world ; 
 when Scipio, the descendant of the great 
 Scipio who finished the second Punic war, 
 was sent to conduct the siege. Despair and 
 famine now raged in the city, and Scipio 
 gained access to the city walls wdiere the bat- 
 tlements were low and unguarded. His 
 entrance into the streets was disputed with 
 uncommon fury ; the houses, as he advanced, 
 were set on fire, to stop his progress ; but 
 when a body of 50,000 persons, of either sex, 
 had claimed quarter, the rest of the inhabit- 
 ants were disheartened, and such as disdained 
 to be prisoners of war, perished in the flames, 
 which gradually destroyed their habitations, 
 146 b.c., after a continuation of hostilities for 
 three years. During seventeen days Car- 
 thage was in flames ; the soldiers were per- 
 mitted to redeem from the fire whatever 
 plunder they could. The news of this vic- 
 tory caused the greatest rejoicings at Rome ; 
 and immediately commissioners were ap- 
 
 PUN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 677 
 
 pointed by the Roman senate, not only to 
 raze the walls of Carthage, but even to de- 
 molish and burn the very materials with 
 which they were made. In a few days, that 
 city which had been once the seat of com- 
 merce, the model of magnificence, the common 
 store of the wealth of nations, and one of the 
 most powerful states of the world, left behind 
 no traces of its splendor, of its power, or even 
 of its existence. [ See Carthage.] 
 
 PURCELL, Henry, an eminent English 
 musician, was born in Westminster, 1658. 
 He died Nov. 21st, 1695. His epitaph in 
 Westminster Abbey (written by Dry den) 
 tells that “Here lies Henry Purcell, Esq., 
 who left this life, and is gone to that blessed 
 place where only his own harmony can be 
 exceeded.” 
 
 PUTNAM, Israel, a distinguished Amer- 
 ican officer, who served both in the French 
 and English wars, was born at Salem, Mass., 
 Jan. 7th, 1718. In 1739 he settled at Pom- 
 fret, Conn., where he had purchased a tract 
 of land. Here he descended into a dark 
 cavern, and killed a wolf which had com- 
 mitted great depredations upon the flocks of 
 the farmers. He entered on his first cam- 
 paign in the war of 1755, being then appointed 
 to command a company, and he received a 
 major’s commission in 1757. His services 
 prior to the breaking out of the Revolution- 
 ary war were various and valuable. The 
 news of the battle of Lexington found Put- 
 nam at the plough. He unyoked his oxen, 
 and set off at once for the scene of action. 
 Having levied a regiment, he was appointed 
 major-general, and, on the . retreat of the 
 Americans from Bunker Hill, in which he 
 commanded, he checked the pursuing forces. 
 He was indefatigable and ardent in the 
 discharge of his duty, and his value was 
 properly appreciated, as ' we see from the 
 important duties which were intrusted to him. 
 
 After the battle of. Monmouth, he was 
 posted at Reading, Conn., with orders to pro- 
 tect the sound and the garrison at West 
 Point. On a visit to one of his outposts, 
 attended by only 150 men, he was closely 
 pursued by Gov. Tryon, at the head of 1,200 
 royal troops, and escaped by plunging on 
 horseback down a precipice so steep that 
 foot-passengers descended only by an artificial 
 stairway. Putnam commanded the Maryland 
 
 line, stationed near West Point, in the cam- 
 paign of 1779. This ended his military 
 career. A paralytic affection seized upon 
 his right side, but did not impair his cheer- 
 fulness and spirit. He died at Brooklyn, 
 Conn., May 29th, 1790, aged seventj^-two 
 years. 
 
 PYRRHUS, a king of Epirus, was saved 
 when an infant, by the fidelity of his ser- 
 vants, from the pursuit of the enemies of his 
 father, who had been banished from his king- 
 dom. He was carried to the court of Glau- 
 tias, king of Ulyricum, who educated him 
 with great tenderness. Cassander, king of 
 Macedonia, wished to dispatch him, as he had 
 so much to dread from him. Glautias not 
 only refused to deliver him into the hands of 
 his enemy, but he even went with an army 
 and placed him on the throne of Epirus, 
 though only twelve j’ears of age. 
 
 About five years after, the absence of Pyr- 
 rhus to attend the nuptials of one of the daugh- 
 ters of Glautias, raised new commotions. 
 The monarch was expelled from his throne 
 by his great-uncle, Neoptolemus, who had 
 usurped it after the death of iEacides ; and 
 being still without resources, he applied to 
 his brother-in-law Demetrius for assistance. 
 He accompanied Demetrius at the battle of 
 Ipsus, and afterward passed into Egypt, 
 where, by his marriage with Antigone, the 
 daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a suffi- 
 cient force to attempt the recovery of his 
 throne. He was successful in the undertak- 
 ing, but to remove all causes of quarrel, he 
 took the usurper to share with him the roy- 
 alty, and some time after he put him to death 
 under pretense that he had attempted to 
 poison him. 
 
 In tfie subsequent years of his reign, Pyr- 
 rhus engaged in the quarrels which disturbed 
 the peace of the Macedonian monarchy. He 
 marched against Demetrius. By dissimula- 
 tion he ingratiated himself into the minds of 
 his enemy’s subjects, and when Demetrius 
 labored under a momentary illness, P}Trhus 
 made an attempt upon the crown of Macedo- 
 nia, which, if not then successful, soon after 
 rendered him master of the kingdom. This 
 he shared with Lysimachus for seven months, 
 till the jealousy of the Macedonians, and the 
 ambition of his colleague, obliged him to 
 retire. Pyrrhus was meditating new con- 
 
678 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 quests, when the Taren tines invited him to 
 Italy to assist them against the encroaching 
 power of Rome. He gladly accepted the in- 
 vitation, but his passage across the Adriatic 
 proved nearly fatal, and he reached the 
 shores of Italy after the loss of the greatest 
 part of his troops in a storm. 
 
 At his entrance into Tarentum, b.c. 280, 
 he began to reform the manners of the in- 
 habitants, and by introducing the strictest 
 discipline among their troops, to accustom 
 them to bear fatigue and to despise dangers. 
 In the first battle which he fought with the 
 Romans, he obtained the victory, but for this 
 he was more particularly indebted to his 
 elephants, whose bulk and uncommon appear- 
 ance astonished the Romans and terrified 
 their cavalry. The number of the slain was 
 equal on both sides, and the conqueror said 
 that such another victory would totally ruin 
 him. He also sent Cineas, his chief minister, 
 to Rome, and though victorious, he sued for 
 peace. These offers of peace were refused. 
 
 A second battle was fought near Asculum, 
 but the slaughter was so great, and the valor 
 so conspicuous on both sides, that each claim- 
 ed the victory as their own. Pyrrhus still 
 continued the war in favor of the Tarentines, 
 when he was invited into Sicily by the inhab- 
 itants, who labored under the yoke of Car- 
 thage and the cruelty of their own petty 
 tyrants. His fondness for novelty soon de- 
 termined him to quit Italy ; he left a garrison 
 at Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, 
 where he obtained two victories over the 
 Carthaginians, and took many of their towns. 
 He was a while successful, and formed the 
 project of invading Africa; but soon his 
 popularity vanished. 
 
 He had no sooner returned to Tarentum than 
 
 he renewed hostilities with the Romans with 
 great acrimon} T , but when his army of 80,000 
 men had been defeated by 20,000 of the 
 enemy, under Curius, he left Italy with pre- 
 cipitation, b.c. 274, ashamed of the enterprise. 
 
 In Epirus he attacked Antigonus, who was 
 then on the Macedonian throne. He gained 
 some advantages over his enemy, and was at 
 last restored to the throne of Macedonia. 
 He afterward marched agaifist Sparta, at the 
 request of Cleonymus, but when all his vig- 
 orous operations were insufficient to take the 
 capital of Laconia, he retired to Argos, where 
 the treachery of Aristeus invited him. The 
 Argives desired him to retire and not to inter- 
 fere in the affairs of their republic, which were 
 confounded by the ambition of two of their 
 nobles. He complied with their wishes, but 
 in the night he marched his forces into the 
 town, and might have made himself master of 
 the place had he not retarded his progress by 
 entering it with his elephants. The combat 
 that ensued was obstinate and bloody, and 
 the monarch, to fight with more boldness, and 
 to encounter dangers with more facility, ex- 
 changed his dress. He wafe attacked by one 
 of the enemy, and as he was going to run 
 him through in his own defense, the mother 
 of the Argive, who saw her son’s danger from 
 the top of the house, threw down a tile, and 
 brought Pyrrhus to the ground. His head 
 was cut off, and carried to Antigonus, who gave 
 his remains a magnificent funeral, and pre- 
 sented his ashes to his son Helenus, b.c. 272. 
 Pyrrhus was about forty -six years old when 
 he was slain. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, one of the most illus- 
 trious philosophers of ancient Greece, died 
 b.c. 497, at the age of eighty-nine. He held 
 the doctrine of metempsychosis. 
 
 PYT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 679 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUARLES, Francis, the author of “ The 
 Divine Emblems ” and other poems, was born 
 in 1592. He espoused the cause of Charles 
 I., and was sorely harassed by the opposite 
 party, who injifred his property and plun- 
 dered him of his books and rare manuscripts, 
 which afflictions brought him to ill health, 
 and that to the next and last stage, the grave, 
 in 1644. 
 
 QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, June 16th, 
 1815, between the allied army under the 
 Duke of Brunswick, the Prince of Orange, 
 and Sir Thomas Picton, and the French under 
 Marshal Ney, two days before the great con- 
 test of Waterloo. The Duke of Brunswick 
 was mortally wounded. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN, Battle of, between the 
 Americans and British, in Canada, Oct. 13tli, 
 1812. The former were victorious. 
 
 QUEVEDO, Francisco, an eminent Span- 
 ish author, born in 1570, died in 1645. 
 
 QUIN, James, a famous English comedian, 
 born in 1693, died in 1766. 
 
 QUINCEY, Edmund, a judge of the su- 
 preme court of Massachusetts, and agent for 
 
 the colony at the court of St. James ; died 
 in London, October, 1738, aged fifty -seven. 
 
 QUINCY, Josiaii, was born in Boston, 
 Feb. 23d, 1744, and graduated at Harvard 
 College in 1763, after which he studied law, 
 and raised himself to eminence in his pro- 
 fession. Together with John Adams, Mr. 
 Quincy defended the soldiers who fired upon 
 the Bostonians on the 5th of March, and pro- 
 cured the acquittal of all but two, who were 
 punished by a slight branding. In May, 
 1774, he published his “ Observations on the 
 Act of Parliament commonly called the Bos- 
 ton Port Bill, with Thoughts on Civil Soci- 
 ety and Standing Armies,” a work of great 
 power. In September, 1774, Mr. Quincy 
 sailed for London, in the hopes of benefiting 
 his country by his patriotic exertions in Eng- 
 land. His services were indeed valuable ; 
 but his application completed the prostration 
 of his bodily powers, which had been pre- 
 viously sapped by long and hopeless disease. 
 He died just at the close of his voyage home. 
 •April 20th, 1775. 
 
 RAAB, a town of Hungary, where the 
 Austrians, commanded by the Archduke 
 John, were defeated by the French under 
 Eugene Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy, June 
 14th, 1809. 
 
 RABELAIS, Francis, the great French 
 humorist, was born of poor parentage, at 
 Chinon in Touraine, about 1483. He led a 
 varied life in youth, settled at last into a par- 
 ish priest at Mudon near Paris, and continued 
 such till his death in 1553, despite the gibes 
 and jeers at church, and state, and all else, 
 in his “Inestimable Life of the Great Gar- 
 gantua, Father of Pantagruel, a book full of 
 Pantagruelism.” 
 
 RACHEL. Elizabeth Rachel Felix, the 
 greatest actress of modern times, was of 
 
 humble origin. Her father was a hawker 
 of the Hebrew persuasion, and she was born 
 on the 24th of March, 1820, at the Swiss 
 village of Munf, while her parents were 
 engaged on a professional tour. The family 
 afterward settled for some time at Lyons, 
 where the eldest child, Sarah, pursued the 
 vocation of a vocalist at the various cafes, 
 while Rachel (the future actress) collected 
 money from the admiring connoisseurs. In 
 1830 Paris became the residence of the Felix 
 family, and little Rachel, rising from her 
 merely financial department, joined with her 
 sister as a singer at the cafes on the Boule- 
 vards. While thus employed, it seems she 
 attracted the attention of M. Choron, founder 
 of the royal institution for the study of 
 
680 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 sacred music, who at once took charge of her 
 fortunes. He soon discovered that she was 
 more suited for the dramatic than the musical 
 profession, and he placed her under the tui- 
 tion of M. St. Aulaire. In 1886 she was 
 admitted as a pupil at the Conservatoire. 
 
 Her first appearance in public as an actress 
 was in April, 1837, at the Gymnase, without 
 making any particular sensation. It is from 
 her performance of Camille at the Theatre 
 Fran^ais, on the 24th of June, 1838, that her 
 European reputation is to be dated, and to 
 the end this character ever remained the 
 most celebrated in her repertoire. In 1850 
 she made her first appearance in London. 
 In 1855 she came upon a professional visit 
 to the United States. The fatal malady of 
 which she died was contracted at Boston in 
 the autumn of that year. It was greatly 
 aggravated at Philadelphia, where she played 
 a single night in a cold theatre, the perform- 
 ance being followed by a violent pneumonic 
 attack. Her last appearance on the stage 
 was at Charleston, S. C., where she played 
 Adrienne le Couvreur. She died at Cannes, 
 France, Jan. 5th, 1858. Her disease was at 
 first an affection of the throat, to which there 
 came to be appended a complication of dis- 
 orders. 
 
 RACINE, Jean, one of the greatest of 
 the tragic dramatists of France, was the son 
 of a tax-collector in Picardy, and born in 
 1639. He died in 1699. 
 
 RADCLIFFE, John, an English physician 
 of uncommon eminence, born in 1650, and 
 died in 1714. He was the founder of the 
 Radcliffe Library at Oxford. 
 
 RADETZKY, Marshal, a distinguished 
 Austrian general, was born in Bohemia in 
 1766. He began his military career as a 
 cadet in a cavalry regiment, Aug. 1st, 1781. 
 He tendered his resignation as field-marshal 
 in 1857. In the seventy-six years between, 
 he had borne a conspicuous part on most of 
 the fields where Austrian troops had been 
 called to battle. He died Jan. 5th, 1858. 
 
 RAGLxAN. Lord Fitzroy Somerset, born 
 in 1788, was a cadet of the ducal house 
 of Beaufort. He was the military secre- 
 tary of the Duke of Wellington (whose 
 niece he married) through the peninsular 
 campaign, and lost his right arm at Water- 
 loo. In 1852 he was created Baron Raglan. 
 
 The command of the British troops dis- 
 patched to Turkey was given to Lord Raglan. 
 He died in the camp before Sebastopol, June 
 28th, 1855. 
 
 RAIKES, Robert, was born in 1736. In 
 1781 he planned the institution of Sunday 
 schools. He died at Gloucester, England, 
 his native place, in 1811. Mr. Raikes was 
 proprietor of the Gloucester Journal, a paper 
 of extensive circulation. 
 
 RALEIGH or RALEGH, Walter, one of 
 the most distinguished men in the brilliant 
 constellation that adorned the reigns of Eliz- 
 abeth and James, was born of ancient lineage 
 in Devonshire in 1552. He was educated at 
 Oxford and the Temple, and in early youth 
 evinced great acuteness of intellect and a dis- 
 position for adventure. He became a soldier 
 at seventeen, and fought for the Protestant 
 cause in France, as a volunteer under Coligni 
 and Conde. Subsequently he served a short 
 time in the Netherlands under the Prince of 
 Orange. In 1579 he accompanied his half- 
 brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in a voyage 
 to America. The design was to plant a colony 
 in Newfoundland, but the expedition was 
 driven back by a superior Spanish force. On 
 his return, he served in Ireland against the 
 revolt headed by the Earl of Desmond. 
 
 In 1582 he appeared at Elizabeth’s court, 
 speedily became a favorite with his sover- 
 eign, was knighted at her hand, and re- 
 warded by her with wealth and honors. The 
 well known anecdote illustrates his gallantry 
 and tact as a courtier. One day, when he 
 was attending the queen on a walk, she came 
 to a miry spot in the way, and for a moment 
 hesitated to proceed. Raleigh instantly pull- 
 ed off his rich plush cloak, and, by spreading 
 it at her feet, enabled her to pass on unsoiled. 
 This mark of attention delighted the queen, 
 from whom, it was afterward facetiously re- 
 marked, his soiled cloak was the means of 
 procuring him many a good suit. 
 
 In 1584 he obtained letters patent for col- 
 onizing America, and two expeditions, each 
 unsuccessful, were dispatched to Virginia, 
 which then received its name in honor of the 
 virgin queen. The last expedition is said 
 to have been the means of introducing to- 
 bacco into England, and also of making known 
 the potato, which was first cultivated in Eu- 
 rope on Raleigh’s land. At Youghal, Ireland, 
 
 RAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 681 
 
 he had a quiet mansion, and in its garden 
 there, he is said to have planted the potato, 
 which he brought from South America. His 
 gardener, imagining that the apple on the 
 stalk was the part to be used, gathered it. 
 He did not like its taste, and so neglected the 
 roots, till the ground being dug to sow grain, 
 the potatoes were found to have increased 
 vastly. 
 
 Raleigh bore an active part in the destruc- 
 tion of the Spanish armada, and the follow- 
 ing year he served in the expedition to aid 
 the King of Portugal in recovering his domin- 
 ions from the Spaniards. The young Earl 
 of Essex was also in the expedition; Raleigh 
 and he quarreled on a military question ; 
 and thus their unhappy jealousy began. On 
 his Irish estates he met Spenser, the author 
 of the “Faery Queen,” befriended and en- 
 couraged him, and presented him at court. 
 An amour with Elizabeth Throgmorton, maid 
 of honor to the queen, drew down upon him 
 his sovereign’s displeasure, though he had 
 married the lady, and he was imprisoned sev- 
 eral months. While banished from court, he 
 fitted out an expedition at his own cost, and 
 sailed in search of the fabled El Dorado. He 
 visited Guiana, explored the Orinoco four hun- 
 dred miles from its mouth, and wrote a glow- 
 ing account of his voyage and the marvelous 
 regions he had found. 
 
 He was now restored to the queen’s favor, 
 and held a command in the expedition of 1596 
 against Cadiz. In 1597 he was rear-admiral 
 of the armament which sailed under Essex to 
 intercept the Spanish fleet from the West 
 Indies. By capturing Fayal, one of the 
 Azores, before the earl arrived, he gave great 
 offense to Essex, who thought himself robbed 
 of glory that should have been his. Raleigh 
 joined Cecil in intrigues against Essex, and 
 the latter was brought to the scaffold. Eliza- 
 beth’s death and the accession of James I. soon 
 came. Raleigh’s fortune ebbed. The hypo- 
 critical Cecil poisoned the king’s ear, and Sir 
 Walter was accused of complicity in Lord 
 Cobham’s plot to set Lady Arabella Stuart on 
 the throne, and likewise of being in the pay 
 of Spain to establish popery. Coke, then at- 
 torney-general, virulently conducted the pros- 
 ecution, assailing the prisoner in court with 
 the grossest abuse, and the servile jury con- 
 victed him upon the paltriest testimony. His 
 
 property was confiscated, and he was sen- 
 tenced to die. The king reprieved him, how- 
 ever, and he was imprisoned in the Tower 
 twelve years, during which he wrote his 
 “History of the World,” vastly superior to 
 all his previous historical productions in the 
 language, and a work of great merit. In 1715 
 the king released but did not pardon him, 
 and permitted him to sail on a second expe- 
 dition to Guiana, where his purpose was to 
 colonize, and work gold mines. Upon his 
 return to England he found himself again 
 under the ban, and was committed to the 
 Tower. A match was pending between 
 Prince Charles and the Infanta of Spain. In 
 the last Guiana expedition a portion of Ra- 
 leigh’s forces had attacked the Spanish town 
 of St. Thomas and burned it ; Raleigh’s eld- 
 est son was killed in the affair. For other 
 causes, too, he was obnoxious to the Spanish 
 government, and to smooth Prince Charles’s 
 wooing, James sacrificed him. The old sen- 
 tence of death was revived, and he was 
 beheaded Oct. 29th, 1618. 
 
 His behavior in his last hours was calm 
 and manly. The morning of the fatal day, 
 taking a cup of sack, he remarked that he 
 liked it as well as the prisoner who drank of 
 St. Giles’s bowl in passing through Tyburn 
 and said, “ It is good to drink if a man might 
 tarry by it.” He turned to his old friend, 
 Sir Hugh Ceeston, who was repulsed by the 
 sheriff from the scaffold, saying, “ Never fear 
 but I shall have a place.” When an extremely 
 bald man pressed forward to see and to pray 
 for him, Sir Walter took from his own head 
 a richly embroidered cap, and placing it on 
 the aged spectator, said, “Take this, good 
 friend, to remember me, for you have more 
 need of it than I.” “ Farewell, my lords,” he 
 
 exclaimed to a courtly group who took an 
 affectionate leave of him ; “ I have a long 
 journey before me, and must say good-bye.” 
 After a few last words to the people in justi- 
 fication of his character and conduct, “ Now 
 I am going to God,” he said, and gently touch- 
 ing the axe, continued, “ This is a sharp med- 
 icine, but a sound cure for all diseases.” 
 Having tried how the block fitted his head, 
 he told the executioner that he would give 
 the signal by lifting up his hand ; “And then,” 
 he added, “ fear not, but strike home ! ” He 
 laid himself down, but was requested by the 
 
6S2 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 headsman to alter the position of his head. 
 “So the heart be right,” he said, “it is no 
 matter which way the head lies.” When the 
 signal was given, the executioner failed to 
 strike promptly, and Sir Walter exclaimed, 
 “ Why dost thou not strike ? Strike, man ! ” 
 Two strokes were given; he received them 
 without shrinking ; and all was over. 
 
 The night before execution he composed 
 these verses, in prospect of death : — 
 
 “Even such is Time, that takes on trust 
 Our youth, our joys, our all we have, 
 
 And pays us but with age and dust; 
 
 Who in the dark and silent grave, 
 
 When we have wandered all our ways, 
 
 Shuts up the story of our days.” 
 
 The versatility of Sir Walter Raleigh’s 
 genius was remarkable. He was a brilliant 
 scholar, a vigorous writer, an adventurous 
 voyager, and a brave warrior. He was inde- 
 fatigable in schemes for extending the com- 
 merce and colonial power of his country. As 
 a statesman he was in advance of his age, 
 though his fame is not altogether unsullied 
 by the prevailing selfishness and worldliness 
 of ambition. He was illustrious in all his 
 varied enterprises. 
 
 RAMILLIES, a village of Belgium, twenty- 
 six miles south-east of Brussels, celebrated 
 for a victory gained over the French and Ba- 
 varians, by the Duke of Marlborough, May 
 23d, 1706. The victories obtained about this 
 time by the allies in Spain determined Louis 
 to assemble all his forces in Flanders and on 
 the Rhine. Villeroi was sent to check the 
 conquests of Marlborough. His army was 
 attacked by Marlborough near the village of 
 Ramillies with such impetuosity, that scarcely 
 were the French assailed, when they were 
 vanquished. The troops of the royal house- 
 hold, however, on the right, forced the Dutch 
 and Danish cavalry to retreat toward the left, 
 and would have completely routed them had 
 not Marlborough hastened to their succor. 
 The French troops were driven back, and 
 their ranks broken. The detachments sta- 
 tioned in the village were either put to death 
 or made prisoners ; and Villeroi and the 
 Elector of Bavaria escaped with great diffi- 
 culty. In the tumultuous disorder of the 
 French, the fugitives who were pursued b}^ 
 the enemy’s cavalry were impeded in their 
 retreat by the baggage, and great numbers of 
 
 them were slain. The field of battle was 
 strewed with 8,000 killed, and 6,000 were 
 made prisoners. Thus the most formidable 
 army which Louis XIV. had raised for a con- 
 siderable time, as the last effort of his despair, 
 melted away with the glory of the nation, of 
 which it was the sole resource. 
 
 RAMMOHUN ROY, a learned Hindoo, was 
 born in 1774, in Bengal, his paternal ancestors 
 being Brahmins of a high order. He studied 
 several years at the celebrated seminary of 
 Benares, and traveled in Persia and other ori- 
 ental countries. He was acquainted more or 
 less with ten languages,: — Sanscrit, Arabic, 
 Persian, Hindostanee, Bengalee, English, He- 
 brew, Greek, Latin, and French. The two 
 first he knew critically, as a scholar; the 
 third, fourth, fifth, and sixth he spoke and 
 wrote fluently ; in the seventh and eighth 
 perhaps his studies did not extend much be- 
 yond the originals of the Christian Scriptures ; 
 and in the latter two, his knowledge was ap- 
 parently limited. He published w'orks in 
 Sanscrit, Arabic, Persian, Bengalee, and Eng- 
 lish. He held important posts under the East 
 India company, and secured various adminis- 
 trative reforms. In 1830 he came to England 
 as the agent of the Mogul emperor, and at- 
 tracted much attention. In politics he was a 
 zealous republican ; he expressed warmly his 
 hearty approbation of all liberal institutions, 
 associated chiefly with the liberal portion of 
 the community, and took a very deep interest 
 in the progress of the measure of English par- 
 liamentary reform. He died suddenly at Bris- 
 tol, Sept. 27th, 1833. 
 
 RAMSAY, Allan, a Scotch poet, born in 
 1686, died in 1758. 
 
 RAMSAY, David, eminent physician, his- 
 torian, and statesman of South Carolina, died 
 in 1815, aged sixty -six. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Edmund, eminent lawyer of 
 Virginia, member of Congress in 1779 ; after- 
 ward governor of Virginia; first attorney- 
 general of the United States ; second secretary 
 of state of the United States; died in 1813. 
 
 RANDOLPH, John, or, as he himself wrote 
 his name, John Randolph of Roanoke, a man 
 distinguished for genius, eloquence, and ec- 
 centricity, was born in Virginia, on the 2d of 
 June, 1773, and was descended from Poca- 
 hontas, the daughter .of Powhatan, a great 
 Indian chief, through his grandmother, whose 
 
 RAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 683 
 
 maiden name was Jane Bolling, the great- 
 grand-daughter of Jane Rolfe (married to Rob- 
 ert Bolling), the daughter of John Rolfe and 
 Pocahontas ; so that he was of the seventh 
 generation from Pocahontas. His father died 
 in 1775, leaving three sons and a large estate ; 
 and his mother was married in 1783 to St. 
 George Tucker, w^io was the guardian to Ran- 
 dolph during his minority. Mr. Randolph’s 
 early life was spent at different places under 
 different instructors, of most of whom he said 
 he “never learned anything.” He passed a 
 short time at Princeton College, at Columbia 
 College, and at William and Mary College, 
 and was a little while a student at law under 
 Edmund Randolph. Of himself he remarks, 
 “ With a superficial and defective education, 
 I commenced politician.” He was elected a 
 member of Congress in 1799, and continued 
 a member of the house of representatives, with 
 the exception of three intervals of two years 
 each (during one of these intervals he was in 
 the United States senate), till 1829 ; and he 
 was afterward appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to Russia. Mr. Randolph was never 
 married. He was possessed of a large and 
 valuable estate on the Roanoke, and had, at 
 the time of his death, 318 slaves, and 180 
 horses, of which about 120 were blood horses. 
 He died at Philadelphia, May 24th, 1833, aged 
 sixty. He arrived in Philadelphia a few days 
 before his death, in a state of extreme debility, 
 purposing to proceed to Europe, with the hope 
 of a partial restoration of his health. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Peyton, president of the first 
 congress, was born in Virginia, and received 
 his education in England. In 1748, having 
 returned to Virginia, he was appointed king’s 
 attorney-general for the colony, although but 
 twentjr-five years of age. Apr. 12th, 1766, 
 he was chosen speaker of the house of bur- 
 gesses, and resigned the office of attorney- 
 general. As soon as he joined the first con- 
 tinental congress, he was chosen its president. 
 His patriotic exertions were unfortunately ter- 
 minated by a stroke of apoplexy, Oct. 21st, 
 1775, at the age of fifty -two. 
 
 RAPHAEL SANTI, or SANZIO, was born 
 at Urbino, in the Contrada del Monte, April 
 6th, 1483. His father was his first instructor 
 in painting, and afterward Pietro Perugino. 
 From 1504 to 1508 Raphael dwelt chiefly at 
 Florence. Thence he went to Rome, which 
 
 was his residence till his death, on his birth- 
 day, April 6th, 1520. After tying in state, 
 his corpse was interred with great pomp in 
 the church of Santa Maria ad Marty res, the 
 ancient Pantheon. This eminent artist was 
 of a sallow complexion, brown eyes, slight in 
 form, and about five feet eight inches in height. 
 He was never married, but is said to have been 
 betrothed to Maria Bibiena, niece of Cardinal 
 Bibiena : she preceded him to the grave. 
 
 RAUCH, Christian, was born in the prov- 
 ince ofWaldeck, Westphalia, Jan. 2d, 1777? 
 and, after preliminary studies at Cassel and 
 Dresden, in 1804 went to Rome, where he 
 gained the friendship of Baron William von 
 Humboldt and the sculptors Thorwaldsen and 
 Canova. Under the guidance and influence 
 of such men he made great progress in his 
 art, and previous to his return to Berlin, in 
 1811, had executed, among other works, a 
 noble bust of his kind patroness, Queen Louisa 
 of Prussia. He was afterward commissioned 
 by Frederick William III. to erect a monu- 
 ment to the queen, which occupied him for 
 several years. For the next thirty years 
 Rauch labored in his art with such activity as 
 to distribute his works all over Germany. 
 Besides an immense number of busts and mis- 
 cellaneous works, he executed statutes of Blu- 
 cher, Scharnhorst, Bulow, King Maximilian 
 of Bavaria, Goethe, and the colossal Victory 
 for the Walhalla. The monument to Albert 
 Diirer at Nuremberg is also one of his finest 
 works. But his crowning work and master- 
 piece is the monument to Frederick the Great 
 in Berlin. Rauch was called the Prussian 
 Phidias. He died at Dresden, Dec. 3d, 1857. 
 His remains were borne with great honor to 
 Berlin for interment. 
 
 RAVAILLAC, Francis, a fanatic who as- 
 sassinated Henry IV. of France, May 14th, 
 1610. The king had got into his carriage at 
 four in the afternoon, to pay a visit to his 
 minister Sully. He had been followed eight 
 days by the regicide, who had a poniard in 
 his hand, and had not quitted the side of the 
 carriage since its departure from the palace of 
 the Louvre. In a very narrow street there 
 was a stoppage which induced the monarch 
 to alight from his carriage. While he was 
 stepping out, the assassin stabbed him twice 
 with his poniard ; the second blow was fatal, 
 and the corpse was conveyed to the Louvre. 
 
 RAV 
 
684 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 Ravaillac was seized, and put to death by the 
 most horrid tortures which cruelty could 
 devise. 
 
 RAWDON, Lord Francis, was an active 
 British commander in the South during the 
 Revolution. He afterward succeeded his father 
 as Earl of Moira, served several years as gov- 
 ernor-general of India, and was created Mar- 
 quis of Hastings. He died in 1825, aged sev- 
 enty-one. 
 
 READ, George, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born in Cecil county, 
 Maryland, in 1734, and educated at Philadel- 
 phia. In 1753 he was admitted to the bar, 
 though but nineteen years of age ; he com- 
 menced practicing law at Newcastle, Del. He 
 was a member of Congress from 1774 to 1777, 
 was a member of the convention to frame the 
 federal constitution, was admiralty judge in 
 1782, was president of the convention which 
 framed the constitution of Delaware, and rep- 
 resented Delaware in the United States senate 
 from 1780 to 1793, when he was made chief- 
 justice of the state. He died in the autumn 
 of 1798. 
 
 REBELLION, Southern. Began in form 
 by the secession of South Carolina, Dec. 20, 
 1860 ; ended in fact by the overwhelming 
 defeat and rout of Lee by Gen. Grant, in 
 the first week of April, 1865. For the dates 
 of its chief occurrences, see chronological 
 table at close of this work. 
 
 REED, Joseph, was born in New Jersey, 
 Aug. 27, 1741. Through part of the Revolu- 
 tionary war he served with distinction, in 
 the rank of Adjutant-General. He first de- 
 tected and exposed the character of Arnold, 
 whom he brought to trial for malpractiees. 
 He died March 5, 1785. He was long held 
 in high repute for having refused a British 
 bribe; later researches have thrown some 
 doubts upon his character for patriotism and 
 for bravery also. 
 
 REFORMATION, that great change in the 
 corrupted system of Christianity, begun by 
 Luther in the year 1517. Leo X., when 
 raised to the papal throne, found the revenues 
 of the church exhausted by the vast projects 
 of his two ambitious predecessors, Alexander 
 VI. and Julius II. His own temper, natu- 
 rally liberal and enterprising, rendered him 
 incapable of that severe and patient economy 
 which the situation of his finances required. 
 
 On the contrary, his schemes for aggrandizing 
 the family of Medici, his love of splendor, his 
 taste for pleasure, and his magnificence in 
 rewarding men of genius, involved him daily 
 in new expenses ; in order to provide a fund 
 for which, he tried every device that the fer- 
 tile invention of priests had fallen upon, to 
 drain the credulous multitude of their wealth. 
 Among others, he had recourse to a sale of 
 indulgences. 
 
 The right of promulgating these indulgen- 
 ces in Germany, together with a share in the 
 profits arising from the sale of them, was 
 granted to Albert, Elector of Mentz and Arch- 
 bishop of Magdeburg, who, as his chief agent 
 for retailing them in Saxony, employed Tetzel, 
 a Dominican friar of licentious morals, but of 
 an active spirit, and remarkable for his noisy 
 and popular eloquence. Assisted by the 
 monks of his order, he executed the commis- 
 sion with great zeal and success, but with little 
 discretion or decency ; and though by magni- 
 fying excessively the benefit of tf^ir indul- 
 gences, and by disposing of them at a very 
 low price, they carried on for some time an 
 extensive and lucrative traffic among the cred- 
 ulous and the ignorant, the extravagance of 
 their assertions, as well as their irregularities 
 in conduct, came at last to give general offense. 
 
 Whilst Luther was at the height of his rep- 
 utation and authority as a preacher, Tetzel 
 began to publish indulgences in the neighbor- 
 hood of Wittemberg, and to ascribe to them 
 the same imaginary virtues which had in 
 other places imposed on the credulity of the 
 people. As Saxony was not more enlightened 
 than the other provinces of Germany, Tetzel 
 met with prodigious success there. It was 
 with the utmost concern that Luther beheld 
 the artifices of those who sold, and the sim- 
 plicity of those who bought. 
 
 The opinions of Thomas Aquinas and the 
 other schoolmen, on which the doctrine of in- 
 dulgences was founded, had already lost much 
 of their authority with him ; and the Scrip- 
 tures, which he began to consider as the great 
 standard of theological truth, afforded no 
 countenance to a practice equally subversive 
 of faith and of morals. His warm and impet- 
 uous temper did not suffer him long to conceal 
 such important discoveries, or to continue a 
 silent spectator of the delusion of his country- 
 men. 
 
 REF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 685 
 
 From the pulpit, in the great church at 
 Wittemberg, he inveighed bitterly against the 
 irregularities and vices of the monks who 
 published indulgences ; he ventured to exam- 
 ine the doctrines which they taught, and 
 pointed out to the people the danger of relying 
 for salvation upon any other means than those 
 appointed by God in his word. The boldness 
 and novelty of these opinions drew great at- 
 tention ; and being recommended by the au- 
 thority of Luther’s personal character, and 
 delivered with a popular and persuasive elo- 
 quence, they made a deep impression on his 
 hearers. Encouraged by the favorable recep- 
 tion of his doctrines among the people, he 
 wrote to Albert, Elector of Mentz and Arch- 
 bishop of Magdeburg, to whose jurisdiction 
 that part of Saxony was subject, and remon- 
 strated warmly against the false opinions, as 
 well as wicked lives, of the preachers of in- 
 dulgences; but he found that prelate too 
 deeply interested in their success to correct 
 their abuses. His next attempt was to gain 
 the suffrage of men of learning. For this pur- 
 pose he published ninety-five theses, contain- 
 ing his sentiments with regard to indulgences. 
 These he proposed, not as points fully es- 
 tablished, or of undoubted certainty, but as 
 subjects of inquiry and disputation; he ap- 
 pointed a day, on which the learned were in- 
 vited to impugn them, either in person or by 
 writing; to the whole he subjoined solemn 
 protestations of his high respect for the apos- 
 tolic see, and of his implicit submission to its 
 authority. No opponent appeared at the time 
 fixed; the theses spread over Germany with 
 astonishing rapidity ; they were read with the 
 greatest eagerness ; and all admired the bold- 
 ness of the man, who had ventured not only 
 to call in question the plenitude of papal 
 power, but to attack the Dominicans, armed 
 with all the terrors of inquisitorial authority. 
 
 The friars of St. Augustine, Luther’s own 
 order, gave no check to the publication of 
 these uncommon opinions. Luther had, by 
 his piety and learning, acquired extraordinary 
 authority among his brethren ; he professed 
 the highest regard for the authority of the 
 pope ; his professions were at that time sin- 
 cere ; and as a secret enmity subsisted among 
 all the monastic orders of the Romish church, 
 the Augustines were highly pleased with his 
 invectives against the Dominicans, and hoped 
 
 to see them exposed to the hatred and scorn 
 of the people. 
 
 Ilis sovereign, the Elector of Saxony, the 
 wisest prince at that time in Germany, se- 
 cretly encouraged his attempts, and flattered 
 himself that this dispute among the ecclesias- 
 tics themselves might put some stop to the 
 exactions of the court of Rome, which the sec- 
 ular princes had long, though without suc- 
 cess, been endeavoring to oppose. 
 
 Several theses appeared in opposition to the 
 ninety-five published by Luther; the argu- 
 ments produced for his confutation were the 
 sentiments of schoolmen, the conclusions of 
 the canon law, and the decrees of popes. 
 Meantime, those novelties in Luther’s doc- 
 trines which interested all Germany, excited 
 little attention and no alarm in the court of 
 Rome. Leo, fond of elegant and refined pleas- 
 ures, intent upon great schemes of policy, a 
 stranger to theological controversies, and apt 
 to despise them, regarded with the utmost in- 
 difference the operations of an obscure friar, 
 who, in the heart of Germany, carried on a 
 scholastic disputation in a barbarous style. 
 He imputed the whole to monastic enmity 
 and emulation, and seemed inclined not to in- 
 terpose in the contest, but to allow the Au- 
 gustines and Dominicans to W'rangle about 
 the matter with their usual animosity. 
 
 The solicitations, however, of Luther’s ad- 
 versaries, together with the surprising prog- 
 gress which his opinions made in different 
 parts of Germany, roused at last the attention 
 of the court of Rome, and obliged Leo to take 
 measures for the security of the church against 
 an attack that now appeared too serious to be 
 despised. For this end he summoned Luther 
 to appear at Rome, within sixty days, before 
 the auditor of the chamber, and the inquisi- 
 tor-general, who had written against him, 
 whom he empowered jointly to examine his 
 doctrines, and to decide concerning them. He 
 wrote, at the same time, to the Elector of 
 Saxony, beseeching him not to protect a man 
 whose heretical and profane tenets were so 
 shocking to pious ears, and enjoined the pro- 
 vincial of the Augustines to check, by his au- 
 thority, the rashness of an arrogant monk, 
 which brought disgrace upon the order of St. 
 Augustine and gave offense and disturbance 
 to the whole church. The professors in the 
 university of Wittemberg, anxious for Lu.- 
 
 REF 
 
686 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ther’s safety, wrote to the pope, and, after 
 employing several pretexts to excuse Luther 
 from appearing at Rome, entreated Leo to 
 commit the examination of his doctrines to 
 some persons of learning and authority in 
 Germany. The elector requested the same 
 thing of the pope’s legate at the diet of Augs- 
 burg; and as Luther himself, who at that 
 time did not entertain even the smallest sus- 
 picion concerning the divine origin of papal 
 authority, had written to Leo a submissive 
 letter, promising an unreserved compliance 
 with his will, the pope gratified them so far 
 as to empower his legate in Germany, Cardi- 
 nal Cajetan, a Dominican, eminent for scho- 
 lastic learning, and passionately devoted to 
 the Roman see, to hear and determine the 
 cause. 
 
 Luther, having obtained the emperor’s safe- 
 conduct, immediately repaired to Augsburg. 
 The cardinal required him, by virtue of the 
 apostolic powers with which he was clothed, 
 to retract his errors with regard to indulgen- 
 ces and the nature of faith, and to abstain for 
 the future from the publication of new and 
 dangerous opinions. Luther, fully persuaded 
 of the truth of Ins own tenets, and confirmed 
 in the belief of them by the approbation which 
 they had met with among persons conspicuous 
 both for learning and piety, was surprised at 
 this abrupt mention of a recantation, before 
 any endeavors were used to convince him that 
 he was mistaken. He declared with the ut- 
 most firmness, that he could not, with a safe 
 conscience, renounce opinions which he be- 
 lieved to be true ; nor should any considera- 
 tion ever induce him to do what would be so 
 b ise in itself and so offensive to God. At the 
 same time, he continued to express no less 
 reverence than formerly for the authority of 
 the apostolic see; he signified his willingness 
 to submit the whole controversy to certain 
 universities which he named, and promised 
 neither to write nor preach concerning indul- 
 gences for the future, provided his adversaries 
 were likewise enjoined to be silent with re- 
 spect to them. All these offers Cajetan dis- 
 regarded or rejected, and still insisted per- 
 emptorily on a simple recantation, threatening 
 him with ecclesiastical censures, and forbid- 
 ding him to appear again in his presence, un- 
 less he resolved instantly to comply with what 
 had been required. 
 
 The judges before whom Luther had been 
 required to appear at Rome, without waiting 
 for the expiration of the sixty days allowed 
 him in the citation, had already condemned 
 him as a heretic. Leo had, in several of his 
 briefs and letters, stigmatized him as a child 
 of iniquity, and a man given up to a repro- 
 bate sense. As every step which was taken 
 by the court of Rome convinced Luther that 
 Leo would soon proceed to the most violent 
 measures against him, he had recourse to the 
 only expedient in his power, in order to pre 
 vent the effect of the papal censures. He ap- 
 pealed to a general council, which he affirmed 
 to bethe representative of the Catholic church, 
 and superior in power to the pope, who, being 
 a fallible man, might err, as St. Peter, the 
 most perfect of his predecessors, had erred. 
 
 It soon appeared that Luther had notformed 
 rash conjectures concerning the intentions of 
 the church of Rome. A bull, of a date prior 
 to his appeal, was issued by the pope, in 
 which he magnified the virtue and efficacy of 
 indulgences ; he required all Christians to as- 
 sent to what he delivered as the doctrine of 
 the Catholic church, and subjected those who 
 should hold or teach any contrary opinion to 
 the heaviest ecclesiastical censures. Among 
 Luther’s followers, this bull, which they con- 
 sidered as an unjustifiable effort of the pope 
 in order to preserve that rich branch of his 
 revenue which arose from indulgences, pro- 
 duced little effect. But among the rest of his 
 countrymen, such a clear decision of the sov- 
 ereign pontiff against him, and enforced by 
 such dreadful penalties, must have been at- 
 tended with consequences very fatal to his 
 cause, if these had not been prevented, in a 
 great measure, by the death of the Emperor 
 Maximilian, whom both principles and inter- 
 est prompted to support the authority of the 
 holy see. To this event was owing the sus- 
 pension of any farther proceedings against 
 Luther for eighteen months. Perpetual ne- 
 gotiations, however, in order to bring the 
 matter to some amicable issue, were carried 
 on during that space. The manner in which 
 these were conducted having given Luther 
 many opportunities of observing the corrup- 
 tion of the court of Rome, he began to utter 
 some doubts with regard to the divine original 
 of the papal authority. A public disputation 
 was held upon this important question at 
 
 REF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 687 
 
 Leipsic, between Luther and Eccius, one of 
 his most learned and formidable antagonists ; 
 but it was fruitless and indecisive. 
 
 Nor did this spirit of opposition to the doc- 
 trines and usurpations of the Romish church 
 break out in Saxony alone : an attack no less 
 violent, and occasioned by the same causes, 
 was made upon thereabout this time in Swit- 
 zerland. The Franciscans being intrusted 
 with the promulgation of indulgences in that 
 country, executed their commission with the 
 same indiscretion which had rendered the 
 Dominicans so odious in Germany. They 
 proceeded, nevertheless, with uninterrupted 
 success till they arrived at Zurich. There 
 Zuinglius, a man not inferior to Luther in zeal 
 and intrepidity, ventured to oppose them ; and 
 being animated with a republican boldness, 
 he advanced with more daring and rapid steps 
 to overturn the whole fabric of the established 
 religion. The appearance of such a vigorous 
 auxiliary, and the progress which he made, 
 was at first matter of great joy to Luther. 
 On the other hand, the decrees of the univer- 
 sities of Cologne and Louvaine, which pro- 
 nounced his opinions to be erroneous, afforded 
 great cause of triumph to his adversaries. 
 
 But the undaunted spirit of Luther acquired 
 additional fortitude from every instance of 
 opposition ; and he began to shake the firmest 
 foundations on which the wealth or power of 
 the church was established. At last, on the 
 15th of June, 1520, the bull so fatal to the 
 church of Rome was issue?!. Forty-one prop- 
 ositions, extracted out of Luther’s works, were 
 therein condemned as heretical, scandalous, 
 and offensive to pious ears ; all persons were 
 forbidden to read his writings, upon pain of 
 excommunication ; such as had any of them 
 in their custody, were commanded to commit 
 them to the flames ; he himself, if he did not, 
 within sixty daj^s, publicly recant his errors, 
 and burn his books, was pronounced an obsti- 
 nate heretic, — was excommunicated, and de- 
 livered unto Satan for the destruction of his 
 flesh ; and all secular princes were required, 
 under pain of incurring the same censure, to 
 seize his person, that he might be punished 
 as his crimes deserved. 
 
 This sentence, which he had for some time 
 expected, .did not disconcert or intimidate Lu- 
 ther. After renewing his appeal to the gen- 
 eral council, he published remarks upon the 
 
 bull of excommunication ; and being now per- 
 suaded that Leo had been guilty of both im- 
 piety and injustice in his proceedings against 
 him, he boldly declared the pope to be that 
 man of sin, or antichrist, whose appearance is 
 foretold in the New Testament ; he declaimed 
 against his tyranny and usurpations with 
 greater vehemence than ever; he exhorted 
 all Christian princes to shake off such an 
 ignominious yoke, and boasted of his own 
 happiness in being marked out as the object 
 of ecclesiastical indignation because he had 
 ventured to assert the liberty of mankind. 
 In the following year he was requested to ap- 
 pear before his avowed enemy, the Emperor 
 Charles V., in the diet at Worms. Unmoved 
 by the apprehensions of his friends, who re- 
 minded him of the fate of Huss, he instantly 
 obeyed, and there acknowledged that his 
 writings had occasionally been violent and 
 acrimonious; but he refused to retract his 
 opinions, until they should be proved errone- 
 ous by the Scriptures. An edict, pronouncing 
 him an excommunicated criminal, and com- 
 manding the seizure of his person as soon as 
 the duration of the safe-conduct which he had 
 obtained should have expired, was immedi- 
 ately promulgated. Frederick the Wise, 
 Elector of Saxony, who had all along counte- 
 nanced him without professing his doctrines, 
 now withdrew him from the storm. As Lu- 
 ther was returning from Worms, a troop of 
 horsemen, in masks, rushed from a wood, 
 seized him, and conveyed him to the castle of 
 Wartburg, where he was concealed nine 
 months, encouraging his adherents by his 
 pen, and cheered in return by accounts of the 
 rapid diffusion of his doctrines. 
 
 John, the successor of Frederick, took a 
 decisive step, and established the reformed 
 religion in 1527 throughout his dominions. 
 In a diet at Spires, held about the same time, 
 the execution of the edict of Worms against 
 the Lutherans, now too formidable to be op- 
 posed with impunity, was suspended until 
 the convocation of a general council to rem- 
 edy the disorders of the church. But in 
 another diet held in the same place, in 1529, 
 the suspension was revoked by a decree ob- 
 tained through the influence of Charles V., 
 who then found himself at more leisure to 
 push forward his views against the supporters 
 of the Reformation. Against this new de- 
 
 REF 
 
688 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 cree, six princes, and the deputies of thir- 
 teen imperial cities and towns, solemnly pro- 
 tested ; and from this the appellation of 
 Protestants became common to all who em- 
 braced the reformed religion. At the diet of 
 Augsburg, in Suabia, the following year, a 
 clear statement of the reformed faith, drawn 
 up by Luther and Melancthon, was presented 
 to Charles and the diet, in behalf of the Prot- 
 estant members of the empire ; and hence 
 it obtained the name of the confession of 
 Augsburg. This confession was received as 
 the standard of the Protestant faith in Ger- 
 many. The same or next year, the Protestant 
 princes made the famous league of Smalkalde, 
 for the mutual defense of their religion, which 
 obliged the emperor to grant the Protestant 
 Lutherans a toleration, till the differences in 
 religion should be settled in a council, which 
 he engaged himself to call in six months. 
 The Protestant party gaining strength every 
 day, instead of being viewed only ‘as a relig- 
 ious sect, as hitherto, soon came to be consid- 
 ered as a political body of no small conse- 
 quence ; and having refused the bull for 
 convening a council at Mantua, Charles sum- 
 moned a general diet at Ratisbon, where a 
 scheme of religion, for reconciling the two 
 parties, was examined and proposed, but 
 without effect. 
 
 At length, in 1545, the famous council of 
 Trent was opened for accommodating the 
 differences in religion ; but the Protestants 
 refused to attend or obey a council convoked 
 in the name and by the authority of the 
 pope, and governed by his legates. The fol- 
 lowing year Luther died ; but the work of 
 reformation which he had begun, did not 
 die with him; for though Charles, having 
 concluded a treaty with the pope for the de- 
 struction of the reformed religion and its 
 adherents, assembled troops on all sides, and 
 was at first successful in the field, yet on the 
 appearance of Maurice, Elector of Saxony, in 
 arms against him, with a force which he was 
 wholly unprepared to resist, he was checked 
 in his career, and the consequences were, the 
 “religious peace,” concluded at Passau, in 
 Bavaria, in 1552, and the complete security 
 of religious freedom to the Protestant states 
 in Germany, which they have enjoyed ever 
 since. 
 
 During the course of these events the 
 
 reformed opinions were extending their in- 
 fluence in various other countries. Before 
 this time, they were completely adopted in 
 Sweden, and had likewise obtained perfect 
 toleration in Denmark, where they were 
 adopted soon after as the doctrines of the 
 national church. They were, also, daily 
 gaining converts in other kingdoms of Eu- 
 rope. They acquired many friends even in 
 Italy. They privately diffused themselves in 
 Spain, notwithstanding the crowded dun- 
 geons and busy flames of the inquisition. 
 
 In France they had still more ample suc- 
 cess, where their abettors were contemptu- 
 ously termed Huguenots. This appellation 
 was given to the Protestants in France in 
 1560, and is supposed by some to be derived 
 from a gate in Tours called Huguon, where 
 they first assembled. According to others, 
 the name is taken from the first words of 
 their original protest, or confession of faith, 
 Hue nos venimm , &c. At Geneva, the Prot- 
 estant doctrines were firmly established by 
 Calvin. In England, the papal power and 
 jurisdiction were abolished by Parliament; 
 the king was declared supreme head of the 
 church, and all the authority of which the 
 popes were deprived was vested in him. 
 That vast fabric of ecclesiastical dominion, 
 which had been raised with such art, and of 
 w T hich the foundations seemed to have been 
 laid so deep, being no longer supported by 
 the veneration of the people, was overturned 
 in a moment. In ftie reign of Edward VI., a 
 total separation was made from the church 
 of Rome in articles of doctrine, as well as in 
 matters of discipline and jurisdiction. 
 
 The force of the secular arm, and the fire 
 of the inquisition, were employed to support 
 the tottering edifice of papacy. In the Neth- 
 erlands, particularly, the most grievous per- 
 secutions took place ; so that, by the Empe- 
 ror Charles V., upward of 100,000 were 
 destroyed, whilst still greater cruelties were 
 exercised upon the people there by his son, 
 Philip II. The formidable ministers of the 
 inquisition put so many to death, and perpe- 
 trated such horrid acts of cruelty and op- 
 pression in Italy, &c., that most of the re- 
 formed consulted their safety by a voluntary 
 exile, while others returned to the religion 
 of Rome, at least in external appearance. 
 In France, too, the Huguenots were perse- 
 
 REF 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 689 
 
 cuted with unparalleled fury; and though 
 many princes of the blood, and of the first 
 nobility, had embraced their sentiments, yet 
 in no part of the world did the reformers 
 suffer more. 
 
 Luther was not the first who attempted to 
 renovate the church. Wickliffe in England, 
 and Jerome of Prague and John Huss in Bo- 
 hemia, had before him denounced the errors 
 and corruptions that had crept into the sys- 
 tem. 
 
 REGULUS, Marcus Attilius, a Roman 
 consul during the first Punic war. In his sec- 
 ond consulship he took sixty-four galleys of 
 the Carthaginian fleet on the coast of Sicily, 
 and sunk thirty. Afterward he landed in 
 Africa ; and so rapid was his success, that 
 in a short time he defeated three generals, 
 and made himself master of about two hun- 
 dred places of consequence on the coast. The 
 Carthaginians sued for peace, but the con- 
 queror haughtily refused to grant it. Soon 
 after, he was defeated in battle by Xanth ip- 
 pus ; 30,000 of his men were left on the field 
 of battle, and 15,000 taken prisoners. Reg- 
 ulus was in the number of the captives, and 
 he was carried in triumph to Carthage. He 
 was afterward sent by the Carthaginians to 
 Rome to propose an accommodation, and an 
 exchange of prisoners ; and if his commis- 
 sion was unsuccessful, he was bound by the 
 most solemn oaths to return to Carthage 
 without delay. When he came to Rome, 
 Regulus dissuaded his countrymen from ac- 
 cepting the terms which the enemy proposed ; 
 and when his opinion had had due influence on 
 the senate, he then retired to Carthage, agreea- 
 bly to his engagements. The Carthaginians, 
 when told that their offers of peace had been 
 rejected at Rome by means of Regulus, pre- 
 pared to punish him with the greatest sever- 
 ity. His eyelids were cut off, and he was 
 exposed for some days to the excessive heat of 
 the meridian sun, and afterward confined in a 
 barrel whose sides were everywhere filled 
 with large iron spikes, till he died in the 
 greatest agonies. His sufferings were known 
 at Rome, and the senate permitted his widow 
 to inflict whatever punishments she pleased, 
 on some of the most illustrious captives of 
 Carthage who were in their hands. She con- 
 fined them also in presses filled with sharp 
 iron points, and was so exquisite in her cru- 
 
 44 RI 
 
 elty, that the senate at iast interfered, and 
 stopped the barbarity. Regulus died about 
 250 b.c. 
 
 REID, Thomas, a distinguished Scottish 
 metaphysician, born in 1710, died in 1796. 
 Dr. Reid in 1752 was appointed professor of 
 moral philosophy in King’s College at Aber- 
 deen, and in 1765 succeeded Adam Smith in 
 the corresponding chair at Glasgow. 
 
 REMBRANDT GERRITZ, commonly call- 
 ed Rembrandt van Rhyn, from the circum- 
 stance of his having been bred on the banks of 
 the Rhine, was born in his father’s mill, near 
 Leyden, June 15th, 1606. The boy’s pas- 
 sion for art disappointed the father’s desire to 
 make him a scholar. After some instruction 
 in art at Amsterdam and Haarlem, he re- 
 turn sd home, and became a diligent and 
 exclusive student of nature. He met with 
 very early success. In his twenty-fourth 
 year, he settled at Amsterdam, where he con- 
 tinued until his death. In 1634 he married 
 a handsome peasant girl, who often sat to 
 him as a model. Her frugality hoarded up 
 his earnings, which he increased by many 
 unworthy tricks to enhance the demand for 
 his works. But after her death he lived as 
 lavishly as in her time miserly, so that he 
 died bankrupt. His death occurred at Am- 
 sterdam in October, 1669. Rembrandt was 
 equally great as a painter and an etcher. He 
 is supposed to have acquired his taste for the 
 concentration and unity of light and shade, 
 which mark his works, from the peculiar 
 light to which he must have been early 
 accustomed in his father’s mill. 
 
 RESACA DE LA PALMA. This battle 
 was fought May 9th, 1846, two days after 
 the contest of Palo Alto. General Arista, 
 the Mexican commander, fell back from that 
 field to Resaca de la Palma, and awaited the 
 advance of Gen. Taylor. In the gallant 
 charge of May’s dragoons on the Mexican 
 artillery, Gen. La Vega was captured. The 
 engagement ended in the precipitate flight of 
 the Mexicans beyond the Rio Grande. The 
 American loss was 39 killed and 71 wounded ; 
 that of the Mexicans was estimated at 1,000 in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 
 REVOLUTION, American. For an ac- 
 count of the causes which produced this great 
 event, the reader is referred to the article 
 United States. In the present article we 
 
690 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 shall present a somewhat detailed account of 
 the war, touching briefly, however, on those 
 events which have been noticed under their 
 respective heads. 
 
 The first conflict in which blood was spill- 
 ed, at Lexington and Concord, Mass., April 
 19th, 1775, we have elsewhere described. 
 The news of this first battle produced a tre- 
 mendous excitement throughout the country. 
 The dead were buried with great ceremony 
 and pomp. Great bodies of militia marched 
 toward Boston. Agreements were entered 
 into by thousands of people, to defend the 
 Bostonians to the last gasp. The English 
 forts, arsenals, magazines, and public money 
 were seized upon by the people ; more money 
 was coined, and more troops were raised. 
 
 Everybody was armed, and ready for bat- 
 tle. When the news from Lexington reached 
 Barnstable, a company of militia started off 
 for Cambridge at once. In the front rank 
 was a young man, the only child of an old 
 farmer. As they came to the old gentleman’s 
 house, they halted a moment. The drum and 
 fife ceased. The farmer came out, with his 
 gray head bare. “God*be with you all,” 
 said he ; “and you, John, if you must fight, 
 fight like a man, or never let me see you 
 again.” The old man gave his boy his bless- 
 ing. The poor fellow brushed a tear from 
 his eye, and the company marched on. 
 
 The news of the battle reached a small town 
 in Connecticut, on the morning of the Sab- 
 bath. It was nearly time to go to meeting, 
 when the beating of a drum and the ringing 
 of the bell attracted the attention of the peo- 
 ple. In expectation that some great event 
 was about to happen, every unusual signal 
 had then a startling effect upon the public 
 ear. When the drum and the bell were 
 heard, therefore, the men came running to 
 the meeting-house green, in breathless haste. 
 Soon the clergyman was among them, and 
 they were all told that some of their country- 
 men had been shot by the British soldiers, at 
 Lexington. The faces of the men, as they 
 heard it, were pale, but not from fear; it 
 was immediately resolved that thirty persons 
 should be equipped, and set out for Boston. 
 Those who could best go, were selected, and 
 went home to make preparations. 
 
 At noon, they had all returned to the little 
 lawn in .front of the meeting-house. There 
 
 was a crowd of people around ; there were 
 friends and acquaintances, and wives and 
 children. Such as were not well provided 
 with clothes and equipments were imme- 
 diately supplied by their neighbors. There 
 was a rich old miser, never known to part 
 with his money but with extreme reluctance. 
 On the present occasion his nature seemed 
 changed. He took several of the soldiers 
 apart, whom he supposed likely to be desti- 
 tute, and put into their hands about thirty 
 dollars in hard cash ; at the same time saying, 
 in a low voice, “ Shoot the rascals ! shoot 
 them ! If you come back, perhaps you will 
 pay me ; if not, God bless you.” 
 
 After all the arrangements were made, the 
 soldiers entered the broad aisle of the church. 
 An affecting and fervent prayer was then 
 offered by the clergyman, in behalf of the 
 country, and in behalf of these brave men 
 that were about to enter upon the dangerous 
 chances of war. After the prayer, he made a 
 short but animated address, encouraging the 
 men to do their duty. He pronounced a 
 blessing, and then they departed. 
 
 Israel Putnam was ploughing in a field 
 when the tidings from Lexington were 
 brought to him. He did not stay even to 
 unharness his cattle : but, leaving the plough 
 in the unfinished furrow, he went to his 
 house, gave some hasty directions respecting 
 his affairs, mounted his horse, and with rapid 
 pace proceeded to Boston. 
 
 The Massachusetts assembly was, at this 
 time, sitting at Watertown, a few miles from 
 Boston. They addressed a letter, explaining 
 the whole affair, to the English people. They 
 complained that the troops had long been in- 
 sulting the provincials, and had now under- 
 taken to murder them. They begged the 
 government to interfere, and prevent war, de- 
 claring they would submit to no more tyr- 
 anny. They called God to witness the justice 
 of their cause, and pledged themselves to 
 defend each other to the last drop of blood. 
 
 Letters were sent also to other colonies. 
 They voted to raise a large army, and, in a 
 short time, 30,000 militia were assembled 
 about Boston ; thousands, who were not need- 
 ed, were sent home. General Putnam com- 
 manded at Cambridge, and General Thomas 
 at Roxbur} r . All intercourse between the 
 English troops and the country ended at once. 
 
 BEY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 691 
 
 It must be considered, however, that this 
 collection of people was very different from a 
 well-trained army. They were brave, and 
 heartily devoted to the cause. But they went 
 and came as they pleased. They had few 
 uniforms ; their muskets were of all sizes and 
 shapes ; they had only sixteen cannon, and 
 half of these were not fit for use ; and, though 
 all the men were good marksmen, only a few 
 regiments had been trained enough to appear 
 like regular soldiers. 
 
 The same might be said of the militia 
 throughout the country. But they deter- 
 mined to make the best of themselves, of 
 their heavy old cannon and rusty muskets, 
 and were in great hopes that, by a few short 
 battles, the English would be entirely driven 
 from the country. The English, on the other 
 hand, especially in England, had a mean 
 opinion of the American courage. One of 
 their generals promised, if they would give 
 him five or six regiments, he would drive the 
 whole of these cowardly rebels from one end 
 of the continent to the other. 
 
 The British troops soon began to feel a 
 little uncomfortable in Boston. The provin- 
 cials had surrounded them so completely that 
 no provisions could enter the city. Fresh 
 meat and vegetables were very scarce ; and 
 though they had vessels enough, they could 
 get no supplies on the coast of New England. 
 The people everj^where had driven their cattle 
 into the back country. 
 
 The governor would not suffer the inhabit- 
 ants of Boston to leave the town. He feared 
 that, if they left, the Americans would fell 
 upon him at once. But he promised them, 
 at last, that if all their arms should be handed 
 in at Faneuil Hall, or some other place, they 
 should be allowed to go away, and thirty 
 carts should be admitted from the country to 
 carry off their furniture. 
 
 About eighteen hundred muskets, and a 
 great many pistols and bayonets, were given 
 up accordingly ; and several of the citizens 
 received passports, and left the town. But 
 the governor soon after pretended, that the 
 people had deceived him, in keeping back 
 part of their arms, and he refused any more 
 passports. The poor and sick only were suf- 
 fered to go. Among these, there were several 
 who were ’terribly afflicted with the small- 
 pox. The disease spread among the militia 
 
 about Boston, and the Americans were now 
 more angry than ever, for they suspected this 
 to be a matter of design on the part of Gen- 
 eral Gage. 
 
 While these things were passing, the other 
 provinces were also preparing for war. The 
 people of New York refused the English 
 troops there all supplies. They armed and 
 trained themselves, seized upon the ammu- 
 nition in the arsenals, removed the women and 
 children, and determined, if nothing else would 
 do, to burn the whole of that large and beauti- 
 ful city. In New Jersey, at the news of the 
 Lexington battle, the people seized upon the 
 public treasure ; and at Baltimore they pos- 
 sessed themselves of fifteen hundred English 
 muskets. Similar steps were taken in South 
 Carolina, where two regiments of infantry and 
 one of cavalry were raised in a few days. 
 
 There was, at this time, a great deal of diffi- 
 culty in Virginia, between the English gover- 
 nor, Dunmore, and the assembly. He feared 
 the people would seize on the powder of the 
 public magazine at Williamsburgh, and or- 
 dered it to be carried on board a vessel called 
 the Jasper, tying at anchor in the river James. 
 The mob crowded about the house ; and he 
 began to talk of setting free the negro slaves 
 and destroying the city. On the whole, it 
 was clear that both the governor and the 
 people were in a humor for fighting. 
 
 In Connecticut it was resolved to under- 
 take an expedition to Ticonderoga, on Lake 
 Champlain, near Canada. As this fortress 
 was full of stores, and stood upon the great 
 route between Canada and the provinces, it 
 was important to conquer it. The Connecti- 
 cut assembly voted $1,800 for the purpose; 
 and powder, ball, and whatever would be 
 needed for a siege, were provided. 
 
 The troops assembled with as little display 
 as possible, at Castleton, on the banks of 
 Wood Creek, on the great road to Ticonde- 
 roga. Some of these troops were from Con- 
 necticut, some from the Boston army, and 
 some were people from the Green Mountains, 
 in Vermont. These latter were called Green 
 Mountain Boys, and were famous for skill in 
 the use of the rifle. 
 
 The captain of one of these companies cap- 
 tured an English officer, a year or two after 
 the time of which we are speaking. The 
 Englishman complained to the American 
 REV 
 
692 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 captain that these riflemen gave the regulars 
 a great deal of trouble. “ They aim,” said he, 
 “ at an English officer as far as they can see 
 his uniform plainly, and shoot him dead. 
 They hardly condescend to kill anything less 
 than a corporal.” “ They can do better still,” 
 said the American captain ; and he ordered 
 up two of his riflemen. “ Is your piece in 
 good order ? ” said he to the first. “ Yes, 
 sir,” answered the Green Mountaineer. The 
 captain stuck a knife in a tree, about fifty 
 paces distant, and ordered the man to split 
 his ball. He fired, and the ball was cut in 
 two pieces on the edge of the knife. The 
 other was ordered to shoot the ace of clubs 
 out of a card ; and he did so. The English- 
 man was amazed. These sharp-shooters had 
 only been four weeks from their ploughs in 
 Vermont. 
 
 The leaders of the expedition against Ti- 
 conderoga were Colonel Ethan Allen and Col- 
 onel Easton. They were joined at Castle- 
 town by Colonel Arnold, from the Boston 
 army. They marched on quietly, and ar- 
 rived in the night on the bank of the lake, 
 opposite Ticonderoga. They crossed over, 
 and landed on the other side, close by the 
 fortress. 
 
 They entered it under the covered way, by 
 daybreak, with a tremendous shout. The 
 soldiers of the garrison were roused, ran out, 
 half dressed, and began firing. A hot scuffle, 
 with gun-breeches and bayonets, hand to 
 hand, ensued. Colonel Allen ordered the 
 commander of the fort to surrender. “To 
 whom?” said the officer, in great astonish- 
 ment. “To the American congress!” said 
 Allen, in a voice of thunder. The commander 
 saw it was in vain to resist, and he gave up 
 the fort. Here were found 124 fine brass 
 cannon and a large quantity of ammunition. 
 
 A hundred cannon more were taken by the 
 Americans at Crown Point, another fort on 
 the same lake, defended by a small garrison. 
 The next plan was to seize upon an English 
 armed vessel, called a corvette, which lay 
 anchored near fort St. John. The Ameri- 
 cans soon rigged out a schooner. Arnold 
 commanded it, and sailed with a fair wind 
 for the fort, while Allen followed slowly, with 
 his troops in flat-boats. The former came 
 upon the corvette, and captured it without 
 the least difficulty. The wind suddenly 
 
 shifted, and he was far on his way back, with 
 the prize, when he met Allen and the boats. 
 After taking another fort at Skenesborough, 
 (now Whitehall), the party returned. 
 
 Meanwhile, the English were skirmishing 
 with the provincials at Boston. There were 
 some islands in the harbor, where the Eng- 
 lish found forage for their horses and cattle. 
 The Americans undertook to carry off these 
 cattle from Noddle’s Island and Hog Island, 
 and succeeded after some fighting. They 
 scoured Pettick’s Island and Deer Island, 
 soon after, in the same way. The English 
 were put to a good deal of trouble to get 
 food. 
 
 They were finally so much pressed by the 
 American army, that General Gage found 
 himself obliged to make a new effort against 
 them. The provincials sent a thousand men, 
 under Putnam and Prescott, to fortif} 1. Bunk- 
 er’s Hill, in Charlestown. Instead of doing 
 so, however, by some mistake, they forti- 
 fied Breed’s Hill, which is nearer the city. 
 The Americans took possession of it in the 
 evening, and worked so well, that, before 
 morning, they had thrown up a redoubt 
 eight rods square, and so silently, that the 
 British knew nothing of it till daybreak. 
 
 The latter, when they discovered the re- 
 doubt, began firing upon its daring occu- 
 pants ; but the Americans worked on, till the} 7, 
 raised a breastwork, reaching from the east 
 side of the redoubt to the bottom of the hill. 
 As Breed’s Hill commands the city, the Brit- 
 ish saw they must either be driven off, or drive 
 off the provincials. They opened a tremen- 
 dous fire from the batteries and armed vessels 
 that floated on all the waters about Boston. 
 Showers of bombs and balls were fired. A 
 terrible battery was raised upon Copp’s Hill, 
 opposite Breed’s ; but all in vain. The Amer- 
 icans worked on, and had finished a trench 
 or ditch before noon, which reached to the 
 bottom of the hill. 
 
 It was the 17th of June, and the famous 
 battle of Bunker Hill. The British were 
 determined to make a great effort. The pro- 
 vincials lay ready for them on the hill. Gen- 
 eral Putnam, of Connecticut, commanded the 
 whole force. They had muskets, but few of 
 them bayonets or rifles. They were sharp- 
 shooters, however, and were brave men as 
 ever breathed. 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 693 
 
 About noon of a terribly hot day, the whole 
 British camp seemed to be in motion. A 
 vast multitude of sloops and boats started 
 from the Boston shore, covering the water 
 far and wide. The soldiers landed at More- 
 ton’s Point, in Charlestown, protected by 
 their batteries behind them. Here they pa- 
 raded in fine order. They were the flower 
 of the English army, and were commanded 
 by General Howe and General Pigot. But 
 the Americans appeared a little too strong 
 and too cool for them ; and they waited for a 
 few more companies to join them. 
 
 The Americans took this opportunity to 
 protect themselves still more, by pulling up 
 post and rail fences, which they set before 
 
 them, in two rows, filling the space between 
 with fresh hay which they gathered from the 
 hill. The British began to march. The mi- 
 litia left to defend Charlestown, retreated. 
 The British entered it, and set fire to the 
 buildings. In a few moments five hundred 
 wooden buildings were in flames. The wind 
 blew high, and the fire streamed up, and 
 roared in a terrible manner. 
 
 Thousands of people were gazing at the 
 scene, from the Boston steeples, and waiting 
 with great anxiety for the fate of the battle. 
 There were multitudes, also, on all the high 
 roofs and hills roundabout. Never was there 
 such a bustle and stir. The English marched 
 slowly toward the redoubt, halting now and 
 
 then, for the cannon to come up and fire. 
 They came, at last, within musket-shot; and 
 the redoubt, which had been as still as the 
 grave till this moment, blazed all at once, 
 with a tremendous volley. 
 
 The British were soon thinned off, and 
 compelled to retreat. Many fled for their 
 lives, and threw themselves into the boats. 
 The green slope of battle was covered with 
 dead bodies. The officers ran hither and 
 thither, to rally the troops, and, after some 
 time, persuaded them to march forward again. 
 The Americans waited for them quietly, and 
 received them once more with a flood of balls. 
 The British fled down the hill to the shore. 
 
 General Howe was alone upon the field; 
 all his officers being killed and wounded 
 around him. General Clinton, who had been 
 watching the battle from Copp’s Hill, now 
 came to his aid with new troops. They made 
 a third effort, with more spirit than before. 
 
 Clinton led on the whole body ; the cannon 
 still firing from the ships and batteries, and 
 the flames and smoke of the burning town 
 sweeping over them like the blast of a furnace. 
 
 The powder of the Americans was exhaust- 
 ed, and they were compelled to draw off. 
 They retired to Prospect Hill, fighting with 
 their muskets as if they were clubs, and there 
 began throwing up new works. The British 
 intrenched themselves on Bunker Hill, and 
 neither army seemed willing to attack the 
 other. They had had fighting enough for 
 one day. Of 3,000 British troops, 1,054 were 
 killed or wounded. A large part of these 
 w'ere officers. The sharp-shooters had taken 
 the poor fellows down like so many gray 
 squirrels. 
 
 The Americans lost five pieces of cannon. 
 Their killed, of about 1,500 engaged in the 
 battle, amounted to 134; their wounded to 
 314. Brave General Warren was among the 
 dead. He was loved and lamented by all 
 classes of people. An English officer, who 
 knew him by sight, saw him in the retreat, 
 rallying the Americans. He borrowed a gun 
 of one of his soldiers, and, taking a fatal aim, 
 shot him in the head, and he fell dead on the 
 spot. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill (as it is called, 
 though fought on Breed’s Hill) had no decisive 
 effect ; yet it roused the country, showed the 
 Americans that they were able to contend 
 with the regulars, and taught the British that 
 the provincials were not exactly the cowards 
 they had taken them for. The capture of 
 Breed’s Hill did them more hurt than good. 
 They were obliged to defend it now, and they 
 had not too many men before to defend the 
 town. Their soldiers were also worn out with 
 fatigue, and were much depressed by the hot 
 weather. 
 
 The Americans began now to fortify the 
 town of Roxbury. Their works went up very 
 fast, notwithstanding the continual fire of the 
 British cannon. They had plenty of food, 
 too, while the British were nea-r starving. 
 The latter could get nothing on the Boston 
 islands, or along the Massachusetts coast, but 
 by hard fighting; and very little by that. 
 They were at last obliged to let most of the 
 Bostonians pass out of the town. They had 
 not provisions enough to keep them alive. 
 
 A British sloop of war, the Falcon, Captain 
 
 REV 
 
694 : 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Linzee, one day, “hove in sight,” as the sail- 
 ors say, off the coast. She had been in 
 search of two American schooners from the 
 West Indies. One of these, Captain Linzee 
 had just captured, and he followed the other 
 into Gloucester harbor. He anchored, and 
 sent two barges, with fifteen men in each, 
 armed with muskets and swivels, and followed 
 by a whale-boat, in which were a lieutenant 
 and six privates, with orders to seize the 
 schooner, and bring her off’. The Gloucester 
 people saw what was going on, and brought 
 out their rusty muskets along shore in great 
 numbers. The lieutenant, with the barge- 
 men, boarded the schooner at the cabin win- 
 dows. The militia began to blaze away at 
 them off the shore. Three of the British were 
 killed, and the lieutenant was wounded in the 
 thigh. He soon made off for the Falcon, as 
 fast as his boat would carry him. 
 
 Captain Linzee now sent a cutter and the 
 schooner he had taken, with orders to fire on 
 the “saucy rebels,” wherever they should see 
 them. He amused himself, meanwhile, by 
 cannonading the town. He fired a broadside 
 into the thickest part of the settlement, to 
 begin with. “Now,” said he to the crew, 
 “now, my boys, we’ll aim at that dirty old 
 church. Well done! crack away! one shot 
 more! knock ’em down!” The balls went 
 through the houses in every direction ; but 
 not a man, woman, or child was injured. 
 Meanwhile the men of Gloucester had gone 
 out upon the water, and taken possession of 
 both schooners, the cutter, the two barges, 
 the boat, and every man in them all. They 
 had but one killed, and two wounded. The 
 British lost about forty men. 
 
 The continental congress met again at Phil- 
 adelphia, May 7th, 1775. There were dele- 
 gates sent from all the colonies but Georgia; 
 and though they had no precise right, by any 
 law, to act for the whole country, yet the 
 whole country was ready to obey them. They 
 chose George Washington, of Virginia, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the American army, and 
 appointed many other officers to act under 
 him. Among these were Gates and Lee, of 
 Virginia ; Schuyler and Montgomery, of New 
 York ; Pomeroy, Heath, and Thomas, of Mas- 
 sachusetts ; Green, of Rhode Island ; Putnam, 
 Wooster, and Spencer, of Connecticut ; Ward 
 and Sullivan, of New Hampshire. These were 
 
 | some of the bravest and best men of the 
 country. 
 
 General Washington went directly to the 
 army at Cambridge. He arrived there on the 
 3d of July. Though he used no parade, wear- 
 ing only a small sword at his side, epaulettes 
 on his shoulders, and a black cockade on his 
 hat, he was easily known, by his fine figure 
 and noble countenance. He was treated every 
 where with the greatest respect. 
 
 Having reviewed the army, he found only 
 14,500 men in a condition for service ; these 
 had to defend a line of twelve miles. They 
 were now arranged and trained as well and as 
 fast as possible, no man understanding this 
 business better than General Gates, who was 
 an old soldier, as well as Washington. They 
 had not 10,000 pounds of powder, at this time, 
 in the army, being only nine charges to a 
 man. Had the enemy known this, and at- 
 tacked them, they must have fled like a flock 
 of deer. Great efforts were made, however, 
 and several tons soon arrived from New 
 J ersey. 
 
 The provincials had, at this time, no corps 
 of riflemen ; though light troops of this kind 
 were exceedingly needed, to bring in recruits 
 and provisions, and to scour such a wild coun- 
 try as America then was, abounding in rivers, 
 swamps, mountains, and woods. Congress 
 soon raised a few companies in Pennsylvania 
 and Virginia ; and 1,400 of them arrived at 
 the camp early in August. These troops had, 
 some of them, marched five or six hundred 
 miles, and were stout and hardy men ; many 
 of them were more than six feet tall. They 
 were dressed in white frocks, or rifle shirts, 
 and round hats. They were terrible fellows 
 for sharp-shooting ; equal to the Green Mount- 
 ain Boys already mentioned. At a review, a 
 company of them, on a quick march, fired 
 their balls into marks seven inches across, at 
 the distance of 250 yards. They often shot 
 down the British officers, in Boston, like so 
 many wild animals, at more than double the 
 common musket distance. 
 
 More powder was procured about this time, 
 from the coast of Africa, in exchange for New 
 England rum. This was managed so shrewdly 
 that every ounce in the British forts there 
 was bought up fbr the American army. The 
 Massachusetts rulers passed a law, also,- that 
 no powder should be fired at any beast, bird, 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 695 
 
 or mark ; they wished it all to be saved for 
 the war. 
 
 Congress took measures for the coining of 
 money, and the raising of troops in all quar- 
 ters. The people obeyed the directions of 
 Congress with alacrity. Every man, from 
 sixteen years of age to fifty, was a member of 
 some militia company ; and a fourth part of 
 the whole, called minute-men, were to keep 
 themselves ready for action at a moment’s 
 notice. Captains were to be paid twenty 
 dollars a month ; lieutenants and ensigns, 
 thirteen ; corporals and sergeants, eight ; and 
 privates,- six. 
 
 No province was more active than Pennsyl- 
 vania. Companies were raised in all the 
 country towns. Many of the Quakers, even 
 though they did not approve of fighting, were 
 so carried away with the general feeling as to 
 turn out and train with the rest. Three large 
 battalions were raised in Philadelphia alone, 
 besides artillery, cavalry, riflemen, pioneers, 
 and others. They often maneuvred in pres- 
 ence of Congress. The whole city was full of 
 the music of drums, fifes, and bugles. 
 
 Among others, a company was formed of 
 eighty old Germans, who had, most of them, 
 fought a long time before in Europe. It was 
 called the old men’s company. Instead of 
 cockades, they wore black crape, to signify 
 their sorrow at the need of taking up arms at 
 such an age. The captain was near a hundred 
 years old, and had been in seventeen battles ; 
 he had been a soldier forty years. The drum- 
 mer was ninety-four, and the youngest in the 
 carps was about seventy. In the county of 
 Bristol, a regiment was raised, and they were 
 clothed, armed, and furnished with colors by 
 the women. 
 
 About this time, Congress took the neces- 
 sary steps to keep peace with the Indian tribes. 
 But they never employed them to fight against 
 the English, though the English hired them 
 to fight against the Americans. The Ameri- 
 cans thought the Indian way of fighting en- 
 tirely too barbarous and cruel to be suffered 
 among civilized people. Another objection 
 was that the savages could not be depended 
 on. They were greedy for wages, but so de- 
 ceitful, that they could not be safely trusted. 
 A story told of a sergeant, who traveled 
 through the woods of New Hampshire, on his 
 
 way to the American army, will show the 
 character of the Indians. 
 
 He had twelve men with him. Their route 
 was far from any settlement ; and they were 
 obliged every night to camp in the woods. 
 The sergeant had seen a good deal of the In- 
 dians, and understood them well. Early in 
 the afternoon, one day, as they w^ere marching 
 on, over bogs, swamps, and brooks, under the 
 great maple trees, a body of Indians, more 
 than their own number, rushed out upon a 
 hill in front of them. They appeared to be 
 pleased at meeting with the sergeant and his 
 men. They considered them, they said, as 
 their best friends. For themselves, they had 
 taken up the hatchet for the Americans, and 
 would scalp and strip those rascally English 
 for them, like so many wild-cats. “How do 
 you do, pro?” (meaning brother) said one; 
 and “ How do ye do, pro ?” said another ; and 
 so they went about, shaking hands with the 
 sergeant and his twelve men. 
 
 They went off, at last ; and the sergeant, 
 having marched on a mile or two, halted his 
 men, and addressed them. “ My brave fel- 
 lows,” said he, “ we must use all possible cau- 
 tion, or, before morning, we shall all of us be 
 dead men. You are amazed; but, depend 
 upon me, these Indians have tried to put our 
 suspicion to sleep. You will see more of them 
 by and by.” 
 
 They concluded, finally, to adopt the follow- 
 ing scheme for defense. They encamped for 
 the night near a stream of water, which pro- 
 tected them behind. A large oak was felled, 
 and a brilliant fire kindled. Each man cut a 
 log of wood about the size of his body, rolled 
 it nicely up in his blanket, placed his hat on 
 the end of it, and laid it before the fire, that 
 the enemy might take it for a man. Thirteen 
 logs were fitted out in this way, representing 
 the sergeant and his twelve men. They then 
 placed themselves, with loaded guns, behind 
 the fallen tree. By this time it was dark ; 
 but the fire was kept burning till midnight. 
 The sergeant knew that if the savages ever 
 came, they would come now. 
 
 A tall Indian was seen, at length, through 
 the glimmering of the fire, which was getting 
 low. He moved cautiously toward them, 
 skulking, as an Indian always does. He 
 seemed to suspect, at first, that a guard might 
 
 REV 
 
696 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 be watching ; but, seeing none, he came for- 
 ward more boldly, rested on his toes, and was 
 seen to move his finger, as he counted the 
 thirteen men, sleeping, as he supposed, by 
 the fire. 
 
 He counted them again, and retired. An- 
 other came up, and did the same. Then the 
 whole party, sixteen in number, came up, and 
 glared silently at the logs, till they seemed to 
 be satisfied they were fast asleep. Presently 
 they took aim, fired their whole number of 
 guns upon the logs, yelled the horrid war- 
 whoop, and rushed forward to murder and 
 scalp their supposed victims. The sergeant 
 and his men were ready for them. They fired 
 upon them ; and not one of the Indians was 
 left to tell the story of that night. The ser- 
 geant reached the army in safety. 
 
 Treaties having been made with the Indi- 
 ans, Congress recommended that the 20th 
 day of July, 1775, should be observed, in all 
 the provinces, as a day of fasting and prayer ; 
 and it was so. The people were everywhere 
 disposed to implore Heaven to prevent war, 
 and to soften the hearts of their enemies. In 
 Philadelphia, Congress attended church in a 
 body. As they were entering the house of 
 worship, they received news from Georgia, 
 that this province had at last concluded to 
 join in the common cause, with the other 
 twelve. Until this time, the people there had 
 said and done but little ; but they determined 
 now to make amends for lost time. 
 
 A declaration of rights was soon after put 
 forth by Congress, and sent over every part 
 of the country. It gave a history of the whole 
 difficulty, from first to last, between England 
 and America ; and ended with an account of 
 the burning of Charlestown, the seizure of the 
 provincial vessels by the British, and the hir- 
 ing of the savages to fight against the Ameri- 
 cans. “We are compelled,” said they, “to 
 submit to tyranny, or to take up arms. We 
 have counted the cost of this war, and have 
 determined to be free, as our fathers have been 
 before us, and as we trust our children shall 
 be after us. W e declare, before God, that we 
 will defend each other, and the liberties of the 
 whole country, to the last moment of life.” 
 This was signed by John Hancock, president, 
 and by Charles Thompson, secretary, of Con- 
 gress. The ministers read it from their pul- 
 pits in all parts of the land. It was read in 
 
 Cambridge, to a vast multitude, and General 
 Putnam assembled his troops on Prospect 
 Hill to hear it. This was followed by a prayer 
 from a clergyman. All the troops cried, three 
 times, “ Amen ; ” the artillery fired a general 
 salute, and a new flag was unfurled, with 
 these mottoes, — on one side, “An appeal 
 to Heaven,” and, on the other, “ He who has 
 brought us over will defend us.” 
 
 A petition to the English king w T as next 
 drawn up, and addresses were written to the 
 people of England, Ireland, and Canada. 
 Congress were resolved to leave nothing un- 
 said, or undone, that offered any chance of 
 restoring peace. The Canadians were per- 
 suaded to remain neutral, taking no part on 
 either side. The British general, Carleton, 
 used efforts to make them enlist as soldiers. 
 They were offered two hundred acres of land 
 in any part of America they should choose, 
 at the end of the war. Each married man 
 was to have fifty acres more for his wife, 
 and fifty for each of his children, with a 
 guinea as a bounty at the time of enlisting. 
 A few only were persuaded in this way. A 
 good many Indians, however, were hired. 
 They collected at Montreal, in great numbers, 
 in July, 1775. Among the rest were six 
 famous tribes of Western New York, called 
 the Six Nations. They swore, in the presence 
 of Carleton, to fight for the English king ; 
 and thus, soon after, the Indian war began. 
 
 It may seem strange, that, during the dis- 
 turbances in the various colonies, little or 
 nothing should have been done, by the Eng- 
 lish governors, to put down the rebellion. 
 The truth is, they had no troops, and not 
 much money at their disposal ; and, before 
 these could be supplied, the spirit of inde- 
 pendence had gone too far to be repressed. 
 
 In Virginia, Governor Dunmore, being com- 
 pelled to leave Williamsburg, and fearing that 
 it would not be safe for him to remain upon 
 the land, went on board a royal armed vessel. 
 Having collected a fleet, he resolved to har- 
 ass the Virginians as much as possible, if he 
 could not govern them. He was joined by 
 the Tories, that is, the Americans who favor- 
 ed the English. 
 
 He laid waste the coast, at various places, 
 murdering and burning like a pirate. He 
 burnt Hampton, on the bay of Hampton, 
 among the rest, and undertook to establish 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 697 
 
 his camp there. But the Virginians soon 
 drove him back upon the water. He then 
 declared all the negro slaves to be free, and 
 invited them to join him. A few of them 
 succeeded in doing so. 
 
 He landed again at Norfolk, where the To- 
 ries were numerous ; and a battle was fought, 
 a few miles from that city, at a place called 
 Great Bridge, with a regiment of Virginia 
 militia and minute-men. The governor had 
 only 200 regulars about him. The rest was 
 a mere mob, of black, white, and gray. 
 
 The first attack was made by the British, 
 on the American intrenchment. The battle 
 lasted some time, with a good deal of spirit. 
 At last, the British captain was killed, and the 
 troops fell back upon the bridge. The gov- 
 ernor did not like fighting ; so, during the 
 battle, he contented himself with looking on 
 at a distance. The negroes loved fighting as 
 little as the governor. They found it by no 
 means pleasant to have their flesh cut to 
 pieces with bullets ; so, after a few shots, they 
 ran away as fast as they could. The gov- 
 ernor also thought it best to retreat, and, 
 accordingly, he and his men went on board 
 of their vessels. 
 
 This affair did not serve to sweeten Gover- 
 nor Dunmore’s temper ; nor did it put him in 
 a better humor, to find that his friends, the 
 Tories at Norfolk, had been handled roughly 
 by the people there after his retreat with his 
 negro allies. He returned into the bay, with 
 a ship of war, and sent a message ashore, 
 declaring, that, unless the people furnished 
 him provisions, he should batter the town 
 down about their ears. They refused to sup- 
 ply him: so he gave them notice, in the 
 morning, to remove the women and children ; 
 and then, with his own sloop of war, the 
 frigate Liverpool, and two corvettes, he blazed 
 away upon the place, till scarcely one stone 
 was left upon another. The provincials, to 
 disappoint him of his provisions, burnt the 
 whole country round about. 
 
 In South Carolina, Governor Campbell ar- 
 rived at Charleston, from England, about the 
 same time with the news of the bloodshed at 
 Lexington. The people were on their guard ; 
 and he tried in vain to get the better of them, 
 by inviting the Tories to assist him ; but the 
 Tories were afraid to do so. He began to be 
 frightened a little himself, being a man of less 
 
 courage than Governor Dunmore ; so he said 
 little or nothing for some time. To unmask 
 him, the American leaders sent privately to 
 him one Adam Macdonald, captain in a mili- 
 tia regiment. He called himself Dick Wil- 
 liams, and offered his services to the governor. 
 The latter was delighted, and told him all his 
 plans. Having heard them attentively, Adam 
 went away, and told the whole to the persons 
 who employed him. They immediately sent 
 a committee, Macdonald among the number, 
 to wait upon his excellency, and request him 
 to show his royal commission, if he had any, 
 as governor. He declined this proposal. 
 There were some hints then thrown out, 
 about putting him in confinement. These 
 came to his ears, and he retreated, with very 
 little ceremony or delay, to an English cor- 
 vette in the harbor. The assembly requested 
 him to return; but he refused. Nothing 
 more was seen of him, or his government, 
 in Charleston. The Tories were numerous 
 in other sections of the province, however, 
 and he mustered them together in great 
 force. The people were alarmed. The mili- 
 tia were ordered out; and the two parties 
 were on the eve of an engagement. But at 
 length the Tories were dispersed, and they 
 gave no more trouble at that time. 
 
 The provincials in South Carolina contin^ 
 ued to be very active. They captured Fort 
 Johnson, on James’s Island, in Charleston 
 harbor, and placed batteries on Point Hud- 
 drel. The English ships were at last driven 
 off*. The next thing with the people was to 
 send an expedition after an English vessel 
 laden with powder, which was anchored off* 
 St. Augustine, a town on the coast of East 
 Florida. She was taken, and 15,000 pounds 
 of powder were carried to Charleston. 
 
 In North Carolina, the provincial congress 
 raised 1,000 regular militia, and 3,000 min- 
 ute-men. The English governor, Martin, 
 disliked the appearance of things, and en- 
 deavored to muster a force of the Irish and 
 Scotch part of the inhabitants. He also for- 
 tified his own house, at Newbern, with artil- 
 lery. The people seized upon his cannon ; 
 and he fled to a fort upon Cape Fear River. 
 The provincials marched after him, led on by 
 Colonel Ashe. He retreated on board a ves- 
 sel, as the other governors had done. Colo- 
 nel Ashe burnt the fort to ashes the same 
 
 REV 
 
698 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 night. The assembly declared the governor 
 a traitor. He answered them' in a very long 
 letter, which they ordered burnt by the 
 common hangman. A large quantity of ball 
 and powder was found in his cellar and gar- 
 dens, at Newbern. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, the people prepared ac- 
 tively for war. A single mill, near Phila- 
 delphia, manufactured five hundred pounds 
 of powder a week. Governor Tryon, after 
 endeavoring a long time to manage the prov- 
 ince, followed the example of the other gov- 
 ernors. 
 
 In other parts of the country, the enemy was 
 not asleep. One Captain Wallace, command- 
 ing an English squadron of small vessels off 
 Rhode Island, w T as doing all the damage in his 
 power, by ravaging the coast, and making 
 prize of the merchant vessels. His chief ob- 
 ject seemed to be to supply himself and his 
 force with provisions. With this view, he 
 made a furious attack upon the town of Bris- 
 tol, and fired, from morning till night, upon 
 their houses and churches. He bored them 
 through and through, till, finally, the people 
 supplied him and his squadron with fresh 
 meat, and he sailed away. 
 
 About this time, a body of American troops 
 were sent from Massachusetts to Rhode 
 Island, under Gen. Lee. He was a man of 
 great courage and warm temper. He obliged 
 all the inhabitants, whom he went to defend, 
 to take the most terrible oaths to do precisely 
 what Congress should command ; and, at all 
 events, to break off all intercourse with the 
 tools of tyranny, “vulgarly called,” as the 
 oath said, “ the fleets and armies of the king.” 
 Congress were not much pleased with this 
 maneuvre. It was well meant, without 
 doubt, but it was very rough, and of no real 
 use. 
 
 On the 18th of October, 1775, Falmouth, 
 now Portland, in Maine, was bombarded by 
 Lieut. Mowattt, of the ship Canceaux, of six- 
 teen guns, and the whole town was consumed. 
 He had formerly received some affront in the 
 place, and revenged himself in this way. He 
 sent the people w T ord at night that he should 
 destroy the town in the morning ; they re- 
 moved their furniture, and he went to work 
 early the next day with his cannon. The 
 town had been twice sacked by the Indians, 
 but never suffered so severely before. 
 
 The most important affair of this year was 
 an expedition to Canada. The provincials 
 had done so well upon Lake Champlain, that 
 the scheme of another expedition in the same 
 quarter was much approved of. Congress 
 hoped that, if Canada was invaded at once, 
 many of the inhabitants would join the Amer- 
 icans. 
 
 Three thousand men, commanded by Gen- 
 erals Montgomery, Wooster, and Schuyler, 
 were fitted out. Boats were built for them 
 on the lake, at Crown Point, and the sum of 
 $50,000 was collected to pay the expenses. 
 Sir Guy Carleton, governor of Canada, in- 
 trenched himself, with a strong force, at the 
 entrance of the river Sorel, which leads out of 
 the lake, and which the Americans would be 
 obliged to pass. 
 
 The latter took possession of an island in 
 the lake, at the mouth of the river, and, from 
 that place, planned an attack on Fort St. 
 John, where the governor was. This fort 
 stood on the left bank of the Sorel, and com- 
 manded the passage to Canada. The Amer- 
 icans moved on without cannon, to a swamp 
 within a mile and a half of the fort. They 
 defeated a body of Indians, who attacked them 
 in crossing a small river, waited for re-en- 
 forcements, and laid siege to the fort. 
 
 Farther north, on the Sorel, was a small 
 fort, called Chambly. The English had no 
 idea of the provincials passing St. John to 
 fall upon Chambly ; but they did so ; took 
 the garrison prisoners ; obtained 124 barrels 
 of powder for the siege of St. John, and sent 
 the colors they had captured to Congress. 
 Other detachments scoured the country be- 
 tween, the Sorel and the St. Lawrence; the 
 Canadians supplying them everywhere with 
 arms and provisions. 
 
 Just at this time, Colonel Ethan Allen and 
 Major Brown undertook an expedition against 
 the city of Montreal, which stands on an 
 island in the St. Lawrence. Allen found 
 boats ready for him at Longueville, and cross- 
 ed the river in the night, below Montreal. 
 Here Brown was to have joined with his 
 troops, but he missed his way, and Allen was 
 left, with a small force, in the neighborhood 
 of the city. It was just sunrise. The mur- 
 mur of the city was heard at a few miles’ 
 distance, and by and by the roll of the Eng- 
 lish drums came upon the ear. The Ameri- 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 699 
 
 cans saw that they were discovered. Before 
 long, a column of British infantry came 
 marching down the bank of the river. There 
 was an almost breathless silence in Allen’s 
 small band, as they came up. Even Allen 
 himself stood fast, and gazed at them. “ To 
 the boats ! to the boats ! ” cried a dozen of 
 his soldiers ; “ there’s a thousand of them.” 
 “Silence! every man of ye!” roared Allen, 
 brandishing a huge horse-pistol. “ The first 
 man that turns his back upon the red coats, 
 shall smell gunpowder.” They were satisfied 
 with this arrangement, on the whole, exam- 
 ined their rifles, and stood ready for the 
 onset. 
 
 “ Stand your ground, boys ! ” shouted Al- 
 len. A party of British soldiers was moving 
 toward them from the main body, at double 
 quick time. “ Let them come ! ” cried a tall, 
 fine-looking hunter at his side; “let them 
 come ! ” He brought his rifle to his eye, as 
 he spoke. “ Fire !” shouted the British offi- 
 cer, and instantly the hunter dropped dead 
 at the feet of Allen. His hardy followers 
 shrunk back; they were sprinkled with 
 the blood of the poor hunter. “ Fire ! fire 1 " 
 shouted Allen, with a voice of thunder. A 
 hot skirmish ensued. Allen was at last com- 
 pelled to surrender. 
 
 He was kept a prisoner more than two 
 years, and then was exchanged for some 
 English officer whom the Americans had 
 taken. The irons put upon him were so fas- 
 tened about him, and so heavy, that for a 
 long time he could lie down only on his back. 
 A chest was his seat by day, and his bed by 
 night. He was sent to England, to be tried 
 as a prisoner of state, not as a fair and open 
 enemy, but as a rebel. At this time, all the 
 Americans were called rebels, and the Eng- 
 lish used to speak of hanging great numbers 
 of them when the war was over. 
 
 Allen was a man of very large frame and 
 prodigious strength. He possessed great 
 courage, and was much inclined to daring 
 enterprise. His reputation, it seems, had 
 gone before him to England ; and he was 
 therefore kept in very close confinement. 
 The people were as much afraid of him as if 
 he had been a whale or a sea-serpent. They 
 sometimes used to come and see him in his 
 prison ; but they were very shy, and if he so 
 
 much as turned round, they would run away 
 like a flock of startled sheep. 
 
 The Americans were always on the watch. 
 They thought it probable, that Carleton 
 would set out about this time, and were ready 
 for him. He embarked 800 men in boats, 
 and undertook to cross the St. Lawrence, 
 precisely where Allen had crossed it, at 
 Longueville. But Col. Warner, with three 
 hundred of the Green Mountain sharp-shoot- 
 ers, and a few cannon, lay among the bushes, 
 on the river bank, as the governor’s boats 
 came over. The Americans waited quietly 
 till they were fairly within reach, and then 
 poured out upon them a tremendous volley 
 of grape-shot. The governor’s party retreated 
 in great haste, with some loss of lives ; and 
 nothing more was seen of them. 
 
 News of this defeat soon came to Major 
 Preston, the British commander of the be- 
 sieged fort of St. John. He began to think 
 it a desperate case with him, and so concluded 
 to surrender to the American general, Mont- 
 gomery. This he did on the 3d of Novem- 
 ber, 1775. He had held out like a brave man, 
 the siege having lasted six weeks. The Amer- 
 icans found in this fort seventeen brass can- 
 non, twenty-two iron ones, and a large quan- 
 tity of balls and bombs. The powder had 
 been used to the last kernel, and the provis- 
 ions to the last morsel. The capture was an 
 important one. St. John, standing on the 
 Sorel, which leads from Lake Champlain to 
 the St. Lawrence, commanded the passage to 
 and from Canada, and was, therefore, called 
 the key of Canada. 
 
 The next movement of the Americans was 
 to take possession of the mouth of the Sorel, 
 where it empties into the St. Lawrence. The 
 point of land that is formed by the meeting 
 of the two rivers, was fortified with batteries, 
 which swept the river in such a manner that 
 no English vessel could pass without being 
 bored through and through. As the St. Law- 
 rence is wide here, the Americans provided a 
 fleet of boats and floating batteries to guard 
 the other side, and thus completely stopped 
 the passage up and down that river. 
 
 Governor Carleton had left Montreal, which 
 stands farther up the St. Lawrence from the 
 sea, with a fleet of English ships under his 
 command, without having dieard of these for* 
 
 REV 
 
700 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tifications. What added to the difficulty of 
 his situation was that, the very day after he 
 left Montreal, ^another body of Americans, 
 under Montgomery himself, appeared under 
 the walls of that city, and called upon the 
 people to surrender. 
 
 This detachment had marched across the 
 country from Fort St. John. The land is flat 
 and marsh} T , and their journey had been slow 
 and difficult. It gave them great satisfaction 
 to have reached Montreal just as the governor 
 had gone off with his force. The city, having 
 no defense, was compelled to surrender. Gen- 
 eral Montgomery treated the people so hand- 
 somely, that they supplied him with a large 
 quantity of clothes for his troops. These were 
 very much needed. It was now the middle 
 of November, and they were weary of a long, 
 cold march. 
 
 Governor Carleton was now unpleasantly 
 situated on the river, with Montreal, in the 
 possession of Montgomery, above him, and 
 the fortifications at the mouth of the Sorel 
 below. If he could have been taken, all Can- 
 ada would have been easily conquered ; but 
 he contrived, one dark night, to pass through 
 among the floating batteries, in a small boat, 
 with the oars muffled. Thus he escaped safely 
 to a town on the northern bank, called Trois 
 Rivieres; and from that place he went to 
 Quebec. 
 
 The English fleet, which the governor had 
 left behind, surrendered to the Americans, in 
 a day or two, with a large number of soldiers 
 and officers aboard. General Montgomery 
 left garrisons in Montreal, and Forts Chambly 
 and St. John, on the Sorel, to keep the Indi- 
 ans in awe, and marched on to Quebec, with 
 the small force of three hundred men. 
 
 While these things were going forward, 
 General Washington, in his camp at Cam- 
 bridge, had conceived the plan of sending an 
 expedition against Quebec, by way of a rough, 
 wild route, known only to the backwoodsmen 
 and hunters, through the district of Maine. 
 He selected Colonel Arnold to command the 
 expedition ; a rash but brave man, who had 
 assisted in the capture of Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point. Fourteen companies were put 
 under his command; three of riflemen, and 
 one of artillery, under Captain Lamb, being 
 among the number; in all, there were about 
 eleven hundred men. A few others joined 
 
 them, of their own accord ; and among these 
 volunteers was Aaron Burr, then twenty years 
 of age. 
 
 Maine is crossed, from north to south, as a 
 map will show, by the river Kennebec, rising 
 in the mountains between Maine and Canada, 
 and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. On 
 the other side of the same mountains, and 
 close, therefore, by the small upper streams 
 of the Kennebec, another river rises, called 
 the Chaudiere, which empties into the St. 
 Lawrence, nearly opposite Quebec. In cross- 
 ing these mountains, between the sources of 
 the two rivers, on the two sides, it is neces- 
 sary to pass very steep and wild and desolate 
 places, over marshes and torrents. Such was 
 the route Arnold and his brave soldiers were 
 to travel. 
 
 He left Boston in September, 1775, and ar- 
 rived at Nevvburyport. The vessels that 
 waited for him here conveyed him and his 
 men to the mouth of the Kennebec. With a 
 fresh south wind, they sailed up the river fifty 
 miles, to the town of Gardiner. Here were 
 two hundred batteaux ready for them. These 
 were long, light flat-boats, much used by the 
 Canadians, hunters, and others in shoal waters. 
 
 Having laden these with his arms and pro- 
 visions, Arnold proceeded up the river to Fort 
 Western, on the right bank. Here he divided 
 his corps into three detachments. The rifle- 
 men, under Capt. Morgan, moved on forward, 
 as a vanguard, to explore the country; to 
 sound the fords, — that is, ascertain where the 
 river might be crossed easily ; and to look out 
 for the portages. These are places where the 
 river ceases to be navigable, on account of 
 shoals, falls, or rocks. The lading of the 
 boats must, therefore, be carried forward upon 
 the banks, by hand, or by beasts of burden. 
 The batteaux are then carried on, also, till 
 the river becomes deeper and smoother. 
 
 Arnold’s second detachment marched the 
 next day after the first ; and the third detach- 
 ment the day after that. The current of the 
 river was rapid, the bottom rocky, and often 
 interrupted by falls. Every hour, the water 
 entered some of the batteaux, and damaged 
 the provisions and arms. At every portage, 
 — and these occurred very often, — the boats 
 were to be unladen, and carried on the shoul- 
 ders of the troops. In places where the river 
 was rapid, yet free of rocks, the batteaux were 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 701 
 
 hauled up slowly by soldiers on the banks, 
 who dragged them along with ropes. 
 
 The army, however, advanced, and at length 
 they had wild mountains to cross, steep prec- 
 ipices to climb, vast shady forests to pass un- 
 der, and quagmires to wade through. They 
 had deep valleys to traverse, where the pine- 
 trees were tossing over their heads in the 
 stormy wind, and where the river was rushing 
 and foaming over the rocks, with a noise like 
 the ocean. They were sometimes a whole 
 day in traveling four or five miles, with their 
 baggage lashed on their backs, and axes in 
 their hands to hew a road through the wil- 
 derness. Some of the men died at last with 
 weariness many others fell sick ; and all of 
 them were at length sorely pressed for food. 
 Many a young soldier, as he lay down at night, 
 hungry and tired, on his pillow of green 
 boughs, thought of the warm bright fireside, 
 where a mother was weeping for him. But 
 these thoughts were vain. They rose in the 
 morning, and pressed on patiently, brave men 
 as they were. 
 
 By the time they had reached the source of 
 Dead River, a branch of the Kennebec, their 
 provisions were almost exhausted. The sol- 
 diers were living, or rather starving, now, 
 upon the poor lean dogs they had taken with 
 them, and even this food was a luxury. At 
 this place, Col. Enos received orders from Ar- 
 nold, to send back the sick to Boston. He 
 took the opportunity to return himself, with 
 his whole detachment. He was afterward 
 tried for this desertion, by a court-martial, 
 and acquitted, for the reason that the men 
 must otherwise have starved. 
 
 But Col. Arnold marched on. For thirty- 
 two days, not a single human dwelling was 
 met with. The army arrived at last upon the 
 mountains, between the Kennebec and the 
 Chaudiere. The little food still left was di- 
 vided equally, and then the troops were di- 
 rected to look out as they could for their own 
 living. They discovered, finally, with incon- 
 ceivable joy, the sources of the Chaudiere, 
 and the first log-houses of the Canadians. 
 
 These people received them well, and as- 
 sisted them. Arnold addressed a proclama- 
 tion to the Canadians, waited for his rear- 
 guard to overtake him, pressed on, and ar- 
 rived, Nov. 9th, at Point Levy, nearly oppo- 
 site Quebec. The people of the city were as 
 
 much amazed at the sight of him and his men, 
 as if they had been so many goblins. 
 
 The English colonel, Maclean, had heard of 
 their coming, however, by a letter which Ar^ 
 nold had given to an Indian on the Kennebec, 
 to carry to Gen. Schuyler. The Indian gave 
 it to Maclean, and the latter removed all his 
 batteaux from the Point Levy side of the river 
 to the other bank. The wind blew a gale, 
 too ; and thus the city had time to prepare 
 for defense. All the people of Quebec were 
 immediately armed, and brought within the 
 walls, soldiers or not soldiers, English, French, 
 Scotch, and Irish, regulars and marines. 
 
 The wind moderated, and Arnold undertook 
 to pass the river on the night of Nov. 13th, 
 the same day that Montgomery took Montreal. 
 One hundred and fifty men remained to make 
 ladders for scaling the city walls. The rest 
 succeeded in crossing the river. The banks 
 being very steep here, Arnold and his men 
 marched down upon the edge of the river 
 toward Quebec, and climbed the heights of 
 Abraham, close by the city, and almost over- 
 looking it. Here he waited for his 150 ladder 
 men, and hoped that the city w r ould surrender. 
 
 They were prepared for him, however ; and 
 Maclean not only refused to receive the mes- 
 sage requiring him to surrender, but fired 
 upon the bearer of it. Arnold had no cannon, 
 and only six charges of powder to each man. 
 Hearing, therefore, that Maclean was about to 
 sally out upon him, he retired twenty miles 
 up the river, to Point au Tremble. He met 
 on his march the ship in which Governor 
 Carleton was sailing down to Quebec; and 
 heard, when he reached the Point, that he 
 had left it but a few hours before. 
 
 Montgomery arrived here, and joined Ar- 
 nold, on the 1st of December, 1775, after a 
 weary march from Montreal. The weather 
 was excessively cold, and the roads were 
 blocked up with snow. His force was about 
 three hundred men ; and never were people 
 more delighted to see each other, than were 
 these three hundred, and the little band of 
 brave fellows who had followed Arnold. 
 Montgomery had brought clothing for the 
 latter; and they stood in great need of it, 
 indeed. 
 
 The soldiers now marched in company, and 
 arrived in sight of Quebec on the 5th. A 
 summons was sent to Carleton to surrender ; 
 
702 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 but he ordered his troops to fire upon the 
 bearer. Montgomery then planted a battery 
 of six cannon within seven hundred paces of 
 the walls. They were laid upon banks of 
 snow and ice ; the pieces were small ; and the 
 fire had little effect. The snow had now fallen 
 in huge drifts, and the weather was excess- 
 ively cold. A council of war was called, and 
 an immediate assault on the city was resolved 
 upon. 
 
 Two detachments, under Montgomery and 
 Arnold, were to attack the walls of the lower 
 part of the town. This taken, the rest would 
 probably submit without fighting. On the 
 last day of the year 1775, between four and 
 five in the morning, in the midst of a heavy 
 snow-storm, the American columns advanced. 
 
 An Irish captain, going his rounds upon 
 the walls of the town, observed the guns fired 
 by the Americans as a signal, and at once 
 caused the drums to beat, and roused the gar- 
 rison to arms. Montgomery, with his detach- 
 ment, passing along under Cape Diamond, 
 came to a small battery of cannon. The 
 guard threw down their arms, and fled. The 
 Americans had nearly taken possession of it, 
 but the road was impeded with immense 
 masses of snow. Montgomery, with his own 
 hands, opened a path for his troops. Two 
 hundred of them came up at last, and rushed 
 on. Just then, a cannoneer, who had fled, 
 on seeing the Americans halt, returned to his 
 post, at the little battery, and, taking a match, 
 which happened to be still burning, fired a 
 cannon charged with grape-shot. The Amer- 
 icans were within forty pace£. Montgomery 
 dropped dead upon the spot, and his troops 
 soon fled. 
 
 Arnold had made an assault, meanwhile, at 
 another point. But he soon received a mus- 
 ket ball in the leg, which splintered the bone ; 
 and he was carried off to the hospital, almost 
 by force, as he was unwilling to quit the field. 
 Captain Morgan, with two companies of rifle- 
 men, now advanced upon the battery. His 
 sharp-shooters killed many of the English 
 through the embrasures. The guard fled. 
 Morgan rushed forward, and some prisoners 
 were taken. But here the courage of his 
 troops failed them. Morgan alone stood firm. 
 As the morning dawned, he rallied his rifle- 
 men with a voice of thunder, and they pushed 
 forward. A detachment sallied out upon 
 
 them, at this moment, from the walls; and 
 the English captain summoned them to lay 
 down their arms. Morgan aimed a musket at 
 him, and shot him dead. The English re- 
 treated; a hot skirmish ensued. Ladders 
 were planted against the walls, but a terrible 
 fire was poured down upon the men who at- 
 tempted to ascend them. A detachment of 
 the British now assaulted the Americans on 
 another side, and they were compelled, at 
 last, to surrender. 
 
 Arnold, with his remaining force, retreated 
 three miles from the city, and intrenched him- 
 self. Governor Carleton kept within the 
 walls of Quebec, satisfied with waiting till re- 
 enforcements should reach him from England, 
 in the spring. So ended the famous assault 
 upon Quebec. 
 
 A braver man than Montgomery never fell 
 on a field of battle. The whole country wept 
 for his loss. Even the Canadians lamented 
 him, and Carleton buried his body with all 
 the honors of war. Colonel Barre, and Fox 
 and Burke, the great orators of England, pro- 
 nounced his praises in the English parliament. 
 Congress ordered a monument to be procured 
 from France, and erected to his memory. 
 
 We come now to 1776. In the winter and 
 spring of this year, Boston was still surrounded 
 by the American army under Washington. 
 The British in the town, meanwhile, were 
 reduced to great extremity. For fuel, they 
 used the timber of houses, which they pulled 
 down for the purpose. They were in want of 
 food. Armed ships were ordered to Georgia, 
 to buy up rice ; but the people of that prov- 
 ince opposed them with so much success, 
 that, of eleven vessels, only two got off with 
 their cargoes. 
 
 The old South church, in Washington street, 
 was entirely destroj^cd inside, and used as a 
 riding-room for a regiment of dragoons. The 
 pulpit and pews were taken out, and the floor 
 covered with earth. The frame-work of one 
 pew, carving, silk furniture, and all, was taken 
 out, and used for a pig-sty. The North 
 church, so called, was entirely demolished. 
 
 All this time, notwithstanding there was 
 much suffering in the town, the English of- 
 ficers and the Tories contrived to pass the 
 time, when they were not fighting the Amer- 
 icans, in dancing and other amusements. 
 They had a small theatre, and in the evening 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 703 
 
 of Feb. 8th were acting a farce, called “ The 
 Blockade of Boston.” One figure, meant to 
 ridicule Washington, was rigged out in the 
 most uncouth style, with a large wig, and a 
 long rusty sword. Another character was an 
 American sergeant, in his country dress, with 
 an old gun on his shoulder, eight feet long. 
 At the moment this figure appeared, one of 
 the British sergeants came running on the 
 stage, and cried out, “ The Yankees are at- 
 tacking our works on Bunker Hill.” The au- 
 dience took it for a part of the play ; but Gen. 
 Howe knew it was no joke, and called out, 
 “ Officers, to your alarm-posts ! ” 
 
 The American army at this time about 
 Boston was but little better provided for than 
 the English. Many fell sick with fatigue and 
 exposure. They had provisions enough from 
 the counhy, to be sure, while the English 
 troops were said to be living wholly on salt 
 meat, and the Boston Tories upon horse-flesh. 
 But the whole number, in Januar}', was re- 
 duced to less than ten thousand ; and these, 
 having enlisted for a few months only, were 
 every day going home. 
 
 At one time, there were hardly men enough 
 to man the lines. As for powder, they had 
 but four rounds to a man ; and but four small 
 brass cannon, and a few old iron pieces full 
 of holes, with the wood-work broken off. 
 These were fitted into logs, like the barrel of 
 a gun into the stock, and lifted up and down, 
 and wheeled about, in this way, but to some 
 good purpose. The British laughed at these 
 machines, at first, but they soon found them 
 no laughing matter. They kept up a contin- 
 ual cannonade, in return; firing about two 
 thousand shot and bomb-shells, it is said, in 
 the course of a few months. But the whole 
 of this firing killed only. twelve Americans. 
 
 There were two cannon kept in a gun-house 
 opposite the Mall, in Boston, at the corner of 
 West street, in the care of one Paddock. The 
 British found it out, and Paddock promised 
 to deliver them up. A party of school-boys 
 undertook to prevent him from doing it. The 
 school-house was the next building to the 
 gun-house, separated only by a 3~ard, com- 
 mon to both, and surrounded by a high 
 fence. The boys contrived to enter the gun- 
 house windows, in the rear, in spite of an 
 English guard which had bee n placed before 
 the building. The guns were taken off their 
 
 carriages, carried into the school-room, and 
 placed in a large box under the master’s 
 desk, in which wood was kept. The English 
 soon missed the guns, and began to search 
 the yard. They entered the school-house, 
 and examined it all over, excepting the box, 
 which the master placed his lame foot upon. 
 They were too polite to disturb him, and 
 excused him from rising. The boys looked 
 on, but lisped not a word. The guns re- 
 mained in the box for a fortnight, when one 
 of th^ largest boys carried them away in a 
 trunk, one evening, on a wheelbarrow. A 
 blacksmith at the south end kept them some 
 time under a pile of coal ; and they were at 
 last put into a boat at night, and conveyed 
 safely to the American camp. 
 
 The condition of the American army in the 
 early part of the year 1776 was miserable. 
 They soon after received five brass cannon, 
 small arms of all kinds, cargoes of provisions, 
 &c. These were all captured from the Brit- 
 ish, off the coast, by American privateers. 
 
 In England, the year 1776 opened with 
 new resolutions, on the part of the ministry, 
 and the majorit}’- of parliament, to continue 
 the war. The party called the Whigs were 
 violently opposed to it ; but the Tories, the 
 ministry, and the king regarded the Amer- 
 icans as rebels, and resolved to spare no 
 pains to punish them severely. They found 
 it difficult to enlist soldiers in England, for 
 the war was unpopular with the lower classes. 
 Recruiting officers were sent about, the royal 
 standard was raised in all the cities, and large 
 bounties and wages were promised ; but to 
 little purpose. In Scotland, some thousands 
 were raised ; and a bargain was made with 
 some of the small states of Germany, for 
 about seventeen thousand German troops. 
 These mercenaries were called Hessians, be- 
 cause a part of them came from Hesse. 
 
 In the mean time, the American army at 
 Boston began to form plans for seizing upon 
 the town, for taking the British garrison pris- 
 oners, and for destroying their fleet in the 
 harbor. But they kept quiet in their quar- 
 ters till March, 1776 ; the British now and 
 then sallying out on the American lines ; 
 and the latter returning the compliment, 
 by playing upon the town with their rusty 
 cannon. 
 
 During this month, the news came of the 
 
 REV 
 
704 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 doings of the ministry in England, and of the 
 king’s violent speech at the close of the ses- 
 sion of parliament. The whole American 
 army was greatly excited. The speech was 
 publicly burnt in the camp. At the same time, 
 the red ground of the American flag was 
 changed, and, in place of it, thirteen blue and 
 white stripes were inserted, as an emblem of 
 the thirteen colonies that were united in the 
 struggle for liberty. These stripes are still 
 retained in our national flag. 
 
 There was the same feeling in Congress as 
 in the army. Stimulated by the conduct of 
 the king and parliament, they resolved, from 
 this time, to follow up the war, at all haz- 
 ards. Hearing that an attack would be made 
 upon New York, they urged General Washing- 
 ton to press, as closely as possible, the siege of 
 Boston, so that the British might not he able 
 to spare troops to send against New York. 
 He wished to attack the town at once, but 
 most of his generals opposed this plan ; and 
 he concluded to fortify the heights of Dor- 
 chester, which commanded the entire city on 
 the south side. 
 
 Heavy batteries were opened from the 
 American works in Cambridge, Roxbury, and 
 Lechmere Point. The bombs fell into the 
 town every hour, and houses ‘were constantly 
 set on fire by them. All this was to employ 
 the British upon that side, while the Amer- 
 icans, on the night of the 4th of March, 
 secretly marched over Dorchester neck. 
 
 The frost rendered the roads good, and 
 such was the silence of the march, and the 
 tremendous roar kept up by the batteries, 
 that 2,000 troops passed over, with three 
 hundred loaded carts, and nothing was known 
 of it till morning. Had the British suspected 
 this maneuvre, they would have taken meas- 
 ures to prevent it. By four o’clock in the 
 morning, two fortifications w r ere raised upon 
 the heights. 
 
 The British were amazed. “ These rebels 
 have done more in one night,” said General 
 Howe, who now commanded, “ than my army 
 would have done in a week.” A terrible can- 
 nonade now opened from the British forts 
 and the shipping, upon the heights. But few 
 men, however, were killed ; and the Amer- 
 icans worked on in high spirits, taking no 
 notice of the cannon-balls, as they came 
 ploughing the ground about them. 
 
 General Howe saw that he must either 
 leave the town, or dislodge the Americans 
 from the heights. He resolved upon the lat- 
 ter ; but a long storm and a very high sea 
 prevented his troops from crossing over. He 
 finally concluded to give up the town, and 
 transport his whole force to Halifax, in Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 Knowing that his shipping might be pre- 
 vented from passing out of the harbor, by the 
 American fortifications, he prepared a great 
 mass of stuff for setting fire to the town, and 
 then proposed to Washington and the select- 
 men, that if his troops were suffered to pass 
 safely, the town should be left standing. 
 This was agreed to. 
 
 He had 150 transports in the harbor; and 
 he embarked on board these, on the 17th of 
 March, taking with him 1,500 of the Amer- 
 ican Tories. Never was such a scene of 
 confusion, plunder, hurrying, crying, and 
 quarreling ; there were fathers bearing their 
 baggage, mothers leading their children, 
 beasts of burden loaded with furniture. The 
 vessels were crowded. The British were 
 some days getting out of the bay ; and had 
 the pleasure, meanwhile, of seeing the Amer- 
 ican army march into Boston, with great 
 rejoicing. 
 
 The siege had lasted sixteen months. Pro- 
 visions had become so scarce that fresh fish 
 sold at a shilling a pound ; geese at nine 
 shillings apiece ; turkeys at two dollars ; 
 hams at two shillings a pound ; sheep at six 
 dollars each ; and apples at six dollars a bar- 
 rel. Two hundred and fifty pieces of cannon 
 were left behind -, also a quantity of wheat 
 and other grain, a good deal of coal for fuel, 
 and 150 horses. 
 
 The English soldiers now began to think 
 that the Americans were an enemy worth 
 conquering, and that powder was not abso- 
 lutely wasted upon them, as upon so many 
 crows. They were provoked by the treat- 
 ment they had received from the sharp- 
 shooters at Breed’s Hill, and the rough com- 
 pliments of the old cannon. 
 
 The Americans, on the other hand, now 
 entered upon the war with their whole hearts. 
 They were irritated more than ever at the 
 conduct of the English ministry, in hiring the 
 Hessian soldiers. This irritation was not 
 allayed by the bill which had just passed 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 705 
 
 through parliament, compelling all persons 
 found in American vessels, to serve on board 
 his majesty’s ships of war. 
 
 Thus from this time, the war, on both 
 sides, assumed a more determined character. 
 A strong English force was sent to relieve 
 Carleton, in Canada. Arnold’s whole force 
 before Quebec now amounted to only 3,000 
 men. Many of these were sick of the small- 
 pox. General Thomas died of the disease. 
 The river was clear of ice, April, 1776, and 
 English re-enforcements were expected every 
 day by the governor. An attack was made 
 upon Quebec, but it failed of success ; and 
 Arnold was obliged to break up his camp 
 and retreat, leaving his baggage behind. 
 Governor Carleton pursued, till the Amer- 
 icans reached the mouth of the river Sorel. 
 
 About the last of May, English forces ar- 
 rived at Quebec, amounting to 13,000 men, 
 commanded by Burgoyne, Phillips, and a 
 German general, called Reidesel. Arnold, 
 meanwhile, was skirmishing with the Cana- 
 dians and Indians, about Montreal and the 
 Sorel. In a short time, he went down the 
 St. Lawrence to Trois Rivieres, where there 
 was a large body of English. 
 
 He expected to surprise them in the night, 
 but was misled by his guide ; and when he 
 arrived late in the morning, the enemy was 
 drawn up in battle array. A skirmish be- 
 gan, and the Americans were defeated. They 
 fled over a wild, swampy country of woods, 
 leaving many prisoners behind them, and, 
 having crossed the St. Lawrence, at last ar- 
 rived at Fort St. John, on the Sorel. The 
 English pursued them to this place. Ar- 
 nold’s force was too small to resist a siege. 
 He therefore set fire to the magazine and bar- 
 racks, and retreated farther south to Crown 
 Point. The English, having lost their bat- 
 teaux, could pursue him no farther, and soon 
 after returned to Quebec. 
 
 The Americans had suffered exceedingly 
 in the retreat. They sometimes waded in the 
 water to the waist, and dragged the loaded 
 batteaux up the rapids by main strength. 
 Two regiments, at one time, had not a single 
 man in health ; another had only six, and a 
 fourth only forty. On the first of July, they 
 reached Crown Point. And thus ended the 
 courageous but unfortunate expedition to 
 Canada. 
 
 During the summer of 1776, Crown Point 
 was taken by the British ; and the Americans, 
 now commanded by Gen. Gates, withdrew to 
 Ticonderoga. A fleet was built on the lake, 
 at Skenesborough, consisting of a sloop, three 
 schooners, and six gondolas, which were large 
 flat vessels. They carried, in the whole, more 
 than 100 guns, and more than 400 men. Ar- 
 nold commanded the fleet. 
 
 By the month of October the British had 
 collected a much larger naval force ; and, as 
 nothing could be done, by way of invading 
 the provinces from Canada, till Lake Cham- 
 plain should be cleared of the Americans, 
 they sailed up the lake and engaged them. 
 The two fleets fought till night. Arnold then 
 very skillfully made his escape, and in the 
 morning not an American sail was to be seen. 
 
 The British fleet followed on, however, and 
 found them again off Crown Point. Some of 
 the American vessels escaped to Ticonderoga. 
 Seven of them remained. They were attack- 
 ed, and the action continued some hours. 
 Arnold was determined that his vessels should 
 not be taken. He contrived, therefore, to 
 run them on shore, and there they were 
 blown up. He did not leave his own vessel 
 till she was wrapped in flames. Lake Cham- 
 plain was now in the power of the British ; 
 but Gates and Arnold had prevented them, 
 strong as their force was, from invading the 
 provinces farther south. It was now too late 
 in the season to attempt it. 
 
 The British, finding that the provinces of 
 North Carolina and Virginia were too strong 
 for them, determined to make an attack upon 
 the city of Charleston, in South Carolina. 
 Admiral Parker and General Clinton reached 
 Charleston harbor on the 28th of June, and 
 with eleven large vessels of war commenced 
 a tremendous attack upon Fort Moultrie. 
 This stood upon Sullivan’s Island, six miles 
 from the city, and was built of a kind of wood 
 called palmetto, so spongy and soft that the 
 balls were buried in it, and no splinters were 
 thrown off. 
 
 The fort was defended by sixty pieces of 
 cannon. Ship after ship poured in their stun- 
 ning broadsides. The whole harbor seemed 
 but a sheet of flame. The Americans aimed 
 well, and every shot had its effect. Some of 
 the English vessels were soon stranded. The 
 Thunderer, after firing more than sixty 
 
 REV 
 
 45 
 
706 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 bombs, was disabled. The Bristol was al- 
 most destroyed, and a great number of men 
 were killed. 
 
 The fire of the fort suddenly stopped. The 
 powder was exhausted. The enemy thought 
 themselves sure of the victory, and the ships 
 moved nearer, with their flags flying and 
 their drums beating. But the Americans 
 were soon supplied from the shore, and the 
 battle lasted, hotter than ever, till seven in 
 the evening. The English drew off in the 
 night, and the enterprise was abandoned. 
 This defense of Fort Moultrie was one of the 
 most gallant actions of the war. Every man 
 and every officer fought like a hero. Con- 
 gress voted thanks to the whole garrison, and 
 to several of the officers by name. A sword 
 was presented to Sergeant Jasper. In the 
 heat of the battle, the staff of the fort flag had 
 been cut down by a ball. It fell from the 
 parapet to the ground below. Jasper sprang 
 after it, fastened it to the rammer of a cannon, 
 and hoisted it again, amid the fire of the 
 enemy. 
 
 General Clinton arrived at Staten Island, 
 off the harbor of New York, about the 12th 
 of July. General Howe, with the army 
 which left Boston for Halifax in March, had 
 taken possession of the island on the second 
 of the month. Two hundred of the inhabit- 
 ants enlisted under his banner. Some of the 
 New Jersey people came into his camp, and 
 Governor Tryon of New York visited him, 
 informed him of the state of the province, and 
 encouraged him to believe that everything 
 must soon yield to his army. 
 
 The British plan now was, to direct the 
 whole English force upon the province of New 
 York, and to make it, with the city of New 
 York, the centre of all their operations in 
 America. From this point, they could march 
 south upon the southern provinces ; here 
 they could receive stores from England by 
 water, and provisions from Staten and Long 
 Islands ; and here they could ascend the 
 Hudson, and meet Burgoyne, in his route 
 south from Canada. 
 
 The revolution in America had reached a 
 point from \^hich it could not turn backward. 
 The feelings of a great part of the people 
 were alienated from England, and a deep hos- 
 tility was planted in their bosoms. They had 
 originally asked for justice, and that was de- 
 
 "f 
 
 nied. Oppression followed, and that they 
 resisted. Then came the British armies, with 
 fire and sword, to consume their dwellings, 
 and shed their blood. A high-spirited people 
 were not likely to look on these things but 
 with resentment. Their love and respect for 
 England were originally very strong. These, 
 indeed, lasted up to the period of which we 
 are now speaking. But now all thoughts of 
 reconciliation were abandoned. The people 
 no longer, asked for redress ; they cast off 
 their allegiance to the king, and determined 
 to be free ; the “ spirit of ’76,” which is often 
 alluded to, was the earnest voice of a nation, 
 resolving that they would risk everything 
 for independence. 
 
 In June, 1776, Congress had chosen five of 
 their members to consider the great question, 
 whether the colonies should declare them- 
 selves a free and independent nation. These 
 were Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, 
 and Livingston. They reported in favor of 
 so doing; and Congress agreed with them. 
 Independence was solemnly declared on the 
 4th of July. The declaration was signed by 
 John Hancock, president, and afterward by 
 every other member of Congress. 
 
 This declaration has become famous among 
 all nations. It was drawn up by Thomas 
 Jefferson ; and then it was a great deal dis- 
 cussed by the members of Congress, and 
 amendments and alterations were made. It 
 was a long time before Congress could satisfy 
 themselves. One gentleman objected to one 
 word, and another to another word, till, as 
 Franklin said to Mr. Jefferson, it fared like 
 the sign of a hatter in Philadelphia, composed 
 in these words, “ John Thompson, hatter, 
 makes and sells hats for ready money,” with 
 a figure of a hat at the end. Before nailing 
 it over his door, the hatter submitted it to his 
 friends for correction. One thought the word 
 “hatter” of no use, it being followed by the 
 words “makes hats.” So “hatter” was 
 struck out. A second said that “makes” 
 might as well be omitted; his customers 
 would not care who made the hats. A third 
 thought “ ready money ” was useless ; it was 
 not the custom of the place to sell for any- 
 thing but money. These were brushed out, 
 and it now read, “John Thompson sells 
 hats.” “Sells hats!” said the next man the 
 hatter met ; “ why, nobody will expect you 
 
 KEY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 707 
 
 to give them away.” “Sells” was knocked 
 out, and then “hats,” because there was 
 one painted on the board. This, with “ John 
 Thompson,” was all that remained. The 
 declaration was not trimmed quite so badly 
 as this. It satisfied everybody at last. 
 
 This story, therefore, only applies to the 
 manner in which the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence was discussed in Congress. As it was 
 finally passed and signed by the members 
 of Congress, it was one of the most noble 
 efforts of the human mind. The people re- 
 ceived and read it with great joy. Independ- 
 ence was proclaimed, with great parade, at 
 Philadelphia, on the 8th. Cannon were 
 fired, the bells rung, bonfires were kindled, 
 and the people seemed to be mad with joy. 
 On the 11th, the declaration was read to each 
 brigade of the American army, then assem- 
 bled at New York, and received with pro- 
 digious peals of applause. The same eve- 
 ning, the statue of George III., erected in 
 1770, w T as dragged through the streets, by 
 the ‘ sons of liberty ; ’ and the lead it was made 
 of was melted into musket-balls. 
 
 At Baltimore, an immense multitude re- 
 ceived the declaration in similar manner ; the 
 air ringing w r ith shouts and the roar of can- 
 non. The king’s effigy was made the sport 
 of the populace, and burnt in the public 
 square. 
 
 In Boston, the declaration was read from 
 the gallery of the state-house, to an immense 
 crowd, gathered from all quarters. Men, wo- 
 men, and children assembled to hear it, and 
 every moment the air resounded with the 
 shouts of the multitude. The troops were 
 drawn up, finely dressed and armed, in King 
 street, which from that time was called State 
 street. The bells rang, the people shouted, 
 the cannon thundered and blazed, and the 
 striped banners waved from the steeples, till 
 the whole air seemed to be alive. In the 
 evening, all the ensigns of royalty, English 
 lions, sceptres, or crowns, whether graven 
 or painted, were torn in pieces, and burnt in 
 State street. 
 
 The Virginian convention voted that the 
 king’s name should be struck from all the pub- 
 lic prayers. They ordered that the great seal 
 of that commonwealth should represent Vir- 
 tue as the guardian genius of the province, 
 resting one hand upon her lance, holding 
 
 with the other a sword, and Trampling upon 
 Tyranny, in the shape of a prostrate man, 
 with a crown fallen from his head, and a 
 broken chain in his hand. 
 
 Such was the manner in which the declara- 
 tion of independence was received by the 
 Americans. They had now declared them- 
 selves to the world as a free people ; but ere 
 their freedom could be established, they had 
 yet to pass through a long, bloody, and deso- 
 lating war. 
 
 General Washington now occupied New 
 York and the opposite shore of Long Island, 
 with seventeen thousand troops. On the 
 22d of August, the English landed, in great 
 force, on the island, and a very hot battle was 
 fought among the hills and woods. A whole 
 regiment of fine young men from Maryland 
 were killed, some cannon w*ere lost, and the 
 Americans retreated to the northern p^rt of 
 the island. 
 
 Here the stormy weather kept the enemy 
 from attacking the camp again. But, fearing 
 an assault every moment, the Americans con- 
 cluded to pass over to New York, and join 
 the rest of the army. This was done in the 
 night of August 29th. They kindled up cir- 
 cles of bright fires in their camp, to deceive 
 the enemy, and started off in their boats at 
 eleven o’clock in the evening. 
 
 They were so near the British all the while, 
 as to hear the sound of their pickaxes, and 
 now and then the shout of a British soldier, 
 as he walked on guard. They were neither 
 seen nor heard, however. The fleet of boats 
 moved off from the shore, like an army of 
 ghosts ; not a word was said, no drums beat, 
 no bugles rang, no colors waved in the breeze. 
 
 A fair wind favored the enterprise, and 
 bore the boats fleetly across. In the morn- 
 ing, at eight, when the fog cleared up which 
 had covered them in the passage, and the sun 
 shone out bright and warm upon the green 
 shores, the wooded hill-tops of the islands, 
 and the smooth surface of the bay, the Amer- 
 ican army had vanished. The camp was de- 
 serted, the fires had gone down, and nothing 
 was to be seen but a few distant boats, which 
 had come back for the cannon. 
 
 Previous to the retreat of the Americans, 
 several skirmishes were fought between the 
 two armies. Two posts, one belonging to the 
 English, and the other to the Americans, 
 
 REV 
 
708 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 were within half gun-shot of each other, and 
 only separated by a small creek. It was at 
 last agreed between the British and Amer- 
 ican officers, that the sentinels should not 
 fire upon each other, as they went their 
 rounds. So they became very civil. “ Give 
 us a quid of your tobacco, my good friend,” 
 cried the English guard to the American sen- 
 tinel. “ Oh ! certainly,” said the latter. He 
 drew his twisted roll from his pocket, and 
 tossed it across the creek to the Englishman, 
 who gnawed off a quid, and threw it back 
 again. 
 
 The British army now pressed the Amer- 
 icans with great activity; the latter were 
 driven back from point to point. They left 
 the city of New York, at last, and the British 
 entered it. A few days after, a terrible fire 
 raged in the place, and consumed more than 
 a thousand houses. Washington retreated 
 into the back country. The British scoured 
 the province of New York with their troops, 
 and covered all the shores with their vessels. 
 Several strong forts were taken, together with 
 their garrisons. Nothing could be done to 
 oppose them. The Americans were never so 
 much discouraged. 
 
 General Washington with his army march- 
 ed into New Jersey, and attempted to harass 
 the British army there, under Cornwallis. 
 But they were too strong, and Washington 
 was obliged to retreat night and day : over 
 mountain and valley, he fled before them. 
 The time the militia had enlisted for was 
 short, and many of them went home. Whole 
 companies deserted, and the army was so 
 small in December, that Washington knew 
 every man by his name. They were so 
 nearly naked and ragged, too, and looked so 
 miserable, that their own countrymen would 
 not join them. They were driven, week after 
 week, up and down the banks of the Dela- 
 ware. The infantry left the frozen ground 
 bloody behind them, with their bare and sore 
 feet. They were so closely pursued that they 
 could scarcely cross a stream, and beat down 
 the bridges after crossing it, before the enemy 
 came galloping up on the other side. 
 
 The British cavalry traversed the country, 
 with their large, fine horses, and elegant uni- 
 forms. The hundred or two horsemen of the 
 American army were mounted upon wretched, 
 worn-out horses, so lean and frightful as to 
 
 be the constant theme of ridicule with the 
 British soldiers. The riders were not much 
 better. Ragamuffins had become a common 
 name for them. 
 
 These were gloomy times ; and the Amer- 
 ican people began to fear that they would be 
 crushed in their struggle for freedom. Many 
 were entirely disheartened. Some persons 
 basely deserted the cause of their country, 
 in this hour of trouble, and went over to the 
 enemy. But Washington remained firm and 
 undismayed. While other minds were sha- 
 ken with doubt and fear, he remained stead- 
 fast and resolved. Looking deeply into the 
 future, and placing his trust in Heaven, he 
 seemed to penetrate the clouds that shed their 
 gloom upon the land, and to see beyond them 
 a brighter and a happier day. 
 
 He always appeared before his soldiers 
 with a smile, and fought or fasted with them, 
 as necessity required. He inspired all around 
 him with courage, and wrote many letters to 
 Congress, entreating them to make great ex- 
 ertions to send him assistance. They endeav- 
 ored to rouse the country, by representing to 
 the people the necessity of an immediate in- 
 crease of the army. This appeal was not 
 without its effect. Philadelphia, in a very 
 short time, furnished Washington with a 
 regiment of fifteen hundred noble fellows who 
 were resolved to support him to the last. 
 They had been accustomed to the gay com- 
 pany and high living of the city ; but they 
 shouldered the musket, — slept, with a mere 
 blanket around them, on the frozen ground, 
 or in sheds and barns, and suffered every- 
 thing with the poorest of the army. 
 
 The British withdrew into winter quarters. 
 They occupied the villages for many miles, 
 up and down, on the eastern side of the Del- 
 aware. Washington was below them, on the 
 other side. They were tired of pursuing him ; 
 and they believed that his army would soon 
 dwindle away, and the whole country be con- 
 quered. They scarcely took the trouble to 
 set guards at night. 
 
 But Washington watched them like a lynx. 
 On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, 
 he crossed the Delaware with a large part of 
 his army. The night was dark, stormy, and 
 cold. The river was crowded with broken 
 ice, rushing together, and sweeping down 
 upon its swift current. But, notwithstand- 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 709 
 
 ing these difficulties and dangers, the river 
 was passed by the American troops, and they 
 inarched on to Trenton, which place they 
 entered at eight in the morning. A large 
 body of Hessians were stationed there. They 
 were completely surprised ; but they fought 
 bravely for a short time. Five hundred cav- 
 alry made their escape; but some fine can- 
 non and more than a thousand prisoners 
 were taken by the Americans. Cornwallis, 
 who lay a few miles off, thought so little of 
 the American ‘ragamuffins,’ at this time, that 
 he mistook the noise of the cannon at Trenton 
 for thunder. 
 
 The British army were amazed at this un- 
 expected event. Washington started off for 
 the mountains of New Jersejr, the British 
 elose upon his rear. They encamped so near 
 him one evening that they thought it impos- 
 sible for him to escape. They put off attack- 
 ing him, however, till the next morning. 
 The Americans kindled up their fires, as 
 usual, posted sentinels enough to keep up the 
 6how of a camp, and then marched off at one 
 o’clock without noise. They reached Prince- 
 ton at daybreak, and fell upon the British 
 there so suddenly and so fiercely, that sixty 
 were killed, and three hundred taken pris- 
 oners. Their commanding officer had some 
 fears of an attack, and had written to the 
 commander of the British army, a day or two 
 before, for a re-enforcement. “Don’t be 
 alarmed,” was the answer; “with a corporal 
 and six men, you may scour the whole coun- 
 try ; don’t be alarmed.” They found them- 
 selves mistaken, however, as we have seen. 
 Washington now formed a camp at Morris- 
 town, and militia came to him from all parts. 
 
 The British treated their prisoners with 
 cruelty. Hundreds were confined in the 
 New York prisons. They were often insulted 
 as rebels. A party of them was once brought 
 before Gen. Howe, to be tried. An English 
 gentleman pleaded their youth in their favor. 
 “ It won’t do,” said the general ; “ hang up 
 the rascals ! hang them up ! ” They were 
 only carted through the streets, however, 
 seated on coffins. Halters were tied about 
 their necks, and the British soldiers hooted 
 at tlfem. 
 
 While these things were going on, late in 
 the year 1776, Sir Peter Parker scoured the 
 coasts of Rhode Island with a large squadron, 
 
 and overrran the whole province. Mean- 
 while, too, a man by the name of Stuart was 
 sent, by the British, among the Indians in 
 the high, wild lands back of Virginia and 
 the other southern colonies. The Cherokees 
 were persuaded by him to make war ; and 
 they rushed in upon the settlements of the 
 whites, burning the villages, and scalping 
 men, women, and children. But a large 
 American force soon marched into their own 
 country. Their wigwams were burnt to the 
 ground, and their cornfields trampled under 
 foot. They were frightened at last, and beg- 
 ged for peace. 
 
 It once happened, during the expedition 
 against the Indians, that the Americans hav- 
 ing marched a long way among the hills, 
 Major Pickens was sent ahead with twenty- 
 five men, as a scouting party, to examine the 
 country. One morning, as he and his party 
 waded through the tall grass on the bank of 
 a stream called Little River, more than two 
 hundred Indians came rushing out on a ridge 
 of land just above them. “Let us scalp 
 them,” cried the Indian leader to his men ; 
 “they are too few to shoot.” But Major 
 Pickens was prepared for their onset. His 
 men were sharp-shooters, and each had his 
 rifle. He ordered them not to fire until he 
 did ; to take sure aim ; and having fired, to 
 bury themselves in the grass, and load their 
 rifles. The Indian chief soon came up within 
 twenty-five yards of the little band, yelling, 
 and shaking his tomahawk. Pickens stretch- 
 ed out his rifle, took deliberate aim, and shot 
 him dead. The twenty-five brave riflemen 
 fired. The Indians fell on all sides. They 
 yelled more than ever, with fury and terror, 
 dropped their tomahawks, and fell back 
 among the trees. Even there the rifles were 
 too sure for them. Not an Indian could 
 show himself over a log or a rock, but a bullet 
 instantly whistled through him. One of 
 them was seen running his gun through the 
 roots of a fallen tree : a rifleman aimed at him 
 as coolly as if he had been a wooden mark, 
 hit him precisely in the nose, and laid him 
 flat on his back. Another Indian lifted the 
 dead body, and was running off with it, when 
 another rifleman fired, and killed him. 
 Dozens of them were picked off* in this way, 
 and the rest fled. 
 
 A few such skirmishes as these made the 
 
 REV 
 
'710 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Indians soon tired of fighting the Americans, 
 to which they had been instigated by the 
 British. The next year, when an attempt 
 was made to set them upon the white inhab- 
 itants along the frontiers, they replied to the 
 British emissaries, that “the hatchet was 
 buried so deep that they could not find it.” 
 
 In the spring of 1777, General Howe 
 amused himself by sending out detachments 
 from his camp to ravage various parts of the 
 country. On the 26th of April, Governor 
 Tryon embarked at New York with a detach- 
 ment, sailed through the sound, and landed 
 at Fairfield, Conn. His forces marched 
 through the country in battle array, and 
 Teached Danbury in twenty hours. As they 
 came, the few militia who were there fled at 
 full speed. The British began to burn and 
 demolish everything except the houses of the 
 Tories. Eighteen houses were consumed ; 
 and eight hundred barrels of pork and beef, 
 two thousand barrels of flour, and seventeen 
 hundred tents were carried off or destroyed. 
 But the militia began to muster from the 
 country roundabout. 
 
 At Ridgefield, Gen. Arnold blocked up the 
 road in front of the British, who were now 
 returning. He had with him about five 
 hundred men. These brave fellows, who had 
 marched fifteen or twenty miles in the rain, 
 kept up a brisk fire upon the enemy as they 
 came on, and stood their ground till the 
 British formed a lodgment upon a hill at 
 their left hand. They were then obliged to 
 give way. The British rushed on, and a 
 whole platoon fired at Gen. Arnold, who was 
 not more than thirty yards distant. His 
 horse was killed. A soldier advanced to run 
 him through with his bayonet ; Arnold shot 
 him dead with his pistol, and escaped. The 
 British lost more than two hundred men, but 
 made good their retreat to the sound. Con- 
 gress presented Gen. Arnold with a fine war- 
 horse, richly caparisoned, for his gallantry. 
 
 By way of retaliation, on the 24th of May, 
 Col. Meigs, an American, crossed the sound 
 with one hundred and seventy men, in whale- 
 boats, and fell upon the enemy at Sag Harbor, 
 on Long Island. They burned twelve vessels, 
 destroyed a large quantity of forage, killed 
 six men, and brought off ninety prisoners, 
 without losing one of their own men. They 
 ^returned to Guilford, having traversed the 
 
 distance of ninety miles in twenty-five hours 
 from the time of their departure. Congress 
 ordered an elegant sword to be presented to 
 Colonel Meigs. 
 
 Gen. Howe made great efforts, in the spring 
 of 1777, to persuade the Americans to enlist 
 under him. They were promised large wages 
 and bounties ; but very few of them could be 
 wheedled in this way. They hated the Ger- 
 man mercenaries even more than they did 
 the English. But great numbers of militia 
 crowded to Washington’s camp, at Middle 
 Brook, New Jersey. His army amounted to 
 fifteen thousand men. 
 
 He was so strongly intrenched among the 
 hills, that Howe dared not attack him. The 
 summer was spent in marching to and fro, in 
 New Jersey, without effecting much. But 
 in July, the British mustered a force of six- 
 teen thousand men, at New York. These 
 left there, soon after, with a large fleet. An 
 attack was expected everywhere upon the 
 coast ; but no one knew whither they were 
 bound. Having been off at sea, with high 
 winds, for a long time, they entered Chesa- 
 peake Bay at last, and landed at Turkey 
 Point. They left that place Sept. 3d, and, 
 marching toward Philadelphia, came up with 
 Washington’s army at a place called Chad’s 
 Ford, on the river Brandywine. On the 11th, 
 they had a warm skirmish, and the Ameri- 
 cans were driven back. Congress removed 
 to Yorktown, Virginia ; and Howe entered * 
 Philadelphia, in great triumph, Sept. 26th. 
 
 The Americans were defeated again at Ger- 
 mantown, on the 4th of October. The battle 
 began early in the morning, when nothing 
 could be seen farther than thirty yards. 
 During the whole action, which lasted nearly 
 three hours, the firing on both sides was 
 directed by the flash of each other’s guns. 
 The smoke of the cannon and musketrj r , 
 mingled with the thick fog, rested over the 
 armies in clouds. The Americans saved their 
 artillery, even to a single cannon, which had 
 been dismounted. This piece belonged to 
 Gen. Greene’s division ; he stopped in the 
 midst of the retreat, and coolly ordered it to 
 be placed in a wagon. In this manner it was 
 carried off. 
 
 Gen. Greene’s aide-de-camp, Major Burnet, 
 wore a long cue in this battle, as the fashion 
 then was in the army. As he turned round 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 711 
 
 to attend to the cannon just mentioned, his 
 cue was cut off by a musket-ball from the 
 enemy. “Don’t hurry, my dear major,” 
 cried Greene, laughing; “pray dismount, 
 and get that long cue of yours ; don’t be in 
 haste.” The English were driving after them 
 at a tremendous rate, cavalry, cannon, and 
 all. The major jumped from his horse, how- 
 ever, and picked up his cue. Just at that 
 moment, a shot took off a large powdered curl 
 from the head of Greene. The major, in turn, 
 advised him to stop and pick it up ; but he 
 rode on quietly, and was the last man on the 
 field. 
 
 About this time, a smart action was fought 
 at Red Bank, on the Jersey side of the Dela- 
 ware, seven miles below Philadelphia. The 
 Americans had erected batteries here, and 
 upon Mud Island, half a mile distant, in the 
 middle of the river. Nothing, therefore, 
 belonging to the British, could pass up and 
 down between their camp, which was now at 
 Philadelphia, and their fleet in the river 
 below. Two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were 
 placed in the channel. They stretched from 
 the island nearly to the bank. 
 
 Howe sent down two thousand Germans, 
 under Col. Donop, to attack the Red Bank 
 redoubt. This was defended by four hun- 
 dred men. This number was so small that 
 half the redoubt was left vacant, and a line 
 was drawn through the middle of it. The 
 enemy came on fiercely enough, with a brisk 
 cannonade; entered the empty part of the 
 redoubt, and shouted for victory. But it was 
 now the garrison’s turn. They poured out 
 such a tremendous fire that the Germans, 
 after a brief conflict, fled, with the loss of four 
 hundred men. Their brave commander, 
 Donop, was killed. Late in the season, these 
 fortifications in the river were abandoned. 
 
 Washington retired into winter quarters, 
 at Yalley Forge, sixteen miles from Philadel- 
 phia. His army might have been tracked, 
 by the blood of their feet, in marching, with- 
 out shoes or stockings, over the hard, frozen 
 ground. Thousands of them had no blank- 
 ets, and were obliged to spend the night in 
 trying to get warm, instead of sleeping. 
 They erected log-huts for lodgings. For a 
 fortnight, they nearly starved. They were 
 sometimes without bread and without meat. 
 A person passing by the huts of these poor 
 
 fellows in the evening, might have seen them, 
 through the crevices, stretching their cold 
 hands over the fire, and a soldier occasionally 
 coming in or going out, with nothing but a 
 blanket on his shoulders. “No pay, no 
 clothes, no provisions, no rum,” said they to 
 each other. But they loved Washington and 
 their country too well to desert them in these 
 trying times. 
 
 While a British force lay on the west side 
 of Rhode Island, under haughty and oppress- 
 ive Gen. Prescott, during this last season 
 (1777), one Barton, a militia major, learned 
 their situation from a deserter, and planned 
 an adventure. He collected his regiment, 
 and asked, which of them would risk their 
 lives with him. If any were willing, they 
 should advance two paces. Every man came 
 forward ; they knew Barton well for a brave 
 and trusty leader. He chose thirty-six of 
 them, mustered five whale-boats, and started 
 off at nine o’clock in the evening. The men 
 promised to follow him at all hazards. He 
 directed them to sit perfectly still, like statues, 
 and obey his orders. Barton’s boat went 
 ahead, distinguished by a long pole run out 
 from the stem, with a handkerchief tied to it. 
 
 As they rowed by Prudence Island, they 
 heard the English guard cry “All’s well.” 
 A noise was heard on the main land, like the 
 trampling of horses ; but, as the night was 
 very dark, nothing could be seen, and no man 
 whispered a word. They now landed, and 
 set off silently for Prescott’s lodgings, which 
 were a mile from the shore. Their way led 
 by a house occupied by a company of troop- 
 ers. “ Who comes there ? ” cried the sentinel. 
 They said nothing ; and a few trees standing 
 before them, their number could not be seen. 
 They moved on. “ Who comes there ? ” mut- 
 tered the sentinel again. — “Friends,” replied 
 Barton. — “Friends,” said the soldier, “ad- 
 vance, and give the countersign.” — “Poh! 
 poh ! ” said Barton ; we have no countersign. 
 Have you seen any rascals to-night?” He 
 rushed upon the guard, at this moment, like 
 a lion, and threatened to blow his brains out, 
 if he uttered a syllable. The poor fellow was 
 horribly frightened, and they took him along 
 with them. They soon reached the house, 
 burst in the door, and rushed forward. A 
 British soldier, with only a shirt on, rushing 
 out at the same time, ran for the cavalry 
 
 REV 
 
712 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 house, to give the alarm. The men would 
 not believe him, but laughed at him for being 
 frightened at ghosts. He confessed that the 
 creature (Barton) was clothed in white ; and 
 so it passed off. 
 
 “Is Gen. Prescott here?” shouted Barton, 
 to the masteY of the house. — “No, sir! oh 
 no, sir ! ” said the poor fellow, scared almost 
 out of his wits* Nobody in the house seemed 
 to know anything about Prescott. — “Then,” 
 shouted Barton, at the head of the staircase, 
 “I will burn the house down about your 
 ears.” And he seized a flaming brand from 
 the fireplace. — “What noise is this ? ” cried 
 somebody in the next chamber. Barton 
 opened the door, and found an elderly gentle- 
 man sitting up in bed. “Are you Gen. 
 Prescott, sir ? ” — “Yes, sir.” — “You are my 
 prisoner, then,” said Barton. Prescott was 
 half dressed by the soldiers in a moment, and 
 carried off to the shore, with a Major Barring- 
 ton, who had leaped from a chamber window. 
 
 The captors had scarcely rowed through 
 the English fleet, when a discharge of cannon 
 gave the alarm. Fifty boats pursued them in 
 the dark. They escaped, however, and, in 
 six hours from the time of starting, landed at 
 Warwick Point. “You have made a mon- 
 strous bold push, major,” said Prescott, as 
 they stepped ashore. — “ Thank you, sir,” said 
 Barton, with a bow; “we have done as well 
 as we could.” This capture occasioned great 
 joy throughout the country. 
 
 Having seen Washington’s army in their 
 winter quarters at Valley Forge, we shall now 
 follow the northern army, under Gates, and 
 the English under Burgoyne, through the 
 campaign of 1777. The latter intended to 
 break his way from Canada, up the river 
 Sorel, through Lakes Champlain and George, 
 and the river Hudson, to New York. He 
 had under his command one of the finest 
 armies ever seen. The Americans were 
 driven before him, from Champlain almost 
 to Albany. Burgoyne pressed after them ; 
 but his route lay through the woods, and the 
 Americans cut large trees on both sides of 
 the road, so that they fell across it, and 
 blocked it up entirely. The country was so 
 covered with marshes, and crossed by creeks, 
 that the British were obliged to build no less 
 than forty bridges ; one of them was a log 
 bridge, extending two miles across a swamp. 
 
 July 30th, Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, 
 on the Hudson. 
 
 He had with his army a large number of 
 Indian warriors, who ravaged the country in 
 a horrible manner. One of them murdered 
 a beautiful American girl. Miss McRea. She 
 was the daughter of a Tory, and was to be 
 married to a young English officer. The 
 latter sent two Indians to guide her across 
 the wood from the fort to his own station. 
 They quarreled on the way, which should 
 have special charge of her, and one of them, 
 to terminate the dispute, sunk his tomahawk 
 in her head. 
 
 The spirit of the whole country was greatly 
 excited by these things ; and an army of 
 thirteen thousand men was collected under 
 Gen. Schuyler, to oppose Burgoyne. The 
 command was afterward given to Gen. Gates. 
 Meanwhile, a British force, under Gen. St. 
 Leger, had crossed Lake Ontario, from the 
 St. Lawrence, and laid siege to Fort Schuyler, 
 on the southern side. Gen. Herkimer march- 
 ed northward with eight hundred militia, to 
 relieve it. He fell into an ambuscade, how- 
 ever, in the woods, and was killed. In his last 
 moments, though mortally wounded, he was 
 seen sitting on a stump, still encouraging his 
 men. They stood firm, and several of the 
 British Indians fell at their first fire. The rest 
 were so enraged, that they turned upon the 
 Tories and the British, and murdered several 
 of them. The battle was heard at the fort, and 
 two hundred and fifty of the Americans came 
 out to re-enforce the detachment. The Brit- 
 ish were wholly routed. The Indians fled, 
 howling like wild beasts, and left their ket- 
 tles, blankets, tomahawks, and deer-skins 
 behind. 
 
 But St. Leger, with his Indians and Tories, 
 still besieged Fort Schuyler. Gen. Arnold 
 was sent, with one thousand men, to attack 
 them. But this force was too small, and the 
 Americans had recourse to a laughable strat- 
 agem. Col. Brooks, afterward governor of 
 Massachusetts, seized upon one Cuyler, a 
 Tory, who owned a large farm-house. He 
 was in great terror lest the Americans should 
 plunder him ; but Brooks agreed to let him 
 go, and spare his property, if he would travel 
 to Fort Schuyler, and tell the British force 
 there, that Arnold was coming upon them 
 with an immense army. Cuyler consented. 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 713 
 
 He bored his coat through in two or three 
 places, in the skirts, and made all haste 
 across the woods to the British camp. He 
 informed the Indians that Arnold was rush- 
 ing upon them with a tremendous force ; he 
 said he had fled before them for his life, and 
 showed the bullet-holes in his old coat, in 
 proof of his story. The Indians were fright- 
 ened. Nothing could persuade them to stay 
 ■with St. Leger. “ You told us,” said they, 
 “ there would be no fighting for us ; that we 
 should smoke our pipes ; and when you had 
 taken the prisoners in the fort, we were to 
 have the pleasure of cutting their throats. 
 But this won’t do.” Accordingly, seven or 
 eight hundred immediately left him. lie 
 was himself so alarmed that he fled with his 
 troops, and left his baggage behind him. 
 Two Indian chiefs, who, it seems, understood 
 the plot, followed them in their march, and 
 played jokes upon the officers. One of the 
 chiefs had loitered behind ; and just as the 
 officers reached a deep, muddy place, he came 
 running up to them, out of breath, and cried 
 out, “They are coming! they are coming !” 
 The soldiers threw down their knapsacks, 
 and plunged through the mire as fast as they 
 could go. St. Leger himself was plastered 
 with mud from head to foot. In this way, 
 Fort Schuyler w r as relieved from the siege 
 without bloodshed. 
 
 About the middle- of August, Burgovne 
 sent a detachment of five hundred Hessians 
 and one hundred Indians, under Col. Baum, 
 to take possession of a collection of Ameri- 
 can provisions, at Bennington, in Vermont. 
 But Gen. Stark was on hand, luckily, with 
 eight hundred New Hampshire and Vermont 
 militia. Col. Baum, finding this force greater 
 than his own, threw up temporary breast- 
 works for defense, and sent to Burgoyne for 
 re-enforcements. Several skirmishes follow- 
 ed, in which the Americans had the advan- 
 tage. Animated by success, they at length 
 ventured to make a general attack upon the 
 breastworks of the enemy, though they were 
 without cannon, and destitute even of bayo- 
 nets. The Hessians fought very bravely for 
 two hours. But they were now opposed by 
 still braver men. The Americans rushed into 
 the very flash of their cannon and musketry. 
 Stark had said, at the outset of the battle, 
 “My fellow-soldiers, we conquer to-day, or 
 
 this night Moll Stark is a widow.” Such 
 deep resolution seemed to be in the breast of 
 every man. They could not be resisted. 
 Multitudes of the enemy fell before, their 
 keen and well directed fire. Baum himself 
 was killed, and most of his detachment either 
 lost their lives, or were taken prisoners. 
 
 The Americans, not expecting another ene- 
 my, had dispersed themselves after the battle. 
 Suddenly, a re-enforcement of several* hun- 
 dred British troops, under Col. Breyman, 
 arrived at Bennington. The Americans were 
 now near losing all they had gained. But it 
 happened that a regiment, under Col. War- 
 ner, reached the place soon after. These, 
 with the militia, immediately made an attack 
 upon the enemy. They fought till sunset, 
 when the British retreated, and, under cover 
 of the night, the greater part effected their 
 escape. In these two engagements, four 
 hundred of the enemy were killed and wound- 
 ed, six hundred were taken prisoners, and 
 two hundred and fifty dragoon swords, eight 
 loads of baggage, and twenty horses fell into 
 the hands of the Americans. 
 
 A Vermont clergyman, at the commence- 
 ment of the first day’s battle, mounted a 
 stump, and prayed for the Americans. The 
 British heard him, and fired at him. The 
 stump was bored through with their bullets, 
 but the clergyman was unhurt. He stepped 
 down. “Now give me a gun,” said he; and 
 he fired the first shot on the American side. 
 
 An old farmer in the neighborhood had 
 five sons in the battle. He was told the next 
 day that one of them had come to a miserable 
 end. “ What ! ” cried the gray-headed pat- 
 riot, “did he leave his post ? did he run from 
 the enemy?” “Oh no, sir; worse than 
 that : he fell among the slain, fighting like a 
 hero.” — “ Then I am satisfied,” said the old 
 man; “bring him in ; let me look upon my 
 noble boy.” The corpse was brought in ; 
 he wept over it. He then called for a bowl 
 of water and a napkin, washed the blood 
 away with his own trembling hands, and 
 thanked God that his son had died for his 
 country. 
 
 By the middle of September, the Ameri- 
 can army under Gates was within three miles 
 of the great army of Burgoyne, on the Hud- 
 son. The latter was severely pressed for 
 provisions, and undertook to march on toward 
 
 REV 
 
714 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Albany. The Americans met him at Still- 
 water, on the 19th; a fierce battle was 
 fought; and the British could advance no 
 farther. They pitched their camp on the 
 plains of Saratoga, three miles above the 
 village, within cannon-shot of the American 
 lines. 
 
 General Clinton was at this time attempt- 
 ing to force a passage up the Hudson, from 
 New 'York to re-enforce .Burgoyne. Spies 
 and scouts were constantly passing between 
 the two armies. One Palmer was at last 
 caught in this business, and brought into the 
 camp of Gen. Putnam, at Peekskill. He was 
 found to be an American Tory, whom the 
 British had made a lieutenant for his pains. 
 Gov. Tryon wrote for his release, and threat- 
 ened vengeance if he were executed. 
 
 Putnam addressed the following note to 
 the governor, in reply : — 
 
 “Sir: Nathan Palmer, a lieutenant in 
 your service, was taken in my camp as a spy ; 
 he was tried as a spy ; he was condemned as 
 a spy ; and you may rest assured, sir, he 
 shall be hanged as a spy. 
 
 “ I have the honor to be, &c., 
 
 “ Israel Putnam. 
 
 “ To his excellency, Governor Tryon. 
 
 “ P. S. Afternoon. He is hanged.” 
 
 Hot skirmishes now took place every day 
 between the two armies at Saratoga. Sept. 
 23d, a cannonade was kept up, with a tre- 
 mendous roar and blaze, for three hours. 
 The field was strewn with the killed. An 
 English captain, with forty-eight men, had 
 the command of four fine cannon. He fought 
 till thirty-six of his men were killed. His 
 horses being shot down at last, the cannon 
 were left to the Americans. 
 
 Some of the American soldiers, during 
 these skirmishes, often placed themselves in 
 the boughs of high trees, the country being 
 wild and woody, and played with their rifles 
 upon the rear and flanks of the enemy. The 
 British officers w r ere picked off like birds. 
 Burgoyne himself once narrowly escaped. 
 His aide-de-camp, Gen. Phillips, was deliver- 
 ing a message to him, when he received a 
 rifle ball in his arm. His saddle was fur- 
 nished with very rich lace, and a sharp-shoot- 
 er had taken him for Burgoyne. 
 
 Oct. 7th, the w r hole British line was driven 
 back by a tremendous charge. The German 
 
 lines stood firm to the last, and Col. Brooks 
 was ordered to attack them. He galloped 
 toward them at the head of his regiment, 
 w r aving his sword ; and Gen. Arnold (who 
 fought this day as a volunteer) rushed on 
 with him. Arnold w r as wounded, and car- 
 ried off*. Brooks kept on, and the Germans 
 were driven back. Col. Cilley, of New 
 Hampshire, captured a cannon with his own 
 hands, and was seen astride upon it in the 
 heat of the battle, shouting to his soldiers. 
 
 In this battle, Burgoyne had a bullet pass 
 through his hat, and another through the 
 edge of his vest. The English general Fra- 
 zer fought nobly for a long time. Col. Mor- 
 gan observed him at last, called up one of his 
 best riflemen, and pointed him out. “ Do 
 you see that tall, fine-looking fellow,” said 
 he, “fighting like a lion? It is Frazer. I 
 honor the man — but he must die.” This was 
 enough for the rifleman. He aimed, and 
 Frazer was shot dead. 
 
 On the 18th of October, 1777, the whole 
 British army under Burgoyne surrendered to 
 General Gates. There were nearly ten thou- 
 sand men, including Indians ; forty cannon, 
 seven thousand muskets, and a vast quantity 
 of tents and cartridges. The whole country 
 was filled with rejoicing. The thanks of 
 Congress were voted to Gates and his army. 
 
 But the best effect of the victory was that 
 the French now concluded to fight with the 
 Americans against England. Treaties be- 
 tween the two nations w T ere signed Feb. 6th, 
 1778, and a fast-sailing schooner from France 
 reached Casco Bay, in Maine, in about a 
 month with the news. It occasioned pro- 
 digious joy in Congress, in the army at Val- 
 ley Forge, and over the whole country. A 
 French fleet arrived on the coast early in July. 
 
 General Clinton knew that they were com- 
 ing, and therefore thought it necessary to 
 remove to New York. He left Philadelphia 
 on the 18th of June, and marched through 
 New Jersey, toward the latter place. The 
 British army had been in possession of Phil- 
 adelphia for many months. Their departure 
 was a most welcome event to the inhabitants. 
 The business of the city was very much 
 interrupted while they were there, and the 
 intercourse of the inhabitants with the neigh- 
 boring towns and villages, was attended with 
 much difficulty and vexation. 
 
 REY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 715 
 
 Captain Plunkett escaped from the British, 
 while they were at Philadelphia, in a curious 
 manner. He was an American officer, who 
 was taken prisoner, carried to that city, and 
 kept in confinement. Some years before he 
 had formed a very pleasant acquaintance with 
 a young Quakeress. She became apprised of 
 his situation, and determined to effect his 
 release. Accordingly, she privately sent him 
 the uniform of a British officer. The captain 
 put it on, and ordered the guard to open the 
 door. The latter, taking him for a British 
 officer, allowed him to pass into the streets. 
 He immediately went to the house of the 
 young Quakeress, where he remained con- 
 cealed for some time. His benefactress then 
 procured him an old market-woman’s gown, 
 bonnet, and shawl. The captain dressed 
 himself in these, and, thus disguised, set out 
 to leave the city. The British soldiers on 
 guard at the gate, taking him for a market- 
 woman, allowed him to pass; and thus he 
 escaped from the enemy. 
 
 The Americans contrived some machines, 
 which were filled with gunpowder, and sent 
 down the river Delaware, near to the city. 
 They expected that these would explode, and 
 annoy the British shipping ; they did, in fact, 
 no damage, but the British were very much | 
 alarmed; accordingly, they fired cannon at 
 every thing they saw floating in the river. 
 The Americans heard of all this, and they 
 were very much amused with it. Francis 
 Hopkinson, a man of great wit, wrote a ballad 
 on the subject, which follows. Sir William, 
 spoken of in the poem, was Sir William 
 Howe, then the British commander. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF THB KEGS. 
 
 Gallants, attend, and hear a friend 
 Trill forth harmonious ditty: 
 
 Strange things I’ll tell, which late befell 
 In Philadelphia citv. 
 
 ’Twas early day, as poets say, 
 
 Just when the sun was rising, 
 
 A soldier stood on log of wood, 
 
 And saw a thing surprising. 
 
 As in a maze he stood to gaze, — 
 
 The truth can’t be denied, sir, — 
 
 He spied a score of kegs, or more, 
 
 Come floating down the tide, sir. 
 
 A sailor too, in jerkin blue, 
 
 This strange appearance viewing, 
 
 First rubbed his eyes, in great surprise, 
 
 Then said, “ Some mischiefs brewing.” 
 
 “ These kegs do hold the rebels bold, 
 Packed up like pickled herring; 
 
 And they’re come down to attack the town, 
 In this new way of ferrying.” 
 
 The soldier flew, the sailor too, 
 
 And, scared almost to death, sir, 
 
 Wore out their shoes, to spread the news, 
 And ran till out of breath, sir. 
 
 Now up and down, throughout the town, 
 Most frantic scenes were acted ; 
 
 And some ran here, and others there, 
 
 Like men almost distracted. 
 
 Some fire cried, which some denied, 
 
 But said the earth had quaked; 
 
 And girls and boys, with hideous noise. 
 
 Ran through the streets hall naked. 
 
 Sir William he, snug as a flea, 
 
 Lay all this time a snoring, 
 
 Nor thought of harm, as he lay warm, 
 
 The land of dreams exploring. 
 
 Now in a fright he starts upright, 
 
 Awaked by such a clatter: 
 
 He rubs both eyes, and boldly cries, 
 
 “Alas, what is the matter?” 
 
 At his bedside he then espied 
 Sir Erskine at command, sir; 
 
 Upon one foot he had one boot, 
 
 And the other in his hand, sir. 
 
 “Arise, arise!” Sir Erskine cries; 
 
 “The rebels — more’s the pity — 
 
 Without a boat, are all afloat, 
 
 And ranged before the city. 
 
 “The motley crew, in vessels new, 
 
 With Satan for their guide, sir, 
 
 Packed up in bags, or wooden kegs, 
 
 Come driving down the tide, sir. 
 
 “Therefore prepare for bloody war,-' 
 
 These kegs must all be routed, 
 
 Or surely we despised shall be, 
 
 And British courage doubted.” 
 
 The royal band now ready stand, 
 
 All ranged in dread array, sir, 
 
 With stomach stout, to see it out, 
 
 And make a bloody day, sir. 
 
 The cannons roar from shore to shore, 
 
 The small arms make a rattle ; 
 
 Since wars began, I’m sure no man 
 E’er saw so strange a battle. 
 
 The rebel dales, the rebel vales, 
 
 With rebel trees surrounded, 
 
 The distant woods, the hills and floods, 
 
 With rebel echoes sounded. 
 
 The fish below swam to and fro, 
 
 Attacked from every quarter; 
 
 “ Why sure,” thought they, “ the devil’s to pay, 
 ’Mongst folks above the water.” 
 
 The kegs, ’tis said, though strongly made, 
 
 Of rebel staves and hoops, sir, 
 
 Could not oppose their powerful foes, 
 
 The conquering British troops, sir. 
 
 % 
 
 REV 
 
716 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 From morn to night, these men of might 
 Displayed amazing courage, 
 
 Aud when the sun was fairly down, 
 
 Retired to sup their porridge. 
 
 An hundred men, with each a pen, 
 
 Or more, upon niy word, sir, 
 
 It is most true, would be too few, 
 
 Their valor to record, sir. 
 
 Such feats did they perform that day, 
 
 Against these wicked kegs, sir, 
 
 That years to come, if they get home, 
 
 They’ll make their boasts and brags, sir. 
 
 As soon as Washington heard that Clinton 
 had left Philadelphia, he broke up his quarters 
 at Valley Forge, and followed hard after him. 
 A hot battle was fought on the 28th, near 
 Monmouth court-house, in New Jersey. It 
 did not cease till the evening. Washington 
 slept upon his cloak under a tree, expecting 
 more fighting in the morning ; but the Brit- 
 ish marched off in the night. Sixty of their 
 soldiers were found dead on the battle-field, 
 without wounds. Fatigue and the excessive 
 heat had killed them. 
 
 In the beginning of this battle, one Molly 
 Pitcher was occupied in carrying water from 
 a spring to a battery, where her husband was 
 emplo}^ed in loading and firing a cannon. 
 He was shot dead at last, and she saw him 
 fall. An officer rode up, and ordered off the 
 cannon. “ It can be of no use, now,” said he ; 
 but Molly stepped up, offered her services, 
 and took her husband’s place, to the aston- 
 ishment of the army. She fought well, and 
 half-pay for life was given her by Congress. 
 She wore an epaulette, and was called Captain 
 Molly, ever after. 
 
 In the midst of the fight, there was a soldier 
 whose gun-lock was knocked off by a bullet. 
 At the same instant, a soldier at his side was 
 killed. He picked up the dead man’s musket, 
 and was preparing to fire, when a bullet 
 entered the muzzle of the gun, and twisted 
 the barrel into the shape of a corkscrew. 
 Although the bullets were flying around him 
 like hail-stones, he deliberately knelt down 
 upon the spot, unscrewed the lock from the 
 musket in his hand, and fastened it to his 
 own gun, which he had thrown away. In a 
 few minutes, he was again prepared, and 
 then engaged in the deadly conflict 
 
 No other great battles were fought during 
 the campaign of 1778. The armies only 
 
 molested each other by sending out small 
 detachments. Col. McLane, of Lee’s famous 
 legion of troopers, had a narrow escape. He 
 had planned an attack on a small British force 
 stationed on a turnpike road, eight miles 
 from Philadelphia, and rode ahead with a 
 single soldier, to point out the way for his 
 men. It was in the gray of the morning. 
 His comrade suddenly shouted, “ Colonel, the 
 British ! ” spurred his horse, and was out of 
 sight in a moment. There, indeed, were the 
 enemy all about him. They had lain in 
 ambuscade, and thus suddenly came upon 
 him. A dozen shots were fired, but his horse 
 only was wounded, in the flank. This spur- 
 red the animal on at a furious rate. A num- 
 ber of British officers at a farm-house by the 
 road-side observed the colonel as he passed. 
 They thought he was on his way to the Eng- 
 lish army, which was directly ahead. He 
 dashed by; they soon found out their mis- 
 take, and pursued him. His horse went with 
 such speed, however, over fences and fields, 
 and every obstacle, that, at last, only two 
 men continued to follow him. These came 
 up with him at the ascent of a small hill, the 
 three horses so exhausted, that neither could 
 be forced out of a walk. One of the soldiers 
 cried, “Surrender, you rebellious rascal, or 
 we will cut you to pieces.” The colonel 
 made no reply, but laid his hand on his pis- 
 tols. The man came up, and seized him by 
 the collar, without drawing his sword. The 
 colonel drew a pistol from his hojster, aimed 
 it at the Englishman’s heart, and killed him. 
 The other now seized him on the other side ; 
 a fierce struggle ensued. The colonel received 
 a severe sword-gash in his left atm ; but he 
 drew his second pistol that moment with his 
 right, placed it between the Englishman’s 
 eyes, and killed him by a shot in the head. 
 He then stopped the flow of his own blood, 
 by crawling into a mill-pond, and at last 
 reached the American camp. 
 
 In the camp at Morristown, during the 
 winter and the spring of 1779, the Americans 
 were often without meat or bread ; and they 
 ate peas, barley, and almost every kind of 
 horse-food but hay. Salt could only be got 
 for eight dollars a bushel. The snow was 
 four feet deep. They had nothing but a bed 
 of straw and a blanket at night They made 
 log huts in February, which were tolerably 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 717 
 
 comfortable. But many deserted, and the 
 rest were almost discouraged. 
 
 Little was done on either side during this 
 year. The British main army, under Clinton, 
 was at New York ; and the Americans, under 
 Washington, were among the Highlands, 
 above that city, on the river Hudson. In the 
 spring, a British force was sent to ravage the 
 coast of Virginia. They destroyed every- 
 thing in their way, villages, shipping, and 
 stores. The Virginians sent to the British 
 general to ask what sort of warfare this was. 
 He replied that “ all rebels must be so 
 treated.” 
 
 A month or two afterward, Governor Try on 
 was sent to commit similar havoc in Connect- 
 icut. Col. Whiting had mustered the mili- 
 tia at Fairfield. Try on came to that place, 
 and commanded him to surrender. He gave 
 him an hour for consideration ; but, before 
 that time had elapsed, his soldiers set the 
 town on fire, and a great part of it was laid 
 in ashes. At New Haven, all possible dam- 
 age was done. The harbor was covered over 
 with feathers from the beds of the people. 
 Desks, trunks, closets, and chests were bro- 
 ken open ; the women were robbed of their 
 buckles, rings, bonnets, and aprons. East 
 Haven was afterward burnt, and Norwalk 
 shared a similar fate. At a place near Stam- 
 ford, the British came upon General Putnam, 
 who had one hundred and fifty militia-men 
 with him, and two cannon. With these he 
 kept the enemy at bay for some time. He then 
 ordered the soldiers into a swamp hard by, 
 where the British troopers could not follow ; 
 and he himself rode at full gallop down a 
 steep rock behind the meeting-house. Nearly 
 one hundred steps had been hewn in it, like 
 a flight of stairs, for the people to ascend in 
 going to meeting. The troopers stopped at 
 the brink, and dared not follow him. He 
 escaped with a bullet-hole through his hat. 
 
 In July, a fleet of thirty -seven small ves- 
 sels was fitted out from Boston, with fifteen 
 hundred militia on board, under Gen. Wads- 
 worth and Gen. Lovell. The object was to 
 drive the British from the Penobscot river, 
 in Maine, where they had built a fort at a 
 place called Bagaduce then, now Castine. 
 They were near succeeding, when a British 
 fleet appeared off the mouth of the river. 
 They were obliged to leave their vessels, and 
 
 most of the troops, after some fighting, es- 
 caped across the wild lands of Maine, to the 
 settlements on the river Kennebec. 
 
 On the Hudson, the Americans were more 
 successful. On the 15th of July, Washing- 
 ton sent Gen. Wayne up the river with twelve 
 hundred men, to attack a strong British fort 
 called Stony Point. At eleven in the evening, 
 Wayne arrived within a mile or two of the 
 fort. The troops were formed into two col- 
 umns. Col. Fleury marched on in front, with 
 one hundred and fifty volunteers, guided by 
 twenty picked men. They marched silently, 
 with unloaded guns and fixed bayonets. A 
 disorderly fellow, who persisted in loading 
 his gun, was run through the body by his 
 captain. No man was suffered to fire. The 
 fort was defended by a deep swamp, covered 
 with water. The troops marched through it, 
 waist deep. They proceeded with charged 
 bayonets, under a tremendous fire of cannon 
 and musketry from the British, till the two 
 columns met in the centre of the fort. The 
 garrison, six hundred in number, were taken 
 prisoners, with fifteen cannon, and a large 
 quantity of stores. The Americans lost a 
 hundred men : seventeen of the twenty picked 
 men who marched in front, were among the 
 number. 
 
 Gen. Lincoln commanded in the South dur- 
 ing 1779, the British still holding possession 
 of Savannah. He besieged them there with 
 the help of the French fleet, but was driven 
 off. Prevost, the British general, met with 
 the same bad luck in besieging Charleston, 
 South Carolina. The people resisted him 
 nobly, with some assistance from Lincoln, 
 and the siege was abandoned. But Prevost 
 ravaged the country, burning and plunder- 
 ing without mercy. The Tories joined him, 
 and the negro slaves were hired to serve him 
 as spies and scouts. Peter Francisco, an 
 American trooper, made himself famous at 
 this time. A plundering British dragoon 
 entered a hut in the country, where he hap- 
 pened to be, and ordered him to “ deliver up 
 everything, or die.” “ I have nothing to de- 
 liver,” said Peter, who was unarmed ; “do 
 as you please.” “ Off with those great silver 
 buckles on your shoes, you scoundrel ! ” said 
 the dragoon. “ Take them, if you like,” an- 
 swered Peter ; “ I will not give them.” The 
 soldier stooped to cut them off with his knife, 
 
 REV 
 
718 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 placing his sword under his arm, with the 
 hilt toward Peter. He seized upon it, and 
 struck the dragoon with such force as to 
 sever his head from his body at a single blow. 
 
 Sergeant Jasper was another brave fellow, 
 who has been mentioned before. He once 
 went, secretly, with a young friend of his, by 
 the name of Newton, to visit his brother, a 
 soldier at a British fort. As he stayed there 
 a day or two, his brother took him to see 
 some American prisoners, just brought in. 
 They were all handcuffed. There was a 
 young woman among the rest, with her hus- 
 band, and a beautiful little boy, five years 
 old, leaning his head on her bosom, and 
 weeping. Jasper and Newton w T ere hardly 
 able to bear this. They walked to a wood 
 near by. “ I shall not live long,” said Jas- 
 per. “Why so?” said the other. “Why, 
 the thought of that poor woman haunts me. 
 I shall die, if I do not save them.” “That 
 is my mind, exactly,” said New r ton, grasping 
 Jasper’s hand. Go on, my brave friend; 
 I will stand by you to the last.” 
 
 After breakfast, the prisoners were sent on 
 toward Savannah, under a guard of ten armed 
 men. The two friends followed them through 
 the woods, but without arms. Thinking the 
 party would stop at the Spa, a famous spring 
 two miles from Savannah, they went secretly 
 round to that place, and concealed themselves 
 in the bushes. By and by, the prisoners and 
 guard came up, and the former were suffered to 
 rest at the spring. Two men kept guard 
 with their muskets, while two more came to 
 the spring for water. The others piled their 
 arms up, and sat down at a distance. The 
 two guards now rested their guns against a 
 tree, and began drinking from their canteens. 
 “Now’s the time,” cried Jasper. At the 
 instant, the two heroes sprang from the bushes, 
 snatched the two muskets, and shot down the 
 two guards. By this time, two of the soldiers 
 had seized upon their guns. But they were 
 instantly knocked dow T n. Jasper and New- 
 ton stood over the pile of guns, and ordered 
 the other six to surrender. They were glad 
 to do so. The American prisoners were 
 armed ; the handcuffs were taken from them, 
 and put upon the British soldiers, and the 
 party soon reached the American camp. 
 
 During the year 1780, nothing of great 
 consequence was done in the northern prov- 
 
 inces. The two armies lay near each other, 
 the British being in New York, and the 
 Americans on the Hudson; but no battles 
 were fought The most important event of 
 this year was the treason of Arnold. He 
 commanded the very strong fort at West 
 Point, and he undertook to deliver it into the 
 possession of the British. Major Andre, a 
 young British officer, went on shore in the 
 night from a British ship in the river, to ar- 
 range the business with Arnold. The two 
 officers met privately at some distance from 
 the fort. Arnold agreed, for a certain sum 
 of money, and other considerations, to sur- 
 render the fort, with the garrison, cannon, 
 and ammunition, into the hands of the Brit- 
 ish commander. In settling the details of this 
 business, Andre was detained till the next 
 day ; and then the boatmen refused to carry 
 him back to his vessel. He had to return by 
 land, and to pass by the American camp, on 
 his way to New York. He was furnished 
 with a horse, and exchanged his uniform for 
 a common coat. He thought himself already 
 out of danger, when, as he trotted quietly on 
 through the woods, he was stopped by three 
 Americans, who were scouting between the 
 outposts of the two armies. “Who goes 
 there?” cried the first, seizing the bridle. 
 Andre was startled, and asked the scout 
 where he belonged. “Below,” answered he, 
 meaning New York. “ So do I,” said Andre, 
 deceived; “I’m a British officer, in great 
 haste ; don’t stop me.” “ Are you, indeed ?” 
 said the scouts ; “ then we’ll see about that ! ” 
 They found his papers in his boots. He offer- 
 ed them his gold watch, horse, and purse, if 
 they would release him ; but they told him 
 the} r knew their business too well, and he 
 was carried to the camp. 
 
 Arnold escaped from West Point in great 
 haste. Andre had contrived to send him no- 
 tice of his capture. He was dining with 
 some of his friends, when the letter came. 
 They saw he was very much agitated. He 
 started up, and looked wild, made an excuse 
 to go out, and they saw nothing more of him. 
 He went to New York, joined the British 
 army, and was appointed a general. His 
 name was covered with everlasting shame and 
 disgrace. Even his gallantry and decided 
 military talents were overlooked and forgot- 
 ten in his infamy. The British themselves 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 719 
 
 despised him. After the war, he went to 
 England, where he lived in obscurity and 
 contempt. 
 
 The head-quarters of Washington were at 
 Tappan, on the Hudson, at the time he heard 
 of Arnold’s treason. Having taken measures 
 to put the fort in a state of securit}^ he ap- 
 pointed a court-martial to try Andre. After 
 a very deliberate examination, he was found 
 guilty, and condemned, according to the 
 usages of war, to be hanged as a spy. When 
 the gallant young officer heard that he was 
 condemned to be hanged, he wrote a very pa- 
 thetic letter to Washington, praying that he 
 might be shot, and die as a soldier, rather 
 than be executed like a felon. No man had 
 a kinder heart than General Washington; 
 and he would gladly have granted the re- 
 quest of the unfortunate young Englishman. 
 But duty to his country would not permit 
 him to soften the sentence of the law. He 
 was very anxious to bring Arnold to justice, 
 and imagined that, if he could be taken, An- 
 dre might be set free. He resolved to make 
 an attempt to effect these desirable objects, 
 and, having formed his plan, sent to Major 
 Lee to repair to head-quarters, at Tappan. 
 “I have sent for you,” said Washington, “in 
 the expectation that you have some one in 
 your corps, who is willing to undertake a del- 
 icate and hazardous project. Whoever comes 
 forward will confer great obligations upon me 
 personally, and, in behalf of the United States, 
 I will reward him amply. No time is to be 
 lost; he must proceed, if possible, to-night. 
 I desire to seize Arnold, and save Andre.” 
 
 Major Lee named a sergeant-major of his 
 corps, by the name of Champe, a native of 
 Virginia, a man full of bone and muscle, w r ith 
 a countenance grave, thoughtful, and taci- 
 turn, — of tried courage and inflexible perse- 
 verance. 
 
 Champe was sent for by Major Lee, and the 
 plan proposed. This was for him to desert ; 
 to escape to New York ; to appear friendly 
 to the enemy ; to watch Arnold, and, upon 
 some fit opportunity, with the assistance of 
 some one whom he could trust, to seize him, 
 and conduct him to an appointed place on the 
 river, where boats should be in readiness to 
 bear them away. 
 
 Champe listened to the plan attentively ; 
 but, with the spirit of a man of honor and 
 
 integrity, replied, that it was not danger nor 
 difficulty that deterred him from immediately 
 accepting the proposal, but the ignominy of 
 desertion, and the hypocrisy of enlisting with 
 the enemy. To those objections Lee replied, 
 that although he would appear to desert, yet, 
 as he obeyed the call of his commander-in- 
 chief, his departure could not be considered 
 as criminal ; and that, if he suffered in repu- 
 tation for a time, the matter would one day 
 be explained to his credit. As to the second 
 objection, it was urged that to bring such a 
 man as Arnold to justice, loaded with guilt as 
 he was ; and to save Andre, so young, so 
 accomplished, so beloved ; to achieve so much 
 good in the cause of hiscountry, — was more 
 than sufficient to balance a wrong existing 
 onty in appearance. 
 
 The objections of Champe were at length 
 surmounted, and he accepted the service. 
 It was now eleven o’clock at night With 
 his instructions in his pocket, the sergeant 
 returned to camp ; and, taking his cloak, va- 
 lise, and orderly book, drew his horse from 
 the picket, and mounted, putting himself 
 upon fortune. Scarcely had half an hour 
 elapsed, before Capt. Carnes, the officer of the 
 day, waited upon Lee, who was vainly at- 
 tempting to rest, and informed him that one 
 of the patrol had fallen in with a dragoon, 
 who, being challenged, put spurs to his horse 
 and escaped. Lee, hoping to conceal the flight 
 of Champe, or at least to delay pursuit, com- 
 plained of fatigue, and told the captain that 
 the patrol had probably mistaken a country- 
 man for a dragoon. Carnes, however, was 
 not thus to be quieted ; and he withdrew to 
 assemble his corps. On examination, it was 
 found that Champe was absent. The captain 
 returned, and acquainted Lee with the dis- 
 covery, adding, that he had detached a party 
 to pursue the deserter, and begged the major’s 
 written orders. After making as much de- 
 lay as practicable without exciting suspicion, 
 Lee delivered his orders, in which he direct- 
 ed the party to take Champe, if possible. 
 “Bring him alive,” said he, “that he may 
 suffer in the presence of the army ; but kill 
 him if he resists, or tries to escape after 
 being taken.” 
 
 A shower of rain fell soon after Champe’s 
 departure, which enabled the pursuing dra- 
 goons to take the trail of his horse, w’hose 
 
 KEY 
 
720 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 shoes, in common with those of all the horses 
 of the corps, were made in a peculiar form, 
 and each had a private mark which was to be 
 seen in the path. Middleton, the leader of 
 the pursuing party, left the camp a few min- 
 utes past twelve, so that Champe had the 
 start of but little more than an hour, — a 
 period b}' - far shorter than had been contem- 
 plated. During the night, the dragoons were 
 often delayed in the necessary halts to exam- 
 ine the road ; but on the coming of morn- 
 ing, the impression of the horse’s shoes was 
 so apparent, that the} r pressed on with rapid- 
 ity. Some miles above Bergen, a village three 
 miles north of New York, on the opposite 
 side of the Hudson, on ascending a hill, 
 Champe was seen not more than half a mile 
 distant. Fortunately, Champe descried his 
 pursuers at the same moment, and put spurs 
 to his horse. By taking a different road, 
 Champe was for a time lost sight of; but on 
 approaching the river, he was again perceiv- 
 ed. Aware of his danger, he lashed his va- 
 lise, containing his clothes and orderly book, 
 to his shoulders, and prepared himself to 
 plunge into the river, if necessary. Swift 
 was his flight, and swift the pursuit. Mid- 
 dleton and his party were within a few hun- 
 dred yards, when Champe threw himself 
 from his horse and plunged into the river, 
 calling aloud upon some British galleys, at no 
 great distance, for help. A boat was in- 
 stantly dispatched to his assistance, and a 
 fire commenced upon the pursuers. He was 
 taken on board, and soon after carried to 
 New York, with a letter from the captain of 
 the galley, stating the scene which he had 
 witnessed. 
 
 The pursuers, having recovered the ser- 
 geant’s horse and cloak, returned to camp, 
 where they arrived about three o’clock the 
 next day. On their appearance with the 
 well known horse, the soldiers made the air 
 resound with the acclamation that the scoun- 
 drel was killed. The agony of Lee, for a 
 moment, was past description, lest the faith- 
 ful, honorable, iatrepid Champe had fallen. 
 But the truth soon relieved his fears, and he 
 repaired to Washington to impart to him the 
 success, thus far, of his plan. 
 
 Soon after the arrival of Champe in New 
 York, he was sent to Sir Henry Clinton, who 
 treated him kindly, but detained him more 
 
 than an hour in asking him questions; to 
 answer some of which, without exciting sus- 
 picion, required all the art the sergeant was 
 master of. He succeeded, however, and Sir 
 Henry gave him a couple of guineas, and 
 recommended him to Arnold, who was wish- 
 ing to procure American recruits. Arnold 
 received him kindly, and proposed to him to 
 join his legion. Champe, however, expressed 
 his wish to retire from war ; but assured the 
 general, if he should change his mind, he 
 would enlist. 
 
 Champe found means to communicate to 
 Lee an account of his adventures ; but, unfor- 
 tunately, he could not succeed in taking 
 Arnold, as was wished, before the execution 
 of Andre. Ten days before Champe brought 
 his project to a conclusion, Lee received from 
 him his final communication, appointing the 
 third subsequent night for a party of dragoons 
 to meet him at Hoboken, opposite New York, 
 when he hoped to deliver Arnold to the 
 officers. 
 
 Champe had enlisted into Arnold’s legion, 
 from which time he had every opportunity 
 he could wish, to attend to the habits of the 
 general. He discovered that it was his cus- 
 tom to return home about twelve every night, 
 and that previously to going to bed, he always 
 visited the garden. During this visit, the 
 conspirators were to seize him, and gag him 
 instantly. Adjoining the house in which 
 Arnold resided, and in which it was designed 
 to seize and gag him, Champe had taken off 
 several fence-palings, and replaced them, so 
 that with ease, and without noise, he could 
 readily open his way to the adjoining alley. 
 Into this alley he intended to convey his 
 prisoner, aided by his companion, one of two 
 associates who had been introduced by the 
 friend to whom Champe had been originally 
 made known by letter from the commander- 
 in-chief, and with whose aid and counsel he 
 had so far conducted the enterprise. H is other 
 associate was with the boat, prepared at one 
 of the wharves on the Hudson River, to receive 
 the party. Champe and his friend intended 
 to place themselves each under Arnold’s 
 shoulder, and thus to bear him, through the 
 most unfrequented alleys and streets, to the 
 boat, representing Arnold, in case of being 
 questioned, as a drunken soldier, whom they 
 were conveying to the guard-house. When 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 721 
 
 arrived at the "boat, the difficulties would be 
 all surmounted, there being no danger or 
 obstacle in passing to the Jersey shore. 
 These particulars, as soon as made known to 
 Lee, were communicated to the commander- 
 in-chief^ who was highly gratified with the 
 much desired intelligence. He requested 
 Major Lee to meet Champe, and to take care 
 that Arnold should not be hurt. 
 
 The day arrived, and Lee left the camp 
 never doubting the success of the enterprise, 
 from the tenor of the last received communi- 
 cation. The party reached Hoboken about 
 midnight, where they were concealed in the 
 adjoining wood; Lee, with three dragoons, 
 stationing himself near the shore of the river. 
 Hour after hour passed, but no boat ap- 
 proached. At length the day broke, and the 
 major retired to his party, and, with his led 
 horses, returned to the camp, where he pro- 
 ceeded to head-quarters, to inform the general 
 of the much lamented disappointment, as 
 mortifying as it was inexplicable. Washing- 
 ton, having perused Champe’s plan and com- 
 munication, had indulged the presumption 
 that at length the object of his keen and con- 
 stant pursuit was sure of execution, and did 
 not dissemble the joy which such a convic- 
 tion produced. He was chagrined at the 
 issue, and apprehended that his faithful ser- 
 geant must have been detected in the last 
 scene of his tedious and difficult enterprise. 
 
 In a few days, Lee received an anonymous 
 letter from Champe’s patron and friend, 
 informing him, that on the day preceding the 
 night fixed for the execution of the plot, 
 Arnold had removed his quarters to another 
 part of the town, to superintend the embark- 
 ation of troops, preparing, as was rumored, 
 for an expedition to be directed by himself ; 
 and that the American legion, consisting 
 chiefly of American deserters, had been trans- 
 ferred from their barracks to one of the trans- 
 ports, it being apprehended that, if left on 
 shore until the expedition was ready, many 
 of them might desert. 
 
 Thus it happened, that John Champe, 
 instead of crossing the Hudson that night, 
 was safely deposited on board one of the fleet 
 of transports, whence he never departed until 
 the troops under Arnold landed in Virginia. 
 Nor was he able to escape from the British 
 army until after the junction of Lord Corn- 
 46 
 
 wallis at Petersburg, when he deserted. 
 Proceeding high up into Virginia, he passed 
 into North Carolina, and, keeping in the 
 friendly districts of that state, safely joined 
 the army soon after it had passe& the Con- 
 garee in pursuit of Lord Rawdon. His 
 appearance excited extreme surprise among 
 his former comrades, which was not a little 
 increased when they saw the cordial reception 
 he met with from Lee. His whole story was 
 soon known to the corps, which reproduced 
 the love and respect of officers and soldiers, 
 heretofore invariably entertained for the ser- 
 geant, and heightened by universal admira- 
 tion of his late daring and arduous attempt. 
 Champe was introduced to Gen. Greene, who 
 very cheerfully complied with the promise 
 made by the commander-in-chief, so far as in 
 his power; and, having provided the sergeant 
 with a good horse, and money for his journey, 
 sent him to Gen. Washington, who munifi- 
 cently anticipated every desire of the 'ser- 
 geant, and presented him with a discharge 
 from further service, lest he might, in the 
 vicissitudes of war, fall into the hands of the 
 enemy, when, if recognized, he was sure to 
 die on a gibbet. When Washington was 
 called by President Adams, in 1798, to the 
 command of the army prepared to defend the 
 country against French hostility, he sent to 
 Lee, to inquire for Champe, being determined 
 to bring him into the field at the head of a 
 company of infantry. Lee sent to Loudon 
 county, Virginia, where Champe settled after 
 his discharge from the army ; when he learned 
 that the gallant soldier had removed to Ken- 
 tucky, where he soon after died. 
 
 We must return to our history. Congress 
 continued to make great efforts to supply the 
 army, though the paper money they had 
 issued was worth so little that a soldier 
 would give forty dollars for a breakfast, and 
 a colonel’s pay would hardly find oats for his 
 horse. The merchants of Philadelphia raised 
 a large sum of better money, however, and 
 sent it to the army. The ladies of that city 
 furnished a large quantity of clothing. 
 
 The British all this time were overrunning 
 the two Carolinas. They had taken Charles- 
 ton on the 11th of May, 1780, after a long 
 siege, and a brave defense by Gen. Lincoln. 
 Gen. Gates was soon after sent to take com- 
 mand of the southern army. He was joined 
 
 REV 
 
722 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 by hundreds of the Carolina militia. Con- 
 gress sent him some fine Maryland and Dela- 
 ware troops also. They had a very long and 
 hard march through the woods, finding noth- 
 ing to eat on the way, but peaches and green 
 corn, with now and then a flock of wild tur- 
 keys or a drove of wild hogs. But they were 
 brave men, and did not murmur. They even 
 joked each other on account of their thin 
 faces and lank legs. 
 
 A battle took place on the 16th of August, 
 near Camden, South Carolina, between Gates 
 and the British under Lord Cornwallis. The 
 former was defeated, and fled eighty miles 
 into the back country. The lean northern 
 soldiers we have just mentioned, fought nobly 
 an hour after all the rest had been routed like 
 an army of sheep. The brave Baron De 
 Kalb was wounded in eleven places. He fell 
 from his horse, and died in the hands of the 
 British. He was a native of Alsace. He sent 
 his compliments, in his last moments, to “his 
 gallant Maryland and Delaware soldiers.” 
 
 Generals Marion and Sumter gave the 
 British great trouble during this campaign. 
 Small parties of the mountain militia joined 
 them, and they swept down upon the enemy, 
 wherever they could find them in small par- 
 ties. The farmers’ wives furnished them 
 pewter spoons and platters, to make into 
 bullets ; and they forged swords of scythes 
 and the saws of saw-mills. 
 
 In October, sixteen hundred of these 
 mountaineers mustered together to attack a 
 British force under Major Ferguson, who had 
 encamped not far from the mountains. For 
 weeks, they had no salt, bread, or spirits ; they 
 slept upon boughs of trees, without blankets, 
 drank only from the running streams, and 
 lived upon wild game, or ears of corn, and 
 pumpkins, roasted by their great log-fires in 
 the woods. 
 
 They were to assault Ferguson in three 
 parties, and Col. Cleaveland addressed his 
 party in these words : “ My brave boys, we 
 have beat the red-coats and the tories, and 
 we can beat them again. They are all cow- 
 * ards. You must fight, each man for himself, 
 without orders. Fire as quick as you can, 
 and stand as long as you can. If you must 
 retreat, get behind the trees. Don’t run, my 
 fine fellows, don’t run ! ” “ Hurrah for the 
 
 mountaineers ! ” cried they, and rushed down 
 
 upon the enemy. The Americans were driven 
 back at the point of the bayonet ; but they 
 only lay down among the logs and rocks, and, 
 being sharp-shooters, killed more than two 
 hundred of the enemy. Ferguson was killed 
 himself, and eight hundred of his soldiers 
 surrendered. Ten of the most savage tories, 
 notorious rascals, were hung up on the neigh- 
 boring trees. This is called the battle of 
 King’s Mountain. 
 
 With the year 1781, on which we now 
 enter, the war drew rapidly toward a close. 
 It was carried on almost entirely in the South. 
 Gen. Greene was appointed to command the 
 American forces in that quarter. At the time 
 of his arrival, they were a miserable, half- 
 starved militia, of three thousand men. They 
 marked the frozen ground with the blood of 
 their bare feet, and lived half the time upon 
 frogs, taken from the swamps, wild game, rice, 
 and wretchedly lean cattle. But they were 
 soon re-enforced; and small parties, under 
 Sumter, Marion, Morgan, and others, often 
 annoyed the forces of Cornwallis. Colonel 
 Washington laid siege to a strong block- 
 house near Camden, defended by a British 
 colonel and a hundred tories. He had no 
 cannon and few men ; but he carved out a 
 few pine logs in the shape of cannon, mounted 
 them on wheels, and summoned the tories to 
 surrender. They were frightened at the 
 appearance of his big cannon, and surren- 
 dered. Not a shot was fired upon either 
 side. 
 
 On the 17th of January, Col. Morgan, with 
 eight hundred militia, was attacked at a place 
 called the Cowpens, in South Carolina, by 
 Tarleton, a famous British officer, with eleven 
 hundred men and two cannon. The enemy 
 rushed on with a tremendous shout. The 
 front line of militia were driven back. Tarle- 
 ton pursued them, at full gallop, with his 
 troopers, and fell upon the second line. They 
 too were giving way. At this moment, Col. 
 AVasliington charged Tarleton with forty-five 
 militia-men, mounted, and armed as troopers. 
 The whole line now rallied under Col. How- 
 ard, and advanced with fixed bayonets. The 
 British fled. Their cannon were left behind ; 
 three hundred British soldiers were killed 
 and wounded, and five hundred were taken 
 prisoners; eight hundred muskets, seventy 
 negroes, and one hundred dragoon horses, 
 
 REV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 723 
 
 also fell into the hands of the Americans. 
 Many British officers were killed. Morgan 
 always told his sharp-shooters “to aim at the 
 epaulettes, and not at the poor rascals who 
 fought for sixpence a day.” 
 
 General Greene was driven back, by Corn- 
 wallis, into North Carolina. The latter pur- 
 sued him through the province, over moun- 
 tains and swamps, and arrived at the river 
 Dan, just as Greene had crossed it. Corn- 
 wallis now found it necessa^r to turn about; 
 and so he marched back, and Greene soon 
 followed him with new forces. Sumter joined 
 him at Orangeburg, having received orders 
 to do so during his hasty retreat before the 
 enemy. Greene could find no man in his 
 army who would carry the message to Sum- 
 ter. A country girl, named Emily Geiger, at 
 last offered her services, and was sent. She 
 was taken by the British, and confined for the 
 purpose of being searched. She, however, 
 ate up the letter which she carried, piece by 
 piece. They released her, to go home, as 
 they supposed ; but she took a roundabout 
 way, reached Sumter’s camp safely, and 
 delivered her message, in her own words. 
 
 The Americans were defeated near Guil- 
 ford court-house on the 15th of March. But 
 Cornwallis retreated soon after. lie had 
 suffered great loss, and his army was small. 
 A militia colonel cried out in this battle, as 
 the British were marching up, '‘They will 
 surround us.” He was frightened himself, 
 and frightened his soldiers so much, that they 
 gave way, while the enemy were one hundred 
 and forty j^ards distant. Col. Washington, 
 at the head of his troopers, nearly captured 
 Cornwallis in this battle. He was just rush- 
 ing upon the British general when his cap 
 fell from his head. As he leaped to the 
 ground for it, the leading American officer 
 behind him was shot through the body, and 
 rendered unable to manage his horse. The 
 animal wheeled round, and galloped off with 
 his rider; and the troop, supposing it was 
 Washington’s order, wheeled about also, and 
 rode off at full speed. 
 
 Fort Watson, between Camden and Charles- 
 ton, surrendered, in April, with 114 men, to 
 Gen. Marion. The fort was built on a mound 
 of earth thirty 7- feet high ; but Marion, with 
 his mountaineers, had raised a work which 
 overlooked it in such a manner, that not a 
 
 man in the fort could show his head over the 
 parapets, or scarcely point his musket through 
 a hole in the walls, but the riflemen above 
 would shoot him. 
 
 Greene was again defeated at Camden, on 
 the 25th of April, by nine hundred English 
 under Lord Rawdon. But in a month or two 
 the British lost six forts, and that of Augusta 
 was among them. Here there were three 
 hundred men, as a garrison, who almost 
 buried themselves under ground, while the 
 Americans were building up batteries within 
 thirty yards, which swept the fort through 
 and through. Greene and all his officers, and 
 all his men, fought nobly the whole season. 
 “ I will recover the province,” said the gen- 
 eral, “or die in the attempt.” It is remarka- 
 ble that although his force was much inferior 
 to that of Cornwallis, and though he was 
 frequently defeated, yet, by his admirable 
 maneuvres, the result of the campaign was 
 entirely favorable to the Americans, and inju- 
 rious to the British. 
 
 He attacked the enemy at Eutaw Springs, 
 Sept. 8th, and completely defeated them, 
 killing and capturing eleven hundred of their 
 best soldiers. In pursuing the enemy, one 
 Manning found himself surrounded by them. 
 He seized upon a small British officer, and, 
 being himself a stout man, placed him on his 
 shoulders, and retreated, the English not 
 daring to fire at him. The little officer was 
 horribly frightened, but Manning took good 
 care of him. 
 
 The war was closed by the capture of 
 Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Virginia. He had 
 left Carolina, and expected to overrun Vir- 
 ginia. But in September, the Americans and 
 French, under Washington, surrounded him 
 from all quarters, on the land ; while the 
 French ^eet, riding in Chesapeake Bay, 
 blocked up the mouths of the rivers, and 
 kept the English fleet from coming in. It 
 was impossible for Clinton, with all his 
 forces at New York, to re-enforce Cormvallis. 
 Washington had kept him in fear all sum- 
 mer, and made him believe, till the last 
 moment, that he was to be besieged in New 
 York. It was not till Aug. 24th, that Wash- 
 ington left his camp on the Hudson River, 
 and marched through New Jersey and Penn- 
 sylvania, to the head of the Chesapeake. 
 The French admiral, De Grasse, who had just 
 
 REV 
 
724 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 arrived, carried the American forces down 
 the bay to York town. 
 
 The army passed through Philadelphia, on 
 this march, in splendid style. The line was 
 more than two miles long. The streets were 
 crowded with spectators ; and the windows, 
 to the highest stories, were filled with ladies, 
 waving their handkerchiefs, as the gallant 
 troops passed by. There was Washington, 
 with all his generals ; the French command- 
 er, Count Rochambeau, with all his ; Gen. 
 Knox with one hundred fine cannon ; and the 
 whole army pressing on with proud step and 
 noble confidence. The music was inspirit- 
 ing ; everybody thought they would conquer ; 
 and, just at this time, news came that the 
 French fleet had arrived in the Chesapeake. 
 The city rang with the shouts of the hopeful 
 multitude. 
 
 By the 7th of October, Cornwallis was 
 completely besieged. He had raised en- 
 trenchments ; but the allied army, the Amer- 
 icans and the French, had erected breast- 
 works all about him, circle after circle, and 
 now' opened a battery of one hundred can- 
 non. They fired day and night. The roar 
 was terrible. The ground, for miles, shook 
 with it ; and the bombs and shells were seen 
 whirling and crossing each other in the dark 
 sky, and blazing like comets. If they fell 
 upon the ground, it was torn up for a rod 
 around, and dozens were killed when they 
 burst. The bombs sometimes went over the 
 heads of the enemy, and fell among the 
 British vessels in the harbor, near the British 
 works at Gloucester Point, on the other side 
 of the river. The water spouted in columns 
 as they fell. 
 
 One night, an attack was made upon two 
 redoubts which the British had built out so 
 far that they stood in the way of some 
 American works just building around them. 
 The French were ordered to take one redoubt, 
 and the Americans under Lafayette the 
 other. The two parties tried to outdo each 
 other. Lafayette carried his redoubt first, 
 and sent his aid-de-camp to the leader of the 
 French party, through all the fire of the bat- 
 teries, to tell him he was in. “ So will I be,” 
 said the Frenchman, “in five minutes and 
 he performed his promise. 
 
 Cornwallis surrendered on the 19th. His 
 army, of about seven thousand men, marched 
 
 out at two o’clock, and passed between th© 
 American line on one side and the French 
 on the other, stretched out for more than a 
 mile. They were all dressed in their most 
 splendid uniforms, with fine music, and colors 
 flying. The English marched, carrying their 
 colors bound up, with a slow and solemn 
 step. The English general rode up to W ash- 
 ington, at the head of the line, and excused the 
 absence of Cornwallis, who feigned sickness. 
 Washington pointed him politely to Gen. 
 Lincoln, and the latter directed him to a large 
 field, where the whole British army laid down 
 their arms, and were led away prisoners. 
 After this capture, the English gave up all 
 hopes of success. No more fighting of any 
 consequence took place upon the land. 
 
 The British troops were wholly withdrawn 
 from the United States in the following sea- 
 son. The terms of peace with England were 
 settled by the British and American ambas- 
 sadors at Paris, in November, 1782. The 3d 
 of November, 1783, was fixed upon by Con- 
 gress for the final disbanding of the Ameri- 
 can army. On the day previous, Washington 
 issued his farewell orders, and bade an affec- 
 tionate adieu to the soldiers who had fought 
 with him in the great struggle, which was 
 now over. 
 
 Soon after taking leave of the army, Gen. 
 Washington was called to the still more pain- 
 ful hour of separation from his officers, 
 greatly endeared to him by a long series of 
 common sufferings and dangers. The officers 
 having assembled in New York for the pur- 
 pose, Washington joined them; and, calling 
 for a glass of wine, thus addressed them : 
 “With a heart full of love and gratitude, I 
 now take my leave of you. I most devoutly 
 wish that your latter days may be as pros- 
 perous and happy as your former ones have 
 been glorious and honorable.” Having thus 
 affectionately spoken, he took each by the 
 hand, and bade him farewell. Followed by 
 them to the side of the Hudson, he entered a 
 barge, and, while tears flowed down his 
 cheeks, he turned toward the companions of 
 his glory, and bade them a silent adieu. 
 
 Thus ended the American Revolution. 
 
 REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, an eminent En- 
 glish painter, born at*Plympton in Devon- 
 shire, in 1723. He was particularly celebra- 
 ted for his portraits, in which he rejected th© 
 
 REY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 725 
 
 stiff, formal style of his predecessors. In 
 1768 he was elected the first president of the 
 royal academy and received the honor of 
 knighthood. He lived in intimacy with 
 Johnson, Garrick, Burke, and other eminent 
 men of his time, and although afflicted with 
 incurable deafness in the latter part of his 
 life, still enjoyed conversation by means of 
 his ear-trumpet. In 1791 his eyesight failed, 
 and the following year he died, at the age of 
 seventy. 
 
 Mr. Burke once observed to Sir Joshua 
 
 Reynolds, “What a delight you have in 
 your profession.” — “No, sir,” said Dr. John- 
 son, taking up the question, “ Reynolds only 
 paints to get money.” — Miss Hannah More, 
 who was present, defending Sir Joshua, 
 insisted that i he pleasure experienced by the 
 artist was ckri/ed from higher and more 
 luxuriant sources than mere pecuniary con-* 
 sideration. — “Only answer me,” said the 
 moralist in an impressive tone ; “ did Lean- 
 der swim the Hellespont merely because he 
 was fond of swimming?” 
 
 RHODE ISLAND is the smallest of the 
 states of our confederacy. It has an area of 
 1,225 square miles, and in 1870 the popula- 
 tion was 217,353. The surface is broken and 
 hilly 7- , and the soil is moderately productive. 
 The islands in Narraganset Bay are very 
 fertile. The streams are small, but their 
 rapid descent renders them very valuable as 
 sources of power for manufactures, which 
 are extensively carried on, cotton goods 
 taking the lead. It was in Rhode Island 
 that Samuel Slater made the beginning of 
 the cotton manufactures of our country. 
 The once extensive commerce of Rhode 
 Island has been largely diverted to the ports 
 of Massachusetts and New York. 
 
 The first settlement within the limits of 
 Rhode Island was made at Providence in 
 1636 by Roger Williams, a Baptist minister 
 who had been driven from Massachusetts for 
 his religious views* The Indians knew and 
 loved him as their friend. Till very lately 
 the broad rock still lay on the bank of the 
 
 river, where the exile stepped ashore, and 
 was met by a friendly Indian who smattered 
 a little English, with the greeting, “ What 
 cheer ? ” The new colony was an asylum for 
 all “persons distressed of conscience.” The 
 fair island in the bay, which, after that other 
 fair isle in the Mediterranean, received the 
 name of the isle of Rhodes, or Rhode Island, 
 was settled two yea-rs after, through the 
 influence of Roger Williams, by other fugi- 
 tives from the banishment of the Massachu- 
 setts theocracy, and in 1644 he obtained a 
 royal charter uniting Rhode Island and Prov- 
 idence Plantations under one government. 
 
 Rhode Island, under the wise guidance of 
 Roger Williams, enjoyed the honor of setting 
 the world the example of perfect liberty and 
 toleration in religious matters. The settlers 
 of Providence early agreed that the munici- 
 pal authority was binding “only in civil 
 things ; ” and at the first general assembly of 
 the united colony, hoiden in May, 1647, the 
 code of laws was nobly concluded : “ Otlier- 
 
 RHO 
 
726 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 wise than thus, what is herein forbidden, all 
 men may walk as their consciences persuade 
 them, every one in the name of his God. 
 And let the lambs of the Most High walk in 
 this colony without molestation, in the name 
 of Jehovah, their God, for ever and ever.” 
 Full, free, absolute liberty of conscience for 
 all, of whatever creed or sect, of whatever 
 nation or tongue, w r as here first provided. 
 
 Rhode Island bore her share of the burden 
 of the Revolution, and was for a long time in 
 the possession of the British army. Unlike 
 most of the colonies, she continued the ad- 
 ministration of government under the royal 
 charter. The new instrument granted by 
 Charles II. in 1663, had conferred on the col- 
 ony the right to elect all their officers, and 
 to pass laws for their government, without 
 any intervention whatever from king or par- 
 liament, and also guaranteed them the broad 
 liberty of conscience they had assumed for 
 themselves aforetime. This charter, so lib- 
 eral, and the more so that it bore the name 
 of a Stuart, remained, with some modifica- 
 tions, the polity of the state down to 1842, 
 when a constitution w 7 as framed. The legis- 
 lative power is vested in a senate and house 
 of representatives, who are together styled the 
 General Assembly of the State of Rhode 
 Island and Providence Plantations. The 
 governor is chosen annually, and, as w r ell as 
 the lieutenant-governor, is a member of the 
 senate. The right of suffrage is vested in 
 male native citizens of the United States who 
 have resided in the state one year, and in the 
 town six months ; and in naturalized citizens 
 who beside such residence possess real estate 
 in the town, worth $134 over all incum- 
 brances, or which rents for $7 per annum. 
 The general assembly meets at Newport on the 
 first Tuesday in each May, and adjourned ses- 
 sions during the year areholden at Providence, 
 East Greenwich, South Kingston, and Bris- 
 tol. The judiciary consists of a supreme 
 court, having a chief-justice and three asso- 
 ciates ; and of a court of common pleas for 
 each of the five counties, held by a justice of 
 the supreme court. Rhode Island w r as once 
 a laggard in the matter of common schools : 
 but within a few years great advance has 
 been made, and she now stands abreast of 
 her sister states of New England. 
 
 Providence, at the head of Narraganset 
 
 Bay, is among the wealthiest and finest cities 
 of New England. In 1870 it had 68,904 in- 
 habitants. The land for the settlement of 
 Providence Plantations was conveyed to 
 Roger Williams by the chief sachems of the 
 Narragansets. He justly regarded the In- 
 dian title as pre-eminent to all others. In one 
 of the early deeds, he says, “ Having a sense 
 of God’s merciful providence unto me in my 
 distress, I called the place Providence.” The 
 place suffered severely during King Philip’s 
 war. Only twenty-eight of the male inhab- 
 itants “ staid and went not away.” At the 
 southern end of the beautiful isle of Rhode 
 Island lies the city of Newport. Its harbor 
 is one of the finest in the world, and before 
 the Revolution Newport was the home of pros- 
 perous commerce and enterprising merchants. 
 It was then the rival of Boston and far the 
 superior of New York. The struggle for in- 
 dependence entailed its ruin and decline. In 
 modern days, the charm of its situation, the 
 cool and salubrious breezes which enliven 
 its air, and the facilities for sea-bathing, 
 make it a favorite resort in summer. Its 
 population is 12,521. 
 
 RHODES, an island in the Grecian archi- 
 pelago, ten miles from the southern coast of 
 Asia Minor, now in the hands of the Turks. 
 It was formerly celebrated for the fertility of 
 its soil, its commercial importance, its conse- 
 cration to the gods, and its wonderful works 
 of art, including the celebrated Colossus. 
 [See Wonders.] It was made a Roman 
 province in the reign of Vespasian. In 1309 
 the knights of St. John took possession of it. 
 They sustained several attacks from the 
 Turks. The last and most memorable siege 
 of the city of Rhodes was in June, 1522, by 
 Solyman II. The princes of Christendom, 
 hopeless of the defense of so remote an out- 
 post, abandoned Rhodes to its fate. The 
 gallant garrison held out till they were nearly 
 buried in the ruins of their fortifications. In 
 December, 1522, they capitulated, evacuated 
 the island on honorable terms, and retired to 
 Malta. 
 
 Oct. 12th, 1856, Rhodes was convulsed by a 
 severe earthquake, the whole island seeming 
 to rock to and fro, as though a bauble in the 
 hand of an angry Titan^ The damage done 
 was estimated at $1,000,000, and hundreds of 
 the inhabitants were killed or wounded. The 
 
 RHO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 727 
 
 THE COLOSSUS OF RHODES. 
 
 6th of November following, a thunderbolt 
 fell upon the magazine in the city, where 
 were stored 300,000 pounds of powder, de- 
 stroying full one-third of the town, and kill- 
 ing a thousand of the people. The ancient 
 church of St. John was laid in ruins. 
 
 RICHARD I., II., III., of England. [See 
 Plantagenets.] 
 
 RICHARDSON, Samuel, an eminent Eng- 
 lish author, born in 1689, died in 1761. 
 Richardson was a printer, and master of an ex- 
 tensive business. Vanity was his only mark- 
 ed foible. He was very early a fluent letter- 
 writer : at thirteen he was the confidant of 
 three damsels, conducting tender correspond- 
 ence for each unknown to the others : but he 
 did not begin his novels till he was fifty 
 years in life, and then in his back shop, in 
 intervals of business. Our great-grand- 
 mothers wept copiously over “Pamela” and 
 “ Sir Charles Grandison ” and “ Clarissa Har- 
 
 lowe ; ” but with all their pathos, it requires a 
 good degree of wakefulness to get through 
 these prolix fictions nowadays. 
 
 RICHELIEU (Armand Jean Duplessis), a 
 cardinal and statesman, was born of a noble 
 family at Paris, in 1585. He studied in the 
 Sorbonne, and in 1607 obtained the bishopric 
 of Lucon. He was also appointed grand-al- 
 moner, and in 1616 made secretary of state. 
 When Mary de Medicis fell into disgrace, 
 Richelieu was banished to Avignon, where he 
 wrote his “ Method of Controversy.” Being 
 soon after recalled to court, he brought about 
 a reconciliation between Louis XIII. and the 
 queen-mother, for which he was rewarded 
 with a cardinal’s hat, and appointed prime 
 minister, in which situation he displayed 
 extraordinary talents. He subdued the Pro- 
 testants, reduced Savoy, humbled Spain, 
 struck terror into Germany, and commanded 
 the admiration of all Europe. In the midst 
 
 RIC 
 
728 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of this splendor he died, Dec. 4th, 1642, and 
 was buried at the Sorbonne. 
 
 RICHTER, Jean Paul Friedrich, was 
 born in 1763, in Baireuth, a town of Fran- 
 conia. He was one of the most emiment 
 German authors of his day, dealing in ro- 
 mances, the most eccentric and grotesque, 
 yet full of pathos and power. He died at 
 Baireuth in 1825. 
 
 RIDLEY, Nicholas, an English martyr, 
 was born in Northumberland. To qualifj^ 
 himself for divinity, he went to Paris, and 
 studied some time in the Sorbonne. On his 
 return he was chosen proctor of the univer- 
 sity at Oxford, in which capacity he signed 
 the declaration against the papal supremacy. 
 He was also elected public orator, and Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer made him his chaplain. Soon 
 after this he became master of Pembroke 
 Hall, with which he held some considerable 
 church preferment at Canterbury, and West- 
 minster. On the accession of Edward VI. 
 he was consecrated Bishop of Rochester ; and, 
 in 1550 he was translated to the see of Lon- 
 don, where he discharged the duties of his 
 office with unwearied diligence. He was also 
 employed in all the ecclesiastical measures of 
 that reign, particularly in the compiling of 
 the liturgy and the framing of the articles of 
 religion. But 5ne of the most distinguished 
 occurrences in the life of this great prelate 
 was that of inciting King Edward to endow 
 the three great foundations of Christ’s, Bar- 
 tholomew’s, and St. Thomas’s hospitals. It 
 was the bishop’s misfortune, however, to be- 
 come the dupe of the Duke of Northumber- 
 land, who prevailed upon him to concur in 
 the proclamation of Lady Jane Grey. For 
 this he was committed to the Tower, and 
 after a confinement of eight months, sent to 
 Oxford, there to hold a disputation with the 
 triumphant party. This mockery was fol- 
 lowed by a degradation from the episcopal 
 dignity, and sentence of condemnation to the 
 flames for heresy, which he endured with the 
 venerable Latimer before Baliol College, Oct. 
 16th, 1555. 
 
 RIENZI, Cola, was born in 1310. Dur- 
 ing the absence of the popes at Avignon, 
 Rome was torn by contending factions. The 
 eloquence of Ilienzi stirred the people to rise, 
 and he was given the dictatorship as the trib- 
 une of the people. This was in 1347. His 
 
 power lasted only till the close of the year, 
 and then he was driven from the city. In- 
 nocent VI. afterward reinstated him in the 
 dictatorship, and he was slain during a pop- 
 ular tumult, Oct. 8th, 1354. 
 
 RITTENHOUSE, David, of Pennsylvania, 
 an eminent and self-taught philosopher, died 
 in 1796, aged sixty -five. 
 
 RIZZIO, David, a Piedmontese musician, 
 who ingratiated himself into the favor of 
 Mary, Queen of Scotland. Through his skill 
 as a linguist he became her foreign secretary. * 
 He was barbarously assassinated by Darnley, 
 the husband of Mary, on a pretended suspi- 
 cion of criminal intercourse with her. 
 
 ROBERTSON, William, born in Scotland, 
 1721, died in 1793. Dr. Robertson was an 
 eminent clergyman in the church of Scotland, 
 but attained greater fame as a historian. 
 His great works are the “ History of the 
 Reign of Charles V.,” the “ History of 
 America,” and the “History of Scotland 
 during the Reigns of -Queen Mary and of King 
 James VI., till his Accession to the Crown of 
 England.” 
 
 ROBESPIERRE, Maximilian, a leading 
 actor in the terrible drama of the French 
 revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. His 
 father was of English origin, and an advocate, 
 to which profession the son was bred. At 
 the age of thirty he was chosen a deputy to 
 the states-general, and soon became promi- 
 nent in the scenes of blood with which 
 France was deluged. At last, when the reign 
 of terror was at its height, a coalition was 
 formed against him, and it issued success- 
 fully. He was arrested, tried in the same 
 summary style that had condemned so many 
 braver and better men before, and guillotined, 
 July 28th, 1794. 
 
 ROCHEFOUCAULD, Francis, Duke of, an 
 eminent French writer, born in 1613, and 
 died in 1680. 
 
 ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, Earl of, a 
 witty and licentious nobleman of the court of 
 Charles II., was born in 1647. It is said 
 that he once remained five years in a state 
 of inebriety. He blazed out his youth and 
 health in lavish voluptuousness, and died of 
 physical exhaustion and decay, at the age of 
 thirty -three. He wrote sweet and musical 
 songs, and several satirical poems, many of 
 them very licentious. “ Nothing in his life be- 
 
 ROC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 729 
 
 came him like the leaving it.” He professed 
 to Dr. Burnet sincere and unreserved peni- 
 tence. His tender and thoughtful letters to 
 his wife and children throw another bright 
 gleam upon his character. In one of his 
 poems he hits the character of his royal 
 boon companion in one line : — 
 
 “ A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.” 
 
 ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- 
 worth, Marquis of, became premier on the 
 dissolution of the Grenville administration, 
 in 1765. He was a nobleman possessing but 
 a mediocrity of understanding, and no ways 
 calculated to warrant the expectation of his 
 long continuance in office ; he was, however, 
 a man of disinterested principles and unaffec- 
 ted patriotism. The chief business of his 
 administration was to undo all that his prede- 
 cessors had done, particularly repealing the 
 American stamp-act. In 1766 he was suc- 
 ceeded in office by the Duke of Grafton. He 
 came again into power at the close of the 
 ministry of Lord North in March, 1782, but 
 died in July, aged fifty -two. 
 
 RODNEY, Caesar, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born at Dover, 
 Delaware, in 1730. He successively filled the 
 offices of high sheriff, justice of the peace, 
 and judge of the lower courts, and repre- 
 sented his county in the provincial legisla- 
 ture. He. was a member of the stamp-act 
 congress at New York in % 1765, and was 
 speaker of the assembly of his state in 1768. 
 His chaste and fluent pen was actively em- 
 ployed in the service of his country. He 
 was a member of the first congress in 1774, 
 and continued a delegate till the close of 
 1776, when he took the field as brigadier-gen- 
 eral. In 1777 he remained for two months 
 in the camp near Princeton, laboriously 
 occupied. For four years he was president 
 of his state, but retired from office in 
 1782, and died the following year from a 
 cancer. 
 
 RODNEY, George Brydges, was the son 
 of Capt. Henry Rodney, a naval officer. He 
 was born in 1717, entered early into the 
 British navy, and in 1742 obtained the com- 
 mand of a ship. In 1749 he was appointed 
 governor of Newfoundland ; and on his re- 
 turn, in 1753, he married the sister of the 
 % Earl of Northampton. In 1759 he was made 
 
 admiral of the blue, and the same year 
 destroyed the stores prepared at Havre de 
 Grace for an invasion of England. In 1761 
 he served on the West India station with 
 such activity that at the conclusion of the 
 war he was made a baronet. In 1768 he w r as 
 elected into parliament for Northampton ; 
 but the contest ruined his estate. In 1771 
 he went to Jamaica as commander-in-chief ; 
 and at the expiration of the term of service, 
 w r as forced by his embarrassed estate to 
 retire to France, where overtures were made 
 to him on the part of that government, which 
 would have recruited his fortune, but were 
 refused with indignation. In 1779 he was 
 again called into employment ; and the year 
 following, by defeating the Spanish fleet, off 
 Cape St. Vincent, he saved Gibraltar. After 
 this he went to the West Indies, where, on 
 the 12th of April, 1782, he gained a great 
 victory over the French fleet under Count de 
 Grasse ; for which he w r as made a peer. He 
 died in 1792. 
 
 ROE, Sir Thomas, w-as born about 1560, at 
 Low Layton in Essex, and educated at Mag- 
 dalen College, Oxford, after which he became 
 a student in one of the inns of court. In 
 1604 he was knighted, and soon after went to 
 make discoveries in America. In 1614 he 
 w r as sent on an embassy to the Great Mogul, 
 at wdiose court he remained three years. In 
 1621 he went in the same capacity to Con- 
 stantinople, and during his residence there, 
 collected a number of manuscripts, which he 
 presented to the Bodleian library. In 1629 
 Sir Thomas negotiated a peace between Po- 
 land and Sweden, and it was by his advice, 
 that Gustavus Adolphus entered Germany, 
 where he gained the battle of Leipsic. In 
 1640 he was chosen to represent the univer- 
 sity of Oxford in parliament. The next year 
 he w 7 as sent ambassador to the diet of Ratis- 
 bon, and on his return was made chancellor 
 of the garter. He died in 1644. 
 
 ROGERS, Samuel, a pleasing and tasteful 
 poet, was the son of a wealthy London bank- 
 er, and born in 1762. He was the friend of 
 Byron and Moore, and his bounty soothed 
 the dying hours of Sheridan. He outlived 
 his contemporaries, and died in December, 
 1856. His house in St. James’s Place, was 
 enriched w’ith the choicest pictures, sculp- 
 ture, books, and gems. For half a century 
 
 ROG 
 
730 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 it was the centre of literary society in Lon- 
 don. The host was not exclusive in forming 
 his circle, and he not only gathered round 
 his table men who had achieved literary 
 eminence, but also extended his hand to 
 young and friendless merit. 
 
 ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE, Jean Ma- 
 rie, was born at Villefranche in the neighbor- 
 hood of Lyons, 1782 ; was inspector general 
 of manufactures and commerce in that city 
 when the revolution commenced ; and, having 
 embraced popular principles, became member 
 of the Lyons municipality in 1790. In 
 February, 1791, he was sent to Paris as dep- 
 uty extraordinary, to defend the commercial 
 interests of Lyons in the committees of the 
 constituent assembly, and remained ‘there 
 seven months, accompanied by his noble- 
 hearted wife. This period dates from the 
 contemplated flight of the king, just before 
 the death of Mirabeau, to the dispersion of 
 the assembly after the acceptance of the 
 new constitution. When the patriot minis- 
 try was formed in March, 1792, Roland was 
 made minister of the interior ; which position 
 he retained till June 13th, when the royal 
 veto upon the proposal to form a patriot 
 camp around Paris, and upon the decree 
 against the priests, provoked his celebrated 
 letter to the king (written, however, by his 
 wife), and, as a consequence, his almost in- 
 stant dismissal. Then came the arrival of 
 the Marseillaise in Paris, and the conflict at 
 the Tuileries, August 10th ; when Roland 
 was recalled, and Danton became minister of 
 justice. The struggle between the Giron- 
 dists and the municipality under the guid- 
 ance of Robespierre filled up the period till 
 May 31st. The former party were vanquish- 
 ed, and Roland was among the number who 
 saved their lives by flight. He found an 
 asylum with his friends at Rouen, but delib- 
 erately killed himself with his cane-sword on 
 hearing of the execution of his wife, Nov. 
 15th, 1793. His body was found by the 
 roadside, and a paper in his pocket contained 
 his last words, among which were these : 
 “Whoever thou art that findest these re- 
 mains, respect them, as those of a man who 
 consecrated his life to usefulness, and who 
 died as he has lived, virtuous and honest. . 
 
 . . . On hearing of my wife’s death, I 
 
 would not remain another day upon this earth 
 
 so stained with crimes.” Roland was mark- 
 ed by his practical philosophy, commercial 
 knowledge, and strict simplicity. 
 
 ROLAND, Manon Jeanne Puilippon, 
 Madame, the wife of the preceding, and her- 
 self the spirit of the Girondist party, was 
 the daughter of a Parisian engraver, and was 
 born at Paris in 1754. Of nine she was the 
 only child left to her father, who provided 
 her with masters regardless of expense, and 
 gave her a brilliant education; the best 
 grounds for which existed in her native tal- 
 ents, her firm spirit, her personal beauty, and 
 her undoubted virtues. Antiquities, herald- 
 ry, philosophy, and, among other books, the 
 Bible, made up her earliest studies; her 
 favorite authors, however, were Plutarch, 
 Tacitus, Montaigne, and Rousseau. In 1779 
 she became the wife of Roland ; and as her 
 love for him was founded on his ajitique vir- 
 tues and philosophic spirit, she has been 
 called ‘ the Heloise of the eighteenth centu- 
 ry;’ he was also twenty years her senior. 
 She shared in all his studies, assisted him in 
 editing his works, and during his two minis- 
 tries acted as his secretary, entering into all 
 the intrigues of his party without debasing 
 herself by their meanness. She was the 
 angel of the cause she espoused, the soul of 
 honor and the conscience of all who embraced 
 it ; while her boldness, her political sagacity, 
 and her sarcastic eloquence were equally 
 dreaded by their adversaries. 
 
 After the flight of her husband, Madame 
 Roland was arrested by order of the Paris 
 commune, under dictation of Marat and 
 Robespierre, and consigned to the Abbaye 
 prison ; from which, on the 31st of October, 
 1793 (the day her Girondist friends were led 
 to execution), she was removed to a more 
 wretched abode in the damp vaults of the 
 Conciergie. The dismal dungeon into which 
 she was cast adjoined the cell in which the 
 hapless Marie Antoinette had languished in 
 misery till dragged to the guillotine. The 
 next day she was subjected to an abusive 
 examination, and having thus learned the 
 nature of the charges which would be brought 
 against her, she sit down in her cell that 
 very night, and swiftly sketched her eloquent 
 defense. She bore the subsequent examina- 
 tions with serenity and courage, though cer- 
 tain of the untimely death that awaited her. 
 
 ROL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 731 
 
 The upper part of the door of her cell was 
 an iron grating. The neighboring dungeons 
 were filled with illustrious Frenchmen and 
 Frenchwomen. To some it was permitted 
 to walk in the corridors. These, and those 
 more closely immured, often called for her to 
 give them encouraging and consoling words. 
 Standing upon a stool at the door of her own 
 cell, she grasped the iron grating which sep- 
 arated her from her companions in confine- 
 ment. The melodious accents of her voice 
 floated among those dismal dungeons, pene- 
 trating cell after cell, and arousing energy in 
 hearts which had been abandoned to despair. 
 The calmness with which she viewed the 
 certain approach of death, gave to her voice 
 that depth of tone and slightly tremulous 
 utterance which sent her words with thrilling 
 power to every heart. A survivor of those 
 dreadful scenes, who was then an inmate of 
 the prison, has glowingly described the al- 
 most miraculous effects of her eloquence at 
 such times. Occasionally, in the solitude of 
 her cell, the recollection of her husband and 
 her child would overcome her with tears. 
 The passion was only momentary. The 
 heroine rose above the woman. With the 
 highest degree of heroism she combined the 
 most resistless charms of feminine loveliness. 
 With an energy of will, an inflexibility of 
 purpose, and a firmness of stoical endurance 
 that few mortals have ever surpassed, Mad- 
 ame Roland combined that purity and gentle- 
 ness and tenderness and affection, — that in- 
 stinctive sense of the proprieties of her sex, — 
 which gathered about her a love as pure and 
 enthusiastic as woman ever excited. 
 
 Upon the trial, she met* her judges calmly 
 and invincibly. She was accused of the 
 crimes of being the wife of M. Roland and 
 the friend of his friends. She proudly 
 owned the truth of both those charges. 
 Whenever she attempted to utter a word in 
 her defense, she was browbeaten by the 
 judges, and silenced by the clamors of the 
 mob. Her serenity was untroubled, save by 
 the exaltation of enthusiasm, and she com- 
 posedly watched the progress of the trial 
 whose rapid and resistless course was bearing 
 her to the scaffold. Yet it was difficult to 
 bring any accusation against her by which 
 she could be condemned under the pretense 
 and form of law. France, even in her dark- 
 
 est hour, was rather ashamed to behead a 
 woman, simply for being the wife of her hus- 
 band and the friend of his friends. At last 
 it was demanded of her that she should re- 
 veal her husband’s asylum. Her refusal was 
 enough, and she was immediately condemned. 
 She calmly listened to her sentence ; then 
 rising, she bowed with dignity to her unjust 
 judges, and said with a smile, “I thank you, 
 gentlemen, for thinking me worthy to share 
 the fate of the great men whom you have as- 
 sassinated. I shall endeavor to imitate their 
 firmness on the scaffold.” 
 
 The morning of the 10th of November, a 
 long procession of carts loaded with victims 
 left the Conciergie for the guillotine. In the 
 last of the mournful vehicles was Madame 
 Roland. She was clad in a white robe, and 
 her black glossy hair, which for some reason 
 the executioners had neglected to cut, fell in 
 rich profusion to her waist. She had contin- 
 ued writing her memoirs until the hour in 
 which she left the cell for the scaffold. When 
 the cart had almost reached the foot of the guil- 
 lotine, her spirit was so deeply moved by the 
 tragic scene, such emotions came rushing in 
 upon her soul from departing time and open- 
 ing eternity, that she could not repress the 
 desire to write, once more. She unavailingly 
 begged an officer to furnish her with pen and 
 paper for one moment. Her courage did not 
 falter on the scaffold. Bowing before the 
 statue to the goddess of Liberty, she said, 
 u O Liberty! Liberty! how many crimes are 
 committed in thy name.” Her neck was put 
 beneath the fatal axe of the guillotine ; the 
 steel descended ; and her severed head rolled 
 into the gory basket. 
 
 ROLLIN, Charles, an eminent historian, 
 born at Paris in 1661, died in 1741. 
 
 ROMANOFF, House of. Unlicensed pow- 
 er does not foster the growth of virtue ; and 
 there are no sections of history more lamen- 
 table than those which recount the deeds of 
 families wielding for centuries regal authority, 
 whether it be the Ptolemies of ancient time, 
 or the Stuarts or Bourbons of modern days. 
 The biography of the imperial house of Rus- 
 sia does not yield an exception. 
 
 The Rurick dynasty, which for seven cen- 
 turies, had held power in Russia, ended with 
 the childless Feodor in 1598. His legitimate 
 heir, Dmitri, was assassinated, and the land 
 
 ROM 
 
732 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 became the prey of anarchy, which, with the 
 ambition of rapacious neighbors, menaced the 
 burial of its independence. The throne was 
 offered to the Polish monarch, and all but 
 given, when a successful effort to save the 
 nationality threw off the yoke and drove the 
 Poles from Moscow. A convocation of dep- 
 uties from the nobles, priests, and burgesses, 
 of each province, was held in 1613, to choose 
 a czar, and Michael Romanoff was selected. 
 The Romanoffs were one of the leading fam- 
 ilies of Muscovy, having their origin in an 
 adventurer from western Europe who settled 
 in the land in the fourteenth century. Mich- 
 ael was then a youth of seventeen. His kin 
 had suffered sorely in the previous years of 
 lawlessness; he himself had spent many 
 years in exile and in prison ; his illustrious 
 father, who had been the ambassador to Po- 
 land, was languishing in prison at Warsaw. 
 Alive to the dangers and cares which hedged 
 about the regal dignity in that troublous land 
 and time, the young czar elect declined the 
 honor. His scruples were overcome ; he was 
 crowned at Moscow, and he reigned for two 
 and thirty years! The wars he waged with 
 the Poles and with the Swedes cost him broad 
 provinces, but his reign was very popular, 
 and well calculated to establish his family 
 upon the throne. We are told that he forbade 
 the use of tobacco as injurious to health and 
 strength, and that he issued a sort of Maine- 
 law ukase against ardent beverages. He ob- 
 tained his father’s release from the Polish 
 dungeon, and wisely admitted him to a share 
 in the government, where his prudence and 
 moderation were of great profit. 
 
 Michael’s son and successor, Alexis, was 
 of another stamp. He chose for his prime 
 counselor and minister, Boris Morosoff, an 
 able nobleman, but ferocious, unprincipled, 
 rapacious, and ambitious. Open traffic was 
 made of justice ; offices and employments were 
 publicly sold. These exactions and oppres- 
 sions excited the just resentment of the in- 
 habitants of Moscow, and finding their peti- 
 tions disregarded, no grievances redressed, 
 and starvation threatening them from the 
 monopolies in trade which the royal favorite 
 possessed, they rose in tumult, and cried for 
 the head of Morosoff. With difficulty Alexis 
 saved the life of his minister by banishing 
 him. The czar did little better when left to 
 
 himself. His evil administration caused more 
 insurrections of a famishing people, which 
 were put down with awful carnage by his 
 strelitz, or mercenary body-guard. A ray 
 of light strays upon his despotism through 
 efforts which he began to make for the ad- 
 vancement of the wealth and industry of his 
 realm. He had the gold mines opened and 
 worked, superintended the construction of the 
 two first ships built in Russia, and advanced 
 the intercourse with the more civilized coun- 
 tries in the west. He died at the age of 
 forty-seven, having reigned thirty-one years. 
 By his first wife, Alexis left two sons, Feodor 
 and Ivan, and six daughters, among them 
 Sophia ; and by the second, Peter and the 
 princess Natalia. 
 
 At once there arose a dispute for the suc- 
 cession. Feodor was sickly, and not likely 
 to live. Ivan was almost blind, very deaf, 
 and wholly imbecile. The Narishkins, the 
 powerful kinsmen of the second wife, claimed 
 the throne for Peter, then only three years 
 of age. The vigor of Sophia, aided by her 
 beauty and eloquence, turned the scale in 
 favor of Feodor. He lived only six years, 
 insignificant and invalid. Then the fierce 
 contest for the succession was renewed. 
 Peter and his mother narrowly escaped mur- 
 der from the emissaries of Sophia. At last 
 the idiot Ivan and his half-brother were asso- 
 ciated in the nominal dignity of czar, with 
 Sophia for regent. She placed Peter in a 
 country village and surrounded him with 
 profligate and drunken boors. From her idiot 
 brother she had no intrusion to fear. Aided 
 by her able and wary counselor, Prince Galit- 
 zin, she applied herself to confirm her author- 
 ity, and avoid the perils common to usurpers. 
 Yet she was beset by troubles, dangers, and 
 unruly subjects. With all she had done to 
 quench the manhood of Peter, he was still 
 the thorn in her flesh. In his rustication he 
 had learned readily enough the vices set 
 around him; but drunkenness could not 
 drown his energy and strength of character ; 
 and as he grew to manly years, his ambition 
 was not concealed. Sophia must be rid of 
 him. The attempt resulted in her downfall. 
 He was victorious, and she with a shaven 
 head was immured in a nunnery. From this 
 time, 1689, Peter is to be considered as sole 
 sovereign of Russia ; since from the period of 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 733 
 
 this revolution to the year 1696, in which 
 Ivan died, the idiot led a private and retired 
 life. 
 
 Peter the Great was born May 30th, 1672. 
 His vast projects of improvement raised Rus- 
 sia to the rank of an empire. At the time of 
 his accession he could neither read nor write, 
 thanks to Sophia. Lefort, a Swiss, one of 
 his companions, taught him not only Russian, 
 but several other European languages. His 
 army was undisciplined : he sent abroad for 
 well-tried soldiers, — thousands of Frenchmen, 
 Scots, Germans, and Swiss, — and leavened, the 
 different corps. Very soon all he needed was 
 a general, a want which would not have ex- 
 isted, had merit been the ground of promo- 
 tion. To correct this abuse, he entered the 
 ranks and performed the duties of a common 
 soldier, till, by rising gradually and regularly 
 through all the grades to the command of a 
 body of troops, he exhibited the duty of obe- 
 dience and the necessity of discipline, in his 
 own example. Russia had no navy. Peter 
 was born with such a dread of watey that 
 whenever he saw a river he shuddered. Of 
 this he cured himself by a rigorous morning 
 regimen of icy shower-baths. He became a 
 practical mariner, and then a ship-carpenter. 
 He visited Holland, under a disguised name, 
 in 1698. Here he worked as a common la- 
 borer among the shipwrights in the dock- 
 yard, and then he went to England. There 
 in the royal dock-yard at Deptford, spurning 
 all ceremony and attention, he hewed and 
 hammered like any other frugal, industrious 
 carpenter. When he was thoroughly a mas- 
 ter-workman, he went home, and by and by 
 Russia had a navy. Insurrections of the sol- 
 diery were a frequent thing. Peter put them 
 down by his resistless daring and force, mak- 
 ing fearful examples, till sedition disturbed 
 him no more. His rule was a despotism, but 
 it had for its grand object the aggrandizement 
 of the nation, and not simply selfish ambition. 
 Whatever stood in the way of his gigantic 
 schemes, he crushed without remorse. The 
 council of the boyards and nobles was a re- 
 straint upon his will : he brushed it away. 
 Priestcraft he hated as an antagonistic des- 
 potism : he crumbled the power of the church, 
 and declared himself its patriarch and head. 
 When he founded St. Petersburg, the clergy 
 swelled the popular dislike to its unhealthy 
 
 marshes, by proclaiming that an image of 
 the Virgin, which had been removed to the 
 church on the Neva, shed visible tears there- 
 at. Peter strode into the church, seized the 
 sniveling doll, gouged its eyes, and chuckled 
 to find a small reservoir of oil, so contrived 
 that a little stream could trickle down the 
 cheeks. 
 
 He decreed that the dress of his people 
 should assimilate to that of western Europe. 
 He disliked beards, and by taxing them pro- 
 moted shaven chins. One of the wisest of 
 his social enactments was that which sent 
 young Russians on foreign tours ; it helped 
 to raise the Russian noble from a drunken, 
 sensual, brutal boor tow T ard a polished gen- 
 tleman. Peter was drunken and sensual, in 
 a degree that would have swamped an ordi- 
 nary man ; but he was not an ordinary man, 
 and he knew the worth of virtues and attain- 
 ments that he did not practice. His trusted 
 friends were foreigners, or Russians who had 
 traveled abroad. Lefort, the Swiss, was his 
 chief adviser ; Menschikoff, who began life as 
 a pastry-cook, and ended by founding a 
 princely house still foremost in the empire, 
 was another; and wherever Peter found use- 
 ful talent, whether in a Muscovite boyard or 
 in a Dutch skipper, he encouraged and em- 
 ployed it. 
 
 His domestic life was as strange as his 
 public career. When very young, he married 
 Eudocia, the daughter of Col. Lapuchin, and 
 when quite as young he began to brutally 
 maltreat her, and neglect her for low amours, 
 for he was not at all nice in his mistresses. 
 Alexis, the son which she bore him in 1670, 
 Peter ever hated. A charge of treason was 
 trumped up ; Alexis was condemned to death, 
 and the sentence was fulfilled by a horrible 
 poison. The last of Peter’s mistresses became 
 his second wife. Her life shows a curious 
 scale. First a Swedish peasant girl, then the . 
 wife of a dragoon, then captured by the Rus- 
 sians, successively the mistress of Gen. Bauer 
 and Prince Menschikoff, she was sold by the 
 latter to his master, and became czarina. 
 Martha, her original name, was changed for 
 Catharine. Her imperturbable good-nature 
 proved a resistless charm for impetuous 
 Peter, — one that could calm his wildest fits 
 of passion. She accompanied him to the 
 camp, wielding a strong influence. It is said 
 
 ROM 
 
73 ± 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 that the truce which saved his army when 
 surrounded by the Turks on the banks of the 
 Pruth, was entered into by her without even 
 his knowledge. She was as influential in the 
 court, and the sad fate of Alexis hints her 
 instigation. 
 
 The great czar went on ; rearing an impe- 
 rial city of splendid proportions and design, 
 on the watery desert of the Neva; waging 
 battle with Turk and Swede and Pole; build- 
 ing up fleets of' war and navies of commerce ; 
 founding that army which has since been 
 brought almost to the perfection of a machine ; 
 careering, like the car of the Hindoo idol, over 
 life and happiness and liberty, toward the 
 mark of his lofty’aims and indomitable energy. 
 In 1716 he journeyed with Catharine to Den- 
 mark, and thence to Holland, the scene of the 
 hardy toil of plain Peter Timmermann. Much 
 had been done since then: that toil was not 
 for naught. At last there came to Peter the 
 Great that fate which comes to all. He died 
 of strangury, aggravated by exposure to wet 
 and cold on a boating excursion, Jan. 28th, 
 1725. *■ A’ colossal statue was erected to his 
 memory at St. Petersburg, by the second 
 Catharine. The huge block of granite which 
 forms its pedestal, and which weighs upward 
 of fifteen tons, was conveyed from a marsh at 
 a distance of four English miles from St. 
 Petersburg, and two from the sea. On ap- 
 proaching near to the rock, the simple inscrip- 
 tion fixed on it in bronze letters, “ Petro 
 Primo, Gatherina Secunda, mdcclxxxii.,” 
 meets the eye. The same inscription in the 
 Russian language appears on the opposite 
 side. The area is enclosed within a hand- 
 some railing placed between granite pillars. 
 The idea of Falconet, the French architect 
 commissioned to erect an equestrian statue 
 of this extraordinary man, at whose command 
 a few scattered huts of fishermen were con- 
 verted into palaces, was to represent him as 
 conquering, by enterprise and personal cour- 
 age, difficulties almost insurmountable. This, 
 the artist imagined, might be properly repre- 
 sented by placing Peter on a fiery steed, 
 which he is supposed to have taught by skill, 
 management, and perseverance, to rush up a 
 steep and precipitous rock, to the very brink 
 of a precipice, over which the animal and the 
 imperial rider pause without fear, and in an 
 attitude of triumph. The horse rears with his 
 
 fore feet in the air, and seems impatient of 
 restraint, while the sovereign, turned toward 
 the island, surveys with calm and serene 
 countenance his capital rising out of the 
 waters, over which he extends the hand of 
 protection. 
 
 This monument of bronze is said to have 
 been cast at a single jet. The height of the 
 figure of the emperor is eleven feet ; that of the 
 horse seventeen feet ; the general weight of 
 the metal in the group is equal to 36,636 
 English pounds. It is said that when the 
 artist had formed his conception of the design, 
 he communicated it to the empress, together 
 with the impossibility of representing to 
 nature so striking a position of man and 
 animal, without having before his eyes a 
 horse and rider in the attitude he had devised. 
 General Melessino, an officer having the repu- 
 tation of being the most expert as well as the 
 boldest rider of the day, to whom the difficul- 
 ties of the artist were made known, offered to 
 ride daily one of Count Alexis OrlofFs best 
 Arabians, to the summit of a steep artificial 
 mound formed for the purpose ; accustoming 
 the horse to gallop up to it, and to halt sud- 
 denly, with his fore legs raised, pawing the 
 air over the brink of a precipice. This dan- 
 gerous experiment was carried into effect by 
 the general for some days, in the presence 
 of several spectators and of Falconet, who 
 sketched the various movements and parts 
 of the group from day to day. In an eques- 
 trian statue the horse is the great point ; the 
 rider is of little account. The merit of this 
 group consists in the boldness with which it 
 rests on the hind legs of the steed, assisted by 
 an allegorical serpent of envy that the horse 
 very judiciously spurns rather than topple 
 over. 
 
 Peter had appointed his widow his suc- 
 cessor; she had Menschikoff and the army 
 on her side, moreover, and she mounted the 
 throne. Freed from the restraint of a hus- 
 band, and such an imperious one withal, 
 Catharine left business to Menschikoff, and 
 immersed herself in the profligacy which she 
 considered pleasure. Cancer, dropsy, and 
 other maladies cut her off at the age of thirty- 
 nine. Peter, the son of the Alexis of inhuman 
 doom, came to the throne. He was a lad of 
 promise, but only a lad. The government 
 continued in the control of Menschikoff, who 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 735 
 
 endeavored to carry on the vast plans of Peter 
 the Great, and so became more and more 
 brutal and despotic. In the height of power 
 he was banished to Siberia, and Ivan Dalgo- 
 ruky, whose sister Catharine the boy czar 
 loved and wedded, took his place. But Ivan’s 
 span was short, for Peter died in 1630, at the 
 age of fifteen. He was the last of the male 
 line of Romanoff. The nearest heir was 
 Peter, the infant son of Anne, Duchess of 
 Holstein-Gottorp, a daughter of Peter the 
 Great. His aunt Elizabeth, another daughter 
 of Peter, as well as the three daughters of the 
 imbecile Ivan, put forth their claims. A 
 caucus of generals and a few nobles decided 
 in favor of Anne, Duchess of Courland, the 
 second daughter of Ivan. After she had 
 strengthened herself by conciliating the sol- 
 diery who had made her empress, she began 
 to repudiate the pledges that had been im- 
 posed upon her. One promise was that she 
 would not bring her chamberlain Biren into 
 Russia: he was soon sent for, and intrusted 
 with the whole conduct of affairs, foreign and 
 domestic. Exile and the knout were the 
 devices of his rule ; the latter he considered 
 the best answer to any petition or complaint 
 from the people, while the other was his 
 remedy for those who were tainted with 
 opposition to his will. It is said that his 
 banishments to Siberia averaged more than 
 six exiles a day. For Anne, his affection and 
 a few pleasures were sufficient. She was not 
 marked by the coarse vices of her race : she 
 was not a drunkard, and it is not known that 
 she set a premium on profligacy. Fond of 
 cheerful music and gay dancing, she preferred 
 a tranquil life to the boisterous revels of her 
 successors. Now and then she did a deed 
 that evinced the blood she bore. Prince 
 Galitzin, one of the highest nobles in Russia, 
 forsook the Greek for the Romish faith: 
 Anne made him the court-fool, and had him 
 beaten by her pages when his jests failed to 
 amuse. Just at the close of her reign, she 
 took offense at one of her ministers, Yolynski : 
 she had his tongue torn from the roots, his 
 right hand cut off, and his mutilated body 
 beheaded. She died childless in 1740. The 
 ambition and arrogance of Biren had worked 
 his ruin, and he took his turn in Siberia. 
 Ivan, grand-nephew of the deceased empress, 
 had been declared the heir. He was only 
 
 three months old, and his mother, Anne of 
 Mecklenburg, Duchess of Brunswick, was 
 made regent. She was but a girl of sixteen, 
 and her waiting-maid controlled all. Under 
 such giddiness, revolution came of course, 
 and soon. 
 
 The Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Peter 
 the Great, was made empress. Ivan, the inno- 
 cent and unconscious babe, was dethroned, 
 and immured in a dungeon ; and the duchess 
 and her husband were imprisoned in a fortress, 
 where they died. Ivan’s fate was hapless 
 enough. He spent his days in prison ; every 
 trick to debase his intellect was tried ; brandy 
 was given him in quantities ; his temper was 
 irritated to sullenness and ferocity, and when 
 one day a word showed a dim consciousness 
 of his birth and claims, in the time of Catha- 
 rine the Great, the next morning his body 
 lay in a puddle of gore, thrust with five and 
 twenty wounds. 
 
 Elizabeth inherited a share of her father’s 
 energy, and a fuller portion of his cruelty. 
 She bent her thoughts to the government 
 of the empire, and her twenty years’ reign 
 showed no lack of vigor. She abolished 
 capital punishment, except for political 
 offenses, but the knout. . and torture were 
 substituted, so that such clemency was of 
 slight worlfc. Like her English namesake 
 she never married, yet she can not be named 
 as a maiden queen, and her meditations were 
 far less ‘ fancy free.’ In her last years she 
 resigned the cares of state to her favorite and 
 able statesman, Panin, and abandoned herself 
 to vile debauches, and died at last in 1762, of 
 delirium tremens, with a half-emptied brandy 
 bottle in her hand and obscene ravings on her 
 tongue. 
 
 She left her throne to her nephew Peter, 
 of Holstein-Gottorp, once before a claimant. 
 Brought up under her care, it is not strange 
 that he was ignorant and dissolute. He was 
 grandson to Peter the Great and Catharine I., 
 whose eldest daughter, the Princess Anne, 
 had married his father, Charles Frederick, 
 Duke of Holstein. His reign commenced 
 with a time of political jubilee ; the credit of 
 which is due to his ministers, for he was 
 steeped in habitual excesses. He for a long 
 time slighted his consort, Catharine, and 
 openly lived with the Countess of Woront- 
 zoff, niece to the chancellor of that pame. 
 
 ROM 
 
786 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Catharine indulged in the greatest licentious- 
 ness ; and, after the dismissal of Poniatowski, 
 the Polish ambassador, with whom she had 
 been too intimate, she carried on a criminal 
 intercourse with Gregory Orloff, who became 
 an active and zealous member of a conspiracy 
 against the czar. To the conspiracy of Bes- 
 tucheff, supported by his nephew, the Prince 
 of Wolskonsky, and by Count Panin, was 
 added another, of which the Princess Dash- 
 koff, a girl only eighteen jmars of age, was 
 the most active and spirited member. Of all 
 these factions, which acted without the cog- 
 nizance of each other, Catharine was the 
 animating spirit. 
 
 At length a report was propagated that the 
 emperor entertained the design of declaring 
 Prince Ivan his successor, of disowning the 
 young grand-duke, Paul, his son, and of 
 immuring Catharine for life in a prison, and 
 substituting in her place his mistress, the 
 Countess of Worontzoff. 
 
 At seven in the morning of the 9th of 
 Juty, 1762, Catharine entered the city of 
 Petersburg in the absence of the czar ; and 
 having induced the soldiers to believe that 
 her death, together with that of her son, had 
 been decreed by the emperor that night, the 
 troops took the oath of allegiance to her. 
 She then repaired to the church of Casan, 
 where the Archbishop of Novogorod placed 
 on her head the imperial crown, and in a loud 
 voice proclaimed her sovereign of all the 
 Russias, under the name of Catharine II. 
 The revolution was bloodless. Her husband 
 was solacing himself with his mistress at one 
 of his country-houses of pleasure, when he 
 was informed of the event which had taken 
 place. Consternation immediately pervaded 
 his whole company. The emperor, perplexed 
 and confounded, ordered, countermanded, 
 asked advice, adopted, and again rejected it, 
 and at length set out with his mistress and 
 aid-de-camp to meet Catharine, vainly hoping 
 to move by submission the heart of a woman 
 who was utterly devoid of pity or compas- 
 sion. After being induced to write and sign 
 a renunciation of the throne of Russia, he 
 was cast into prison, where seven days after, 
 a minion of the empress gave him poison, 
 and made the dose sure by strangling him, 
 
 fought with the desperation and agony of 
 despair. 
 
 The woman thus made mistress of Russia, 
 was born at Stettin in Prussia, of the house of 
 Anhalt Zerbst, May 2d, 1729. Her name was 
 originally Sophia, but upon her marriage, she 
 obeyed the law and custom of Russia by 
 leaving the Lutheran faith, and was baptized 
 into the Greek church by the name of Catha-* 
 rine Alexiena. History calls her Catharine 
 the Great, an epithet that seems to belong to 
 all robbers, murderers, and villains that have 
 the opportunity of moulding their crimes in 
 colossal dimensions. With all that accuses 
 Napoleon, it is much to his credit that the 
 word does not cling to his name, and it is 
 surely out of place, in its historic accepta- 
 tion, upon that of wise Alfred of England. 
 Catharine w r as a woman of unbounded ambi- 
 tion. In her reign of a third of a century, 
 it was aided by such ministers as Panin and 
 Potemkin, and to wage her wars she had 
 warriors like Romantzoff and the merciless 
 and indomitable Suwarrow. Many magnifi- 
 cent schemes for the advancement of Russia 
 were promulgated in her ukases, sounding 
 her glory far and wide : a few of these were 
 put into operation ; but most of them, like 
 many a fine metropolis in our West, existed 
 only on paper. Indeed, she published a 
 list of two hundred and forty-five cities 
 which she had founded ; we may look in vain 
 for most of them. Once Joseph II. of Aus- 
 tria accompanied her to lay the foundation of 
 a new city on the Dnieper, to be called, after 
 her name, Ekaterinoslaf. In her imagination 
 it already rivaled St. Petersburg. With 
 imposing ceremony the empress laid the first 
 stone, and her imperial companion another. 
 On his return Joseph drily remarked, “ The 
 empress and I have this day achieved a great 
 work : she has laid the first stone of a great 
 city, and I have laid the last.” Such was 
 the fate of many of the towns she laid : they 
 were never hatched. She made vast begin- 
 nings and mean endings. Her plans were 
 sure to be perverted before they reached the 
 extremities of her dominions. Diderot com- 
 pared her empire to a fruit rotten before it 
 was ripe. Joseph of Austria called it a 
 “colossus of brass on a pedestal of clay.” 
 One great feature of her fame is as a lawgiver. 
 
 after a struggle in which the poor wretch 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 737 
 
 To her credit be it said that she first lessened 
 and finally abolished the practice of torture. 
 But her famous code of laws, which has been 
 so much praised, never went beyond the set 
 of instructions for its formation which she 
 drew up, and all that was good in these she 
 stole from Montesquieu and other sources. 
 
 The luxury and waste of her life and the 
 consequent profusion of 'expense, sustained 
 by doubling and trebling the taxes, have few 
 parallels. The nation’s resources increased 
 under her administration, but it mattered 
 not how much : she was equal to their 
 exhaustion. Upon her favorites she lavished 
 diamonds by handfuls, and coin like peb- 
 bles, a harvest of wealth that sprung from 
 the starvation and beggary of thousands. 
 Plague and famine raged in the provinces ; 
 rife rebellions were quelled only at. terrible 
 cost of life ; and in one case an entire Tartar 
 nation took flight from the cruelty and 
 rapacity of her myrmidons, through an awful 
 path of desert and wilderness, to the distant 
 asylum of China. Such a ruler was natur- 
 ally an accomplice in that stupendous crime, 
 the partition of Poland ; she had smoothed 
 the way by forcing upon the Poles as a king, 
 one of her cast-off paramours, Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski. We must not forget that she 
 did much to encourage Russian literature, 
 and that her decree allowing any one to set 
 up a printing-office without a license from 
 government, had an important effect in ad- 
 vancing the civilization of the empire. 
 
 Her private character befitted a daughter 
 rather than merely the wife of a Romanoff. 
 Her profligacy was open, defiant, and it 
 increased with her years. We can not sully 
 our pages with even a hint of its details : the 
 record is already black enough. Yet this 
 woman, whose political crimes were so colos- 
 sal, and whose private vices so detestable, 
 in her personal deportment and in the circle 
 of her court, was kind, easy, and good-hu- 
 mored. Her serenity of temper and compo- 
 sure of manner were remarkable. She was 
 a liberal mistress to her friends, and in the 
 midst of her despotism she sometimes dis- 
 played almost unaccountable indulgence and 
 magnanimity. She never hesitated at any 
 atrocity, cruelty, or injustice which could 
 promote her designs or secure her power ; 
 yet she could forgive a personal affront, and 
 47 
 
 seldom punished, even when most provoked. 
 While she was meditating the destruction of 
 Sweden, and preparing all the resources of 
 her realm for one more stupendous war, 
 apoplexy smote her from life, Nov. 10th, 
 1796. 
 
 Her son Paul was crowned emperor. She 
 had hated him, given him the worst of breed- 
 ing and education, surrounded him with spies 
 and depraved fellows, thwarted him in every 
 wish or enjoyment, and by thirty-four years 
 of contempt and vexation made him a nar- 
 row-minded, irritable, wretched maniac. He 
 began his reign, however, with a show of 
 good sense and humanity, undoing some of 
 the worst measures of his mother. This was 
 soon over, and his frantic caprices ran riot, 
 till a terrible end came. He was murdered 
 in his bed-chamber by a small band of con- 
 spirators. * His awful dying cry was, “And 
 you too, my Constantine ! ” 
 
 Bright auspices encircled the ascent of 
 Alexander. His nature was amiable and 
 generous. He was crowned the 27th of Sep- 
 tember, 1801, at the age of twenty-four. His 
 mother, Maria, 'was the daughter of Duke 
 Eugene of Wurtemburg, and throughout his 
 life she exerted a great influence over Alex- 
 ander, by whom she was tenderly beloved. 
 His tutor, Colonel Laharpe, a Swiss republi- 
 can, had taught him enlightened principles and 
 liberal views. In 1793 he had married Eliza- 
 beth, the excellent daughter of the hereditary 
 prince of Baden. He took part in the con- 
 spiracy against his father Paul, although it 
 is impossible to believe that he entertained 
 any design against his life, but saw safety to 
 himself and others only in the removal of the 
 emperor from a throne which he disgraced 
 by the reckless spirit of persecution. Alex- 
 ander sought to promote the welfare of Rus- 
 sia : he removed the shackles from her 
 commerce and internal industry ; he regu- 
 lated the interior administration of his king- 
 dom ; he established schools and univer- 
 sities ; he bettered the condition of the peas- 
 antry ; he raised the military character of his 
 .subjects ; he modified laws with a liberal 
 spirit ; he provided for the construction of 
 roads and canals; he encouraged merit 
 'Wherever he found it, and finally sought to 
 inspire all classes with a spirit of union, 
 patriotism, enterprise, and courage. 
 
 ROM 
 
738 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 He was an admirer of the brilliant quali- 
 ties of Napoleon, and this sincere admiration 
 of the French emperor led to their celebrated 
 meeting at Erfurt, in September, 1808. Al- 
 exander then thought that, in connection 
 with Napoleon, he might fix the destinies of 
 Europe. But Napoleon could brook no equal, 
 and Alexander no superior, and the alliance 
 was soon ruptured. In 1814 the chivalrous 
 conduct of Alexander to the Parisians, when 
 the allies entered their capital, — the defer- 
 ence he paid to their wishes and opinions, 
 and his elevated and noble sentiments, — 
 gained him their enthusiastic admiration. 
 But in attending to the affairs of all Europe 
 he had neglected those of Russia : his 
 
 schemes of reform had fallen through ; war 
 and invasion had increased the taxes; and 
 the people began to groan under the old bur- 
 den of corruption. Alexander loved to be 
 the arbiter of the continent, and for that he 
 still neglected his empire. He had tired of 
 his liberal theories, for his position naturally 
 inclined him to despotism. In all the affairs 
 of Europe, to the time of his death,' he par- 
 took, exerting an immense influence in the 
 different European courts. He was the prin- 
 cipal contriver of the “ holy alliance,” but 
 probably from principle as much as from 
 interest. He was the main stay of this unhal- 
 lowed confederacy. His death took place at 
 Taganrock, in the south of Russia, of a 
 bilious fever, Dec. 1st, 1825. In his last 
 illness, the emperor refused medicine, calling 
 continually for “iced Water,” the onty thing 
 which he would drink. His illness lasted 
 eleven days. Three days after his death, the 
 body was exposed to permit the people to kiss 
 the hands of their dead monarch. It was 
 then placed in a coffin, and borne in proces- 
 sion to the church, where it remained forty 
 days, and was thence carried to St. Peters- 
 burg. The empress, who was tenderly at- 
 tached to her husband, although for a while 
 they had separated, soothed his last moments, 
 and received his last sigh. 
 
 Alexander left no legitimate offspring. 
 Constantine was the eldest brother, but the 
 dreadful stigma of parricide that stained his 
 name, and the resemblance he bore in char- 
 acter to the wild and vicious Paul, made his 
 accession much to be dreaded. Russia heard 
 
 young Polish lady, he had, before the death 
 of Alexander, signed a renunciation in favor 
 of Nicholas, a younger brother. A revolt, 
 aiming at the establishment of a constitutional 
 monarchy, ominously began the new reign. 
 It was soon quelled, and the conspirators 
 mounted the scaffold, or turned their dejected 
 faces toward Siberia. Nicholas had devoted 
 himself to military studies. He was not a 
 great general or a great statesman, but he 
 had energy and determination. The early 
 years of his reign promised well, but ambi- 
 tion and the desire of conquest ruined all. 
 Catharine the Great had meditated the con- 
 quest of Turkey, and the establishment of 
 another empire. Thus she had named her 
 second grandson Constantine. Nicholas was 
 soon involved in war with Turkey. Poland, 
 groaning, under the rule of Constantine, rose 
 in that revolution whose sad fate is well 
 known.- Nicholas ruled more and more as 
 an autocrat. His great power he used in a 
 degree wisely, in developing the esoteric 
 resources of his land, building gigantic lines 
 of railway, fostering industry, and so forth. 
 At last his ambition involved him in the great 
 war with Turkey and the western powers. 
 In the midst of this great contest, the czar 
 died, at the age of fifty -nine. His domestic 
 life had been free from the vices of his ances- 
 tors. In 1817 he had married Louise Char- 
 lotte, daughter of Frederick William III. of 
 Prussia, by whom he had four sons and three 
 daughters. The eldest son, Alexander, born 
 in 1818, succeeded to the crown, and thus 
 far has bade fair to do much toward redeem- 
 ing the name of the imperial race of Romanoff. 
 
 ROME, a city of Italy, now the capital of 
 the States of the Church, and once of the 
 Roman empire, stands on the banks of the 
 river Tiber, about fifteen miles from the sea. 
 The name of its founder, and the manner of 
 its foundation, are not precisely known. 
 Romulus, however, is said to have laid the 
 foundations on the 20th of April, according 
 to Yarro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 
 3251 years after the creation of the world, 
 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after 
 the Trojan w\ar, and in the fourth year of the 
 sixth Olympiad. 
 
 In its original state, Rome was but a small 
 walled town on the summit of the Palatine 
 Hill ; and the founder, to give his followers 
 
 with joy that, for the sake of union with a 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 739 
 
 TIIE COLISEUM. 
 
 the appearance of a nation or a barbarian 
 horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a 
 common asylum for every criminal, debtor, 
 or murderer, who fled from their native coun- 
 try to avoid the punishment which attended 
 them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
 body was soon collected, stocked with wives 
 by the rape of the Sabines, and before the 
 death of the founder, the Romans had covered 
 with their habitations, the Palatine, Capito- 
 line, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount 
 Caelius, and Quirinalis. 
 
 Under the successors of Romulus, the 
 power of Rome was increased, and the boun- 
 daries of her dominions extended. While 
 one ruler employed himself in regulating 
 the forms of worship, and inculcating in the 
 minds of his subjects a reverence for the 
 Deity, another engaged in enforcing disci- 
 pline among the army, and raising the conse- 
 quence of the soldiers in the government of 
 
 the state ; and a third made the object of his 
 administration consist in adorning his capital, 
 in beautifying its edifices, and in fortifying it 
 with towers and Walls. 
 
 During two hundred and forty-four years 
 the Romans were governed by kings, but the 
 tyranny, the oppression, and the violence of 
 the last of these monarchs, and of his family, 
 became so atrocious, that a revolution was 
 effected in the state, and a republic was estab- 
 lished. The monarchical government existed 
 under seven princes, who began to reign in 
 the following order: Romulus, b.c. 753; and 
 after one year’s interregnum, Numa, 715 ; 
 Tullus Hostilius, 672 ; Ancus Martius, 640 ; 
 Tarquin Priscus, 616; Servius Tullius, 578; 
 and Tarquin the Proud, 534, expelled twenty- 
 five years after, b.c. 510. The history of this 
 natal period rests chiefly upon popular tradi- 
 tions. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Tarquins from 
 
 ROM 
 
740 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the throne, the Romans became so jealous of 
 their independence, that Collatinus, the first 
 of their consuls, he who had been most zeal- 
 ous and animated in the assertion of their 
 freedom, was banished from the city because 
 he bore the name and was of the family of 
 the tyrants ; and Valerius, who was chosen in 
 his stead, to stop their suspicions, was obliged 
 to pull down his house, whose, stateliness and 
 magnificence above the rest, seemed incom- 
 patible with the duties and the rank of a 
 private citizen. 
 
 When Rome had flourished under the con- 
 sular government for about a hundred and 
 twenty years, and had beheld with pleasure 
 the conquests of her citizens over the neigh- 
 boring states and cities, which, according to 
 a Roman historian, she was ashamed to recol- 
 lect in the summit of her power, an irruption 
 of the barbarians of Gaul rendered her very 
 existence precarious, and her name was nearly 
 extinguished. The valor of the injured Camil- 
 lus saved her from annihilation, yet not before 
 her buildings and temples were reduced to 
 ashes. 
 
 This event, which gave the appellation of 
 another founder of Rome to Camillus, has 
 been looked upon as a glorious era to the 
 Romans. But no sooner were they freed 
 from the fears of their barbarian invaders, 
 than they turned their arms against those 
 states which refused to acknowledge their 
 superiority, or yield their independence. 
 Their wars with Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, 
 displayed their character in a different view ; 
 if they before had fought for freedom and 
 independence, they now drew their swords 
 for glory ; and here we may see them con- 
 quered in the field, and yet refusing to grant 
 that peace for which their conqueror himself 
 had sued. The advantages they gained from 
 thoir battles with Pyrrhus were many. The 
 Roman name became known in Greece, Sicily, 
 and Africa, and in losing or gaining a victory, 
 the Romans were enabled to examine the 
 maneuvres, observe the discipline, and con- 
 template the order and the encampments of 
 those soldiers whose friends and ancestors 
 had accompanied Ale :ander the Great in the 
 conquest of Asia. 
 
 Italy became subjected to the Romans at 
 the end of the war with the Tarentines, and 
 that period of time has been called the second 
 
 age, or the adolescence of the Roman empire. 
 After this, they tried their strength not only 
 with distant nations, but also upon a new 
 element; and in the long wars which they 
 waged against Carthage, they were success- 
 ful, and obtained the sovereignty of the sea. 
 Though Hannibal for sixteen years kept them 
 in continual alarms, hovered round their gates, 
 and destroyed their armies almost before their 
 walls, yet they were fated to conquer, and 
 soon to add the kingdom of Macedonia and 
 the provinces of Asia to their empire. 
 
 Yet while their conquests were so extensive 
 abroad, we find them torn by factions at home ; 
 and so far was oppression of the poorer citi- 
 zens at one time carried, that we see the Vol- 
 scians at the gates of the city, while they are 
 unwilling to take up arms and to unite in the 
 defense qf the common liberty. The senators 
 and patricians were ambitious of power, and 
 endeavored to retain in their hands that influ- 
 ence which had been exercised with so much 
 success and such cruelty by their monarchs. 
 This was the continual occasion of tumults 
 and sedition. The plebeians were jealous of 
 their liberty. The oppression of the patri- 
 cians irritated them, and the stripes to which 
 they were too often exposed without mercy, 
 were often productive of revolutions. 
 
 The plebeians, though originally the poor- 
 est and most contemptible citizens of an indi- 
 gent nation, whose food in the first ages of 
 the empire was only bread and salt, and 
 whose drink was water, soon gained rights 
 and privileges by their opposition. They 
 became powerful in the state ; one concession 
 from the patricians produced another; and 
 when their independence was boldly asserted 
 by their tribunes, they were admitted to 
 share in the highest offices of the state, the 
 laws which forbade the intermarriage of ple- 
 beian and patrician families were repealed, 
 and the meanest peasant could by valor and 
 fortitude be raised to the dignity of dictator 
 and consul. It was not till these privileges 
 were obtained by the people from the senate, 
 that Rome began to enjoy internal peace and 
 tranquillity : her battles were then fought 
 with more vigor, her soldiers were more ani- 
 mated, and her sovereignty was more univer- 
 sally established. % 
 
 But supreme power, lodged in the hands of 
 a factious and ambitious citizen, becomes too 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AN] 
 
 uften dangerous. The greatest oppression 
 and tyranny took the place of subordination 
 and obedience ; and from those causes pro- 
 ceeded the unparalleled slaughter and effusion 
 of blood under a Sylla and a Marius. It has 
 been justly observed, that the first Romans 
 conquered their enemies by valor, temper- 
 ance, and fortitude ; their moderation also and 
 their justice were well known among all their 
 neighbors, and not only private possessions, 
 but even mighty kingdoms and empires, were 
 left in their power, to be distributed among a 
 family, or to be insured in the hands of a 
 successor. They were also chosen umpires 
 to decide quarrels, but in this honorable 
 office they consulted their own interest ; they 
 artfully supported the weaker side, that the 
 more powerful might be reduced, and gradu- 
 ally become their prey. 
 
 Under Julius Caesar and Pompey, the rage 
 of civil war was carried to unprecedented ex- 
 cess : it was not merely to avenge a private 
 injury, but it was a contest for the sovereign- 
 ty ; and though each of the adversaries wore 
 the mask of pretended sincerity, and profess- 
 ed himself to be the supporter of the repub- 
 lic, no less than the abolition of freedom and 
 the public liberty was the aim. What Ju- 
 lius began, his adopted son achieved : the 
 ancient spirit of national independence was 
 extinguished at Rome ; and after the battle 
 of Actium, the Romans seemed unable to 
 govern themselves without the assistance of 
 a chief, who, under the title of imperator, an 
 appellation given to every commander by his 
 army after some signal victory, reigned with 
 as much power and as much sovereignty as 
 another Tarquin. 
 
 Under their emperors, the Romans lived a 
 luxurious and indolent life ; they had long for- 
 gotten to appear in the field, and their wars 
 were left to be waged by mercenary troops, 
 who fought without spirit or animosity, and 
 who were ever ready to yield to him who 
 bought their allegiance and fidelity with the 
 greatest sums of money. Their leaders 
 themselves were not the most prudent or the 
 most humane ; the power which they hafi 
 acquired by bribery was indeed precarious, 
 and among the people, where not only the 
 highest offices of the state, but even the im- 
 perial purple itself, was exposed to sale, there 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 741 
 
 could not be expected much happiness or 
 tranquillity in the palace of the emperor. 
 
 The reigns of the successors of Augustus 
 were distinguished by variety ; one was the 
 most abandoned and profligate of men, whom 
 his own vices and extravagance hurried out 
 of the world, while his successor, perhaps the 
 most clement, just, and popular of princes, 
 was sacrificed in the midst of his guards and 
 attendants, by the dagger of some offended 
 favorite or disappointed eunuch. Few indeed 
 were the emperors of Rome whose days were 
 not shortened by poison, or the sword of an 
 assassin. If one for some time had the im- 
 prudence to trust himself in the midst of a 
 multitude, at last to perish by his own cre- 
 dulity, the other consulted his safety, but 
 with no better success, in the innumerable 
 chambers of his palace, and changed every 
 day, to elude discovery, the place of his re- 
 tirement. 
 
 At last the necessity of dividing the un- 
 wieldy empire, and from the time of Diocle- 
 tian a division was made for the purpose of 
 facilitating the administration. Constantine 
 made Constantinople the capital of the east- 
 ern part of the empire, and the chief seat of 
 government. After the death of the elder 
 Theodosius (a.d. 395), the division into the 
 Eastern and Western empires became perma- 
 nent. The power of Rome now rapidly de- 
 cayed : its empire was exposed to fatal incur- 
 sions from the Huns, the Goths, and other 
 barbarians, and the last emperor was de- 
 throned in 476. The bishops of Rome after- 
 ward assumed the title of pope, and gradu- 
 ally acquired an influence in temporal matters. 
 In the year 800 the sovereignty of Rome and 
 adjacent territory was confirmed by Charle- 
 magne, then emperor of the west, to the pope. 
 
 The original poverty of the Romans has 
 often been disguised by their poets and his- 
 torians, who wished it to appear that a na- 
 tion who were masters of the world, had had 
 a better beginning than a race of shepherds 
 and robbers. Yet to this simplicity they 
 were indebted for their successes. Their 
 houses were originally destitute of every 
 ornament; they were made with unequal 
 boards, and covered with mud; and these 
 served them rather as a shelter against the 
 inclemency of the seasons than for relaxation 
 
742 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and ease. Till the battles with Pyrrhus, they 
 despised riches, and many salutary laws 
 were enacted to restrain luxury and to pun- 
 ish indolence. They observed great temper- 
 ance in their meals ; young men were not 
 permitted to drink wine till they had attained 
 their thirtieth year, and it was totally forbid- 
 den to women. 
 
 Their national spirit was supported by pol- 
 icy ; the triumphal procession of a conqueror 
 along the streets amidst the applause of thou- 
 sands, was well calculated to promote emula- 
 tion ; and the number of gladiators who were 
 regularly introduced, not only in public 
 games and spectacles, but also at private 
 meetings, served to cherish their fondness for 
 war, whilst it steeled their hearts against the 
 calls of compassion ; and when they could 
 gaze with pleasure upon wretches whom they 
 forcibly obliged to murder one another, they 
 were not inactive in the destruction of those 
 whom they considered as inveterate foes or 
 formidable rivals in the field. In their pun- 
 ishments, civil as well as military, the Ro- 
 mans were strict and rigorous ; a deserter 
 was severely whipped and sold as a slave, 
 and the degradation from the rank of a sol- 
 dier and dignity of a citizen was the most 
 ignominious stigma which could be affixed 
 upon a seditious mutineer. 
 
 The transmarine victories of the Romans 
 proved at last the ruin of their innocence and 
 bravery. They grew fond of the luxury of 
 the Asiatics ; and, conquered by the vices and 
 indolence of those nations whom they had 
 subdued, they became as effeminate and as 
 dissolute as their captives. Marcellus was 
 the first who introduced a taste for the fine 
 arts among his countrymen. The spoils and 
 treasures that were obtained in the plunder 
 of Syracuse and Corinth, rendered the Ro- 
 mans partial to elegant refinement and orna- 
 mental equipage. Though Cato had despised 
 philosophy, and declared that war was the 
 only profession of his countrymen, the Ro- 
 mans, by their intercourse with the Greeks, 
 soon became fond of literature ; and though 
 they had once banished the sophists of Ath- 
 ens from their city, yet they beheld with 
 rapture their settlement among them in the 
 principal towns of Italy, after the conquest 
 of Achaia. They soon after began to imitate 
 their polished captives, and to cultivate poet- 
 
 ry with success. From the valor of their 
 heroes and conquerors, indeed, the sublimest 
 subjects were offered to the genius of their 
 poets ; but of the little that remains to cele- 
 brate the early victories of Rome, nothing 
 can be compared to the nobler effusions of 
 the Augustan age. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 48. Caius Julius Caesar; perpetual dictator: as- 
 sassinated, March 15th, 44 b.C. 
 
 31. Octavianus Caesar: in the year 27 b.c. Au- 
 Justus imperator. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 
 
 37. Caius Caligula: murdered by a tribune. 
 
 41. Claudius (Tiber. Drusus): poisoned by his 
 wife Agrippina, to make way for 
 54. Claudius Nero: deposed; put himself to 
 death to escape a yet more terrible end. 
 
 68. Servius Sulpicius Galba: slain by the prae- 
 
 torian band. 
 
 69. M. Salvius Otho: stabbed himself, after a 
 
 reign of three months. 
 
 69. Aulus Yitellius : deposed by Vespasian, and 
 put to death. 
 
 69. Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
 
 79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
 
 81. Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus; 
 
 last of the twelve Caesars : assassinated. 
 96. Cocceius Nerva. 
 
 98. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
 
 117. Adrian or Hadrian (Publius A51ius). 
 
 138. Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 
 
 161. Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, his son- 
 in-law : the latter died in 169. 
 
 180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of 
 Marcus Aurelius : poisoned by his favor- 
 ite mistress, Martia. 
 
 193. Publius Helvius Pertinax : put to death by 
 the praetorian band. 
 
 [Four emperors now start up: Didus Juli- 
 anus, at Rome ; Pesccnnius Niger, in 
 Syria : Lucius Septimius Severus, in Pan- 
 nonia ; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain.] 
 193. Lucius Septimius Severus; died at York, in 
 Britain, in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
 211. M. Aurelius Caracalla, and Septimius Geta. 
 Geta murdered the same year by his 
 brother, who reigned alone until 217, 
 when he was slain by his successor. 
 
 217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards; 
 
 beheaded in a mutiny. 
 
 218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a 
 
 youth : put to death for his follies and 
 enormities by his incensed subjects. 
 
 222. Alexander Severus : assassinated by some 
 soldiers corrupted by Maximinus. 
 
 235. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus: assassinated 
 in his tent before the walls of Aquileia. 
 237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son: the 
 latter having been killed in a battle with 
 the partisans of Maximinus, the father 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 743 
 
 strangled himself in a fit of despair, at 
 Carthage, in his eightieth year. 
 
 237. Balbinus and Pupienus: put to death. 
 
 238. Gordian, junior, grandson of the elder Gor- 
 
 dian, in his sixteenth year : assassinated 
 by the guards, at the instigation of his 
 successor, 
 
 244. Philip the Arabian : assassinated by his own 
 soldiers: his son Philip was murdered, 
 at the same time, in his mother’s arms. 
 249. Metius Deems : he perished, with his two 
 sons, and their army, in an engagement 
 • with the Goths. . 
 
 251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Yolusianus: 
 both slain by the soldiery. 
 
 253. JEmilianus : put to death after a reign of 
 only four months. 
 
 253. Yalerianus, and his son, Gallienus: the first 
 was taken prisoner by Sapor, King of 
 Persia, and flayed alive. 
 
 260. Gallienus reigned alone. 
 
 [About this time thirty pretenders to im- 
 perial power start up in different parts of 
 the empire : of these, Cyriades is the first, 
 but he is slain.] 
 
 268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assas- 
 sinated by the officers of the guard) suc- 
 ceeds : dies of the plague. 
 
 270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by 
 the senate and troops ; Aurelian by the 
 army in Illyricum. Quintillus, despair- 
 ing of success against his rival, who was 
 marching against him, opened his veins, 
 and bled himself to death. 
 
 270. Aurelian: assassinated by his soldiers in his 
 march against Persia, in January, 275. 
 275. [Interregnum of about nine months.] 
 
 275. Tacitus, elected Oct. 25th ; died at Tarsus 
 
 in Cilicia, April 13th, 276. 
 
 276. Florian, his brother: his title not recog- 
 
 nized by the senate. 
 
 276. M. Aurelius Probus: assassinated by his 
 troops at Sirmium. 
 
 282. M. Aurelius Carus : killed at Ctesiphon by 
 
 lightning ; succeeded by his sons, 
 
 283. Carinus and Numerianus : both assassinated, 
 
 after transient reigns. 
 
 284. Diocletian : who associated as his colleague 
 
 in the government, 
 
 286. Maximianus Hercules: the two emperors 
 resign in favor of 
 
 305. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximia- 
 
 nus: the first died at York, in Britain, 
 in 306, and the troops saluted as empe- 
 ror, his son, 
 
 306. Constantine, afterward styled the Great : 
 
 whilst at Rome the praetorian band pro- 
 claimed 
 
 306. Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. 
 Besides these were, 
 
 306. Maximianus Hercules, who endeavored to 
 recover his abdicated power, • 
 
 306. Flavius Valerius, murdered by the last- 
 
 named pretender, and 
 
 307. Flavius Valerian us Licinius, the brother-in- 
 
 law of Constantine. 
 
 £Of these, Maximianus Hercules was stran- 
 
 gled in Gaul in 310; Galerius Maximi- 
 anus died wretchedly in 311 ; Maxentius 
 was drowned in the Tiber in 312; and 
 Licinius was put to death by order of 
 Constantine in 324.] 
 
 324. Constantine the- Great now reigned alone : 
 died on Whitsunday, May 22d, 337. 
 
 r Sons of Constantine ; 
 divided the empire 
 between them : the 
 first was slain in 340, 
 and the second mur- 
 dered in 350, when 
 the third became 
 ^ sole emperor. 
 
 361. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring 
 Christianity, having been educated for 
 the priesthood: mortally wounded in a 
 battle with the Persians. 
 
 363. Jovian; reigned 8 months: found dead in 
 his bed, supposed to have died from the 
 fumes of charcoal. 
 
 The Roman empire may be said to have 
 terminated here as a single dominion. [See 
 Eastern Empire, Western Empire.] 
 
 The modern city of Rome is celebrated for its 
 own magnificence and splendor as well as the 
 ruins of former grandeur. The treasures of 
 antiquity and art garnered in its temples, 
 palaces, churches, and monuments, make it 
 the resort of the artist and the scholar from 
 all quarters of the globe. It had a popula- 
 tion in 1862, of 197,078. 
 
 ROMILLY, Sir Samuel, an eminent English 
 lawj^er, was born at London, March 1st, 
 1757. In 1788 he was called to the bar. 
 He rose to distinction in the court of chan- 
 cery, and in the last administration of Mr. 
 Fox, was made solicitor-general. When the 
 party to whom he was attached went out of 
 office, he also retired. He exerted himself 
 in endeavoring to effect a revision of the 
 criminal code, with a view to the limitation 
 of capital punishments to a few heinous 
 offenses. The death of this eminent man 
 was most melancholy. Shocked at the loss 
 of his wife, who died in the Isle of Wight, 
 he became delirious, and destroyed himself 
 Nov. 2d, 1818. 
 
 ROMULHS, the reputed founder of Rome, 
 was born at the same birth with Remus ; but 
 of what parents it is impossible to say, as 
 the account is involved in fable and mystery. 
 They undertook to build a city, hoping that 
 it would become a warlike and powerful 
 nation. Romulus marked with a furrow the 
 place where he wished to erect the walls ; 
 
 ROM 
 
 ) Constantine II. 
 Constans, 
 Constantius II. 
 
744 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 st. peter’s. 
 
 but their slenderness was ridiculed by Re- 
 mus, who leaped over them with contempt. 
 This irritated Romulus, and Remus was 
 immediately put to death, either by the hand 
 of his brother or one of the workmen. 
 
 When the walls were built, the city was 
 without inhabitants ; but Romulus, by ma- 
 king an asylum of a sacred grove, soon 
 collected a number of fugitives, foreigners, 
 and criminals, whom he received as his lawful 
 subjects. Yet however numerous these 
 might be, they were despised by the neigh- 
 boring inhabitants, and none were willing to 
 form matrimonial connections with them. 
 
 But Romulus obtained by force what was 
 denied to his petitions. The Romans cele- 
 brated games in honor of the god Consus, 
 and forcibly carried away all the females who 
 had assembled there to be spectators of these 
 unusual exhibitions. These violdht measures 
 offended the neighboring nations ; they made 
 war against the ravishers with various success, 
 till at last they entered Rome, which had been 
 betrayed to them by Tarpeia, one of the 
 stolen virgins. A violent engagement was 
 begun in the middle of the Roman forum : 
 but the Sabines were conquered, or, accord- 
 
 ing to Ovid, the two enemies laid down their 
 arms when the women rushed between the 
 two armies, and by their tears and entreaties 
 raised compassion in the bosoms of their 
 parents 'and husbands. 
 
 The Sabines left their original possessions 
 and came to live in Rome, where Tatius, 
 their king, shared the sovereign power with 
 Romulus. The introduction of the Sabines 
 into the city of Rome was attended with 
 most salutary consequences; and the Ro- 
 mans, by pursuing this plan, and admitting 
 the conquered nations among their citizens, 
 rendered themselves more powerful and more 
 formidable. Afterward Romulus divided the 
 lands which he had obtained by conquest ; 
 one part was reserved for religious uses, to 
 maintain the priests, to erect temples, and to 
 consecrate altars ; another was appropriated 
 for the expenses of the state ; and the third 
 part was equally distributed among his 
 subjects, who were divided into three classes 
 or tribes# 
 
 The most aged and experienced, to the num- 
 ber of one hundred, were also chosen, whom 
 the monarch might consult in matters of the 
 highest importance, and from their age they 
 
 ROM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 745 
 
 were called senators, and from their authority 
 patres. The whole body of the people were 
 also distinguished by the name of patricians 
 and plebeians, patron 5nd client, who by 
 mutual interest were induced tQ preserve the 
 peace of the state, and to promote the public 
 good. 
 
 Some time after, Romulus disappeared, as 
 he was giving instructions to the senators ; 
 and the eclipse of the sun, which happened 
 at that time, was favorable to the rumor 
 which asserted that the king had been taken 
 by Mars to the abode of the gods, 716 b.c., 
 after a reign of thirty-seven years. Such 
 is the legend of Romulus, which is purely 
 mythic. 
 
 RONCESYALLES, a valley in the Na- 
 varre, where the army of Charlemagne, on 
 their return from an expedition to that coun- 
 try, a.d. 778, were attacked by the hardy 
 mountaineers in the narrow passes of the 
 Pyrenees, and all that were separated from 
 the main body were killed ; among whom 
 were the illustrious paladin Roland and other 
 chiefs of note. 
 
 ROOKE, Sir George, a gallant English 
 admiral, was born in Kent in 1650. He 
 entered early into the naval service, and had 
 the command of several expeditions in the 
 reigns of King William and Queen Anne ; 
 all of which he conducted with equal skill 
 and courage. In 1702 he attacked the French 
 fleet and Spanish galleons in the harbor of 
 Vigo, and took several galleons and men-of- 
 war, besides destroying a number of others. 
 In 1704 he made himself master of Gibral- 
 tar ; notwithstanding which, such was the vio- 
 lence of party, Sir George was soon afterward 
 superseded by the Whigs, who endeavored 
 to lessen his services by representing them as 
 the effects of mere chance and good fortune. 
 He died Jan. 24th, 1709. When he made 
 his will, some of his friends wondered at the 
 slenderness of his circumstances, considering 
 what employments he had been engaged in ; 
 to whom the dying hero said, “I do not 
 leave much, ’tis true ; but what I do leave 
 was honestly gotten : it never cost a seaman 
 a tear nor the nation a farthing.” 
 
 ROSA, Salvator, was born near Naples, 
 July 21st, 1615. Like many other great 
 painters, he took up the art against the incli- 
 nation of his father, who was an architect. 
 
 He soon rose to favor, and settled early in 
 Rome, where he died March 15th, 1673. He 
 abounded in wild and gloomy landscapes. 
 The character of his genius and works has 
 been vigorously sketched by Fuseli: “He 
 
 delights in ideas of desolation, solitude, and 
 danger ; impenetrable forests, rocky or storm- 
 lashed shores ; in lonely dells leading to dens 
 and caverns of banditti ; alpine ridges, trees 
 blasted by lightning, or sapped by time, or 
 stretching their extravagant arms athwart a 
 murky sky, lowering or thundering clouds, 
 and suns shorn of their beams. His figures 
 are wandering shepherds, forlorn travelers, 
 wrecked mariners, banditti lurking for their 
 prey or dividing their spoils.” Salvator 
 Rosa was also talented as a poet and musi- 
 cian. 
 
 ROSCOE, William, was born in 1753, of 
 humble parents, and, having received a com- 
 mon education, was articled, at an early age, 
 to an attorney at Liverpool. He soon mas- 
 tered, by dint of hard study, the Latin, 
 French, and Italian languages, while he 
 neither neglected his business nor the study 
 of the English classics. His most important 
 and celebrated works are the “ Life of Lorenzo 
 de Medici,” and the “ Life of Leo X.” He died 
 in 1831 ; and his memory is affectionately 
 cherished by the inhabitants of Liverpool, 
 whose taste he endeavored to improve, and 
 whose public works he ably and strenuously 
 supported. The banking house in which he 
 was a partner becoming bankrupt, his latter 
 years were clouded by pecuniary embarrass- 
 ment, through which he was forced to sacri- 
 fice his valuable library. 
 
 ROSE, George, was the son of an Episcopal 
 clergyman at Brechin, in the shire of Angus, 
 and was born there in 1 744. He was brought 
 up under an uncle, who kept a school near 
 London, after which he went into the navy, 
 and became a purser ; but, by the interest of 
 the Earl of Marchmont, he was taken from 
 thence, and made keeper of the records in 
 the exchequer. Here his talents for business 
 were soon discovered, and he was appointed 
 to superintend the publication of the Domes- 
 day Book. His advancement was rapid, and 
 his services were duly appreciated and en- 
 gaged by almost every administration. Mr. 
 Pitt, in particular, placed unbounded confi- 
 dence in his judgment on subjects of trade 
 
 ROS 
 
746 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and finance; and, when Pitt returned to 
 power, after the short peace, Mr. Rose was 
 made president of the board of trade, and 
 treasurer of the navy. On the death of Mr. 
 Pitt, another change occurred ; but, when 
 the administration formed by Lord Grenville 
 retired, Mr. Rose resumed his former station, 
 and continued in it till his death, which hap- 
 pened at Cuffnels, his seat in Hampshire, 
 Jan. 13th, 1818. 
 
 ROSS, George, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, born in 1730, at Newcastle, 
 Delaware, was the son of a clergyman. At 
 the age of eighteen, having been admitted to 
 practice law, he settled at Lancaster, Pennsyl- 
 vania. He was for some years a member of 
 Congress, and discharged the duties of his 
 office to the entire satisfaction of his numer- 
 ous constituents. In July, 1779, an attack 
 of the gout put an end to his life in his fiftieth 
 year. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD, Meyer Anselm, the found- 
 er of the great Jewish banking-house which 
 holds so important a station in the finances 
 of Europe, was a native of Frankfort, and 
 died in 1812, leaving immense wealth and 
 credit to his five sons, — Nathan Meyer of 
 London, Anselm of Frankfort, Solomon of 
 Berlin and Vienna, Charles of Naples, and 
 James of Paris. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, a celebrated 
 name in French literature, was born at Gene- 
 va, June 28th, 1712. His power as an 
 author lay dormant till he was thirty-seven. 
 He wrote brilliantly, eloquently, lived strange- 
 ly, immorally, and died at the chateau of 
 Ermenonville, near Chantilly, July 3d, 1778. 
 
 RUBENS, Peter Paul, was born at Sie- 
 gen in Westphalia, on the day of St. Peter 
 and St. Paul, June 29th, 1577. His parents 
 had fled from Antwerp to escape the religious 
 persecutions that raged in the Netherlands, 
 and in 1587, the father dying, the mother 
 returned with the orphans to her native city. 
 Her desire that Peter Paul should follow his 
 father in the legal profession was overcome 
 by his passion for art. After studying with 
 the best masters of Antwerp he repaired to 
 Italy, returning in 1608, after an absence of 
 more than eight years, to the death-bed of his 
 parent, who expired before his arrival. 
 Thereafter he dwelt at Antwerp, painting 
 hundreds of pictures, gaining bounteous store 
 
 of fortune, acquiring honor even beyond his 
 art, intrusted with embassies to Spain, and 
 to England, where he was knighted by 
 Charles I. in 1630, and dying May 30th, 
 1640. “ Rubens,” says Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 
 “was, perhaps, the greatest master in the 
 mechanical part of the art, the best workman 
 with his tools, that ever exercised a pencil.” 
 
 RUMFORD. Benjamin Thompson, best 
 known as Count Rumford, was born at Wo- 
 burn, Mass., in 1753. He taught school at 
 Rumford (now Concord), N. H., and there 
 married a wealthy young widow. His adher- 
 ence to the royal cause drove him to England, 
 where he rose to the rank of colonel and was 
 knighted. He afterward entered the Bava- 
 rian service, rose to high military rank, and 
 was created Count Rumford. Under his 
 administration the industry and resources of 
 Bavaria were beneficently developed. In 
 1802 he married the widow of Lavoisier, and 
 spent the remainder of his days, in scientific 
 research, at Auteuil, near Paris, where he 
 died Aug. 20th, 1814, bequeathing $50,000 
 to Harvard College. His name is eminent in 
 the annals of natural philosophy. With Sir 
 Joseph Banks he projected the Royal Insti- 
 tution of Great Britain. 
 
 RUPERT. Prince Rupert, the third son of 
 Frederick of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daugh- 
 ter of James I. of England, was born in 1619, 
 and received an education adapted to the 
 military service. In the civil wars of Eng- 
 land, while his elder brother became a pen- 
 sioner to the parliament, Prince Rupert 
 adhered steadfastly to his roj'al uncle, fight- 
 ing with more impetuous gallantry than 
 prudence. He was more successful as a 
 naval commander than on land, particularly 
 after the restoration, in the great Dutch war, 
 on the conclusion of which he led a retired 
 life, occupied wholly in scientific pursuits. 
 He died in London in 1682, and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 RUSH, Benjamin, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence and an eminent Ameri- 
 can physician, was born at Byberry, Penn., 
 near Philadelphia, Dec. 24th, 1745. He was 
 educated at Princeton College, studied medi- 
 cine, taking his degree at Edinburgh in 1768, 
 and became a successful practitioner in Phil- 
 adelphia. He was chosen to Congress in 
 
 1776, and from that time until his death 
 RUS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 747 
 
 took an active part in public life. He stands 
 in the front rank of American physicians 
 and philosophers. He was professor of med- 
 icine and clinical practice at the university 
 of Pennsylvania. During the ravages of the 
 yellow fever in 1793, Dr. Rush highly distin- 
 guished himself, and his history of that epi- 
 demic is a work of great value. He died 
 April 19th, 1813. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, the first Duke of Bed- 
 ford, was the eldest son of Francis, the fourth 
 Earl of Bedford, and was born in 1614. He 
 received his education at Magdalen College, 
 Oxford, and at the coronation of Charles I. 
 was created knight of the bath. In the 
 beginning of the civil war he acted against 
 the king, and commanded the reserve of horse 
 in the battle of Edgehill ; but in 1645 he 
 joined the royal standard and fought with 
 great bravery at the battle of Newbury. 
 His estate, in consequence, was put under 
 sequestration, but on his submission to the 
 parliament it was restored. He then led a 
 private life until the return of Charles II., 
 when he assisted at the coronation, and was 
 made a knight of the garter. He also 
 attended the coronation of William and Mary, 
 and in 1694 was created Duke of Bedford. 
 He died in 1700. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, Lord, third son of 
 the preceding, was born about 1641. He 
 received a private education under puritan- 
 ical teachers. His early life, however, 
 appears to have been rather dissipated, till 
 he married, in 1667, the excellent daughter 
 of Lord Southampton, whose amiable virtues 
 reclaimed him from^ his follies. On becom- 
 ing a member of the House of Commons, he 
 distinguished himself by his zeal for the 
 exclusion of the Duke of York ; and at 
 length became so far involved in a conspir- 
 acy for effecting a revolution, that, when the 
 Rye-house plot was discovered, an indict- 
 ment was preferred against him, and he was 
 condemned at the Old Bailey. Great exer- 
 tions were made to save his life, but all with- 
 out effect, and he was beheaded in Lincoln’s 
 Inn Fields, July 21st, 1683. After the rev- 
 olution an act was passed to annul and make 
 void the attainder against Lord Russell. His 
 estimable widow, Lady Rachel, died Sept. 
 29th, 1723, at the age of eighty-seven. 
 
 RUSSIA. This great empire contains 
 
 more than half of Europe, stretches across 
 the north of Asia, and includes possessions 
 in North America, thus almost girding the 
 entire globe. It has an area of about 7,200,- 
 000 square miles, with about 70,000,000 
 inhabitants. Russia in Europe contains 
 2,120,000 square miles, and ten-sevenths of 
 the population of the entire empire. In this 
 vast tract, which intrudes into arctic regions 
 on the north, and is washed by the Euxine 
 and the Caspian on the south, we find every 
 variety of soil, from wastes to fertile fields. 
 There are broad steppes, sterile and woodless, 
 great forests of pine and fir and birch, and 
 wide regions are almost unpeopled. With 
 such a diversity of races as dwell within the 
 limits of Russia, we find almost every degree 
 in the human scale from nomadic barbarians 
 up to the civilized Tartars of Casan, on the 
 Ural, and the enlightenment that has been 
 fostered at St. Petersburg. The peoples that 
 make up the population have their distinct 
 speeches, customs, and characteristics. There 
 are Russians, Poles, and other branches of 
 the Sclavonic family ; there are Fins, Tartars, 
 Mongols, all subdivided into divers tribes ; 
 and in many parts there is a large sprinkling 
 of descendants of Germans and other Teu- 
 tons. Religions are as various, from the 
 ceremonial of the Greek or the Romish hier- 
 archies to the faith of Islam and the rites of 
 heathendom. The established religion of 
 Russia is the Greek Church, with a free tol- 
 eration, however, of other sects, even the 
 Mahometans. The emperor is the head of 
 the Greek church in the empire. By an 
 imperial ukase, in 1802, were established six 
 universities ; one each at St. Petersburg, 
 Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, 
 and Kasan ; but literature has made little 
 progress, the native publications being very 
 few, and the best books being all translations. 
 The Russian language, though not devoid of 
 elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult 
 pronunciation : the number of letters and 
 dipthongs is forty-two. The government is 
 an absolute monarchy, all immunities and 
 privileges being held at the pleasure of the 
 emperor. There are four great classes among 
 the people, the nobility, clergy, merchants 
 and burghers, and peasants. The condition 
 of the latter has been sad enough : the prop- 
 erty of the crown or of individuals, they 
 
 RUS 
 
748 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 were transferred with estates, being consid- 
 ered in the light of irrational live stock. Of 
 late it has been the policy of the government 
 to ameliorate their position. An important 
 step toward enfranchising the whole class 
 has been made in the emancipation of the 
 serfs of the crown by Alexander II. 
 
 St. Petersburg is the capital of the empire. 
 On the marshes of the N#va, just conquered 
 from Sweden, Peter the Great, determined to 
 bring his empire into communication with 
 civilized Europe, laid the foundation of the 
 new capital, amid desolation and famine. 
 Workmen were gathered from all parts of 
 the empire. They fell before cold, flood, 
 fatigue, and want ; a hundred thousand per- 
 ished ; yet the determination of the pitiless 
 czar faltered not: his hordes of peasants 
 might all be sacrificed, but St. Petersburg 
 must be : and thus was born this city of lofty 
 edifices, elegant palaces, grand streets, and 
 granite quays, impressive in its grandeur, and 
 inhabited by half a million people. [ See 
 
 Moscow.] 
 
 The history of Russia can not properly be 
 said to commence before the middle of the 
 ninth century. We obtain glimpses of vari- 
 ous Scythian and Sclavonian tribes that 
 roamed over its vast territory, but little more 
 is known than that it was divided into nu- 
 merous small independent states, the princi- 
 pal of which were Kiew and Novgorod. About 
 850, a Scandinavian band crossed the Baltic 
 and settled. They were called Varagians; 
 their leaders were three brothers, Rurick, 
 Sineus, and Truror. The Sclaves of Nov- 
 gorod sought their protection against the 
 neighboring tribes, and Rurik founded a 
 dynasty which continued to rule uninterrup- 
 tedly till 1598. The reign of St. Vladimir 
 the Great (980-1015) was the era of the con- 
 version of Russia. Vladimir himself, who 
 had married Anna, sister of the Emperor 
 Basil II., became a Christian according to the 
 Greek church in 988, and his example was 
 speedily followed by his boyars, or nobles, 
 and subjects. At the death of Vladimir, his 
 dominions were divided and disputed among 
 his numerous sons ; and though Yaroslaf, 
 whose reign was signalized by an unsuccess- 
 ful attack upon Constantinople in 1043, reu- 
 nited them for a short time, a second parti- 
 tion took place at his death (1055) ; and 
 
 Russia was devastated for half a century by 
 constant civil wars and Polish invasions. The 
 authority of the Grand-Prince of Kiew had 
 been curtailed by the erection of petty sov- 
 ereignties under different branches of the 
 house of Rurik, till Andrew I., Prince of 
 White Russia (1057-75), arrogated to him- 
 self the title of Grand-Prince of Russia, while 
 the elder line at Kiew sank into a subordinate 
 rank. Novgorod, though retaining the forms 
 of princely government, had become in effect 
 a republic, and the centre of an extensive 
 traffic with both Europe and Asia. The 
 annals of this period present only an unceas- 
 ing succession of intestine struggles and w T ars 
 with Poland. The Tartar invasion of 1223 
 produced a transient unanimity from a sense 
 of common danger. A host of 500,000 men 
 under Toushi, the son of Genghis Khan, 
 overthrew the combined forces of the Rus- 
 sian princes on the river Kalka, near the 
 Sea of Azof. The death of Toushi turned 
 the victors back, but they came once more 
 in 1236 under his son Batu, laid the country 
 waste with fire and sword, and took com- 
 plete possession of its government. 
 
 For more than two centuries and a half, 
 Russia was held in abject subjection by the 
 Tartars of Kapchak, whose hordes overspread 
 the southern and eastern provinces, and the 
 plains between the Caspian and the Volga, 
 on the banks of which river the Golden 
 Horde, or imperial residence of the khans of 
 the race of Batu, was fixed ; but the interior 
 of the country was left under the rule of the 
 native princes. The Grand-Prince of Vlad- 
 imir, or White Russia, continued to be con- 
 sidered the head of the Russian nation, 
 though this dignity was disputed both by 
 arms and by intrigues at the court of the 
 khans, who fomented these dissensions as 
 favorable to the stability of their own suprem- 
 acy. In 1320 the seat of government was 
 removed from Vladimir to Moscow. The 
 principality of Kiew was finally extinguished 
 (1321) by the Duke of Lithuania, who con- 
 quered and annexed it to his own dominions. 
 In the mean time, Novgorod (which in 1276 
 had joined the Hanseatic league) had acquired 
 very great commercial importance. But the 
 remainder of Russia continued in bondage, 
 till the termination of the direct line of Batu 
 (1361) by the death of Berdi-Bek Khan, gave 
 
 RUS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 749 
 
 rise to disputes for he throne of Kapchak, 
 and the discord of their oppressors encour- 
 aged the Russians to endeavor to throw off 
 the yoke. The struggle continued for about 
 a century, till at last Ivan or John III. oblit- 
 erated the last vestiges of dependence. 
 
 With the reign of this prince, who married 
 Sophia, the niece of the last Greek emperor, 
 a new epoch commences in the history of 
 Russia. He was honored with the surname 
 of Great, and assumed the title of Czar, which 
 signifies emperor, but which was more used 
 by his successors. He defeated the Poles 
 and Lithuanians, reduced the Tartars of Casan 
 to tribute, and reunited under his authority 
 most of the minor Russian principalities ; but 
 his capture of Novgorod in 1475, and the 
 exactions which he levied on the merchants 
 and citizens, gave a death-blow to the com- 
 merce of that famous emporium. The embas- 
 sies of Germany, Poland, Venice, the Holy 
 See, &c., were now first seen at Moscow ; and 
 though the character of Ivan is sullied by the 
 cruel despotism of his internal administration, 
 he is justly entitled to rank as the founder of 
 the Russian empire. 
 
 On the death of Ivan in 1505, the crown 
 ought to have devolved to his eldest son Deme- 
 trius, whom he had by a former wife ; but his 
 widow Sophia, by various artful insinuations, 
 obtained it for her own son Gabriel, who, 
 disliking his own name, assumed that of 
 Basil. He engaged in a war with the PSles, 
 and in another with the Crim-Tartars, who, 
 by fearful ravages made the czar tremble on 
 his throne, and obliged him to submit to their 
 conditions. The Tartars entered Russia a 
 second time in 1520, ravaged the country, 
 and, making themselves masters of Moscow, 
 compelled Basil to acknowledge himself their 
 vassal, and to promise to pay them an annual 
 tribute. Ivan IV., the Terrible, succeeded in 
 1533. He was constantly engaged in war 
 with the Tartars, the Poles, the Swedes, the 
 Danes, or the Turks, and was almost always 
 successful. His energy and policy raised his 
 empire to a high pitch of prosperity, but he 
 was remorseless and sanguinary. In 1553 
 the English trade through Archangel was 
 opened. Siberia was acquired in 1581. About 
 this period the art of printing, and also several 
 branches of manufacture, were introduced 
 into Russia. Ivan died in 1584. With his 
 
 RUS 
 
 son Feodor, or Theodore, in 1598, the male 
 line of the house of Rurik, which had ruled 
 under fifty-six sovereigns for 736 years, be- 
 came extinct. 
 
 Boris Godoonoff, the brother-in-law and 
 minister of Feodor, was placed on the throne, 
 and commenced his reign by the emancipa- 
 tion of the serfs and other salutary measures ; 
 but he soon degenerated into an arbitrary and 
 cruel tyrant, and lit length lost his throne 
 and life in a contest with an adventurer who 
 declared himself to be the lost Demetrius, 
 brother of Feodor, whose pretensions were 
 supported by Poland. The real history of 
 this person has never been satisfactorily 
 ascertained, and many writers consider his 
 claims to have been well founded. After 
 ruling scarcely a year, he perished (1606) in 
 a revolt headed by a boyar named Basil 
 Schuiski, who thereupon became czar. A 
 second pretended Demetrius speedily started 
 up. The Poles and Swedes, who each aspired 
 to seat a prince of their own nation on the 
 throne, invaded the country, and were sup- 
 ported by various factions among the nobles, 
 and for seven years (1606-1613) Russia was 
 torn by an'archy and civil war. The pros- 
 pect of the dismemberment of their country 
 aroused the national spirit of the Russians; 
 the Poles were driven from Moscow, after a 
 sanguinary battle, in 1613 ; and in the follow- 
 ing year Michael Romanoff, a descendant in 
 the female line from the house of Rurik, was 
 chosen to the throne. 
 
 Of the history and succession of the family 
 of Romanoff, we have already given an ample 
 sketch. With their accession Russia began 
 to lose her character as a barbarous and 
 semi- Asiatic power, and to be considered of 
 some weight in the affairs of Europe. Under 
 the vigorous administration of Peter the Great 
 great advance was made. He warred suc- 
 cessfully with the wild Swede, Charles XII., 
 but was less fortunate in contention with 
 Turkey. His daughter Elizabeth, stung by a 
 sarcasm on her good looks from Frederick the 
 Great, allied with Maria Theresa, and retorted 
 with a heavy army, and thus Russia began 
 her direct participation in the politics of 
 Europe. It was much increased by the 
 unscrupulous aggression that marked the 
 rule of Catharine II. 
 
 On the death of Augustus III. of Poland, 
 
750 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 in 1764, Catharine, who had signed a treaty 
 of alliance with Prussia, raised to the throne 
 of that kingdom Stanislaus Poniatowski, her 
 former paramour, notwithstanding the mur- 
 murs and resistance of the Polish nation. 
 The purposes for which Poniatowski had 
 been raised to the throne of Poland, began 
 gradually to develope themselves ; and having 
 traced on a map a line of demarcation, by 
 which at great part of the Polish territory had 
 been assigned to Russia, Catharine insisted 
 on the recognition of these limits, and the 
 propriety of her claim. The Poles having 
 induced the Ottoman Porte to take up arms 
 in their behalf, hostilities commenced between 
 Turkey and Russia, and the empress resolved 
 to rend Greece and the Archipelago from the 
 Ottomans. A Russian fleet first appeared 
 in the Mediterranean in 1770. At length 
 the dismemberment of Poland was effected 
 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia ; and Turkey 
 was obliged to conclude a peace on very dis- 
 advantageous terms. The Crimea was soon 
 seized, and such fresh evidence of the ambi- 
 tion of Catharine again excited the jealousy 
 and the fears of the Turkish emperor for the 
 designs which she entertained respecting her 
 grandson Constantine, whose name sufficient- 
 ly denoted her ambition to raise a second 
 Eastern empire upon the ruins of the Ottoman 
 power. War was, therefore, again declared 
 by the Porte against Russia, whose minister 
 was shut up in the castle of the Seven Tow- 
 ers. Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, sent 
 80,000 Austrians to the assistance of Catha- 
 rine; and everything seemed to announce 
 the ruin of the Ottoman power. Surround- 
 ing nations, however, beheld with jealousy 
 the designs of the empress, who threatened 
 to destroy the equilibrium of Europe. Not- 
 withstanding her victories and her conquests, 
 she at length perceived that a cessation of 
 hostilities was very desirable. Accordingly, 
 in 1792, the peace of Jassy was concluded 
 between Russia and the Porte, and a bloody 
 and expensive war terminated. The arms 
 of Russia and Prussia were now united in 
 partitioning the remainder of Poland, and 
 Frederick William, at the head of his forces, 
 fought against Kosciusko, whose talents, 
 courage, and despair were unavailing against 
 multiplied and increasing numbers. After a 
 few bloody victories, the courts of Petersburg 
 
 and Berlin succeeded in dividing the remains 
 of that unhappy country ; and the courtiers 
 of Catharine shared among them the possess- 
 ions of the proscribed. 
 
 Catharine died after a long and prosperous 
 reign, and at a time when she hoped to drive 
 the Turks out of Europe, and to seize on the 
 throne of Constantinople. 
 
 On the death of Catharine II. in 1796, Paul, 
 her son, who was at that time forty-three 
 3 r ears of age, was proclaimed emperor. The 
 first acts of the new czar were extremely 
 popular ; and his actions seemed to contradict 
 the report of his stern and capricious dispo- 
 sition. However, Paul’s conduct in the first 
 days of his reign, was soon afterward re- 
 versed. 
 
 Paul concluded with the king of Great 
 Britain a treaty, by which they agreed to 
 oppose, in the most efficacious manner, the 
 successes of the French arms, to promote 
 solid and lasting peace, and to endeavor to 
 re-establish the balance of power in Europe. 
 For some time the Russians and their allies 
 were fortunate ; but their successes being 
 afterward converted into defeats, the emperor 
 broke off the alliance. Indignant that the 
 British government would not acquiesce in 
 his having appointed himself grand-master 
 of Malta, Paul entered into an alliance with 
 France, and excited a formidable confederacy 
 of the maritime powers of the north against 
 the naval interests of Great Britain, which 
 was broken by the battle of Copenhagen. 
 His capricious and extravagant actions, some 
 of which bordered on frenzy, gave great 
 offense, and he was murdered in the night of 
 the 23d of March, 1801, though his death 
 was ascribed to an apoplectic fit. 
 
 The day after his decease, his eldest son, 
 Alexander, who was in the twenty-fourth 
 year of his age, was proclaimed Emperor of 
 all the Russias, and issued several popular 
 ukases, in one of which he revived and con- 
 firmed all the regulations of the Empress 
 Catharine for the encouragement of industry 
 and commerce. 
 
 Bonaparte not fulfilling the secret conven- 
 tion which had been entered into between 
 France and Russia, with respect to the evac- 
 uation of the kingdom of Naples by the 
 French troops, the adjusting of the affairs of 
 Italy, and the indemnity promised to be 
 RUS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 751 
 
 granted to the king of Sardinia, Alexander 
 ordered an additional levy of land forces 
 throughout his dominions. He afterward 
 attempted to negotiate a general peace among 
 the powers of Europe ; but finding this im- 
 practicable, he joined Austria and England 
 in the coalition against Franco. The Russian 
 troops however, could not join the Austrians 
 till the latter had suffered several severe 
 defeats. The battle of x\usterlitz terminated 
 unfavorably to the allies ; and the emperor 
 of Germany concluding a separate peace with 
 France immediately after that event, the Rus- 
 sian troops returned into their own country. 
 When war broke out between France and 
 Prussia, Alexander ordered his forces to the 
 assistance of the latter power. Before they 
 could arrive to aid their allies, the French 
 had overrun Prussia, and penetrated into 
 Poland, where they were defeated by the 
 Russians ; but Bonaparte, having compelled 
 his vassal princes to furnish their stipulated 
 contingents of troops, again advanced, and 
 gained the battle of Friedland, which obliged 
 Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit. 
 
 That treaty was soon after followed by a 
 declaration of war, on the part of Russia, 
 against Great Britain ; and one immense 
 power now occupied Europe, arranging and 
 controlling everything in conformity to its 
 views. Russia, which had become the willing 
 instrument of French policy, not only with- 
 drew from her alliance with Sweden, but 
 attacked that country. In 1808, an army of 
 40,000 men was sent into Finland, from which 
 the Swedes were finally expelled. 
 
 Alexander agreed to accede to the conti- 
 nental system, and to exclude from Russian 
 ports all British manufactures and colonial 
 produce. Not aware of the consequences of 
 his engagements, he had placed himself in a 
 situation of great difficulty. If he attempted 
 to fulfill the treaty by interdicting the trade 
 between Great Britain and the Russian em- 
 pire, he deprived his subjects of the best 
 market for their produce, and roused his 
 nobility against him. On the other hand, 
 his apprehensions of the power of Bonaparte 
 were strong and well founded. He, therefore, 
 determined on a species of compromise, and 
 forbade the introduction of all British produce 
 and manufactures into his dominions, except 
 by special license and in neutral ships. 
 
 Soon after the differences commenced be- 
 tween Napoleon and Alexander, the former 
 took such measures as he thought would 
 either awe the latter into submission, or 
 secure victory and success in case of hostili- 
 ties ; he assembled large bodies in the north 
 of Germany; he kept possession of a great 
 part of Prussia, especially of the places most 
 conveniently situated for an attack on Russian 
 Poland ; and he forcibly occupied Swedish 
 Pomerania. Preparations were made by Rus- 
 sia to meet the approaching crisis ; and before 
 the commencement of hostilities, the force 
 that could be brought against the French 
 amounted to nearly 800,000 men, exclusively 
 of the militia. On the other hand, the Em- 
 peror Francis engaged to furnish 30,000 men 
 to France in her war with Russia ; the troops 
 of the confederation of the Rhine had been 
 raised to their stipulated quota ; and the 
 kings of Saxony and Naples had been induced 
 to embark with Napoleon in this great enter- 
 prise. The armies of Bonaparte on the fron- 
 tiers of Russian Poland amounted to at least 
 300,000 infantry, and 00,000 cavalry, in a 
 state of the highest discipline and equipment, 
 and commanded by the first military talent 
 of the age. 
 
 The preparations on each side corresponded 
 with the magnitude of the interests embarked 
 in the contest. In numbers the combatants 
 were not, at first, on an equality ; and in 
 discipline, in science, and in organization, 
 the French possessed a great superiority. On 
 the 9th of May, 1812, Napoleon left Paris; 
 and arriving on the banks of the Niemen on the 
 22a of June, he issued to his soldiers a proc- 
 lamation in his usual confident and laconic 
 style. This was his only declaration of war. 
 The French and their allies passed the Nie- 
 men without opposition, and obtained pos- 
 session of Wilna, the capital of Lithuania. 
 The re-establishment of the kingdom of Po- 
 land was now proclaimed, and a diet assem- 
 bled under the guarantee of the French 
 emperor ; and, by these means, the national 
 enthusiasm was raised in his favor, and the 
 ranks of his army were swelled by Polish 
 levies. 
 
 The Emperor of Austria recalled his am- 
 bassador from Petersburg, and furnished his 
 contingent of troops to the French. Russia, 
 however, acquired a new and zealous, though 
 
 RUS 
 
752 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 remote, ally in England, who formed a treaty 
 of friendship and reciprocal defense with her 
 and a similar one with Sweden. In propor- 
 tion as the French advanced into the territo- 
 ries of Russia, the more resistance they expe- 
 rienced; and several bloody engagements 
 took place, without producing any decisive 
 effect. The first great stand was made at 
 the city of Smolensk, which is in the direct 
 road to Moscow, and for the defense of which 
 the Russians w’ere posted. However, in the 
 middle of the night, after a severe engage- 
 ment, a dreadful conflagration was observed 
 in the city ; and the Russians abandoned 
 Smolensk, and retired across the Dnieper. 
 Moscow was now the great object -to be con- 
 tended for ; and the Russian main army took 
 a strong position to cover it from the attack 
 of Napoleon. 
 
 A dreadful engagement ensued ; and the 
 result of this battle, which was named by 
 the Russians the battle of Borodino, was a 
 victory claimed by each party. The French 
 entered Moscow seven days after this engage- 
 ment ; but in order to deprive the French of 
 a place for their winter quarters, the governor, 
 Rostopchin, had ordered the city to be set on 
 fire ; and the French troops had scarcely 
 entered the Kremlin, when Moscow appeared 
 in flames in different parts. The conflagra- 
 tion raged with fury for several days. The 
 French began their retreat from Moscow, 
 but were closely pursued by an exasperated 
 foe. To add to their calamities a Russian 
 winter set in with deep snow. The suffer- 
 ings of the French were extreme, and their 
 losses prodigious. Horses died in such num- 
 bers, that the greatest part of the artillery 
 was left behind, and the cavalry was nearly 
 dismounted; whole bodies of men, disabled 
 by cold and hunger, surrendered without 
 resistance to the pursuers ; and nothing 
 appeared but disaster and dismay. It is 
 probable, that of nearly 500,000 troops en- 
 gaged in this frantic expedition, not 50,000, 
 including the Prussian and Austrian contin- 
 gents, escaped out of Russia. 
 
 The Russian armies pursued the remnant 
 of the French armies into Germany, where 
 the former were joined by Prussia, by the 
 princes of Germany, and finally by Austria. 
 Sweden also joined the league against France. 
 The battle of Leipsic, which was gained by 
 
 the allies over Bonaparte, determined the fate 
 of Germany, and shook to its foundation the 
 mighty empire raised by Napoleon. Russian 
 armies continued to act against Napoleon, 
 till his downfall, and Alexander entered Paris 
 in triumph. By the treaty of Vienna, in 
 1815, the duchy of Warsaw, with the excep- 
 tion of certain provinces and districts, was 
 ceded to the Emperor of Russia, who ad- 
 dressed a letter to the Polish diet, announc- 
 ing the fate of their country, and that he 
 had assumed the title of King of Poland. 
 
 After the death of Alexander, Dec. 1st, 
 1825, his brother Nicholas ascended the 
 throne. The revolt of the Poles, in 1880, 
 was not crushed without a violent struggle, 
 which cost the Russians a terrible effusion of 
 blood. The kingdom was amalgamated w ? ith 
 Russia, and the last feeble vestiges, of its 
 nationality were soon sw^ept away. A w T ar 
 was carried on against Turkey in 1828 and 
 1829, through which Russia gained numerous 
 frontier fortresses on the Black Sea, and a 
 protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 The resources of the empire w^ere carefully 
 fostered, its power vigorously consolidated 
 and increased. The ambition of Catharine 
 had not died w r ith her. Russia became the 
 great palladium of despotism : she warned 
 Switzerland against any increase of repub- 
 licanism ; she aided Austria to trample upon 
 Hungary ; she proposed to the western pow- 
 ers a partition of Turkey. The possession 
 of the holy places at Jerusalem had long 
 been a bone of contention between the Greek 
 and Latin monks. The dispute came up 
 afresh. Russia sided w r ith the former ; France 
 wdth the latter. Of course the decision of 
 the Porte was unsatisfactory to Russia: 
 Prince Menschikoff, her special convoy, bore 
 himself with an arrogance almost equal to 
 that of his great ancestor, the pastry-cook. 
 All the compliances of Turkey w r ere ineffect- 
 ual : war w T as inevitable, and the soldiers of 
 the czar crossed the Pruth, July 2d, 1853. 
 In the hostilities which ensued, the Turks 
 displayed a stead} 7- courage. The massacre 
 of Sinope startled England and France, and 
 their fleets w r erc sent into the Black Sea. It 
 w 7 ere better had they been in those w r aters 
 before, to save the unnamed heroes who per- 
 ished at Sinope. The Russian fleet retreated 
 to the haven of Sebastopol, never to come 
 
 RUS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 753 
 
 forth. The war on the Danube was bravely 
 maintained by the Turks. France and Eng- 
 land entered into a formal alliance with Tur- 
 key in the spring of 1854, and a large force 
 was sent to the seat of war. After lying- 
 long ii ac ive at Varna, an expedition to the 
 Crimea was decided upon. The allied army 
 landed at Eupatoria on the 14th of Septem- 
 ber. On the 20th the heights of the Alma 
 were won. St. Arnaud, the French mar- 
 shal, died, and Canrobert succeeded him. 
 The weary, deadly siege of Sebastopol began 
 on the 17th of October, 1854. While the 
 English and French beleaguered the south 
 side of this rival of Gibraltar, powerful arma- 
 ments were sent into the Baltic. They gained 
 only slight successes, the Russian navy lying 
 safe under shelter of the strong fortresses 
 of Cronstadt. The siege of Sebastopol is 
 more fully mentioned beyond [see Sebasto- 
 pol], and indeed all the important events of 
 this war are described in their respective 
 places. It was varied by the bloody fields of 
 Balaklava, Inkerman, and the Tchernaya, 
 and by the siege of Kars, in Armenia. Hos- 
 tilities ceased Feb. 29th, 1856, and peace was 
 proclaimed in the following April. 
 
 In the midst of the war, Nicholas was 
 called from life. His son and successor, 
 Alexander II., continued his policy so far as 
 the war was concerned. 
 
 In the following list of the rulers of Rus- 
 sia, those marked with a star are doubtful, 
 owing to the difficulty that occurs at every 
 step in early Russian annals. 
 
 DUKES, CZARS, AND EMPERORS. 
 
 DUKES OP KIEW. 
 
 862. Rurik. 
 
 878. Igor. 
 
 935 \ 01ega ’ re S ent - 
 
 ] Swiatoslaw or Spendoblos. 
 
 972. Jaropalk I. 
 
 980. Vladimir, Wladimir, or Waldimir I., 
 styled the Great. 
 
 1015. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
 
 1054. Isjialaw I. 
 
 1078. Wsewolod I. 
 
 1093. Swiatopalk. 
 
 1114. Vladimir II. 
 
 1125. Mtislaw or Michael I. 
 
 1132. Jaropalk II. 
 
 1138. j Wiatschelaw. 
 
 1139. ] Wsewolod II. 
 
 1146. ] Isjialaw II. 
 
 1154. ( Rostislaw. 
 
 48 
 
 1155. Jurie or George I. : the city of Moscow 
 was built by this duke. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF WLADIMIR. 
 
 . . j Andrew I. until 1175; first grand-duke. 
 
 I Michael II. 
 
 1177. Wsewolod III. 
 
 - j Jurie or George II. 
 
 ' ( Constantine, until 1218. 
 
 1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1245. Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 
 
 1263. Jaraslaw III. 
 
 1270. Vasali or Basil I. 
 
 1277. *Dimitri or Demetrius I. 
 
 1284. * Andrew II. 
 
 1294. *Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
 
 1302. * Jurie or George III. : deposed. 
 
 1305. ^Michael III. 
 
 1320. * Vasali or Basil II. 
 
 1325. * Jurie or George III : restored. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OP MOSCOW. 
 
 1328. Ivan or John I. 
 
 1340. Simon, surnamed the Proud. 
 
 1358. - Ivan or John II. 
 
 1359. Demetrius II., prince of Susdal. 
 
 1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 
 
 1389. * Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 
 
 1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 
 
 1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. 
 
 1505. Vasali or Basil V. : obtained the title of 
 emperor from Maximilian I. 
 
 CZARS OP MUSCOVY. 
 
 1533. Ivan (Basilovitz) IV. ; first tzar or cza? 
 (‘great king’) in 1547. 
 
 1584. Feodor or Theodore I. : supposed to have 
 been poisoned, and his son, Demetrius, 
 murdered by his successor. 
 
 1598. Boris Godoonoff, who usurped the throne. 
 
 1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polo- 
 nese monk : pretended to be the mur- 
 dered prince Demetrius: put to death. 
 
 1686. Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
 
 1610. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1613. Michael-Fedorovitz, of the house of Ro- 
 manoff. 
 
 1645. Alexis, son of the preceding, styled the 
 father of his country. 
 
 1676. Feodor or Theodore II. 
 
 1082 -S Ivan and 
 
 | Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 1689. Peter I., the Great, alone ; took the title 
 of emperor in 1728. 
 
 1725. Catharine I., his consort: at first the wife 
 of a Swedish dragoon, who is said to 
 have been killed on the day of marriage. 
 
 1727. Peter II., son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and 
 grandson of Peter the Great : deposed. 
 
 1730. Anne, Duchess of Courland, daughter of 
 the Czar Ivan. 
 
 1740. Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Pe- 
 
 ter the Great : immured in a dungeon 
 for eighteen years ; murdered in 1762. 
 
 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, 
 
 reigned during Ivan’s captivity. 
 
 RUS 
 
754 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 1762. Peter III., son of Anne and of Cliarles- 
 Frederick, Duke of IIolstein-Gottorp : 
 deposed, and died soon after, supposed 
 to have been murdered. 
 
 1762. Catharine II., his consort : died in 1796. 
 1796. Paul, her son : found dead in his chamber : 
 supposed to have been murdered. 
 
 1801. Alexander, his son. 
 
 1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; suc- 
 ceeded, Dec. 1st, 1825. 
 
 1855. Alexander II., son of Nicholas, succeeded 
 at his father’s death, March 2d, 1855. 
 
 RUTLEDGE, Edward, a signer of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, was born in Charles- 
 ton, S. C., November, 1749. He chose the 
 profession of the law, and finished his legal 
 education in England. He was a member of 
 the continental congress from 1774 till 1777. 
 In 1779 Mr. Rutledge was re-appointed to 
 congress, but relinquished his seat from ill 
 health. However, he soon took the field at 
 the head of a company, but was taken pris- 
 oner at the surrender of Charleston, and re- 
 mained in the hands of the British nearly a 
 year. In 1798, having retired from the prac- 
 tice of law, he was elected governor of South 
 Carolina, but died Jan. 23d, 1800. 
 
 RUTLEDGE, John, a native of South Car- 
 olina, and elder brother of Edward, distin- 
 guished himself by his manly eloquence in the 
 first congress, and was appointed president 
 and commander-in-chief of South Carolina, in 
 1776. In 1779 he was chosen governor. He 
 died in July, 1800. 
 
 RUYTER, Michael Adrian de, a great 
 Dutch admiral, was born at Flushing in 1607. 
 In the war with England which broke out in 
 1652, he convoyed a rich fleet through the 
 channel, and brought the whole into port, 
 after an engagement which lasted two days. 
 He was next joined in command with Van 
 Tromp, and distinguished himself as well in 
 the great battle of three days, fought in Feb- 
 ruary, 1653, as in that off the Tcxel, where 
 
 Van Tromp fell, in the July following. In 
 1658 he defeated the Swedes, for which the 
 King of Denmark gave him a patent of no- 
 bility. At the renewal of hostilities with 
 England, in the reign of Charles II., De Ruy- 
 ter gained an advantage over Prince Rupert 
 and Monk ; but, two months afterward, 
 another battle was fought, and the Dutch 
 were defeated. The following year, however, 
 he avenged himself, by riding triumphantly 
 in the Thames, and destroying several English 
 men-of-war at Sheerness and Chatham ; the 
 roar of his guns spread consternation in 
 London. In 1672 he attacked the combined 
 English and French fleets ; and though the 
 battle was undecided, De Ruyter kept the 
 sea, and convoyed home a fleet of merchant- 
 men. The gallant commander was mortally 
 wounded in an engagement with the French, 
 off Messina, and died at Syracuse, April 11th, 
 1676. His remains w r ere interred at Amster- 
 dam, and a monument erected to his memory. 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT. A real, or more 
 probably a pretended, conspiracy to assassin- 
 ate Charles II. and his brother the Duke of 
 York (afterward James II.), at a place called 
 Rye-house, on the way to London from New- 
 market. This design was said to have been 
 frustrated by the king’s house at Newmarket 
 accidentally taking fire, which hastened the 
 royal party away eight days before the plot 
 was to take place, March 22d, 1683. The 
 plot was discovered June 12th following. 
 Algernon Sidney and Lord William Russell 
 suffered death on a false charge cf bt ing con- 
 cerned in this conspirac}' - . 
 
 RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between 
 England, France, Spain, and Holland, to 
 establish the peace of Europe ; signed Sept. 
 20th, and by the Emperor of Germany, Oct. 
 
 30th, 1697. 
 RYS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 755 
 
 s. 
 
 SABINES, an ancient people of Italy, 
 reckoned among the aborogines, or those in- 
 habitants whose origin was not known. 
 Some suppose that they were originally a 
 Lacedaemonian colony, who settled in that 
 part of the country. The possessions of the 
 Sabines were situated in the neighborhood of 
 Rome, between the river Nar and the Anio, 
 and bounded on the north by the Apennines 
 and Umbria, south by Latium, east by the 
 JEqui, and by Etruria on the west. The 
 greatest part of the contiguous nations were 
 descended from them, such as the Umbrians, 
 the Campanians, the Sabelli, the Osci, Sam- 
 nites, Hernici, iEqui, Marsi, Brutii, &c. The 
 Sabines are celebrated in ancient history as 
 being the first who took up arms against the 
 Romans, to avenge the rape of their females 
 at a spectacle where they had been invited. 
 After some engagements, a peace was struck, 
 and the greatest part of the Sabines left their 
 ancient possessions, and migrated to Rome, 
 where they settled with their new allies. 
 They were at last totally subdued about the 
 year of Rome 373, and ranked as Roman 
 citizens. Their chief cities were Cures, Fide- 
 nce, Reate, Crustumerium, Corniculum, No- 
 mentum, Collatia, &c. 
 
 SACHEVEREL, Henry, was the son of 
 a clergyman at Marlborough, where he had 
 his education and afterward became demy 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford. Sacheverel 
 obtained a fellowship, and in 1708 took his 
 doctor’s degree. The following year he 
 preached two harangues, one at the assi- 
 zes at Derby, and the other at St. Paul’s, in 
 both of which he asserted that the church 
 was in imminent danger. For these dis- 
 courses, which were considered as inflamma- 
 tory, he was impeached by the House of Com- 
 mons, and tried before the Lords, in 1710; 
 when being found guilty of a misdemeanor, 
 he was suspended from preaching for three 
 years. This only increased his popularity, 
 and brought the Godolphin ministry into such 
 contempt, that they w'ere obliged to resign 
 their places. At the expiration of the sen- 
 tence the doctor was presented to the rich 
 
 rectory of St. Andrew, Holborn. He died in 
 1724. 
 
 SACKVILLE, Lord George, the third son 
 of the first Duke of Dorset, was born in 1716. 
 He obtained a commission in the army, and 
 distinguished himself in the battles of Dettin- 
 gen and Fontenoy. In 1758 he was made a 
 lieutenant-general ; but in the year following 
 fell into disgrace for his conduct at the battle 
 of Minden. He was tried by a court-martial, 
 and dismissed the service ; but was restored 
 in the next reign.' In 1775 he was appointed 
 secretary of state for the American colonies ; 
 but in 1783 he went out of office, and was 
 created a viscount. He died in 1785. 
 
 SADLER, Sir Ralph, an English states- 
 man, was born m 1507, at Hackney, in Mid- 
 dlesex. In early life he was taken into the 
 family of Cromwell, Earl of Essex, who intro- 
 duced him to Henry VIII., in consequence of 
 which he had a share in the dissolution of 
 the monasteries, and partook of the spoil. 
 He was also sent on an embassy to Scotland, 
 to negotiate a marriage between Prince Ed- 
 ward and Queen Mary, but without effect. 
 In the war which followed, Sir Ralph distin- 
 guished himself greatly, and was made a 
 knight banneret on the field after the battle 
 of Pinkie. At the accession of Elizabeth he 
 was again sent to Scotland ; and when the 
 unfortunate Mary went to England, she was 
 committed to l*is care. He died in 1587. 
 
 ST. ARNAUD, Jacques Leroy de, born 
 at Paris in 1801, entered the army in youth. 
 He saw service and won laurels in Algiers, 
 rising to the rank of marshal by the rapid 
 promotion his energy and bravery obtained. 
 Returning to France, Louis Napoleon made 
 him minister of war for the republic, and St. 
 Arnaud was the usurper’s chief confederate 
 in the coup (Petat for absolute power. He 
 was dispatched to Turkey to command the 
 French troops in the war with Russia. Dis- 
 ease was then lurking about his heart, and 
 he died shortly after the victory of the Alma, 
 Sept. 29th, 1854. 
 
 ST. CLAIR, Arthur, a native of Edin- 
 burgh, came to America with Admiral Bos- 
 
 ST. C 
 
756 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 cawen in 1755, and served as a lieutenant un- 
 der W olfe in Canada. He adopted the popular 
 cause in the revolution, was early made a 
 brigadier, in 1777 major-general, and served 
 with honor through the struggle. In 1787 
 he was president of Congress, and from 1788 
 to 1802 he was governor of the North-west- 
 ern territory. His army was disastrously 
 defeated in an engagement with the Indians 
 near Miami village, Nov. 3d, 1791. He re- 
 tired from office with a shattered fortune, and 
 died almost penniless near Philadelphia, Aug. 
 31st, 1818, at the age of eight} r -four. 
 
 SAINT HELENA, an island in the South 
 Atlantic, 1,200 miles west of the continent of 
 Africa, and 1,800 east of South America. 
 The island is a rock about 'twenty-one miles 
 in circumference, very high and very steep, 
 and only accessible at the landing-place, in a 
 small valley at the east side of it. St. He- 
 lena is said to have been first discovered by 
 the Portuguese in 1502, on the festival of the 
 Empress Helena, mother of the Emperor Con- 
 stantine the Great, whose name it still bears. 
 The English East India Company took pos- 
 session of it in 1600, and held it without 
 interruption till the year 1673, when the 
 Dutch took it by surprise. The English, 
 under the command of Captain Munden, re- 
 covered it again within the space of a year, 
 and at the same time took three Dutch East 
 India ships that ]&y in the road. This island 
 is celebrated in modern history*, as the place 
 to which Napoleon was exiled by the confed- 
 erate powers in August, 1815, and where he 
 died in 1821. 
 
 ST. PIERRE, Bernardin, *the author* of 
 that exquisite tale, “Paul and Virginia,” 
 born at Havre, was for a time an officer in the 
 Russian service, then in the French corps of 
 engineers ; and finally retiring from military 
 life, he devoted his days to literature. He 
 died in 1814, aged seventy -seven. 
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN, a town on the northern 
 coast of Spain, containing 13,000 inhabitants. 
 It has been repeatedly taken by the French ; 
 it fell into their hands in the short war of 
 1719, in the revolutionary contest of 1794, 
 and in Bonaparte’s invasion in 1808. On the 
 last occasion it remained five years in their 
 possession, and when the victory of Vittoria, 
 by the British, June 21st, 1813, opened a 
 prospect of its recapture, the French had time 
 
 to throw into it a garrison capable of making 
 a very obstinate defense. An attempt on the 
 part of the British to take it by assault, on 
 the 25th of July, was repulsed with heavy 
 loss. It became necessary to make approaches 
 with great caution, and even to incur a severe 
 sacrifice of lives in the final attack, on the 
 31st of August, w r hen it was stormed and 
 carried. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, Cape, the south-west point 
 of Portugal, noted for the naval victory gained 
 off it on the 14th of February, 1797, by a 
 British fleet over a far heavier Spanish force. 
 Sir John Jervis, the British admiral, was re- 
 warded by elevation to the peerage w r ith the 
 title of Earl St. Vincent. Admirals Rooke 
 and Rodney also gained victories in the same 
 waters, in 1693 and 1780, respectively. 
 
 SALADIN, or Salaii-ed-deen Yusef Ben 
 Ayub, w r as at first general of the army of 
 Noureddin, sultan of Damascus. In 1164, 
 he conquered Egypt, and married the widow 
 of the prince of Grand Cairo. x\fter the death 
 of Noureddin, he w r as called to the govern- 
 ment during the minority of the prince his 
 son. Being advanced to this power, he re- 
 solved to attack the Christians in Palestine, 
 to punish their arrogance and injustice; and 
 accordingl}', in 1177, having raised an army, 
 he endeavored to surprise Jerusalem, but was 
 defeated with great slaughter, on the 25th of 
 November. This loss inspiring him w T ith 
 revenge, in 1180 he passed the Euphrates, 
 took several cities, as far as Nisibis, and made 
 himself formidable to all his neighbors. He 
 took Aleppo in 1184. But not long after, the 
 Christians put a stop to his conquests, by a 
 cessation of arms. The Count of Tripoli 
 being jealous of Guy, King of Jerusalem, per- 
 suaded Saladin to break the truce ; wffio, fol- 
 lowing his counsel, defeated the Christians, 
 the 1st of May, 1187, and having obtained 
 a second victory over them, took Guy ii\„the 
 flight, made himself master of Acre, Beirut, 
 Giblet, Saide, and divers other places, and at 
 last of Jerusalem. Though he put the Tem- 
 plars and knights of St. John to the sword, 
 in revenge for past grievances, he treated the 
 other captives with forbearance. Pope Urban 
 II., upon hearing of this loss, died of grief. 
 Saladin several times stormed the city of 
 Tyre, but was often repulsed ; and after some 
 other losses sustained from the Christians, 
 
 SAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 757 
 
 he died in 1193, in the fifty-seventh year of 
 his age, having reigned over Egypt twenty- 
 two years, and nineteen as absolute master 
 of Syria. No Asiatic monarch has filled so 
 large a space in the eyes of Europe, as this 
 chivalrous antagonist of Coeur de Lion. As 
 the Moslem hero of the third holy war, he 
 proved himself a skillful general and a valiant 
 soldier. He hated the Grusaders, for he was 
 a zealous Mussulman, and they were invaders. 
 Though ambitious he was not tyrannical ; he 
 was mild in his government ; the friend and 
 dispenser of justice. Three of his numerous 
 progeny became sovereigns of Aleppo, Da- 
 mascus, and Egypt : others had similar pos- 
 sessions ; and the emirs and atabaks of Syria 
 again struggled for independence. [See 
 CaUSADF.S.] 
 
 SALAMANCA, the capital of a Spanish 
 province of the same name in the southern 
 part of the ancient kingdom of Leon, contains 
 
 13.000 inhabitants. Its once celebrated uni- 
 versity was founded in the thirteenth century 
 by Alphonso IX. of Leon. A memorable bat- 
 tle was fought here on the 22d of July, 1812, 
 between the British and allies, under Wel- 
 lington, and the French, under Marmont. 
 The French were overthrown, and driven in 
 confusion from the field. The pursuit was 
 continued till night, when the French guard 
 was overtaken, attacked, and put to flight, 
 the cavalry leaving the infantry to their fate. 
 Three whole battalions surrendered, and large 
 quantities of stores, baggage, and ammuni- 
 tion fell into the conquerors’ hands. Eleven 
 pieces of cannon, two eagles, and six colors, 
 were also taken ; five generals, thyee colonels, 
 three lieutenant-colonels, 150 officers, and 
 
 7.000 soldiers, were made prisoners. The 
 loss of the victors, in killed, wounded, and 
 missing, amounted to. nearly 6,000 men. 
 This bloody victory opened the way for the 
 capture of Madrid. Marmont was the seventh 
 French marshal whom Wellington had de- 
 feated within four years. 
 
 SAL AMIS, now Koluri, an island in the 
 Saronic gulf, on the southern coast of Attica 
 opposite Eleusis, at the distance of about a 
 league, with a town and harbor of the same 
 name. It was originally peopled by a colony 
 of Ionians, and afterward by Greeks from 
 adjacent islands and countries. It is cele- 
 brated for a battle between the fleet of the 
 
 Greeks and that of the Persians, when Xerxes 
 invaded Greece. The Persian ships amounted 
 to above 2,000, and those of the Greeks to 
 about 380. In this engagement, which was 
 fought on the 20th of October, b.c. 480, the 
 Greeks lost forty ships, and the Persians 
 about two hundred, besides an immense num- 
 ber which were taken with all the ammunition 
 they contained. Themistocles commanded 
 the Greeks. Xerxes retired into Asia, leav- 
 ing Mardonius to carry on the disastrous war. 
 
 SALLUST. Caius Sallustius Crispus was 
 born at Amiternum, b.c. 86. He received 
 his education at Rome, and made himself 
 known as a public magistrate in the office of 
 quaestor and consul. His licentiousness, and 
 the depravity of his manners, however, did 
 not escape censure, and he was degraded 
 from the dignity of a senator, b.c. 50. A 
 continuation of extravagance could not long 
 be supported by the income of Sallust, but 
 he extricated himself from difficulties by 
 embracing the cause of Caesar. He was 
 restored to the rank of senator, and made 
 governor of Numidia. In the administration 
 of his province, Sallust behaved with unusual 
 tyranny ; he enriched himself by plundering 
 tne Africans, and at his return lo Rome he 
 built himself a magnificent house, and formed 
 splendid gardens, which, from their delightful 
 and pleasant situation, still preserve the name 
 of the gardens of Sallust. In this luxurious 
 retirement, he wrote the history of Catiline’s 
 conspiracy, and that of the Jugurthine war, 
 which give him a classic name in Latin let- 
 ters. He died in the fifty -first year of his 
 age, b.c. 35. 
 
 SALSETTE, an island on the western 
 coast of Hindostan, just north of Bombay. 
 The first account we have of this island, is 
 dated 1330 ; it was then governed by a Ma- 
 hometan judge. It \fras taken possession of 
 by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, 
 and by the Mahrattas in 1750. In 1773, 
 during a rupture with the Mahrattas, it was 
 occupied by the British, and has ever since 
 remained in their possession. Its temple 
 caves, hewn in the rock on a mountain side, 
 are objects of great curiosity. 
 
 SAMOS, an island in the jEgean Sea, on 
 the coast of Asia Minor (from which it is 
 divided by a narrow strait), with a city of 
 the same name, built b.c. 986. It was first 
 
 SAM 
 
758 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 in the possession of the Leleges, and afterward 
 of the Ionians. The people of Samos were 
 at first governed by kings, and afterward the 
 form of their government became democrat- 
 ical and oligarchical. Samos was in its most 
 flourishing situation under Polycrates, who 
 had made himself absolute there. The Sami- 
 ans assisted the Greeks against the Persians, 
 when Xerxes invaded Europe, and were re- 
 duced under the power of Athens, after a 
 revolt, by Pericles, b.c. 441. They were 
 afterward subdued by Eumenes, King of Per- 
 gamos, and were restored to their ancient 
 liberty by Augustus. Under Yespasian, 
 Samos became a Roman province. It now 
 belongs to Turkey, and has some 30,000 
 inhabitants, chiefly Greeks. 
 
 SANCTUARIES. Cities of refuge had their 
 origin in early ages. They were instituted by 
 the Jews immediately after their establish- 
 ment in Palestine. Such use, or rather 
 abuse, was made of the heathen temples* 
 particularly those of Hercules. Christian 
 churches long screened criminals from seiz- 
 ure. Abolished in England, 1534, and gen- 
 erally at the time of the Reformation. Several 
 districts in London continued to be privileged 
 against arrest for debt till 1696. The pre- 
 cincts of Holyrood Abbey at Edinburgh, 
 including Arthur’s Seat and Salisbury Crags, 
 are still a sanctuary for insolvent debtors. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, a group in the 
 North Pacific Ocean, covering about 6,000 
 square miles, and containing 71,000 inhabit- 
 ants, were discovered by Captains Cook and 
 King in 1778, and were named by them after 
 Lord Sandwich. Captain Cook was mur- 
 dered by the natives of Owhyhee in 1779. 
 The principal islands are Hawaii (Owhyhee), 
 Maui (Mowee), Oahu (Woahoo), Taui (Atooi), 
 and Nihau (Oneehow). The climate is warm, 
 but healthy : many of the islands are volcanic. 
 The natives, were formerly sunk in idol- 
 atry, sacrificing human victims upon their 
 altars. The missions established by the 
 American Board of Foreign Missions, have 
 been very successful. The situation of the 
 Sandwich Islands causes them to be visited 
 by many vessels for repairs and provisions, 
 while, in a commercial point of view, thej r 
 arc by no means to be overlooked. Inter- 
 course with Christendom has introduced its 
 vices as well as its enlightenment. The 
 
 St. 
 
 number of the natives was once very much 
 larger. Idolatry was abolished in 1819. 
 Formerly each island had its separate chief- 
 tains, and desolating wars were common. 
 In the early years of this century Tameham- 
 eha united them all under one rule, and a 
 constitutional monarchy resembling that of 
 England is the form of government. Hono- 
 lulu, on Oahu, is the seat of government and 
 commerce. 
 
 SAN MARINO. Within the papal prov- 
 ince of Urbino in Italy, this little republic 
 lies, about ten miles from the Adriatic coast. 
 It consists chiefly of a steep mountain, with 
 its offshoots and valleys, covering an area of 
 about twenty-one square miles, and contain- 
 ing 7,600 inhabitants. On the upper part of 
 the mountain stands the ill-built town of San 
 Marino, its steep and rough streets practica- 
 ble for only men and mules. The summit 
 above is crowned by the towers of an ancient 
 castle, on which the standard of the republic 
 waves. There are two or three other towns, 
 or rather villages. Every slip of ground that 
 can be made productive is tilled. Good wine 
 is trodden out ; there are olives enough to 
 yield some oil ; and silk-worms are reared. 
 For grain the people rely on their neighbors. 
 This little district has curiously kept its inde- 
 pendence from the tenth century. 
 
 SAPPHO, a lyric poet of Greece, born at 
 Mytilene in Lesbos, about b.c. 610. Only 
 fragments of her verse are extant, and little 
 is known of her life. The tradition is that 
 she was a woman of beauty and amorous 
 morals, who, after the death of her husband, 
 became enamored of Phaon, and, in conse- 
 quence of the youth’s neglect, threw herself 
 into the sea. She is the reputed inventor of 
 the Sapphic verse. The Lesbians paid reli- 
 gious honors to her memory, and called her 
 the tenth muse. 
 
 SARAGOSSA (in Spanish, Zaragoza), 
 capital of the ancient kingdom of Aragon, 
 stands on the south bank of the Ebro, 180 
 miles north-east of Madrid. The flame is a 
 corruption of Caesarea Augusta, a Roman 
 colony on the site of which the modern city 
 is built. The population is 40,000. It is 
 famous in history for its dreadful sieges in 
 1808 and 1809; contests in which was dis- 
 played the unyielding fortitude of the inhab- 
 itants, of both sexes. The French, having 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 759 
 
 obtained possession of Navarre in June, 1808, 
 advanced to Saragossa, and attempting to 
 take the city by assault, were repulsed with 
 loss. Returning with augmented numbers, 
 they occupied the best positions, and invested 
 nearly half the town, keeping up a fire from 
 mortars and battering cannon. On the 4th 
 of August they entered the central street, but 
 they were met with furious opposition, and, 
 discouraged by intelligence from the south 
 of Spain, retired at last, on the 14th. The 
 second siege was no less obstinate and san 
 guinary. The French, with great re-enforce- 
 ments, marched, m the end of November, 
 1808, once more against Saragossa. Their 
 first great attack gave them possession of 
 some important posts, but with heavy loss. 
 On the 10th of January began the bombard 
 ment, which, violent as it was, caused less 
 injury than a contagious fever and a famine 
 among the garrison. The Spaniards, how 
 ever, continued to make, under the brave 
 Palafox, a most determined resistance, and it 
 was not till after a bombardment of six weeks, 
 and a very unequal contest in mining, that 
 Saragossa surrendered, Feb. 13th, 1809. The 
 defenders struggled to the last, yielding only 
 house by house. 
 
 SARATOGA, a town in New York, whose 
 mineral springs have made it a celebrated 
 watering place. Here the British army under 
 Gen. Burgoyne surrendered to the Aineri 
 cans under Gen. Gates, Oct. 17th, 1777. 
 Burgoyne invaded New York from Canada 
 with a force of more than 7,000. The design 
 was to establish a line of communication with 
 the British troops in the middle states, and 
 thus cut off New England. Burgoyne’s ill 
 success and surrender was the severest blow 
 that the British received during the war. 
 The news of it had great effect in deciding 
 France to espouse the cause of the colonies. 
 
 SARDANAPALUS, the last king of As- 
 syria, celebrated for his luxury and voluptu- 
 ousness. His effeminacy irritated his officers ; 
 Belesi^ and Arbaces conspired against him, 
 and collected a numerous force to dethrone 
 him. Saraanapalus quitted his wine and 
 women for a while, and appeared at the head 
 of his armies. The rebels were defeated in 
 three successive battles, but at last Sardana- 
 palus was beaten and besieged in the city of 
 Ninus for two years and more. When he 
 
 SJ 
 
 despaired of success, he burned himself in 
 his palace, with his eunuchs, concubines, and 
 all his treasures, and the empire of Assyria 
 was divided among the conspirators. This 
 famous event happened b.c. 820, accord- 
 ing to Eusebius. The riches destroyed in 
 the conflagration have been estimated at 
 $700,000,000! 
 
 SARDINIA (Sardegna), an island in the 
 Mediterranean, has an area of 9,100 square 
 miles, and 547,000 inhabitants. The capital 
 is Cagliari, and the most important town 
 Sassan. Its productions consist of grain, oil, 
 citrons, oranges, and other fruits , while wine 
 and cattle are abundant. There are mines 
 of lead and silver. The Catholic is the pre- 
 vailing religion of the island. 
 
 The Sardinian monarchy is composed in 
 part of the island of Sardinia, but in much 
 greater proportion of Piedmont, Savoy, and 
 the territory of Genoa. Turin (Torino), in 
 Piedmont, is the capital of the kingdom ; pop- 
 ulation 140,000. The monarchy has an area 
 of 29,075 square miles ; population, 5,000,000. 
 In 1720, Victor Amadeus II. exchanged the 
 island of Sicily for Sardinia, and assumed the 
 present royal title. After a peace of twenty 
 years, this state became involved in the war 
 between France and Austria, which was closed 
 by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. 
 The contest occasioned by the part which 
 Sardinia took in the ^French revolution, be- 
 gan in 1792, and was maintained until 1796, 
 when the assumption of the command by 
 Bonaparte, led to the overthrow of the allied 
 forces in the' course of a few weeks, and to the 
 conclusion of an unfavorable treaty of peace. 
 
 This treaty was followed *n two years by 
 the removal of the royal family to Sardinia, 
 and the incorporation of their continental 
 states with the French territory. The pros- 
 pect of reinstatement opened by the progress 
 of the allies in 1799, was completely over- 
 cast by the battle of Marengo. The conti- 
 nental territories were not restored to the 
 legitimate sovereign until the overthrow of 
 Bonaparte in 1814. [See Savoy.] 
 
 The island of Sardinia is unknown in his- 
 tory until the time of its occupancy by the 
 Carthaginians, who doubtless confined them- 
 selves to a few marine stations, from which 
 they were expelled by the Romans in the 
 Punic wars. The Romans continued in pos> 
 
760 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 session of the island until the decline of the 
 empire. It was invaded by the Saracens. 
 The sovereignty of the island was acquired 
 in the fourteenth century by the King of 
 Arragon, and retained by the crown of Spain 
 until the eighteenth century. In 1720 it was 
 given to the Duke of Savoy. In 1794 the 
 inhabitants of Cagliari, encouraged by the 
 progress of the French revolution, rose in 
 insurrection, and caused the Piedmontese 
 viceroy, with all the individuals of his coun- 
 try, to be sent out of the island. The other 
 towns followed the example ; and the result 
 was, that after two years of contention, the 
 king granted a general pardon, declared that 
 the cortes, or representative body, should 
 assemble at least once in ten years, and con- 
 firmed all the ancient laws, customs, and 
 privileges of the inhabitants. \See Savoy.] 
 
 SARDIS, an ancient city of Lydia, formerly 
 its capital. Cyrus took this city in the 59th 
 Olympiad, and subdued the whole kingdom 
 of Lydia, taking Croesus the king, prisoner. 
 In the 69th Olympiad, Aristagoras having 
 got twenty ships from the Athenians, per- 
 suaded the people to rebel against the Per- 
 sians, and some time after took the city and 
 burnt it, which occasioned the wars between 
 the Persians and the Greeks. Antiochus 
 Magnus took this city from Achaeus by treason, 
 after a year’s siege. Tamerlane likewise be- 
 sieged this city six years, and ruined it about 
 1398. The city stood on the edge of a spa- 
 cious and fruitful plain, and has still many 
 marks of its antiquity to be found amongst 
 its ruins. It was anciently one of the strong- 
 est inland cities of Asia, especially when 
 besieged by Antiochus Magnus. In this city 
 Antigonus caused Cleopatra, the sister of 
 Alexander the Great, to be put to death. 
 
 S ARM ATI A was the name given by the 
 Romans to the regions between the Vistula 
 and the Caspian. The Sarmatians were a 
 savage, uncivilized nation, often confounded 
 with the Scythians, naturally warlike, and 
 famous for painting their bodies to appear 
 more terrible in the field of battle. They 
 were well known for their lewdness, and they 
 passed among the Greeks and Latins by the 
 name of barbarians. In the time of the em- 
 perors they became very powerful ; they 
 disturbed the peace of Rome by their fre- 
 quent incursions ; till at last, increased by the 
 
 savage hordes of Scythians, under the barba- 
 rous names of Huns, Vandals, Goths, Alans, 
 &c., they successfully invaded and ruined the 
 empire in the third and fourth centuries of 
 the Christian era. 
 
 SATURN, the Kronos of the Grecian my- 
 thology, father of the gods. As destiny had 
 foretold that he would be dethroned by one 
 of his sons, he devoured all that were born, 
 with the exception of Jupiter, Neptune, and 
 Pluto, whom their mother Rhea saved. He 
 was dethroned by Jupiter, and sought refuge 
 with Janus in Italy, where he occupied him- 
 self with agriculture. He is represented as 
 an old man, with a scythe in one hand, and 
 an hour-glass in the other, to show that time 
 destroys everything, and rolls onward with- 
 out interruption. 
 
 SAVAGE, Richard, an unfortunate Eng- 
 lish poet, died in jail in 1743. He was the 
 son of the inhuman Countess of Macclesfield, 
 by the Earl of Rivers. 
 
 S A VARY, Rene, a French general under 
 Napoleon, was intrusted with the execution 
 of the doom decreed against the Due d’ Eng- 
 hien. He was made Duke of Rovigo, and 
 succeeded Fouche as minister of police. He 
 died in 1833, aged fifty-nine. 
 
 SAVOY, an Italian duchy belonging to the 
 Sardinian monarchy, bordering on France, 
 Switzerland, and Piedmont, contains 584,000 
 inhabitants. It consists of valleys formed by 
 offsets of the Alps, and much of the land is 
 rocky and barren. The origin of the ducal 
 house of Savoy is obscure. From the year 
 1000 till 1580, a long list of princes governed. 
 In 1580 Charles Emmanuel invaded the mar- 
 quisate of Saluzzo, which he wrested from 
 France, and thereby gained a frontier for his 
 capital of Turin. He was succeeded by Vic- 
 tor Amadeus I., who waged war against the 
 Spaniards with equal success in 1635. To 
 Charles Emmanuel II., Turin owes some of 
 her magnificent structures ; and he also 
 caused the amazing passage through the 
 rock Mount Visco to be cut. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Victor Amadeus II., in 
 1675, who persecuted his Protestant subjects, 
 the Waldenses, with all the fury and malice 
 of a bigot, and who was besieged in his cap- 
 ital, Turin, by the French, till the latter had 
 lost fourteen thousand men before the place, 
 and the ammunition of the besieged was 
 
 SAV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 761 
 
 almost exhausted. The Duke of Savoy was 
 soon after joined by Prince Eugene, whom 
 he assisted in defeating the French, and driv- 
 ing them out of Lombardy. At the peace of 
 Utrecht he obtained Sicily, which he after- 
 ward bartered for Sardinia; and thus the 
 Sardinian monarchy began. He formally 
 resigned his crown in 1730, to Charles Em- 
 manuel, his son, reserving for himself a yearly 
 income of one hundred thousand pounds. 
 Accordingly, Charles Emmanuel III. succeed- 
 ed in the government ; but being persuaded 
 by an interested minister, that his father was 
 endeavoring to gain over the troops and re- 
 mount the throne, he caused him to be drag- 
 ged from his bed, and carried to a house with 
 latticed windows, which in everything resem- 
 bled a prison, in 1732. The old man died 
 soon after. Some years after the commence- 
 ment of the French revolution, Savoy was 
 ceded by Charles Emmanuel IV. to France, 
 and constituted the department of Mont 
 Blanc. In this state it continued till the 
 general peace, in 1814, when Savoy was re- 
 stored to the family of its former possessors, 
 in the person of Victor Emmanuel, King of 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Charles Albert oscillated curiously between 
 grasps at absolute power and spasms of polit- 
 ical freedom for his subjects. A fit of the 
 latter sort threw him into collision with Aus- 
 tria in 1848. The army of the latter, led by 
 Marshal Radetzky, was victorious, and Charles 
 abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emman- 
 uel II., who, under the lead of Cavour, 
 joined the alliance against Russia in 1855, 
 and became king of Italy in I860. 
 
 DUKES OF SAVOY. 
 
 1391. Amadeus VIII., the Pacific ; abdicated. 
 1440. Ludovic, his son. 
 
 1465. Amadeus IX., the Saint, his son. 
 
 1472. Philibert I., the Hunter, his son. 
 
 1482. Charles I., the Warlike, his brother. 
 
 1489. Charles II., his son; died while young. 
 
 1496. Philip Lackland, a son of Ludovic. 
 
 1497. Philibert II., the Fair, his son. 
 
 1504. Charles III., the Good, half-brother of Phil- 
 ibert. 
 
 1553. Emmanuel Philibert, Iron Hand, his son. 
 1580. Charles Emmanuel I., the Great, his son. 
 1630. Victor Amadeus I., his son. 
 
 1637. Francis Hyaciuthus, an infant son of Vic- 
 
 tor. 
 
 1638. Charles Emmanuel II., his infant brother. 
 1675. Victor Amadeus II., his son. In 1713, the 
 
 house of Savoy became regal, by the 
 
 accession of Victor Amadeus to the 
 crown of Sicily, which, in 1718, he ex- 
 changed with the emperor for Sardinia. 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA AND DUKF.S OF SAVOY. 
 
 1718. Victor Amadeus II. ; abdicated in favor of 
 1730. Charles Emmanuel III., his son. 
 
 1773. Victor Amadeus III., his son. 
 
 1796. Charles Emmanuel IV., abdicated in favor 
 of 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA. 
 
 1 802. Victor Emmanuel I., his brother, who ab- 
 dicated in favor of 
 1821. Charles Felix, a third brother. 
 
 1831. Charles Albert, a descendant of Prince 
 Thomas, brother of Victor Amadeus I. 
 He abdicated in favor of his son. 
 
 1849. Victor Emmanuel II. 
 
 SAXE, Maurice, Count de, a celebrated 
 general, was born in 1(396, at Dresden, being 
 the natural son of Frederick Augustus, Elect- 
 or of Saxony and King of Poland, by the 
 Countess of Konigsmark. At the age of 
 twelve years he was at the siege of Lisle, • 
 where he displayed signal courage ; as he did 
 the following year at that of Tournay. He 
 bore a part in the battle of Malplaquet, and in 
 1711 accompanied the King of Poland to Stral- 
 sund, where he swam over the river, with a 
 pistol in his hand, in sight of the enemy. He 
 continued to distinguish himself in the war 
 with Sweden ; and in 1717 served against the 
 Turks. In 1720 he obtained the rank of 
 marechal de camp in the French army. In 
 1726 he was chosen Duke of Courland ; but 
 the election being set aside, he returned to 
 France, where he was made lieutenant-gen- 
 eral in 1734. In 1741 he took Prague by 
 assault; in 1744 he was appointed a marshal 
 of France ; and the next year he gained the 
 battle of Fontenoy. This was followed by 
 the capture of Brussels, and the battle of 
 Raucoux, for which the King erf France made 
 him marechal-general of his camps and ar- 
 mies. In 1747 he achieved the victory of 
 Lahfeldt; and in 1748 took Maestricht. He 
 died Nov. 30th, 1750. 
 
 SAXONY, the kingdom of, is bounded 
 north and east by Prussia, south by Bohe- 
 mia, west by the Saxon principalities and 
 Bavaria. It contains 5,752 square miles, and 
 a population of 2,000,000. Dresden is the 
 capital. [ See Dresden.] Leipsic is the cen- 
 tre of trade. The country is hilly and in 
 some sections mountainous. Forests mantle 
 
 SAX 
 
762 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 the hills, and the valleys are carefully tilled. 
 The sheep of Saxony are noted for fineness 
 of fleece, and the woolen manufactures, as 
 well as those of linen and porcelain, are very 
 important. The kingdom occupies only a 
 small portion of that tract in the north of 
 Germany formerly designated as Saxony, 
 which extended from the Weser to the fron- 
 tiers of Poland. 
 
 The Saxons are supposed by most authors 
 to be the ancient Catti described by Tacitus. 
 The government of the whole Saxon nation 
 was vested in twelve chieftains, who were cho- 
 sen annually, and who elected from among 
 themselves a chief judge. In time of war they 
 chose a king, whose power ceased on the 
 return of peace. Charlemagne, on succeed- 
 ing his father Pepin, in 1772, resolved to 
 compel the Saxons to change their religion, 
 and embrace Christianity. Accordingly, he 
 attacked and defeated them, and obliged 
 • their king, Wittekind, to fly into Denmark. 
 Finding himself totally unable to resist the 
 forces of the victorious Charlemagne, Witte- 
 kind accepted the conditions offered him, and 
 was baptized with his whole family, by Lullo, 
 Bishop of Mentz. In 804, after a calamitous 
 war of thirty years, the Saxons were entirely 
 subdued, when Charles had defeated them in 
 numerous battles, and transported many 
 thousands to Flanders, Brabant, and other 
 countries. 
 
 The subsequent sovereigns of Saxony have 
 uniformly asserted themselves to be descend- 
 ed from the illustrious Wittekind ; and the 
 reigning family still pride themselves on the 
 same origin. They reckon among their pro- 
 genitors several great men who were honored 
 with the surnames of the Grave, the Pacific, 
 the Constant, the Pious, the Magnanimous, 
 and some of whom wore crowns, whilst others 
 declined them. 
 
 The Saxons remained neutral in the war of 
 1740, between Russia and Austria. In 1756 
 they were tempted to take a part by the flat- 
 tering promises of Austria, but they soon had 
 cause to repent. In the war of 1793, the con- 
 tingent furnished by Saxony against France 
 was not large, and no decided part was taken 
 in the war until 1806, when the elector sent 
 all his troops to the field in support of Prus- 
 sia. The overthrow of that power enabled 
 Bonaparte to attach the Saxons to his cause 
 
 by the most substantial advantages. For 
 although the elector was under the necessity 
 of making his peace with the conqueror, upon 
 any terms which the latter might choose to 
 dictate to the vanquished party, yet in order 
 to separate him from the interests of the 
 Prussian monarch, the emperor treated him 
 with great lenity, induced him to accede to 
 the confederation of the Rhine, and gave him 
 the title of king, with considerable acces- 
 sions of territory. Further additions were 
 made to the kingdom of Saxony in 1809 ; 
 but these acquisitions were only temporary. 
 
 On the irruption of the allied armies into 
 Saxony, in 1813, the king quitted Dresden, 
 and identified his interests with the interests 
 of France. After the battle of Leipsic, that 
 city was taken by assault ; and the king was 
 made prisoner with his whole court. This 
 country was afterward placed under the pro- 
 visional occupation of Prussia; and Frederic 
 William made known his intention of uniting 
 Saxony to Prussia. However, the energetic 
 conduct of the king of Saxony preserved him 
 from total ruin. By the treaty of Vienna, in 
 1815, that sovereign ceded to Prussia certain 
 districts and territories belonging to the king- 
 dom of Saxony ; and half the Saxon people, 
 to whom the paternal sway of their king had 
 endeared him, passed under the government 
 of Prussia with extreme reluctance. 
 
 KINGS OF SAXONY. 
 
 1806. Frederick Augustus, formerly elector. 
 
 1827. Anthony, his brother. 
 
 1836. Frederick Augustus II.; nephew of An- 
 thony ; killed by a kick from a horse, 
 Aug. 9th, 1854. 
 
 1854. John, his brother; born Dec. 12th, 1801. 
 
 SAY, Thomas. This distinguished natu- 
 ralist died at New Harmony, Indiana, on the 
 10th October, 1834, aged forty -seven. Few 
 individuals in this country have contributed 
 so extensively to enlarge the boundaries of 
 natural science. He was one of the founders 
 of the Philadelphia academy of natural sci- 
 ences. His original communications to the 
 society, in the most abstruse departments of 
 zoology, Crustacea, insects, Ac., of the United 
 States, occupy more than eight hundred 
 printed pages, of their journal. His contribu- 
 tions to the “ Encyclopaedia Americana” were 
 highly valuable. II is work on American 
 Entomology, and another on Conchology, met 
 
 SAY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 763 
 
 with deserved approbation. He was the 
 naturalist to the two western expeditions 
 sent out by the United States government 
 under Major Long. Some years previously 
 he made a scientific excursion to the Floridas. 
 
 SCANDERBEG, the name given by the 
 Turks to George Castriotto, Prince of Alba- 
 nia. His father, John, being reduced to 
 extremity by Amurath II., was forced to put 
 five of his sons into his hands, of whom Scan- 
 derbeg was the youngest. He pleased the 
 tyrant, who poisoned his brothers, but spared 
 him, and finding him endowed with very ex- 
 traordinary qualities, had him educated in 
 the Mohammedan faith. Having given sev- 
 eral instances of his- courage in Amurath’s 
 service, who was the usurper of his estates, 
 Scanderbeg thought it was high time to think 
 of making use of his valor for himself against 
 the tyrant. In this design he so dexterously 
 deceived the governor of Groya, the chief city 
 of Albania, that he made himself master of 
 that and several other places ; in 1433 he 
 took possession of his hereditary dominion, 
 and upon his being admitted to the crown 
 declared himself a Christian. He compelled 
 the Turks to raise the siege of Croya, and cut 
 to pieces the forces that were sent against 
 him. Amurath himself having laid a second 
 siege to this place, died before the walls, 
 without being able to take it, though he was 
 extremely desirous of being revenged on 
 Scanderbeg. Under Mahomet II., he had 
 seven or eight armies to contest with, but the 
 victory was still on his side. It is said, that 
 though he had killed above two thousand 
 Turks with his own hand, yet was he never 
 wounded. Mahomet, compelled by his valor 
 and success, made peace with him, while 
 Scanderbeg took a journey to the l^ngdom 
 of Naples. The Turk's, seeing the truce 
 expired, laid siege again to Croya, but to no 
 purpose ; for Scanderbeg was soon with them, 
 and forced them to raise the siege twice. He 
 died at Lissa, a city belonging to the Vene- 
 tians, Jan. 27th, 1467, in the sixty-third year 
 of his age. 
 
 SCAURUS, M. ^Emilius, a Roman consul, 
 who distinguished himself by his eloquence 
 at the bar, and by his martial successes in 
 Spain. He was sent against Jugurtha, and 
 some time after was accused of suffering him- 
 self to be bribed by the Numidian prince. 
 
 Scaurus conquered the Ligurians, and during 
 his censorship built the Milvian bridge at 
 Rome, and began to pave the road which 
 from him was called the iEmilian. He was 
 originally very poor. He wrote some books, 
 and among these a history of his own life, all 
 now lost. 
 
 His son, of the same name, made himself 
 known by the large theatre which he built 
 during his edileship. This theatre, which 
 could contain 30,000 spectators, was sup- 
 ported by 360 columns of marble, thirty -eight 
 feet in height, and adorned with three thou- 
 sand brazen statues. This celebrated edifice, 
 according to Pliny, proved more fatal to the 
 manners and the simplicity of the Romans, 
 than the proscriptions and wars of Sylla had 
 done. 
 
 SCIIELLING, Frederick William Jo- 
 seph, a distinguished name in German phi- 
 losophy, was born at Leonburg in Wirtem- 
 berg, Jan. 27th, 1775. He died in 1854. 
 
 SCHILLER, Friedrich, a German poet of 
 great reputation, was born at Manheim, a 
 small town of Wirtemberg, Nov. 10th, 1759, 
 and was the son of a gentleman who, having 
 served in the army as a surgeon and officer, 
 had retired to private life, and, at the date of 
 the birth of the poet, was holding an incon- 
 siderable post under the Duke of Wirtemberg. 
 Both the parents of the poet appear to have 
 been persons possessed of estimable moral 
 qualities, and no inconsiderable share of 
 literary taste and talent. . Schiller was not 
 destitute of filial gratitude, and may be sup- 
 posed to have expressed his own fe^ings in 
 the following passage from one of his histor- 
 ical dramas. Don Carlos is addressing his 
 father Philip: — 
 
 “ How sweet and rapturous it is to feel 
 Ourself exalted in a lovely soul, — 
 
 To know our joys make glow another’s cheek, 
 
 Our fears to tremble in another’s heart, 
 
 Our sufferings bedew another’s eye ! 
 
 How beautiful and grand ’tis, hand in hand 
 With a dear son, to tread youth’s rosy path, 
 
 Again to dream once more the dream of life! 
 
 How sweet and great, imperishable, is 
 The virtue of a child, to live for ages, 
 Transmitting good unceasingly ! How sweet 
 To plant what a dear son will one day reap; 
 
 To gather what will make him rich ; to feel 
 How deep one day will be his gratitude ! ” 
 
 Schiller was placed in the school of Stutt- 
 gard, where he may be said to have educated 
 
 SCH 
 
764 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 himself, for literature and the fine arts were 
 under the ban of the Duke of Wirtemberg, 
 whose pedantic pedagogues vainly endeavored 
 to turn the gigantic mind of Schiller from its 
 natural inclination. Knowing nothing of the 
 world but from books; forbidden to mingle 
 in female society ; and seeing in his fellow- 
 students but multiplied copies of a certain 
 severe and soulless model, which their pre- 
 ceptors continually held up for admiration 
 and imitation, — the poet turned to his own 
 fancy for relief, and to beguile the tedium of 
 his unnatural life, wrote the tragedy of “ The 
 Robbers,” an extraordinary performance, full 
 of imagination and energy, brilliant with the 
 light of genius and youth, but, to use the 
 deliberate criticism of its author, “a monster, 
 for which by good fortune the world has no 
 original, and which I would not wish to be 
 immortal, except to perpetuate an example 
 of the offspring which Genius, in its unnatu- 
 ral" union with Thralldom, may give to the 
 world.” 
 
 The tragedy, although written before the 
 completion of Schiller’s college course, did 
 not appear until he had attained the age of 
 twenty-one, and was beginning to discharge 
 the duties of surgeon in the army. The 
 spirit and popularity of the poet’s perform- 
 ance were highly displeasing to the despotic 
 Duke of Wirtemberg, who issued an order 
 for Schiller to confine himself to the studies 
 peculiar to his profession. The youthful poet 
 was compelled to suffer a week’s confinement 
 for the crime of having gone to Manheim to 
 attend the representation of his drama, and 
 fearing a severer punishment for the repeti- 
 tion of the offense, he fled to Manheim, and 
 thence to the hospitable dwelling of Madam 
 von Wollzogen, near Meiningen. Protected 
 by this lady, he sent forth two new plays, 
 “Fiesco,” and “Court Intrigue and Love.” 
 He was next appointed poet to the theatre at 
 Manheim, a post of honor and profit. At the 
 expiration of eighteen months, Schiller grow- 
 ing dissatisfied with his situation, went from 
 Manheim to Leipsic, and thence to Dresden. 
 At the latter place he concluded his famous 
 tragedy of “Don Carlos,” the first of his 
 plays that bears the stamp of anything like 
 full maturity. The opportunities he had 
 enjoyed for extending his knowledge of men 
 and things, the sedulous practice of the art 
 
 I of composition, the study of purer morals, had 
 not been without their full effect. Increase 
 of years had done something for him ; dili- 
 gence had d r.e much more. The ebullience 
 of youth is now chastened into the steadfast 
 energy of manhood; the wild enthusiast, that 
 spurned at the errors of the world, has now 
 become the enlightened moralist, that laments 
 their necessity, or endeavors to find out their 
 remedy. A corresponding alteration is visi- 
 ble in the external form of the work, in its 
 plot and diction. The plot is contrived with 
 great ingenuity, embodying theTesult of much 
 study, both dramatic and historical. The 
 language is blank verse, — not prose, as in the 
 former works ; it is more careful and regular, 
 less ambitious in its object, but more certain 
 of attaining it. Schiller’s mind had now 
 reached its full stature : he felt and thought 
 more justly ; he could better express what he 
 felt and thought. 
 
 “Don Carlos” was received with immediate 
 and universal approbation, in the closet and 
 on the stage. Schiller’s expectations had not 
 been so high ; he knew both the excellences 
 and the faults of his work : but he had not 
 anticipated that the former would be recog- 
 nized so instantaneously. The pleasure of 
 this new celebrity came upon him, therefore, 
 heightened by surprise. Had dramatic emi- 
 nence been his sole object, he might now 
 have slackened his exertions ; the public had 
 already ranked him as the first of their wri- 
 ters in that favorite department. But this 
 limited ambition was not his moving princi- 
 ple ; nor was his mind of that sort for which 
 rest is provided in this world. The primary 
 disposition of his nature urged him to perpet- 
 ual toil : the great aim of his life, the unfold- 
 ing of Jiis mental powers, was one of those 
 which admit but a relative not an absolute 
 progress. New ideas of perfection arise as 
 the former have been reached ; the student is 
 always attaining, — never has attained. 
 
 Schiller’s worldly circumstances, too, were 
 of a kind well calculated to prevent excess of 
 quietism. He was still drifting at large on 
 the tide of life : he was crowned with laurels, 
 but without a home. His heart, warm and 
 affectionate, fitted to enjoy the domestic bless- 
 ings which it longed for, was allowed to form 
 no permanent attachment ; he felt that he was 
 unconnected, solitary in the world, cut off 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 765 
 
 from the exercise of his kindlier sympathies ; 
 or if tasting such pleasures, it was ‘ snatching 
 them rather than partaking of them calmly.’ 
 The vulgar desire of wealth and station never 
 entered his mind for an instant ; but as years 
 were added to his age, the delights of peace 
 and continuous comfort were fast becoming 
 more acceptable than any other; and he 
 looked with anxiety to have a resting-place 
 amid his wanderings, — to be a man among his 
 fellow-men. 
 
 For all these wishes Schiller saw that the 
 only chance of fulfillment depended on un- 
 wearied perseverance in his literary occupa- 
 tions. Yet though his activity was unabated, 
 and the calls on it were increasing rather 
 than diminished, its direction was gradually 
 changing. The drama had long been station- 
 ary, and of late had been falling in his estima- 
 tion ; the difficulties of the art, as he viewed 
 it at present, had been overcome, and new 
 conquests invited him in other quarters. 
 The latter part of “ Carlos” he had written as 
 a task rather than a pleasure ; he contem- 
 plated no farther undertaking connected with 
 the stage. For a time, indeed, he seems to 
 have wavered among a multiplicity of enter- 
 prises ; now solicited to this, and now to that, 
 without being able to fix decidedly on any. 
 The restless ardor of his mind is evinced by 
 the number and variety of his attempts ; its 
 fluctuation by the circumstance that all of 
 them are short in extent, or left in the state 
 of fragments. Of the former kind are his 
 lyrical productions, many of which were 
 composed about this period, during intervals 
 from more serious labors. The character of 
 these performances is such as his former wri- 
 tings give us reason to expect. With a deep 
 insight into life, and a keen and comprehen- 
 sive sympathy with its sorrows and enjoy- 
 ments, there is combined that impetuosity of 
 feeling, that pomp of thought and imagery, 
 which belong peculiarly to Schiller. If he 
 had left the drama, his mind was still over- 
 flowing with the elements of poetry ; dwelling 
 among the grandest conceptions, and the 
 boldest or finest emotions ; thinking intensely 
 and profoundly, but decorating its thoughts 
 with those graces, which other faculties than 
 the understanding are required to afford. 
 With these smaller pieces, Schiller occupied 
 himself at intervals of leisure throughout the 
 
 remainder of his life. Some of them are to 
 be classed among the finest efforts of his 
 genius. The “Walk to the Forge,” the 
 “Song of the Bell,” contain exquisite delin- 
 eations of the fortunes and the history of 
 man; his “Ritter von Toggenburg,” his 
 “ Cranes of Ibycus,” his “ Hero and Leander,” 
 are among the most poetical and moving 
 ballads to be found in any language. 
 
 Schiller now turned his attention to history, 
 his first performance in this department being 
 “The Revolt of the Netherlands,” unfortu- 
 nately a fragment, but written in an exceed- 
 ingly pure style, and displaying throughout 
 a most penetrating and philosophical spirit. 
 
 He wrote and thought with an impetuosity 
 beyond what nature always could endure. 
 His intolerance of interruptions first put him 
 on the plan of studying by night ; an alluring 
 but pernicio'us practice, which began at Dres- 
 den, and was never afterward forsaken. His 
 recreations breathed a similar spirit : he loved 
 to be much alone, and strongly moved. The 
 banks of the Elbe were the favorite resort of 
 his mornings: here, wandering in solitude 
 amid groves and lawns, and green and beauti- 
 ful places, he abandoned his mind to delicious 
 musings; watched the fitful current of his 
 thoughts, as they came sweeping through his 
 soul in their vague, fantastic, gorgeous forms ; 
 pleased himself with the transient images of 
 memory and hope ; or meditated on the cares 
 and studies which had lately been employing, 
 and were again soon to employ him. He 
 might be seen floating on the river in a gon- 
 dola, feasting himself with the loveliness of 
 earth and sky. He delighted most to be 
 there, when a tempest was abroad: his un- 
 quiet spirit found a solace in the expression 
 of his own unrest on the face of Nature ; dan- 
 ger lent a charm to his situation ; he felt in 
 harmony with the scene, when the rack was 
 sweeping stormfully across the heavens, and 
 the forests were sounding in the breeze, and 
 the river rolled its chafed waters into wild, 
 eddying heaps. 
 
 Yet before the darkness summoned him 
 exclusively to his tasks, Schiller commonly 
 devoted a portion of the day to the pleasures 
 of society. Could he have found enjoyment 
 in the flatteries of admiring hospitality, his 
 fame would have procured them for him in 
 abundance. But these things were not to 
 
 SCH 
 
766 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 his taste. The idea of being a lion is offen- 
 sive enough to any man, of not more than 
 common vanity, and less than common under- 
 standing: it was doubly offensive to him. 
 His pride and his modesty alike forbade it. 
 The delicacy of his nature, aggravated into 
 shyness by his education and his habits, ren- 
 dered situations of display more than usually 
 painful to him. In the circles of fashion, he ap- 
 peared unwillingly, and seldom to advantage: 
 their glitter and parade were foreign to his 
 disposition : their strict ceremonial cramped 
 the play of his mind. Hemmed in, as by in- 
 visible fences, among the intricate barriers of 
 etiquette, so feeble, yet so inviolable, he felt 
 constrained and helpless, — alternately cha- 
 grined and indignant. It was the giant 
 among pigmies; Gulliver, in Lilliput, tied 
 down by a thousand packthreads. But there 
 were more congenial minds, with whom he 
 could associate; more familiar scenes, in 
 which he found the pleasures he was seeking. 
 Here Schiller was himself; frank, unembar- 
 rassed, pliant to the humor of the hour. His 
 conversation was delightful, abounding at 
 once in rare and simple charms. Besides the 
 intellectual riches which it carried with it, 
 there was a flow of kindliness and unaffected 
 good humor, which can render dullness itself 
 agreeable. Schiller had many friends in 
 Dresden, who loved him as a man while they 
 admired him as a writer. Their intercourse 
 was of the kind he liked, — sober, as well as 
 free and mirthful. It was the careless, calm, 
 honest effusion of his feelings that he wanted ; 
 not the noisy tumults and coarse delirium of 
 dissipation. For this, under any of its forms, 
 he at no time showed the smallest relish. 
 
 A visit to Weimar gained him the acquaint- 
 ance of Herder and Wieland, and afterward 
 of Goethe. With the latter, he did not get 
 on very well at first. Gradually they be- 
 came cordial friends, and in 1789, Schiller, 
 chiefly through the interest of Goethe, was 
 appointed professor of history at the univer- 
 sity of Jena, a few miles from the town of 
 Weimar. He was then thirty years old, and 
 married Mile, von Lengefeldt of Rudolstadt, t'o 
 whom he had been engaged some time before. 
 In 1791 he published his “History of the 
 Thirty Years’ War.” This great work sug- 
 gested another and his greatest drama, — or 
 rather a scries of dramas, since it is in three 
 
 parts, — “Wallenstein,” which cost him the 
 labor of two years. It was followed speedily 
 by “ Mary Stuart,” a work of great power, 
 but not equaling that which preceded it. 
 “Mary Stuart” was followed by the “Maid 
 of Orleans,” the “Bride of Messina,” and 
 “William Tell.” Schiller died in the spring 
 of 1805, at the age of forty-five, in the full 
 vigor of his intellectual powers. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Charles, who was so much 
 esteemed by Louis XIII. for his many import- 
 ant services rendered in war to the crown of 
 France, died in 1656, in the fifty-sixth year 
 of his age. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Henry, Count of Nanteuil 
 and Duretal, was the son of Gaspar Schom- 
 berg, a German, and succeeded his father as 
 general field-marshal of the German troops 
 in the French king’s service. He was sent 
 ambassador extraordinary to England, in 
 1615 ; at his return he had a command in the 
 army of Piedmont, and contributed to the 
 taking of several places in 1620. He served 
 against the Huguenots in the civil wars. In 
 1627 he was present at the action of the Isle 
 of Re, where the English were defeated. In 
 1680 he took Pignerol, and relieved Cazal, and 
 gained the battle of Castelnaudary against 
 the rebels of Languedoc. He died at Bour- 
 deaux in 1683, in the forty-ninth year of his 
 age. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Frederic, Duke of, an emi- 
 nent general, was the son of Count Schom- 
 berg, by the daughter of Lord Dudley of 
 England, and was born in 1619. He began 
 his military career in the army of Gustavus 
 Adolphus. He served in the army of the 
 United Provinces; but in 1650 retired to 
 France, where he was esteemed next to Conde 
 and Turenne. In 1660 he visited England, 
 whence he proceeded to Portugal, where he 
 was created a grandee, and obtained a pen- 
 sion. On his return to France he commanded 
 in Flanders, and obliged the Prince of Orange 
 to raise the siege of Maestricht, for which he 
 was made a marshal. On the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, he went again to Portu- 
 gal ; but being obliged to quit the kingdom 
 by the inquisition, he removed to Holland, 
 and afterward entered into the service of the 
 Elector of Brandenburg. In 1688 he accom- 
 panied William of Orange to England ; and 
 after the Revolution was created a duke, with 
 
 SCII 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 707 
 
 which title he received a grant of one hundred 
 thousand pounds. In 1689 he commanded 
 in Ireland, where he was killed at the battle 
 of the Boyne, July 1st, 1090. 
 
 SCHUYLER, Philip, a general in the 
 American Revolution, was born at Albany, 
 N. Y., in 1731, and being appointed major-gen- 
 eral in 1775, evinced great courage and ability. 
 He was a member of the old congress, and 
 with Rufus King represented New York in 
 the first federal senate. He died Nov. 18th, 
 1804. 
 
 SCIO, or Chios, a fertile island in the Gre- 
 cian Archipelago, containing 392 square 
 miles. In 1822, the revolt of the Sciots was 
 punished by the Turks, by the massacre of 
 
 40.000 persons without distinction of age or 
 sex, while many women and children were 
 borne away to slavery. Such was the fero- 
 cious spirit exercised toward them, that in 
 1823, the population had been reduced from 
 
 120.000 to 16,000! 
 
 SCIPIO. There were many illustrious 
 Romans of this name, belonging to the Cor- 
 nelii. Cneius, surnamed Asina, was consul, 
 a.u.c. 494 and 500. He was conquered in 
 his first consulship in a naval battle, and lost 
 seventeen ships. The following j^ear he 
 took Aleria, in Corsica, and defeated Ilanno, 
 the Carthaginian general, in Sardinia. He 
 also took two hundred of the enemy’s ships, 
 and the city of Panormum in Sicily. He was 
 father to Publius and Cneius Scipio. Pub- 
 lius, in the beginning of the second Punic 
 war, was sent with an army to Spain to op- 
 pose Hannibal ; but when he heard that his 
 enemy had passed over into Italy, he attempt- 
 ed by his quick marches and secret evolu- 
 tions to stop his progress. He was vanquished 
 by Hannibal near the Ticinus, where he would 
 have lost his life, had not his son, who was 
 afterward surnamed Africanus, courageously 
 defended him. He again passed into Spain, 
 where he obtained some memorable victories 
 over the Carthaginians, and the inhabitants 
 of the country. 
 
 His brother Cneius shared the supreme 
 command with him, but their great confi- 
 dence proved their ruin. They separated 
 their armies, and soon after Publius was 
 furiously attacked by the two Hasd rubais 
 and Mago, who commanded the Carthaginian 
 armies. The forces of Publius were too few 
 
 to resist with success the three Carthaginian 
 generals. The Romans were cut to pieces, 
 and their commander was left on the field of 
 battle. No sooner had the enemy obtained 
 this victory, than they immediately marched 
 to meet Cneius Scipio, whom the revolt of 
 
 30,000 Celtiberians had weakened and alarm- 
 ed. That general, who was already apprised 
 of his brother’s death, secured an eminence, 
 where he was soon surrounded on all sides. 
 After desperate acts of valor, he was left 
 among the slain ; or, according to some, he 
 fled into a tower, where he was burnt with 
 some of his friends by the victorious enemy. 
 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio, whose successes 
 won him the surname of Africanus, was the 
 son of the Publius Scipio who was killed in 
 Spain. He first distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Ticinus, where he saved his father’s 
 life by deeds of unexampled valor and bold- 
 ness. The battle of Cannae, which proved so 
 fatal to the Roman arms, instead of disheart- 
 ening Scipio, raised his expectations, and he 
 no sooner heard that some of his desperate 
 countrymen wished to abandon Italy, and to 
 fly from the insolence of the conqueror, than 
 with his sword in his hand, and by his firm- 
 ness and example, he obliged them to swear 
 eternal fidelity to Rome, and to put to imme- 
 diate death the first man who attempted to 
 retire from his country. It was soon known 
 how able he was to be at the head of an army • 
 the various nations of Spain were conquered, 
 and in four years the Carthaginians were ban- 
 ished from that part of the continent; the 
 whole province became tributary to Rome ; 
 New Carthage submitted in one day, and in 
 a battle 54,000 of the enemy were left dead 
 on the field. After these signal victories, 
 Scipio was recalled to Rome, which still 
 trembled at the continual alarms of Hanni- 
 bal, who w^as at her gates. The conqueror 
 of the Carthaginians in Spain was looked upon 
 as a proper general to encounter Hannibal in 
 Italy ; but Scipio opposed the measures which 
 his countrymen wished to pursue, and he 
 declared in the senate that if Hannibal was to 
 be conquered he must be conquered in Africa. 
 These bold measures were immediately adopt- 
 ed, though opposed by the eloquence, age, 
 and experience of the great Fabius, and Scipio 
 was empowered to conduct the war on the 
 coast of Africa. With the dignity of consul 
 
 SCI 
 
768 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 he embarked for Carthage. Hannibal, who 
 was victorious at the gates of Rome, was 
 instantly recalled to defend the walls of his 
 country, and the two greatest generals of the 
 age met each other in the field. Terms of 
 accommodation were proposed; but in the 
 parley which the two commanders had to- 
 gether, nothing satisfactory was offered, and 
 while the one enlarged on the vicissitudes of 
 human affairs, the other wished to dictate like 
 a conqueror, and recommended the decision 
 of the controversy to the sword. 
 
 The eventful battle was fought near Zama, 
 B.c. 202. Both generals displayed their mil- 
 itary knowledge in drawing up their armies 
 and in choosing their ground. Their courage 
 and intrepidity were not less conspicuous in 
 charging the enemy ; a thousand acts of valor 
 were performed on both sides; and though 
 the Carthaginians fought in their own de- 
 fense, and the Romans for fame and glory, 
 yet the conqueror of Italy was vanquished. 
 About 20,000 Carthaginians were slain, and 
 the same number made prisoners of war. 
 Only 2,000 of the Romans were killed. This 
 battle was decisive ; the Carthaginians sued 
 for peace, which Scipio at last granted on the 
 most severe and humiliating terms. 
 
 The conqueror returned to Rome, where 
 he was received with the most unbounded 
 applause, honored with a triumph, and dig- 
 nified with the appellation of Africanus. 
 Here he enjoyed for some time the tranquillity 
 and the honors which his exploits merited, 
 but to him also as in other great men, For- 
 tune show r ed herself inconstant. Scipio of- 
 fended the populace in wishing to distinguish 
 the senators from the rest of the people at the 
 public exhibitions ; and when he canvassed 
 for the consulship for two of his friends, he 
 had the mortification to see his application 
 slighted, and the honors which he claimed, 
 bestowed on a man of no character, recom- 
 mended by neither abilities nor meritorious 
 actions. 
 
 He retired from Rome, no longer to be a 
 spectator of the ingratitude of his country- 
 men, and in the capacit}' - of lieutenant, ac- 
 companied his brother Lucius against Anti- 
 ochus, King of Syria. In this expedition his 
 arms were attended with usual success, and 
 the Asiatic monarch submitted to the condi- 
 tions which the conquerors dictated. At his 
 
 return to Rome, Africanus found the malevo- 
 lence of his enemies still unabated. Cato, his 
 inveterate rival, raised seditions against him, 
 and the Petilli, two tribunes of the people, 
 accused the conqueror of Hannibal of extor- 
 tion in the provinces of Asia, and of living in 
 an indolent and luxurious manner. 
 
 Scipio condescended to answer to the accu- 
 sation of his calumniators ; the first day was 
 spent in hearing the different charges, but 
 when he again appeared on the second day 
 of his trial, the accused interrupted his judges, 
 and exclaimed, “Tribunes and fellow-citizens, 
 on this day, this very day, did I conquer Han- 
 nibal and the Carthaginians : come, therefore, 
 with me, Romans ; let us go to the capitol, 
 and there return our thanks to the immortal 
 gods for the victories which have attended out 
 arms.” The tribes and all the assembly fol- 
 lowed Scipio ; the court was deserted, and the 
 tribunes were left alone in the seat of judg- 
 ment. 
 
 Yet when this memorable day was past and 
 forgotten, Africanus was a third time sum- 
 moned to appear ; but he had fled before the 
 impending storm, and retired to his country- 
 house at Liternum. The accusation was 
 therefore stopped, and the accusers silenced, 
 when one of the tribunes, Ti. Sempronius 
 Gracchus, formerly distinguished for his 
 malevolence against Scipio, rose to defend 
 him, and declared in the assembly, that it 
 reflected the highest disgrace on the Roman 
 people, that the conqueror of Hannibal should 
 become the sport of the populace, and be 
 exposed to the malice and envy of disap- 
 pointed ambition. 
 
 Some time after, Scipio died in the place 
 of his retreat, about b.c. 184, in the forty- 
 eighth year of his age ; and so great an aver- 
 sion did he express, as he expired, for the 
 depravity of the Romans, and the ingratitude 
 of their senators, that he ordered his bones 
 not to be conveyed to Rome. They were 
 accordingly inhumated at Liternum, where 
 his wife ^Emilia, the daughter of Paulus 
 TEmilius, who fell at the battle of Cannae, 
 raised a mausoleum on his tomb, and placed 
 upon it his statue, with that of the poet Ea- 
 nius, who had been the companion of his 
 peace and of his retirement. In the same 
 year died his great opponent, Hannibal, in 
 exile likewise. 
 
 SCI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 769 
 
 Lucius Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Asiat- 
 icus , accompanied his brother Africanus in 
 his expeditions in Spain and Africa. He 
 was rewarded with the consulship, b.c. 189, 
 and was empowered to attack Antiochus, 
 King of Syria, who had declared war against 
 the Romans. Lucius was accompanied in 
 this campaign by his brother Africanus ; and 
 by his own valor, and by the advice of the 
 conqueror of Hannibal, he soon routed the 
 enemy, and in a battle near the city of Sar- 
 dis his soldiers, with scant loss, slew 50,000 
 foot and 4,000 horse. 
 
 Peace was soon after settled by the sub- 
 mission of Antiochus, and the conqueror, at 
 his return home, obtained a triumph, and the 
 surname of Asiaticus. He did not, however, 
 long enjoy his prosperity ; Cato, after the 
 death of Africanus, turned his fury against 
 Asiaticus, and the two Petillii, his devoted 
 favorites, presented a petition to the people, 
 in which they prayed that an inquiry might 
 be made to know what money had been 
 received from Antiochus and his allies. The 
 petition was instantly received, and Asiati- 
 cus, charged to have suffered himself to be 
 corrupted by Antiochus, was summoned to 
 appear before the tribunal of Terentius Culeo, 
 who was on this occasion created praetor. 
 
 The judge, who was an inveterate enemy 
 to the family of the Scipios, soon found Asi- 
 aticus, with his two lieutenants and his 
 quaestor, guilty of having received, the first 
 6,000 pounds weight of gold and 480 pounds 
 weight of silver, and the others nearly an 
 equal sum, from the monarch against whom, 
 in the name of the Roman people, the}* were 
 enjoined to make war. Immediately they 
 were condemned to pay large fines ; but 
 while the others gave security, Scipio de- 
 clared that he had accounted to the public 
 for all the money which he had brought from 
 Asia, and therefore that he was innocent. 
 
 For this obstinacy Scipio was dragged to 
 prison, but his cousin Nasica pleaded his 
 cause before the people, and the praetor 
 instantly ordered the goods of the prisoner 
 to be seized and confiscated. The sentence 
 was executed, but the effects of Scipio were 
 insufficient to pay the fine ; and it was the 
 greatest justification of his innocence, that 
 whatever was found in his house had never 
 been in the possession of Antiochus or his 
 49 
 
 subjects. This, however, did not totally 
 liberate him ; he was reduced to poverty and 
 refused to accept the aid of his friends and 
 of his clients. Some time after, he was ap- 
 pointed to settle the disputes between Eu- 
 menes and Seleucus ; and at his return, the 
 Romans, ashamed of their severity toward 
 him, rewarded his merit with such uncom- 
 mon liberality, that Asiaticus was enabled to 
 celebrate games in honor of his victory over 
 Antiochus, for ten successive days, at his 
 own expense. 
 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Nas- 
 ica , was the son of Cneius Scipio, and cousin 
 to Africanus and Asiaticus. He was refused 
 the consulship, though supported by the 
 interest and fame of the conqueror of Hanni- 
 bal ; but he afterward obtained it, and in that 
 honorable office conquered the Boii, and 
 gained a triumph. He was also successful 
 in an expedition which he undertook in Spain. 
 AY hen the statue of Cybele was brought to 
 Rome from Phrygia, the Roman senate dele- 
 gated that one of their body who should be 
 declared the most remarkable for the purity 
 of his manners and the innocence of his life, 
 to go and meet the goddess in the harbor of 
 Ostia. Nasica was the object of their choice, 
 and as such he was enjoined to bring the 
 statue of the goddess to Rome with the great- 
 est pomp and solemnity. Nasica also distin- 
 guished himself by the active part which he 
 took in confuting the accusations laid against 
 the two Scipios, Africanus and Asiaticus. 
 His son of the same name distinguished him- 
 self by his enmity against the Gracchi, to 
 w hom he was nearly related. 
 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio .ZEmilianus, son 
 of L. iEmilius Paulus, the conqueror of Per- 
 seus, was adopted by the elder son of Scipio 
 Africanus. He first appeared in the Roman 
 armies under his father, and afterward dis- 
 tinguished himself as a legionary tribune in 
 the Spanish provinces, w T here he killed a 
 Spaniard of gigantic stature, and obtained a 
 mural crow T n at the siege of Intercatia. He 
 passed into Africa to demand a reinforcement 
 from Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and he was 
 the spectator of a long and bloody battle 
 which w r as fought between that monarch and 
 the Carthaginians, and which soon produced 
 the third Punic war. Some time after ASmil- 
 ianus w r as made edile, and next appointed 
 
 SCI 
 
770 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 consul, though under the age required for 
 that important office. 
 
 He was empowered to finish the war with 
 Carthage, and as he was permitted by the 
 senate to choose his colleague, he took with 
 him his friend Lselius, whose father, of the 
 same name, had formerly enjoyed the confi- 
 dence and shared the victories of the first 
 Africanus. The siege of Carthage was 
 already begun, but the operations of the 
 Romans were not continued with vigor. 
 Scipio had no sooner appeared before the 
 walls of the enemy', than every commu- 
 nication with the land was cut off, and 
 that they might not have the command of the 
 sea, a stupendous mole was thrown across 
 the harbor, with immense labor and expense. 
 This, which might have disheartened the 
 most active enemy, rendered the Carthagini- 
 ans more eager in the cause of freedom and 
 independence. All the inhabitants, without 
 distinction of rank, age, or sex, employed 
 themselves without cessation to dig another 
 harbor, and to build and equip another fleet. 
 In a short time, in spite of the vigilance and 
 activity of iEmilianus, the Romans were 
 astonished to see another harbor formed, and 
 fifty galleys suddenly issuing under sail, ready 
 for the engagement. 
 
 This unexpected fleet, by immediately 
 attacking the Roman ships, might have gained 
 the victory ; but the delay of the Cartha- 
 ginians proved fatal to their cause, and the 
 enemy had sufficient time to prepare them- 
 selves. Scipio soon got possession of a small 
 eminence in the harbor ; and, by the success 
 of his subsequent operations, he broke open 
 one of the gates of the city, and entered the 
 streets, where he made his way by fire and 
 sword. The surrender of above 50,000 men 
 was followed by the reduction of the citadel, 
 and the total submission of Carthage, b.c. 147. 
 
 The captive city was set on fire; and 
 though Scipio was obliged to demolish its 
 very walls, to obey the orders of the Ro- 
 mans, yet he wept bitterly over the melan- 
 choly and tragical scene ; and in bewailing 
 the miseries of Carthage, he expressed his 
 fears lest Rome, in her turn, in some future 
 age, should exhibit such a dreadful confla- 
 gration. The return of AEmilianus to Rome 
 was that of another conqueror of Hannibal, 
 
 and like his grandfather by adoption, he was 
 honored with a magnificent triumph, and 
 received the surname of Africanus. He was 
 chosen consul a second time and appointed to 
 finish the war which the Romans had hith- 
 erto carried on without success or vigorous 
 exertions, against Numantia, in Spain. The 
 fall of Numantia was more noble than that 
 of the capital of Africa, and the conqueror 
 of Carthage obtained the victory only when 
 the Numantines had been consumed by fam- 
 ine or by self-destruction, b.c. 133. 
 
 For his conquests in Spain, AEmilianus 
 was honored with a second triumph, and 
 with the surname of Numantinus. Yet his 
 popularity was short; and by telling the 
 people that the murder of their favorite, his 
 brother-in-law, Tiberius Gracchus, was law- 
 ful, since he was turbulent, and inimical to 
 the peace of the republic, Scipio incurred the 
 displeasure of the assembl}'-, and was received 
 with hisses. His authority for a moment 
 quelled their sedition, when he reproached 
 them for their cowardice, and exclaimed, 
 “Factious wretches, do you think that 
 your clamors can intimidate me, — me, 
 whom the fury of your enemies never 
 daunted ? Is this the gratitude that you 
 owe to my father, Paulus, who conquered 
 Macedonia, and to me ? Without my fam- 
 ily, you were slaves. Is this the respect 
 you owe to your deliverers? Is this your 
 affection ? ” This firmness silenced the mur- 
 murs of the assembly, and some time after, 
 Scipio retired from the clamors of Rome to 
 Caieta, where, with his friend Laelius, he 
 passed the rest of his time in innocent plea- 
 sure and amusement, in diversions which had 
 pleased them when children. He afterward 
 returned to Rome, and again engaged in pub- 
 lic affairs, strongly opposing the agrarian 
 laws. One evening the senate, and a large 
 throng of the citizens, the Latins, and other 
 allies, conducted their illustrious friend and 
 patron to his house. It seemed the wish 
 that the troubles might be quieted by the 
 election of Scipio to the dictatorship ; and 
 many presumed that that honor would be 
 conferred upon him. In this, however, the 
 expectations of Rome were frustrated : Scipio 
 was found dead in his bed the next morning, 
 and those who inquired for the cause of this 
 
 SCI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 771 
 
 sudden death, perceived violent marks on his 
 neck, and concluded that he had been stran- 
 gled, b.c. 128. 
 
 SCOTLAND, a country of Europe form- 
 ing the northern division of Great Britain, 
 coiitaining 31,324 square miles, and 2,888,742 
 inhabitants. It is divided by the Grampian 
 Hills into the Highlands and Lowlands. The 
 Highland counties are, Orkney and Shetland, 
 Caithness, Sutherland, Nairn, Elgin or Moray, 
 Banff, Ross, Cromarty, Inverness, Argyle, 
 Bute, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Angus or For- 
 far, Perth, and Fife. The Lowland counties 
 are, Kinross, Clackmannan, Stirling, Dum- 
 barton, Linlithgow or West Lothian, Edin- 
 burgh or Mid Lothian, Haddington or East 
 Lothian, Berwick, Renfrew, Ayr, Wigton, 
 Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Dum- 
 fries, and Kirkcudbright. The surface of the 
 country is distinguished for variety, and often 
 rugged and mountainous. With the excep- 
 tion of a few tracts of rich alluvial land along 
 the courses of the larger rivers, Scotland has 
 no extensive tracts of level ground, the coun- 
 try being a succession of hill and dale. Ben 
 Nevis, the highest of the mountains, attains 
 an elevation of 4,406 feet, and there are many 
 peaks which nearly rival its eminence. The 
 fine scenery of the Highlands is enhanced by 
 the many lakes, in whose clear depths 
 inverted summits cast their bold outlines 
 against a reflected sky. The largest is Loch 
 Lomond. The minerals are numerous and 
 valuable ; a great coal-field stretches across 
 the Lowlands ; iron and lead are mined. The 
 agriculture of Scotland does not equal that 
 of England ; the climate is more variable, 
 and the soil is inferior, so that notwithstand- 
 ing the advanced state of tillage in many 
 districts, the crops are not reaped with the 
 same certainty as in England, nor do the 
 ordinary kinds of grain arrive at the same 
 perfection. The manufactures, especially 
 those of linen and cotton, are extensive and 
 flourishing. The making of steam-engines, 
 and every description of machinery, as also 
 the building of steamers, both of wood and 
 iron, is largely carried on along the Clyde. 
 Foreign commerce also has increased very 
 largely of late years. The general religion 
 is Presbyterianism ; and besides the estab- 
 lished church, there is the large body known 
 as the free church, which separated from the 
 
 former in 1843. If in earth-culture Scotland 
 is inferior to England, in mind-culture she as 
 much surpasses. There are excellent univer- 
 sities at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, 
 but the superiority of which we speak is in 
 education for the mass of the people. Each 
 parish has at least one school, in which the 
 ordinary branches of education are taught ; 
 and private schools are frequent. There is a 
 wide difference between the stupid clowns of 
 England, and the shrewd, intelligent peas- 
 antry of Scotland. 
 
 Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is sit- 
 uated about two miles from the Frith of 
 Forth. In panoramic splendor its site is un- 
 surpassed by any city in Europe. A deep 
 ravine divides the Old Town from the New. 
 The latter, which has been built within the 
 last hundred years, displays great elegance 
 of architecture and symmetry of plan. The 
 Old Town has changed but little since the 
 days of John Knox and Queen Mary. Its 
 houses often rise to the lofty height of a 
 dozen stories, and the abodes of nobles in 
 ruder times still stand, though now the dwell - 
 ings of poverty. From the high chimneys 
 curl the thin vapors of smoke which have 
 stood sponsors to the name “Auld Reekie.” 
 There is much similarity between the position 
 of Edinburgh and Athens : Calton Hill serves 
 for an Acropolis, the Frith of Forth for the 
 iEgean Sea ; and this resemblance, with lit- 
 erary eminence, has given the city the title 
 of the ‘Modern Athens.’ Like a couchant 
 lion, Salisbury Crags watch the town, and 
 above them rises the solitary grandeur of 
 Arthur’s Seat. Edinburgh has no very exten- 
 sive manufactures : printing and publishing 
 are largely carried on ; but its prosperity 
 depends upon its universities and schools, the 
 presence of the courts of judicature for Scot- 
 land, and its lingering importance as the 
 ancient capital of the land. Leith, which 
 may be called the port of Edinburgh, two 
 miles distant, has a fine harbor and docks, 
 and a busy trade, principally with the north 
 of Europe and the Baltic. The population 
 of Edinburgh and its suburbs is 161,000. 
 Edinburgh became the royal residence in 
 1437. 
 
 The commercial metropolis of Scotland is 
 Glasgow, at the head of navigation on the 
 Clyde, and in wealth, population, manufac- 
 
 SCO 
 
772 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tures, and commerce, it is the third city in 
 the united kingdom ; population 400,000. It 
 is among the most ancient towns of Scotland, 
 its origin being attributed to St. Mungo, 
 somewhere about 560. In the last century 
 Glasgow was the seat of a great tobacco 
 trade, that absorbed almost all its capital and 
 enterprise, and laid in return foundations of 
 many and great fortunes. With this the 
 American Revolution interfered, and atten- 
 tion was turned to cotton manufactures, to 
 which Glasgow chiefly owes her pre-eminence 
 as a commercial and manufacturing city. Of 
 late years the iron trade has advanced to- 
 ward colossal proportions, and the ‘iron 
 lords’ threaten to eclipse the ‘ cotton lords,’ 
 as the latter, years ago, eclipsed the 1 tobacco 
 lords.’ It was here that Watt commenced 
 his labors upon the steam-engine, and here 
 was the dawn of steam navigation in Great 
 Britain. Glasgow, among many striking 
 public buildings, has a fine cathedral, erected 
 early in the twelfth century. Its ancient 
 university is still high in repute. 
 
 We can only mention other prominent 
 towns in Scotland, as Paisley, Aberdeen, 
 Dundee, Greenock, Inverness, Perth, and 
 Dumfries. 
 
 This part of Great Britain was originally 
 called Caledonia. The ancient inhabitants 
 appear to have been the Caledonians and 
 Piets, Celtic tribes who passed over from the 
 opposite coast of Gaul. We first hear of the 
 Scots in Ireland, which island they in the fifth 
 century divided with the Hiberni, the previous 
 inhabitants; over whom, however, they got 
 so decided a superiority, that the country was 
 called Scotia till the tenth century. In the 
 beginning of the sixth century, a colony of 
 these Scots settled in Argjdeshire, which they 
 called Daldriada. The rest of the land north 
 of the Friths of Forth and Clyde formed the 
 kingdom of the Piets. In 843 the whole of 
 North Britain was united under the rule of 
 Kenneth MacAlpine, originally king of the 
 Scots of Daldriada, but thenceforth styled 
 king of the Piets. Throughout the tenth 
 century, North Britain, ruled as one king- 
 dom by his successors, was known by the 
 name of Albania, undoubtedly the same with 
 Albion, or Albin, which is the most ancient 
 name attributed to the island, and that by 
 which the Gael of Scotland distinguish it to 
 
 this day. About the middle of this century, 
 the name Scotland began to be used, and soon 
 the people were known simply as Scots. 
 
 Donald, brother to Kenneth, was succeeded 
 by Constantine, his nephew, son of Kenneth, 
 who being made prisoner by a party of Danes, 
 was beheaded by the enemy in a cave, after- 
 ward called the Devil’s Cave. He was suc- 
 ceeded bj r his brother Eth, who after a sensual 
 reign of one year, was followed by Gregory, 
 surnamed the. Great. The king of Ireland 
 being a minor, his authority was usurped by 
 two factious noblemen. Gregory therefore 
 passed over into that country as guardian of 
 the young king, and after appointing a re- 
 gency, he returned into Scotland, where he 
 finished a life of action and of glory at Dun- 
 o-deer, in the Garioch, in 892, and was buried 
 with his ancestors at Icolmkill. 
 
 Donald VI., the worthy successor of Greg- 
 ory, rendered considerable service to Alfred, 
 king of England, in his wars with the Danes. 
 He was succeeded by Constantine III., son 
 of Eth, who, departing from the policy of 
 his predecessors, entered into an alliance with 
 the Danes, in the hope of being able to extend 
 his dominions by their help. But he was 
 disappointed. After failing in an expedition 
 against England, he resigned his crown to 
 Malcolm, son of Donald VI., and spent the 
 remainder of his life in the solitude of the 
 cloister. The connection of the English and 
 Scots against the Danes, was continued under 
 Indulf, who defeated these freebooters in 
 many bloody engagements, and was at last 
 slain by them in an ambuscade. His suc- 
 cessor Duff, son of Malcolm, resigned his 
 principality of Cumberland to Colin, the son 
 of Indulf ; but the latter, not contented with 
 his domain, excited various insurrections in 
 the kingdom, and at last Duff was either slain 
 or driven into exile. 
 
 Colin indulged in the greatest licentious- 
 ness, and was assassinated by a thane whose 
 daughter he had dishonored, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Kenneth III., the son of Malcolm, 
 who vigorously prosecuted the war against 
 the Britons of Strathcluyd, till at last their 
 principality was finally subjected to the do- 
 minion of the Scots. However, Kenneth was 
 assassinated, and the throne was usurped by 
 Constantine the Bold, who fell in an engage- 
 ment with Grime, the son of Duff*, in 993. 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 773 
 
 Grime, regardless of the claims of Malcolm, 
 son of Kenneth, and prince of Cumberland, 
 caused himself to be crowned at Scone, but 
 was defeated and slain after a reign of eight 
 years. 
 
 In 1004 Malcolm, having convened the 
 nobility, was acknowledged sovereign, and 
 invested with the royal dignity. He defeated 
 in three different engagements the Danes, who 
 had effected a settlement in Cambria; and 
 these successes gained him the title of the 
 most victorious king. He was murdered after 
 a reign of thirty years, and left no issue to 
 succeed him except Duncan, a grandson by 
 his daughter Bethoc. Duncan was cut off 
 by the hand of domestic treachery in the 
 seventh year of his reign, and the throne 
 was usurped by his murderer, Macbeth. Mal- 
 colm, son of Duncan, had escaped to the 
 English court. Obtaining assistance thence, 
 he made war on the usurper, and finally con- 
 quered and slew him. The victor mounted 
 the throne, and wedded Margaret of England, 
 who had fled to Scotland for her life. He was 
 surnamed Canmore, or ‘great head.’ His 
 reign ended in 1093, by his death at the 
 siege of Alnwick Castle. 
 
 The people of the Lowlands, now to a great 
 extent Saxon, supported the claim of Can- 
 more’s son Duncan as his successor ; the Cel- 
 tic tribes of the north asserted the right of 
 Donald Bane, a brother of Canmore, in con- 
 formity with the old custom of tanistry. 
 Donald Bane was assisted by Magnus Bare- 
 foot, King of Norway, to whom at this time 
 belonged the Western Islands, and was thus 
 able to carry all before him. He drove out the 
 Saxons who had settled in the Lowlands dur- 
 ing the late reign. After a few months Duncan 
 came with a numerous army from England, 
 which he had raised by consent of William 
 Rufus, and Donald was forced to give way. 
 Duncan was not able to protect the Saxon 
 settlers who had returned with him : he 
 found it necessary to drive them forth ; and 
 when he had thus deprived himself of for- 
 eign protection, his subjects put him to death 
 and restored his uncle. Two years after- 
 ward another English army, conducted by 
 Edgar Atheling, overpowered Donald, and 
 set the crown on the head of Edgar, a brother 
 of Duncan. That result decided the contest 
 between the two principles of succession, and 
 
 also the struggle for supremacy between 
 Celtic and Saxon Scotland. Edgar was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Alexander, and he by 
 David, another brother. On the accession of 
 Malcolm IV., grandson of David, a child only 
 in his eleventh year, unsuccessful attempts 
 were made by the Highlanders to maintain 
 the claim of William, a grandson of Malcolm 
 Canmore’s eldest son Duncan. 
 
 It was not, however, till full two centuries 
 later that the rule of the Scottish king was 
 established over the whole of Scotland. Na- 
 tive chiefs appear to have retained possession 
 of the districts in the extreme north. The 
 Saxon inhabitants perfected their Saxon in- 
 stitutions : the country was divided into earl- 
 doms, and sheriffs and county courts were 
 established. From the reign of David I. 
 (1124-1153), we date the introduction of Nor- 
 man institutions. Of the great Highland 
 chiefs, the Earls of Moray continued the most 
 formidable till 1161, when that ancient line 
 was stripped of its power and its possessions 
 by Malcolm IV., and the title it had enjoyed 
 was transferred to the Earls of Mar. After 
 the cession of the Hebrides by the Norwe- 
 gians in 1266, the most potent family of the 
 north came to be that of the Macdonalds, the 
 Celtic chiefs of these islands, who styled 
 themselves Lords of the Isles. Their strength 
 was broken by the defeat of Donald, Lord of 
 the Isles, at the battle of Harlaw in 1411, and 
 destroyed by the effective measures taken by 
 James I. to curb the Highland chiefs. From 
 this epoch may be dated the complete reduc- 
 tion of Celtic Scotland under the sceptre of 
 the Saxon king of the Lowlands. The lord- 
 ship of the isles was finally extinguished by 
 the forfeiture of the last lord in 1493. 
 
 Malcolm IV., the successor of David I., 
 ceded the counties of Northumberland and 
 Cumberland to Henry II. of England, did hom- 
 age for the earldom of Huntingdon, and meet- 
 ing that monarch at Carlisle, followed him in 
 his expedition against Toulouse in France. 
 On his return he was continually disturbed 
 with insurrections, and was saved only by the 
 intervention of the clergy. He died unmar- 
 ried at the age of twenty -five years. 
 
 William was crowned immediately after 
 his brother’s death, in 1165, and entering 
 into a confederacy against Henry of England, 
 was defeated and taken prisoner. He accept- 
 
 SCO 
 
774 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ed his liberation on the most humiliatimr 
 
 o 
 
 terms ; five castles being delivered up to the 
 English as sureties, and the kings brother 
 and twenty nobles *s hostages. The acces- 
 sion of Richard to the English throne was, 
 however, fortunate for Scotland. He released 
 William and his kingdom from that feudal 
 dependency on England which had been 
 unjustly extorted during his captivity, and 
 engaged to restore his fortresses. William 
 reigned forty-nine years, and died in the 
 seventy -second year of his age. 
 
 His son and successor, Alexander II., mar- 
 ried Joan, daughter of John of England, set- 
 tled by treaty the claims which had been the 
 subjects of contest between the two crowns, 
 and procured for himself a reign as peaceable 
 as could be expected in a nation full of tur- 
 bulent nobles. Alexander III. was only nine 
 j^ears of age when he was crowned. Ambas- 
 sadors were sent to London to demand Mar- 
 garet, daughter of Henry III., in marriage ; 
 and this being easily granted, both courts 
 met at York, and the ceremony was performed 
 with great pomp. Alexander did homage to 
 Henry for his English possessions, which the 
 latter confirmed by a charter. 
 
 The king saw himself bereft of all his chil- 
 dren, except Margaret, who was married to 
 Eric of Norway ; and in the third year after 
 her marriage she also died, leaving only an 
 infant daughter, on whom the crown of Scot- 
 land was settled. Alexander was thrown 
 Irom his horse over a precipice, and perished 
 in the fall. Edward I., who was one of the 
 moslj valiant and politic monarchs that ever 
 sat on the English throne, being ambitious 
 of adding Scotland to the dominions of his 
 crown, applied to the court of Rome to au- 
 thorize a marriage between his son and his 
 grand-niece, and having gained the consent 
 of Eric, he intrigued with the Scottish nobles 
 to obtain their concurrence. Everything 
 seemed to favor his views, when the child 
 was taken ill on the passage from Norway, 
 and died at Orkney. 
 
 The Scots saw before them the unhappy 
 prospect of a disputed succession, war with 
 England, and intestine discord. In order to 
 avoid the miseries of a civil war, both parties 
 made choice of Edward as umpire, and agreed 
 to acquiesce in his decree. The chief com- 
 petitors for the crown were Edward Bruce and 
 
 John Baliol, both descendants of David, Eail 
 of Huntingdon, who was brother to the two 
 kings, Malcolm and William. Edward ad- 
 vanced with a great army to the frontiers of 
 Scotland, whither he invited the nobility and 
 all the competitors to attend him. In the 
 character of umpire, he arrogated to himself 
 the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, com- 
 pelled all the barons to swear allegiance to 
 him, and took possession of all the fortresses 
 with his troops. One hundred and four com- 
 missioners being appointed to examine the 
 several claims, gave their verdict in favor of 
 Baliol, who was crowned accordingly in 
 1202. 
 
 But Baliol renouncing his allegiance soon 
 after, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland 
 with an immense army, and compelled this 
 weak prince to submit and make a solemn 
 and irrevocable resignation of his crown into 
 the hands of the king of England. National 
 animosities, and the insolence of victory, con- 
 spired to render the English government 
 intolerable to the Scots, who bore with the 
 utmost impatience a yoke, to which, from the 
 earliest period of their monarchy, they had 
 always been unaccustomed. 
 
 In 1296, Sir William Wallace, whose mag- 
 nanimous soul could no longer brook to see 
 his country torn by factions, deserted by its 
 chiefs, and oppressed by foreigners, bravely 
 stepped forth to reunite the friends of liberty 
 under his banner. His enterprises added to 
 the glory of his name, and to the number of 
 his followers, till at length he obtained a 
 numerous army. The Scots were forced to 
 the cruel expedient of putting to the sword 
 every Englishman they found in arms. King 
 Edward, who was then in France, ordered the 
 Earl of Surrey to suppress this daring insur- 
 rection ; and Lord Henry Percy marched at 
 the head of an army of forty thousand men 
 against Wallace. The latter retreated north- 
 ward, where he was joined by new adherents ; 
 and when Warrene advanced to Stirling, he 
 found Wallace encamped in excellent order 
 on the opposite bank of the Forth. A des- 
 perate engagement ensued, in which the Eng- 
 lish were utterly defeated and obliged to 
 evacuate the kingdom. This success pro- 
 cured Wallace the title of guardian; but he 
 still acknowledged the captive king, Baliol. 
 The cause was ruined, however, by the jeal- 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 775 
 
 ousy of the nobles. The English monarch 
 returned from France, and marched into Scot- 
 land at the head of seventy thousand men. 
 Wallace now voluntarily resigned his author- 
 ity, and retained only one corps that refused 
 to fight under any other leader. The Eng- 
 lish army came up with the enemy near Fal- 
 kirk, and defeated and dispersed the Scots 
 with great slaughter. With much difficulty 
 Edward completed the conquest of Scotland, 
 without being able to seize or subdue the 
 patriotic Wallace. Disappointed in all his 
 schemes for that purpose, he did not disdain 
 to stoop to treachery ; and Sir William was 
 basely betrayed by a traitor, and sent to Lon- 
 don, where he w r as tried and barbarously put 
 to death as a rebel in 1305. 
 
 Robert Bruce, the restorer of the Scottish 
 throne, and father of a new race of kings, was 
 the grandson of the competitor of Baliol for 
 the crown. Having resolved to quit the court 
 of Edward, to whom his father and grand- 
 father had meanly sworn allegiance, he con- 
 trived to escape, and to join the Scotch pat- 
 riots. After collecting what forces he could, 
 in 1306 he attacked the English, who W'ere 
 unprepared, and having gained possession of 
 several castles, he was solemnly crowned at 
 Scone. King Edward immediately dispatched 
 Aymer de Valence into Scotland, who, falling 
 in with Bruce at Methven, attacked him, and 
 notwithstanding a most vigorous resistance, 
 totally defeated the Scottish army. 
 
 Bruce fled almost unattended to the West- 
 ern Isles, where he wandered about for some 
 time in distress ; but Edward dying on 
 liis way to Scotland, Bruce was delivered 
 from a powerful enemy, and his party daily 
 increased. In 1314 he defeated Edward II. 
 on the memorable field of Bannockburn, and 
 the liberty of Scotland triumphed. It was 
 not, however, till the deposition of Edward 
 that Robert Bruce wrested from England a 
 solemn renunciation of all claims on Scotland 
 and secured a peace by marrying his son 
 David to Joan, sister of Edward III. 
 
 During the minority of David, Edward, 
 son of John Baliol, being supported by the 
 English, invaded Scotland in 1332, was pro- 
 claimed king, and, like his father, did hom- 
 age as vassal of England. David, with his 
 queen, found refuge in France ; but Edward 
 Baliol dismembering his kingdom in favor of 
 
 the English, lost the affections of his subjects. 
 David returning from France, repulsed Baliol, 
 and was himself taken prisoner near Dur- 
 ham. Baliol resigned his claims to Edward 
 III., who, soon after, acknowledged David as 
 king, and restored him to liberty on condi- 
 tion of his paying a great ransom. 
 
 David, leaving no progeny, was succeeded 
 in 1371 by his nephew Robert II., the first 
 king from the Stuart family. War with 
 England was renewed, notwithstanding Rob- 
 ert’s inclination for peace. The most mem- 
 orable battle of this reign is that of Otter- 
 burn. The Scots had levied 30,000 men for 
 the invasion of England. They divided their 
 army into two parts ; the greatest, com- 
 manded by the king’s tw r o sons, marched 
 toward Carlisle ; Douglas, with 300 horse 
 and 2,000 foot, entered Northumberland. The 
 great army carried all before them without 
 opposition ; and Douglas, having w r asted the 
 country as far as Durham, came before New- 
 castle, and threatened it with a siege. He 
 staid before the tow T n two days, which were 
 spent in skirmishes ; and at last the generals, 
 Douglas and Percy, agreed upon a personal 
 rencounter. Percy was dismounted and dis- 
 armed ; but his men coming to his rescue, he 
 w r as saved. Douglas now marched off with 
 his men, and attacked Otterburn Castle. 
 Percy, marching against him with 10,000 
 men, nearly surprised him at supper. The 
 alarm being given, and the Scots advanta- 
 geously posted, the battle began with great 
 vigor. Douglas broke into the thick of the 
 enemy, and made a terrible slaughter, but 
 before his men came up, he had received 
 three mortal wounds. The English at length 
 w r ere totally routed, 1,840 slain, 1,000 
 wounded, and 1,040 taken prisoners. The 
 Scots carried off the Percies, with four hun- 
 dred prisoners of note ; dismissed the rest ; 
 took Douglas’s corpse, with those of other 
 great men, along with them, and buried 
 them at Melrose. This victory w 7 as obtained 
 July 31st, 1388, but Douglas w 7 as so deeply 
 lamented, that both the Scots armies returned 
 home as melancholy as if they had been con- 
 quered. On this battle the w r ell knowm bal- 
 lad of “Chevy Ohase” is founded. 
 
 Robert II. died April 19th, 1390, in the 
 nineteenth year of his reign. Robert III. 
 refused to do homage for the crow T n to Henry 
 
 SCO 
 
776 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 IV. He was the first who created dukes in 
 Scotland ; and his brother, the viceroy, was 
 made Duke of Albany ; but Douglas refused 
 the new title. A war happened afterward 
 with England, in which the Earl of March 
 took part with the English, who invaded the 
 kingdom and besieged Edinburgh castle ; the 
 English returning without having effected 
 their purpose, the Scots invaded Northum- 
 berland, and were surprised and defeated on 
 returning with their spoil ; when Archibald 
 Douglas gathered 10,000 men, but was de- 
 feated, taken prisoner, and many of the 
 nobles slain, by Henry Percy of Northum- 
 berland, and George, Earl of March above- 
 mentioned, May 7th, 1401. 
 
 In the mean time all things went to ruin 
 in Scotland, by the tyranny of the Duke of 
 Albany, who starved his nephew, Prince 
 David, to death ; so that the king was obliged 
 to secure his youngest son, James, by send- 
 ing him to France ; but landing at Flambor- 
 ough in Yorkshire, he was detained prisoner 
 by the English, contrary to the truce, which 
 so afflicted his father that he died Apr. 1st, 
 1406, and the government was settled upon 
 his brother ; during whose administration 
 the English invaded Scotland, and overran 
 the southern counties. 
 
 In 1419 auxiliaries were sent to France 
 under the Earl of Buchan, who defeated the 
 Duke of Clarence ; for which the Earl of 
 Buchan was made lord high constable of 
 France. The Duke of Albany died in 1420, 
 and his son Murdo succeeded him in the 
 government ; during whose regency more 
 auxiliaries were sent to France, and Douglas 
 was created Duke of Touraine in that king- 
 dom; but they were twice defeated by the 
 English, under John, Duke of Bedford, who 
 carried James I. of Scotland with him, being 
 still prisoner. James being prevailed upon 
 to forbid his subjects to fight against that 
 army where he was in person, they answered 
 that they did not acknowledge him for their 
 king while he was in the power of his enemy. 
 But not long after, Murdo, the governor, 
 being displeased with the insolence of his 
 own sons, James T. was ransomed and brought 
 home in 1423. After reigning thirteen years, 
 he was barbarously assassinated. New broils 
 attended the minority of James II., who was 
 only seven years old at the time of his acces- 
 
 sion in 1437. At the age of fourteen the 
 young king assumed the reins of government, 
 but he was soon after killed by the bursting 
 of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh, 1460. 
 
 James III., after marrying Margaret of 
 Denmark, gave himself up to astrology, and 
 through jealousy made away with his own 
 brother, the Earl of Mar, while the Duke of 
 Albany, the other brother, escaped to France. 
 Being invited to England, now again at war 
 with her northern neighbor, the Duke of 
 Albany took the title of Alexander, King of 
 Scotland, by the gift of Edward, and marched 
 to the borders. But a treaty being concluded, 
 Albany returned to his allegiance And to his 
 brother’s favor. A fresh conspiracy being 
 formed against James, the rebels prevailed 
 on the king’s son, the young Duke of Roth- 
 say, to head their army. An engagement 
 took place near Bannockburn, in which the 
 rebels were successful, and the king, in his 
 flight, was thrown from his horse, and carried 
 to the first hovel, where he was stabbed to 
 the heart by one of the insurgents. 
 
 James IV. succeeded his father in 1488. 
 At the instigation of the French court, he 
 rashly entered into a war against Henry VIII., 
 brother of his queen, and, notwithstanding 
 the advice of his best counselors, led an 
 army -into England, where, at the memorable 
 battle of Flodden Field, he lost the flower of 
 his nobility and his own life, 1513. 
 
 James V. being only two j r ears old at the 
 death of his father, his mother Margaret, 
 sister to the King of England, was appointed 
 regent and guardian by the will of her hus- 
 band. The young king assumed the govern- 
 ment at the age of thirteen, in 1513, with a 
 council of eight; but he soon shook off the 
 yoke of his council. Henry VIII. having 
 proclaimed war against Scotland, an inroad 
 was planned on the western borders; but 
 James despising and distrusting his nobles, 
 gave the command of the army to a man of 
 less note. This insult provoked the troops, 
 who refused to fight at the raid of Solway 
 Moss, and ten thousand men laid down their 
 arms before five hundred English, without 
 striking a blow. These sad tidings broke 
 the proud heart of James, who refused from 
 that moment to take any sustenance, and, 
 after languishing some days, he expired in 
 the thirty-first year of his age. 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 777 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, was born a few days 
 before the death of her father. The disasters 
 of her reign began and ended only with her 
 life. At an early age Mary was sent to 
 France, where she was brought up at the 
 court of Henry IT., whose eldest son, Fran- 
 cis, was destined to be her husband. The 
 minority of Mary Stuart was agitated by 
 great disturbances ; and the regency was 
 claimed by different competitors as a privilege 
 of blood or family appanage. The tempests 
 excited by ambition and jealousy, were in- 
 creased by the gusts of religious fanaticism. 
 Popery struggled against the Reformation 
 with an already evident disadvantage ; and 
 the vessel of state, buffeted by those storms, 
 was every moment in imminent danger of sink- 
 ing. At this critical situation of affairs, Mary 
 returned to assume the sovereignty of her king- 
 dom, the death of Francis II. having left her a 
 widow at the age of eighteen years. By 
 assuming the title of Queen of England, she 
 excited the jealousy of Elizabeth, who never 
 pardoned her cousin this assertion of her 
 rights: The religious dissensions by which 
 
 Scotland was divided, were effectually sub- 
 servient to the views of Elizabeth, who gained 
 the affections of the reformed party, and 
 excited their suspicions against their sov- 
 ereign, Mary being sprung from the blood’ of 
 the Guises, and niece to the Cardinal de 
 Lorraine, who was the scourge of the Prot- 
 estants. To their religious and political 
 opinions the young queen could not reconcile 
 herself, and hence arose a decided aversion 
 between the sovereign and her subjects. 
 Her council induced her to remarry, and she 
 gave her hand to her cousin Henry, Lord 
 Darnley. This marriage displeased Elizabeth. 
 Soon after Mary’s marriage with Darnley, 
 she became disgusted with his neglect and 
 vices. Darnley, thinking this change of dis- 
 position was occasioned by a passion for 
 some other man, suspected David Rizzio, her 
 secretary, an Italian. He soon found a set 
 of willing accomplices in the execution of 
 vengeance against his wife ; and, accordingly, 
 one evening, while the queen was at supper 
 with the Countess of Argyle, Rizzio, and 
 others, the confederates entered by a private 
 staircase into the queen’s apartment, where 
 they seized Rizzio, and after dragging him 
 
 into an adjoining room, dispatched him with 
 fifty-six wounds. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the grief and indig- 
 nation of Mary on this occasion. On the 
 19th of June, 1566, at Edinburgh Castle, she 
 bore her only son, afterward James VI. of 
 Scotland, and I. of England. At length, after 
 a series of tragical disasters, Mary placed 
 herself in the hands of Elizabeth, by whose 
 order she was executed at Fotheringay Cas- 
 tle in 1587. [ See Stuart.] 
 
 When in 1567 Mary was deposed by the 
 nobles, her infant son was crowned, and the 
 Earl of Murray appointed regent. Upon the 
 death of Elizabeth of England in 1603, the 
 crown of that kingdom devolved upon James. 
 Before he left Scotland to take possession of 
 his new kingdom, he had with great zeal 
 labored to civilize the northern and western 
 Highlands. He was himself a scholar ; and 
 to his love of learning, the Scots are indebted 
 for the parochial schools, which afford the 
 common people so much advantage in point 
 of education. He encouraged trade and the 
 fisheries, and greatly promoted the industry 
 of his subjects. By means of the king’s 
 accession to the English throne, the regal pow- 
 er in Scotland acquired additional strength ; 
 and James attempted to avail himself of this 
 circumstance for the union of both the na- 
 tional churches and the kingdoms into one. 
 After a reign and life of nearly fifty-nine 
 years, James was seized with his last illness, 
 which some affirm to have been caused by 
 poison. 
 
 Charles I. entered Edinburgh with, great 
 magnificence, and was crowned at Holyrood 
 Palace. By advice of Laud, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and Spottiswood the historian, 
 Archbishop of St. Andrews, Charles attempt- 
 ed to introduce a book of liturgy into the 
 public worship of the Scottish churches. 
 These measures excited the most general dis- 
 content, and produced the most violent com- 
 motion. A civil war at length became una- 
 voidable ; and the Covenanters prepared for 
 it with vigor and resolution. They received 
 arms, ammunition, and money, from France, 
 and other countries ; and no regularly estab- 
 lished commonwealth could take wiser meas- 
 ures. Lesley, a soldier of experience and 
 ability the Earl of Montrose, a youth of 
 
 SCO 
 
778 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 heroic genius, with other leaders of the party, 
 all of them men of sense and resolution, 
 conducted the military affairs. After seizing 
 and fortifying the most important places of 
 strength in the kingdom, they invaded Eng- 
 land, and compelled the royal forces to retreat 
 to York. 
 
 At this period, the English rebels courted 
 a closer union with their Scottish friends, and 
 agreed to receive the solemn league and cove- 
 nant, to preserve the reformed religion estab- 
 lished in the church of Scotland, and to reform 
 England and Ireland, according to the word 
 of God, and the example of the purest 
 churches. Accordingly a subsidiary army 
 of 20,000 Scots hastened to join Lord Fairfax, 
 and effectually assisted him in reducing the 
 city of York. While the king’s affairs de- 
 clined in England, the brave Montrose had 
 left the Scottish army, and raised the royal 
 standard in the north. This active noble- 
 man, having raised a supply of 1,200 troops 
 from Ireland, hastened to take the command of 
 this auxiliary force, and several more flocked 
 to his standard. He attacked and defeated 
 a party of the Covenanters, 6,000 in number, 
 under Tullibardine ; Perth opened its gates 
 to the victor, and was laid under contribu- 
 tion. At Aberdeen, Montrose gained a sec- 
 ond victory over the troops under Lord 
 Burleigh, and laid waste the country of Ar- 
 gyle. Montrose gained in succession the 
 victories of Auldearn, Alford, and Kilsyth, 
 but his whole army was destroyed, at Philip- 
 haugh, by the troops under Sir David Lesley, 
 and he was never able afterward to bring a 
 formidable force into the field, notwithstand- 
 ing all the efforts he could make. 
 
 The fortunes of Charles being now ruined 
 in England, he was reduced to the desperate 
 expedient of seeking refuge in the heart of 
 the Scotch army, though in open rebellion 
 against him. The immediate consequences 
 of this fatal step were orders to his adherents 
 to lay down their arms. Montrose obeyed, 
 and retired to France. The English parlia- 
 ment demanded of the Scottish army the 
 person of the king ; they preferred delivering 
 him up rather than go to war in his defense. 
 The kingdom was, however, divided into two 
 parties, and the Duke of Hamilton and the 
 majority in parliament, in opposition to the 
 church, succeeded in raising a numerous 
 
 army to support the king against Cromwell 
 and his adherents, who appeared to entertain 
 designs totally hostile both to the king’s 
 person and government ; with this army they 
 set forward to invade England, and to restore 
 the king to his ancient rights. But the vio- 
 lent party considered it the height of impiety 
 to fight for an uncovenanted king. 
 
 The Scotch troops, not daring to unite 
 themselves with the English royalists who 
 had refused the covenant, both armies were 
 easily destroyed by Cromwell, who, after 
 exercising the severest vengeance against the 
 friends of Charles in Scotland, returned in 
 triumph to England, and brought Charles to 
 public trial and execution. The Covenanters 
 now declared for the young king, Charles II., 
 then in Holland, on condition of his becoming 
 the pupil of Presbyterianism, and taking the 
 covenant. Montrose was dispatched to the 
 Orkneys, to make an attempt for the king’s 
 restoration on better terms ; but being at- 
 tacked by a much superior force, he was 
 defeated, and put to death in 1650. 
 
 Charles II. now sailed from Holland for the 
 Scottish coast, and threw himself entirely 
 into the hands of the Covenanters, who 
 required him to sign the covenant, and 
 exhorted him to be faithful to that holy 
 confederacy. Cromwell marched into Scot- 
 land against the now royal Covenanters, 
 whom he attacked, and defeated at Dunbar. 
 Notwithstanding this defeat, the Realists in 
 Scotland increased. Charles was crowned at 
 Scone on the 1st of January, 1651 ; but he 
 was obliged to take the covenant, and to 
 undergo other mortifications. Cromwell, 
 however, succeeded in an attempt to cut off 
 the royalists from all their communications 
 with the north and the Highlands ; and when 
 they invaded England, defeated them at 
 W orcester. Charles escaped, and at last took 
 shipping from the coast of Sussex, and arrived 
 safe at Feschamp in Normandy. Cromwell 
 conquered the land and added it to the Eng- 
 lish commonwealth. 
 
 After the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, 
 the parliament was opened with unusual 
 splendor at Edinburgh ; and in the proceed- 
 ings of this assembly, the royal prerogative 
 was exalted to a pitch of despotism. De- 
 prived at last of public worship, the perse- 
 cuted Presbyterians rose in open rebellion. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 779 
 
 On the Pentland Hills they were met by the 
 king’s forces, under Dalziel, and were routed 
 with considerable slaughter, at the first 
 onset. Commotions and insurrections multi- 
 plied during the whole reign of Charles II., 
 who attempted, sometimes by gentle means, 
 and sometimes by acts of severity, to crush 
 Presbyterianism, and to induce the people to 
 substitute another form of church government. 
 
 James VII. was not ignorant of the intrigues 
 and ambition of his son-in-law, the Prince of 
 Orange, with whom Monmouth, Argyle, Dal- 
 rymple, afterward Earl of Stair, Burnet, soon 
 to be Bishop of Sarum, and other English 
 and Scotch exiles, found refuge. The insur- 
 rections occasioned by Argyle and Monmouth 
 widened the breach between the unfortunate 
 monarch and his disaffected subjects. James 
 proposed to his Scottish parliament a relaxa- 
 tion of the penal laws against the Roman 
 Catholics ; but the proposal was received 
 with such coldness, that the chancellor 
 thought it prudent to drop the bill entirely. 
 However, the court issued declarations in 
 favor of Presbyterians, of Quakers, of Roman 
 Catholics, and at last “suspended all penal 
 and sanguinary laws for nonconformity to 
 the religion established by law.” The Pres- 
 byterians of Edinburgh, and the ministers all 
 over Scotland, gladly, accepted of this tolera- 
 tion, and thanked the king for his protection. 
 
 In 1688 James fled; and his constrained 
 flight- was pronounced an abdication of the 
 throne of Scotland. Indifferent as to the 
 modes of religion, William of Orange treated 
 with Presbyterians as well as Episcopalians. 
 The throne was declared vacant by the con- 
 vention ; William accepted of the crown 
 tendered to him by a deputation from the 
 states, and, with his spouse, took a corona- 
 tion oath. By a majority of the votes in 
 parliament, William was reluctantly prevailed 
 on to repeal the constitution of the lords of 
 articles, to abandon the patronage and the 
 supremacy over the church, and to re-estab- 
 lish Presbytery. William, after a fruitless 
 attempt to gain the chieftains by pecuniary 
 offers, issued a proclamation denouncing mil- 
 itary execution against all who should not 
 beforh the expiration of the year take an 
 oath of fealty to him. 
 
 In 1702, the accession of Queen Anne 
 gave new hopes to the Pretender, son of the 
 
 late king James, and his adherents. William 
 had never dissolved the convention parlia- 
 ment. The members of this parliament 
 assembled, and empowered the queen to 
 nominate commissioners for treating of an 
 union. The commissioners repaired to Lon- 
 don, to treat with those appointed in England. 
 At length, the whole of the articles of the 
 union were completed and signed by all the 
 Scottish commissioners excepting one, who 
 was Lockhart of Carnwarth. Notwithstand- 
 ing the strong opposition which this measure 
 experienced, on Thursday the 16th of Janu- 
 ary, 1707, the whole articles of the union 
 were, without any material alteration, ap- 
 proved by a legal majority in parliament; 
 and the lord high commissioner, touching the 
 act with the sceptre, sanctioned it with that 
 consent of the crown which was requisite to 
 give it in Scotland the force of a law. The 
 treaty of union, thus finally ratified by the 
 Scottish parliament, was immediately trans- 
 mitted to London, where it was equally hon- 
 ored by the sanction of the parliament and 
 the royal consent. On the 28th of April, 
 the Scottish parliament was dissolved, never 
 more to be assembled ; and the Scots and 
 English were henceforth to be one people. 
 
 The accession of the house of Hanover was 
 resisted in Scotland in 1715 by the adherents 
 of the exiled Stuarts, but unsuccessfully. 
 Thirty years after, another insurrection was 
 stirred up by the Jacobites, headed by Charles 
 Edward, the young Pretender. For a brief 
 time his arms were successful: then he 
 sought safety in flight, and the attempt to 
 regain the throne was never renewed. In 
 consequence of these outbreaks, measures 
 were taken by government to root out the 
 system of clanship that had so long prevailed 
 in the Highlands. 
 
 The annalists of Scotland, with a faith like 
 that of the Welsh genealogists, trace a line 
 of kings to remote ages before the Christian 
 era. We commence our list where the 
 accounts cease to be conflicting. 
 
 KINGS OP SCOTLAND. 
 
 1033. Duncan I : assassinated by his kinsman 
 Macbeth. 
 
 1039. Macbeth, usurps the throne : slain by 
 
 Macduff, Thane of Fife, and the rightful 
 heir succeeds. 
 
 1057. Malcolm III. (Cean-Mohr or Canmore), 
 son of Duncan : killed while besieging 
 Alnwick Castle. 
 
780 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 1093. Donald VII., or Donald Bane, brother of 
 
 Malcolm. 
 
 1094. Duncan II., natural son of Malcolm. 
 
 1094. Donald Bane again. 
 
 1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm. Henry I. of 
 England married his sister Maud. 
 
 1107. Alexander, the Fierce, brother of Edgar. 
 1124. David, brother of Edgar and Alexander. 
 1153. Malcolm IV., the Maiden, David’s grandson. 
 1165. William, the Lion, brother of Malcolm. 
 1214. Alexander II., son of William. 
 
 1249. Alexander III. 
 
 1285. Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, grand- 
 daughter of Alexander III.; “recog- 
 nized by the states of Scotland, though 
 a female, an infant, and a foreigner : ” 
 died on her passage to Scotland. A 
 competition for the throne arose, which 
 Edward I. of England decided in favor 
 of 
 
 1292. John Baliol: he surrendered the crown 
 and died in exile. 
 
 1306. Robert I. (the brave Robert Bruce.) • 
 1329. David II., son of Robert. 
 
 1332. Edward Baliol, son of John: resigned. 
 1342. David II. again: eleven years a prisoner 
 in England. 
 
 1371. Robert (Stuart) II., nephew of David II. 
 1390. Robert III., son of Robert II. : his proper 
 name was John ; he assumed that 
 of Robert upon his accession. 
 
 1406. James I., second son of Robert III.: 
 eighteen years a captive in England. 
 1437. James II., his son. 
 
 1460. James III., his son. 
 
 1488. James IV., married Margaret Tudor, 
 daughter of Henry VII. of England. 
 1513. James V., their son. 
 
 1542. Mary, his daughter. 
 
 1567. James VI., her son. • In 1603 he succeeded 
 to the English crown as James I. 
 
 SCOTT, Thomas, a celebrated English 
 commentator on the Bible, died 1821. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Walter, baronet, the eldest 
 son of W alter Scott, a writer to the signet, 
 was born in the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, 
 Aug. 15th, 1771. His mother was a lady of 
 talent, the friend of Burns and Ramsay, and 
 the author of meritorious verses. Sir Walter 
 was educated at the high school of Edinburgh, 
 and at the university. At an early age, he 
 was celebrated as a story-teller, “ when the 
 applause of his companions was his recom- 
 pense for the disgrace and punishments which 
 the future romance-writer incurred by being 
 idle himself, and keeping others idle, during 
 hours that should have been employed on 
 their tasks.” 
 
 Sir Walter Scott’s account of his birth and 
 circumstances is characterized by his usual 
 modesty. 
 
 “My birth, without giving the least pre- 
 tension to distinction, was that of a gentle- 
 man, and connected me with several respect- 
 able families and accomplished persons. 
 My education had been a good one, although 
 I was deprived of its full benefit by indiffer- 
 ent health, just at the period when I ought 
 to have been most sedulous in improving it 
 The young men with whom I was brought 
 up, and lived most familiarly, were those 
 who, from opportunities, birth, and talents, 
 might be expected to make the greatest ad- 
 vances in the profession to which w*e were 
 all destined ; and I have the pleasure still to 
 preserve my youthful intimacy with no incon- 
 siderable number of them, whom their merit 
 has carried forward to the highest honors of 
 their profession. Neither was I in a situa- 
 tion to be embarrassed by the res angusta 
 domi, which might have otherwise interrupt- 
 ed my progress in a profession in which pro- 
 gress is proverbially slow. I enjoyed a mod- 
 erate degree of business for my standing, and 
 the friendship of more than one person of 
 consideration efficiently disposed to aid my 
 views in life. The private fortune, also, which 
 I might expect, and finally inherited, from 
 my family, did not, indeed, amount to afflu- 
 ence, but placed me considerably beyond all 
 apprehension of want. I mention these par- 
 ticulars merely because they are true. Many 
 better men than myself have owed their rise 
 from indigence and obscurity, to their own 
 talents, which were, doubtless, much more 
 adequate to the task of raising them than any 
 which I possess. Although it would be ab- 
 surd and ungracious in me to deny that I 
 owe to literature many marks of distinction 
 to which I could not otherwise have aspired, 
 and particularly that of securing the acquain- 
 tance, and even the friendship, of many re- 
 markable persons of the age, to whom I might 
 not otherwise have made my way ; it would, 
 on the other hand, be ridiculous to affect 
 gratitude to the public favor, either for my 
 position in society, or the means of support- 
 ing it with decency — matters which had beat 
 otherwise secured under the usual chances 
 of human affairs. Thus much I have thought 
 it necessary to say, upon a subject which is, 
 after all, of very little consequence to any 
 one but myself.” 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 781 
 
 In 1792 he was called to the bar. Of his 
 success in his profession, and the nature of 
 his studies and pursuits, we will give his own 
 account. 
 
 “ It may be readily supposed that the at- 
 tempts which I made in literature had been 
 unfavorable to my success at the bar. The 
 goddess Themis is, at Edinburgh, and I sup- 
 pose everywhere else, of a peculiarly jealous 
 disposition. She will not readily consent to 
 share her authority, and sternly demands from 
 her votaries not only that real duty be care- 
 fully attended to and discharged, but -that a 
 certain air of business shall be observed even 
 in the midst of total idleness. It is prudent, 
 if not absolutely necessary, in a young bar- 
 rister, to appear completely engrossed by his 
 profession ; however destitute of employ- 
 ment he may be, he ought to preserve, if 
 possible, the appearance of full occupation. 
 He should at least seem perpetually engaged 
 among his law papers, dusting them, as it 
 were ; and, as Ovid advises the fair, — 
 
 Si nullus erit pulvis, tamen excute nullum. 
 Perhaps such extremity of attention is more 
 especially required, considering the great 
 number of counselors who are called to the 
 bar, and how very small a proportion of them 
 are finally disposed, or find encouragement, 
 to follow the law as a profession. Hence 
 the number of deserters is so great, that the 
 least lingering look behind occasions a young 
 novice to be set down as one of the intending 
 fugitives. Certain it is, that the Scottish 
 Themis was at this time peculiarly jealous 
 of any flirtation with the Muses, on the part 
 of those who had ranged themselves under 
 her banners. This was probably owing to 
 her consciousness of the superior attractions 
 of her rivals. Of late, however, she has 
 relaxed in some instances in this particular ; 
 an eminent example of which has been shown 
 in the case of my friend, Mr. Jeffrey, who, 
 after long conducting one of the most influ- 
 ential literary periodicals of the age, with 
 unquestionable ability, has been, by the gen- 
 eral consent of his brethren, recently elected 
 to be their dean of faculty, or president, 
 being the highest acknowledgment of his 
 professional talents which they had it in 
 their power to offer. But this is an incident 
 much beyond the ideas of a period of thirty 
 years’ distance, when a barrister who really 
 
 possessed any turn for lighter literature, was 
 at as much pains to conceal it, as if it had in 
 reality been something to be ashamed of; and 
 I could mention one instance in which litera- 
 ture and society have suffered loss, that juris- 
 prudence might be enriched. Such, however, 
 was not my case ; for the reader will not 
 wonder that my open interference with mat- 
 ters of light literature diminished my employ- 
 ment in the weightier matters of the law. 
 Nor did the solicitors, upon whose choice the 
 counsel takes rank in his profession, do me 
 less than justice by regarding others among 
 my contemporaries as fitter to discharge the 
 duty due to their clients, than a young man 
 who was taken up with running after ballads, 
 whether Teutonic or national. My profession 
 and I, therefore, came to stand nearly upon 
 the footing on which honest Slender consoled 
 himself with having established with Mistress 
 Anne Page : ‘ There was no great love in the 
 beginning, and it pleased Heaven to decrease 
 it on farther acquaintance.’ I became sensible 
 that the time was come when I must either 
 buckle myself resolutely to the ‘ toil by day, 
 the lamp by night,’ renouncing all the Delilahs 
 of r>' y imagination, or bid adieu to the pro- 
 fession of the law, and hold another course. 
 I confess my own inclination revolted from 
 the more severe choice which might have 
 been deemed by many the wiser alternative. 
 As my transgressions had been numerous, 
 my repentance must have been signalized by 
 unusual sacrifices. I ought to have men- 
 tioned, that, since my fourteenth or fifteenth 
 year, my health, originally delicate, had be- 
 come extremely robust. From infancy I had 
 labored under the infirmity of a severe lame- 
 ness, but, as I believe is usually the case with 
 men of spirit who suffer under personal in- 
 conveniences of this nature, I had, since the 
 improvement of my health, in defiance of this 
 incapacitating circumstance, distinguished 
 myself by the endurance of toil on foot or 
 horseback, having often walked thirty miles 
 a day, and rode upward of a hundred, with- 
 out stopping. In this manner I made many 
 pleasant journeys through parts of the coun- 
 try then not very accessible, gaining more 
 amusement and instruction than I have been 
 able to acquire since I have traveled in a more 
 commodious manner. I practiced most syl- 
 van sports, also, with some success, and with 
 
 SCO 
 
782 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 great delight But these pleasures must have 
 been all resigned, or used with great modera- 
 tion, had I determined to regain my station 
 at the bar. It was even doubtful whether I 
 could, with perfect character as a jurisconsult, 
 retain a situation in a volunteer corps of cav- 
 alry, which I then held. The threats of in- 
 vasion were at this time instant and menacing ; 
 the call by Britain on her children was uni- 
 versal, and was answered by many, -who, 
 like myself, consulted rather their will than 
 their ability to bear arms. My services, how- 
 ever, were found useful in assisting to main- 
 tain the discipline of the corps, being the 
 point on which their constitution rendered 
 them most amenable to military criticism. 
 In other respects the squadron was a fine one, 
 consisting of handsome men, well mounted 
 and armed at their own expense. My atten- 
 tion to the corps took up a great deal of time ; 
 and while it occupied many of the happiest 
 hours of my life, it furnished an additional 
 reason for my reluctance again to encounter 
 the severe course of study indispensable to 
 success in the judicial profession. 
 
 “ On the other hand, my father, whose 
 feelings might have been hurt by my quitting 
 the bar, had been for two or three years, 
 dead ; so that I had no control to thwart my 
 ow r n inclination ; and my income being equal 
 to all the comforts, and some of the elegan- 
 ces, of life, I was not pressed to an irksome 
 labor by necessity, that most powerful of mo- 
 tives; consequently, I was the more easily 
 seduced to choose the employment which was 
 the most agreeable. This was yet the easier, 
 as in 1800 I had obtained the preferment of 
 sheriff of Selkirkshire, about £300 a year in 
 value, and which w T as the more agreeable to 
 me, as in that county I had several friends 
 and relations. But I did not abandon the 
 profession to which I had been educated, 
 without certain prudential resolutions, which 
 at the risk of some egotism, I will here men- 
 tion ; not without the hope that they may be 
 useful to young persons who may stand in 
 circumstances similar to those in which I 
 then stood. In the first place, upon consid- 
 ering the lives and fortunes of persons who 
 had given themselves up to literature, or to 
 the task of pleasing the public, it seemed to 
 me that the circumstances which chiefly af- 
 fected their happiness and character were 
 
 those from which Horace has bestowed upon 
 authors the epithet of the irritable race. It 
 requires no depth of philosophic reflection to 
 perceive that the petty warfare of Pope with 
 the dunces of his period, could not have been 
 carried on without his suffering the most 
 acute torture, such as a man must endure 
 from mosquitoes, by whose stings he sutlers 
 agony, although he can crush them in his 
 grasp by myriads. Nor is it necessary to 
 call to memory the many humiliating instan- 
 ces in 'which men of the greatest genius have, 
 to avertge some pitiful quarrel, made them- 
 selves ridiculous during their lives, to become 
 the still more degraded objects of pity to fu- 
 ture times. Upon the whole, as I had no 
 pretension to the genius of the distinguished 
 persons who had fallen into such errprs, I 
 concluded there could be no occasion for imi- 
 tating them in these mistakes, or what I com 
 sidered as such ; and, in adopting literary 
 pursuits as the principal occupation of my 
 future life, I resolved, if possible, to avoid 
 those weaknesses of temper which seemed to 
 have most easily beset my more celebrated 
 predecessors. With this view, it was my 
 first resolution to keep, as far as was in my 
 power, abreast of society ; continuing to 
 maintain my place in general company, with- 
 out yielding to the very natural temptation 
 of narrowing myself to what is called litera- 
 ry society. * By doing so, I imagined I should 
 escape the besotting sin of listening to lan- 
 guage which, from one motive or other, as- 
 cribes a very undue degree of consequence 
 to literary pursuits ; as if they were, indeed, 
 the business, rather than the amusement, of 
 life. The opposite course can only be com- 
 pared to the injudicious conduct of one who 
 pampers himself with cordial and luscious 
 draughts, until he is unable to endure whole- 
 some bitters. Like Gil Bias, therefore, I re- 
 solved to stick by the society of my commis, 
 instead of seeking that of a more literary 
 cast ; and to maintain my general interest in 
 what was going on around me, reserving the 
 man of letters for the desk and the library. 
 My second resolution was a corollary from 
 the first. I determined that, without shut- 
 ting my ears to the voice of true criticism, I 
 would pay no regard to that which assumes 
 the form of satire. I therefore resolved to 
 arm myself with the triple brass of Horace, 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 783 
 
 against all the roving warfare of satire, paro- 
 dy, and sarcasm ; to laugh if the jest was a 
 good one ; or, if otherwise, to let it hum and 
 buzz itself to sleep. It is to the observance 
 of these rules (according to my best belief), 
 that, after a life of thirty years engaged in 
 literary labors of various kinds, I attribute 
 my never having been entangled in any lite- 
 rary quarrel or controversy ; and, which is a 
 more pleasing result, that I have been distin- 
 guished by the personal friendship of my 
 most approved contemporaries of all parties. 
 
 I adopted, at the same time, another »esolu- 
 tion, on which it may doubtless be remarked 
 that it was well for me that I had it in my 
 pow'er to do so, and that, therefore, it is a 
 line of conduct which can be less generalty 
 applicable in other cases. Yet I fail not to^ 
 record this part of my plan, convinced that, 
 though it may not be in every one’s power to 
 adopt exactly the same resolution, he may 
 nevertheless, by his own exertions, in some 
 shape or other, attain the object on which it 
 was founded ; namely, to secure the means 
 of subsistence, without retying exclusively 
 on literary talents. In this respect, I deter- 
 mined that literature should be my staff, but 
 not my crutch ; and that the profits of my 
 labor, however convenient otherwise, should 
 not become necessary to my ordinary expen- 
 ses. With this purpose I resolved, if the 
 interest of my friends could so far favor me, 
 to retire upon any of the respectable offices 
 of the law, in which persons of that profes- 
 sion are glad to take refuge when they feel 
 themselves, or are judged by others, incom- 
 petent to aspire to its higher offices and hon- 
 ors. Upon such an office an author might 
 hope to retreat, without any perceptible al- 
 teration of circumstances, whenever the time 
 should arrive that the public grew weary of 
 his endeavors to please, or he himself should 
 tire of the occupation of authorship. At 
 this period of my life, I possessed so many 
 friends capable of assisting me in this object 
 of ambition, that I could hardly overrate my 
 own prospects of obtaining the moderate pre- 
 ferment to which I limited my wishes ; and, 
 in fact, I obtained, in no long period, the re- 
 version of a situation which completely met 
 them.” 
 
 The situation was soon open, and in 1806 
 he w r as appointed a clerk of the session in 
 
 Scotland. His first original productions 
 were several ballads of great merit. Sir 
 Walter thus notices the circumstances which 
 engaged him in literary pursuits. 
 
 “During the last ten years of the eight- 
 eenth century, the art of poetry was at a re- 
 markably low ebb in Britain. Hayley, to 
 whom fashion had some years before ascribed 
 a higher degree of reputation than posterity 
 has confirmed, had now lost his reputation 
 for talent, though he still lived admired and 
 respected as an amiable and accomplished 
 man. The Bard of Memory slumbered on 
 his laurels, and lie of Hope had scarce begun 
 to attract his share of public attention. Cow- 
 per, a poet of deep feeling and bright genius, 
 was dead; and. even w'hile alive, the hypo- 
 chondria which was his mental malady im- 
 peded his popularity. Burns, whose genius 
 our southern neighbors could hardly yet 
 comprehend, had long confined himself to 
 song-writing. Names which are now known 
 and distinguished wherever the English lan- 
 guage is spoken, wrnre then only beginning to 
 be mentioned ; and, unless among the small 
 number of persons who habitually devote a 
 part of their leisure to literature, those of 
 Southey, Wordsworth, and Coleridge were 
 • but little known. The realms of Parnassus, 
 like many a kingdom at the period, seemed to 
 lie open to the first bold invader, whether he 
 should be a daring usurper, or could show a 
 legitimate title of sovereignty. 
 
 “ I had, indeed, tried the metrical transla- 
 tions which were occasionally recommended 
 to us at the high school. I got credit for at- 
 tempting to do what was enjoined, but very 
 little for the mode in which the task was per- 
 formed ; and I used to feel not a little morti- 
 fied when my versions were placed in con- 
 trast with others of admitted merit. At one 
 period of my schoolboy days .1 was so far left 
 to my own desires as to become guilty of ver- 
 ses on a thunder-storm, which were much ap- 
 proved of, until a malevolent critic sprung 
 up, in the shape of an apothecary’s blue- 
 buskined wife, who affirmed that my most 
 sweet poetry was stolen from an old maga- 
 zine. I never forgave the imputation, and 
 even now I acknowledge some resefitment 
 against the poor woman’s memory. She in- 
 deed accused me unjustly, when she said I 
 had stolen brooms ready made ; but as I 
 
 SCO 
 
784 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 had, like most premature poets, copied all 
 the words and ideas of which my verses con- 
 sisted, she was so far right, that there was 
 not an original word or thought in the whole 
 six lines. I made one or two faint attempts 
 at verse, after I had undergone this sort of 
 daw-plucking at the hands of the apothecary’s 
 wife ; but some friend or other always advised 
 me to put my verses in the fire, and like Do- 
 rax in the play, I submitted, though ‘ with a 
 swelling heart.’ In short, excepting the usu- 
 al tribute to a mistress’s eyebrow, which is 
 the language of passion rather than poetry, 
 
 I had not for ten years indulged the wish to 
 couple so much as love and dove, when, find- 
 ing Lewis in possession of so much reputa- 
 tion, and conceiving that, if I fell behind him 
 in poetical powers, I considerably exceeded 
 him in general information, I suddenly took 
 it into my head to attempt the style by which 
 he had raised himself to fame.” 
 
 Scott had married Miss Carpentier, on the 
 Christmas eve of 1796, and now resided at 
 Ashestiel, a delightful retirement, in an uncom- 
 monly beautiful situation by the side of the 
 Tweed, whose waters were favorable for an- 
 gling, and surrounded by hills abounding in 
 game. His “ Lay of the Last Minstrel,” and 
 “ Marmion,” poems of great originality and 
 beauty, were produced in 1805 and 1808, 
 and received at once into favor. The “ Lady 
 of the Lake” was published in 1810. Speak- 
 ing of this poem, the author remarks: “I 
 
 remember that about the same time a friend 
 started in to ‘ heeze up my hope,’ like the 
 minstrel in the old song. He was bred a far- 
 mer, but a man of powerful understanding, 
 natural good taste, and warm poetical feeling, 
 perfectly competent to supply the wants of 
 an imperfect or irregular education. He was 
 a passionate admirer of field sports, which 
 we often pursued together. As this friend 
 happened to dine with me at Ashestiel one day, 
 I took the opportune of reading to him the 
 first canto of the “Lady of the Lake,” in or- 
 der to ascertain the effect the poem was like- 
 ly to produce upon a person who was but too 
 favorable a representative of readers .at large. 
 It is, of course, to be supposed that I deter- 
 mined rather to guide my opinion by what 
 my friend might appear to feel, than by what 
 he might think fit to say. His reception of 
 my recitation, or prelection, was rather sin- 
 
 gular. He placed his hand across his brow, 
 and listened with great attention through the 
 whole account of the stag hunt, till the dogs 
 threw themselves into the lake to follow their 
 master, who embarks with Ellen Douglas. 
 He then started up with a sudden excla- 
 mation, struck his hand on the table, and 
 declared in a voice of censure calculated for 
 the occasion, that the dogs must have been 
 totally ruined by being permitted to take the 
 water after such a severe chase. I own I was 
 much encouraged by the species of reverie 
 which had possessed so zealous a follower of 
 the sports as this ancient Nimrod, who had 
 been completely surprised out of all doubts 
 of the reality of the tale.” 
 
 The “ Lady of the Lake” was followed by 
 “ The Vision of Don Roderick,” “Rokeby,” 
 
 “ The Lord of the Isles,” “ Harold the 
 Dauntless,” and “ The Bridal of Triermain.” 
 “The ‘Lady of the Lake,’ says Scott, 
 
 “ brought out on the usual terms of division 
 of profits between the author and publishers, 
 was not long after purchased by them for 
 £500, to which Messrs. Longman & Co. after- 
 ward added £100 in their own unsolicited 
 kindness, in consequence of the uncommon 
 success of the work. It was handsomely 
 given to supply the loss of a fine horse, which 
 broke down suddenly while the author was 
 riding with one of the worthy publishers. 
 
 “The publishers of the ‘Lay of the Last 
 Minstrel,’ emboldened by the success of that 
 poem, willingly offered a thousand pounds 
 for ‘Marmion.’ The transaction being no 
 secret, afforded Lord Byron, who was then at 
 general war with all who blacked paper, an 
 opportunity to include me in his satire enti- 
 tled ‘ English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.’ 
 I never could conceive how an arrangement 
 between an author and his publishers, if sat- 
 isfactory to the persons concerned, could 
 afford matter of censure to any third party. 
 I had taken no unusual or ungenerous means 
 of enhancing the value of my merchandise. 
 I had never higgled a moment about the bar- 
 gain, but accepted at once what I considered 
 the handsome offer of my publishers. These 
 gentlemen, at least, were not of opinion that 
 they had been taken advantage of in the trans- 
 action, which indeed was one of their own 
 framing; on the contrary, the sale of the 
 poem was so far beyond their expectation, as 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 785 
 
 to Induce them to supply the author’s cellar 
 with what is always an acceptable present to 
 a young Scottish housekeeper, namely, a 
 hogshead of excellent claret.” Scott and 
 Byron afterward were made acquainted with 
 each other, and became good friends. 
 
 We must extract the account of his own 
 change from poetry to prose. He is speaking 
 of “RoLeby.” 
 
 “ The cause of my failure, had, however, a 
 far deeper root. The manner, or style, which, 
 by its novelty, attracted the public in an un- 
 usual degree, had now, after having been 
 three times before them, exhausted the pa- 
 tience of the reader, and began in the fourth 
 to lose its charms. The reviewers may be 
 said to have apostrophized the author in the 
 language of Parnell’s Edwin : — 
 
 ‘ And here reverse the charm, he cried, 
 
 And let it fairly now suffice ; 
 
 The gambol has been shown.’ 
 
 The licentious combination of rhymes, in a 
 manner hot perhaps very congenial to our 
 language, had not been confined to the author. 
 Indeed, in most similar cases, the inventors 
 of such novelties have their reputation de- 
 stroyed by their own imitators, as Actaeon fell 
 under his own dogs. The present author, 
 like Bobadil, had taught his trick of fence to 
 a hundred gentlemen (and ladies), who could 
 fence very nearly, or quite, as well as him- 
 self. For this there was no remedy; the 
 harmony became tiresome and ordinary, and 
 both the original inventor and his invention 
 must have fallen into contempt, if he had not 
 found out another road to public favor. What 
 has been said of the metre only, must be 
 considered to apply equally to theistructure of 
 the poem and of the style. The very best 
 passages of any popular style are not, perhaps, 
 susceptible of any imitation, but they may be 
 approached by men of talent : and those who 
 are less able to copy them, at least lay hold 
 of their peculiar features, so as to produce a 
 burlesque instead of a serious copy. In 
 either way, the effect of it is rendered cheap 
 and common, and in the latter case ridicu- 
 lous, to boot. The evil consequences to an 
 author’s reputation are at least as fatal as 
 those which befall a composer, when his mel- 
 ody falls into the hands of the street ballad- 
 singer. Of the unfavorable specimens of 
 imitation, the author’s style gave room to a 
 50 
 
 very large number, owing to an appearance 
 of facility on which some of those who used 
 the measure unquestionably lem.d too far.” 
 “The effect of the more favorable imita- 
 tions, composed by persons of talent, was 
 almost equally unfortunate to the original 
 minstrel, by showing that they could over- 
 shoot him with his own bow. In short the 
 popularity which once attended the school , 
 as it was called, was now fast decaying. Be- 
 sides all this, to have kept his ground at the 
 crisis when ‘ Rokeby ’ appeared, * its author 
 ought to have put forth his utmost strength, 
 and to have possessed at least all his original 
 advantages, tor a mighty and unexpected 
 rival was advancing on the stage, — a rival not 
 in poetical powers only, but in that of attract- 
 ing popularity, in which the present writer 
 had preceded better men than himself. The 
 reader will easily see that Byron is here meant, 
 who after a little velitation of no great prom- 
 ise, now appeared as a serious candidate in 
 the first canto of ‘ Childe Harold.’ I was as- 
 tonished at the power evinced by that work, 
 which neither the ‘ Hours of Idleness,’ nor the 
 ‘English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,’ had 
 prepared me to expect from its author. There 
 was a depth in his thought, an eager abund- 
 ance in his diction, which argued full confi- 
 dence in the inexhaustible resources of which 
 he felt himself possessed ; and there was some 
 appearance of that labor of the file, which 
 indicates that the author is conscious of the 
 necessity of doing every justice to his work, 
 that it may pass warrant. Lord Byron was 
 also a traveler, a man whose ideas were fired 
 by having seen, in distant scenes of difficulty 
 and danger, the places whose very names are 
 recorded in our bosoms as the shrines of an- 
 cient poetry. For his own misfortune, per- 
 haps, but certainly to the high increase of 
 his poetical character, nature had mixed in 
 Lord Byron’s system those passions which 
 agitate the human heart with most violence, 
 and which may be said to have hurried his 
 bright career to an early close. There would 
 have been but little wisdom in measuring my 
 force with so formidable an antagonist ; and 
 I was as likely to tire of playing the second 
 fiddle in the concert, as my audience of hear- 
 ing me. Age also was advancing. I was 
 growing insensible to those subjects of exci- 
 tation of which youth is agitated. I had 
 
 SCO 
 
786 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 around me the most pleasant but least excit- 
 ing of all society, that of kind friends and 
 an affectionate family. My circle of employ- 
 ments was a narrow one ; it occupied me 
 constantly, and it became daily more difficult 
 for me to interest myself in poetical compo- 
 sition : — 
 
 * How happily the days of Thalaba went by ! ’ 
 Yet, though conscious that I must be, in the 
 opinion of good judges, inferior to the place 
 I had for four or five years held in letters, 
 and feeling' alike that the latter was one to 
 which I had only a temporary right, I could 
 not brook the idea of relinquishing literary 
 occupation, which had been so long mj r chief 
 employment. Neither was I disposed to 
 choose the alternative of sinking into a mere 
 editor and commentator, though that was a 
 species of labor which I had practiced, and 
 to which I was attached. But I could not 
 endure to think that I might not, whether 
 knowrn or concealed, do something of more 
 importance. My inmost thoughts were those 
 of the Trojan captain in the galley race : — 
 
 “Non jam prima peto Mnestheus, neque vincere 
 certo : 
 
 Quanquam 0, — Sed superent, quibus hoc, Nep- 
 tune, dedisti : 
 
 Extrcmos pudeat rediisse : hoc vincite, cives, 
 
 Et prohibete nefas.” 
 
 “ Waverley, or ’Tis Sixty Years Since,” a 
 novel published in 1814, established the rep- 
 utation of the author, and was followed in 
 rapid succession by many others. The au- 
 thorship was first acknowledged by Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott, at a public dinner in 1827. These 
 Waverley novels exhibit a profound knowl- 
 edge of human nature/ an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with histor} r , national traditions, and 
 manners, and a most surprising versatility. 
 Ivanhoe, which appeared in 1820, is the most 
 brilliant of the pure romances. Never were 
 the long-gathered stores of most extensive 
 erudition applied to the purposes of imagina- 
 tive genius with so much easy, lavish, and 
 luxurious power ; never was the illusion of 
 fancy so complete, — made up of so many mi- 
 nute elements, and yet producing such en- 
 tireness of effect. It is as if the veil of ages 
 had been, in truth, swept back, and we our- 
 selves had been, for a time, living, breathing, 
 and moving in the days of Coeur de Lion, — 
 days how different from our own ! the hot, 
 tempestuous, chivalrous, passionate, fierce 
 
 youth of Christendom. Every line in the pic- 
 ture is true to the life ; everything in the 
 words, in the gesture — everything in the very 
 faces of the personages called up before us, 
 speaks of times of energetic volition, — un- 
 controlled action, — disturban ce, — tumult, — 
 the storms and whirlwinds of restless souls 
 and ungoverned passions. It seems as if the 
 atmosphere around them was all alive with 
 the breath of trumpets, and the neighing of 
 chargers, and the echo of war-cries. And 3 r et, 
 with a true and beautiful skillfulness, the au- 
 thor has rested the main interest of his story, 
 not upon these fiery externals, in themselves 
 so full of attraction, and every way so char- 
 acteristic of the age to which the story refers, 
 but on the workings of that most poetical of 
 passions, which is ever deepest where it is 
 most calm, quiet, and delicate, and which, 
 less than any other, is changed, even in its 
 modes of manifestation, in conformity with 
 the changes of time, manners, and circum- 
 stances. For the true interest of this ro- 
 mance of the days of Richard is placed nei- 
 ther in Richard himself ; nor in the knight 
 of Ivanhoe, the nominal hero ; nor in any of 
 the haughty Templars or barons wha occupy 
 along with them, the front of the scene ; 
 but in the still, devoted, sad, and unrequited 
 tenderness of a Jewish damsel, by far the 
 most fine, and at the same time most roman- 
 tic, creation of female character the author 
 has ever formed, and second, we suspect, to 
 none that is to be found in the whole annals 
 of poetry and romance. 
 
 Rebecca was Scott’s favorite among all the 
 heroines whose charms and virtues he por- 
 trayed. 
 
 Besides writing his novels, Sir Walter 
 Scott edited various works, and produced 
 some volumes of history, and a life of Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, to which, however, his party 
 prejudices and hurried composition prevented 
 him from doing justice. 
 
 He also contributed largely to the Quar- 
 terly and other reviews. The quantity of in- 
 tellectual labor which he found time for, with 
 all the demands upon his leisure that arose 
 from his popularity and hospitality, is a won- 
 der of wonders. 
 
 On the banks of the Tweed, near Melrose, 
 he purchased farm after farm, and formed the 
 estate of Abbotsford. Here he erected a 
 
 SCO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 787 
 
 baronial mansion, that ‘ romance of stone and 
 mortar,’ and his territorial ambition, so long 
 cherished, was now gratified. George IV. 
 gave him a baronetcy, also. A few years of 
 happiness, and then the splendid hospitali- 
 ties of Abbotsford were darkened by a heavy 
 cloud. By the failures of Constable, and 
 James Ballantyne & Co., in which house their 
 master was a secret partner, he found him- 
 self in 1826, involved to the amount of 
 £117,000. Refusing all offers of composi- 
 tion, and asking only for time, he bent him- 
 self at once to the task of redemption. It is 
 one of the noblest passages in the history of 
 our English literature. In four years he had 
 paid his creditors £70,000. His health and 
 strength sank under the weight he bore, and 
 severe attacks of paralysis warned him that 
 he must needs desist. In vain he sailed to 
 the Mediterranean : he returned to Abbots- 
 ford a hopeless and unconscious wreck. The 
 end was near. “About half past one p. m., 
 on the 21st of September, 1832, Sir Walter 
 breathed his last in the presence of all his 
 children. It was a beautiful day, so warm 
 that every window was wide open,— and so 
 perfectly still that the sound of all others 
 most delicious to his ear, the gentle ripple of 
 the Tweed over its pebbles, was distinctly 
 audible as we knelt around the bed, and his 
 eldest son kissed and closed his eyes.” — 
 Lockhart. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott was beloved by all who 
 knew him, for, in private life, he had none 
 of that affectation of eccentricity and haugh- 
 tiness, which disfigures so many men of 
 genius. He was ever a welcome visitor in 
 the dwellings of the poor and old, and in 
 many of his lonely wanderings acquired that 
 traditional information which he reproduced 
 in his immortal works. 
 
 Hogg, the poet, the friend of Scott, says 
 of him, illustrative of his benevolence. “Al- 
 though so shy of his name and literary assist- 
 ance, which, indeed, he would not grant to 
 any one, on any account, save to Lockheart, 
 yet to poor men of literary merit his purse- 
 strings were always open, and as far as it was 
 in his .power to assist them. I actually knew 
 several unsuccessful authors who depended 
 on his bounty for their daily bread. As a 
 friend, he was sometimes stern, but always 
 candid and sincere, and I always found his 
 
 counsels of the highest value, if I could have 
 followed them.’' 
 
 SCOTT, Winfield, was born at Peters- 
 burg, Va., June 13th, 1786, and left an 
 orphan in early boyhood. Graduating at 
 William and Mary College, he studied law, 
 and though admitted to the bar, soon after 
 (1808) entered the army as Captain of Artil- 
 lery. In the war of 1812 he held the rank 
 of Colonel, and in 1814 was made Brigadier 
 General. He wrought wonders in training 
 and instructing his troops, so that they won 
 the battles of Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane 
 within one month. For his services he was 
 promoted to the Major Generalship, and was 
 offered a seat in the Cabinet as Secretary of 
 War, which he declined. He displayed ex- 
 traordinary executive and military ability, 
 at the time of the nullification movement in 
 South Carolina, the troubles with the Semi- 
 nole and Cherokee Indians, and along the 
 Canada border in the Canadian rebellion of 
 1837- In 1841 he was advanced to the high- 
 est rank in the arm}’ - . In the war with Mex- 
 ico he won new laurels. The battles of Vera 
 Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Cherubusco, Chepultepec, 
 and the capture of the City of Mexico, which 
 he entered at the head of his army, were the 
 brilliant and decisive victories of that cam- 
 paign. In 1852 he was the Whig candidate 
 for the Presidency, but was defeated by Gen. 
 Pierce. He however received a more appro- 
 priate honor for his distinguished services, in 
 being elevated to the brevet rank of Lieu- 
 tenant General, which was revived in his be- 
 half. In November, 1861, at the age of 74, 
 he retired from active service. He resisted 
 the strongest temptations of his native South 
 to lead the forces of treason, and closed up a 
 most honorable record of private virtue, 
 stedfast patriotism and military renown, 
 May 29, 1866, at the age of seventy-nine. 
 General Scott will live in the memory 
 of the American people as one of the great 
 men of her history, and who more than 
 any other has contributed to her military 
 glory for the last half century. 
 
 SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS. The poet- 
 ical genins of Homer has given a degree of 
 importance to the rocks of Scylla, and the 
 whirlpool of Charybdis, which they do not 
 in reality merit; yet no doubt they were, 
 in the infancy of navigation, when the barks 
 
 SCY 
 
788 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 were small and frail, and the mariners unskill- 
 ful, formidable and dangerous obstacles to 
 the passage of the strait of Messina. Scylla, 
 said in the heathen mythology to have been 
 a beautiful nymph, transformed into a sea- 
 monster by «the jealousy of Circe, is, in 
 reality, merely a common rock, on the coast 
 of Italy, and opposite that of Sicily. On its 
 summit is a castle, and on each side a sandy 
 bay. In 1793 an earthquake is said to have 
 destroyed some of the surrounding rocks, 
 and thus lessened the danger, and prevented 
 that extraordinary roaring of the sea in 
 stormy weather, which is said to have resem- 
 bled the barking of dogs, but is not now 
 observed. Charybdis is a vortex or whirl- 
 pool, on the coast of Sicily, opposite to 
 Scylla, and now denominated Galofaro. It is 
 by no means so formidable as represented by 
 the ancients. It is probably caused by the 
 meeting of several currents, and is sometimes 
 so powerful as to place the undecked boats 
 of the country in considerable peril. 
 
 SCYTHIA was a name anciently given to 
 that portion of Europe lying between the 
 Carpathian mountains and the river Don. 
 The Scythians were of Asiatic origin. Hero- 
 dotus mentions only two important facts in 
 the history of Scythia : the invasion of Media 
 by the Scythians in the reign of Cyaxares, 
 (b.c. 635-595), and their conquest of Asia to 
 the confines of Egypt, which they held for 
 twenty-eight years ; and the invasion of 
 Scythia by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, in 
 which the Persians were unsuccessful. In 
 subsequent times the Scythians lost all their 
 power, and their country carrie to be known 
 as Sarmatia. In the time of Pliny they had 
 become extinct as a people ; their place was 
 occupied by the Germans and Sarmatians; 
 and the Scythian name was confined to the 
 most remote and unknown tribes in the 
 north. The name of Scythia was also ap- 
 plied to the northern pjirts of Asia. 
 
 SEABURY, Samuel, the first Episcopal 
 bishop in the United States, was born in 
 Connecticut, 1728. He was consecrated 
 Bishop of Connecticut, in Scotland, in 1784, 
 *and died Feb. 25th, 1796. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, Dom, King of Portugal, was 
 born in 1554. He succeeded his grandfather, 
 John III., and was a man of great zeal for 
 religion, and of an extraordinary courage. 
 
 Against the remonstrances of his sagest 
 counselors, he formed, soon after his acces- 
 sion, the design of making an expedition into 
 Africa against the Moors. Taking with him 
 the principal nobility and gentry of Portugal, 
 he landed at Tangier on the 9th of July, 
 1578, and gave battle to Abdemelech at Al- 
 cazar, the 4th of August the same year, 
 where his army was defeated. Abdemelech, 
 who was sick, died in a litter, Mahomet per- 
 ished in a bog, and the report was that Se- 
 bastian himself was killed. Notwithstanding 
 this, in 1598, a man in Venice declared him- 
 self to be King Sebastian ; he resembled him 
 so exactly in face, stature, and voice, that the 
 Portuguese that were in that city, and 
 amongst them one of his servants, owned 
 him for their king. Some days after he was 
 seized, and conveyed before judges, before 
 whom he always maintained himself to be 
 Sebastian ; he told them that the Moors who 
 took him prisoner did not know him to be 
 <he king ; that the sorrow and repentance 
 which seized him for having so rashly under- 
 taken that expedition, had nearly caused his 
 death ; and that now after having suffered in 
 a strange country, he came to redemand the 
 crown. He showed upon his body the same 
 marks which several had seen formerly on 
 the body of the King of Portugal, and dis- 
 covered to the Venetians some secrets they 
 had formerly proposed to him by their am- 
 bassadors, to prove he was Sebastian. The 
 Spaniards, who had upon the report of his 
 death invaded the crown of Portugal, treated 
 him as a madman and impostor, and obliged 
 the Venetians to expel him from their domin- 
 ions ; he was seized again in Tuscany, and 
 brought to Naples, where they set him upon 
 an ass, and led him through all the streets of 
 the city, exposing him to the abuses of the 
 rabble. Some time after they shaved his 
 head, and placed him to row like a slave in a 
 galley ; and afterward being brought to Spain, 
 he died in a prison. 
 
 SEBASTIANI, Francis Horace de, a 
 French marshal, distinguished during the 
 republic, the empire, and the monarchy, 
 born in 1772, died in 1851 
 
 SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol, a town and 
 naval arsenal, at the south-west point of the 
 Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. 
 The buildings were commenced in 1784, by 
 
 SEB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 789 
 
 Catherine II., after the conquest of the coun- 
 try. The allied English and French arm}*- 
 took up its position on the plateau between 
 this place and Balaklava, and the grand attack 
 and bombardment commenced Oct. 17th, 
 1854, without success. The defense was vig- 
 orous and skillful, and as the allies only 
 attacked the south side, the Russians were 
 often re-enforced. The attacking armies, 
 especially the English, suffered dreadfully 
 from disease and privation during the winter. 
 There were many sanguinary encounters, by 
 day and by night, and repeated bombard- 
 ments. The battles of Balaklava, Inkermann, 
 and the Tchernaya [which see], were bloody 
 episodes in the siege. The Malakhoff was 
 attacked on the 17th and 18th of June, 1855, 
 and after a conflict of eight and forty hours 
 the French and English were repulsed with 
 severe loss ; that of the English being 175 ] 
 killed and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French, 
 3,338 killed and wounded. A grand assault 
 was made Sept. 8th, 1855, upon the Mala- 
 khoff and the Redans. The French succeeded 
 in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. 
 The attacks of the English on the great Re- 
 dan and of the French upon the little Redan 
 were at first successful, but the assailants 
 were compelled to retire, after a desperate 
 struggle, with great loss of life. The French 
 lost 1,646 killed, of whom five were generals, 
 4,500 wounded, and 1,400 missing. The En- 
 glish lost 385 killed, 1,886 wounded, and 176 
 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned 
 the southern and principal part of the town 
 and fortifications, after destroying as much 
 as possible, and crossed to the northern forts. 
 They also sunk or burnt the remainder of 
 their fleet. The allies found a very great 
 amount of stores when they entered the place. 
 
 SECKER, Thomas, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, born in 1693, died in 1768. 
 
 SEJANUS, the favorite of Tiberius, a 
 native of Yulsinum in Tuscany, who distin- 
 guished himself in the court of Tiberius. 
 His father’s name was Servius Strabo, a Ro- 
 man knight, commander of th.e praetorian 
 guards. His mother was descended from the 
 Junian family. Sejanus first gained the 
 favor of Caius Caesar, the grandson of Au- 
 gustus, but afterward he attached himself to 
 the interest and views of Tiberius, who then 
 sat on the imperial throne. The emperor, 
 
 who was naturally of a suspicious temper, was 
 free and open with Sejanus, and while he dis- 
 trusted others, he communicated his greatest 
 secrets to this fawning favorite. 
 
 As commander of the praetorian guards, 
 he w’as the second man in Rome, and in that 
 important office he made use of insinuation 
 and every mean artifice to make himself 
 beloved and revered. His affability and con- 
 descension gamed him the hearts of the com- 
 mon soldiers, and by appointing his own favor- 
 ites and adherents to places of trust and 
 honor, all the officers and centurions of the 
 army became devoted to his interest. The 
 views of Sejanus in this were well known ; 
 yet to advance them with more success, he 
 attempted to gain the affections of the sena- 
 tors. In this he met with no opposition. 
 
 A man who has the disposal of places of 
 honor and dignity, and who has the command 
 of the public money, can not but be the favor- 
 ite of those who are in need of his assist- 
 ance. It is even said that Sejanus gained to 
 his views all the wives of the senators, by a pri- 
 vate and most secret promise of marriage to 
 each of them, whenever he had made himself 
 independent and sovereign of Rome. Yet, 
 however successful with the best and noblest 
 families in the empire, Sejanus had to combat 
 numbers in the house of the emperor ; but 
 these seeming obstacles were soon removed. 
 
 All the children and grandchildren of Tibe- 
 rius were sacrificed to the ambition of the 
 favorite under various pretenses ; and Dru- 
 sus, the son of the emperor, by striking Seja- 
 nus, made his destruction sure and inevita- 
 ble. Livia, the wife of Drusus, was gained 
 by Sejanus, and though mother of many 
 children, she was prevailed upon to assist her 
 adulterer in the murder of her husband, and 
 she consented to marry him when Drusus 
 was dead. No sooner was Drusus poisoned 
 than Sejanus openly declared his wish to mar- 
 ry Livia. This was .strongly opposed by 
 Tiberius ; and the emperor, by recommend- 
 ing Germanicus to the senators for his suc- 
 cessor, rendered Sejanus bold and determined. 
 
 He was more urgent in his demands ; and 
 when he could not gain the consent of the 
 emperor, he persuaded him to retire to soli- 
 tude from the noise of Rome and the troubles 
 of the government. Tiberius, naturally fond 
 of ease and luxury, yielded to his represen- 
 
 SEJ 
 
790 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 tations, and retired to Campania, leaving 
 Sejanus at the head of the empire. This was 
 highly gratifying to the favorite, and he w T as 
 now without a master. Prudence and mod- 
 eration might have made him what he wished 
 to be ; but Sejanus offended the w r hole em- 
 pire when he declared that he was emperor 
 of Rome, and Tiberius only the dependent 
 prince of the island of Capreae, where he had 
 retired. 
 
 Tiberius was, upon this, fully convinced 
 of the designs of Sejanus ; and when he had 
 been informed that his favorite had had the 
 meanness and audacity to ridicule him, by 
 introducing him on the stage, the emperSr 
 ordered him to be accused before the senate. 
 Sejanus was deserted by all his pretended 
 friends, as soon as by fortune ; and the man 
 who aspired to the empire, and who called 
 himself the favorite of the people, the dar-- 
 ling of the praetorian guards, and the com- 
 panion of Tiberius, was seized without resist- 
 ance, and the same day strangled in prison, 
 A.D. 31. 
 
 SELEUCUS I., one of the captains of Alex- 
 ander the Great, surnamed Nicator , or 1 vic- 
 torious,’ was son of Antiochus. After the 
 king’s death he received Babylon as his pro- 
 vince ; but his ambitious views, and his at- 
 tempt to destroy Eumenes as he passed 
 through his territories, rendered him so un- 
 popular, that he fled for safety to the court 
 of his friend Ptolemy, King of Egypt. He 
 was soon after enabled to recover Babylon, 
 which Antigonus had seized in his absence, 
 and he increased his dominions by the imme- 
 diate conquest of Media, and some of the 
 neighboring provinces. When he had 
 strengthened himself in his empire, Selcucus 
 imitated the example of the rest of the gen- 
 erals of Alexander, and assumed the title of 
 independent monarch. He afterward made 
 war against Antigonus, with the united for- 
 ces of Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimaehus ; 
 and after that monarch had been conquered 
 and slain, his territories were divided among 
 his victorious enemies. 
 
 When Selcucus became master of Syria, 
 he built a city there, which he called Anti- 
 och, in honor of his father, and made it the 
 capital of his dominions. He also made war 
 against Demetrius and Lysimaehus, though 
 he had originally married Stratonice, the 
 
 daughter of the former, and had lived in the 
 closest friendship with the latter. Seleucus 
 was at last foully murdered by one of his 
 servants called Ptolemy Ceraunus, a man on 
 whom he had bestowed the greatest favors, 
 and whom he had distinguished by acts of 
 the most unbounded confidence. 
 
 According to Arrian, Seleucus was the 
 greatest and most powerful of the princes 
 who inherited the Macedonian empire after 
 the death of Alexander. His benevolence 
 has been commended; and he founded no 
 less than thirty-four cities in different parts 
 of his empire, which he peopled with Greek 
 colonies, whose national industry, learning, 
 religion, and spirit were communicated to the 
 indolent and luxurious inhabitants of Asia. 
 
 Seleucus was a great benefactor to the 
 Greeks ; he restored to the Athenians the 
 library and statues which Xerxes had carried 
 away from their city when he invaded Greece, 
 and among the latter were those of Harmo- 
 dius and Aristogiton. Seleucus was mur- 
 dered b.c. 280, in the thirty-second year of 
 his reign, and the seventy-eighth, or accord- 
 ing to others the seventy-third, year of his age, 
 as he was going to conquer Macedonia, and 
 intended to finish his da} r s in peace and tran- 
 quillity in that province, where he was born. 
 
 SELEUCUS II., surnamed Callinicns , 
 succeeded his father Antiochus Theus on the 
 throne of Syria. He attempted to make war 
 against Ptolemy, King of Egypt, but his 
 fleet was shipwrecked in a violent storm, and 
 his armies soon after conquered by his ene- 
 my. He was at last taken prisoner by Arsa- 
 ces, an officer who made himself powerful by 
 the dissensions which reigned in the house 
 of the Selcucidas, between the two brothers 
 Seleucus and Antiochus ; and after he had 
 been a prisoner for some time in Parthia, he 
 died of a fall from his horse, b.c. 226, after 
 a reign of twenty 3 r ears. Seleucus received 
 the surname of Pogon, from his long beard, 
 and that of Callinicus, ironically to express 
 his very unfortunate reign. He married 
 Laodice, the sister of one of his generals, by 
 whom he had two sons, Seleucus and Anti- 
 ochus, and a daughter w r hom he gave in mar- 
 riage to Mithridates, King of Pontus. 
 
 SELEUCUS III. succeeded his father 
 Seleucus II. on the throne of Syria, and 
 received the surname of Ceraunus , by ant> 
 
 SEL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 791 
 
 phrasis, as he was a very weak, timid, and 
 irresolute monarch. He was murdered by 
 two of his officers after a reign of three years, 
 b.c. 223, and his brother Antiochus, though 
 only fifteen years old, ascended the throne, 
 and rendered himself so celebrated that he 
 acquired the name of the Great. 
 
 SELEUCUS IV. succeeded his father 
 A ntiochus the Great, on the throne of Syria. 
 He was surnamed Philopater , or, according 
 to Josephus, So ter. His empire had been 
 weakened by the Romans when he became 
 monarch, and the yearly tribute of a thousand 
 talents to those victorious enemies, concurred 
 in lessening his power and consequence 
 among nations. Seleucus was poisoned after 
 a reign of twelve years, b.c. 175. His son 
 Demetrius had been sent to Rome, there to 
 receive his education, and he became a prince 
 of great abilities. 
 
 SELEUCUS Y. succeeded his father Deme- 
 trius Nicator on the throne of Syria, in the 
 twentieth year of his age. He was put to 
 death in the first year of his reign, b.c. 124, 
 by Cleopatra his mother, who had also sacri- 
 ficed her husband to her ambition. He is not 
 reckoned, by many historians, in the number 
 of the Syrian monarchs. 
 
 His brother Antiochus Grypus took the 
 crown, and when Cleopatra would have poi- 
 soned him, he forced the deadly draught to 
 her own lips. 
 
 SELEUCUS VI., son of Antiochus Gry- 
 pus, killed his uncle Antiochus Cyzicenus, 
 who wished to obtain the crown of Syria. 
 He was some time after banished from his 
 kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son of Cyzice- 
 nus, and fled to Cilicia, where he was burnt 
 in a palace by the inhabitants, b.c. 93. 
 
 SELEUCUS, a prince of Syria, to whom 
 the Egyptians offered the crown of which 
 they had robbed Auletes. Seleucus accepted 
 it, but he soon disgusted his subjects, and 
 received the surname of Cybiosactes, or 
 ‘ scullion,’ for his meanness and avarice. He 
 was at last murdered by Berenice, whom he 
 had married. 
 
 SELEUCIA, a city in Mesopotamia, upon 
 the river Tigris, built by Seleucus Nicator, a 
 few miles south of the modern Bagdad, in 
 the form of an eagle with extended wings. 
 It contained in the time of Pliny, 600,000 
 inhabitants,. and was once the most impor- 
 
 tant city in the east. It was twice burnt by 
 the Romans, in the eastern expedition of 
 Trajan, and again by Lucius Verus, the col- 
 league of Aurelius, when it had 500,000 
 inhabitants. It was also taken by Severus, 
 from which time it seems to have been almost 
 abandoned by its inhabitants. 
 
 SEMIRAMIS, a celebrated queen of Assy- 
 ria. Semiramis, when grown up, married 
 Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom- 
 panied him to the siege of Bactria, where, by 
 her advice and prudent directions, she hast- 
 ened the king’s operations and took the city. 
 These eminent services, but chiefly her un- 
 common beauty, endeared her to Ninus. The 
 monarch asked her of her husband, and 
 offered him instead his daughter Sosana ; 
 but Menones, who tenderly loved Semiramis, 
 refused, and when Ninus had added threats 
 to entreaties, he hung himself. No sooner 
 was Menones dead, than Semiramis, who was 
 of an aspiring soul, married Ninus, by whom 
 she had a son called Ninias. 
 
 Ninus was so fond of Semiramis, that at 
 her request he resigned the crown to her, 
 and commanded her to be proclaimed queen 
 and sole empress of Assyria. Of this, how- 
 ever, he had cause to repent ; Semiramis put 
 him to death, the better to establish herself on 
 the throne. When she had no enemies to 
 fear at home, she began to repair the capital of 
 her empire, and by her means Babylon became 
 the most superb and magnificent city in the 
 world. She visited every part of her domin- 
 ions, and left everywhere monuments of her 
 greatness. 
 
 To render the roads passable and commu- 
 nication easy, she hollowed mountains and 
 filled up valleys ; and water was conveyed 
 at a great expense, by large and convenient 
 aqueducts, to barren deserts and unfruitful 
 plains. She was not less distinguished as a 
 warrior; many of the neighboring nations 
 were conquered ; and when Semiramis was 
 once told, as she was dressing her hair, that 
 Babylon had revolted, she left her toilet with 
 precipitation, and though only half dressed, 
 refused to have the rest of her head adorned 
 before the sedition was quelled, and tranquil- 
 lity re-established. 
 
 Semiramis has been accused of licentious- 
 ness, and modern authors have drawn a par- 
 allel between her and Catharine of Russia* 
 
 SEM 
 
792 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 there being a great resemblance between 
 them in the principal events of their lives, 
 their masculine talents, and their private im- 
 morality of conduct. The reign of Semira- 
 mis was at last terminated by a conspiracy 
 of her own son Ninias, who is said to have 
 put her to death with his own hand. Her 
 fame was very great throughout the east. 
 After her death she received immortal honors 
 in Assyria. It is supposed that she lived 
 about 1965 yekrs before the Christian era, 
 and that she died in the sixty-second year 
 of her age, and the forty-second of her 
 reign. 
 
 SENECA, M. Annaeus, a native of Cordu- 
 ba in Spain, who married Helvia, a woman 
 of Spain, by whom he had three sons, Sen- 
 eca the philosopher, Annaeus Novatus, and 
 Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. 
 Seneca made himself known by some decla- 
 mations, of which he made a collection from 
 the most celebrated orators of the age ; and 
 from that circumstance, and for distinction, 
 he obtained the appellation of declamator. 
 He left Corduba, and went to Home, where 
 he became a Roman knight. 
 
 His son, L. Annaeus Seneca, who was born 
 about a.d. 2, was early distinguished by his 
 extraordinary talents. He was taught elo- 
 quence by his father, and received lessons in 
 philosophy from the best and most celebra- 
 ted Stoics of the age. As one of the follow- 
 ers of the Pythagorean doctrines, Seneca 
 observed the utmost abstinence, and in his 
 meals never ate the flesh of animals ; but 
 this he abandoned at the representation of 
 his father, when Tiberius threatened to pun- 
 ish some Jews and Egyptians who abstained 
 from certain meats. 
 
 In the character of a pleader, Seneca ap- 
 peared with great advantage; but the fear 
 of Caligula, who aspired to the name of an 
 eloquent speaker, and who consequently was 
 jealous of his fame, deterred him from pursu- 
 ing his favorite study, and he sought a safer 
 employment in canvassing for the honors and 
 offices of the state. He was made quaestor, 
 but the aspersions which were thrown upon 
 him on account of a shameful amour with 
 Julia Livilla, removed him from Rome, and 
 the emperor banished him for some time into 
 Corsica. During his banishment, the philos- 
 opher wrote some spirited epistles to his 
 
 mother, remarkable for eloquence of language 
 and for sublimity ;• but he soon forgot his 
 philosophy, and disgraced himself by his flat- 
 teries to the emperor, and in wishing to be 
 recalled, even at the expense of his innocence 
 and character. 
 
 The disgrace of Messalina at Rome, and 
 the marriage of Agrippina with Claudius, 
 proved favorable to Seneca ; and after he had 
 remained five years in Corsica, he was re- 
 called by the empress to take care of the ed- 
 ucation of her son Nero, who was destined 
 to succeed to the empire. In the honorable 
 duty of preceptor, Seneca gained applause ; 
 and as long as Nero followed his advice, Rome 
 enjoyed tranquillity, and believed herself safe 
 and happy under the administration of the 
 son of Agrippina. 
 
 In the corrupt age of Nero, the preceptor 
 had to withstand the clamors of many wicked 
 and profligate ministers ; and if he had been 
 the favorite of the emperor, and shared his 
 pleasures, his debauchery and extravagance, 
 Nero perhaps would not have been so anxious 
 to destroy a man whose example, from vicious 
 inclinations, he could not follow, and whose 
 salutary precepts his licentious associates for- 
 bade him to obey. Seneca was too well 
 acquainted with the natural disposition of 
 Nero to think himself secure ; he had been 
 accused of having amassed the most ample 
 riches, and of having built sumptuous houses, 
 and adorned beautiful gardens, daring the 
 four years in which he had attended Nero as 
 a preceptor ; and therefore he desired his 
 imperial pupil to accept of the riches and 
 the possessions which attendance on his per- 
 son had procured, and to permit him to retire 
 to solitude and study. 
 
 Nero refused, with artful duplicity, and Sen- 
 eca, to avoid further suspicions, kept himself 
 at home for some time, as if laboring under a 
 disease. In the conspiracy of Piso, which 
 happened some time after, and in which some 
 of the most noble of the Roman senators 
 were concerned, Seneca’s name was men- 
 tioned by Natalis ; and Nero, who was glad 
 of an opportunity of sacrificing him to his 
 secret jealousy, ordered him to destroy him- 
 self. Seneca, very probably, was not acces- 
 sory to the conspiracy ; and the only thing 
 which could be produced against him as a 
 crimination, was trivial and unsatisfactory. 
 
 SEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 793 
 
 Piso, as Natalis declared, had complained that 
 he never saw Seneca, and the philosopher had 
 observed in answer, that it was not proper or 
 conducive to their common interest, to see 
 one another often. He further pleaded in- 
 disposition, and said that his own life depend- 
 ed upon the safety of Piso’s person. 
 
 Seneca was at table with his wife Paulina 
 and two of his friends, when the messenger 
 from Nero arrived. He heard the words 
 which commanded him to destroy himself, 
 with philosophical firmness, and even with 
 joy ; and observed that such a mandate 
 might have long been expected from a man 
 who had murdered his own mother, # and 
 assassinated all his friends. He wished to 
 dispose of his possessions as he pleased, but 
 this was refused ; and when he heard this, 
 he turned to his friends, who were weeping 
 at his melancholy fate, and told them, that 
 since he could not leave them what he be- 
 lieved his own, he would leave them at least 
 his own life for an example, — an innocent 
 conduct which they might imitate, and by 
 which they might acquire immortal fame. 
 Against their tears and wailings he exclaimed 
 with firmness, and asked them whether they 
 had not learnt better to withstand the attacks 
 of fortune and the violence of tyranny ? 
 
 As for his wife, he attempted to calm her 
 emotions ; and when she seemed resolved to 
 die with him, he said he was glad to find his 
 example followed by so much constancy. 
 Their veins were opened at the same moment, 
 but the life of Paulina was preserved, and 
 Nero, who was partial to her, ordered 
 the blood to be stopped ; and from that mo- 
 ment, according to some authors, the philos- 
 opher’s wife seemed to rejoice that she could 
 still enjoy the comforts of life. 
 
 Seneca’s veins bled but slowly ; the sensi- 
 ble and animated conversation of his dying 
 moments was collected by his friends, and 
 has been preserved among his works. To 
 hasten his death, he drank a dose of poison, 
 but it had no effect ; and therefore he ordered 
 himself to be carried into a hot bath, to 
 accelerate the operation of the draught, and 
 to make the blood flow mtx'e freely. This 
 was attended with no better success ; and as 
 the soldiers were clamorous, he was carried 
 into a stove, and suffocated by the steam. 
 a.d. 65. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM, a celebrated city of 
 the south of India. In the month of Febru- 
 ar} r , 1792, it was invested by the British and 
 allied armies under Lord Cornwallis, amount- 
 ing to 400,000 men. Terrified by such a 
 host, Tippoo Sultan relinquished half his 
 dominions, and paid three and a half millions 
 sterling to the conquerors. Seringapatam 
 was again invested in 1799, by the British 
 and Nizam’s forces, and was stormed on the 
 4th of May. By the conquest which was 
 thus made, it became the property of th® 
 British. 
 
 SERTORIUS, Quintus, a Roman general, 
 born at Nursia. His first campaign was 
 under the great Marius, against the Teutones 
 and Cimbri. He visited the enemy’s camp as 
 a spy, and had the misfortune to lose one eye 
 in the first battle he fought. When Marius 
 and Cinna entered Rome and slaughtered all 
 their enemies, Sertorius accompanied them, 
 but he expressed his sorrow and concern at 
 the melancholy death of so many of his 
 countrymen. He afterward fled for safety 
 into Spain, when Sylla had proscribed him, 
 and in this distant province he behaved him- 
 self with so much address and valor that he 
 was looked upon as the prince of the country- 
 
 The Lusitanians universally revered and 
 loved him, and the Roman general did not 
 show himself less attentive to their interest, 
 b} r establishing public schools, and educating 
 the children of the country in the polite arts, 
 and the literature of Greece and Rome. He 
 had established a senate, over which he pre- 
 sided with consular authority, and the Ro- 
 mans who followed his standard, paid equal 
 reverence to his person They were experi- 
 mentally. convinced of his valor and magna- 
 nimity as a general, and the artful manner in 
 which he imposed upon the credulity of his 
 adherents in the garb of religion, did not 
 diminish his reputation. The success of 
 Sertorius in Spain, and his popularity among 
 the natives, alarmed the Romans. 
 
 They sent some troops to oppose him, but 
 with little success. Four armies were found 
 insufficient to crush or even hurt Sertorius ; 
 and Pompey and Metellus, who had never 
 yet engaged an enemy without obtaining the 
 victory, were driven with dishonor from the 
 field. But the favorite of the Lusitanians 
 was exposed to the dangers which usually 
 
 SER 
 
794 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 attend greatness. Perpenna, one of his offi- 
 cers, who was jealous of his fame and tired 
 of a superior, conspired against him. At a 
 banquet the conspirators began to open their 
 intentions by speaking with freedom and 
 licentiousness in the presence of Sertorius, 
 whose age and character had hitherto claimed 
 deference from others. Perpenna overturned 
 a glass of wine, as a signal for the rest of 
 the conspirators, and immediately Antonius, 
 one of his officers, stabbed Sertorius, and the 
 example was followed by all the rest, b.c. 72. 
 
 Sertorius has been commended for his love 
 of justice and moderation. The flattering 
 description which he heard of the Fortunate 
 Islands when he passed into the west of 
 Africa, almost tempted him to bid adieu to 
 the world, and perhaps he would have retired 
 from the noise of war, and the clamors of 
 envy, to end his days in the bosom of a 
 peaceful and solitary island, had not the 
 stronger calls of ambition and the love of 
 fame prevailed over the intruding reflections 
 of a moment. In his latter days Sertorius 
 became indolent, and fond of luxury and wan- 
 ton cruelty ; yet in affability, clemency, com- 
 plaisance, generosity, and military valor, he 
 surpassed his contemporaries. 
 
 SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of 
 Rome, belongs to the mythical period of 
 Roman history. The legend runs, that he 
 was son of Ocrisia, a slave of Cornicu- 
 lum, by Tullius, a man slain in the defense 
 of his country against the Romans. Ocrisia 
 was given by Tarquin to Tanaquil his wife, 
 who brought him up as her son in the king’s 
 family, and added the name of Servius to that 
 which he had inherited from his father, to 
 denote his slavery. Young Servius was edu- 
 cated in the palace of the monarch with great 
 care, and though originally a slave, he raised 
 himself to so much consequence, that Tarquin 
 gave him his daughter in marriage. His 
 own private merit and virtues recommended 
 him to notice not less than the royal favors, 
 and Servius became the favorite of the peo- 
 ple and the darling of the soldiers, by his 
 liberality and complaisance, and was easily 
 raised to the throne on the death of his father- 
 in-law, b.c. 578. Rome had no reason to 
 repent of her choice. 
 
 Servius endeared himself still more as a 
 warrior and as a legislator. He defeated the 
 
 Yeientes and the Tuscans, and by a proper 
 act of policy he established the census, which 
 told him that Rome contained about eighty- 
 four thousand inhabitants. He increased 
 the number of tribes, he beautified and 
 adorned the city, and enlarged its boundaries 
 by taking within its walls the hills Quirina- 
 lis, Viminalis, and Esquilinus. He also divi- 
 ded the Roman people into tribes, and that 
 he might not seem to neglect the worship of 
 the gods, he built several temples to the god- 
 dess of Fortune, to whom he deemed himself 
 particularly indebted for obtaining the king- 
 dom. He also built a temple to Diana on 
 Mount Aventine, and raised himself a palace 
 on the hill Esquilinus. 
 
 Servius married his two daughters to the 
 grandsons of his predecessor ; the elder to 
 Tarquin, and the younger to Aruns. This 
 union, it might be supposed, tended to insure 
 the peace of his family ; but if such were 
 his expectations, he was unhappily deceived. 
 The wife of Aruns, naturally fierce and im. 
 petuous, murdered her own husband to unite 
 herself to Tarquin, who had likewise assassi- 
 nated his wife. These bloody measures 
 were no sooner pursued, than Servius was 
 murdered by his own son-in-law, and his 
 daughter Tullia showed herself so destitute 
 of filial gratitude and piety, that she ordered 
 her chariot to be driven over the mangled 
 body of her father, b.c. 534. 
 
 SESOSTRIS, or Rameses, the Great, was a 
 Pharaoh of the Diospolitan family, under 
 whom ancient Egypt rose to its greatest 
 height of political power and internal splen- 
 dor. This greatest of the Eg)^ptian kings 
 extended his conquests, and retained domin- 
 ion, from the Indus to the Niger, from the 
 Persian Gulf to the Straits of Gibraltar. He 
 enriched Egypt with the spoils of these many 
 powerful kingdoms and the commerce of 
 India, and employed his treasures in building 
 cities, raising banks about others, or eleva- 
 ting with immense cost the whole surface of 
 their soil, to defend them from the inunda- 
 tions of the Nile. He built palaces more 
 magnificent than have ever before or since 
 been erected by the hand of man. Champol- 
 lion remarks that these constructions seem 
 to be the conceptions of men one hundred 
 feet high ! Lost in admiration, he dared not 
 attempt to describe his feelings before struc- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 795 
 
 tures of such unequaled majesty and beauty. 
 But the highest glory of Rameses the Great 
 remains to be told. He voluntarily resigned 
 the power his ancestors had wrested from a 
 savage race of tyrants, from whom the foun- 
 der of their dynasty had delivered their 
 native country ; and gave to the people the 
 invaluable right of possessing property in 
 the soil. He published a written code of 
 laws more than 1500 years b.c., and the 
 wisdom of his institutions was so great, that 
 his vast empire long enjoyed the benefits of a 
 wisely administered government. Many por- 
 traits of this monarch exist. One of these 
 was taken by Champollion with the greatest 
 care from a colossal statue erected by him at 
 Memphis, thirty-four and a half feet high ; 
 it had fallen with its face to the earth, and 
 thus each lineament had been admirably pre- 
 served. 
 
 Some place the reign of Sesostris about 
 1618 b.c., others more than a century later; 
 and some suppose the achievements attrib- 
 uted to him were the work of several kings. 
 
 SEVERUS, Lucius Septimius, a Roman 
 emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, of a noble 
 family, a.d. 146. He gradually exercised 
 all the offices of the state, and recommended 
 himself to the notice of the world by an am- 
 bitious mind and a restless activity, that 
 could, for the gratification of avarice, endure 
 the most complicated hardships. After the 
 murder of Pertinax, Severus resolved to 
 remove Didius Julianus, who had bought 
 the imperial purple when exposed for sale 
 by the licentiousness of the praetorians, and 
 therefore he proclaimed himself emperor 
 on the borders of Illyricum, where he was 
 stationed against the barbarians. To sup- 
 port himself in this bold measure, he took, 
 as his partner in the empire, Albinus, who 
 was at the head of the Roman forces in Bri- 
 tain, and immediately marched toward Rome 
 to crush Didius and all his partisans. 
 
 He was received, as he advanced through 
 the country, with universal acclamations, and 
 Julianus himself was soon deserted by his 
 favorites, and assassinated by his own sol- 
 diers. The reception of Severus at Rome 
 was sufficient to gratify his pride ; the streets 
 were strewed with flowers, and the submis- 
 sive senate were ready to grant whatever 
 honors or titles the conqueror claimed. In 
 
 professing that he had assumed the purple 
 only to revenge the death of the virtuous 
 Pertinax, Severus gained many adherents, 
 and was enabled not only to disarm but to 
 banish the praetorians, whose insolence and 
 avarice had become alarming, not only to 
 the citizens but to the emperor. 
 
 But while he was victorious at Rome, Seve- 
 rus did not forget that there was another 
 competitor for the imperial purple. Pescen- 
 nius Niger was in the east at the head of a 
 powerful army, and with the name and 
 ensigns of Augustus. Many obstinate bat- 
 tles were fought between the troops and offi- 
 cers of the imperial rivals, till on the plains 
 of Issus, which above five centuries before 
 had been covered with. the blood of the Per- 
 sian soldiers of Darius, Niger was totally 
 ruined by the loss of 20,000 men. The head 
 of Niger was cut off and sent to the con- 
 queror, who punished in a most cruel manner 
 all the partisans of his unfortunate rival. 
 Severus afterward pillaged Byzantium, which 
 had shut her gates against him ; and after he 
 had conquered several nations in the east, 
 he returned to Rome, resolved to destroy 
 Albinus, with whom he had hitherto reluc- 
 tantly shared the imperial power. He 
 attempted to assassinate him by his emis- 
 saries ; but when this had failed of success, 
 Severus had recourse to arms, and the fate 
 of the empire was again decided on the plains 
 of Gaul. 
 
 Albinus was defeated, and the conqueror 
 was so elated with the recollection that he 
 had now no longer a competitor for the pur- 
 ple, that he insulted the dead body of his 
 rival, and ordered it to be thrown into the 
 Rhone, after he had suffered it to putrefy 
 before the door of his tent, and to be torn by 
 his dogs. The family and the adherents of 
 Albinus shared his fate ; and the return of 
 Severus to the capital was followed by days 
 as bloody as those of Marius and Sylla. The 
 richest citizens were sacrificed, and their 
 money became the property of the emperor. 
 The wicked Commodus received divine hon- 
 ors, and his murderers were punished in the 
 most wanton manner. 
 
 Tired of the inactive life which he led in 
 Rome, Severus marched into the east, with 
 his two sons Caracalla and Geta, and with 
 uncommon success made himself master of 
 
 SEY 
 
796 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Seleucia, Babylon, and Ctesiphon ; and ad- 
 vanced without opposition far into the Par- 
 thian territories. From Parthia the emperor 
 marched toward the more southern provinces 
 of Asia ; he entered Alexandria, and after he 
 had granted a senate to that celebrated city, 
 viewed with criticising and inquisitive curi- 
 osity the monuments and ruins of Egypt. 
 The revolt of Britain recalled him from the 
 east. After he had reduced it under his 
 power, he built a w r all across the northern 
 part of the island, to defend it against the 
 frequent invasions of the Caledonians. Hith- 
 erto successful against his enemies, Severus 
 now found the peace of his family disturbed. 
 Caracalla attempted to murder his father as 
 he was concluding a treaty of peace with the 
 Britons ; and the emperor was so shocked at 
 the undutifulness of his son, that on his return 
 home he called him into his presence, and 
 after he had upbraided him for his ingrati- 
 tude and perfidy, he offered him a drawn 
 sword, adding, “ If you are so ambitious of 
 reigning alone, now imbrue your hands in 
 the blood of your father, and let not the eyes 
 of the world be witnesses of your want of 
 filial tenderness.” If these words checked 
 Caracalla, yet he did not show himself con- 
 cerned, and Severus, worn out with infirmi- 
 ties, which the gout and the uneasiness of 
 his mind increased, soon after died, exclaim- 
 ing he had been everything man could wish, 
 but that he was then nothing. 
 
 Some say that he wished to poison himself, 
 but that when this was denied, he ate to great 
 excess, and soon after expired at York, a.d. 
 211, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after 
 a reign of seventeen years, eight months, and 
 three days. Severus has been so much ad- 
 mired for his military talents, that some have 
 called him the most warlike of the Homan 
 emperors. As a monarch, he was cruel, and 
 and it has been observed that he never did 
 an act of humanity or forgave a fault In 
 his diet he was temperate, and he always 
 showed himself an enemy to pomp and splen- 
 dor. He loved the appellation of a man of 
 letters, and he even composed a history of 
 his own reign, which some have praised for 
 its correctness and veracity. However cruel 
 Severus may appear in his punishments and 
 in his revenge, many have endeavored to 
 exculpate him, and observed that there was 
 
 need of severity in an empire whose morals 
 w r ere so corrupt. Of him, as of Augustus, 
 some were found to say, that it would have 
 been better for the world if he had never 
 been born, or had never died. 
 
 SEVERUS, Marcus Aurelius Alexander, 
 a native of Phoenicia, adopted by Heliogaba- 
 lus. His father’s name was Genisius Marci- 
 anus, and his mother’s Julia Maminsea, and 
 he received the surname of Alexander, be- 
 cause he was born in a temple sacred to 
 Alexander the Great. He was carefully edu- 
 cated, and his mother, by paying particular 
 attention to his morals and the character of 
 his preceptors, preserved him from the vices 
 and licentiousness of youth. At the death 
 of Heliogabalus, who had been jealous of 
 his virtues, Alexander, though only in the 
 fourteenth year of his age, was proclaimed 
 emperor, and his nomination was approved 
 by the universal shouts of the army and the 
 congratulations of the senate. He had not 
 long been on the throne before the peace'of 
 the empire was disturbed by the incursions 
 of the Persians. He marched into the east 
 without delay, and soon obtained a decisive 
 \ictory over the barbarians. 
 
 At his return to Rome, he was honored 
 with a triumph, but the revolt of the Ger- 
 mans soon after called him away from the 
 indolence of the capital. His expedition in 
 Germany was attended with some success, 
 but his virtues and amiable qualities 
 were forgotten in the stern strictness of the 
 disciplinarian. His soldiers, fond of repose, 
 murmured against his severity ; their clamors 
 were fomented by the artifice of Maximinus, 
 and Alexander was murdered in his tent, in 
 the midst of his camp, after a reign of thir- 
 teen years and nine days, on the 18th of 
 March, a.d. 235. His mother shared his 
 fate, with all his friends ; but this was no 
 sooner known than the soldiers punished with 
 immediate death, all such as had been 
 concerned in the murder, except Maximi- 
 nus. 
 
 SEVILLE, on the Guadalquivir, in Anda- 
 lusia, is one of the most ancient cities of 
 Spain ; population 85,000. 
 
 This is the Hespolis of the Phoenicians, 
 and the Julia of the Romans. It is. built in 
 the Moorish style, and contains many edifices 
 noteworthy for their age or their architect- 
 
 SEV 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 797 
 
 are. After the decline of the Roman colony, 
 Seville was held by the Goths. 
 
 It opened its gates to the Moors in 711, 
 and continued in their possession more than 
 five centuries. It was taken by the Chris- 
 tians in 1247, after one of the most obstinate 
 sieges mentioned in Spanish history. It was 
 the capital of Spain, until Philip II. finally 
 fixed his court at Madrid, 15G3. In 1729 a 
 treaty was concluded here between Spain, 
 England, France, and Holland. On the inva- 
 sion of Spain by Bonaparte, in 1808, Seville 
 asserted the national independence, and 
 received the junta when driven from Madrid. 
 It surrendered, however, to the French, on 
 the 1st of February, 1810, and remained in 
 their hands till the 27th of August, 1812, 
 when they were compelled to leave it in con- 
 sequence, not of insurrection on the part of 
 the inhabitants, but of the general evacua- 
 tion of the south of Spain consequent on 
 their defeat at Salamanca. 
 
 SEYMOUR, Edward, Duke of Somerset, 
 was the eldest son of Sir John Seymour, by 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Went- 
 worth. In 1533, he accompanied the Duke 
 of Suffolk to France, and was knighted the 
 same year. On his sister’s marriage to Henry 
 VIII., he was created Viscount Beauchamp. In 
 1544 he was appointed lieutenant-general of 
 the north, and commanded an expedition 
 against the Scots. The same year he was at 
 the siege of Boulogne, where he defeated the 
 French, who lay encamped before the place. 
 By the king’s will, he was nominated one of 
 his executors and governor of his son ; and 
 soon after was declared protector of the king- 
 dom. In 1548 he was appointed lord treas- 
 urer, created Duke of Somerset, and made 
 earl marshal of England. The same year he 
 marched into Scotland, and gained the victo- 
 ry of Musselburgh ; but though this raised 
 his reputation, his fate was now fast approach- 
 ing, to which the execution of his brother, 
 the admiral, greatty contributed. His great- 
 est enemy was the Earl of Warwick, and 
 though a marriage had been effected between 
 their children, yet when that nobleman be- 
 came Duke of Northumberland, he accused 
 Seymour of treason, and the latter was exe- 
 cuted on Tower Hill, Jan. 22d, 1552. 
 
 SFORZA, James, called the Great, was 
 
 born of mean parents, at Cotignola, in 13G9. 
 His original name was Giacomo Attendolo, 
 and he was called Sforza because of his great 
 vigor. He entered the army as a common 
 soldier, and by his good conduct rose to the 
 rank of general, and afterward was made 
 constable of the kingdom of Naples. Pope 
 John XXIII. also appointed him gonfalonier 
 of the church, and created him a count. He 
 compelled Alphonso of Arragon to raise the 
 siege of Naples ; but in pursuing the flying 
 enemy, he fell into the river near Pescara, 
 and was drowned in 1424. 
 
 His natural son, Francis Sforza, com- 
 manded with distinction in the service of 
 Naples ; after which he married the daughter 
 of the Duke of Milan, on whose death he was 
 chosen general of the duchy ; but he abused 
 that trust, and usurped the dukedom. He 
 also made himself master of Genoa, and died 
 in 14G6. His descendants held the duchy for 
 several generations. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY. The first Earl of 
 Shaftesbury was a brilliant but inconsistent 
 statesman in the reigns of the second Charles 
 and James in England. He was born in 
 1621. Although a royalist, he accepted a 
 commission from parliament, but contributed 
 to the restoration of the king, and was 
 accordingly rewarded. Having been acquit- 
 ted on his trial for high treason in 1 G81, he 
 died in Holland in 1688. His grandson, 
 Anthony Ashley Cooper, the third earl, 
 attained distinction as an elegant philosophi- 
 cal writer. He was born in London in 1671, 
 and died at Naples in February, 1713. His 
 style, though labored, is lofty and musical. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE, William, was born at 
 Stratford upon Avon, a market town of War- 
 wickshire in England, in 1564. His birth- 
 day is not known with certainty, but it is 
 conjectured to have been the 23d of April. 
 His father was named John. His mother 
 was Mary Arden, of the ancient family of the 
 Ardens. John Shakspeare has been called a 
 butcher, a wool-stapler, a glover : in that 
 age of less subdivision of occupations, he 
 may have been all three. Of Shakspeare’s 
 youth little is known : some say he was 
 an attorney’s clerk : a general tradition is 
 that he was a wild young fellow, given to 
 poaching and deer-stealing. At Shottery, a 
 
 SHA 
 
798 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 pretty village within a mile of Stratford, the 
 cottage is still standing where dwelt Ann 
 Hathaway, whom he wooed and won, and 
 who became his wife in 1582. By this mar- 
 riage there were two daughters and a son : 
 Susanna, Hammett, and Judeth. Hammett 
 died in 1596 : the daughters survived their 
 father, and inherited his property. 
 
 Soon after his marriage, Shakspeare re- 
 moved'to London, and became connected with 
 the Blackfriars Theatre, of which he was 
 shortly one of the proprietors. For this his 
 plays were written, to very few of which, 
 however, can any positive dates be assigned. 
 Here he grew to be well to do in the world, 
 and about the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, he retired to his native town, where 
 he resided, looked up to by his neighbors, 
 thenceforth till his death. His eldest daugh- 
 ter, in 1607, married Dr. Hall, an eminent 
 physician in Stratford, and died in 1649. 
 Judeth married Thomas Quincy, a thriving 
 tradesman, in February, 1616, and died in 
 1662. Neither daughter left any heir male. 
 Shakspeare himself died in April, 1616. He 
 was buried the 25th of April : the day of 
 his decease is not known. Ann, his wife, 
 survived till 1623. Aubrey speaks of the 
 dramatist as “.a handsome, well shaped man, 
 verie good company, and of a verie pleasant, 
 reddie, and smooth witt.” 
 
 Shakspeare lies buried beneath the chancel 
 of the fine old parish church of Stratford. 
 On the flag above his ashes these quaint 
 words are cut : — - 
 
 “ GOOD FREND FOR IESUS SAKE FORBEARE, 
 
 TODIGG THE DVST ENCLOASED HEARE : 
 
 BLESE BE Y K MAN Y T SPARES TIIES STONES, 
 
 AND CVRST BE HE Y T MOVES MY BONES.” 
 
 SHARP, Granville, an untiring advocate 
 for the abolition of slavery in Great Britain 
 and elsewhere, died in 1813, aged seventy- 
 nine. 
 
 SHEFFIELD, John, Duke of Buckingham- 
 shire, was the son of Edward, Earl of Mul- 
 grave, and born in 1049. At the age of sev- 
 enteen he served in the fleet, and afterward- 
 had the command of a troop of horse. In 
 1680, being then Lord Mulgrave, he was sent 
 to the relief of Tangier, which service he 
 accomplished. He complied very much with 
 the measures of Jame& IT., and yet concurred 
 in the revolution, after which he was created 
 Marques of Normandy and Duke of Buck- 
 
 inghamshire. He died in 1720, and was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 He is said to have ‘ made love ’ to Queen 
 Anne when they both were young ; and when 
 she became sovereign, she did not forget to 
 exalt him. He wrote several poems. 
 
 SHELBY, Isaac, was born Dec. 11th, 
 1750, near Hagerstown, Md. In 1776 he 
 commanded a company raised by the com- 
 mittee of safety of Virginia, and marched 
 against the hostile Indians. After the con- 
 clusion of the Revolutionary war, throughout 
 which he behaved with courage, he settled in 
 Kentucky, of which state he was chosen the 
 first governor in 1792. In 1813 he emerged 
 from private life and joined Gen. Harrison on 
 the frontier of Ohio with 4,CC0 volunteers. 
 He died of apoplexy, July 18th, 1826. 
 
 SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, was the son of 
 a wealthy baronet of Sussex, in which shire 
 he was born, Aug. 4th, 1792. In boyhood 
 he was a republican and a skeptic. Either 
 of these characters was sufficient to brand 
 one of his position as an outcast from Eng- 
 lish society ; and his life was blasted and 
 unhappy. Its later years were passed in 
 Italy. He was temperate in his habits, gen- 
 tle, affectionate, and generous ; so that even 
 those who deplored or detested his opinions 
 were charmed with the intellectual purity 
 and benevolence of his life. He was acci- 
 dentally drowned in the Bay of Spezia, the 
 8th of July, 1822. His body washed ashore, 
 was reduced to ashes by fire, and those were 
 deposited in the Protestant burial-ground at 
 Rome, near the remains of a child he had 
 lately lost. Much of Shelley’s poetry is ab- 
 stract and obscure ; too many of its scenes 
 are ghastly and repulsive ; yet amid these 
 faults are some of the purest strains in our 
 language, — the odes to the Cloud and the 
 Skylark, for instance. 
 
 SHENSTONE, William, born in 1714, at 
 the Leasowes, his father’s little estate in 
 Shropshire, died there in 1763. He wrote 
 “ The Schoolmistress,” and some lesser 
 poems, but spent most of his time and too 
 much of his money in landscape gardening 
 and ornamental agriculture, on the Leasowes. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, a cele- 
 brated wit, author, and statesman, was the 
 son of Thomas Sheridan, and was born in 
 Dublin, Oct. 30th, 1751. Having quitted th* 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 799 
 
 Dublin school, he was placed at Harrow, 
 which he left in his eighteenth year. While 
 yet at school, his wit and humor began to 
 appear, though in learning he rated as a 
 blockhead. At an early age he married Miss 
 Linley, a beautiful young lady, who, at the 
 concerts and theatre at Bath, had attracted 
 universal admiration. He did not obtain her 
 without difficulty, for he was forced to fight 
 two duels with a Captain Matthews, which 
 stand unequaled in the history of single 
 combats for ferocity and determination. In 
 1775 his comedy of “The Rivals” was pro- 
 duced with success at Covcnt Garden theatre. 
 Although this comedy has not the wit of 
 “ The School for Scandal,” it always elicits 
 rapturous applause. In 1780 Mr. Sheridan 
 was returned to parliament for Stafford, and 
 soon became distinguished as a powerful 
 speaker on the side of the opposition, with 
 Fox and Burke. When the Rockingham 
 party came into power, he was made one of 
 the under secretaries ; and in the coalition 
 administration he was appointed to the treas- 
 ury. That post, however, he did not hold 
 long, and during the whole of Mr. Pitt’s 
 ascendency, the talents of Sheriden were dis- 
 played in combating that statesman. On the 
 trial of Mr. Hastings, he acted a prominent 
 part, and his eloquence had an electrifying 
 effect upon his auditors. 
 
 On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech 
 on the Begum charge, on the impeachment 
 of Mr. Hastings, the whole assembl}' - , mem- 
 bers, peers, and strangers, involuntarily 
 joined in a tumult of applause, and adopted a 
 mode of expressing their approbation new 
 and irregular in Westminster Hall, by loudl} r 
 and repeatedly clapping their hands. A mo- 
 tion was immediately made and carried for 
 an adjournment, that the members, who were 
 in a state of delirious insensibility from the 
 talismanic influence of such powerful elo- 
 quence, might have time to collect their scat- 
 tered senses for the exercise of a sober judg- 
 ment. The motion was made by Mr. Pitt, 
 who declared that this speech “ surpassed all 
 the eloquence of ancient and modern times, 
 and possessed everything that genius or art 
 could furnish, to agitate and control the 
 human mind.” 
 
 “ He has this da}',” said Burke, “ surprised 
 the thousands who hung with rapture upon 
 
 his accents, by such an array of talents, 
 such an exhibition of capacity, such a dis- 
 play of powers, as are unparalleled in the 
 annals of oratory ! a display that reflects the 
 highest honor upon himself, a lustre upon 
 letters, renown upon parliament, glory upon 
 the country. Of all species of rhetoric, of 
 every kind of eloquence that has been wit- 
 nessed or recorded, either in ancient or mod- 
 ern times ; whatever the acuteness hf the 
 bar, the dignity of the senate, the solidity 
 of the judgment seat, and the sacred moral- 
 ity of the pulpit, have hitherto furnished, — 
 nothing has surpassed, nothing has equaled, 
 what we have this day heard in Westminster 
 Hall. No holy seer of religion, no states- 
 man, no orator, no man of any literary de- 
 scription whatever, has come up, in one 
 instance, to the pure sentiments of morality, 
 or, in the other, to the variety of knowledge, 
 force of imagination, propriety and vivacity 
 of allusion, beauty and eloquence of diction, 
 strength and copiousness of style, pathos and 
 sublimity of conception, to which we have 
 this day listened with ardor and admiration. 
 From poetry up to eloquence, there is not a 
 species of composition of which a complete 
 and perfect specimen might not from that 
 single speech be culled and collected.” 
 
 The specimens of the speech thus extrava- 
 gantly praised, that have come down to us, 
 do not at all account for the extraordinary 
 effect which it had upon an audience made 
 up of the brightest talent and keenest judg- 
 ment of the time. 
 
 In 1702 Mr. Sheridan had the misfortune 
 to lose his wife, who left one son, Thomas 
 Sheridan. Three years afterward he married 
 Miss Ogle, daughter of the Dean of Winches- 
 ter. But neither the large fortune which 
 this lady brought him, nor the receiver- 
 generalship of Cornwall, nor his interest in 
 Drury Lane theatre, were able to supply Sher- 
 idan’s extravagances, and put him beyond 
 the reach of pecuniary embarrassment. After 
 the death of Mr. Fox, Sheridan was deprived 
 of office. His intemperate habits and indo- 
 lence completed the ruin which the burning 
 of Drury Lane theatre began. Yet this 
 calamity was borne with equanimity. Some 
 of his companions found Sheridan at a neigh- 
 boring ale-house quietly surveying the raging 
 flames which were rapidly consuming his 
 
800 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 property. On observing their astonishment, 
 Sheridan coolly observed, u Why shouldn’t a 
 man enjoy his pot and pipe by his own fire- 
 side.” 
 
 Intemperance had undermined his consti- 
 tution, and he died in miserable circumstan- 
 ces, July 7th, 1816. His plays are “The 
 Rivals,” “The Duenna,” “School for Scan- 
 dal,” “St. Patrick’s Day, or the Scheming 
 Lieutenant,” “ Trip to Scarborough,” “ The 
 Camp,” “The Critic, or Tragedy Rehearsed,” 
 “Robinson Crusoe, or Harlequin Friday,” 
 and “ Pizarro,” a tragedy translated from 
 the German. Byron’s monody on Sheridan 
 concludes thus : — 
 
 Ye orators! whom yet our councils lead, 
 
 Mourn for the veteran hero of your field ! 
 
 The worthy rival of the wondrous three ! 
 
 Whose words were sparks of immortality ! 
 
 Ye bards ! to whom the drama’s muse is dear ! 
 He was your master — emulate him here ! 
 
 Ye men of wit and social eloquence ! 
 
 He was your brother — bear his ashes hence 
 While powers of mind almost of boundless 
 range, 
 
 Complete in kind — as various in their change ; 
 While eloquence — wit — poesy — and mirth 
 (That humbler harmonist of care on earth), 
 Survive within our souls — while lives our sense 
 Of pride in merit’s proud pre-eminence, 
 
 Long shall we seek his likeness — long in vain, 
 And turn to all of him which may remain, 
 Sighing that Nature formed but one such man, 
 And broke the die — in moulding Sheridan ! 
 
 Some of Sheridan’s bon mots will be long 
 remembered for their brilliancy. He once 
 remarked that the tax upon mile-stones was 
 unconstitutional: “Because,” said he, “they 
 are a race that can not meet to remonstrate.” 
 
 Young Tom Sheridan once said to his fa- 
 ther : “If ever I get into parliament, I mean 
 to set up a sign on my head, inscribed To let.” 
 “Aye,” said Sheridan, “and add — unfur- 
 nished.” 
 
 Sheridan was fond of practical jokes, one 
 of which he played off upon the Duke of 
 Devonshire. Sheridan was in the habit of 
 frequenting Dolly’s chop-house, where he 
 generally called for deviled shin-bone of beef. 
 One day, coming in rather later than usual, 
 he was told that the only shin-bone in the 
 larder was being cooked for his grace the 
 Duke of Devonshire. Sheridan, wdio knew 
 the Duke’s person, though not acquainted 
 with him, took a seat within ear-shot of him 
 and began a conversation with a friend in a 
 loud tone of voice. “I always imagined,' 
 
 said he, “ that Dolly’s chop-house was one 
 of the neatest establishments in London, but 
 I made a discovery this morning which has 
 convinced me that I was mistaken.” The 
 duke listened very attentively. “As I was 
 passing the kitchen window,” continued 
 Sheridan, “ I observed a turnspit-boy greed- 
 ily gnawing a shin-bone of beef. Presently 
 one of the cooks ran up to him, and giving 
 him a blow on the neck, compelled him to 
 drop his prize. ‘You dirty little rascal,’ 
 said the cook, ‘ couldn’t you find nothing else 
 to eat ? Here I’ve got to cook this bone for 
 the Duke of Devonshire.’ ” Soon after the 
 conclusion of this tale, a waiter entered the 
 room, and advanced to his grace, with a cov- 
 ered dish. “Your bone, sir!” “Take it 
 away,” roared the duke, with a face of great 
 disgust, “ I can’t touch a morsel of it.” 
 “Stay, waiter!” said Sheridan, humbly; 
 “bring it to me. If his grace can’t eat it, I 
 can. Fetch me a bottle of claret — I don’t 
 wish a better luncheon.” 
 
 Two young sprigs of nobility once accosted 
 Sheridan in Bond street. “ Sherry,” said 
 one of them familiarly, “ my friend and I 
 have been discussing the question whether 
 you are knave or fool.” “ Why,” said the 
 wit, taking an arm of each, I believe I am 
 between both.” 
 
 SHERMAN, Roger, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, w r as born at Newton, 
 Mass., April 19th, 1721, and was appren- 
 ticed to a shoemaker. In 1743 the family 
 moved to New Milford in Connecticut, where 
 he entered upon trade as a country merchant. 
 Having, however, always displayed a desire 
 for knowledge, he studied with diligence, and 
 in 1754 was admitted to the bar. In 1759 
 he was appointed judge of the court of com- 
 mon pleas in Litchfield. Two years after- 
 ward he removed to New Haven, and in 1765 
 was appointed judge of the Superior Court, 
 and treasurer of Yale College. After holding 
 a seat in the general assembly of Connecti- 
 cut, he was sent to Congress in 1775. Mr. 
 Sherman was one of the committee selected 
 to draft the Declaration of Independence. He 
 was a representative in the first federal con- 
 gress, and in 1791 was chosen United States 
 senator from Connecticut. He died July 23d, 
 1793, in the seventy-third year of his age. 
 
 SIIIPPEN, William, professor of anatomy 
 
 Sill 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 801 
 
 in the Pennsylvania University, from the es- 
 tablishment of the medical school until his 
 death, in 1808. 
 
 SHIRLEY, James, born in London inl59fi, 
 was the last of the great race of old English 
 dramatists. He was designed for the church, 
 and Laud refused to ordain him because of a 
 mole that disfigured his left cheek. When 
 the civil wars broke out, he changed the pen 
 for the sword, and fought for the king. The 
 shutting of the theatres by the Puritans, 
 ruined his occupation as a dramatist. The 
 restoration did not mend his fortunes, and the 
 great fire of 1666 in London left him house- 
 less. Soon after this, he and his wife died 
 on the same day. 
 
 SHORE, Jane, mistress of Edward IV. of 
 England, and afterward of the unfortunate 
 Lord Hastings, was a woman of exquisite 
 beauty and kind heart, but not of virtue 
 enough to resist the temptations of a royal 
 lover. She was fated to incur the indigna- 
 tion of the Duke of Gloucester, who had been 
 made protector of the realm on the death 
 of Edward. This unfortunate woman was 
 an enemy too humble to excite the protect- 
 or’s jealousy ; yet as he had accused her of 
 witchcraft, of which she was innocent, he 
 thought proper to make her an example for 
 those faults of which she was really guilty. 
 Jane Shore had been deluded from her hus- 
 band, who was a goldsmith in Lombard street, 
 and not the best of husbands, and lived with 
 Edward the most guiltless mistress in his 
 abandoned court. The charge against her 
 was too notorious to be denied ; she pleaded 
 guilty, and was accordingly condemned to 
 walk barefoot through the city, and do pen- 
 ance in St. Paul’s church, in a white sheet, 
 with a wax taper in her hand, before thou- 
 sands of spectators. She lived above forty 
 years after this sentence, and was reduced to 
 the most extreme indigence. 
 
 SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, a gallant Eng- 
 lish admiral, was born near Clay, in Norfolk, 
 about 1650. In 1674 he was a lieutenant 
 under Sir John Narborough, who sent Mr. 
 Shovel to the Dey of Tripoli with a requisi- 
 tion, which the Moor treated with contempt. 
 Sir John then dispatched the lieutenant on 
 shore again, when the dey behaved much 
 worse than before. On his return, Shovel 
 stated to the admiral the practicability of 
 
 51 
 
 destroying the enemy’s shipping, which ser- 
 vice he performed the same night without the 
 loss of a man. For this exploit he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of a ship. 
 
 After the revolution he was knighted, and 
 made a rear-admiral, in which capacity he 
 had a share in the victory of La Hogue. In 
 1703 he commanded a fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and the year following partook in the 
 victory off Malaga. In 1705 he sailed for 
 England, and in the night of Oct. 22d, fell 
 by mistake upon the rocks of Sylla, where 
 his ship was totally lost, with some others, 
 and all on board perished. His body being 
 found by the fishermen, was stripped and 
 buried ; but the fact becoming known, the 
 remains were brought to London, and interred 
 in Westminster Abbey, where a monument 
 was erected to his memory. 
 
 SHREWSBURY, Battle of, July 21st, 
 1403, between the army of Henry IV. and 
 that of the nobles who had conspired to de- 
 throne him. The latter were led by Percy 
 (surnamed Hotspur), son of the Earl of North- 
 umberland. The contest was most bloody, 
 till the death of Hotspur by an unknown 
 hand decided the fate of the day, and gave 
 the victory to the king. 
 
 SIAM, a country in Asia, containing 
 250,000 square miles and 5,500,000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is rich in natural productions, and 
 its forests furnish many woods of trade. 
 Elephants are found in Siam in great num- 
 bers and perfection; Lanjang, the name of 
 one town, signifies ‘ the place of ten million 
 elephants.’ Occasionally white elephants are 
 found : they are regarded with great venera- 
 tion, kept in temples, and waited on by 
 priests. He who traps a white elephant 
 receives a handsome reward, and if the ani- 
 mal be a very fine one a pension, which is 
 continued to his descendants. White mon- 
 keys, white buffaloes, and white deer are also 
 found. The Siamese are of Mongol origin. 
 Their government is an absolute despotism, 
 and their religion Buddhism. Bangkok, a 
 place of considerable extent and commerce, 
 with 400,000 inhabitants, is the capital of 
 the kingdom. The Portuguese, in 1511, 
 were the first Europeans \^io established 
 intercourse with Siam. 
 
 SIBERIA, the Russian dominion in Asia, 
 includes the whole northern part of that con- 
 
 SIB 
 
802 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 tinent. The exploration of Siberia may be 
 dated from the period when Russia emanci- 
 pated herself from the yoke of the Tartar 
 conquerors. A body of wandering Cossacks 
 passed the Ural mountains in 1580, and found 
 a Tartar kingdom, of which Sibir was the 
 capital. The khan or ruler having been 
 totally defeated, Yermack, the Cossack chief, 
 took possession of the kingdom, but was 
 afterward surprised and cut off by an ambus- 
 cade of Tartars. The Russian power spread, 
 and in the course of eighty years, a few Cos- 
 sacks and hunters had, by their intrepid 
 exertions, added to Russia a territory larger 
 in extent than all Europe. However, in 
 extending their conquest, they came in con- 
 tact with the Chinese empire, the military 
 force of which defeated the Russians on the 
 banks of the Amour, where they were obliged 
 to terminate their progress, and which river 
 formed the line of demarcation between the 
 two empires. 
 
 The mines and furs of Siberia render it 
 valuable to the Russians, but it is most noted 
 as the place of banishment for those who 
 have fallen under the displeasure of the Rus- 
 sian government. Many an unhappy exile 
 has here dragged out a miserable existence, 
 to which death would have been preferable. 
 These wretched victims of state intrigues 
 and ruthless despotism, have contributed 
 greatly toward the civilization and improve- 
 ment of portions of this country. The num- 
 ber of exiles was augmented by the banish- 
 ment to this dreary region of hundreds of the 
 unhappy Poles, whose greatest crime was a 
 firm attachment to an oppressed country. 
 The exile of great officers of state has fre- 
 quently been attended with all the mystery 
 which characterized the seizures of the inqui- 
 sition. Often some deserving man, uncon- 
 scious of having committed any crime worthy 
 of so severe a punishment, found himself 
 suddenly in the hands of the officers of jus- 
 tice. If he asked the cause of his seizure, 
 he was commanded to be silent : if he beg- 
 ged to take leave of his family, his request 
 was refused. He sank into the stupor of 
 despair, and awakened again to a sense of 
 hope forever Jpst, as he found himself upon 
 the fatal sledge which pursued its rapid path 
 to the hated place of exile. 
 
 SICILY. This island, which is part of the 
 
 kingdom of the two Sicilies, or Naples, is 
 separated from Italy by the straits of Mes- 
 sina. Its area is 10,536 square miles, and it 
 contains 2,091,580 inhabitants. The prin- 
 cipal cities are Palermo, Syracuse, Messina, 
 and Catania. There are several mountain 
 groups, among them the noted iEtna. .The 
 country is rich and fertile, and was formerly 
 the granary of Italy ; but it is no longer so 
 well cultivated. It produces grain, silk, 
 wines, -excellent fruits, wax, and honey. 
 
 The Sicilians are descended from a variety 
 of races, who have made the island their 
 abode, — Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Sar- 
 acens, Normans, and Spaniards, besides the 
 aboriginal stock ; accordingly there is consid- 
 erable difference of complexion and features. 
 The Sicilians are generally dark, and yet we 
 sometimes see skins as fair as in the north cf 
 Italy. Unless bent down by poverty and 
 disease, the Sicilian exhibits a spare but mus- 
 cular and erect form, lively dark eyes, great 
 elasticity of limb, and quickness of motion. 
 He is shrewd, keen of sight, and very imi- 
 tative. Although the climate and state of 
 society incline him to indolence, he is more 
 easily roused into . activity than the Neapoli- 
 tan, and is more capable of perseverance. 
 The Sicilian women are handsome and amor- 
 ous, and their countenances often have a 
 strong Grecian cast. The mass of the people 
 are very illiterate. Their religion is the 
 Roman Catholic. 
 
 This island was anciently known by the 
 names of Sicania, Sicilia, and Trinacria, from 
 its triangular form. iEtna, now Mount 
 Gibello, still emits flames, throws up stones 
 and ashes, and alarms the inhabitants by its 
 roaring, and its convulsions have frequently 
 overturned cities, and covered the island with 
 ruins. The fabled Cyclops dwelt here. In 
 the Tuscan Sea, near Sicily, lie the JEolian 
 and Vulcanian Isles (now the Lipari Isles), in 
 which Vulcan is fabled to have had his forges, 
 and iEolus to have confined the wind^ subject 
 to his command. Sicily was peopled by 
 Greeks from Chalcis, Achaia, Doris, and from 
 Crete, Rhodes, and other islands, and by 
 some colonies from Italy. Syracuse, which 
 was founded by Corinthians, b.c. 749, became 
 a leading city. It was at first governed by 
 kings ; and afterward a democracy w r as estab- 
 lished. Its history exhibits a perpetual alter- 
 
 SIC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 803 
 
 nation of slavery under tyrants, and of lib- 
 erty under a popular government. Gelon is 
 said to have introduced himself into Syra- 
 cuse by his address, and to have gained the 
 favor of the people, who invested him with 
 absolute power, b.c. 483. He laid the foun- 
 dation of that immense commerce which ren- 
 dered Syracuse strong and opulent. He pro- 
 posed to assist the Greeks against Xerxes, 
 when the Carthaginians landed in Sicily an 
 army of 300,000 men under the command 
 of Hamilcar. 
 
 Gelon, by means of an intercepted letter, 
 was enabled to send a body of cavalry, that 
 put Hamilcar to death, dispersed the troops, 
 and burnt the ships, while he attacked the 
 other camp. An assembly of the Syracusans 
 being convened, Gelon was invited to assume 
 the title of king, and invested with supreme 
 authority. The people also passed a decree, 
 settling the crown, after his death, on his two 
 brothers, Hiero and Thrasybulus. Gelon 
 was succeeded by his elder brother, Hiero, 
 b.c. 471, whom some represent as an excel- 
 lent prince, and others as a covetous, obsti- 
 nate, and cruel tyrant. 
 
 Hiero was succeeded by his brother Thra- 
 sybulus, b.c. 459, a cruel and sanguinary 
 tyrant, who massacred all those subjects who 
 gave him the least cause of offense. Incensed 
 at this oppressive conduct, the people took 
 up arms, and expelled the tyrant, who retired 
 to Italy. The Syracusans, attempting to 
 subdue the neighboring cities, the latter 
 requested the assistance of the Athenians, 
 who had long wished to form an establish- 
 ment in Sicily. Nicias, a prudent general, 
 endeavored to dissuade the Athenians from 
 such an undertaking ; but they were hurried 
 on by enthusiasm, and determined to sell the 
 Syracusans and their allies as slaves, and 
 oblige the other cities of Sicily to pay an 
 annual tribute to Athens. Accordingly, they 
 set sail and arrived before Syracuse, which 
 they besieged both by sea and land, b.c. 
 416. The Syracusans were about to surren- 
 der, when Gylippus, a Spartan general, 
 arrived with assistance from Lacedaemon. 
 
 Nicias found himself under the necessity 
 of demanding a re-enforcement from Athens, 
 which dispatched another fleet, commanded 
 by Demosthenes ; that enterprising general 
 induced Nicias to make an assault, which was 
 
 not successful. At length the Athenian and 
 Syracusan armaments met, and an engage- 
 ment ensued, when the Athenians were com- 
 pletely defeated. Finding no other resource 
 left than to endeavor to reach some towns in 
 alliance with them, they began their march. 
 The dead and the dying retarded their pro- 
 gress ; the enemy briskly pursued, and 
 allowed them scarcely a moment of rest. 
 Nicias and Demosthenes were made prison- 
 ers, and after being publicly scourged, were 
 thrown from a precipice. The soldiers were 
 shut up in the quarries, where they received 
 a scanty allowance of food, and were infected 
 with the putrid bodies of their dead compan- 
 ions. Such was the issue of this war, after 
 it had continued nearly three years. 
 
 Sicily was soon engaged in a new contest. 
 The Egestines, who had invited the Atheni- 
 ans into Sicily, dreading the resentment of 
 the Syracusans, offered to put their city into 
 the hands of the Carthaginians, from whom 
 they requested assistance against the inhabi- 
 tants of Selinuntum. The Carthaginians 
 committed the management of the war to 
 Hannibal, the grandson of Hamilcar, who 
 landed in Sicily with an army of 300,000 
 men. The Selinuntines defended their walls, 
 their streets, their public squares, and even 
 their houses, but were everywhere overpow- 
 ered by numbers. Two thousand six hun- 
 dred of them escaped to Agrigentum, and 
 the rest were cut to pieces by the Carthagin- 
 ians, who committed dreadful cruelties and 
 atrocities. The conquerors then marched to 
 Himera, before which Hamilcar had been 
 killed by Gelon, and which shared the same 
 fate as Selinuntum. Hannibal ordered three 
 thousand Himerians to be barbarously mas- 
 sacred on the spot where his grandfather had 
 been defeated and killed ; and after thus ter- 
 minating the campaign, he embarked his 
 troops, and se^ sail for Africa. 
 
 Two or three years after, the Carthagin- 
 ians returned to Sicily with 300,000 men, and 
 attacked Agrigentum. In the first sally, the 
 besieged burnt the machines, and made a 
 prodigious slaughter of the enemy. At 
 length Agrigentum being greatly distressed 
 for want of provisions, the inhabitants 
 resolved to leave the city, which was taken 
 possession of by the Carthaginians. The 
 Agrigentines, who took refuge in Syracuse, 
 
 SIC 
 
804 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 filled that city with complaints against the 
 Syracusan commanders, as if they had be- 
 trayed Agrigentum into the hands of the 
 enemy. This raised such disturbances in 
 Syracuse, as afforded to Dionysius, a bold, 
 eloquent, and aspiring man, an opportunity 
 of seizing on the sovereign power. After 
 procuring a guard of a thousand men, and 
 being joined by part of the garrison in 
 Gela, he possessed himself of the citadel, 
 and publicly declared himself king of Syra- 
 cuse, b.c. 404. But on the first defeat he 
 experienced from the Carthaginians, the peo- 
 ple revolted, and united with his ‘enemies. 
 Dionysius, however, found means not only to 
 appease the revolt, but to conclude a peace 
 with the Carthaginians. 
 
 Dionysius again declared war with the 
 Carthaginians, from whom he took the most 
 important of the towns which they possessed 
 in Sicily; but they, nevertheless, appeared 
 before Syracuse, to which they laid siege. 
 The Carthaginians being exhausted by a 
 plague, were obliged to raise the siege, and 
 Dionysius suffered them to retire unmolested 
 into other parts of the island, on condition 
 that they paid him a large sum of money, 
 lie then turned his arms against Italy, and 
 took Rhegiuin, the inhabitants of which he 
 treated with his usual inhumanity. He was 
 succeeded by his son Dionysius, who was 
 surnamed the younger, b.c. 366, and who 
 was a weak and irresolute prince. Dion, the 
 brother of Aristomache, the wife of Dionysius 
 the elder, a friend and disciple of Plato, in- 
 duced the young prince to banish the accom- 
 plices of his debaucheries and to recall Plato. 
 Through a cabal of courtiers, Dion and Plato 
 were disgraced, and obliged to retire to Ath- 
 ens. Dionysius not only refused to Dion the 
 revenue arising from his property, but com- 
 pelled his wife Arete, who was much beloved 
 by her husband, to espouse Timocrates, one 
 of his courtiers. These provocations incensed 
 Dion, who collected a small band, and arriv- 
 ing at Syracuse whilst Dionysius was en- 
 gaged with the war in Italy, declared that he 
 came not to avenge his own private wrongs, 
 but to emancipate Syracuse and Sicily from 
 the yoke of the tyrant. Under this standard 
 of liberty, Dion obtained possession of the 
 greater part of the city ; and having defeated 
 Dionysius in an engagement, compelled the ( 
 
 tyrant to flee into Italy. Dion, having mur- 
 dered one of his generals, was assassinated 
 in his own house by his guest and friend 
 Calippus. 
 
 The death of Dion, and the flight of Calip- 
 pus, recalled Dionysius, b.c. 350, who again 
 reinstated himself in the possession of his 
 dominions, which he retained until he was 
 again expelled by an army under Timoleon. 
 This general overran Sicily as a conqueror, 
 subdued the tyrants of several cities, whom 
 he sent to Corinth to be companions of Dio- 
 nysius, and defeated the Carthaginians, who 
 again appeared in the island. For the space 
 of twenty years, the Syracusans enjoyed the 
 fruits of Timolcon’s services. Then Syra- 
 racuse groaned under the tyranny of Agath- 
 ocles, who exceeded all his predecessors in 
 cruelty and other vices. He was expelled by 
 Sosistratus, who had usurped the supreme 
 power. He then retired into Italy ; and dur- 
 ing his abode in that country, Sosistratus was 
 obliged to abdicate the sovereignty, and quit 
 Syracuse. Sosistratus and the other exiles 
 had recourse to the Carthaginians, who read- 
 ily espoused their cause. 
 
 Upon this, the Syracusans recalled Agath- 
 ocles, whom they appointed commander-in- 
 chief, and he defeated the combined armies of 
 Sosistratus and the Carthaginians. Agath- 
 ocles, therefore, began to exercise a sovereign 
 power over his fellow-citizens, and took such 
 measures as plainly showed that he aimed at 
 monarchy. On discovering his design, the 
 people transferred the command of their for- 
 ces to a Corinthian ; and Agathocles saved his 
 life only by stratagem. 
 
 Agathocles re-appeared under the walls of 
 Syracuse, at the head of a strong army, and 
 under pretense of a war with Erbita, a neigh- 
 boring city, he collected a great number of 
 soldiers, whom he induced to pillage Syra- 
 cuse, and to massacre all the chief men. In 
 a few hours more than four thousand persons 
 fell a sacrifice ; and the streets were covered 
 with slain. He ordered the pillage and mas- 
 sacre to be continued two days longer, after 
 which he was proclaimed king by the few 
 survivors. 
 
 The success of Agathocles gave uneasiness 
 to the Carthaginians, who sent against him 
 an army under the command of Hamilcar. 
 This general gained over him a complete vic- 
 
 SIC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 805 
 
 tory, which obliged Agathocles to confine 
 himself within Syracuse. Whilst the Car- 
 thaginians besieged that city, Agathocles 
 embarked some of his best troops, b.c. 307, 
 and after landing in Africa burned the vessels 
 which had conveyed his army. An engage- 
 ment took place between the Syracusans and 
 the Carthaginians, the latter of whom were 
 defeated, with the loss of Hanno their gen- 
 eral. 
 
 Syracuse was now reduced to great extrem- 
 ity, but Agathocles having sent to the inhab- 
 itants of that city the head of Ilanno, the 
 sight of it encouraged them to support with 
 success a last assault. They afterward at- 
 tacked and entirely routed the Carthaginian 
 army, took Hamilcar prisoner, and sent his 
 head to Agathocles. As the war was pro- 
 longed, Agathocles resolved to return to Sic- 
 ily, and having given the necessar} 7 orders 
 during his absence, embarked with him two 
 thousand chosen men, and arrived at Syra- 
 cuse. After restoring order to the govern- 
 ment, and destroying a league which had 
 been formed against him, he set out once 
 more for Africa. But finding his affairs des- 
 perate in that country, he determined to 
 abandon his troops, and, making his escape, 
 put to sea. In the first transports of their 
 fury, the soldiers massacred two of his sons 
 whom he had left behind, and, having elected 
 chiefs for themselves, concluded with the Car- 
 thaginians a peace, by which they were to be 
 transported to Sicily, and put in posses- 
 sion of the city of Selinuntum. At length, 
 after a series of cruelties, Agathocles was 
 burnt on the funeral pile, b.c. 289. 
 
 The government was next assumed by Moe- 
 non, who was expelled by Hycetas. The 
 latter took the modest title of praetor, but 
 was deprived of the sovereign power by 
 Tcenion, who was opposed by Sosistratus. 
 But being attacked by the Carthaginians, 
 these chiefs united and called into their assis- 
 tance Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who was 
 then carrying on war against the Romans. 
 Pyrrhus drove the Carthaginians out, and 
 returned into Italy. 
 
 Hierowas appointed to command the Syra- 
 cusan forces against the Carthaginians, b.c. 
 275, who had regained most of the places 
 which they possessed before the arrival of 
 the Epirots. He concluded a treaty with 
 
 the Romans, the conditions of which were 
 faithfully performed on both sides. The de- 
 feats which the Romans sustained at the Lake 
 Thrasymene and at Cannae, could not shake 
 his constancy. He died at the age of ninety. 
 
 Hiero appointed his grandson Hierony- 
 mus king, b.c. 211, with a council of fifteen 
 persons, called tutors. His vices and cruelty 
 were such, that a conspiracy was formed 
 against him. He was assassinated while 
 passing through a narrow street, b.c. 208, 
 and the people showed so little concern for 
 his person, that they suffered the body to 
 rot in the place where it had fallen. Hieron- 
 ymus was no sooner dead, than two of the 
 conspirators hastened to prevent the attempts 
 of Andranodorus, and of others of the king’s 
 faction. However, he soon after, in concert 
 with Themistus, the husband of Harmonia, 
 sister of the deceased king, formed a plot to 
 exterminate the chief citizens of Syracuse. 
 This being disclosed to the senate, Andran- 
 odorous and Themistus were condemned, 
 though absent, and put to death as they were 
 entering the senate-house. Soon after this 
 the guardians and tutors of the late king, and 
 all the royal family, were put to death. 
 
 The Carthaginians now obtained an as- 
 cendency in Syracuse. Two of the gen- 
 erals, Hippocrates and Epytides, caused 
 the number of the praetors to be reduced 
 to two, and made the choice fall on them- 
 selves. Marcellus, the Roman consul, ap- 
 peared at the gates of Syracuse, b.c. 212, 
 and demanded that the authors of the late 
 massacre should be delivered into his 
 hands ; but finding his demand treated with 
 ridicule, he commenced hostilities, and at- 
 tempted a general assault on the city. How- 
 ever, by the genius of Archimedes, an able 
 mathematician, without employing the sword, 
 two Roman armies were repulsed on this occa- 
 sion. Marcellus was, therefore, obliged to 
 convert the siege into a blockade : and at 
 length he obtained possession of the city by 
 an escalade. The soldiers entered the houses 
 of the Syracusans, seized all the valuables, 
 but offered no violence to the persons of the 
 inhabitants. Acradina, the strongest quar- 
 ter of the city, held out some time longer, 
 but was at length taken by means of an offi- 
 cer who gave up to Marcellus one of the 
 gates. After the capture of Syracuse, Agri- 
 
 Si C 
 
806 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF' 
 
 gentum was besieged and taken. By order 
 of the consul Laevinus, the chiefs of the lat- 
 ter city were scourged and beheaded, and 
 the people reduced to slavery and sold by 
 auction. After this terrible example, no 
 more cities resisted, and Sicily was converted 
 into a province of Rome, b.c. 198. 
 
 Sicily remained in the hands of the Ro- 
 mans during many centuries. At length, in 
 the eighth and ninth centuries, the Saracens 
 conquered Sicily, and the island remained in 
 their possession two hundred years. In the 
 eleventh century the Normans made the con- 
 quest of this country, and in 1266 it submit- 
 ted to Charles of Anjou, a French prince. In 
 1282, the terrible massacre of the French, 
 called the Sicilian Vespers, took place. It 
 commenced at Palermo, March 30th, 1282. 
 The French had become hateful to the Sicil- 
 ians, and a conspiracy against Charles of 
 Anjou was already ripe, when the following 
 occurrence led to its development and accom- 
 plishment. On Easter Monday, the chief 
 conspirators had assembled at Palermo ; and 
 while the French were engaged in festivities, 
 a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her 
 train. She was observed by one Drochet, 
 a Frenchman, who, advancing toward her, 
 began to use her rudely, under pretense of 
 searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exas- 
 perated at this affront, stabbed him with his 
 own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, two hun- 
 dred French were instantly murdered. The 
 enraged populace now ran through the city, 
 crying out, “ Let the French die ! ” and, with- 
 out distinction of rank, age, or sex, they 
 slaughtered all of that nation they could find, 
 to the number of eight thousand. Even such 
 as had fled to the churches found no sanctu- 
 ary there ; and the massacre became general 
 throughout the island. After this catastro- 
 phe, the inhabitants transferred the sovereign- 
 ty of their island to Spain, with whom it long 
 remained, as well as that of the Neapolitan 
 territory, to which Sicily became united in 
 1430. Both were subject to the crown of 
 Spain in 1700. In 1707, Austria obtained 
 possession of Naples and Sicily ; and by the 
 peace of Utrecht, in 1713, while Naples was 
 confirmed to them, Sicily was given to the 
 duke of Savoy, with the title of king. In 
 1720, the Austrians prevailed on the new 
 possessor of Sicily to exchange it for Sar- 
 
 dinia, .and added the former to the kingdom 
 of Naples. The war of 1734, however, 
 transferred the crown of the two Sicilies to a 
 branch of the royal family of Spain, and it 
 remained in their hands till 1799, when the 
 royal family were expelled from Naples. The 
 latter took refuge in Sicily, were afterward 
 restored to Naples, but again compelled to 
 take refuge in Sicily. 
 
 The acquisition of Sicily is said to have 
 been a primary object with Napoleon, but an 
 attempt at invasion in 1810 was baffled by 
 the British troops. In 1815, the overthrow 
 of Murat led to the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons to the throne of Naples. Under their 
 rule, Sicily has been deprived of many of 
 its ancient rights. In 1848 the island rose 
 in insurrection, but was soon reduced. In 
 1860, Garibaldi occupied the island; Victor 
 Emanuel entered Palermo Dec. 1st, and Sicily 
 became part of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 1713. Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy ; he ex- 
 changed Sicily for Sardinia in 1718. 
 1718. Charles VI. of Austria, Emperor of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1734. Charles (Bourbon), second son of the King 
 of Spain : upon the death of his brother, 
 Ferdinand VI., he succeeded to the 
 throne of Spain, renouncing Sicily and 
 Naples to his third son, then only eight 
 years of age. 
 
 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of Charles; mar- 
 ried Caroline, daughter of Maria The- 
 resa of Austria. 
 
 1806. Joseph Bonaparte: transferred to the Span- 
 ish throne. 
 
 1808. Joachim Murat: shot Oct. 13th, 1815. 
 1815. Ferdinand I. : formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
 Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 
 III. oi Sicily : now of the United King- 
 dom of the two Sicilies. 
 
 1825. Francis I., son of Ferdinand. 
 
 1830. Ferdinand II., son of Francis. 
 
 SIDDONS, Sarah, the greatest of English 
 actresses, was born at Brecknock in South 
 Wales, July 14th, 1755, the daughter of 
 Roger Kemble. She married Mr. Siddons, 
 an actor in her father’s family, in 1773. Her 
 career of dramatic triump.h commenced With 
 her second appearance in London, Oct. 10th, 
 1782. Seven years before, she had ventured 
 with ill success, upon the metropolitan boards 
 in the character of Portia. Now, as Isabella, 
 in “ The Fatal Marriage,” she laid the corner 
 stone of her fame. She retired from the 
 stage in 1812, and died June 8th, 1831. She 
 was a woman of much personal beauty and 
 
 SID 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 807 
 
 dignity ; her voice was very melodious, and 
 her mental endowments were of a high or- 
 der. Her style of acting was grand, noble, 
 and natural. 
 
 SIDNEY, Algernon, was the second son 
 of Robert, Earl of Leicester, by Dorothy, 
 daughter of the Earl of Northumberland, 
 and was born about 1621. He became a 
 colonel in thecarmy of the parliament, a mem- 
 ber of the house of commons, and was nom- 
 inated one of the king’s judges, but did not 
 sign the warrant for his execution. The 
 same principles, however, which led him to 
 oppose Charles, made him hostile to Crom- 
 well. In 1659 he was one of the commis- 
 sioners sent to mediate between Denmark and 
 Sweden. On the restoration, Sidney re- 
 mained abroad till 1677, when he received a 
 conditional pardon; but in 1683, being impli- 
 cated in what was called the Rye-House plot, 
 he was arraigned before Chief-justice Jeffreys, 
 and found guilty, though the evidence was 
 defective, and in every sense illegal. ' He suf- 
 fered death with great firmness upon Tower 
 Hill, on the 7th of December the same year, 
 glorying in his martyrdom for that old 
 cause in which he had been engaged from 
 his youth. He was firm to republican prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 SIDNEY, Sir Philip, the author of “ The 
 Arcadia,” “Defense of Poesy,” “Astrophel 
 and Stella,” &c., was born Nov. 29th, 1554, 
 at Penshurst, in Kent, the seat of his father, 
 Sir Henry Sidney, who was the friend of 
 Edward VI., and in the reign of Elizabeth 
 became lord deputy of Ireland. The mother 
 of Sir Philip was Mary, daughter of the Duke 
 of Northumberland. He made while young 
 the tour of the greater part of Europe, and in 
 1575 returned to England, where he became 
 one of the brightest ornaments of the court 
 of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 In 1580 a tournament was held at court, 
 where, though Sidney displayed his prowess 
 to great advantage, the victory was adjudged 
 to the Earl of Oxford. This produced a 
 challenge from Sidney ; but the duel being 
 prevented by the queen’s commands, our 
 ruffled hero retired to Wilton, the seat of his 
 brother-in-law, the Earl of Pembroke, # and 
 there wrote “ The Arcadia.” In 1585 Sid- 
 ney was named as a candidate for the king- 
 dom of Poland, but Elizabeth interposed her 
 
 authority against it, “ refusing,” says the 
 historian Camden, “ to further his advance- 
 ment, out of fear that she should lose the 
 jewel of her times.” 
 
 The Protestants of the Netherlands Hav- 
 ing solicited the assistance of England to 
 relieve them from the Spanish yoke, a mili- 
 tary force was sent over under the command 
 of Sir Philip, who on his arrival at Flushing, 
 was appointed colonel of all the Dutch regi- 
 ments. Not long after, his uncle, the Earl 
 of Leicester, joined him with additional 
 troops, and Sidney was promoted to the rank 
 of general of the horse. 
 
 On the 22d of September, 1586, he fell in 
 with a convoy sent by the enemy to Zutphen, 
 and though the English troops were inferior 
 to the enemy, they gained the victory ; but 
 it was dearly purchased by the loss of their 
 commander, who, after one horse was shot 
 under him, mounted another, and continued 
 the fight, till he received a fatal ball in the 
 left thigh. As he was borne from the field, 
 languid with the loss of blood, he asked for 
 water, but just as the bottle was put to his 
 lips, seeing a dying soldier looking wistfully 
 at it, he resigned it, saying, “Thy necessity 
 is yet greater than mine.” He died on the 
 19th of October. His death was lamented 
 both at home and abroad. His bravery and 
 chivalrous magnanimity, his grace and polish 
 of manner, the purity of his morals, his 
 learning and refinement of taste, had won 
 him love and esteem wherever he was known. 
 By the direction of Elizabeth, his remains 
 were conveyed to London, and honored with 
 a public funeral in old St. Paul’s. 
 
 SILISTRIA, a strong fortified town on the 
 Danube, in Bulgaria, a province of Turkey. 
 It was taken by the Russians in 1829, after 
 nine months’ siege, and held some years by 
 them as a pledge for the payment of a large 
 sum by Turkey, but w'as eventually given 
 up. In May, 1854, it was besieged by a 
 strong Russian force, but the Turks held it 
 against fearful assaults, and assuming the 
 offensive, forced the raising of the siege, 
 June 15th. The loss of the Russians was 
 enormous. The town and its defenses were 
 battered almost to ruins. 
 
 SILK. Wrought silk was brought from 
 Persia to Greece, 325 b.c. It was known at 
 Rome in the time of Tiberias, when the sen- 
 
 SIL 
 
808 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ate forbade the use of plate of massy gold, 
 and also that men should debase themselves 
 by wearing silk, fit only for women. Helio- 
 gabalus first wore a garment of silk, a.d. 
 220. Silk was at first worth its weight in 
 gold, and was thought to grow like cotton. 
 Silk-worms were brought from India to Eu- 
 rope in the sixth century. Charlemagne sent 
 Offa, King of Mercia, a present of two silken 
 vests, a.d. 780. At Palermo, 1130, the Sicil- 
 ians bred the worms, and spun and wove the 
 silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and 
 Spain, and also into the south of France, 
 about 1510. Henry IY. propagated mulber- 
 ry-trees and silk-worms throughout France, 
 in 1589. Silken mantles were worn by some 
 high-born English ladies at a ball at Kenil- 
 worth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the 
 English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in 
 England in 1604, and broad silk woven from 
 raw silk in 1620. Brought to great perfec- 
 tion by the French refugees at Spitalfields, 
 1688. 
 
 SIMNEL, Lambert, an impostor in the 
 reign of Henry VII. of England, 1486, that 
 pretended to be the Duke of York, son of 
 Edward IY., who with his brother was smoth- 
 ered in the Tower by order of Richard III. 
 The rebellion was soon suppressed : Lambert 
 was discovered to be a baker’s son, and was 
 only punished by promotion to an office in 
 the royal kitchen. 
 
 SINOPE (Sinoub), an ancient seaport of 
 Asia Minor, on the Black Sea, formerly caph 
 tal of the kingdom of Pontus, and the repu- 
 ted birth-place of Diogenes. Nov. 30th, 
 1853„ the Turkish fleet lying here was attack- 
 ed by a superior Russian armament, and to- 
 tally burnt or sunk, except one vessel which 
 escaped to Constantinople with tidings of the 
 disaster. The Turks fought with desperate 
 valor. Four thousand lives were lost by fire 
 or drowning, and Osman Pacha, the Turkish 
 admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. 
 The town and citadel were demolished. In 
 consequence of this event, the English and 
 French fleets entered the Black Sea, Jan. 3d, 
 1854. 
 
 SIXTUS V., pope, was born in 1521, in 
 the signory of Montalto, where his father, 
 Pereto Peretti, was a poor vine-dresser. He* 
 was christened Felix. At the age of four- 
 teen, he was allowed to make his profession, 
 
 and in 1545 he received priest’s orders, and 
 took the name of Father Montalto. His pop- 
 ularity as a preacher procured him many 
 friends, and in 1555 he was appointed inquis- 
 itor-general at Venice; where, however, he 
 gave so much offense by his severity, as to be 
 obliged to return to Rome. Pius Y. made 
 him general of his order, next Bishop of St. 
 Agatha, and in 1570 raised huh to the pur- 
 ple. Hitherto Montalto had been remarked 
 for his haughty demeanor, but now he as- 
 sumed quite an opposite character, and 
 appeared all humility, meekness, and conde- 
 scension. He carried this hypocrisy so far, 
 as to treat his family with neglect, telling 
 them, “ that he was dead to his relations and 
 the world.” He took no part in political con- 
 tentions, and the other cardinals were so com- 
 pletely imposed upon by him, that they called 
 him “The ass of La Marca.” In this way 
 he went on several years, adding to his de- 
 ceit, the pretense of bodily infirmities. 
 At length Gregory XIII. died, in 1585, and 
 the election of a new pope was contested 
 between three cardinals, whose respective 
 interests were so equal, that they agreed to 
 choose Montalto ; but when they informed 
 him of their intention, he fell into such a fit 
 of coughing, that they thought he would 
 have expired. The election, however, took 
 place, and no sooner was it announced, than 
 the pope threw his staff into the middle of 
 the chapel, and began the “ Te Deum ” with 
 a loud voice, to the astonishment of all who 
 heard him. He took the name of Sixtus V., 
 and though he administered justice with 
 rigorous severity, the relaxed state of man- 
 ners called for it, and no one could tax him 
 with partiality. Among other things, he 
 caused the Vulgate edition of the Bible to be 
 revised, and he even went so far as to have 
 an Italian version of it printed, which excited 
 great alarm among bigoted Catholics. To- 
 ward foreign powers he behaved with spirit, 
 and took away from their ambassadors the 
 liberty of granting protections, saying that 
 he was determined no one should reign at 
 Rome but himself. His private character 
 was free from reproach, and the only faults 
 charged upon him were, the hypocritical 
 course he took to gain the papacy, and the 
 inexorable rigor with which he acted while 
 he enjoyed it. He died August 27th, 1590. 
 
 SIX 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 809 
 
 SIX NATIONS. The Mohawks, Senecas, 
 Cayugas, Oneidas, and Onondagas, important 
 tribes of Indians in New York when the 
 French and English came, were banded to- 
 gether in a powerful confederacy, called by 
 the French the Iroquois, by the Dutch the 
 Maquas, and by the English the Five Nations. 
 Early in the eighteenth century the Tusca- 
 roras migrated from North Carolina and 
 joined the union, which thus came to be 
 known as the Six Nations. The Mohawks 
 were the leading tribe. 
 
 SLOANE, Sir Hans, was born in Ireland 
 in 1660. He was bred to medicine, acquired 
 a high reputation, and was physician to 
 George II. He devoted much time and re- 
 search to his favorite sciences of botany and 
 natural history. Upon his death in 1752, he 
 bequeathed his great accumulation of objects 
 of natural history, art, and antiquities, to- 
 gether with his large library, to the British 
 nation, on condition that his daughters should 
 be paid £20,000. The collection and library 
 cost him £50,000. Parliament accepted the 
 offer, and having already acquired the Ilar- 
 leian MSS. and the Cottonian library, placed 
 all in Montagu House, which they purchased 
 for the purpose ; and thus the British Muse- 
 um had its origin. 
 
 SMALLWOOD, William, a native of Mary- 
 land, was appointed a brigadier by Congress 
 in 1776, and a major-general in 1780. His 
 command suffered severely at the battle of 
 Long Island ; it was chiefly composed of 
 young men from Maryland. Gen. Smallwood 
 served at Brandywine and Germantown, and 
 accompanied Gates to his disastrous southern 
 campaign. In 1785 he was a delegate in 
 Congress from Maryland, and was chosen 
 governor the same year. He died in Febru- 
 ary, 1792. 
 
 SMEATON, John, an eminent civil engi- 
 neer in England, the constructor of the Eddy- 
 stone lighthouse, born at Leeds in 1724, died 
 Oct. 28th, 1792. 
 
 SMITH, Adam, a great Scotch philosopher 
 and political economist, was born at Kirkal- 
 dy in Fifeshire, June 5th, 1723. He occu- 
 pied the chair of logic and moral philosophy 
 in the university of Glasgow. Resigning 
 his professorship in 1763, he gave himself to 
 the production of his great work, “ An Inqui- 
 ry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth 
 
 of Nations,” which appeared in 1766. He 
 died at Edinburgh, July 8th, 1790. 
 
 SMITH, James, a signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born in Ireland be- 
 tween 1715 and 1720; he would never give 
 the date of his birth. He was educated at 
 Philadelphia, studied law, and eventually set- 
 tled at York. In 1774 he was a member of 
 an assembly of delegates from all the coun- 
 ties of Pennsylvania, and, in January, 1775, 
 of the Pennsylvanian convention. Being 
 elected a member of Congress, he retained 
 his seat in that body until November, 1778. 
 He died July 11th, 1806. 
 
 SMITH, John, was born at Willoughby, 
 in Lincolnshire, England, in 1579. He early 
 displayed a roving disposition, and was fond 
 of feats of daring. On the death of his 
 father, he was apprenticed to a merchant of 
 Lynn, whom he soon quitted to enter the 
 service of a nobleman who was going to the 
 continent. At Orleans he was discharged 
 with money to defray the expenses of his 
 voyage home ; but meeting with a Scotch- 
 man in the Low Countries, where he had 
 enlisted as a soldier, he was persuaded to go 
 to Scotland, and promised the countenance 
 of King James. Disappointed in his expect- 
 ations he returned to his native town, but 
 finding no agreeable companions, he built 
 himself a hut in the woods, and studied 
 works on the military art, occasionally amus- 
 ing himself with his horse and lance. 
 
 In 1596 he again set out on his travels, 
 going first to Flanders and thence to France, 
 where he fell in with some pilgrims at Mar- 
 seilles, and set sail in their company for Italy. 
 The pilgrims, however, attributing the storm 
 which overtook them to the presence of a 
 heretic, threw overboard Smith, who saved 
 his life by swimming to the island of St. 
 Mary, off Nice. He was befriended by a 
 shipmaster, who took him to Alexandria, 
 whence he coasted the Levant, and assisted 
 in the capture of a Venetian ship. "With his 
 share of the prize-money, he made the tour 
 of Italy, and then entered the Austrian ser- 
 vice, having command of a company of horse, 
 with which he accompanied the Transylva- 
 nian army against the Turks. 
 
 'At the siege of Regal, the lord Turbisha 
 challenged any Christian commander to fight 
 with him in presence of the ladies for their 
 
 SMI 
 
810 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 particular amusement. The duty of encoun- 
 tering this champion devolved by lot upon 
 Smith, who killed him, struck off his head, 
 and bore it in triumph to the general of the 
 Transylvanian army. A friend of Turbisha 
 now sent Smith a challenge which he accept- 
 ed. They fought, as before, in the presence 
 of the ladies, who witnessed the defeat of the 
 Turk, and his decapitation by Smith. The 
 latter now sent word to the Ottomans, that, 
 for the further gratification of their ladies, 
 he would encounter any champion whom they 
 might select. One Bonomalgro accepted the 
 challenge, and, in the combat which took 
 place, Smith, although stricken to the ground, 
 regained his saddle at a fortunate moment, 
 and severed the infidel’s head from his body. 
 These brilliant exploits procured him a sort 
 of military triumph, after the manner of the 
 Romans, a splendid horse and sabre, and a 
 major’s commission. On the capture of Re- 
 gal, the Prince of Transylvania gave Smith 
 his miniature set in gold, a pension, and a 
 coat of arms with three Turk’s heads in a 
 shield. 
 
 After this he was taken prisoner, and made 
 the slave of the mistress of a pacha who 
 resided at Constantinople. This lady fell in 
 love with the Christian hero, and sent him 
 for safety to her brother, a pacha on the bor- 
 ders of the Sea of Azoph. This dignitary, 
 suspecting the passion of his sister, treated 
 Smith with great severity, but the latter 
 found an opportunity to kill his tyrant, and, 
 mounting the fine charger of his fallen foe, 
 he made his way into Russia, whence he 
 traveled through Germany, France, Spain, 
 and Morocco, from which latter place he 
 returned to England. On the 19th of Decem- 
 ber, 1606, he sailed for America, with Gos- 
 nold’s expedition, letters patent having been 
 .obtained and a council nominated for the col- 
 ony of Virginia. After some time the weight 
 of the administration of the Jamestown set- 
 tlement devolved upon Smith, who was ever 
 active and energetic. But while exploring 
 James River, he was taken prisoner by the 
 Indian chief Powhatan, and doomed to death ; 
 from which he was saved only by the coura- 
 geous interposition of Pocahontas, Powhat- 
 an’s daughter, who procured his liberation. 
 
 Smith, having been elected president of 
 the colony, ably discharged the arduous du- 
 
 ties imposed upon him, although its inevita- 
 ble difficulties were increased bj r mutiny and 
 the hostility of the Indians. In 1609 he 
 returned to England; but in 1614 he com- 
 manded an expedition of discovery to North 
 Virginia, now New England. The next two 
 vessels belonging to the council of Plymouth, 
 of which he had obtained the command, 
 were driven to England by stress of weather. 
 He next had command of a small vessel, 
 which was seized by French men-of-war un- 
 der pretense of piracy ; but was released 
 after being detained some time. He now 
 traveled about endeavoring to enlist men of 
 note in his schemes for colonizing America, 
 but without success. He urged upon Queen 
 Anne (the wife of James I.) the propriety of 
 rewarding Pocahontas, who had been brought 
 to England ; and he published a history of 
 Virginia and an account of his various voy- 
 ages and hardships. He died in London, in 
 1681, in the fifty-second year of his age. 
 
 SMITH, Joseph, the founder of the sect of 
 the Mormons, was born December, 1805, in 
 Sharon, Vt., removed with his father, about 
 1815, to Palmyra, N. Y., and assisted on the 
 farm till 1826. He received little education, 
 read indifferently, wrote and spelt badly, 
 knew little of arithmetic, and in all other 
 branches of learning he was, to the day of 
 his death, exceedingly ignorant. His own 
 account of his religious progress is, that as 
 early as fifteen years of age he began to have 
 serious ideas concerning the future state ; 
 that he fell into occasional ecstacies ; and 
 that in 1828, during one of these ecstacies, 
 he was visited by an angel, who told him that 
 his sins were forgiven, — that the time was 
 at hand when the gospel in its fullness was to 
 be preached to all nations, — that the Ameri- 
 can Indians were a remnant of Israel, who, 
 when they first came to this continent, were 
 an enlightened people possessing a knowledge 
 of the true God, and enjoying his favor, — 
 that the prophets and inspired writers among 
 them had kept a history or record of their 
 proceedings, — that these records were safely 
 deposited, — and that if faithful, he was to be 
 the favored instrument for bringing them to 
 light. On the following day, according to 
 instructions from his angelic familiar, he went 
 to a hill which he calls Cumorah in PalmjTa* 
 and there in a stone chest, after a little dig- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 811 
 
 ging, he saw the records ; but it was not till 
 September, 1827, that “ the angel of the Lord 
 delivered the records into his hands.” 
 
 “ These records were engraved on plates 
 which had the appearance of . gold, were sev- 
 en by eight inches in size, and thinner than 
 common tin, and were covered on both sides 
 with Egyptian characters, small and beauti- 
 fully engraved. They were bound together 
 in a volume like the leaves of a book, and 
 were fastened at one edge with three rings 
 running through the whole. The volume 
 was about six inches in thickness, bore many 
 marks of antiquity, and part of it was sealed. 
 With the records was found a curious instru- 
 ment, called by the ancients Urim and Thum- 
 mim, which consisted of two transparent 
 stones, clear as crystal, and set in two rims 
 of a bow ” — a pair of pebble spectacles, in 
 other words, or “ helps to read unknown 
 tongues.” 
 
 By the “ gift and power of God,” through 
 the means of the Urim and Thummim, he 
 translated the records, and “ being a poor 
 writer, he employed a scribe to write the 
 translation as it came from his mouth.” In 
 1830 a large edition of the “Book of Mor- 
 mon” was published. It professes to be an 
 abridgment of the records made by the 
 prophet Mormon, of the people of the 
 Nephites, and left to his son Moroni to finish. 
 It was written, there is good reason to be- 
 lieve, by a clergyman named Spaulding, 
 about 1812. Smith having obtained the MS., 
 resolved to palm it off as a new revelation. 
 
 In this he was well abetted by one Rigdon. 
 In 1830 they organized a church at Kirtland, 
 Ohio. In 1831-2 they founded Zion, in 
 Jackson county, Missouri. From 1833 to 
 1839 the sect endured much persecution, and 
 driven from place to place, were compelled 
 to travel westward ; till in 1840-1 the city 
 Nauvoo was laid out on the Mississippi, in 
 Illinois, where a temple was built. In 1844 
 Joseph and his brother Hiram, when in pris- 
 on on a charge of treason, were shot by an 
 infuriated mob, and Brigham Young was 
 chosen seer. 
 
 In 1845, the Mormons being much har- 
 assed by their neighbors, departure from 
 Nauvoo was determined on, and the Great 
 Salt Lake was chosen “for an everlasting 
 abode,” and taken possession of, July 24th, 
 
 1847. In 1849 the valley was surveyed by 
 order of the United States government, and 
 in 1850 the colony had attained to great pros- 
 perit} 7- . The provisional government was 
 abolished the same year, and Utah territory 
 organized, Brigham Young being appoint- 
 ed the first governor. 
 
 The Mormons command payment of tithes, 
 honor and encourage labor, permit and praise 
 polygamy, and believe in the power of their 
 leaders to work miracles. • Missionaries are 
 sent to all parts of the globe, and the sect re- 
 ceives large accessions from Europe. In 1857 
 the Mormons and the United States govern- 
 ment came in collision,- and an armed force 
 was sent into the territory. Bloodshed, how- 
 ever, was avoided, for the ‘saints’ yielded 
 after much bluster. 
 
 SMITH, Samuel Stanhope, D.D., LL.D., 
 an eminent Presbyterian clergyman, and 
 president of Princeton College ; he died in 
 1819, aged sixty-nine. 
 
 SMITH, Sydney, who for half a century 
 was conspicuous as critic and political writer, 
 was born at Woodford, county of Essex, 
 England, in 17G8. He received an excellent 
 education at Winchester, where his scholas- 
 tic triumphs won him a fellowship at Oxford ; 
 and commenced his clerical life as curate of 
 Netheravon, Wilts, a wild and desolate par- 
 ish. He soon relinquished it in order to 
 travel with the son of Mr. Beach, member 
 of parliament for Cirencester. This event 
 and its results, he has humorously described : 
 “ When first I went into the church, I had a 
 curacy in the middle of Salisbury Plain. 
 The squire of the parish took a fancy to me, 
 and requested me to go with his son to reside 
 at the university of Weimar. Before we 
 could get there, Germany became the seat 
 of war, and in stress of politics we put into 
 Edinburgh, where I remained five years. 
 The principles of the French revolution were 
 then fully afloat, and it is impossible to con- 
 ceive a more violent and agitated state of 
 society. Among the first persons with whom 
 I became acquainted were Lord Jeffrey, Lord 
 Murray (late lord advocate for Scotland), and 
 Lord Brougham ; all of them maintaining 
 opinions on political subjects a little too lib- 
 eral for the dynasty of Dundas, then exer- 
 cising supreme power over the northern 
 division of the island. One day we happened 
 
812 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 to meet in the eighth or ninth story or flat in 
 Buccleuch place, the elevated residence of the 
 then Mr. Jeffrey ; I proposed that we should 
 set up a Review ; this was acceded to with 
 acclamation. I was appointed editor, and 
 remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit 
 the first number of the Edinburgh Review. 
 The motto I proposed for the Review was — 
 
 Tenui mumrn meditamur avena — 
 
 We cultivate literature upon a little oatmeal. 
 
 But this was too near the truth to be admit- 
 ted, and we took our present grave motto 
 from Publius Syrus, of whom none of us, I 
 am sure, had ever read a single line ; and so 
 began what has since- turned out to be a very 
 important and able journal. When I left 
 Edinburgh it fell into the stronger hands of 
 Lord Jeffrey and Lord Brougham, and reached 
 the highest point of popularity and success.” 
 
 Smith left Edinburgh for London, where 
 he became a popular preacher, and also gained 
 fame for eloquence and wit as a lecturer upon 
 belles lettres at the Royal Institution. 
 Throughout his life his pen w r as busy in 
 political effusions. It is said that his amus- 
 ing “Letters of Peter Plymley ” did more 
 toward effecting Catholic emancipation than 
 any, and perhaps all, of the many other pub- 
 lications upon the subject. 
 
 He w r as for several years rector of Combe 
 Florey, in Somersetshire, and afterward canon 
 residentiary of St. Paul’s. He died in 1845, 
 aged seventy-six. 
 
 SMITH, William, D.D., eminent for elo- 
 quence and the advancement of literature ; 
 for many years provost of the college of 
 Philadelphia, and died in 1803. 
 
 SMITH, Sir William Sydney (commonly 
 called Sir Sydney Smith), was born in 1764. 
 At twelve years of age he was a midshipman 
 under Lord Rodney, and before he was twen- 
 ty, a post-captain. In an attempt to cut out 
 a French ship at Havre, he was taken pris- 
 oner; and under a charge that he had vio- 
 lated the law of nations by landing assassins 
 in France, he was immured in the prison of 
 the Temple at Paris, for two years. He was 
 released through the address and intrepidity 
 of Philippeaux, a French officer. An order 
 of the minister was forged, directing the gao- 
 ler to deliver Smith, to be transferred to 
 another prison. The gaoler obeyed, and 
 false passports bore Smith and Philippeaux 
 
 to Rouen. In an open boat they hurried out 
 into the channel, and were picked up by a 
 British frigate. 
 
 In 1798 Commodore Smith was dispatched 
 with an independent command to the coast 
 of Egypt. His aid enabled the Turks to hold 
 Acre, and the plans of Napoleon were baffled. 
 He was prominent in the operations by which 
 the French were expelled from Egypt, and to 
 the close of the war, displayed conspicuous 
 gallantry and skill. In 1814 he was made a 
 knight commander of the Bath, and received 
 a pension of £1,000 a year. He subsequent- 
 ly rose to the rank of admiral. He endeavored 
 to procure from the congress of Vienna, the 
 abolition of the slave trade, and a joint at- 
 tack of the European powers upon the pirat- 
 ical states of Barbary ; but fruitlessly. He 
 formed at Paris an association called the 
 Anti-Piratic, whose influence was afterward 
 seen in the subjugation of Algiers. Few 
 characters in modern history are so chivalric 
 as Sir Sydney Smith. He died at his resi- 
 dence in Paris, May 26th, 1840. 
 
 SMITHSON, James, an illegitimate son of 
 the Duke of Northumberland in England, 
 died in 1829, bequeathing the bulk of his 
 large property to the United States “ to 
 found at Washington, under the name oi the 
 Smithsonian Institution, an estanlishment for 
 the increase and diffusion of knowledge 
 among men.” 
 
 SMOLENSK O, a considerable town of 
 European Russia, and capital of the govern- 
 ment of the same name. The Russians 
 made, here, their first serious opposition to 
 the advance of the French, in the campaign 
 of 1812. An obstinate conflict took place on 
 the 16th and 17th of August, in which the 
 town was bombarded, and set on fire. The 
 Russians were compelled to fall back, and the 
 French extinguished the flames. On quit- 
 ting it in their disastrous retreat in Novem- 
 ber following, they blew up part of the 
 works. 
 
 SMOLLETT, Tobias George, a celebrated 
 novelist, was born near Renton in Dumbar- 
 tonshire, in 1721. He was bred a physician, 
 but made literature his profession. He died 
 near Leghorn, Oct. 21st, 1771. 
 
 SOBIESKI, John, was born in Galicia in 
 1629. He acquired great renown by his suc- 
 cesses over the Turks, and on the death of 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 813 
 
 Michael in 1674, he was chosen King of 
 Poland. The Turks still assailed their west- 
 ern neighbors, and to Sobieski Europe owed 
 a series of splendid victories which checked 
 the progress and broke the iron power of the 
 Moslem. To him at the battle of Vienna, in 
 1683, Austria was indebted for her deliver- 
 ance at the hour of her extremity. With 
 what abominable ingratitude has she repaid 
 her debt to Poland ! We can not withhold 
 from the reader a sketch of this momentous 
 battle. 
 
 The Turks offered not the least opposition 
 to the Poles as they crossed the bridge, and 
 all the imperial troops were safely assembled 
 on the western side of the Danube by the 
 7th of September, and amounted to about 
 70,000 men. They could hear from Tuln the 
 roar of the Turkish cannon. Vienna was, in 
 fact, reduced almost to its last gasp. Most 
 of the garrison were either killed or wounded, 
 and disease was making even greater ravages 
 than the enemy’s balls. “ The grave con- 
 tinued open without ever closing its mouth.” 
 As early as the 22d of August, the officers 
 had estimated that they could not withstand 
 a general attack three days. If the vizier 
 had pursued his advantage, Vienna must 
 have fallen into his hands. But it was his 
 object to avoid taking it by storm, in which 
 case the plunder would be carried off by the 
 soldiers ; whereas, if he could oblige it to 
 surrender, he might appropriate its spoil to 
 his own use. So careless was he, too, in his 
 confidence, that he had not yet ascertained 
 that the Poles were arrived, till they were in 
 his immediate vicinity ; and when the news 
 was afterward brought to him that the King 
 of Poland was advancing, “The King of 
 Poland ! ” said he, laughing, “ I know, indeed, 
 that he has sent Lubomirski with a few squad- 
 rons.” 
 
 The governor, Starembourg, who had as- 
 sured the.Duke of Lorraine that “he would 
 not surrender the place but with the last 
 drop of his blood,” began himself to despair 
 of being longer able to hold out. A letter 
 which he wrote at this period contained only 
 these words : “ No more time to lose, my 
 lord, no more time to lose.” 
 
 The imperial army set out on the 9th of 
 September for Vienna, but they had a march 
 of fourteen miles to make across a ridge of 
 
 mountains, over which the Germans could not 
 drag their cannon, and were therefore obliged 
 to leave them behind. The Poles were more 
 persevering, for they succeeded in getting 
 over twenty-eight pieces, which were all they 
 had to oppose to the three hundred of the 
 enemy. 
 
 On the 11th of September they reached 
 Mount Calemberg, the last which separated 
 them from the Turks. From this hill, the 
 Christians were presented with one of the 
 finest and most dreadful prospects of the 
 greatness of human power, — an immense 
 plain and all the islands of the Danube cov- 
 ered with pavilions, whose magnificence 
 seemed rather calculated for an encampment 
 of pleasure than the hardships of war ; an 
 innumerable multitude of horses, camels, and 
 buffaloes ; 200,000 men all in motion ; swarms 
 of Tartars dispersed along the foot of the 
 mountain in their usual confusion ; the fire 
 of the besiegers incessant and terrible, and 
 that of the besieged such as they could con- 
 trive to make ; in fine, a great city distin- 
 guishable only by the tops of the steeples, 
 and the fire and smoke that covered it. But 
 Sobieski was not imposed on by this formi- 
 dable sight. “ This man,” said he, “ is badly 
 encamped ; he knows nothing of war ; we 
 shall certainly beat him.” The eagle eye of 
 the experienced warrior was not mistaken. 
 
 On the eve of the battle, he wrote to the 
 queen in these words : “We can easily see 
 
 that the general of an army who has neither 
 thought of intrenching himself nor concen- 
 trating his forces, but lies encamped there as 
 if we were a hundred miles from him, is pre- 
 destined to be beaten.” 
 
 Sunday, the 12th of September, 1683, was 
 the important day, big with the fate of Leo- 
 pold, that was to decide whether the Turkish 
 crescent should wave on the turrets of Vien- 
 na. The cannonade on the city began at the 
 break of day, for which purpose the vizier on 
 his part had withdrawn from his army the 
 janizaries, all his infantry, and nearly all his 
 artillery. The light cavalry, the Spahis, the 
 Tartars, and other irregular troops, were the 
 forces destined to encounter the enemy ; so 
 egregiously did Kara Mustapha miscalculate 
 the strength of his opponents. They were 
 commanded by Ibrahim Pacha, who was re- 
 garded by the Turks as one of the greatest 
 
 SOB 
 
814 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 generals of the age ; but, unfortunately for 
 them, he was one of those who disapproved 
 the w T ar, and particularly the present plan of 
 it. At eight in the morning there was some 
 skirmishing ; at eleven the Christian army 
 was drawn up in array in the plain ; and 
 Kara Mustapha, beginning to apprehend that 
 the allies were more formidable than he anti- 
 cipated, had changed his design, and came to 
 command his troops in person. He was sta- 
 tioned in the centre, and Sobieski occupied 
 the same situation in his army. 
 
 It was nearly five in the evening, and the 
 engagement had only been partial ; for Sobi- 
 eski’s infantry had not come up, and the 
 vizier was to be seen under a superb crimson 
 tent, quietly sipping coffee, while the King 
 of Poland was before him. At length the 
 infantry arrived, and Sobieski ordered them 
 to seize an eminence which commanded the 
 vizier’s position. The promptitude and gal- 
 lantry with which this maneuvre was exe- 
 cuted decided the fate of the day. Kara 
 Mustapha, taken by surprise at this unex- 
 pected attack, ordered all his infantry to his 
 right wing, and the movement put all the line 
 in confusion. The king cried out that they 
 were lost men ; he ordered the Duke of Lor- 
 raine to attack the centre, which was now 
 exposed and weakened, while he himself 
 made his way through the confused Turks 
 straight for the vizier’s tent. He was in- 
 stantly recognized by the streamers which 
 adorned the lances of his guard. “ By Al- 
 lah ! ” exclaimed the cham of the Tartars, 
 “ the king is w r ith them ! ” An eclipse of the 
 moon added to the consternation of the su- 
 perstitious Moslems. At this moment the 
 Polish cavalry made a grand charge, and at 
 the same time the Duke of Lorraine with his 
 troops added to the confusion ; and the rout 
 of the Turks became general. The vizier in 
 vain tried to rally them. “And you,” said 
 he to the cham of the Tartars, who passed 
 him among the fugitives, “ can not you help 
 me ? ” “I know the King of Poland ! ” was 
 the answer. “ I told you that if we had to 
 deal with him, all we could do would be to 
 run away. Look at the sky ; see if God is 
 not against us.” The immense Turkish army 
 was wholly broken up, and Vienna was saved. 
 
 So sudden and general was the panic 
 among the Turks, that by six o’clock Sobieski 
 
 had taken possession of their camp. One 
 of the vizier’s stirrups, finely enameled, was 
 brought to him. “ Take this stirrup,” said 
 he, “ to the queen, and tell her that the per- 
 son to whom it belonged is defeated.” Hav- 
 ing strictly forbidden his soldiers from plun- 
 dering, they rested under the Turkish tents. 
 
 Such were the events of the famous deliv- 
 erance of Vienna as they were seen by a 
 looker-on ; and the outline of the narrative 
 is filled up by one who was the best informed, 
 and not the least impartial, no less than the 
 great hero himself. “The victory has been 
 so sudden and extraordmarj^,” he whites to 
 the queen, “ that the city, as well as the 
 camp, was in continual alarm, expecting to 
 see the enemy return every moment. Night 
 put an end to the pursuit, and besides, the 
 Turks defended themselves with f ury in their 
 flight. All the troops have done their duty 
 well ; they attribute the victory to God and 
 us. At the moment w r hen the enemy began 
 to give ground (and the greatest shock was 
 where I was stationed, opposite the vizier), 
 all the cavalry of the rest of the army ad- 
 vanced toward me on the right wing, the cen* 
 tre and the left wing having as yet but* little 
 to do. The emperor is about a mile and a half 
 distant. He is coming down the Danube in 
 a chaloupe ; but I perceive he has no great 
 wish to see me, perhaps on account of the 
 etiquette. I am very glad to avoid these 
 ceremonies ; we have been treated with noth- 
 ing else up to this time. Our darling is brave 
 in the highest degree.” 
 
 On the following day John made his en- 
 trance into Vienna. The breach made by 
 the Turks, and through which they expected 
 to march to the destruction of the city, was 
 the road which admitted its deliverer. The 
 citizens received him with undisguised ex- 
 pressions of gratitude ; and, stern warrior as 
 he w T as, Sobieski shed a tear of joy at receiv- 
 ing the thanks and acclamations of the vic- 
 tims whom he had rescued from destruction. 
 “ Never,” said he, “ did the crown yield me 
 pleasure like this ! ” The people could not 
 help comparing him with their own disgrace- 
 ful sovereign, and exclaiming, “ Ah ! why is 
 not this our master ?” With difficulty could 
 the stern looks of the emperor’s officers check 
 these natural expressions of feeling. But 
 Sobieski did not arrogate to himself only the 
 
 SOB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 815 
 
 glory of the victory ; he went to the cathe- 
 dral to return thanks, and began to sing the 
 Te Deum himself. A sermon was afterward 
 delivered, and the preacher chose the follow- 
 ing text for the occasion : “ There was a 
 
 man sent from God, whose name was John.” 
 
 He died of apoplexy, June 17th, 1696, 
 after a reign of twenty -two years ; and was 
 justly considered the most accomplished sov- 
 ereign that ever sat on the throne of Poland. 
 
 SOCINUS, Faustus, founder of the Socin- 
 ian sect, was born at Sienna in 1539, and 
 died near Cracow in 1604. His uncle Laelius, 
 who died at Zurich in 1562, aged thirty-seven, 
 held views somewhat similar. 
 
 SOCRATES, the most celebrated philoso- 
 pher of all antiquity, was a native of Athens. 
 Philosophy soon became the study of Socra- 
 tes ; and under Archelaus and Anaxagoras 
 he laid the foundation of that exemplary vir- 
 tue which succeeding ages have ever loved 
 and venerated. He appeared like the rest 
 of his countrymen in the field of battle ; he 
 fought with boldness and intrepidity ; and 
 to his courage two of his friends and disci- 
 ples, Xenophon and Alcibiades, owed the 
 preservation of their lives. But the charac- 
 ter of Socrates appears more conspicuous and 
 dignified as a philosopher and moralist, than 
 as a warrior. His principles were enforced by 
 the unparalleled example of an affectionate 
 husband, a tender parent, a warlike soldier, 
 and a patriotic citizen, in his own person. 
 He was born b.c. 470, and died b.c. 400, 
 being unjustly condemned to death. Plato, 
 who was one of his disciples, reverently en- 
 titled him, “ the best of all men of this time, 
 the wisest and most just of all men.” 
 
 SOLON", one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece, was born at Salamis, and educated at 
 Athens. After he had devoted part of his 
 time to philosophical and political studies, 
 Solon traveled over the greatest part of 
 Greece, but at his return home he was dis- 
 tressed with the dissensions which were 
 kindled among his countrymen. All fixed 
 their eyes upon Solon as a deliverer, and he 
 was unanimously elected archon and sove- 
 reign legislator. He flourished about 600 
 B.C. 
 
 SOLYMAN IT., the Great, succeeded his 
 father Selim I., as Sultan of Turkey in 1520. 
 Gazelles, governor of Syria, rebelling after 
 
 the death of Selim, and having made himself 
 master of a part of Egypt, was defeated by 
 Solyman’s generals, who himself resolved to 
 turn his arms against the Christians. Ac- 
 cordingly, in 1521 ne took Belgrade, and the 
 next year Rhodes. This victory was followed 
 by the revolt of the Egyptians and some oth- 
 er nations, which were defeated by Ibrahim 
 Bassa ; and Solyman, in the mean time, being 
 advanced with his army into Hungary, won 
 the battle of Mohatz, in 1526, where Lewis 
 II. of Hungary lost his life in a morass. He 
 made several other expeditions into this king- 
 dom, where he took Buda, Pest, Gran, and 
 some other places, and died there himself at 
 the siege of Zigcth or Sigeth, the 4th of Sep- 
 tember, 1566, being seventy-two years of 
 age. In 1529 Solyman besieged Vienna, but 
 without success ; and in 1535, he took and 
 plundered Tauris ; and his generals subdued 
 several cities and provinces in Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa. Besides his career of war, he 
 improved the administration of Turkey, en- 
 couraged learning, opened roads, erected 
 caravansaries, hospitals, and libraries, and 
 in other ways evinced an enlightened policy. 
 
 SOMERS, John, Lord, a famous English 
 lawyer and statesman, was born at Worces- 
 ter, March 4th, 1650. In 1688 he was one 
 of the counsel for the seven bishops; and 
 being chosen a member of the convention 
 parliament, he distinguished himself at the 
 conference of the two houses, on the ques- 
 tion about the abdication of the throne. 
 When the new government was established, 
 he became, successively, solicitor general and 
 attorney-general, and in 1693 lord-keeper. 
 He was next raised to the peerage, appointed 
 chancellor, and rewarded with lands in the 
 county of Surrey. In 1700 he was deprived 
 of the seals, and soon after impeached by 
 the Commons.; but a misunderstanding aris- 
 ing between the two houses, the Lords pro- 
 nounced a verdict of acquittal. Lord Somers 
 projected the union between England and 
 Scotland, and was one of the managers ap- 
 pointed to carry that measure into effect. In 
 1708 he was made president of the council, 
 but went out of office again in 1710: after 
 which he led a retired life, and died x\pril 
 26th, 1716. 
 
 SOPHOCLES was born in the vicinity of 
 Athens, b.c. 495. At the age of twenty-seven 
 
 SOP 
 
816 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 he bore the prize away from yEschylus, who 
 for thirty } r ears had been the master of the 
 Athenian stage. Twenty-seven years after, 
 Sophocles was surpassed by Euripides. Soph- 
 ocles died after completing his ninetieth 
 year. Of the one hundred and thirteen 
 plays that he wrote, only seven, with some 
 fragments, have descended to us. In his 
 hands the Athenian tragedy reached its high- 
 est perfection. 
 
 SOTHEBY, William, was distinguished 
 as a translator. Some of his principal works 
 are, Oberon, from the German of Wieland ; 
 the Georgies of Virgil translated into English 
 verse; and the translation of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey of Homer, in four volumes octavo, 
 with the designs of Flaxman. Mr. Sotheby 
 died in London, Dec. 30th, 1833, aged seventy- 
 six. 
 
 He was upward of seventy years old when 
 he commenced his spirited and faithful ver- 
 sion of Homer. 
 
 SOULT, Nicole Jean de Dieux, was born 
 in 1769, and entered the army in 1785. 
 His skill and bravery won him rapid 
 promotion; he was the first of the mar- 
 shals whom Napoleon created in 1804, and as 
 Duke of Dalmatia he was the first of the 
 marshals who were ennobled. He showed 
 great energy and talent in contending with 
 Wellington in Spain, though the latter drove 
 him into France. Soult fought for Bonaparte 
 at Waterloo, and for a time was proscribed 
 by the Bourbons. Ultimately he was re- 
 stored to his dignities. He died Nov. 26th, 
 1851. 
 
 SOUTH, Robert, an eminent English di- 
 vine, was born at Hackney in 1633, and edu- 
 cated at Westminster school, and Christ 
 Church, Oxford. He had a controversy with 
 Sherlock concerning the Trinity, and both 
 parties were charged with heresy. South 
 was a man of great wit. His sermons are 
 original and forcible. He died in 1716. 
 
 41 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA has an area of 
 28,000 square miles. In 1870 the population 
 was 705,606, of whom 289,667 were whites 
 and 415,814 colored. In form South Carolina 
 is a triangle, wedged in between North Caro- 
 lina and Georgia, with the Atlantic for a 
 base. 
 
 A tract of great breadth, with occasional 
 swamps, bounded on the east by the sea, is 
 perfectly level ; but proceeding inland we 
 observe the land to become more elevated, 
 and gradually to present an undulating and 
 broken appearance. The low lands are an 
 
 unhealthy residence, but in the upper regions 
 the inhabitants enjoy a salubrious climate. 
 
 The principal rivers, such as the Great 
 Pedee, the Santee, and the Congarce, are 
 navigable for small craft ; in the lower 
 part of their course they are shallow and 
 obstructed by bars. Similar obstacles dimin- 
 ish the value of the harbors. 
 
 The southern part of the coast is skirted 
 by a range of islands, separated from the 
 main land by narrow channels, which afford 
 an inland steamboat navigation from Charles- 
 ton to Savannah. These islands, like the 
 
 SOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 817 
 
 neighboring continent are low and flat, but 
 are covered with forests of live oak, pine, 
 and palmettoes, and they yield the black- 
 seed or Sea-Islaiad cotton. Before the culti- 
 vation of cotton, many of them were the 
 haunts of alligators, and their thick woods 
 and rank weeds rendered them impenetrable 
 to man. At present, they are under culti- 
 vation, and well inhabited ; and as the voya- 
 ger glides by their shores, he is enchanted 
 with the prospect of their lively verdure, 
 interspersed with thick clumps of palmet- 
 toes and flowering groves of orange-trees. 
 The live oak, which is so called on account 
 of its being an evergreen, is a noble tree, 
 with a trunk sometimes twelve feet in girth ; 
 its long branches are spread horizontally, and 
 festoons of moss hang from them almost 
 sweeping the ground. The laurel is here 
 seen covered with large white blossoms, 
 shaped like a lily, and a foot in circumference. 
 The long sandy beaches, which border these 
 islands toward the sea, are covered with 
 thousands of water -fowl. 
 
 Cotton and rice are the great agricultural 
 staples ; the former of which clothes more 
 of mankind than either wool, flax, hemp, or 
 silk, and the latter feeds more of the human 
 race than any other grain. Rice was first 
 sown in Carolina in 1G93. There are no 
 manufactures of any importance; but the 
 commerce of the state is extensive : it con- 
 sists of exports of her own raw produce, 
 such as rice, cotton, tar, pitch, turpentine, 
 and lumber, and of large quantities of the 
 productions of North Carolina and Georgia, 
 and in imports for home consumption. 
 
 South Carolina was granted to Lord Clar- 
 endon and others in 1663, but no permanent 
 establishment was made until 1680. The 
 celebrated John Locke drew up a plan of 
 government for the colony, but it proved im- 
 practicable. In 1719 the proprietary govern- 
 ment was done away, the two Carolinas were 
 separated, and they were made royal colo- 
 nies. During the Revolutionary war, this 
 state was distinguished for its exertions in 
 the good cause, . which owed much to the 
 bravery of Marion, Sumter, and Lee, all of 
 whom were worthy of the military reputa- 
 tion they enjoyed. In 1780 and 1781 it was 
 the theatre of important military operations, 
 and was overrun by the British troops. 
 
 52 
 
 The present constitution was adopted in 
 1790. The governor is chosen for four years 
 by the legislature, whose sessions are annu- 
 al. He is not re -eligible for the next four 
 years. The representatives and half the sen- 
 ators are chosen biennially. The constitution 
 grants the right of suffrage to every male citi- 
 zen of the age of twenty-one years, who has 
 resided in the state two years, and has been 
 possessed at least six months of a freehold of 
 fifty acres of land or a town lot, or who has 
 resided in the election district six months and 
 paid a tax of three shillings sterling to the 
 state the preceding year. 
 
 South Carolina w r as the first state to secede 
 during the late rebellion. She had been in 
 1832 the hot-bed of nullification, and was 
 now again the headquarters of disunionism. 
 The state was for a long time comparatively 
 free from the ravages of the war, owing to 
 her distance from the principal areas of cam- 
 paigning, but during Sherman’s march north- 
 ward from Savannah the Union troops lived 
 at free quarters on the country, and inflicted 
 upon South Carolina a considerable share of 
 the horrors of war. 
 
 Columbia, the capital, is pleasantly situ- 
 ated on the Congaree, just below the junction 
 of the Saluda and Broad Rivers. It is regu- 
 larly laid out, with very wide streets, and is 
 a neatly built town of 9,298 inhabitants. It 
 was laid out in 1787. [ See Charleston.] 
 
 SOUTHEY, Robert, was one of the most 
 voluminous and learned English authors of 
 the century. A poet, scholar, antiquary, 
 critic, and historian, he wrote more than even 
 Scott, and it is said he burned more verses 
 between Us twentieth and thirtieth years 
 than he published during his whole life. He 
 was a native «of Bristol, the son of a linen- 
 draper, and was born Aug. 12th, 1774. He 
 was indebted to a maternal uncle, Dr. Her- 
 bert, chaplain to the English factory at Lis- 
 bon, for most of his education, and in 1792, 
 was admitted to Baliol College, Oxford, hav- 
 ing passed with credit through Westminster 
 school. He was designed for the church ; 
 but becoming a Jacobin in politics and a 
 Socinian in religion, he left Oxford in 1794. 
 The extreme opinions he then held were 
 embodied in a drama called “Wat T} r lcr,” 
 which was long afterward published surrep- 
 titiously by a knavish bookseller, to annoy 
 
 SOU 
 
818 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 its author. In 1794 he made the acquaint- 
 ance of Coleridge ; and, having already pub- 
 lished poems in conjunction with his friend 
 Lovell, he now, with his new ally, wrote 
 “The Fall of Robespierre” and “Joan of 
 Arc.” In 1795 Southey married, at Bristol, 
 Edith Frieker, the sister oi Mrs. Coleridge 
 and Mrs. Lovell. According to De Quincey, 
 the poet, compelled by poverty, parted with 
 his wife at the portico of the church immedi- 
 ately after the marriage, and set out to ac- 
 company an uncle to Lisbon. On his return 
 in 1797, he published “Letters from Spain 
 and Portugal.” He was still reluctant to 
 embrace literature as a profession. The study 
 of law was commenced in London, but never 
 zealously pursued, and gradually deserted 
 altogether for literary study and composi- 
 tion. His circumstances were made easier 
 by the friendship of Mr. Wynn, who allowed 
 him an annuity of £160 till he obtained the 
 laureateship. His youthful extremities of 
 opinion were already, to all appearance, quite 
 extinct ; if he was not even far on the way 
 toward that admiration of aristocratic prin- 
 ciples and of the Anglican hierarch}', which, 
 oddly mingled with liberal hobbies of his 
 own, he entertained and uttered so vehement- 
 ly in the later stages of his life. 
 
 In 1801 he accompanied Mr. Foster, chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, to Ireland, as private 
 secretary ; and the same year witnessed the 
 publication of another epic, “ Thalaba the 
 Destroyer,” an Arabian fiction of great beauty 
 and magnificence. In 1803 he settled hirm, 
 self in a. house called Greta Hall, near Kes- 
 wick ; and there he resided nearly forty years, 
 laboring at his desk with the steadiness of a 
 book-keeper, and dividing his time, easily and 
 regularly, between the tasks by which h- 
 made his bread and the undertakings by 
 which he hoped to gain immortality. In 
 1813 he was appointed poet-laureate, chiefly 
 through the influence of Sir Walter Scott, 
 who himself declined the place. His pro- 
 ductions in this capacity won him little credit, 
 and one of them, “ The Vision of Judgment,” 
 cost him a merciless and witty castigation 
 from Byron in a poem of the same name. 
 Ilis only certain source of income was his 
 pension, from which he received £1^5, and 
 the laureateship, which was £90 : the larger 
 portion of these two sums, however, went to 
 
 the payment of his life-insurance, so that not 
 more than £100 could be calculated upon as 
 available ; and the Quarterly Review was 
 therefore for many years his chief means of sup- 
 port. He received, latterly, £100 for an arti- 
 ' cle, and commonly furnished one for each num- 
 ber. What more was needful had to be made 
 up by his other works, which, as they were al- 
 ways published on the terms of the publisher 
 taking the risk •and sharing the profit, pro- 
 duced him but little, considering the length 
 of time they were often in preparation ; and 
 as he was constantly adding new purchases 
 to his library, but little was to be reckoned 
 on this account. For the “ Peninsular War ” 
 he received £1,000, but the copyright re- 
 mained the property of the publisher. He 
 was a most thoroughly domestic man, in that 
 his whole pleasure and happiness centered in 
 his home ; but yet, from the course of his 
 pursuits, his family necessarily saw but little 
 of him. Every day, every hour, had its 
 allotted employment ; there were always 
 engagements to publishers imperatively re- 
 quiring punctual fulfillment ; always the cur- 
 rent expenses of a large household to take 
 anxious thought for : he had no crops grow- 
 ing while he was idle. “ My ways,” he used 
 to say, “ are as broad as the king’s high road, 
 and my means lie in an inkstand.” 
 
 But out of the gains of his steady toil, the 
 industrious and kind-hearted man of letters 
 supported one of his sisters-in-law for some 
 time in his house, and the other for many 
 years ; while he brought up his family in 
 respectability, and left at his death about 
 twelve thousand pounds in cash and insur- 
 ances, and a large and valuable library. Ilis 
 principal poems, besides those already men- 
 tioned, were “ Madoc” (1805), “The Curse 
 of Kchama” (1810), and “ Roderick, the Last 
 of the Goths” (1814). The. first is inferior, 
 but the latter two added largely to his al- 
 ready splendid reputation. His lives of Nel- 
 son and of Wesley were highly popular. 
 His prose is excellent in style, easy and idio- 
 matic, tasteful and clear, though wanting in 
 point and tending to verbosity. “ The Doc- 
 tor,” whose authorship was for a long time a 
 mystery, was published anonymously in 
 1834 : it has much that is clever and a great 
 deal that is amusing ; but it contains rather 
 Ihe collections of a reading man, than the 
 
 SOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 819 
 
 Inventions or observations of a man of 
 genius. 
 
 In 1835 Sir Robert Peel wrote to Southey, 
 informing him that he had advised the king 
 to “adorn the distinction of the baronetage 
 ■with a name the most eminent in literature,* 
 and which had claims to respect and honor 
 that literature could never confer,” — that of 
 Southey. He accompanied this with a pri- 
 vate letter, begging to know if there was any 
 way in which the possession of power would 
 enable him to be of service to Mr. Southey. 
 The author declined the baronetcy, as he had 
 not the means of supporting it, and asked 
 for an increase of his pension, w*hich w*as 
 then £200. Sir Robert soon after added to 
 this a new pension of £300, on the principle 
 of “the recognition of literary and scientific 
 eminence as a public claim.” He conferred, 
 at the same time, a similar pension on Prof. 
 Airey, of Cambridge, Mrs. Somerville, Sharon 
 Turner, and James Montgomery. 
 
 In 1837 the death of Mrs. Southey, after 
 long affliction, deeply depressed her husband, 
 •already worn down by his many years of hon- 
 orable toil. In 1839 he found an affectionate 
 companion for his decline by wedding Miss 
 Caroline Bowles, herself a well-known poet- 
 ess. He w r as attacked by paralysis, his mem- 
 ory and other powers failed rapidly, and he 
 had been imbecile a good while before his 
 death, wfflich took place March 21st, 1843. 
 
 A foible of Southey’s was his fondness for 
 cats. The merry nicknames he so profusely 
 bestowed upon his human acquaintances 
 were paralleled by those he gave his feline 
 favorites. Whimsical mention of them 
 abounds in his correspondence. Thus, in a 
 letter to one of his daughters, he grieves to 
 inform her of the “ illness of his Serene 
 Highness the Archduke Rumpelstilzchen, 
 Marquis Macbun, Earl Tomlemagne, Baron 
 Raticide, Waouhler and Skratsch. His Se- 
 rene Highness is afflicted with the mange.” 
 And in 1837 he wrote to Mrs. Bray, “My 
 cattery consists at present only of Thomas, 
 Baron Chincilta, and Grey de Bychen, his 
 spouse and half-sister, Knurra-Murra-Purra- 
 Ilurra-Skurra, and the older half-brother of 
 both, who is an out-of-door freebooter, and 
 w T hose name is Chaka-chekka-chikka-cheeka- 
 chokka-choaka-chowski.” In his liking for 
 Grimalkin he is only equaled by the captain 
 
 with whom the novelist Fielding sailed to Lis- 
 bon. When a kitten fell overboard, he had 
 the ship put about to save it, and when the 
 unlucky animal was afterward suffocated in 
 a feather-bed, his lamentations resembled an 
 Irish howl. 
 
 SPAIN, an extensive country of Europe, 
 separated by the Pyrenees from France, and 
 surrounded by the Mediterranean, the Atlan- 
 tic, and the Bay of Biscay, contains 177,718 
 square miles, and about 17,000,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Spain is naturally one of the most 
 fertile countries in the world. Its wfines, 
 silks, oil, wool, metals, and minerals ; various 
 fruits, as citrons, lemons, oranges, pome- 
 granates, almonds, and figs ; and its famous 
 horses, — are as valuable as they are celebra- 
 ted. The principal mountains are the Pyre- 
 nees, between France and Spain; Montserrat 
 in Catalonia ; the mountains of the Asturias, 
 those of the kingdom of Leon and New Cas- 
 tile ; and the Sierra Morena in Andalusia. 
 The principal rivers arc the Douro, which 
 rises in Old Castile, the Tagus, the Guadiana, 
 and the Guadalquivir, all flowing into the 
 ocean. The Ebro, whose sources are in the 
 frontiers of Aragon, discharges itself into the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The ancient provinces of Spain have been 
 supplanted by new divisions, but as their 
 names are historic, we give a list of them : 
 Aragon, Asturias, Basque provinces, Old and 
 New Castile, Catalonia, Cordova, Estrema- 
 dura, Galicia, Granada, Jaen, Leon, Mercia, 
 Navarre, Seville, and Valencia. A few colo- 
 nial possessions have been preserved from the 
 broad dominions once under Spanish rule in 
 the Old World and the New ; as, Cuba, Por- 
 to Rico, and some lesser islands in the West 
 Indies, and the Philippines in the East Indies. 
 The Balearic Isles (Majorca, Minorca, &c.), 
 in the Mediterranean, and the Canaries in 
 the Atlantic, belong to Spain, and form prov- 
 inces of the kingdom. The commerce and 
 manufactures, once so considerable, have 
 shared the general decay. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the established reli- 
 gion, and the only faith that is tolerated. 
 Education is very scantily diffused, the poorer 
 classes receiving little or none ; the univer- 
 sities once so famous have sunk in repute 
 and the number of students, and many have 
 ceased to exist. The government of Spain 
 
820 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 is a constitutional monarchy, the national 
 legislature being called the Cortes. 
 
 Madrid, the capital of Spain, and of the 
 ancient province of New Castile, has about 
 
 217.000 inhabitants. It is surrounded by a 
 
 brick wall, twenty feet high, and entered by 
 fifteen gates. As one approaches it, the many 
 fantastic spires of churches and conventual 
 buildings, the tiled roofs of the houses, the 
 sterility of the neighborhood, and the want 
 of villas and gardens such as usually mark 
 the environs of a great city, give to* Madrid a 
 gloomy appearance. The interior is more 
 comely. It was a mere village until the 
 reign of Henry III. of Castile. The wild 
 boar and the bear were abundant in the adja- 
 cent mountains, and his love of hunting them 
 led him to make Madrid his residence during- 
 the season for the chase. Philip II. made it 
 the capital of the Spanish dominions. We 
 have only room for a list of other principal 
 towns, with their population : Barcelona, 
 
 140,000; Valencia, 71,000; Carthagena, 
 28,000; Malaga, 66,000; Cadiz, 54,000; 
 Corunna, 19,000; Ferrol, 16,000; Valladolid, 
 
 20.000 ; Saragossa, 40,500 ; Granada, 70,000 ; 
 Cordova, 42,000; Toledo, 13,500 ; St. Jago 
 de Compostella, 29,000 ; Seville, 85,000. 
 
 The clouds which cover the primitive his- 
 tory of Spain, do not begin to be dissipated, 
 till the period when the Phoenicians arrived, 
 and formed establishments in the country, 
 before uncivilized and unknown. It is sup- 
 posed that they landed in the island of St. 
 Peter, where they constructed the temple of 
 Hercules, the remains of which are still to 
 be seen when the sea ebbs more than usual. 
 Soon afterward, the town of Gades, or Gadir, 
 was erected ; Calpe and Abyla became re- 
 nowned for the two columns denominated the 
 pillars of Hercules, on which the Phoenicians 
 engraved the inscription, Non plus ultra. 
 
 The Greeks, the pupils of the Phoenicians 
 in the art of navigation, did not fail to share 
 with them the advantages of this discovery. 
 They established an extensive commerce in 
 Spain, and founded several cities, among the 
 rest Ampurias and the unfortunate Sagun- 
 tum ; but the Carthaginians, possessing still 
 greater skill and power, soon made them- 
 selves masters of the whole peninsula ; and 
 such they would have remained, had not the 
 Romans, who alone were able to dispute with 
 
 them this brilliant conquest, at length sue* 
 ceeded in their efforts to wrest it from them. 
 In the hope of escaping from servitude, the 
 Spaniards sometimes endeavored to defend 
 themselves; but more frequently, deceived 
 •by the phantom of a generous alliance, they 
 faithfully promoted the views of their differ- 
 ent oppressors. 
 
 Thus, three cities chose rather to perish 
 than to surrender ; Saguntum, from attach- 
 ment to the Romans ; Astapa in Boetica, to 
 the Carthaginians, and Numantiafor the sake 
 of liberty. Exhausted by all these calami- 
 ties, Spain at length began to breathe, and 
 by degrees to recruit her strength under the 
 peaceable dominion of the Romans. Induced 
 by the fertility of her soil, and the richness 
 and variety of her productions, that people 
 founded numerous colonies in Spain ; military 
 roads were opened in every quarter; aque- 
 ducts conveyed to the cities the tribute of 
 the waters ; triumphal arches reminded the 
 conquerors of their glory ; theatres and cir- 
 cuses effaced from the minds of the van- 
 quished the memory of their misfortunes. 
 Saguntum saw its walls reared once more ; 
 Merida, Tarragona^ Cordova, Salamanca, Se- 
 govia, and other towns, admired the splendor 
 of their new edifices, the glorious testimo- 
 nies of the predilection of Rome for this 
 country, the rival of Italy. 
 
 This happy administration did not last 
 long. Rome, when mistress of the world, 
 soon became as odious as Carthage. Spain 
 had its Clodius and its Yerres ; and the most 
 beautiful province of the empire of the 
 Caesars was also the most wretched. The 
 Asturians and Cantabrians alone preserved 
 their independence, amid their mountains. 
 Augustus undertook their subjugation ; they 
 defended themselves, and most of them per- 
 ished sword in hand. The poets of Rome 
 celebrated this cruel victory, but posterity 
 admired only its victims. 
 
 Spain was subject to the Romans till toward 
 the conclusion of the fourth century. The 
 northern nations, after having ravaged the 
 other countries of Europe, penetrated into 
 Spain during the reign of Honorius : the 
 Suevi made themselves masters of Galicia, 
 and part of Portugal ; the Alani and Van- 
 dals, of Boetica. The Visigoths, following at 
 the heels of these ferocious conquerors, com- 
 
 SPA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 821 
 
 pelled the Alani and Vandals to retire to Af- 
 rica ; the Suevi made a longer resistance, 
 but at length they ceased to be a distinct 
 people, and all Spain received law from the 
 Goths. Tranquil possessors of Spain, and 
 enlightened by the gospel, they began to be 
 civilized ; but the climate which softened 
 their character, the repose which enervated 
 their courage, prepared an easy victory for 
 new conquerors. 
 
 The cruelty of King Vitlza, who died in 
 711, and the weakness of Roderick, his succes- 
 sor, accelerated the fatal moment, and Spain 
 fell a prey to enemies till then unknown. 
 The Arabs and Moors made an irruption into 
 the south of Spain, as the Goths had previ- 
 ously done in the north. The fate of Spain 
 was decided in the unfortunate battle of 
 Xerxes de la Frontera, where Roderick lost 
 his throne and his life. The conquerors, 
 finding no other obstacles, took possession of 
 all Spain, except those same Pyrenees which 
 had so long preserved their ancient inhabi- 
 tants from the Roman yoke. These moun- 
 tains, and their caverns, afforded a refuge to 
 such of the Spanish Goths as, collected by 
 Pelagius, a prince of the blood-royal of that 
 nation, were able to avoid the yoke of the 
 Saracens. 
 
 This second invasion, which might natu- 
 rally be supposed to have left the native 
 Spaniards no trace of their laws, their cus- 
 toms, and national qualities, produced a con- 
 trary effect : so amply have the blessings 
 bestowed on this happy country seemed al- 
 ways to compensate the inhabitants for the 
 severity of fortune. The Moors were not 
 long before they felt that influence which had 
 softened the manners of the Goths, and 
 taught them to relish the charms of a tran- 
 quil life. No sooner were the new conquer- 
 ors happy, than they ceased to be barbarous. 
 The principle of civilization was developed 
 among them with extraordinary rapidity ; the 
 love of letters ennobled their ideas, and puri- 
 fied their taste, without diminishing their 
 courage. At Seville, at Grenada, at Cordova, 
 schools and public libraries were opened ; 
 and while Christian Europe was covered with 
 the clouds of ignorance, the genius of Aver- 
 roes, and a multitude of learned men, enlight- 
 ened the civilized Mussulmans. Not content 
 with patronizing the sciences, the Moorish 
 
 kings, themselves, cultivated them. Those 
 princes united the private virtues with mili- 
 tary qualities ; they were poets, historians, 
 mathematicians, philosophers, and great cap- 
 tains ; and many of them deserved a still 
 more honorable appellation, that of the best 
 of kings. At this new epoch of the history 
 of Spain, a new taste was introduced into the 
 arts, and gave a direction to architecture in 
 particular. The ancient structures of the 
 Goths did not harmonize with the customs 
 and the religion of the Moors. The latter, 
 indifferent to external decorations, reserved 
 all their ingenuity for the interior of their 
 edifices. There they lavished whatever was 
 calculated to delight the senses and to accord 
 with a sedentary and voluptuous life. Hence 
 the singular magnificence of their palaces 
 and their mosques, — that richness in their 
 ornaments, that finish in the smallest details, 
 which far surpass the beauty of the whole. 
 
 The Moors were not left to reign in quiet : 
 Pelagius having fled to the mountains, not 
 only defended himself there with courage, 
 but under the banners of the cross ventured 
 to conduct his troops into the countries con- 
 tiguous to his retreat. This illustrious man, 
 concerning whom we have, unfortunately, 
 but few particulars, had collected all the 
 nobles of the Asturias and the rest of Spain. 
 This force, which long proved invincible, was 
 the instrument of the conquests of different 
 chiefs, the ablest of whom made themselves 
 sovereigns. By them were founded the 
 kingdoms of Castile, Leon, Aragon, and 
 Navarre, successively conquered from the 
 Moors. 
 
 This war, which continued several centu- 
 ries, has, alternately, the air of history and 
 of romance. It consists of battles, sieges, 
 assaults, and still more frequently of tourna- 
 ments, banquets, and challenges, given 
 and accepted with equal audacity. In 
 these celebrated lists, triumphed the heroes 
 whose exploits are recorded in the Spanish 
 romances ; and of these, Rodrigo de Bivar, 
 surnamed the Cid, particularly distinguished 
 himself. Equal in virtue, and superior in 
 power, to Bayard, he was, like him, the ob- 
 ject of the veneration not only of his breth- 
 ren in arms, but also of the enemies of his 
 country. 
 
 Reduced to the single kingdom of Gre- 
 
 SPA 
 
822 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 nada, the Moors there maintained themselves 
 for several centuries ; but, at length, expelled 
 from their last asylum, they were obliged to 
 withdraw to Africa in 1492. This important 
 event was reserved to crown the felicity of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, and the arms of Gon- 
 salvo de Cordova, seconded by other chiefs 
 of equal celebrity. Sovereigns of Spain and 
 of the New World, Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 after having attained the pinnacle of prosper- 
 ity, had the misfortune to leave their im- 
 mense possessions to a foreign dynasty. 
 They formed the dowry of their daughter 
 Joan, wife of Philip the Fair, Archduke of 
 Austria, and mother of Charles V. 
 
 Fortune, by her extraordinary favors, and 
 Cardinal Ximenes, by a wise administration, 
 threw a lustre upon the reign of Charles Y., 
 at one and the same time Emperor of Ger- 
 many and King of Spain. The talents and 
 genius of this prince seemed to have destined 
 him for universal monarchy ; and to his own 
 misfortune and that of the world, he aspired 
 to it. Palled, however, with the pomp and 
 pageantries of grandeur, he chose to end his 
 days in a monastery, and resigned his crown 
 to his son Philip, in 1556. 
 
 In this reign of Philip II., Portugal was 
 made a dependency of Spain. Now, too, the 
 great armada was sent forth against England. 
 Philip III. ascended the throne in 1598. 
 During this reign, the Moors were, at several 
 times, transported into Africa ; and Spain 
 sustained a loss of about 600,000 useful sub- 
 jects. Philip IY. possessed good natural 
 abilities ; and though the greatest part of his 
 reign was clouded by misfortunes or disap- 
 pointments, he certainly was desirous of in- 
 creasing the grandeur of the Spanish mon- 
 archy. The young king, Charles II., was 
 inaugurated in 1666, and displayed promis- 
 ing abilities. He was twice married, but had 
 the mortification of seeing himself without 
 offspring. When he resolved to make a will 
 in favor of the electoral house of Bavaria, 
 the young prince whom he had destined for 
 his successor died soon after. Upon hearing 
 that the different powers of Europe had actu- 
 ally made a partition of his territories, in 
 order, as they said, to avoid a general war, 
 Charles was so incensed, that he left his 
 crown, by a new will, to Philip, Duke of An- 
 jou, grandson of his eldest sister and of 
 
 Louis XIY. He expired in the thirty -ninth 
 year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his 
 reign ; and in him ended the Austrian 
 branch, which had given five sovereigns to 
 the Spanish nation. 
 
 Philip of Anjou was solemnly proclaimed 
 on the 24th of November, 1700. During his 
 absence in Italy with the French troops, a 
 league was formed against the house of 
 Bourbon, the object of which was to wrest 
 the crown of Spain from Philip Y., and to 
 place it on the head of Charles, Archduke of 
 Austria, who was also descended from a prin- 
 cess of Spain. This competitor arrived in 
 Portugal, which had also joined the league, 
 and assumed the name of Charles III., in 
 1704, and being supported by the English, 
 he immediately commenced the campaign. 
 The fate of these two princes, during the 
 course of the war, was as various as singu- 
 lar ; they expelled each other alternately 
 from the capital. 
 
 Philip V. died after a turbulent reign of 
 forty-three years. Ferdinand YI. succeeded 
 him’ in 1746, and died after a reign of fifteen 
 years. As Ferdinand had no issue, the crown 
 devolved on his brother Charles III., then 
 King of Naples and the Two Sicilies, who 
 transferred his Italian possessions to his third 
 son, and hastened to Madrid, to receive the 
 homage of his new subjects. Charles seemed 
 to devote his whole attention to the internal 
 economy of his dominions ; but his zeal for 
 the family compact soon roused him into 
 action, and induced him to proclaim war 
 against Great Britain and Portugal in 1761. 
 However, this war was unsuccessful, and on 
 the 10th of February, 1763, a treaty of peace 
 was concluded between the courts of Madrid, 
 Lisbon, and London. When the war be- 
 tween Great Britain and her American colo- 
 nies had subsisted for some time, and France 
 had taken part with the latter, Spain was 
 also induced to commence hostilities with 
 England. Accordingly, they laid siege to 
 Gibraltar, and made groat naval preparations 
 in 1782; but all their exertions proved vain 
 and ineffectual. The sad catastrophe of their 
 armada before Gibraltar, the repeated frus- 
 tration of all their designs upon Jamaica, and 
 the very embarrassed state of their finances, 
 induced the Spaniards to terminate so long, 
 expensive, and sanguinary a tf T ar, and 
 
 SPA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 823 
 
 to conclude a peace with Great Britain in 
 1783. 
 
 Charles IY. ascended the throne of Spain 
 in 1788, and declared war against France in 
 1793. After making every effort, his Catho- 
 lic majesty concluded a treaty. Spain w T as 
 afterward drawn into an alliance with the 
 French republic, and persuaded to commence 
 hostilities against Great Britain. In the 
 summer of 1797, a Spanish fleet, of twenty- 
 seven sail of the line, was appointed to form 
 a junction with the French fleet at Brest ; 
 and, after being re-enforced by a numerous 
 squadron of Dutch vessels, an attempt was 
 to be made on some part of the British do- 
 minions. However, before the intended 
 junction could be effected, the Spanish fleet 
 was met by Admiral Jervis, near Cape St. 
 Vincent, and an engagement ensued, in which, 
 notwithstanding the great inequality, the 
 English captured four of the enemy’s ves- 
 sels. The court of Madrid again issued a 
 declaration of war against England, and made 
 great preparations for prosecuting hostilities 
 with vigor and effect. After the junction of 
 the French Brest fleet with that of Spain, at 
 Ferrol, the united armament experienced sev- 
 eral signal defeats from the victorious British 
 navy, which terminated with the ever mem- 
 orable battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21st, 1805. 
 
 In 1807 a treaty was concluded between 
 the sovereigns of France and Spain, the ob- 
 ject of which was a partition of the king- 
 dom of Portugal. After obtaining posses- 
 sion of the capital of Portugal, and securing 
 free access for his troops to every part of the 
 peninsula, the Emperor of France waited for 
 a favorable opportunity to render himself 
 master of the whole. 
 
 In 1808 Charles IY. formed the design of 
 removing the seat of government to Mexico, 
 in America. No sooner had this transpired, 
 than an attack was made on the palace of 
 Godoy at Aranjuez ; and though the prince 
 effected his escape, the king found it necessa- 
 ry to dismiss him from all his employments. 
 The populace, however, still remaining in a 
 state of insurrection at Aranjuez and Madrid, 
 and the king being deprived of his prime 
 minister, Charles published another decree, 
 in which he announced that he had abdicated 
 the throne in favor of his son, the Prince of 
 Asturias, March 19th, 1808; and in the fol- 
 
 lowing May, father and son signed a conven- 
 tion at Bayonne, by which they ceded the 
 Spanish monarchy to the Emperor Napoleon. 
 To this the people did not agree. At Mad- 
 rid the populace rose against 10,000 French 
 troops with Murat at their head. A dread- 
 ful carnage took place, and terminated in the 
 defeat of the insurgents, and the disarming 
 of the whole city. A junta was summoned 
 to meet at Bayonne, where a new constitu- 
 tion for Spain was laid before them for their 
 acceptance ; Joseph Bonaparte, the new 
 king, transferred from the throne of Naples 
 to that of Spain, appeared in royal state. 
 
 An explosion of indignant patriotism burst 
 forth from one extremity of Spain to the 
 other. Provincial juntas w r ere established, 
 which g'ave a regular organization to the 
 popular efforts ; and the junta at Seville was 
 the first to proclaim Ferdinand VII. and war 
 against France. The friendship and assist- 
 ance of Great Britain were solicited, and 
 immediately granted. A desperate struggle 
 now commenced. The success of the Span- 
 iards was various, but the French in a short 
 time found themselves obliged to evacuate 
 Madrid. 
 
 Napoleon now determined in person to 
 change the fortune of the war ; and having 
 put his veteran troops in motion for Spain, 
 he proceeded to Bayonne, and thence to the 
 head-quarters of the French army at Vitto- 
 ria. The military force of Spain was wholly 
 unable to meet, upon equal terms, French 
 armies commanded by the most consummate 
 generals ; and the campaign which followed 
 the arrival of Napoleon, was a series of vic- 
 tories to the one, and of defeats to the other. 
 The French appeared intent on subjugating 
 the whole country ; but Napoleon was obliged 
 to leave Spain, in consequence of a breach 
 between France and Austria. His generals, 
 however, conducted the w T ar in Spain with so 
 much ability, that the cause of Spanish inde- 
 pendence was rendered almost desperate ; 
 and in 1810, King Joseph issued a manifesto 
 in which he affected to consider the contest 
 as decided. 
 
 The cortes of Spain assembled at Cadiz. 
 This body of national representatives was 
 elected by the provinces, cities, and provin- 
 cial juntas ; and they were termed the gen- 
 eral or extraordinary cortes, and to them 
 
 SPA 
 
824 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 was intrusted the sovereign power. They 
 swore fealty to Ferdinand VII., and declared 
 the renunciations at Bayonne null and void. 
 They took the title of majesty till the arrival 
 of Ferdinand, and assumed the legislative 
 power of the state. 
 
 The war was still prosecuted by the Span- 
 iards, but not with sufficient vigor ; and the 
 French actively employed their superiority 
 of force in extending their conquests through 
 a considerable part of Spain. In the course 
 of two months, the Spaniards lost the for- 
 tresses of Tortosa, Olivenca, and Badajos, 
 without any sufficient reason. The reduc- 
 tion of these places was followed by that of 
 Tarragona, in which every outrage and cru- 
 elty suffered in a town taken by storm, was 
 inflicted upon the inhabitants ; and, by this 
 conquest, the French became possessed of 
 the whole coast of Catalonia. 
 
 Lord Wellington, ■with the British and 
 Portuguese forces, recovered possession of 
 Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, in 1812 ; an£ 
 he soon after gave Marshal Marmont a signal 
 defeat at Salamanca. The effects of this 
 great victory were felt in different parts of 
 Spain ; King Joseph, with the central French 
 army, found himself obliged again to leave 
 Madrid ; and the French deserted the long 
 continued blockade of Cadiz. 
 
 The Spanish cortes presented the august 
 spectacle of a public signature of the articles 
 of that constitution which had so long been 
 the object of their labors. Deputies from all 
 parts of the monarchy w'ere present in this 
 solemnity. A commission was appointed to 
 carry the constitution to the regency. The 
 deputies swore to obey the constitution ; the 
 regency took the oath of office ; and the 
 constitution was solemnly proclaimed. 
 
 The next-important event was the battle 
 of Vittoria, in 1818. The French retired by 
 Pampeluna ; and being driven from all their 
 strong posts, they at length crossed the Bid- 
 assoa, and re-entered France. The allied for- 
 ces took the strong castle of St. Sebastian, 
 in the operations against which the British 
 navy gave effectual assistance. The progress 
 of the allies in France afterward produced the 
 capitulation of most of the French garrisons 
 remaining in Spain ; and at length the state 
 of affairs would no longer permit the deten- 
 tion of Ferdinand. 
 
 The king proceeded to Valencia in 1814, 
 where he was joined by most of the gran- 
 dees and many prelates. At this place, 
 Ferdinand issued a royal proclamation, in 
 which he declared his intention not only not 
 to swear or accede to the constitution, or to 
 any decree of the cortes derogating from his 
 prerogatives as sovereign, but to pronounce 
 that constitution and those decrees null and 
 of no effect. The decree for dissolving that 
 body was received with enthusiasm by the 
 people of Madrid. A great number of per- 
 sons were arrested, whose names comprised al- 
 most all those who had rendered themselves 
 conspicuous during the reign of the cortes in 
 favor of public liberty. Yet Ferdinand was 
 received in Madrid with every demonstration 
 of loyalty. 
 
 The period from 1814 to 1820 has been 
 called the reign of terror in Spain. The court 
 of inquisition was re-established, and Spain 
 was effectually thrown back to that degraded 
 state among nations from which she had seem- 
 ed about to emerge. During the captivity of 
 Ferdinand in France, Mexico and South 
 America were lost to Spain. F erdinand died 
 in 1833. His will named Isabel, his infant 
 daughter, as his successor, and her mother, 
 Christina, was appointed queen-regent. Don 
 Carlos, his brother, laid claim to the throne, 
 on the ground that by the Salique law women 
 were not eligible. A bloody civil strife en- 
 sued, lasting till September, 1840, when the 
 Carlists were finally defeated. Queen Isa- 
 bella and the Bourbon dynasty were over- 
 thrown Sept. 1868. Marshal Serrano became 
 Pres, of the Provisional Government Nov. 
 1868. Important reforms were made, viz : 
 universal suffrage, religious liberty, right of 
 public assemblage, trial by jury and equality 
 of all before the law. Promulgation of the 
 Spanish Constitution, June 8, 1869. 
 
 KINGS OF SPAIN. 
 
 1512. Ferdinand V., the Catholic. He was the 
 heir to the throne of Aragon ; by his 
 marriage with Isabella of Castile the 
 two kingdoms were united ; and by the 
 conquest of Grenada and Navarre, he 
 became monarch of all Spain : suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson. 
 
 1516. Charles I., son of Joan of Castile and 
 Philip of Austria ; became Emperor of 
 Germany as Charles V., in 1519. 
 
 1556. Philip II., his son, King of Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 1598. Philip ill., his son. 
 
 SPA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 825 
 
 1621. Philip IV., his son. 
 
 1665. Charles II., his son. 
 
 1700. Philip V., Duke of Anjou. 
 
 1724. Louis I., reigned a few months. 
 
 1724. Philip V. again. 
 
 1745. Ferdinand VI., his son. 
 
 1759. Charles III., brother of Ferdinand. 
 
 1788. Charles IV., his son. 
 
 1808. Ferdinand VII., his son. 
 
 1808. Joseph Bonaparte. 
 
 1814. Ferdinand VII., restored. 
 
 1833. Isabella II., his daughter, deposed, 1868 * 
 1870. Amadeus I. 
 
 SPARTA, or Lacedatmox, was one of the 
 most celebrated cities of Gi eece. Laconia, 
 the country of which Sparta was the capital, 
 was bounded north by Arcadia, east by the 
 Argolic Gulf, south by the Ionian Sea, and 
 west by Messenia. The Heraclidse, when 
 possessed of Greece, founded four kingdoms, 
 of which Sparta and Corinth were the most 
 distinguished. For nine hundred years 
 the Heraclidse furnished kings to Sparta, 
 Lycurgus gave the Spartans their cele- 
 brated laws. [ See Lycurgus.] The helots 
 were enslaved Messenians, whose country fell 
 into the hands of the Spartans. The bravery 
 of the Spartans was displayed against the 
 Persians, and, unfortunately, against their 
 own countrymen in their civil wars. The 
 Peloponnesian war ended (b.c. 404) in the 
 overthrow of Athens, and the supremacy of 
 the Spartans over all Greece. They were, 
 however, unable to contend successfully 
 against the Thebans under Epaminondas, and 
 were defeated by him in the battles of Leuc- 
 tra and Mantinea, the last of which was fatal 
 to the victor. Like the rest of their coun- 
 trymen, they fell beneath the power of Mace- 
 don. They were distinguished by fierceness, 
 fortitude, austerity, and contempt of luxury. 
 
 They were the most vigorous of the Greeks, 
 and the handsomest men and women were 
 found among them. A nation of warriors, 
 the painter, the sculptor, the poet, the histo- 
 rian, did not flourish among them ; and agri- 
 culture and trade, as well as arts and letters, 
 were loft to the Helots and other inferior 
 races. Their government was practically 
 oligarchical. The kingly or hereditary 
 authority was shared by two persons at the 
 same time. A few scattered ruins mark the 
 site of the ancient city of Sparta. 
 
 SPENSER, Edmund, whose genius was one 
 of the glories of the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 
 beth, was born in London about 1553. Sid- 
 ney and Raleigh were his friends and patrons. 
 In 1586, Spenser obtained from the crown a 
 grant out of the forfeited estates of the Earl 
 of Desmond in the so ith of Ireland. There, 
 in Kilcohnan Castle, he wrote the most of 
 “ The Faery Queen ; ” there he brought home 
 his wife, Elizabeth, welcoming her with that 
 noble strain of pure and fervent passion, 
 “ The Epithalamium,” the most magnificent 
 spousal verse in the language ; and there he 
 received the visits of Raleigh, his ‘ shepherd 
 of the ocean,’ and read him the gorgeous and 
 'dnvalric verse of his great poem, — 
 
 “ Amongst the coolly shade 
 
 Of the green aiders, by the Mulla’s shore.” 
 
 “ The Faery Queen ” was welcomed with loud 
 acclaim, and Spenser acknowledged as the 
 greatest poet of the time. 
 
 In Ireland, all the English interlopers were 
 hated by the conquered natives. Spenser 
 held office under the crown, and was a stren- 
 uous supporter of the arbitrary injustice that 
 might called right. In one of the storms of 
 insurrection Kilcolman Castle was beset, 
 plundered, and burned. Spenser and his 
 wife escaped, but in the confusion of the 
 calamity their new-born child perished in the 
 flames. The impoverished and broken-hearted 
 poet reached London, to die in about three 
 months, Jan. 16th, 1599. lie was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey, the Earl of Essex defray- 
 ing the cost of the funeral, and the hearse 
 attended by his brother poets, w’ho threw 
 “ mournful elegies ” into his grave. 
 
 SPINOLA, Ambrose, a famous general, 
 was born in Spain, of a noble Genoese fam- 
 ily, in 1571. He commanded an army in 
 Flanders, and in 1604 took Ostend ; for which 
 great exploit he was made general of all the 
 Spanish troops in the Low Countries, where 
 he was opposed by Maurice of Nassau. In 
 the war occasioned by the disputed succession 
 to the duchy of Cleves and Juliers, Spmola 
 took Aix-la-Chapelle, Wesel, and Breda. He 
 died in 1630. 
 
 SPINOZA, Baruch, or Benedict, born in 
 Amsterdam, Nov. 24th, 1632, died at the 
 Hague, Feb. 24th, 1677. His father was a 
 wealthy Portuguese Jew. 
 
 SPURZHEIM, John Gaspar, the celebra- 
 ted phrenologist, was born on the 31st of 
 December, 1776, at the village of Longwich 
 
 SPU 
 
826 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 near Treves, on the Moselle, in Germany ; 
 was educated at the university of ' Treves ; 
 became acquainted, about the year 1800, 
 with Dr. Gall, the founder of the doctrine 
 of craniology, as it was then called, and 
 afterward became an associate and fellow- 
 laborer in defending and propagating their 
 opinions in different countries of Europe. 
 After having given lectures in various cities 
 on the continent of Europe, and in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, he sailed to America in 
 1882, and on the 17th of September com- 
 menced a course of lectures on phrenology at 
 Boston, and soon after another .course at 
 Cambridge. He died after an illness of about 
 three weeks, in Boston, Mass., Nov. 10th, 
 1832, much lamented by those who had made 
 his acquaintance. 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Anne Louisa Ger- 
 maine Necker, Baroness de, was the daugh- 
 ter of Necker, the minister of finance, and 
 was born in Paris, in 1766. Her earliest 
 productions were “Sophia,” a comedy, writ- 
 ten in 1786, and the tragedies of “Lady 
 Jane Grey” and “Montmorency.” In 1786 
 she married the Baron de Stael-Holstein, the 
 Swedish ambassador. During the reign of 
 terror, she left Paris, but on the recognition 
 of the French republic by Sweden, her hus- 
 band returned to France in his official capaci- 
 ty, bringing his wife with him. He died in 
 1798. At Paris, Madam de Stael first beheld 
 Napoleon on his return after the treaty of 
 Campo Formio. But her early feelings of 
 admiration for him were soon changed into 
 those of aversion and hatred. She was ban- 
 ished from France by Bonaparte. In her 
 exile she published various works, among 
 them two romances, “Delphine” and “ Cor- 
 inne ou Italie,” the last the fruits of her toui- 
 in Italy. She visited Germany and Russia, 
 and produced a work upon the former. At 
 Geneva she married a young French officer 
 by the name of De Rocca, but did not 
 acknowledge the union until her death. In 
 1814 she returned to Paris, but Napoleon’s 
 return from Elba drove her to Coppet. She 
 died July 14th, 1817. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, served some time in 
 the English army in the Netherlands, and 
 settled with Robinson’s congregation at Ley- 
 den. Ho was not a member of the church, 
 — “never entered the school of Christ, or of 
 
 John the Baptist.” He came over in the May- 
 flower, and from his experience in warfare 
 was naturally made commander of the mili- 
 tary force of the colony. He was one of the 
 magistrates till his death at Duxbury in 1656, 
 aged about seventy-two. 
 
 STANHOPE, Charles, the third earl, was 
 born Aug. 3d, 1753. In 1774, he stood can- 
 didate for Westminster, but without success. 
 By the interest of the Earl of Shelburne, 
 however, he was brought into parliament for 
 the borough of Wycombe, which he repre- 
 sented till the death of his father, in 1786, 
 called him to the upper house. He distin- 
 guished himself at an early period of the 
 French Revolution, by an open avowal of 
 republican sentiments, and went so far as to 
 lay aside the external ornaments of the peer- 
 age. He was also a frequent speaker, and 
 on some occasions was left single in a minor- 
 ity. He died Dec. 16th, 1816. He distinguish- 
 ed himself by several valuable inventions; 
 among them a printing-press known by his 
 name. His first wife was a daughter of Lord 
 Chatham. Their daughter, Lady Ulster 
 Stanhope, retired to Syria after the death of 
 her uncle, William Pitt, and on Mount Leba- 
 non led a strange, romantic life; till her death 
 in 1839, at the age of seventy-three. 
 
 STANTON, Edwin M. See Ap’x, p. 976. 
 
 STARK, John, a general in the Revolu- 
 tionary war, was born at Londonderry, N. H., 
 Aug. 17th, 1728. In the French war of 
 1755 he served with distinction, and at the 
 battle of Bunker Hill fought at the head of 
 the New Hampshire troops. At Trenton and 
 Princeton his voice was heard, but at Ben- 
 nington he covered himself with glory. Pre- 
 vious to the battle, he addressed his troops 
 in a style well calculated to win their atten- 
 tion. “ We must beat them, my boys,” con- 
 cluded he, “ or this night Molly Stark is a 
 widow.” He died May 8th, 1822. 
 
 STEELE, Sir Richard, was born in 1671 
 in Ireland, of English parentage. Reckless- 
 ness, wit, vivacity, and good humor distin- 
 guished him through life. With him origi- 
 nated the periodical essays, the “Tattler,” 
 the “Spectator,” the “Guardian,” &c., which 
 his pen and that of Addison so richly 
 adorned. He was also a vigorous political 
 writer, sat in parliament, and was knighted 
 by George I. Party spirit severed the frtend- 
 
 STE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 827 
 
 ship so long existing between him and Addi- 
 son ; Steele’s conduct in the affair was far the 
 most creditable and manly. His carelessness 
 embroiled him in pecuniary difficulties, and 
 he died in Wales in 1729. 
 
 STEPHEN, King of England, was the 
 third son of Adela, fourth daughter of Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, and of Stephen, Count 
 of Blois. He was born in 1105, and was 
 invited to the English court by his uncle, 
 Henry I., who gave him lands and honors, 
 and promoted his marriage with Matilda, the 
 heiress of Boulogne. On the death of Henry 
 I., in the year 1135, Stephen assumed the 
 crown. In order to secure himself he passed 
 a charter, granting several privileges to the 
 different orders of the state ; to the nobility, 
 a permission to hunt in their own forests ; to 
 the clergy, a speedy filling of all vacant ben- 
 efices ; and to the Saxon people, restoration 
 of the laws of Edward the Confessor. Ma- 
 tilda, the daughter of Henry, asserting her 
 claim to the crown, landed upon the coast of 
 Sussex, assisted by Robert, Earl of Glouces- 
 ter. The whole of Matilda’s retinue amounted 
 to no more than one hundred and forty 
 knights, who immediately took possession of 
 Arundel Castle ; but her forces every day 
 seemed to gain ground. Meantime Stephen 
 flew to besiege Arundel, where she had taken 
 refuge, and where she was protected by the 
 queen dowager, who secretly favored her 
 pretensions. This fortress was too feeble to 
 promise a long defense, and would have been 
 soon taken, had it not been represented to 
 the king, that as it was a castle belonging tq 
 the queen dowager, it would be an infringe- 
 ment on the respect due to her to attempt 
 taking it by force. Stephen, therefore, per- 
 mitted Matilda to come forth in safety, and 
 had her conveyed with security to Bristol, 
 another fortress equally strong with that 
 whence he permitted her to retire. Matilda’s 
 forces increased every day ; and a victory 
 gained by them, threw Stephen from the 
 throne and exalted Matilda in his room. 
 Matilda, however, affected to treat the nobil- 
 ity with a degree of disdain, to which they 
 had long been unaccustomed ; so that the 
 nation soon began to desire the deposed 
 king. The Bishop of Winchester fomented 
 these discontents ; and when he found the 
 people ripe for a tumult, detached a party of 
 
 his friends and vassals to block up the city 
 of London, where the queen then resided, 
 and measures were taken to instigate the 
 Londoners to a revolt, and to seize her per- 
 son. Matilda having timely notice of this 
 conspiracy, fled to Winchester, whither the 
 bishop followed her. His party was soon 
 sufficient to bid the queen open defiance ; and 
 to besiege her in the very place where she 
 first received his benediction. There she 
 continued for some time, but the town being 
 pressed by famine, she was obliged to escape, 
 while her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, 
 endeavoring to follow, was taken prisoner, and 
 exchanged for Stephen, who still continued 
 a captive. Thus a sudden revolution once 
 more took place ; Matilda was deposed, while 
 Stephen was again recognized as king. His 
 reign, however, was soon terminated by his 
 death, which happened about a year after the 
 treaty at Canterbury, when Henry, Matilda’s 
 son, succeeded. 
 
 STEPHENSON, George, an eminent civil 
 engineer, whose name is linked with the 
 development of England’s railway system, 
 was born near Newcastle, in April, 1787. He 
 commenced life with picking turnips at two- 
 pence a day. Of course his advantages for 
 education were nothing. His ingenuity in 
 repairing an obstinate defect in the steam- 
 engine of a colliery at Killingworth gained 
 him the charge of the engine. He built a 
 rude locomotive as early as 1815. The first 
 railroad in England was that from Stockton 
 to Darlington, opened in 1825 : Stephenson 
 was the engineer. His locomotives then 
 traveled six miles an hour : the speed he 
 foresaw, under suspicion of insanity, he lived 
 to realize. With the construction of the 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway, Mr. 
 Stephenson entered upon the field of his 
 great fame. He died Aug. 12th, 1848. His 
 son Robert, the builder of the Britannia 
 tubular bridge over the Menai Straits, has 
 succeeded and added to his father’s fame. 
 
 STERNE, Lawrence, the author of “ Tris- 
 tram Shandy,” was born at Clonmel, Ire- 
 land, Nov. 24th, 1713, bred a clergyman, and 
 died in London, March 18th, 1768. 
 
 STEUBEN, Frederick William Augustus, 
 Baron von ; a brave Prussian officer who en- 
 tered the American service during our Revo- 
 lution, and in 1778 was appointed by Con- 
 
828 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 gress inspector-general of the forces, with 
 the rank of major-general. He commanded in 
 the trenches at Yorktown, where he received 
 the first offer of Cornwallis to capitulate. 
 Baron von Steuben was generous and hospi- 
 table, and introduced strict and efficient dis- 
 cipline into the army. He settled in Oneida 
 county, New York, where he had received a 
 grant of land, and, by the exertions of Wash- 
 ington and Hamilton obtained a pension of 
 $2,500 from the general government. He died 
 in 1795 of apoplexy. 
 
 STEYENS, Edward, a native of Virginia, 
 commanded a battalion of riflemen in the 
 battle of Great Bridge, near Norfolk, and 
 behaved with gallantry at Brandywine, Ger- 
 mantown, Camden, Guilford, and Yorktown. 
 He became a brigadier-general. He died in 
 1820, aged seventy-six. 
 
 STEWART, Dugald, a celebrated philo- 
 sophical writer, born in Scotland, 1753, died 
 in 1828. He was professor of moral philos- 
 oph} 1 ' in the university of Edinburgh. 
 
 STIRLING, William Alexander, Lord, 
 was born at New York, N. Y., in 1726. He 
 was a major-general in the army of the United 
 States during the Revolution, and distin- 
 guished himself throughout the whole of the 
 eventful struggle, but particularly in the 
 battles of Long Island, Germantown, and 
 Monmouth. He died at Albany, 1783, with 
 the reputation of a learned, brave, honest, 
 and patriotic man. The title of Lord Stir- 
 ling was given him by courtesy, as he claimed 
 to be the rightful heir to the earldom of that 
 name in Scotland, although his claims were 
 not sustained by legal tribunals. 
 
 STOCKTON, Richard, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born near 
 Princeton, N. J., Oct. 1st, 1730. Having 
 graduated at New Jersey College, he made 
 the tour of Great Britain. He became a law- 
 yer of eminence. June 21st, 1776, he was cho- 
 sen by the provincial congress a delegate to 
 the general congress assembled at Philadel- 
 phia. Nov. 30th of the same year, while re- 
 turning from a visit to the northern army, he 
 was seized in the night by the British, and 
 conveyed to New York, where he was treated 
 with such severity that his constitution was 
 broken, and after languishing a long time, he 
 died at Princeton, Feb. 28th, 1781, in the 
 fifty -first year ©f his age. 
 
 STOICS. The disciples of Zeno, the cynic 
 philosopher (190 b.c.), were named Stoics, 
 because they listened to their master’s har- 
 angues in a porch or pgrtico at* Athene, 
 called in the Greek, stoa. Zeno taught that 
 man’s supreme happiness consisted in living 
 agreeably to nature and reason, and that God 
 was the soul of the world. The sect were 
 marked by stiffness, patience, apathy, auster- 
 ity, and insensibility. 
 
 STONE, Thomas, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born in Charles 
 county, Maryland, 1742. He was a law- 
 yer by profession, and he was a delegate in 
 congress, 1775-79 and 1784-85. In 1784 he 
 was chosen president pro tempore of con- 
 gress. He died at Port Tobacco, Md., Octo- 
 ber 5th, 1787. 
 
 STONY POINT. The scenery of the Hud- 
 son river bears Nature’s grandest imprint. 
 The hand that framed an universe of worlds 
 has thrown together along the banks of this 
 noble stream a wild assemblage of rocks and 
 mountains. The Palisades, as they are called, 
 commence on the western side of the Hud- 
 son, just above Weehawken, and extend about 
 twelve miles up the river. They are bold, 
 abrupt demonstrations of omnipotence, mould- 
 ed bjr Him whose power is not bounded by 
 time or circumstance. The cannon of a 
 thousand armies might roar out their ineffect- 
 ual vengeance against this natural battery, 
 which frowns over the broad bright stream 
 at an elevation of from sixty to one hundred 
 and fifty feet ; and the parapet would laugh 
 in scorn at the power of battle. 
 
 After the Palisades terminate, a country 
 of hills and vales succeeds ; the former 
 rounded up like loaves of sugar, and the lat- 
 ter indented like dimples on the cheek of 
 beauty. Occasionally, however, Nature has 
 projected into the stream one of her bold 
 fronts, — a miniature formation of those “hills 
 of fear,” which cast their sombre shadows 
 across the pass of the Highlands. One of 
 these projections is Stony Point, standing 
 out in bold relief from the rural scenery just 
 below. The impressions which crowd into 
 the spectator’s mind in this region, are not 
 all derived from river, mountain, or valley : 
 tradition and history lend a melancholy glory 
 to this revolutionary ground. On the east- 
 ern bank stretches away the celebrated 
 
 STO 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 829 
 
 “neutral ground” throughout the entire 
 extent of Westchester county, where regu- 
 lars, cow-boys, Virginia horse, and continen- 
 tals, Wliigs, and Tories, appeared and disap- 
 peared like the actors of a wild and bloody 
 tragedy. On the left, Stony Point is allied 
 to associations of military achievements of 
 unfading renown ; while farther up, the mem- 
 ory of Arnold’s treason, Andre’s capture, and 
 his untimely although merited fate, twines 
 around the memorable rocks of West Point. 
 
 Stony Point is about forty miles above 
 New York and ten or fourteen below West 
 Point. It is a rounded, gravelly hill, of 
 small extent, jutting into the stream, and 
 connected with the main land by a low mo- 
 rass which is partially overflowed with the 
 tide waters. It was fortified in the Revolu- 
 tionary war, and, occupied by a small force, 
 might have been considered as a remote out- 
 post to the strong fortress of West Point. 
 It was captured by the British in the year 
 1779, strongly repaired, and garrisoned by 
 more than six hundred soldiers, commanded 
 by the brave Lieut. Col. Johnson. 
 
 A few days before the 15th of July, in the 
 same year, a tall, commanding personage, 
 mounted on a strong charger, was seen on 
 the eminences above Stony Point. He had a 
 glass in his hand, and appeared to study the 
 character of the defenses with an intensity 
 of interest. Johnson, who was returning the 
 gaze of the horseman with his spy-glass, 
 turned to one of his staff and remarked that 
 the apparition on the hill portended no good. 
 Rumors were afloat about the intrenchments 
 that the same tall figure hacf been seen across 
 the river on the highest opposite eminence 
 the day before, like a horseman painted 
 against the sky. A cow-boy said that this 
 figure was the apparition of Washington, 
 and that it never was seen excepting just 
 before a battle or a thunder storm. But 
 while these idle rumors floated around the 
 atmosphere of the camp, the redl Washing- 
 ton, from observations made with his own 
 eyes, was concerting a soldier-like plan for 
 its surprise. 
 
 On the night of the 15th of July, 1779, by 
 the twinkl.ng light of the stars that broke 
 over and- through the clouds, two columns 
 of soldiers might have been seen under tl?.e 
 brow of the eminence in the rear of the fort. 
 
 They were stern men — the silent, thoughtful 
 men of New England. The eagle-eyed 
 Wayne was their chief, and his heart was 
 like that of the lion. The regiments of Feb- 
 iger and Meigs, with the youthful Major 
 Hull’s detachment, formed the right column ; 
 Butler’s regiment, with two companies under 
 Major Murphy, formed the left. The van of 
 the right was formed of *one hundred and 
 fifty volunteers at whose head stood the 
 brave Fleury ; one hundred volunteers under 
 Stewart composed the van of the left. And 
 still farther advanced, the noblest post of all, 
 stood two forlorn hopes of twenty men each ; 
 one commanded by Lieut. Gibbons, and the 
 other by Lieut. Knox. Wayne stepped from 
 man to man through the vanguards, — saw 
 them take their flints from their pieces, and 
 fix the death-bayonet. At twenty minutes 
 past eleven, the two columns moved to 
 the bloody work before them, one going 
 to the left and the other to the right, to make 
 their attack on opposite sides. 
 
 The inhabitants on the eastern side of the 
 river first heard a sharp crashing as the for- 
 lorn hope on either side broke in the double 
 row of abatis ; the muskets of the sentinels 
 flashed suddenly amidst the darkness, and in 
 a moment the fortress vomited out flame and 
 thunder as if a volcano had been ignited, and 
 was tossing its lava upward. The cry of 
 battle, not to be mistaken, shrill, wild, and 
 fearful, broke upon the still air of night. 
 But all was in vain for the fortress. Under 
 showers of grape, and full in the red eye of 
 battle, the two gloomy, still, unwavering col- 
 umns moved on, and their vanguards met in 
 the centre of the works. The British made 
 an instant surrender to avoid the extermina- 
 tion which awaited the deploy of the columns 
 upon the intrenchments. Sixty -three British 
 soldiers lay dead at their guns ; five hundred 
 and forty-three were made prisoners ; and the 
 spoils were two standards, two flags, fifteen 
 pieces of ordnance, and other materials of 
 war. Of the assailants fifteen were killed, 
 and eighty -three wounded, the forlorn hopes 
 suffering most severely. Wayne led the right 
 column. At the inner abatis he was struck 
 on the head by a musket-ball, which brought 
 him on his knees. Believing himself mor- 
 tally wounded, he exclaimed : “ March on ! 
 
 Carry me into the fort, for I will die at th« 
 
 STO 
 
83) 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 head of my column!” His aids, Fishbow 
 and Archer, raised him to his feet, and bore 
 him through the works. The wound was not 
 fatal, and ‘Mad Anthony ’ joined in the loud 
 huzzas that arose when the two divisions met 
 victorious within the fortress. His success- 
 ful exploit was one of the most daring and 
 brilliant achievements of the Revolution. 
 
 These spots, where the life-blood of the 
 free has been poured out like water, and 
 
 where the traces of the Revolutionary ditch 
 and mound still remain, are altars sacred to 
 the high recollections of freedom. Green be 
 the turf over these departed patriots. The 
 bold bluff of Stony Point is classic ground. 
 Hither in future time shall the poet and the 
 sentimentalist come to pay their tribute of 
 affection and honor, where — 
 
 “ Our fathers knelt 
 In prayer and battle for a world.” 
 
 story’s house at 
 
 STORY, Joseph, an eminent jurist, was 
 born at Marblehead, Mass., in 1779. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1809, and at the end 
 of his term was appointed an associate jus- 
 tice of the supreme court of the United 
 States, in which capacity he served with 
 great ability and distinction, till his decease 
 in 1845. 
 
 STRAFFORD. Thomas Wentworth, eld- 
 est son of Sir William Wentworth, of York- 
 
 CAMBR1DGE, MASS. 
 
 shire, was born in Chancery Lane, London, 
 April 13th, 1593. In 1014 he succeeded to 
 the baronetcy, and in 1G21 entered parlia- 
 ment. At the commencement of the reign 
 of Charles I., during the arbitrary adminis- 
 tration of Buckingham, Wentworth used his 
 eloquence and great abilities on the side of 
 the opposition. But he was haughty, ambi- 
 tious, and fond of power. After the assassin- 
 ation of Buckingham, he proved renegade 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 831 
 
 to the popular cause, and became the king’s 
 most trusted counselor in military and politi- 
 cal matters. lie was made lord-lieutenant 
 of Ireland and Earl of Strafford. It was his 
 aim to make Charles a monarch as absolute 
 as any on the continent ; to put the estates 
 and the personal liberty of the whole people 
 at the disposal of the crown ; to deprive the 
 courts of law of all independent authority, 
 even in ordinary questions of civil right 
 between man and man, and to punish with 
 merciless rigor all who murmured at the acts 
 of the government, or who applied even in 
 the most decent and regular manner to 
 any tribunal for relief against those acts. 
 
 Familiar with the plans of the statesmen 
 from whom he had apostatized, and pursuing 
 his policy with an admirable firmness and 
 precision, he was for a time successful. In 
 his Irish viceroyalty he had established a 
 military despotism by which the king was as 
 absolute as any prince in the world could be. 
 So he would have it in England, and thereto 
 a standing army was necessary. The illegal 
 expedient of the ship-money was tried, and 
 unjust judges sustained it against the oppo- 
 sition of John Hampden. But just as Lord 
 Strafford was exulting in the near success of 
 his schemes, the attempt of Archbishop 
 Laud to force episcopacy upon Scotland, 
 aroused a tumult which endangered them. 
 His imperious will to carry them through at 
 all hazards increased the animosity against 
 him and his measures. Upon the assembling 
 of the Long Parliament in November, 1640, 
 he was impeached, as well as Laud. The 
 legal evidence necessary to support the char- 
 ges could not be obtained, and his enemies 
 resorted to a bill of attainder. The kina* 
 could not save him, and he was beheaded 
 May 12th, 1641. 
 
 STUART. The founder of this royal 
 house was Walter the Steward of Scotland, 
 whose wife, Marjory, was the daughter of 
 the great Robert Bruce. David II., son of 
 Robert Bruce, dying without issue in 1371, 
 the son of Walter and Marjory came to the 
 throne, under the name, of Robert II. He 
 was not a warrior, yet the usual wars with 
 England mark his reign. His eldest son and 
 successor was also better fitted for the clois- 
 ter than such a seat as the Scottish throne in 
 those troublesome times. The younger son, 
 
 created Duke of Albany by Robert III. (the 
 first instance of the title in Scotland), was of 
 a bolder and a baser stamp. The baptismal 
 name of Robert III. was John : at his acces- 
 sion he took that more fortunate name the 
 great Bruce had borne. Ilis eldest son David 
 was starved to death by the cruel and ambi- 
 tious Albany, and James, whom he sent to 
 France for safety, was taken captive by the 
 English and detained in confinement. Such 
 sorrows brought Robert to the grave, April 
 1st, 1406. The captivity of James we have 
 elsewhere described. [Nee James I.] During 
 the long years of his absence, Albany ruled 
 as regent, and afterward his son. James at 
 last returned, reigned fourteen years, and 
 was assassinated by conspirators in his bed- 
 chamber. James II., only a lad of seven at 
 his father’s death, perished by the bursting 
 of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh in 
 1460. James III., his son, a weak fellow, 
 dabbled in astrology, whose starry mandates 
 led him to murder one brother, banish anoth- 
 er, and so bear himself in divers things that 
 his subjects were stirred to revolt. His own 
 son (James IY.) appeared in the field with 
 the insurgents ; the father was - mysteriously 
 murdered in his flight from defeat. [See 
 Bannockburn.] James IY. wedded Marga- 
 ret Tudor of England, but this did not save 
 him from collision with her brother, Henry 
 YIII. With the flower of his nobility, and 
 thousands of his soldiery, he sank amid — • 
 
 “ The stern strife and carnage drear 
 Of Flodden’s fatal field, 
 
 Where shivered was fair Scotland’s spear, 
 
 And broken was her shield.” 
 
 His son, James Y., was then hardly more 
 than a year old. As he grew to man’s estate 
 he developed many virtues, and was a hand- 
 some, gallant, brave, and accomplished prince. 
 He died in 1542, at the early age of twenty- 
 nine. He had married Mary, sister of the 
 famous Duke of Guise, and widow of the 
 Duke of Longueville. Seven days before 
 her husband’s death, on the 7th of Decem- 
 ber, a daughter had been born to them, 
 christened Mary ; she became a queen by the 
 bereavement which made her an orphan. 
 Ten months after, the babe was crowned at 
 Stirling by Cardinal Beaton, and solemnly 
 proclaimed Queen of Scotland. James Ham- 
 ilton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent 
 
 STU 
 
832 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 during her minority, but she was left in the 
 care of her mother, who was respected for 
 her wisdom and talents, and revered for her 
 justice and piety, although she was not free 
 from the pride and ambition which marked 
 the house of Guise. 
 
 The regency refused the politic desire of 
 Henry VIII. of England to unite both king- 
 doms by the marriage of his son Edward with 
 the heiress of Scotland. Since he could not 
 make a wedding, ‘bluff king Hal’ made war. 
 Unconscious of the disastrous battle of Pinkie, 
 and the ravages of the English armies, was 
 little Mary in her childhood. Pier mother 
 selected four young maidens of her age, to be 
 the companions of her studies and the mates 
 of her pleasures ; they all bore the same 
 name, and were afterward called the 
 ‘ Queen’s Maries.’ They were Mary Beaton, 
 Mary Seyton, Mary Fleming, and Mary Liv- 
 ingstone. An old ballad says : — 
 
 “Last night the queen had four Maries; 
 
 To-night she’ll hae but three : 
 
 There was Mary Seyton, and Mary Beaton, 
 
 And Mary Livingstone, and me /” 
 
 As the original Maries, one by one, married 
 and left her service, the queen replaced them 
 with new ones of the same name, and seems 
 to have pleased herself with the fancy of 
 having four Maries always in attendance upon 
 her. 
 
 The contest with England led Scotland to 
 a closer alliance with France. Mary was 
 affianced to the infant dauphin, Francis, the 
 son of Henry II. It was agreed that she 
 should be educated in the French court, and 
 a French army was sent to Scotland to con- 
 tend with the English. In France Mary 
 spent thirteen happy years. Her naturally 
 quick capacity had the advantage of the best 
 masters in music, languages, and all womanly 
 accomplishments ; and her beauty (so great 
 that “no one could look upon her without 
 loving her,” says one that looked) was as 
 brilliant as were her attainments. In 1558 
 the nuptials between her and Francis were 
 solemnized with great splendor. Her hus- 
 band was shy and sickly, but they sincerely 
 loved each other. When Elizabeth, soon 
 after, came to the English throne, Mary, who 
 was the next heir, committed her first politi- 
 cal error, in deference to the wishes of her 
 father-in-law and uncles, assuming the title 
 
 and arms of queen of England, on the ground 
 of Elizabeth’s illegitimacy from the unlaw- 
 fulness of Catharine’s divorce. The jealousy 
 and hatred thus aroused in the breast of 
 Elizabeth was never allayed. 
 
 Henry II., in 1559, was accidentally slain 
 in a tournament, and Francis and Mary were 
 crowned at Rheims. The health of the 
 young king was rapidly declining, and in a 
 few months Mary was a widow. Exposed to 
 the jealousy of Catharine de Medici, the 
 queen-regent, and deprived of the counte- 
 nance of her uncles the Guises, who had been 
 banished from court, Mary decided to return 
 to her native realm. In tears again and 
 again she bade adieu to the shores of France, 
 and when night came on, she lay upon a 
 couch spread on the deck and wept herself to 
 sleep. She landed in Scotland, Aug. 20th, 
 1561. The contrast between its roughness 
 of soil and rudeness of manners, and the 
 fertile plains and polished customs of France, 
 was very keenly felt. During her absence 
 the ancient religion to which she had been 
 bred, had been supplanted by an austere 
 Calvinism that found great offense in the 
 “fiddling, uncomely skipping,” and other 
 joyousness wherewith she sought to dispel 
 the gloom of Ilolyrood. 
 
 The conduct of the government she en- 
 trusted to her natural brother, Lord James 
 Stuart, afterward Earl of Murray, an able, 
 artful, and ambitious man. For two or three 
 years after her return from France, her life 
 was comparatively tranquil and happy. She 
 had to bear severe and sometimes insolent 
 reprimands from John Knox, whose zeal and 
 undoubted piety were not tempered by mild- 
 ness, and occasionally burst beyond his judg- 
 ment ; but she endeavored to conciliate the 
 reformers, and win the affection of her sub- 
 jects. Many desired her hand, — princes of 
 foreign states, and aspiring men among her 
 own nobility. She unfortunately selected 
 her cousin, young Henry Stuart, Lord Darn- 
 ley, four years her junior, and also second 
 cousin to Queen Elizabeth. They were mar- 
 ried July 29th, 1565. He was a headstrong, 
 conceited youth, and his drunkenness and 
 ill temper soon alienated the love of the 
 queen, while his ambition raised murmurs 
 among the nobility. Mary relied much upon 
 the advice of her secretary, David Rizzio, an 
 
 STU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 833 
 
 Italian. Darnley, the Earl of Morton, and 
 others, resolved upon his murder. On the 
 9th of March, 1566, while sitting at supper 
 with the queen and some other ladies, in 
 Holyrood, he was attacked by the assassins, 
 stabbed over Mary’s shoulder as she tried to 
 defend him, then dragged from the room and 
 dispatched at the head of the staircase. 
 
 In the following June, Mary gave birth to 
 a son at Edinburgh Castle. Her husband 
 had deeply alienated her, and incurred gene- 
 ral contempt and odium by the weakness and 
 ill temper he everywhere displayed. It was 
 now that James Hepburn, the restless, ambi- 
 tious, dissolute, and daring Earl of Bothwell, 
 found favor at court. His character was w~ell 
 known, but amid all the treason about her, 
 he had been faithful to her interests. Both- 
 well, Murray, Huntley, Maitland, and others 
 of her counselors, urged upon Mary a divorce 
 from Darnley, but she was loath. It was 
 Bothwell’s design to make himself master of 
 her and of the government ; he decided upon 
 the murder of Darnley, who was then re- 
 covering from the small-pox, and lodging for 
 the benefit of the air in a house called the 
 Kirk-of-Field, just out of Edinburgh. On 
 Sunday night, the 9th of February, 1567, 
 the house was blown up with gunpowder ; 
 the bodies of Darnley and his servant were 
 found in a garden at some distance. Both- 
 well stood a mock trial, and was acquitted. 
 His next object was to marry the queen. 
 Mary was returning from Stirling with a small 
 retinue, when Bothwell, at the head of a 
 thousand armed men, encountered her near 
 Linlithgow, seized the reins of her horse, and 
 carried her to the castle of Dunbar, where 
 he kept her closely sequestrated for a fort- 
 night. He procured certain leading nobles 
 and prelates to recommend him as a fit and 
 proper husband for the queen, and having 
 got a divorqe from his wife, Lady Jane Gor- 
 don, he brought Mary back to Edinburgh on 
 the 3d of May ; and on the 15th of May the 
 guilty and disgraceful nuptials were solem- 
 nized. The month which Mary spent with 
 Bothwell was the most miserable of her life.. 
 A powerful confederacy of nobles was formed 
 against her husband ; Mary placed herself in 
 their hands, and Bothwell fled, to end his life 
 miserably in Norway. 
 
 The confederate lords obliged Mary to sign 
 
 53 
 
 a renunciation of her crown in favor of her 
 son, and she herself was committed as a pris- 
 oner, and secluded from her friends. The 
 place of her confinement in the castle of 
 Lochleven was all but inaccessible ; but 
 Mary’s beauty had procured her a friend in one 
 of her attendants, and by his means she con- 
 trived to escape. She found herself very 
 speedily at the head of a considerable body 
 of troops, who proclaimed her pretensions, 
 and prepared to maintain them against those 
 of the regent Murray. They were, however, 
 worsted in an engagement which ensued near 
 Glasgow ; and Mary, panic-struck, fled to- 
 ward England, and put herself under the 
 protection of one of Elizabeth’s governors. 
 
 This was exactly what that princess had 
 hoped. She, however, disguised her designs 
 under the mask of friendship ; affected to 
 pity the forlorn condition of the fugitive 
 queen ; and, under the idea of granting her 
 an asylum, betrayed her into a prison. Eliz- 
 abeth thus became the arbiter between Mary 
 and her late subjects, and a sort of court was 
 appointed to hear both parties, and decide 
 between them ; but the proceedings were 
 stopped by Mary refusing to answer the accu- 
 sations brought against her. 
 
 During Mary’s continuance in confinement, 
 she engaged the affection of the Duke of 
 Norfolk, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, but 
 who seems very readily to have entered into 
 those ambitious views which such an alliance 
 would naturally open to him. The design, 
 however, was discovered, and Norfolk was 
 committed to the Tower, tried for high trea- 
 son, condemned, and executed. 
 
 Elizabeth had no peace while Mary lived. 
 She tried to inculpate the captive in various 
 plots; she tampered with some of her offi- 
 cers to induce them to become assassins. At 
 last the English parliament enacted that not 
 only conspirators themselves, but those per- 
 sons (however innocent or ignorant of their 
 purpose) in whose cause they conspired, 
 were equally guilt}' of treason. Under this 
 infamous law, Mary was made an accomplice 
 in Babington’s plot in 1583. 
 
 Mary’s character rose with her misfortunes, 
 and now at their climax displayed a firmness 
 and an energy of which her impetuous tem- 
 per and fluctuating policy had excited little 
 suspicion. After a long confinement at Coy- 
 
 STU 
 
834 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 entry, she was removed to Fotheringay Cas- 
 tle, to undergo the formality of a trial. 
 When brought before the commissioners she 
 disclaimed their authority, and asserted her 
 innocence. The commissioners, after hearing 
 her defense, declared her guilty of conspiring 
 the death of Elizabeth, and condemned her 
 to death. She received the tidings with com- 
 placency. 
 
 The last letter which Mary addressed to 
 Elizabeth read as follows : — 
 
 “ Madam, I thank God from the bottom of my 
 heart that, by the sentence which has been passed 
 against me, he is about to put an end to my te- 
 dious pilgrimage. I would not wish it prolonged 
 though it were in my power, having had enough 
 of time to experience its bitterness. I write at 
 present only to make three last requests, which, 
 as I can expect no favor from your implacable 
 ministers, I should wish to owe to your majesty 
 and to no other. First, as in England I can not 
 hope to be buried according to the solemnities 
 of the Catholic church (the religion of the ancient 
 kings* your ancestors and mine, being now 
 changed), and as in Scotland they have already 
 violated the ashes of my progenitors, I have to 
 request that as soon as my enemies have bathed 
 their hands in my innocent blood, my domestics 
 may be allowed to inter my body in some consecra- 
 ted ground ; and above all, that they may be per- 
 mitted to carry it to France, where the bones of the 
 queen, my most honored mother, repose. Thus 
 that poor frame which has never enjoyed repose 
 so long as it has been joined to my soul, may find 
 it at last when they will be separated. Second, 
 as I dread the tyranny of the harsh men to whose 
 power you have abandoned me, I entreat your 
 majesty that I may not be executed in secret, 
 but in the presence of my servants and other 
 persons who may bear testimony of my faith and 
 fidelity to the true church, and guard the last 
 hours of my life and my last sighs from the false 
 rumors which my adversaries may spread abroad. 
 Third, I request that my domestics, who have 
 served me through so much misery and with so 
 much constancy, may be allowed to retire with- 
 out molestation wherever they choose, to enjoy 
 for the remainder of their lives the small legacies 
 which my poverty has enabled me to bequeath to 
 them. I conjure you, madam, by the blood of 
 Jesus Christ, by our consanguinity, by the mem- 
 ory of Henry VII., our common father, and by 
 the royal title which I carry with me to death, 
 not to refuse me those reasonable demands, but 
 to assure me, by a letter under your own hand, 
 that you will comply with them ; and I shall then 
 die as I have lived, your affectionate sister and 
 prisoner, Mary Queen of Scots.” 
 
 Whether Elizabeth ever answered this let- 
 ter, does not appear ; but it produced so lit- 
 tle effect, that epistles from her to Sir Amias 
 Paulct still exist, which prove that in her 
 anxiety to avoid taking upon herself the re- 
 
 sponsibility of Mary’s death, she wished to 
 have her privately assassinated or poisoned. 
 Paulet, however, though a harsh and violent 
 man, positively refused to sanction so nefari- 
 ous a scheme. Yet in the very act of insti- 
 gating murder, Elizabeth could close her 
 eyes against her own iniquity, and affect 
 indignation at the alleged offenses of another. 
 But perceiving, at length, that no alter- 
 native remained, she ordered her secretary 
 Davidson to bring her the warrant for Mary’s 
 execution, and afteii perusing it, she delib- 
 erately affixed her signature. She then 
 desired him to carry it to Walsingham, say- 
 ing, with an ironical smile, and in a “merry 
 tone,” that she feared he would die of grief 
 when he saw it. Walsingham sent the war- 
 rant to the chancellor, who affixed the great 
 seal to it, and dispatched it by Beal, with a 
 commission to the Earls of Shrewsbury, 
 Kent, Derby, and others, to see it put in exe- 
 cution. Davidson was afterward made the 
 victim of Elizabeth’s artifice ; to complete 
 the solemn farce she had been playing, she 
 pretended he had obeyed her orders too 
 quickly, and doomed him in consequence to 
 perpetual imprisonment. 
 
 From tyrants like these who would have 
 expected either mercy or justice ? Mary was 
 perfectly resigned to her fate, and met it like 
 one who placed the most unwavering reliance 
 in the efficacy of the religion she professed. 
 After hearing the warrant for her execution, 
 she ‘said that though “she was sorry it came 
 from Elizabeth, she had long been expecting 
 the mandate for her death, and was not un- 
 prepared to die.” “ For many 3 r ears,” she 
 added, “ I have lived in continual affliction, 
 unable to. do good to myself or to those who 
 are dear to me; and as I shall depart inno- 
 cent of the crime which has been laid to my 
 charge, I can not see why I should shrink 
 from the prospect of immortality?” She then 
 laid her hand on the New Testament, and 
 solemnly protested that she had never either 
 devised, compassed, or consented to the death 
 of the Queen of England. Before leaving 
 the world, Mary felt a natural curiosity to be 
 informed upon several subjects of public 
 interest, which, though connected with her- 
 self, and generally known, had not penetrated 
 the walls of her prison. She asked if no 
 foreign princes had interfered in her behalf; 
 
 STU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 835 
 
 if her secretaries were still alive ; if it was 
 intended to punish them as well as her ; if 
 they brought no letters from Elizabeth or 
 others; and, above all, if her son, the King 
 of Scotland, was well, and had evinced any 
 interest in the fate of a mother who had al- 
 ways loved and never wronged, him. Being 
 satisfied upon these points, she proceeded to 
 inquire when her execution was to take 
 place ? Shrewsbury replied that it Was fixed 
 for the next morning at eight. She appeared 
 startled and agitated for a few minutes, say- 
 ing that it was more sudden than she had 
 anticipated, and that she had yet to make 
 her will, which she had hitherto deferred, in 
 the expectation that the papers and letters 
 which had been forcibly taken from her 
 would be restored. She soon, however, 
 regained her self-possession ; and informing 
 the commissioners that she desired to be left 
 alone to make her preparations, she dismissed 
 them for the night. 
 
 Upon Bourgoine making the remark that 
 “ more than a few hours was allowed to the 
 meanest criminal,” she said “she must sub- 
 mit with resignation to her fate, and learn to 
 regard it as the will of God.” She then 
 requested her attendants to kneel with her, 
 and she prayed fervently for some time in the 
 midst of them. Afterward, while supper 
 was preparing, she employed herself in put- 
 ing all the money she had by her into sepa- 
 rate purses, and affixed to each, with her. own 
 hand, the name of the person for whom she 
 intended it. At supper, though she sat 
 down to table, she ate little. Her mind, 
 however, was in perfect composure ; and 
 during the repast, though she spoke little, 
 placid smiles were frequently observed to pass 
 over her countenance. The calm magnanim- 
 ity of their mistress only increased the dis- 
 tress of her servants. They saw her sitting 
 among them in her usual health, and with 
 almost more than her usual cheerfulness, par- 
 taking of the viands that were set before her ; 
 yet they knew that it was the last meal at 
 which they should ever be present together, 
 and that the interchange of affectionate ser- 
 vice upon their part, and of condescending 
 attention and endearing gentleness on hers, 
 which had linked them to her for so many 
 years, was now about to terminate forever. 
 Far from attempting to offer her consolation, 
 
 they were unable to discover any for them- 
 selves. As soon as the melancholy meal was 
 over, Mary desired that a cup of wine should 
 be given to her ; and putting it to her lips, 
 drank to the health of each of her attendants 
 by name. She requested that they would 
 pledge her in like manner ; and each, falling 
 on his knee, and mingling tears with the 
 wine, drank to her, asking pardon at the 
 same time for all the faults he had ever com- 
 mitted. In the true spirit of Christian hu- 
 mility, she not only willingly forgave them, 
 but asked their pardon also. The inventory 
 of her wardrobe and furniture was then 
 brought to her ; and she wrote in the margin 
 opposite each article the name of the person 
 to whom she wished it should be given. She 
 did the same with her rings, jewels, and all 
 her most valuable trinkets ; and there was 
 not one of her friends or servants, either pres- 
 ent or absent, to whom she forgot to leave a 
 memorial. 
 
 These duties being discharged, Mary sat 
 down to her desk to arrange her papers, to 
 finish her will, and to write several letters. 
 She then drew up her last will and testa- 
 ment ; and without ever lifting her pen from 
 the paper, or stopping at intervals to think, 
 she covered two large sheets with close writ- 
 ing, forgetting nothing of any moment, and 
 expressing herself with all that precision and 
 clearness which distinguished her style in the 
 very happiest moments of her life. She 
 named as her four executors, the Duke of 
 Guise, her cousin-german ; the Archbishop 
 of Glasgow, her ambassador in France ; Les- 
 ley, Bishop of Ross ; and Monsieur de Ruys- 
 seau, her chancellor. She next wrote a letter 
 to her brother-in-law, the King of France, in 
 which she apologized for not being able to 
 edter into her affairs at greater length, as she 
 had only an hour or two to live, and had not 
 been informed till that day after dinner that 
 she was to be executed next morning. 
 “Thanks be unto God, however,” she added, 
 
 “ I have no terror at the idea of death, and 
 solemnly declare to you that I meet it inno- 
 cent of every crime. The bearer of this let- 
 ter, and my other servants, will recount to . 
 you how I comported myself in my last mo- 
 ments.” The letter concluded with earnest 
 entreaties that her faithful followers should 
 be protected and rewarded. Her anxiety on 
 
 STU 
 
836 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 their account at such a moment indicated all 
 that amiable generosity of disposition which 
 was one of the leading features of Mary’s 
 character. About two in the morning she 
 sealed up all her papers, and said she would 
 now think no more of the affairs of this 
 world, but would spend the rest of her time 
 in prayer and commune with her own con- 
 science. She went to bed for some hours ; 
 but she did not sleep. Her lips were observed 
 in continual motion, and her hands were fre- 
 quently folded and lifted up toward heaven. 
 
 On the morning of Wednesday, the 8th of 
 February, Mary rose with the break of day ; 
 and her domestics, who had watched and 
 wept all night, immediately gathered round 
 her. She told them that she had made her 
 will, and requested that they would see it 
 safely deposited in the hands of her execu- 
 tors. She likewise besought them not to 
 separate until they had carried her body to 
 France ; and she placed a sum of money in 
 the hands of her physician to defray the ex- 
 penses of the journey. Her earnest desire 
 was, to be buried either in the church of St. 
 Denis in Paris, beside her first husband, 
 Francis, or at Rheims, in the tomb which 
 contained the remains of her mother. She 
 expressed a wish, too, that, besides her friends 
 and servants, a number of poor people and 
 children from different hospitals should be 
 present at her funeral, clothed in mourning 
 at her expense, and each, according to the 
 Catholic custom, carrying in his hand a 
 lighted taper. 
 
 She now renewed her devotions, and was 
 in the midst of them, with her servants pray- 
 ing and weeping round her, when a messen- 
 ger from the commissioners knocked at the 
 door, to announce that all was ready. She 
 requested a little longer time to finish her 
 prayers, which was granted. As soon as she 
 desired the door to be opened, the sheriff', 
 carrying in his hand the white wand of 
 office, entered to conduct her to the place of 
 execution. Her servants crowded round her 
 and insisted on being allowed to accompany 
 her to the scaffold. But contrary orders 
 having been given by Elizabeth, they were 
 told that she must proceed alone. Against 
 such a piece of arbitrary cruelty they remon- 
 strated loudly, but in vain ; for as soon as 
 Mary passed into the gallery, the door was 
 
 closed, and believing that they were separa- 
 ting from her forever, the shrieks of the 
 women, and the scarcely less audible lamen- 
 tations of the men, were heard in distant 
 parts of the castle. 
 
 At the foot of the staircase leading down 
 to the hall below, Mary was met by the Earls 
 of Kent and Shrewsbury ; and she was al- 
 lowed to stop and take farewell of Sir Andrew 
 Melvil, the master of her household, whom 
 her keepers had not allowed to come into her 
 presence for some time before. With tears 
 in his eyes Melvil knelt before her, kissed 
 her hand, and declared that it was the heav- 
 iest hour of his life. Mary assured him that 
 it was not so to her. “ I now feel, my good 
 Melvil,” said she, “ that all this world is van- 
 ity. When you speak of me hereafter, men- 
 tion that I died firm in my faith, willing to 
 forgive my enemies, conscious that I had 
 never disgraced Scotland my native country, 
 and rejoicing in the thought that I had 
 always been true to France, the land of my 
 happiest years. Tell my son,” she added, 
 and when she named her only child, of whom 
 she had been so proud in his infancy, but in 
 whom all her hopes had been so fatally 
 blasted, her feelings for the first time over- 
 powered her, and a flood of tears flowed from 
 her eyes — “Tell my son that I thought of 
 him in my last moments, and that I have 
 never yielded, either by word or deed, to 
 aught that might lead to his prejudice ; de- 
 sire him to preserve the memory of his un- 
 fortunate parent ; and may he be a thousand 
 times more happy and more prosperous than 
 she has been.” 
 
 Before taking leave of Melvil, Mary turned 
 to the commissioners, and told them that her 
 three last requests were, that her secretary 
 Curl, whom she blamed less for his treachery 
 than Naw, should not be punished ; that her 
 servants should have free permission to depart 
 to France ; and that some of them should be 
 allowed to come down from the apartments 
 above to see her die. The earls answered 
 that they believed the two former of these 
 requests would be granted ; but that they 
 could not concede the last, alleging, as theii 
 excuse, that the affliction of her attendants 
 would only add to the severity of her suffer- 
 ings. But Mary was resolved that some of 
 her own people should witness her last mo* 
 
 STU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 837 
 
 ments. “ I will not submit to the indignity,” 
 she said, “ of permitting my body to fall into 
 the hands of strangers. You are the ser- 
 vants of a maiden queen, and she herself 
 were she here, would yield to the dictates of 
 humanity, and permit some of those who 
 have been so long faithful to me to assist me 
 at my death. Remember, too, that I am 
 cousin to your mistress, and the descendant 
 of Henry VII. ; I am the dowager of France, 
 and the anointed queen of Scotland.” 
 Ashamed of any farther opposition, the earls 
 allowed her to name four male and two female 
 attendants, whom they sent for, and permit- 
 ted to remain beside her for the short time 
 she had to live. 
 
 The same hall in which the trial had taken 
 place was prepared for the execution. At 
 the upper end was the scaffold, covered with 
 black cloth, and elevated about two feet from 
 the floor. A chair was placed on ' it for the 
 Queen of Scots. On one side of the block 
 stood two executioners, and on the other the 
 Earls of Kent and Shrewsbury ; Beal and the 
 sheriff were immediately behind. The scaf- 
 fold was railed off from the rest of the hall, 
 in which Sir Amias Paulet with a body of 
 guards, the other commissioners, and some 
 gentlemen from the neighborhood, amount- 
 ing altogether to about two hundred persons, 
 were assembled. Mary entered, leaning on 
 the arm of her physician, while Sir Andrew 
 Melvil carried the train of her robe. She 
 was in full dress, and looked as if she were 
 about to hold a drawing-room, not to lay her 
 head beneath the axe. She wore a gown of 
 black silk, bordered with crimson velvet, 
 over which was a satin mantle ; a long veil 
 of white crape, stiffened with wire, and edged 
 with rich lace, hung down almost to the 
 ground ; round her neck was suspended an 
 ivory crucifix, and the beads which the Cath- 
 olics use in their prayers were fastened to her 
 girdle. The symmetry of her fine figure had 
 long been destroyed by her sedentary life ; 
 and years of care had left many a trace on 
 her beautiful features. But the dignity of 
 the queen was still apparent ; and the calm 
 grace of mental serenity imparted to her 
 countenance at least some share of its former 
 loveliness. With a composed and steady 
 step she passed through the hall, and ascend- 
 ed the scaffold ; and as she listened unmoved 
 
 while Beal read aloud the warrant for her 
 death, even the myrmidons of Elizabeth 
 looked upon her with admiration. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots died in the forty- 
 fifth year of her age. Her remains were 
 interred in Peterborough cathedral ; they 
 were removed by her son, and now repose in 
 Westminster Abbey, about ten yards from 
 the tomb of Elizabeth. 
 
 James had been reared to contemn and 
 detest his unfortunate mother ; to regard her 
 with selfish fear as one who might deprive 
 him of his throne ; and when Mary sent him 
 a present of a vest embroidered with her own 
 hands, accompanied by a tender letter, and 
 some jewels which remained in her posses- 
 sion, all were returned to her with disdain, 
 and the messenger refused even an audience, 
 because his mother, never having surrendered 
 her own rights, addressed him as the Prince, 
 and not as the King of Scotland, fie had 
 Buchanan for his instructor, who, when ac- 
 cused of having made his pupil a pedant, 
 replied, “ that he could make nothing else of 
 him.” In 1589 he married Anne, daughter 
 of Frederick of Denmark, whom he brought 
 from Copenhagen. In 1600 while hunting, 
 an attempt was made to seize his person by 
 the Earl of Gowrie, who, with his brother, 
 was slain, while the king escaped unhurt 
 In 1603 he succeeded to the English throne ; 
 and the year following, the Hampton Court 
 conference, between the divines of the estab- 
 lished church and the Puritans, was held in 
 his presence. The next year the gunpowder 
 plot was discovered. The condemnation and 
 death of Raleigh was the greatest blot on the 
 character and reign of James, who also les- 
 sened his popularity by undertaking the de- 
 fense of the Protestants of Germany, and 
 then abandoning their cause. He died in 
 March, 1625. 
 
 James was succeeded by his son Charles I., 
 an unfortunate monarch, whose disasters 
 were prepared for him by his predecessors, 
 and by the increasing spirit of liberty, but 
 precipitated and increased by the alternate 
 obstinacy and fickleness of his disposition. 
 He ascended the throne in 1625, and found 
 that his reign was likely to be troubled by 
 a strong opposition ; but he could not find 
 courage to make those concessions which the 
 people were minded to demand of royalty. 
 
 STU 
 
838 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 The friends of liberty were disposed to view 
 with a stern eye, the stand which the king took. 
 They had already impeached his favorite min- 
 ister, and his unsuccessful attempt to relieve 
 Rochelle in 1627 increased their enmity. 
 Charles, blinded by the monarchical doctrines 
 of his hither James, although he saw that his 
 popularity was daily declining, took no steps 
 to gain the affections and confidence of his 
 people. The parliament refused to sanction 
 the wishes of the monarch, and passed the 
 famous bill of rights, which he was obliged 
 to confirm. 
 
 Having made peace with France and Spain, 
 Charles determined to rely on his own resour- 
 ces, but resorted to the desperate expedient 
 of levying ship money. This, and the king’s 
 attempt to force the liturgy on the Scotch, 
 brought upon him the opposition of Hampden 
 and the Covenanters, to both of whom he 
 was forced to submit. After several parlia- 
 ments had been called and dissolved, Charles 
 called the long parliament of 1640. Straf- 
 ford and Laud were impeached, and the fury 
 of the Puritans was excited against the 
 church and the bishops. The signal for 
 insurrection was given by the king going 
 himself to the house and demanding the per- 
 sons of five members whom he accused of 
 treason. Civil war broke out; many en- 
 gagements took place, with various success, 
 but on the king’s defeat at Naseby, he retired 
 to Oxford, and on the approach of Fairfax, 
 the parliamentary general, threw himself 
 on the protection of the Scots, who sold him 
 to the parliament. The army, now divided 
 from the parliament, conveyed him to Hamp- 
 ton Court, whence he escaped with the inten- 
 tion of quitting the kingdom, but was retaken 
 and brought back. Charles now professed 
 himself ready to grant all the terms demanded 
 for his release, except the abolition of epis- 
 copacy. He was arraigned for high treason, 
 tried, and condemned. His conduct during 
 his trial was a noble pattern of Christian 
 meekness and firmness, and this he retained 
 to his death. He was beheaded at White- 
 hall, on the 30th of January, 1648. 
 
 Charles had wedded Henrietta Maria, 
 daughter of Henry IV. of France, and sev- 
 eral children issued from the union. Charles 
 II. succeeded to his father’s rights. He was 
 born in 1630, and was at the Hague when 
 
 his father was executed. The Scots, who 
 had betrayed the father, sent an invitation to 
 the son which he accepted ; he was crowned 
 at Scone, in 1651, when he was obliged to 
 take the covenant. But he had ho mean 
 opponent in Cromwell, who defeated the 
 Scotch at Dunbar, and Charles at Worcester. 
 The appearance of the two armies was strik- 
 ingly contrasted. The parliamentarians were 
 remarkable for the plainness of their dress 
 and equipments, their hair being cropped 
 close (whence their appellation of round 
 heads), and nothing merely ornamental ap- 
 pearing on their persons. The cavaliers, on 
 the contrary, despising the austerity of their 
 antagonists, were distinguished by their long 
 curling locks, the finish of their equipments, 
 and the reckless gayety of their bearing. 
 From the battle of Worcester, Charles made 
 his escape, and lay hidden in the thick 
 branches of an oak in Boscobel wood, while 
 his pursuers actually seated themselves under 
 the tree. After many journey ings, in various 
 disguises, he escaped to France. 
 
 In 1660 he was restored; and with him 
 licentiousness and infidelity returned in a 
 full tide. In 1662 he married the Princess 
 Catherine of Portugal, by whom he had no 
 children, although his illegitimate offspring 
 were numerous. With the exception of the 
 sale of Dunkirk to supply his extravagan- 
 ces, the acts of Charles’s reign can scarcely 
 be considered as his own, and belong rather 
 to the history of his country. He lived in 
 the indulgence of his appetites, interfering 
 little in matters of state policy. The few he 
 meddled with were of an odious nature. 
 Charles died of an aploplectic fit, Feb. 6th, 
 1685, and by receiving, in his last moments, 
 the sacrament from a popish priest, proved 
 that he lived a hypocrite as well as a liber- 
 tine. 
 
 By affability and wit, by going abroad with- 
 out ostentation, and mixing with the lowest 
 of his subjects, Charles obtained a certain 
 degree of popularity, and the name of the 
 Merry Monarch distinguished him during his 
 life. His wit was ready and pleasant, as 
 Rochester, whose disposition much resembled 
 the monarch’s, happily expressed in the epi- 
 gram in which he speaks of Charles as one — 
 “ Who never said a foolish thing, 
 
 And never did a wise one.” 
 
 j?. 
 
 STU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 839 
 
 T* this the king replied : “ The matter was 
 easily accounted for : his discourse was his 
 own ; his actions were his ministry’s.” 
 
 Charles and his courtiers being one day 
 present at the exhibition of a man w r ho dar- 
 ingly climbed to the point of che spire of Salis- 
 bury cathedral, and planted a flag there, the 
 king said to his favorite, “ Faith ! Rochester, 
 this man shall hq,ve a patent, that no one may 
 do this but himself!” 
 
 James II., Charles’s brother and successor, 
 had as bad traits as he, without hi's popular- 
 ity. An insurrection headed by the Duke of 
 Monmouth, was the first disturbance in his 
 reign. Monmouth had ever been the darling 
 of the people, and some averred that Charles 
 had married his mother, and owned his legit- 
 imacy on his death-bed. The Duke of Ar- 
 gyle, in the north, seconded his views, and, 
 with Monmouth, planned a double insurrec- 
 tion, but both were defeated and executed. 
 James suspended the exercise of the Protest- 
 ant'religion, acknowledged the supremacy of 
 the pope, and allowed the Jesuits to establish 
 themselves in the kingdom. The indignation 
 of the people was now roused, and they hailed 
 with joy the arrival of the Prince of Orange, 
 before whom James fled. He was hospitably 
 received by Louis XIY. of France, who aided 
 him in his subsequent unsuccessful attempts 
 to regain his throne. James died at St. Ger- 
 main in France, 1701. 
 
 James’s first wife was Anne Hyde, daugh- 
 ter of the Earl of Clarendon, who died be- 
 fore her husband’s accession. Mary, their 
 oldest daughter, was the consort of William 
 of Orange, and reigned jointly with him. 
 Anne, her sister, succeeded to the crown, and 
 is known by the grateful title of good Queen 
 Anne. Though thirteen children were born 
 to her and her husband, Prince George of 
 Denmark, all died young. 
 
 James’s second wife was Mary Beatrice of 
 Modena. Their son is known in English his- 
 tory as the Pretender, or the Chevalier de 
 St. George. [ See Pretender.] He was 
 
 acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. 
 of England, and Anne is said to have long 
 entertained the hope of securing the succes- 
 sion to him ; her dying words were,.“0 my 
 dear brother, how Ipity thee ! ” 
 
 Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, was 
 the grandson of James II., and was born at 
 
 Rome in 1720. In 1745 he landed in Scot- 
 land, and published a manifesto, exhibiting 
 the claims of his father to the English throne. 
 He was joined by several Highland chiefs, 
 who, entering Edinburgh, caused his father 
 to be proclaimed. Charles Edward was pass- 
 ing the night in the village- of Stateford, and 
 had thrown himself upon his couch in a state 
 of agitation, which prevented his sleeping 
 for more than two hours. As soon as he 
 learned that Edinburgh was occupied by the 
 Highlanders of Lochiel, Keppoch, Arlshied, 
 and O’Sullivan, he mounted his horse, and on 
 the given signal, the army was in readiness 
 to enter the city. The castle still held out 
 for the house of Hanover. To avoid the 
 balls of the enemy, who commanded the most 
 direct road, the prince and his followers, 
 diverging from the main route, came by the 
 way of Duddingston to the royal park, which 
 they entered through a breach in the wall. 
 The royal park, the favorite promenade of 
 James II. when he was at Edinburgh, 
 being then Duke of York, comprises Arthur’s 
 Seat, which seems to shelter Holyrood at its 
 feet, the basaltic rocks of Salisbury crags, 
 the hermitage of St. Anthony, and the valley 
 of St. Leonard, spots to which poetry and 
 romance have given an interest that history 
 has failed to confer. 
 
 From an eminence near the hermitage, 
 Charles could contemplate, for the first time, 
 the palace of his ancestors, with its quadrangu- 
 lar court, and the round towers of the principal 
 facade. No alteration had taken place since 
 the time of his grandfather. The entire 
 building was standing, and the standard of 
 the Stuarts waved proudly in the wind that 
 swept over the majestic pile. The gothic 
 chapel only was in ruins, as if to remind the 
 prince that, in the revolution of 1688, the 
 war was particularly directed against the 
 faith of his grandfather, who decorated this 
 place with such pomp. Charles dismounted. 
 Already the park and the surrounding gar- 
 dens were filled with a dense crowd of all 
 ranks, ages, and parties. There were many 
 merely curious spectators, but more warm 
 Jacobites, and the latter hastened to congrat- 
 ulate the prince, who received them with 
 ease, and that smiling look of pleasure which 
 was so seductive to all. 
 
 His youth, his fine form, his light locks, 
 
 STU 
 
840 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 his delicate completion, so different from the 
 bilious hue that characterized the counte- 
 nances of his ancestry, the perfect oval of his 
 face, his intelligent blue eyes, the correct 
 arch of his eyebrows, his regular nose, and 
 mouth of aristocratic diminutiveness, were 
 all curiously analyzed by the spectators. 
 Some troubled wdiigs declared that there was 
 in the countenance of the prince an air of 
 melancholy, which was a presage of disaster 
 in the midst of his triumph ; but the Jacob- 
 ites, and particularly the ladies of Edinburgh 
 and Perth, wete in raptures at the graces of 
 their Charlie, as he was familiarly and pop- 
 ularly termed. They delighted to dwell upon 
 his picturesque costume. Upon his vest of 
 tartan plaid, glittered the national star of the 
 order of St. Andrew ; a scarf of gold and 
 azure served him as a baldric, and to his 
 neat blue velvet cap was attached the white 
 cockade, W'hich called to mind the rose of 
 Lancaster. When he mounted the splendid 
 bay charger which had been presented to 
 him by the Duke of Perth, the acclamations 
 of the spectators redoubled, for the prince 
 was, in fact, a most accomplished cavalier. 
 “ Our hero looks like Robert Bruce,” cried 
 the Jacobites, and they w r ere not deceiving 
 themselves, for the portrait of Bruce at Holy- 
 rood served to verify the resemblance. 
 
 In the midst of an enthusiasm wffiich might 
 almost be called general, Charles could well^ 
 forget, in this concourse of his father’s sub- 
 jects, the hostile terms of w r hig and tor}", 
 and saw around him only Scotchmen, inter- 
 ested, like himself, in severing the bonds im- 
 posed upon Scotland under the specious 
 name of the union. In all the manifestoes 
 of the Stuart family, since 1715, they ap- 
 pealed as frequently to the memory of na- 
 tional independence, as to the claims of their 
 house. * Thus, when Charles Edward was 
 approaching the gate of the palace, he was 
 suddenly met by a hoary -headed gentleman, 
 James Hepburn of Keith, who was known to 
 be opposed from principle to the “right 
 divine of kings,” and who had more than 
 once haughtily blamed the government of 
 James II. This gentleman, w r ho w T as es- 
 teemed by all parties, was the first to show" 
 himself the partisan of Charles Edward, 
 whom he regarded as the champion of the 
 deliverance of Scotland. Hepburn wished 
 
 to be, in a manner, his herald into the palace 
 of his fathers, and drawing his sword, he 
 marshaled the prince with dignity to the 
 apartment destined for his reception. 
 
 At intervals, the hostile cannon of the cas- 
 tle growled upon the city, as if to still the 
 exulting shouts of the people. A ball di- 
 rected at the palace shattered a tower, to th^ 
 indignation of the populace, who knew that 
 the English soldiery would dishonor, without 
 remorse, the most precious monument of 
 their ancient city. 
 
 With what emotions must Charles Edward 
 have explored the royal halls of Ilolyrood, 
 condemned for sixty years to a kind of soli- 
 tary widowhood by the exile of his family. 
 In the first gallery he beheld that long range 
 of royal portraits, which the pride of Edin- 
 burgh holds so dear. In adjacent apartments 
 he found the first traces of that beautiful 
 queen, whose tragic fate alone occupies the 
 mind, even among the multitude of histori- 
 cal and fabulous images. Here were her 
 bed and curtains, the chairs where she was 
 seated, those which she herself embroidered ; 
 and alas ! was there not the imperishable 
 stain of Rizzio’s blood? 
 
 The shouts of the people, eager to behold 
 their prince, more than once banished the 
 reflections in which Charles Edward was in- 
 dulging, and forced him to appear at the win- 
 dow's and show himself to the citizens of 
 Edinburgh. A part of the crowd w"as called 
 ofl* to assist at the ceremony at the Cross of 
 the High street, now destroyed — a place 
 where the proclamation of public acts had 
 taken place from time immemorial. The 
 gallery in which the heralds and pursuivant 
 at arms, clad in their official costume, ap- 
 peared, was decorated with tapestry. A 
 troop of Highlanders were formed in lines 
 two deep on each side of the street, the trum- 
 pets sounded a flourish, the bagpipes played 
 their pibrochs, and w r hen the crow’d was 
 silenced, James III. w r as proclaimed, the com- 
 mission appointing Charles Edward regent 
 read, as well as the manifesto of the prince, 
 dated Paris, May 16th, 1745. The innumer- 
 able windows of the houses in the High 
 street, some of which were more than ten 
 stories high, were filled with ladies, w'ho 
 waved their w r hite handkerchiefs, to excite 
 the shouts of the people ; the attachment to 
 
 STU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 841 
 
 the legitimate monarch appeared universal, 
 as if the faults of the dynasty had been ex- 
 piated by its misfortunes. While the her- 
 alds were proclaiming James and his son, at 
 the foot of the gallery, the Lady Broughton 
 of Murray, a woman of uncommon beauty, 
 appeared upon a splendid horse, with a drawn 
 sword in her hand, like a heroine of Ariosto 
 or Tasso, while other ladies distributed white 
 ribbons to their brothers and admirers. 
 
 Charles Edward was at first successful, 
 defeating General Cope at Preston Pans, but 
 he returned to Edinburgh and wasted his 
 time in idle parades. Being, however, joined 
 by several discontented chiefs, he marched 
 as far as Manchester, but hearing that the 
 king was about to take the field, he returned 
 to Scotland, and defeated the English forces 
 under Hawley at Falkirk. In the mean time 
 the Duke of Cumberland advanced to Edin- 
 burgh, and thence to Aberdeen, the Preten- 
 der retreating before him. At length the 
 two'armies met at Culloden, when, after an 
 obstinate conflict, in which the Highlanders 
 displayed signal courage, the royal army was 
 successful, and the rebels fled, leaving 3,000 
 of their number dead upon the field. 
 
 A well authenticated anecdote of this bat- 
 tle strikingly displays the simplicity and 
 ferocity of the Highlanders. An English 
 officer, having fallen into the hands of a mus- 
 cular adversary, who had thrown away his 
 musket, and was brandishing a broadsword, 
 supplicated for quarter. u Quarter ! quar- 
 ter ! ” cried the irritated Highlander, “ I hae 
 nae the time to quarter ye, sae ye must een 
 be contentit to be cuttit in twa,” suiting the 
 action to the word. 
 
 Charles Edward wandered for a long time 
 in disguise, chiefly among the Hebrides, and 
 finally effected his escape to France. Nothing 
 throws a clearer light on the fidelity and 
 honor of the Scotch, than the fact that al- 
 though Charles was frequently at the mercy 
 of some of the poorest mountaineers, the 
 high price which was set upon his head 
 could not tempt them to betray him. One 
 time, after having been without food for days, 
 his dress torn to tatters by his briery hiding- 
 places, Charles, finding himself near the 
 house of a whig gentleman, sought shelter in 
 it. “ I am your political opponent,” said the 
 high-minded whig ; “ but I am also your fel- 
 
 low-man. I scorn*to take advantage of your 
 distress, and will protect you as long as you 
 choose to remain beneath my roof.” He 
 kept his word, and even furnished the unhap- 
 py prince with a disguise which facilitated 
 his escape. This feeling of forbearance to 
 Charles, after his defeat, was manifested in a 
 higher quarter. King George, being at a 
 ball, a lady, who did not know him, asked 
 him to drink to the health of the Pretender. 
 “Willingly,” replied the king ; “I cannot 
 refuse to drink to the health of every unfor- 
 tunate prince.” « 
 
 With the defeat of the Pretender ended 
 all the hopes of the unfortunate Stuart fam- 
 ily. Charles Edward died at Florence, in 1788. 
 
 STUART, Gilbert, a celebrated American 
 portrait-painter, born at Newport, R. I., in 
 1755. He studied under Sir B. West, in 
 London, where he pursued his profession 
 with great success. Upon his return to 
 America, he resided successively in Philadel- 
 phia, Washington, and Boston, in which lat- 
 ter city he died in 1828. 
 
 SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, a brave and 
 skillful general in the armies of Napoleon, 
 was born at Lyons in 1772. He gained the 
 rank of marshal and Duke of Albufera, and 
 died in 1826. 
 
 SUE, Eugene, a celebrated French novelist, 
 born at Paris in 1807, the son of an eminent 
 surgeon. Having squandered his patrimony 
 in extravagant living, he was driven to writ- 
 ing romances. “The Mysteries of Paris” 
 and “The Wandering Jew” were his most 
 successful works. He died in exile in Savoy, 
 Aug. 3d, 1857. 
 
 SUEYI. In the time of Caesar, the Suevi 
 were numbered among the most warlike 
 nations of Germany, and agreed in customs 
 and manners with the other inhabitants of 
 that extensive country. Their situation is 
 said to have been between the Elbe and the 
 Vistula. Tiberius transported some thou- 
 sands of them into Gaul, and assigned lands 
 to others beyond the Danube. The Suevi 
 formed a kingdom in the vicinity of the 
 towns of Merida, Seville, and Carthagena, 
 in Spain, which, in the year 585, was reduced 
 to a province of the Gothic monarchy, by 
 Leovigild, king of the Visigoths, after it had 
 subsisted one hundred and seventy-four 
 years. 
 
 SUE 
 
842 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 SULLIVAN, James, brother of Gen. Sul- 
 livan, was born at Berwick, Maine, April 
 22d, 1744, and studied law under his brother. 
 He was for several years governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, and held some high judicial offices. 
 He died Dec. 10th, 1808, in the sixty-fifth 
 year of his age. 
 
 SULLIVAN, John, was born at Berwick, 
 Me., Feb. 17th, 1740. For a few years be- 
 fore the Revolution, he practiced law in New 
 Hampshire. He resigned his seat in the 
 congress of 1774, to enter the army, in 
 which he was appointed brigadier-general in 
 1775. In the battle of Long Island he was 
 taken prisoner, but was soon exchanged, and 
 intrusted with the command of the right 
 division in the battle of Trenton. He also 
 commanded the right wing at the battles of 
 Brandywine and Germantown. The differ- 
 ences between Count d’Estaing and Sullivan 
 caused the failure of the siege of Newport 
 in August, 1777. In 1779 he defeated the 
 Six Nations of Indians in New York. His 
 extensive calls for military stores, and stric- 
 tures on the conduct of Congress with re- 
 gard to him, were followed by his resigna- 
 tion of his command on the 9th of Novem- 
 ber. After the close of the war, in 1786, he 
 was elected president of New Hampshire, 
 and held the office for three years. In Octo- 
 ber, 1789, he was appointed district judge 
 of New Hampshire. He died Jan. 23d, 1795. 
 
 SULLY. Maximilian de Bethune, Baron 
 de Rosni, and Duke of Sully, was born at 
 the castle of Rosni in 1559. At the age of 
 eleven, his father presented him to the Queen 
 of Navarre, who gave him an appointment 
 about the person of her son Henry, with 
 whom Sully was educated. Soon after this 
 the queen, on the invitation of Charles IX., 
 went to Paris, and -died there, not without 
 suspicion of poison ; which opinion received 
 confirmation when the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew occurred soon afterward. In that 
 carnage, Sully escaped by passing through 
 the crowd as a student to the college of 
 Burgundy, where the principal locked him 
 up in a closet for three days. In 1576 Henry 
 of Navarre eluded the vigilance of his guards 
 and arrived at Tours, accompanied by Sully, 
 who, in the war that ensued, carried his valor 
 almost to excess, which made Henry say to 
 him one day, “ I admire your courage, but 
 
 wish you to reserve it for better occasions/’ 
 In all the battles and sieges that followed, 
 he bore a prominent part. Henry IV. made 
 him governor of Poitou, grand master of the 
 ports and harbors of France, and erected, in 
 his favor, the lands of Sully upon the Loire 
 into a duchy. To the wise counsels and 
 reforms of Sully, who now shone as a great 
 statesman, the reign of Henry IV. owes a 
 major part of its renown. On the murder 
 of that great monarch, in 1610, the duke 
 retired from court, and employed himself in 
 writing his memoirs. He died at his castle 
 at Villabon, Dec. 22d, 1641. 
 
 SUMATRA, an island in the eastern seas, 
 the largest of the Sunda Isles, is divided ob- 
 liquely by the equator, and contains about 
 160,000 square miles; it is fertile, but the 
 interior is little known. It is partly subject 
 to native tribes, and partly to the sway and 
 influence of the Dutch. 
 
 SUMMERFIELD, JonN, a very popular 
 preacher of the Methodist church, died at 
 New York, in 1825, aged twenty-seven. He 
 was born in England. 
 
 SUMTER, Thomas, a distinguished parti- 
 san officer, during the American revolution- 
 ary war, whose operations were principally 
 confined to South Carolina, where he died in 
 his ninety-eighth year, June 1st, 1832. In 
 the halls of congress he served his country, 
 as well as in the field. Sumter was younger 
 than Marion, larger in frame, better fitted in 
 strength of body for the toils of war, and, 
 like his compeer, devoted to the freedom of 
 his country. His aspect was manly and 
 stern, denoting insuperable firmness and 
 lofty courage. Determined to deserve suc- 
 cess, he risked his own life and the lives of 
 his associates without reserve. 
 
 SUW ARROW, Peter Alexis, field-marshal 
 and generalissimo of the Russian armies, was 
 born about 1730. He made his first cam- 
 paign in the seven years’ war, and distin- 
 guished himself so much, that in 1762 he 
 was appointed colonel of infantry. In 1768 
 he was made brigadier ; soon after which he 
 was raised to the rank of major-general ; and 
 for his services in Poland, he received the 
 orders of St. Anne, St. George, and Alexan- 
 der. In 1773 he had a command against the 
 Turks, whom he defeated at Tourtakaye ; on 
 i which occasion he wrote to Marshal Roman- 
 SUW 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 zoff, as follows : “ Glory to God ! Glory to 
 
 thee ! Tourtakaye’s taken, and taken by 
 me ! ” On the renewal of the war in 1787, 
 Suwarrow defended Kinburn, and was 
 wounded at the siege of Oxzakow. Sept. 
 22d, 1789, he gained, in conjunction with 
 the Austrian general Saxe Coburg, the vic- 
 tory of Rymnik, though the Turks mustered 
 four to one against the allies. This achieve- 
 ment was followed by the taking of Bender 
 and Belgrade, for his share in which, Suwar- 
 row was created, by the Emperor Joseph, a 
 count of the Roman empire, and by his 
 own sovereign, a count of the empire of 
 Russia, with the title of Rymnikski. In 
 1790 he took Ismail, where, though the plun- 
 der was immense, Suwarrow would not take 
 a single article for himself. After this, 
 Suwarrow had a principal concern in the 
 operations which produced the partition of 
 Poland, for which he was made a field-mar- 
 shal, and presented with an estate. When 
 the Emperor Paul embarked in the confede- 
 racy against France, Suwarrow was appointed 
 commander of the combined army in Italy, 
 where he gained some advantages, particu- 
 larly the battle of Novi. After this he 
 crossed the Alps, and marched into Switzer- 
 land, but being disappointed of re-enforce- 
 ments, he was obliged to retreat toward 
 the lake of Constance. ITe was then re- 
 called, and died of chagrin, May 18th, 
 1800. 
 
 SWEDEN occupies the eastern and larger 
 portion of the Scandinavian peninsula in 
 the north of Europe. It contains 170,715 
 square miles, and has 3,641,600 inhabitants. 
 Its only foreign possession is St. Bartholo- 
 mew’s Island in the West Indies. The north 
 of Sweden is mountainous, wild, and thinly 
 populated. The number of lakes is very 
 great : it is estimated that they cover nearly 
 one-eighth of the area of the kingdom : 
 Wener, Wetter, and Malar are the principal. 
 The only navigable rivers are those that have 
 been made so by art. The climate and soil 
 do not favor the growth of grain. Forests 
 cover over a fourth of the surface, principally 
 pines, firs, and birch. Besides timber, tar, 
 and pitch for export, they supply firewood 
 and charcoal, of which there is a large con- 
 sumption, since Sweden has no coal. She is 
 rich in other minerals ; there are valuable 
 
 843 
 
 copper mines, but her subterranean stores 
 of iron are the most important. 
 
 The government is a constitutional mon- 
 archy. The supreme legislative power is 
 vested in the diet, which, as of old, consists 
 of the four orders of nobles, clergy, burgh- 
 ers, and peasants (landholders who are not 
 noble). It meets at Stockholm every fifth 
 year, and the sessions are limited to three 
 months, unless protracted by press of business. 
 The Lutheran religion is the established 
 creed. There is a large university at Upsa- 
 la, and another at Lund. Subordinate schools 
 of various grades are sustained by the gov- 
 ernment. In many districts sparseness of 
 population renders it necessary that the 
 schoolmasters should be ambulatory. It is 
 a general practice for parents, especially 
 those in the country, to instruct their chil- 
 dren in the long winter evenings. 
 
 Stockholm, the capital, is situated at the 
 junction of Lake Malar with an inlet of the 
 Baltic, about thirty-six miles from the sea as 
 the channel goes. It is built partly on the 
 mainland and partly on nine islands. It is a 
 handsome city, surrounded by delightful 
 environs, and is the most industrious and 
 commercial town in Sweden. It contains 
 93,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The early chronicles of Sweden are a mass 
 of fables and heroic legends. The introduc- 
 tion of Christianity, by Ansgarius, Bishop 
 of Bremen, in 829, seems to present the first 
 certain period of Swedish history. The early 
 history of all the northern nations, even dur- 
 ing the first ages of Christianity, is confused 
 and uninteresting, and often doubtful, but 
 sufficiently replete with murders, massacres, 
 and ravages. That of Sweden is void of 
 consistency, till about the middle of the four- 
 teenth century, when it assumes an appear- 
 ance more regular and consistent. The 
 Swedes perished in the dissensions between 
 their prelates and lay barons, or between 
 those and their sovereigns ; they were drained 
 of the little riches they possessed, to support 
 the indolent pomp of a few magnificent 
 bishops ; and, what was still more fatal, the 
 unlucky situation of their internal' affairs 
 exposed them to the inroads and oppression 
 of the Danes, who, by their neighborhood 
 and power, were always able to avail them- 
 selves of the dissensions in Sweden. In 
 
 SWE 
 
844 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 1397 Margaret, Queen of Denmark and Nor- 
 way, joined Sweden with them. The tyran- 
 ny of her grand-nephew Eric was not endur- 
 able, and the Danes were expelled in 1433. 
 For nearly a century the Danish monarchs 
 strove to subjugate the land. In 1520 Chris- 
 tian II. of Denmark determined to destroy at 
 once all the Swedish nobility, in order to re- 
 venge the troubles they had occasioned, and 
 to prevent the people from revolting in future, 
 by depriving them of proper persons to con- 
 duct their operations. He cut off the chief 
 men of the nation with the axe of the execu- 
 tioner. The entire senate were conducted to 
 death before the eyes of the citizens of Stock- 
 holm. The cruelty of Christian is almost 
 inconceivable ; he indiscriminately pillaged 
 all ranks of people, erected every where 
 scaffolds and gibbets, and brandished the 
 sej^the of death over every head. He did 
 not consider it as a sufficient gratification to 
 deprive his victims of life ; he took a pleas- 
 ure in prolonging the duration of their suf- 
 ferings by the sight of the preparations 
 which preceded the execution, and he wished 
 to give them as it were a full relish of all the 
 bitterness of death. Among other instances 
 of cruelty and barbarity, he obliged women 
 to sew with their own hands the sacks in 
 which they were to be tied up and drowned. 
 
 Gustavus Yasa, whose father was one of 
 the victims of the massacre, roused his coun- 
 trymen to arms, and the expulsion of the 
 Danes (Christian II. being opportunely de- 
 throned at the same time in Denmark) was 
 followed by the coronation of Gustavus. In 
 1528 the confession of Augsburg was 
 solemnly adopted as the national standard of 
 faith. Under Gustavus Sweden rose from 
 her semi-barbarous condition to a considera- 
 ble affluence and prosperity. Gustavus Adol- 
 phus was the greatest of his successors. 
 The illustrious Oxenstiern aided him in the 
 improvement of the kingdom. He gained 
 broad conquests in his wars with Russia and 
 Poland, and fell in the moment of triumph 
 as the champion of the Protestant faith in 
 German}^. Christina, his daughter, succeeded 
 at the age of six years, under the guardian- 
 ship of Oxenstiern, who administered the 
 kingdom with consummate ability. A war 
 with Denmark (1643-1645) ended to the 
 advantage of Sweden; and at the general 
 
 peace of Westphalia in 1648, Sweden received 
 Pomerania, Rugen, Bremen, &c., with the 
 annexed rights as a state of the empire, — 
 acquisitions which raised her to the rank of 
 a first-rate power. In 1654 Christina abdi- 
 cating the crown in favor of her cousin, the 
 Count Palatine of Deux-Ponts, retired to 
 France, and afterward to Rome, where she 
 died a Roman Catholic in 1689. The new 
 monarch, Charles Gustavus, renewed war 
 with Poland, overran the country, and 
 attacked Denmark, which had sided with 
 Poland, obtaining the cession of various Dan- 
 ish provinces. In a subsequent attack on 
 Denmark, the Swedes were repulsed from 
 Copenhagen by the aid of the Prussians 
 and the Dutch, and the disappointed ambi- 
 tion of the king is said to have hastened his 
 death. During the minority of his son 
 Charles XI., the long contest with Poland 
 was concluded by the peace of Oliva ; Livo- 
 nia, Esthonia, and Oegel were confirmed to 
 Sweden, and the claim of the Polish kings to 
 the Swedish crown was given up. In the 
 war with Prussia and Denmark (1675-1679), 
 the Swedes were worsted, but at the peace of 
 Fontainebleau (1679) they regained all they 
 had lost. This reign was the epoch of the 
 first struggle between the crown, supported 
 by the burghers and peasants, and the power 
 of the senate and nobles. In 1693 the king 
 was formally declared absolute by an act of 
 the diet. Fie left his dominions in 1697 to 
 his son, the famous Charles XII., then a lad 
 of fifteen. The kingdom was in the highest 
 state of prosperity and power ; yet the inex- 
 perience of the young king tempted his 
 neighbors to attack. A coalition was formed 
 against him by Poland, Denmark, and Prus- 
 sia. Charles assumed the offensive, humbled 
 Denmark in six weeks, routed the Czar be- 
 fore Narva, and then invading Poland, ex- 
 pelled Frederick Augustus of Saxony from 
 the throne. But Charles’s invasion of Rus- 
 sia in 1708 and 1709 was fatal to his schemes 
 of ambition : in the course of a few years his 
 conquests were lost as rapidly as they had 
 been won ; and when in 1718 he fell at the 
 siege of Fredericshall in Norway, Sweden 
 was on the verge of ruin. His sister Ulrica 
 Eleonora was soon forced to renounce the 
 crown in favor of her husband, Frederick of 
 Flesse Cassel. A treaty with Russia, by 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 845 
 
 which Livonia, Ingria, Esthonia, Carelia, 
 Oesel, &c., were ceded to the czar, gained 
 peace for the exhausted kingdom. For the 
 next twenty years the court of Stockholm 
 was a scene of foreign intrigue and corrup- 
 tion, in which the Hats, or French party, and 
 the Caps, or Russian faction, alternately pre- 
 dominated. Agriculture and commerce flour- 
 ished nevertheless ; Linnaeus and his disci- 
 ples gave a new impulse to science ; and leg- 
 islation was improved by a new code, 1634. 
 In a war with Russia (1641) the Swedes were 
 everywhere defeated, and at the peace of 
 Abo (1743), through British mediation, part 
 of Finland was given to Russia. 
 
 The reign of Adolphus Frederick was 
 peaceful in its foreign relations, with the ex- 
 ception of the share taken against Russia, 
 through the influence of the Hats, in the 
 Seven Years’ war. Gustavus III., in 1772, 
 supported by the army and the body of the 
 people, forcibly repealed the constitution of 
 1720, re-establishing the relative powers of 
 the various branches of government nearly 
 as before 1680 ; the party names of Hats and 
 Caps were forever prohibited, the use of tor- 
 ture abolished, and the press declared free. 
 In 1780 Sweden joined the armed neutrality 
 of the northern powers against England ; 
 and in 1783 a commercial treaty was con- 
 cluded with the United States. An alliance 
 with the Porte in 1787 led to a war with 
 Russia and her ally Denmark ; and the muti- 
 nous conduct of the Swedish officers, who 
 refused to invade Russia without orders from 
 the states, produced the 4 act of safety ’ 
 (1789), which gave the king absolute power 
 of war and peace, and abolished the senate, 
 the last stronghold of aristocratic power. 
 The peace of Werela (1790) was concluded 
 on the basis of mutual restoration. In 1792 
 Gustavus III. was shot by Ankerstroem at a 
 masquerade. His successor, Gustavus IV., 
 formed an alliance with Russia and England 
 against Napoleon in 1805 : the French occu- 
 pied Pomerania and Stralsund in 1807 ; Rus- 
 sia, after the conferences of Tilsit, turned 
 her arms upon her late ally, and seized 
 upon Finland, the impregnable fortress of 
 Sveaborg being betrayed by the governor; 
 an auxiliary force of 11,000 English, under 
 Sir John Moore, was dismissed without effect- 
 ing anything ; the Danes also declared war ; 
 
 and Tornea and the Aland Isles were taken 
 by the Russians. These multiplied misfor- 
 tunes were ascribed to the incapacity of the 
 king, who had shown symptoms of mental 
 derangement ; he was deposed in 1809, and 
 his uncle Charles XIII. called to the throne, 
 to the exclusion of the son of Gustavus, who 
 was declared incapable of ever inheriting. 
 Peace with Russia was dearly purchased by 
 the cession of Finland, East Bothnia, and 
 Aland, — nearly a quarter of the territory of 
 the kingdom, with a third of its population ; 
 but France restored Pomerania in 1810, on 
 the adoption of Napoleon’s continental sys- 
 tem. In 1810, on the election of a crown- 
 prince, in consequence of the age of the king 
 and the want of an heir, the choice of the 
 states fell upon Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s 
 ablest marshals. He assumed the reins of 
 government, and soon leagued with Russia 
 and England against the declining power of 
 the great Corsican The services of Sweden 
 were rewarded in 1814 by the acquisition of 
 Norway, which Denmark was compelled to 
 yield, Sweden at the same time relinquishing 
 to Prussia Pomerania and her remaining Ger- 
 man possessions. The crowns of Sweden 
 and Norway were declared indissolubly uni- 
 ted, though each kingdom retained its sepa- 
 rate constitution. In 1818 the king died, 
 and Bernadotte ascended the throne as Charles 
 XIV. His rule was marked by the uniform 
 and increasing prosperity of the Scandina- 
 vian kingdoms. 
 
 KINGS OF SWEDRN. 
 
 1520. Christiern or Christian II. of Denmark. 
 1523. Gustavus Vasa : by whose valor the Swedes 
 are delivered from the Danish yoke. 
 1560. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus: dethroned, 
 and died in prison. 
 
 1568. John III., brother of Eric. 
 
 1592. Sigismund, King of Poland, son of John 
 III. : disputes for the succession contin- 
 ued the whole of this reign. 
 
 1604. Charles IX., brother of John III. 
 
 1611. Gustavus (Adolphus) II., the Great. 
 
 1633. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus.- 
 
 1654. Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John Casi- 
 mir, Count Palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 1660. Charles XI., son of the preceding. 
 
 1697. Charles XII., stvled the 44 Alexander,” the 
 “Quixote,” and the “Madman of the 
 North.” 
 
 1719. Ulrica Eleonora, his sister, and her con- 
 sort Frederick I. 
 
 1741. Frederick reigned alone. 
 
846 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 1761. Adolphus Frederick, of Holstcin-Gottorp, 
 descended from the family of Vasa. 
 1771. Gustavus (Adolphus) III. 
 
 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) IV. : dethroned, and 
 the government assumed by his uncle, 
 the Duke of Sudermania. 
 
 1809. Charles XIII., Duke of Sudermania. 
 
 1818. Charles (John) XIV. (Bernadotte), the 
 French Prince of Ponte Corvo. 
 
 1844. Oscar, his son, ascended throne, Mar. 8th 
 1859. Charles XV. 
 
 SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, an eminent 
 mathematical, philosophical, and mystical 
 writer, .died in London, March 29th, 1772. 
 He was born in Stockholm, Jan. 29th, 1G88. 
 
 SWIFT, Jonathan, was born in Dublin 
 (some say at Cashel in Tipperary), Nov. 80th, 
 1667. Born a posthumous child, and bred 
 up an object of charity by his uncle, this sin- 
 gular and haughty man early adopted the cus- 
 tom of observing his birthday as an occasion 
 for sorrow rather than joy, and of reading, 
 as it annually recurred, that striking scrip- 
 ture in which Job laments and curses the 
 day upon which it was said in his father’s 
 house that a man-child was born. Swift was 
 sent to Trinity College, Dublin, which he 
 left in his twenty-first year, and was received 
 into the house of Sir William Temple, a dis- 
 tant kinsman of his mother. Afterward he 
 took orders in the Irish church, but soon 
 tired of the life and income of an obscure 
 country 1 - clergyman, threw up his living, and 
 returned to the service of Sir William Tem- 
 ple. That gentleman died in 1699, and Swift 
 was glad to accompany Lord Berkeley to Ire- 
 land as chaplain. From that nobleman he 
 obtained the rectory of Aghar and the vicar- 
 ages of Laracor and Rathveggan, to which 
 was afterward added the prebend of Dunla- 
 vin ; in all making his income only some 
 £200 a year. At Moorpark Swift had con- 
 tracted an intimacy with Miss Hester John- 
 son, daughter of Sir William Temple’s stew- 
 ard ; and on his settlement in Ireland, this 
 lady, accompanied by another female, of mid- 
 dle age, came to reside in his neighborhood. 
 He has immortalized her under the name of 
 Stella. In 1701 Swift became a political wri- 
 ter on the whig side, and on his visits to Eng- 
 land, he associated with Addison, Steele, and 
 Arbuthnot. In 1710, conceiving that he was 
 neglected by the ministry, he quarreled with 
 the whigs, and was welcomed by Harley and 
 the tory administration with open arms. 
 
 He carried with him shining weapons for 
 party warfare — irresistible and unscrupulous 
 satire, steady hate, and a dauntless spirit. 
 From his new allies he received, in 1713, the 
 deanery of St Patrick’s. The accession of 
 the house of Hanover ruined his hopes, and 
 he retired to Ireland a disappointed man. 
 
 During his residence in England, he had 
 engaged the affections of another young 
 lady, Esther Vanhomrigh, who, under the 
 name of Vanessa, rivaled Stella in poetical 
 celebrity and in personal misfortune. After 
 the death of her father, Miss Vanhomrigh 
 and her sister retired to Ireland, where they 
 had a small property near Dublin. Swift’s 
 pride or ambition led him to postpone indefi- 
 nitely his marriage with Stella. Though he 
 declared he loved her better than his 
 life a thousand millions of times, he kept 
 her in a state of hope deferred, injurious 
 -alike to her peace and her reputation. He 
 dared not confess his situation to Vanessa 
 when this second victim avowed her passion. 
 He was flattered that a girl of eighteen, beau- 
 tiful and accomplished, should sigh for ‘a 
 gown of forty-four,’ and he did not stop to 
 weigh the consequences. The removal of 
 Vanessa to Ireland, as Stella had gone before, 
 to be near his presence; her irrepressible 
 passion, which no neglect could quench ; bur 
 life of deep seclusion, checquered only r by 
 the occasional visits of Swift, each of w hich 
 she commemorated by planting with her own 
 hand a laurel in the garden where they met ; 
 her agonizing remonstrances, when all her 
 offerings and devotion had failed, — are touch- 
 ing beyond expression. Swift could give 
 but the coldest return. The tragedy deep- 
 ened. Eight years had Vanessa nursed her 
 hopeless attachment in solitude. At length 
 she wrote to Stella, to ascertain the nature 
 of her connection w ith Swift : the latter ob- 
 tained the fatal letter, and rode instantly to 
 Marley Abbey, Vanessa’s residence. As he 
 entered, the sternness of his countenance 
 struck the unfortunate w’oman with such 
 terror that she could scarce ask whether he 
 w T ould not sit down. He answered by fling- 
 ing a letter on the table ; and instantly 
 leaving the house, mounted his horse and 
 returned to Dublin. When Vanessa opened the 
 packet, she found only her own letter to Stel- 
 la. It was her death-warrant She sunk at 
 
 SWI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 847 
 
 once under the disappointment of the delayed 
 yet cherished hopes which had so long sick- 
 ened her heart, and beneath the unrestrained 
 wrath of him for whose sake she had indulged 
 them. She survived this last interview only 
 a few weeks. Stella and Swift were at last 
 secretly married in the garden of the deanery, 
 when on her part all but life had faded away. 
 Just before her death, he offered to acknowl- 
 edge the union, but she replied, “ It is too 
 late.” The fair sufferers were deeply re- 
 venged ; in a few years the malady came 
 which Swift had long foreseen and dreaded. 
 After various attacks of giddiness and deaf- 
 ness, his temper became ungovernable, and 
 his reason gave way. His almost total si- 
 lence during the last three years of his life 
 (for the last year he spoke not a word) appalls 
 and overawes the imagination. He died on 
 the 19th of October, 1745, and was interred 
 in St. Patrick’s cathedral, amid the tears and 
 prayers of his countrymen. His fortune, 
 amounting to about £19,000, he left chiefly 
 to found a lunatic asylum in Dublin. 
 
 Swift’s “ Drapier’s Letters ” gave him un- 
 bounded popularity in Ireland. “Gulliver’s 
 Travels” and the “Tale of a Tub” are the 
 chief corner-stones of his fame. His prose 
 is a model of simple and vigorous English. 
 Ills verse is of a homely stamp, but strikingly 
 true to nature. There have been few so 
 faithful depicters of human nature, in its 
 frailties and weakness, as the misanthropic 
 Dean of St. Patrick’s. 
 
 In Swift’s version of iEsop’s fable of the 
 apples and the ordure, when he came to the 
 address of the latter to the former, — 
 
 “ IIow we apples swim,” — 
 he subjoined the following lines upon a pomp- 
 ous, pragmatical limb of the law whom he 
 disliked : — 
 
 “ So at the bar the booby Bcttesworth, 
 
 Though half a crown outpays his sweat’s worth, 
 Who knows in law nor text nor margent, 
 
 Calls Singleton his brother sergeant .' 1 ' 1 
 
 Singleton was a first-rate barrister. The 
 poem was sent to Bettesworth at a time when 
 he was surrounded by his friends in a con- 
 vivial party. He read it aloud till he had 
 finished the lines relative to himself. He 
 flung it down with great violence, trembled 
 and turned pale. After some pause, his rage 
 for a while depriving him of utterance, he 
 
 took out his penknife, and, opening it, vehe- 
 mently swore, “ With this very penknife I 
 will cut olf his ears.” He went to the dean’s 
 house, and, not finding him at home, fol- 
 lowed him to the house of a friend, where, 
 being shown into aback room, he desired the 
 dean might be sent for. On Swift entering 
 the room, and asking what were his com- 
 mands, “Sir,” said he, “lam Sergeant Bettes- 
 worth.” — “Of what regiment, pray, sir?” 
 said Swift. — “Oh, Mr. dean, we know your 
 powers of raillery — you know me well 
 enough ; I am one of his majesty’s sergeants- 
 at-law, and I am come to demand if you are 
 the author of this poem [producing it] and 
 these villainous lines on me.” — “Sir,” said 
 Swift, “ when I was a young man, I had the 
 honor of being intimate with some great 
 legal characters, particularly Lord Somers, 
 who, knowing my propensity to satire, ad- 
 vised me, when I lampooned a knave or fool, 
 never to own it. Conformably to that advice, 
 I tell you I am not the author.” Bettesworth 
 went off grumbling, saying Swift was like 
 one of his own vile Yahoos, besmearing peo- 
 ple with his filth, and out of the reach of 
 punishment. 
 
 SWITZERLAND, a country in Europe, 
 lying between France, Germany, and Ita- 
 ly, contains 15,179 square miles, and 
 2,400,000 inhabitants. More than half the 
 country is mountainous, the Jura Mountains 
 separating it from France, and the ranges of 
 the Alps occupying the southern and eastern 
 portions. Its picturesque and sublime scene- 
 ry is well known ; from the snowy sum- 
 mits and icy glaciers of the drear Alpine 
 heights, enclosing pastoral valle)^ of surpris- 
 ing verdure and loud torrents plunging in 
 wild cascades, to the placid lakes of Leman, 
 Constance, Zurich, Luzern, Neufchatel, and 
 scores of lesser beauties, that sleep in the 
 plains below. With such a variety of sur- 
 face the climate and productions also widely 
 vary. The valleys and plains are fertile, and 
 the lower regions of the mountains afford 
 fine pastures for herds and flocks. 
 
 The Swiss confederation consists of twen- 
 ty-two cantons, — Aargau, Appenzell, Basel, 
 Bern, Freyburg, St. Gall, Geneva, Glams, 
 Grisons, Luzern, Neufchatel, Schaffhausen. 
 Schwyz (from which the country has its 
 name), Soleure, Thurgau, Ticino, Unterwai- 
 
 SWI 
 
848 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 den, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug, and Zurich. 
 
 The sovereign authority is vested in the fed- 
 eral assembly, which consists of two repre- 
 sentative chambers. The city of Bern is the 
 federal metropolis. A majority of the Swiss 
 are Calvinists ; yet there are many Catho- 
 lics, and some of the cantons are almost ex- 
 clusively of the Romish faith. Liberty of 
 conscience and freedom of worship are en- 
 joyed by all. Education is generally diffused. 
 Some of the private schools are famous for 
 combining industrial training with scientific 
 instruction. Hospitals for the infirm poor 
 exist in every town, and some are richly 
 endowed. The Swiss formerly sought ser- 
 vice in large numbers in the armies of France, 
 Holland, Spain, Naples, &c., ; foreign enlist- 
 ment is now generally prohibited. 
 
 Some portions of Switzerland have been 
 busy with manufactures for centuries. The 
 canton of Zurich has thousands of hands 
 employed in making silks, handkerchiefs, 
 ribbons, and cotton cloths and prints. The 
 city of Basel (whose clocks in former times 
 were an hour in advance of those of other 
 places), a great centre of trade, makes many 
 ribbons and satins, and much leather, paper, 
 and tobacco. Geneva’s watches and musical 
 boxes are known to all Europe and Amer 
 ica. 
 
 The exaggerated accounts given of the riches 
 and milder climate of Italy, occasioned the 
 successive inroads of various troops of barbari- 
 ans who gloried in the common name of Gauls. 
 
 In all these expeditions, the Helvetians took 
 a considerable share, and afterward joined 
 the Cimbri and the Teutones against the Ro- 
 mans. However, their want of discipline 
 finally proved fatal to them ; and the arms 
 of Marius and Sylla obtained over the com- 
 bined forces of Germany the most complete 
 and decisive victory. From this era, the Hel- 
 vetians lived in friendship and alliance with 
 the Romans, till the arts of Orgetorix, one 
 of their chieftains, involved them in that 
 unfortunate expedition which ended in their 
 being deprived of liberty and independence 
 by Julius Caesar, 57 b.c. Helvetia thus be- 
 came a province of Rome. The decline of 
 the Roman power, and the irruption of the 
 Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other northern 
 tribes hastened the downfall of the unhappy 
 Helvetians. Of those who settled in Helve- 
 
 SWI 
 
 tia, the chief were the Burgundians and the 
 more barbarous Alemanni, a German nation, 
 who made their first appearance in 214, and 
 settled in the duchy of Wirtemberg. On 
 the downfall of the western nation, the Ale- 
 manni overran that part of Gaul since kno wh 
 by the name of Alsace; and being joined by 
 their countrymen in Germany, they entered 
 the territories of the Ripuarian Franks, and 
 put all to fire and sword. This unprovoked 
 attack, summoning Clovis, king of theSalian 
 Franks, to the defense of his allies, the Ale- 
 manni were entirely defeated in a general en- 
 gagement, with the loss of their king ; and 
 this nation acknowledged the sovereignty of 
 Clovis, in 496, who gradually subdued, and 
 afterward civilized the greatest part of Hel- 
 vetia. Under the Franks it remained till 
 888, when, upon the death of Charles the 
 Gross, it was seized by Raoul, and became 
 part of the kingdom of Burgundy, which 
 was given by Rodolf, the last king of Burgun- 
 dy, to Conrad II., Emperor of Germany, in 
 1032 ; from which time it was esteemed a 
 part of the empire ; but being unjustly 
 treated by Albert, Duke of Austria, the in- 
 habitants revolted in 1308. Werner StaufF- 
 acher of Schwyz, Walter First of Uri, and 
 Arnold von Melchthal of Unterwalden, con- 
 spired to free their land from the tyranny of 
 Gessler, and the imperial minion was slain 
 by brave William Tell. In a cavern near 
 the lake of Luzern, the three founders of the 
 Helvetic confederacy, are said, in Swiss tra- 
 ditions, to sleep. The herdsmen say that 
 they lie there, in their antique garb, in quiet 
 slumber ; and when Switzerland is in her 
 utmost need, they will awaken and regain 
 the liberties of the land. 
 
 When Uri’sbeechen woods wave red 
 In the burning hamlet’s light, 
 
 Then from the caverns of the dead, 
 
 Shall the sleepers wake in might ! 
 
 With a leap, like Tell’s proud leap, 
 
 When away the helm he flung, 
 
 And boldly up the steep 
 
 From the flashing billow sprung! 
 
 They shall wake beside their forest sea 
 In the ancient garb they wore, 
 
 When they linked the hands that made us free, 
 On the Grutli’s moonlit shore ; 
 
 And their voices shall be heard, 
 
 And be answered with a shout, 
 
 Till the echoing Alps are stirred, 
 
 And the signal-fires blaze out ! 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 849 
 
 And the land shall see such deeds again, 
 
 As those of that proud day, 
 
 When Wiulcelried, on Sempach’s plain, 
 Through the serried spears made way ! 
 
 And when the rocks came down 
 On the dark Morgarten del!, 
 
 And the crowned helms o’ertnrown 
 Before our fathers fell ! 
 
 For the Kiihreihen’s* notes must never sound 
 In a land that wears the chain, 
 
 And the vines on Freedom’s holy ground 
 Untrampled must remain. 
 
 And the yellow harvests wave, 
 
 For i>o stranger’s hand to reap, 
 
 While within their silent cave 
 The men of Gi ucli sleep ! 
 
 In 1315 the several states of which this 
 country was composed made their league 
 perpetual; and in 1648 tneir liberty was 
 absolutely fixed by the treaty of Westpha- 
 lia. The peace of Aarau, in 1712, termina- 
 ted the intestine struggles of the Swiss, 
 which long rent in sunder the bonds of their 
 union. Under the protection of the Helvetic 
 league, the whole territory of Switzerland 
 became, and for ages continued, an industri- 
 ous, a free, a blameless, and a happy nation, 
 until they were attacked by their neighbors 
 the French. In 1798 the directory of France 
 having become daring by the peace whioh 
 they had dictated to the emperor, suddenly 
 declared war against Switzerland. 
 
 Partly by force, and partly by treachery, 
 they succeeded in their attempt, and, after 
 changing the government from a federal into 
 an united republic, continued to levy contri- 
 butions, and impose exactions, with the most 
 unpardonable severity. The treaties of 
 Luneville and of Amiens held out to the Hel- 
 vetic confederacy a guarantee of her ancient 
 freedom and independence, which were never 
 fully realized. By the treaty of Vienna, in 
 1815, the integrity of the nineteen cantons, 
 as they existed in a political body, was recog- 
 nized as the basis of the Helvetic System. 
 To Switzerland were united the Valais, the 
 territory of Geneva, and the principality of 
 Neufchatel, which formed three new cantons ; 
 and to the Helvetic confederation were added 
 the bishopric of Basel, and the city and ter- 
 ritory of Bienne, which form part of the 
 canton of Bern. 
 
 * The Kuhreihen is-the melody known by the name of the 
 Ranz des Vaches, which was forbidden to be played by the 
 royal bands in Paris, because it caused the Swiss guards to 
 desert, and return to their native mountains, of which it 
 powerfully reminded them. 
 
 54 Si 
 
 The canton of Neufchatel was formerly a 
 principality, which finally came into the 
 possession of Frederick I. of Prussia. In 
 1806 it was ceded to France, and Napoleon 
 bestowed it upon his general Berthier, who 
 enjoyed it till 1815, when it fell at thedisposal 
 of the allies. They restored the king of 
 Prussia the title of prince, with certain rights, 
 but made the country part of the Swiss con- 
 federation. In 1848 the inhabitants repudi- 
 ated their allegiance to Prussia, and pro- 
 claimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
 member of the Swiss republic. In 1856 
 Prussia threatened a war to regain possession. 
 Great energy and determination were shown 
 by the Swiss in reply. On the intervention 
 of France and England the dispute was at 
 last adjusted by treaty in 1857. For a pecu- 
 niary compensation the Prussian king re- 
 nounced his claims, retaining the title of 
 Prince of Neufchatel without any political 
 rights. 
 
 SYLLA, L. Cornelius, a celebrated Ro- 
 man, of a noble family. He first entered the 
 army under the great Marius, whom he ac- 
 companied in Numidia, in the capacity of 
 quaestor. He rendered himself conspicuous 
 in military affairs, and Bocchus, one of the 
 princes of Numidia, delivered Jugurtha into 
 his hands* for the Roman consul. The rising 
 fame of Sylla gave umbrage to Marius, who 
 was always jealous of an equal, as well as of 
 a superior ; but the ill language which he 
 made use of, rather inflamed than extin- 
 guished the ambition of Sylla. He left the 
 conqueror of Jugurtha, and carried arms 
 under Catullus. For his services in the Social 
 or Marsic war, he was rewarded with the 
 consulship, in the fiftieth year of his age. 
 In this capacity he wished to have the 
 administration of the Mithridatic war; but 
 he found an obstinate adversary in Marius, 
 and he attained the summit of his wishes 
 only when he had entered Rome sword in 
 hand. After he had slaughtered his enemies, 
 set a price upon the head of Marius, and put 
 to death the tribune Sulpitius, who had con- 
 tinually opposed his views, he marched 
 toward Asia, disregarding the flames of dis- 
 cord which he left behind him unextinguished. 
 Mithridates was already master of the great- 
 est part of Greece, and Sylla, when he 
 reached the coast of Peloponnesus, was de- 
 
850 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 layed by the siege of Athens, and of the 
 Piraeus. His boldness succeeded, the Piraeus 
 surrendered, and the conqueror spared the 
 city of Athens. Two celebrated battles, at 
 Chaeronea and Orchomenus, rendered him 
 master of Greece. He crossed the Helles- 
 pont, and attacked Mithridates in the very 
 heart of his kingdom. The artful monarch, 
 who well knew the valor and perseverance 
 of his adversary, made proposals of peace, 
 and Sylla did not hesitate to put an end to a 
 war which had rendered him master of so 
 much territory, and which enabled him to 
 return to Rome like a conqueror. Muraena 
 was left at the head of the Roman forces in 
 Asia, and Sylla hastened to Italy. In the 
 plains of Campania, he was met by a few of 
 his adherents, and was informed that if he 
 wished to contend with Marius, he must en- 
 counter fifteen generals, followed by twenty- 
 five well disciplined legions. Pompey em- 
 braced his cause, and marched to the camp 
 with three legions. Soon after he appeared 
 in the field to advantage; the confidence of 
 Marius decayed with his power, and Sylla 
 entered Rome, a tyrant and a conqueror. 
 The streets were daily filled with dead bodies, 
 and seven thousand citizens, to whom the 
 conqueror had promised pardon, were sud- 
 denly massacred in the circus. ♦ 
 
 Wholesale confiscation of the property of 
 his opponents enabled Sylla to reward his 
 partisans. When unbridled murder had 
 raged for several days, one ventured to ask 
 the dictator when there was to be an end of 
 it. “We do not ask,” said he, “to save 
 those whom you wish to destroy, but to free 
 from fear those whom you mean to save.” 
 Sylla answered that he did not yet know 
 whom he would spare. “ Then tell us whom 
 you will punish.” To this Sylla assented; 
 and at once posted the names of eighty per- 
 sons. Day by day he added to this list, 
 which was hung up in the forum, and called 
 the proscription. These atrocities were not 
 confined to Rome : proscription and confis- 
 cation stalked throughout Italy. Sylla’s 
 object was to break down the democracy, 
 and establish the ancient aristocratic form of 
 the government. In the height of his su- 
 premacy, — in the struggle for which more 
 than a hundred thousand lives had been sac- 
 rificed, throngs thrust into exile, and multi- 
 
 tudes reduced to beggary by confiscation, — 
 the cold-blooded tyrant laid down his dicta- 
 torship, and calmly retired to private life! 
 He took up his abode at Cumae, where he 
 passed his time in writing his memoirs, hunt- 
 ing and fishing, and licentious debauches. 
 Within a year he was attacked by a most 
 loathsome disease, and one day hearing that 
 a magistrate of the adjacent town of Puteoli 
 was putting off the payment of a debt to the 
 corporation, in expectation of his death, he 
 had him brought to his chamber, and 
 strangled in his presence. The exertions he 
 made caused him to throw up a quantity of 
 blood, and he djed that night, in the sixtieth 
 year of his age, b.c. 78. 
 
 SYPHAX, a king of Numidia, married 
 Sophonisba, the daughter of Asdrubal, and 
 forsook the alliance of the Romans to join 
 himself to the interest of his father-in-law, 
 and of Carthage. He was conquered in a bat- 
 tle by Masinissa, the ally of Rome, and given 
 to Scipio the Roman general. The conqueror 
 carried him to Rome, where he adorned his 
 triumph. Syphax died in prison, b.c. 201, 
 and his possessions were given to Masinissa. 
 
 SYRACUSE, a celebrated city of Sicily, 
 founded about b.c. 732, by Archias, a Corin- 
 thian, and one of the Heraclidae. It was 
 under different governments ; and after being 
 freed from the tyranny of Thrasybulus, b.c. 
 466, it enjoyed security for sixty-one years, 
 till the usurpation of the Dionysii, who were 
 expelled by Timoleon, b.c. 343. In the age 
 of the elder Dionysius, an army of one hun- 
 dred thousand foot and ten thousand horse, 
 and four hundred ships, were kept in. con- 
 stant pay. It fell into the hands of the 
 Romans, under the consul Marcellus, after a 
 siege of three years, b.c. 212. Modern Syra- 
 cuse has only 14,000 inhabitants. 
 
 SYRIA, a country of western Asia, border- 
 ing on the Mediterranean Sea, forming part 
 of the Ottoman empire, and containing about 
 70,000 square miles, and 1,500,000 inhabit- 
 ants. W e mention its principal towns. Alep- 
 po once ranked as the third city of the Otto- 
 man dominions. The population in 1795 is 
 said to have amounted to 250,000 : it is now 
 less than a third of that. Seen from a dis- 
 tance, this city presents a picturesque appear- 
 ance ; its gay terraces, graceful mosques, 
 airy arches, and shadowing trees, afford a 
 
 SYR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 851 
 
 combination which is grateful to the senses ; 
 but a nearer approach, like daylight on a 
 phantasmagoria, dispels the illusion. Walk- 
 ing through the streets, the eye wanders 
 over high stone walls which flank the way, 
 or turns baffled from the lattices with which 
 the infrequent windows of the houses are 
 churlishly guarded. The inhabitants of Alep- 
 po differ but little from those of other Mo- 
 hammedan cities and countries. They have 
 the same love for indolent pleasures, the same 
 fondness for the luxuries of the bath. The 
 Jews. of Aleppo have in their synagogue a man- 
 uscript of the Old Testament which they con- 
 sider to be of great antiquity. As a com- 
 mercial place, Aleppo has degenerated in 
 modern times. The English, in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, established a factory here, and 
 consuls of various nations reside in the place 
 at present. The city, including the suburbs, 
 is seven or eight miles in circumference. 
 Eight thousand inhabitants, together with 
 two-thirds of the city, were destroyed by 
 earthquakes in 1822 and 1823. The plague 
 has often made fearful ravages here. Aleppo 
 has also been the scene of fanatical massa- 
 cres. In October, 1850, the Mohammedans 
 mercilessly attacked the Christian inhabit- 
 ants, slew many, and burned or plundered 
 their dwellings and churches. 
 
 Antioch is another famous town. It is 
 fifty miles west of Aleppo, on the Orontes, 
 twenty-one miles from the sea. The popula- 
 tion is less than 10,000, the houses low, and 
 the land neglected. The appearance of the 
 city is-melancholy, and no remains recall the 
 splendors of the day when it was the third 
 city in the world, for beauty, greatness, and 
 population. It was built by Scleucus Nica- 
 nor, b.c. 300, partly on a hill, and partly in a 
 plain, and named for Antiochus, his father. 
 It was for a great length of time the resi- 
 dence of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and 
 of the Roman governors when Syria became 
 a province of that empire. The Christian 
 (aith was established at Antioch by St. Paul 
 
 and St. Barnabas, and here their disciples 
 first bore the name of Christians. It con- 
 tinued to be a city of great importance, 
 notwithstanding frequent and awful earth- 
 quakes, till a.d. 538, when Chosroes the 
 Persian razed it to the ground. It was re- 
 built by Justinian, again became a considera- 
 ble place, and continued such till the time of 
 the crusades. In 1098 it was taken by God- 
 frey, and became the seat of an European 
 principality", which was overthrown by the 
 Turks in 1269. Its commerce and importance 
 passed to Aleppo. 
 
 Damascus is one of the most ancient towns 
 in the world, being mentioned as existing in 
 the days of Abraham (Genesis xiv. and xv.), 
 and it is one of the few that have maintained 
 a flourishing prosperity in all ages, though 
 often subject to the devastating fortune of 
 war. It was possessed in turn by Assyri- 
 ans, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, 
 and Turks. Tamerlane destroyed it in 1400. 
 Here St. Paul began to preach the gospel, 
 a.d. 52. Damask linens and silks were first 
 manufactured at Damascus ; and damask roses 
 were transplanted to Europe from its gar- 
 dens, whence the name in each case. 
 
 Syria formed a part of the Assyrian, 
 Babylonian, Persian, and Macedonian em- 
 pires in succession. After the battle of 
 Ipsus, b.c. 301, it became the centre of the 
 kingdom of the Seleucidae, the usual abode 
 of the kings being at Antioch, its capital. 
 Their dominion was destroyed, and Sy r ria 
 declared a Roman province by Pompey, b.c. 
 65. Under the Caesars it was one of the 
 most populous, flourishing, and luxurious 
 provinces of the empire. It had a consider- 
 able commerce, and proved indeed the empo- 
 rium that connected the eastern and western 
 quarters of the world. The Saracens wrested 
 the land from the declining eastern empire in 
 the seventh century. In 1516 it was con- 
 quered and united to the Turkish empire by 
 the Sultan Selim II. 
 
 SYR 
 
852 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 T. 
 
 TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a celebrated 
 Roman historian, was born about a.d. 58. 
 The time of his death is unknown. 
 
 TALAVERA, a town of Spain, situated on 
 the Tagus, thirty-five miles west of Toledo, 
 famous for the battle fought here July 28th, 
 1809, between the French and the allies un- 
 der Sir Arthur Wellesley. The French army 
 amounted to 47,000 men, and the allied force 
 to 19,000 British and 80,000 Spaniards. In 
 the afternoon of the 27 th, the French opened 
 a cannonade on the left of the British posi- 
 tion, while their cavalry attacked the Span- 
 ish infantry, and attempted to win the town 
 of Talavera ; they were finally repulsed. At 
 nine in the evening, the action ceased, but 
 Soult, the French commander, ordered a 
 night attack to be made on the height occu- 
 pied by General Hill, which he considered 
 the key of the English position. Of this 
 height the French gained a momentary pos- 
 session, but it was recovered at the point of 
 the bayonet. At daybreak, the 28th, the 
 French again attacked Hill’s position, and 
 were repulsed ; faiting also in their other 
 attempts, they rested about eleven, and, it is 
 said, cooked their dinners on the field. At 
 noon, Soult ordered a general attack along 
 the whole line. At the close of the day, the 
 French were repulsed at all points, and effect- 
 ually defeated. 
 
 Marshals Victor and Sebastiani commanded 
 the French advance. Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
 being in the rear, compelled Wellesley to 
 retire after the battle. 
 
 TALBOT, Lord, born at Blechmore, in 
 Shropshire, in 1373. In the first year of 
 Henry V. he was appointed lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, where he suppressed a rebellion, and 
 brought the chief, Donald McGuire, to Eng- 
 land. He next served in France, to the con- 
 quest of which he greatly contributed. His 
 name struck terror into the French soldiers, 
 till the appearance of Joan of Arc, as a super- 
 natural being, turned the scale, and the 
 English army retreated. The battle of Patay 
 completed the disaster, and Lord Talbot fell 
 wounded into the hands of the enemy. At 
 the end of three years and a half, he was 
 
 ransomed, and again led the English to vic- 
 tory. He took a number of strong places, 
 and carried his arms to the walls of Paris, 
 for which he was created Earl of Shrews- 
 bury. In 1443 he concluded a treaty with 
 the French king ; and the following year 
 went again to Ireland as lord lieutenant ; but 
 in 1450 he was recalled to serve in France, 
 where he fell at the battle of Castillon, in 
 his eightieth year, July, 1453. 
 
 T ALLARD, Camille d’IIostun, Count and 
 Duke de, marshal of France, was born in 
 1652, in Dauphiny. He served under Tur- 
 enne in Holland, in 1672. In 1693 he was 
 made lieutenant-general, and in 1697 was 
 sent ambassador to England. The war being 
 renewed, he assumed the command on the 
 Rhine in 1702, and the year following made 
 himself master of Landau, after defeating 
 the Prince of Hesse ; but in 1704 he lost the 
 battle of Blenheim, and was taken prisoner 
 by Marlborough, to whom he said, u Your 
 grace has beaten the finest troops in Europe.” 
 The.duke replied, “ You will except, I hope, 
 those who defeated them.” Marshal Tallard 
 remained in England till 1712, when he re- 
 turned to Paris, and was created a duke. He 
 died in 1728. 
 
 It is said that he was the first to introduce 
 celery to the English tables, during his cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 TALLEYRAND-PERTGORD, Charles 
 Maurice de, was born in Paris in 1754, bred 
 to the church, and though his life was not 
 very consistent with the cloth, he rose to be 
 Bishop of Autun. His participation in the 
 measures that preceded the outbreak of the 
 revolution, led to his excommunication by 
 the pope, and he became a diplomatist, the 
 part for which nature destined him. A fail- 
 ure in some of his intrigues rendered flight 
 necessary, and he remained in the United 
 States till after the reign of terror. Return- 
 ing, he became minister of foreign affairs 
 under the Directory, and retained the post 
 under Napoleon, by whom he was made 
 Prince of Benevento. In 1809 he was de- 
 prived of his offices, and conspired against 
 the emperor. He was minister under Louis 
 
 TAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 853 
 
 XVIII., retired from public life before the 
 storm of 1830, came forth under Louis Phil- 
 ippe, and was ambassador to England till 
 1835. He died in 1838. Napoleon said, 
 “Talleyrand was always in a state of trea- 
 son, but it was a treasonable complicity with 
 Fortune herself ; his circumspection was ex- 
 treme ; he conducted himself toward his 
 friends as if at some future time they might 
 be his enemies, and toward his enemies as if 
 they might become his friends.” 
 
 TALMA, Fkancis Joseph, the Garrick of 
 the French stage, was born in Paris about 
 1770, but his youth was passed in London, 
 where his dramatic taste was formed by wit- 
 nessing the acting of Kemble and the match- 
 less Siddons. He died at Paris, Oct. 19 th, 
 1826. 
 
 TAMERLANE (a corruption of Timour 
 Lenk, Timour ‘the lame’) was, according to 
 some authorities, the son of a shepherd, and 
 to others, of royal descent. He was born in 
 1335, at Kesch, in the ancient Sogdiana, and 
 became sovereign of Tartary in 1369. His 
 first conquest was that of Balkh, the capital 
 of Khorassan, on the frontiers of Persia, fie 
 next made himself master of Kandahar, and 
 after reducing all ancient Persia under his 
 dominion, he turned back in order to subdue 
 the people of Transoxana. Thence he 
 marched to lay siege to Bagdad, which he 
 took, and proceeding with his victorious 
 army into India, he subdued the whole of 
 that nation, and entered Delhi, the capital of 
 the empire. After Tamerlane had completed 
 the conquest of India, he marched his army 
 back, and falling upon Syria, he took Damas- 
 cus. Thence, in 1401, he suddenly returned 
 to Bagdad, which had partly shaken off 
 the yoke. He soon became master of it 
 again, and gave it up to the fury of the sol- 
 diers, on which occasion eight hundred thous- 
 and inhabitants are said to have been de- 
 stroyed, and the city was razed to the 
 ground. About this time five Mohammedan 
 princes, who had been dispossessed by the 
 Sultan Bajazet of their dominions, situated 
 on the borders of the Euxine Sea, implored 
 Tamerlane’s assistance ; and at length he 
 was prevailed on to march his army into Asia 
 Minor. He began with sending ambassadors 
 to Bajazet, who were ordered to insist on his 
 raising the siege of Constantinople, and doing 
 
 justice to the five Mohammedan princes 
 whom he had stripped of their dominions. 
 Bajazet disdaining these proposals, Tamerlane 
 declared war against him, and put his troops 
 in motion. Bajazet raised the siege of Con- 
 stantinople, and July 28th, 1402, the ever 
 memorable battle took place, between Caesa- 
 rea and Angora. After an obstinate contest 
 Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner. 
 Tamerlane, who had hitherto fought with the 
 scymitar and with arrows, employed several 
 field-pieces in this engagement, and the Turks 
 employed cannon and the ancient Greek fire. 
 Tamerlane’s splendid victory did not, how- 
 ever, deprive the Turkish empire of a single 
 city. Musa, the son of Bajazet, became sul- 
 tan, but notwithstanding the protection of 
 Tamerlane, he was unable to oppose his 
 brothers ; and a civil war raged thirteen 
 years among the family. Soon after this, 
 Tamerlane ravaged Syria, and from thence 
 he repassed the Euphrates, and returned to 
 Samarcand. He conquered nearly as great 
 an extent of territory as Genghis Khan. He 
 was scarcely settled in his newly acquired 
 empire, India, when he began to plan the 
 conquest of China, but he died in the midst 
 of his extraordinary career, early in the year 
 1405. 
 
 TARQUINTUS, Lucius, surnamed Priscus , 
 the fifth king of Rome. He distinguished 
 himself so much by his liberality and enga- 
 ging manners, that Ancus Martins, the reign- 
 ing monarch, nominated him the guardian of 
 his children, and after his death the people 
 chose Tarquin king. Tarquin reigned with 
 moderation and popularity. He increased 
 the number of the senate, and made himself 
 friends by electing one hundred new senators 
 'from the plebeians. The glory of the Roman 
 arms, which was supported with so much 
 dignity by the former monarchs, was not 
 neglected in this reign, and Tarquin showed 
 that he possessed vigor and military pru- 
 dence in the victories which he obtained over 
 the united forces of the Latins and Sabines, 
 and in the conquest of the twelve nations .of 
 Etruria. He laid the foundations of the cap- 
 ital, and to the industry and the public spirit 
 of this monarch, the Romans were indebted 
 for aqueducts and subterranean sewers, 
 which supplied the city with fresh and whole- 
 some water, and removed all the filth and 
 
 TAR 
 
854 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ordure, which, in a great capital, too often 
 breed pestilences and diseases. Tarquin was 
 the first who introduced among the Romans 
 the custom to canvass for offices of trust and 
 honor; he distinguished the monarch, the 
 senators, and other inferior magistrates, with 
 particular robes and ornaments, with ivory 
 chairs at spectacles, and the hatchets carried 
 before the public magistrates, were, by his 
 order, surrounded with bundles of sticks, to 
 strike more terror, and to be viewed with 
 greater reverence. Tarquin was assassinated 
 by the two sons of his predecessor, in the 
 eightieth year of his age, thirty-eight of 
 which he had sat on the throne, b.c. 576. 
 
 TARQUINIUS Superbus was grandson of 
 Tarquinius Priscus. He ascended the throne 
 of Rome after his father -in law Servius Tullius, 
 and was the seventh and last king of Rome. He 
 murdered his father-in-law, and seized the 
 kingdom. The crown which he had obtained 
 with violence, he endeavored to keep by a 
 continuation of tyranny. He paid no regard 
 to the decisions of the senate, or the appro- 
 bation of the public assemblies, and by wish- 
 ing to disregard both, he incurred the jeal- 
 ousy of the one and the odium of the other. 
 He was successful in his military operations, 
 and the neighboring cities submitted ; but 
 while the siege of Ardea was continued, the 
 wantonness of the son of Tarquin at Rome 
 forever stopped the progress of his arms ; 
 and the Romans, whom a series of barbarity 
 and oppression had hitherto provoked, no 
 sooner saw virtuous Lucretia stab herself, 
 not to survive the loss of her honor, than the 
 whole city and camp arose with indignation 
 against the monarch. The gates of Rome 
 were shut against him, and Tarquin was for- 
 ever banished from his throne, b.c. 509. 
 Tarquin died in the ninetieth year of his age, 
 about fourteen years after his expulsion from 
 Rome. 
 
 TARQUINIUS, Sextus, the eldest of the 
 sons of Tarquin the Proud, rendered himself 
 known by a variety of adventures. When 
 hrs father besieged Gabii, young Tarquin 
 publicly declared that he was at variance 
 with the monarch, and the report was the 
 more easily believed when he came before 
 Gabii with his body all mangled and covered 
 with stripes. This was an agreement be- 
 tween the father and the son, and Tarquin 
 
 had no sooner declared that this proceeded 
 from the tyranny and oppression of his father, 
 than the silly people of Gabii intrusted him 
 with the command of their armies, fully con- 
 vinced that Rome could never have a more 
 inveterate enemy. When he had thus suc- 
 ceeded, he dispatched a private messenger to 
 his father, but the monarch gave no answer to 
 be returned to his son. Sextus inquired 
 more particularly about his father, and when 
 he heard from the messenger that when the 
 message was delivered, Tarquin cut off with 
 a stick the tallest poppies in his garden, ti e 
 son followed the example by putting to death 
 the most noble and powerful citizens of 
 Gabii. The town soon fell into the hands of 
 the Romans. The violation of Lucretia by 
 Sextus led to the expulsion of the family 
 from the throne. Sextus was at last killed 
 in battle during a war which the Latins sus- 
 tained against Rome in the attempt of re- 
 establishing the Tarquins on the throne. 
 
 TASSO, Tokquato, one of the most cele- 
 brated of Italian poets, was born at Sorrento, 
 on the southern shore of the Bay of Naples, 
 about 1544. His unfortunate days were 
 partly spent in a madhouse. He died at 
 Rome in 1595. “Jerusalem Delivered” is 
 his greatest work. 
 
 TAYLOR, George, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born in Ireland 
 in 1716. He came to America while a young 
 man, with no fortune but good character 
 and sound honesty. He obtained a humble 
 position in the extensive iron works of Mr. 
 Savage on the Delaware, rose to be clerk, 
 and afterward married his employer’s widow, 
 and became possessed of large property. 
 After having been a member of the colonial 
 legislature, he was chosen to congress in 
 1776. He died Feb. 23d, 1781. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jeremy, the most eloquent and 
 imaginative of England’s divines, was born 
 at Cambridge in August, 1613. He has 
 been styled by some the Shakspeare, and by 
 others the Spenser, of theological literature. 
 In the civil war he accompanied the royal 
 army as chaplain, and in 1644 he was taken 
 prisoner in the battle fought before Cardigan 
 Castle in Wales. He was soon released, 
 and continued in Wales, writing discourses 
 that form so noble a monument to his mem- 
 ory. After the restoration he was made 
 
 TAY 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 855 
 
 Bishop of Down and Connor in Ireland. lie 
 was a man of learning, fervent piety, en- 
 lightened toleration, and great gentleness of 
 demeanor. He died Aug. 13th, 1667. 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachary, twelfth president of 
 the United States, was born in Orange coun- 
 ty, Virginia, Nov. 24th, 1784; being the 
 second son of Col. Richard Taylor, whose 
 ancestors emigrated from England in 1692, 
 and settled in Eastern Virginia. Col. Rich- 
 ard was a companion in arms of Washington, 
 and distinguished alike for patriotism and 
 valor ; his wife, the mother of Zachary, was 
 a woman of high spirit and intelligence. In 
 1790 Col. Taylor removed with his family to 
 Kentucky, settling on the ‘ dark and bloody 
 ground,’ where Zachary was reared amid 
 the startling and nerving incidents of a bor- 
 der life, to which doubtless W’as owing the 
 hardihood that marked him during his mili- 
 tary life. Till the age of twenty-one he fol- 
 lowed the life of a farmer. The military 
 service very early engaged his affections and 
 excited his ambition. When the movements 
 of Aaron Burr began to excite suspicion, 
 volunteer companies were raised in Ken- 
 tucky, to oppose his designs by arms should 
 occasion demand. In such a troop Zachary 
 and his brothers were enrolled ; but events 
 did not require the services of the volunteers, 
 and Zachary returned to his farm. 
 
 On the death of his brother, Lieut. 
 Hancock Taylor, who held a commission 
 in the United States army, a chance for 
 the vacancy was afforded to Zachary. 
 Through the influence of his relative, James 
 Madison, then secretary of state, and of his 
 uncle, Major Edmund Tajdor, he received 
 from President Jefferson, May 3d, 1808, his 
 commission as first-lieutenant in the seventh 
 regiment of infantry. In the twenty-fourth 
 year of his age, he was in the enjoyment of 
 a competency as a farmer ; but his active 
 mind, and his love for a soldier’s life, led him 
 to prefer the care and privations of the camp 
 and the field to the quiet comfort of a landed 
 proprietor at home. The outbreak of the 
 war with England in 1812 found him promo- 
 ted to the rank of captain. He distinguished 
 himself by the successful defense of Fort 
 Harrison on the Wabash against a large force 
 of Miami Indians. The garrison numbered 
 but fifty-two men, of whom nearly two- 
 
 thirds were invalids, and he himself was just 
 recovering from a fever. This gallant re- 
 pulse, at odds so unfavorable, was highly 
 praised, and it forthwith procured from Pres- 
 ident Madison a preferment to the rank of 
 brevet major, the first brevet, it is said, ever 
 conferred in the American army. 
 
 Taylor rose from grade to grade till he be- 
 came general in the Indian wars of Florida 
 and Arkansas. His greatest achievement in 
 Florida was the victory of Okeechobee, 
 which was gained on Christmas day, 1837 ; 
 one of the most memorable battles in our 
 annals of Indian wars, and remarkable for 
 skill and bravery on both sides. But he ac- 
 quired his greatest reputation as a military 
 chieftain, in the invasion of Mexico in 1846. 
 The victories of his little army at Palo Alto, 
 Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena 
 Vista, w r ere largely due to his merit as a 
 commander, which was acknowledged by his 
 countrymen in every form of popular rejoic- 
 ing and congratulation. He was nominated 
 for the presidency by the whig party, and 
 was successful over his competitor, Gen. 
 Cass. His inauguration took place March 4th, 
 1849. He was not destined to serve out his 
 term : a short illness terminated his life, July 
 9th, 1850. Among his last words were, “I 
 have done my duty. I am not afraid to die.” 
 Ilis sudden death was sincerely mourned 
 throughout the land. 
 
 TCIIERNAYA, Battle of the. Aug. 
 16th, 1855, the lines of the allied army in the 
 Crimea, on the river Tchernaya, were at- 
 tacked by 50,000 Russians under Prince 
 Gortschakoff. The brunt of the attack was 
 borne by the French and Sardinians, and the 
 .Russians w’ere severely repulsed. 
 
 TEKELI, Emeric, Count of, a Hungarian 
 noble who went into Transylvania in 1671, 
 and with some others soon distinguished 
 himself at Prince Abafti’s court, where he 
 became, in a little time, first minister of state, 
 and afterward generalissimo of the troops 
 sent to assist the insurgent Hungarians' 
 against Austria, with which he made himself 
 master of several places in Upper and Lower 
 Hungary. Eventually he was forced to seek 
 refuge in Turkey, and died at Constantino- 
 ple in 1705. 
 
 TELL, William, a Swiss patriot, was an 
 inhabitant of Burgelm in Uri. In 1307 Her- 
 
 TEL 
 
856 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 man Gessler, the Austrian governor of that 
 province, set his cap on a pole, to which all 
 who passed were required to pay obeisance. 
 This order Tell disobeyed, for which Gessler 
 commanded him, on pain of death, to shoot 
 an arrow at an apple placed upon the head 
 of his own son. Tell, who was an excellent 
 marksman, cleft the apple without hurting 
 the child; after which he declared, that if 
 he had missed his aim, it was his intention 
 to have directed another arrow through the 
 heart of the tyrant. Gessler then caused 
 Tell to be taken into a boat, for the purpose 
 of conveying him out of the province ; but 
 in crossing the lake a storm arose, and as the 
 prisoner was an experienced steersman, he 
 was intrusted with the helm, of which he 
 was no sooner possessed than he steered 
 close to a rock, leaped on shore, and soon after- 
 ward shot Gessler near Kuznacht. The Swiss 
 rose in arms, and the Austrian government 
 was overthrown. Tell perished in an inun- 
 dation in 1354. 
 
 TEMPLARS. The Knights Templars, one 
 of the most celebrated orders of knighthood, 
 originated in the following manner. In the 
 year 1118, Hugh de Paganes and Godfrey de 
 St. Amor, with seven gentlemen, went to the 
 Holy Land, where they determined to erect 
 and enter into a brotherhood. Being at Jeru- 
 salem they consulted what they should do, 
 that might be a service acceptable to God ; 
 and being informed that in the town of Zaff, 
 there resided many thieves that used to rob 
 the pilgrims that resorted to the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, they resolved to make the passage more 
 free by dispersing these robbers ; and for the 
 encouragement of these gentlemen in so good 
 an undertaking, the king of Jerusalem as- 
 signed them lodgings in his palace adjoining 
 to Solomon’s palace, from which place they 
 were called Knights Templars. 
 
 Baldwin II., third king of Jerusalem, and 
 Guarimond the patriarch, finding their ac- 
 tions successful, furnished them with neces- 
 sary provisions ; and though their charitable 
 services made them acceptable unto all, yet 
 for the first nine years they were in so great 
 distress, they were forced to accept the char- 
 ity of well disposed people. But many 
 Christians resorted to them, and increased 
 their numbers greatly. When at war, their 
 banner was one half black, the other half 
 
 white, signifying that they were white and 
 fair to Christians, but black and terrible to 
 their enemies. Pope Honorius, at the request 
 of Stephen, patriarch of Jerusalem, pre- 
 scribed unto them an order of life, whereby 
 they were to wear a white garment, to which 
 Pope Eugenius added a red cross. They 
 made their vows, in the presence of the be- 
 fore mentioned patriarch, of obedience, pov- 
 erty, and chastity, and to live under the rule 
 of the regular canons of St. Augustine. 
 
 The Knights Templars (according to Bug- 
 dale) wore linen coifs and red caps close over 
 them : on their bodies shirts of mail, and 
 swords girded on with a broad belt : over all 
 they had a white cloak reaching to the 
 ground, with a cross on their left shoulder. 
 They used to wear their beards of great 
 length, w'hereas most of the other orders 
 shaved. The badge of the order was a patri- 
 archal cross, enameled red, and edged with 
 gold, worn on the breast pendant to a ribbon. 
 
 The Templars being numerous and famous 
 for their enterprises, not only for securing 
 the passages, but for fighting both by sea 
 and land against the infidels, they became 
 highly favored by the Christian princes, who 
 assigned to them great revenues to be spent 
 in God’s service. In process of time, they 
 became exceedingly wealthy and powerful, 
 so that they grew proud, and withdrew 
 themselves from their obedience to the patri- 
 arch of Jerusalem, and attached themselves 
 to the pope. But in the end they did not 
 receive that favor they expected from the 
 pope, for by him or through his consent, 
 upon some infamous crimes charged against 
 them, their lands and possessions were seized 
 upon, and otherwise disposed of, their order 
 suppressed, and they themselves imprisoned, 
 condemned, and cruelly executed. Accord- 
 ing to the opinions of many authors, they 
 were unjustly accused by subornation of wit j 
 nesses, merely to gain their revenues, which 
 were exceedingly great, having no less than 
 sixteen thousand lordships in Europe. 
 
 The first settlement of this order in Eng- 
 land (according to Dugdale) was in Holborn 
 in London, but their chief residence, in the 
 reign of Henry II., was the Temple in Fleet 
 street, which was erected by them, and the 
 church (built after the form of the Temple 
 at Jerusalem) dedicated to God and our 
 
 . TEM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 857 
 
 Blessed Lady, by Ileraclius, patriarch of 
 Jerusalem, in the year 1185. 
 
 On Wednesday after the feast of the Epiph- 
 any, in the year 1307, the first of Edward 
 II., by the king’s special command, and a 
 bull from the pope, the Knights Templars 
 generally, throughout England, were seized 
 and cast into prison, and in a general coun- 
 cil held at London, being convicted of vari- 
 ous impieties, all their possessions were con- 
 fiscated by the crown. 
 
 The order was condemned in a general 
 council at Vienna, under Pope Clement V., 
 in 1311, and by a general decree of the said 
 Clement, in the seventh year of his papacy, 
 they were incorporated with the Knights Hos- 
 pitallers. After this numbers of the order 
 were burned alive and hanged, and it suffered 
 
 great persecution throughout Europe, partic- 
 ularly in France in the reign of Philip of- 
 Valois. It was finally extirpated in England 
 in 1340. 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir William, a celebrated states- 
 man, born in London in 1G28. In 1G65 he 
 went on a secret mission to the Bishop of 
 Munster ; after which he was employed in 
 forming the triple alliance between England, 
 Sweden, and Holland. He next became the 
 resident minister at the Hague, and in that 
 capacity promoted the marriage of the Prince 
 of Orange and the Princess Mary. In 1679 
 he was appointed secretary of state ; but the 
 next year he resigned that situation, and re- 
 tired to his country seat in Surrey, where he 
 was often visited by Charles II., James II., 
 and William III. He died in 1698. 
 
 TENNESSEE, with an area of 44,000 
 square miles, had in 1870, a population of 
 1 258,520, of whom 936,119 were whites, and 
 322,331 colored. 
 
 The western part of this state is level or 
 gently undulating, the middle is broken by 
 hills, and the eastern part is mountainous. 
 There can be nothing grand and imposing in 
 scenery, nothing striking and picturesque in 
 cascades and precipitous sides of mountains 
 covered with woods, nothing romantic and 
 delightful in deep and sheltered valleys, 
 through which wind still and clear streams, 
 that is not found in this state. 
 
 Tennessee is bountifully supplied with 
 noble rivers, and fine pure streams. The 
 Mississippi washes its western border ; the 
 
 Tennessee and the Cumberland have a large 
 part of their course within its limits. Gold 
 has been found in the south-eastern section 
 of the state ; iron occurs throughout the re- 
 gion east of the Tennessee ‘ x and coal of abun- 
 dance and excellent quality is found among 
 the Cumberland Mountains. Salt is also a 
 valuable product. Agriculture forms the 
 principal occupation of the inhabitants. A 
 large portion of the land is productive, and 
 many of the valleys of East Tennessee, and 
 much of the middle and western sections, 
 are eminently fertile. Indian corn and cot- 
 ton are the staple crops, and a good deal of 
 tobacco, hemp, and wheat are raised. In 
 East Tennessee large droves of live stock 
 are raised for eastern markets. The pine 
 
 TEN 
 
858 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 forests of this section yield tar, turpentine, 
 rosin, and lampblack. The chief articles 
 which are sent to the New Orleans market 
 are cotton, corn, whiskey, hogs, horses, cat- 
 tle, flour, gunpowder, saltpetre, poultry, 
 bacon, lard, butter, apples, pork, coarse lin- 
 en, tobacco, &c. 
 
 Tennessee appears to have been first visited 
 by hunters and Indian traders from North 
 Carolina, about 1730. Like Kentucky, it 
 was found to abound in buffalo, elk, and 
 other game. Fort Loudon was built on the 
 Little Tennessee in 1757, and several settle- 
 ments were made. These were broken up 
 by the Indians, the Cherokees, Choctaws, 
 Chickasaws, and Shawnees.; but they were 
 renewed a few jmars afterward, and though 
 hostilities continued to retard their progress, 
 immigrants continued to pour into the new 
 country, which belonged to the province of 
 North Carolina. In 1784 the settlers of Ten- 
 nessee made an abortive attempt to form a 
 separate government under the name of 
 Frankland. In 1790 a territory south-west 
 of the Ohio, including the present states of 
 Kentucky and Tennessee, was organized ; in 
 1794 the latter was constituted a separate ter- 
 ritory bj r its present name ; and in 1796 it was 
 admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. 
 
 Tennessee did not secede in fprm, but the 
 center and west of the state were strongly 
 rebel. In the east, intensely Unionist, the 
 rebels exercised great brutality. The princi- 
 pal military occurrence here was Longstreet’s 
 siege of Burnside in Knoxville, which he how- 
 ever raised Dec. 4, 1863, and retreated. After 
 the fall of Forts Henry and Donelson, Nash- 
 ville at once fell into Union hands (Feb 24, 
 1862), and so remained. The surrender of 
 Island No. 10, soon after, and that of Mem- 
 phis, (April and June, ’62,) gave the Union 
 ists possession of most of the state. Rose- 
 crans’s victory at Murfreesboro, in the last 
 days of 1863, drove Bragg from the southern 
 part, and the only serious attempt on it after- 
 wards was Hood’s invasion in the end of 1864, 
 which resulted in his defeat at Franklin, Nov. 
 30, 1864, and the utter annihilation of his 
 army at Nashville shortly afterwards. Ten- 
 nessee passed an emancipation law in Janu- 
 ary, 1865. 
 
 Nashville, the capital, is situated on the 
 southern bank of the Cumberland, in a rich 
 
 and picturesque tract; population in 1870, 
 25,865. Murfreesboro was formerly the cap- 
 ital. Memphis, on the Mississippi, occupies 
 the only advantageous site between the Ohio 
 and Vicksburg, on either bank of the great 
 river, a distance of 650 miles ; population in 
 1870, 40,226. 
 
 Knoxville, the leading town of East Ten- 
 nessee, at the head of navigation on the IIol- 
 ston, a head-stream of the Tennessee, had 
 8,(182 inhabitants in 1870. 
 
 TERENCE, a celebrated author of come- 
 dies, was born at Carthage, and a slave in 
 Rome; his master Terentius Nuncanus gave 
 him a good education and his liberty ; he 
 was drowned on his voyage home from 
 Greece, 159 b.c. 
 
 TEWKESBURY, a market town of Glou- 
 cestershire, in England. It was at this place 
 that the last battle was fought between the 
 adherents of the houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter j May 4th, 1471. This battle, it is well 
 known, proved fatal to the Lancastrians ; 
 Queen Margaret and her son were taken pris- 
 oners. The field in wdiich it was fought is 
 still called the Bloody Meadow, and is situ- 
 ated about half a mile from the town. In 
 the civil war in the reign of Charles I., 
 Tewkesbury was the scene of severe contests 
 between the contending forces. 
 
 TEXAS comprises an area of 325,520 
 square miles. By the census of 1870 it had 
 818,579 inhabitants, classified as follows: 
 whites, 564,700; colored, 253,475; Indians, 
 379; Chinese, 25. The country along the 
 coast is low and level ; back of this, an un- 
 dulating prairie region, and the western sec- 
 tion is hilly and mountainous. Cotton is 
 the staple product ; tobacco, sugar-cane, and 
 the cereal grains produce abundant crops ; 
 the vine grows abundantly ; the fruits of 
 northern and southern climes ripen here side 
 by side. Texas is believed to have a very 
 rich store of minerals. Her forests of live 
 oak and cedar surpass those of any other 
 state in the Union. The entire coast, the 
 river bottoms, and the chief part of the east- 
 ern section, are heavily timbered with pine, 
 oak, ash, hickory, cedar, cypress, and other 
 forest trees, often of noble dimension^ Her 
 prairies furnish pastures for thousands of 
 horses and cattle ; swine are also raised in 
 large numbers. 
 
Until 1836 Texas formed a part of Mexico. 
 Upon the defeat of Santa Anna, then presi- 
 dent of Mexico, by Gen. Houston at San Ja- 
 cinto, he was made prisoner. As a condition 
 of release, he signed a treaty acknowledging 
 the independence of Texas. In 1845 the 
 republic was annexed to the United States as 
 a sovereign member of the Union. 
 
 Texas was a seceding state, and within her 
 limits the main body of the small regular 
 army of the United States was treacherously 
 surrendered to the rebels by the contrivance 
 of General Twiggs, early in the year 1861. 
 The remote situation of the state saved it in 
 a great measure from the sufferings of war, 
 but it contributed many men to the rebel 
 army, and aided in maintaining the war also 
 by the introduction of supplies from Mexico. 
 
 Austin, the capital, had 4,428 inhabitants 
 in 1870. Galveston is the chief town and 
 port of the state; population in 1870, 13,818. 
 
 THAMES, Battle of the. This was a 
 decisive contest between the Americans under 
 Gen. Harrison, and the British and Indians 
 commanded by Col. Proctor and the celebra- 
 ted Tecumseh, fought Oct. 5th, 1813, near 
 the Moravian towns on the river Thames 
 in Upper Canada. Harrison’s troops were 
 victors, and Tecumseh was slain. 
 
 THEBES, a celebrated city, capital of 
 Boetia, situated on the banks of the river 
 Ismenus. Cadmus is supposed to have first | 
 begun. to found it by building the citadel 
 Cadmea. It was afterward finished by Am- 
 phion and Zethus; but, according to Varro, 
 it owed its ‘origin to Ogyges. The early gov- 
 
 ernment of Thebes was monarchical, and 
 many of the sovereigns are celebrated for 
 their misfortunes, such as Lais, (Edipus, Poly- 
 nices, Eteocles, &c. The war which Thebes 
 supported against the Argives, is famous, as 
 well as that of the Epigoni. . Under Epami- 
 nondas, the Thebans, though before depend- 
 ent, became masters of Greece, and every- 
 thing was done according to their will and 
 pleasure. When Alexander invaded Greece, 
 he ordered Thebes to be totally demolished, 
 because it *had revolted against him, except 
 the gates, the temples, and the house where 
 the poet Pindar had been born and educated. 
 In this dreadful period, 6,000 of its inhabi- 
 tants were slain, and 30,000 sold for slaves. 
 Thebes was afterward repaired by Cassan- 
 der, the son of Antipater, but it never rose 
 to its original consequence, and Strabo, in 
 his age, mentions it merely as an inconsider- 
 able village. The monarchical government 
 was abolished there at the death of Xanthus, 
 about 1190 years before Christ, and Thebes 
 became a republic. 
 
 THEBES, the No of Scripture, an ancient 
 celebrated city of Egypt; called alsoHecatom- 
 [ pylos on account of its hundred gates, and 
 at a later day, Diospolis, as being sacred to 
 Jupiter. The original circumference of this 
 gigantic city is said to have been 140 stadia. 
 It was ruined by Cambyses, king of Persia. 
 Its most magnificent ruins are those of 
 Luxor and Karnac. 
 
 It is difficult to describe the stupendous 
 and noble ruins of Thebes. Beyond all oth- 
 ers they give you the idea of a ruined, yet 
 
 THE 
 
860 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 imperishable city ; so vast is their extent, 
 that you wander a long time confused and 
 perplexed, and discover at every step some 
 new object of interest. The ruins of the 
 great temple of Luxor are near the water’s 
 side, and its lofty yellow pillars, each thirty 
 feet in circumference, and ranged in long col- 
 onnades, instantly arrest the attention. The 
 entrance is through a magnificent propylon, 
 or gateway, covered with elaborate sculp- 
 tures. From the temple of Luxor to that of 
 Karnac, the distance is a mile and a half, 
 and they were formerly connected by a long 
 avenue of sphinxes, the mutilated remains 
 of which, the heads being broken off the 
 greater part, still line the whole path. Ar- 
 rived at the end of this avenue, you first 
 pass under a very elegant arched gateway, 
 seventy feet high, and quite isolated. About 
 fifty yards farther you enter a temple of in- 
 ferior dimensions. You then advance into a 
 spacious area, strewed with broken pillars, 
 and surrounded with vast and lofty masses 
 of ruins, — all parts of the great temple : a 
 little on your right is the magnificent portico 
 of Karnac, the yivid remembrance of which 
 will never leave him who has once gazed on 
 it. Its numerous colonnades of pillars, of 
 gigantic form and height, are in excellent 
 preservation, but without ornament. Passing 
 hence, you wander amidst obelisks, porticoes, 
 and statues, the latter without grace or beau- 
 ty, but of a most colossal kind. If you 
 ascend one of the hills of rubbish, and look 
 around, you see a gateway standing afar, 
 conducting only to solitude; detached and 
 roofless pillars, while others lie broken at 
 their feet ; the busts of gigantic statues ap- 
 pearing above the earth, while the rest of 
 the body is yet buried, or the head torn 
 away, while others lie prostrate or broken 
 into useless fragments. On the left spread 
 the dreary deserts of the Thebais, to the 
 edge of which the city extends. In front is 
 a pointed and barren range of mountains : 
 the Nile flows at the feet of the temple of 
 Luxor ; but the ruins extend far on the 
 other side of the river, to the very feet of 
 those formidable precipices, and into the 
 wastes of sand. 
 
 TIIEMISTOCLES, a celebrated statesman 
 and general of Athens. When Xerxes in- 
 vaded Greece, Themistocles was at the head 
 
 of the Athenian republic, and in this capa- 
 city the fleet was intrusted to his care. 
 While the Lacedsemonians under Leonidas 
 were opposing the Persians at Thermopylae, 
 the naval operations of Themistocles and of 
 the combined fleet of the Peloponnesians were 
 directed to destroy the armament of Xerxes, 
 and to ruin his maritime power. The battle 
 which was fought near the island of Salamis, 
 b.c. 480, was decisive ; the Greeks obtained 
 the victory, and Themistocles the honor of 
 having destroyed the formidable navy of 
 Xerxes. These signal services to his country 
 endeared Themistocles to the Athenians, and 
 he was universally called the most warlike 
 and most courageous of all the Greeks who 
 fought against the Persians. He was received 
 with the most distinguished honors ; and by 
 his prudent administration, Athens was soon 
 fortified with strong walls, the Piraeus was 
 rebuilt, and her harbors were filled with a 
 numerous and powerful navy, which ren- 
 dered her the mistress of Greece. Yet in 
 the midst of that glory, the conqueror of 
 Xerxes incurred the displeasure of his coun- 
 trymen, which had proved so fatal to many 
 of his illustrious predecessors. He was ban- 
 ished from the city, and after he had sought 
 in vain a safe retreat among the republics of 
 Greece and the barbarians of Thrace, he 
 threw himself into the arms of a monarch 
 whose fleets he had defeated, and whose 
 father he had ruined. Artaxerxes, the suc- 
 cessor of Xerxes, received the illustrious 
 Athenian with kindness. Themistocles died 
 in the sixty -fifth year of his age, about 449 
 years before the Christian era. 
 
 THEOCRITUS, a Greek pastoral poet, 
 flourished 260 b.c. 
 
 THEODORIC I., king of the Visigoths, in 
 the south of France, succeeded Wallia, in 
 41 9. He laid siege to Arles, but was repulsed 
 by Aetius ; some time after he defeated Lito- 
 rius, general of the Roman army, and led 
 him prisoner to Toulouse. But when the 
 formidable forces of Attila, king of the Huns, 
 put all the princes of the Gauls into a great 
 consternation* he united his forces with Mer- 
 ovee, king of France, xVctius, and Gundicaire, 
 king of the Burgundians, and fought and 
 defeated Attila at Chalons. Theodoric was 
 killed in the battle, in 451. 
 
 THEODORIC II., son of the above, mur- 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 861 
 
 dered his eldest brother Thorismond, in 453, 
 and made himself master of the town of 
 Narbonne, which was surrendered to him by 
 Count Agrippin, in 462. Advancing into 
 Spain, Rechaire, king of the Suevi, his brother- 
 in-law, gave him battle ; but having worsted 
 and taken Rechaire in his retreat, Theodoric 
 sentenced him to death, and was himself 
 killed soon after by the contrivance of one of 
 his brothers called Evaric, who ascended the 
 throne in 466. 
 
 THEODORIC, king of the Ostrogoths, 
 founded their dominion in Italy, 493. His 
 name, like that of Charlemagne after him, 
 was celebrated in heroic songs, while politi- 
 cal writers and historical critics commend 
 alike his talents and his virtues. He died at 
 Ravenna in 526, aged sixty-one. 
 
 THEODOSIUS FLAVIUS, a Roman em- 
 peror, surnamed Magnus, from the greatness 
 of his exploits. He was invested with the 
 imperial purple by Gratian, and appointed 
 over Thrace and the eastern provinces, which 
 had been in the possession of Valentinian. 
 The first years of his reign were marked by 
 different conquests over the barbarians. The 
 Goths were defeated in Thrace, and four 
 thousand of their chariots, with an immense 
 number of prisoners of both sexes, were the 
 reward of the victory. Conspiracies were 
 formed against the emperor, but Theodosius 
 totally disregarded them ; and while he pun- 
 ished his competitors for the imperial purple, 
 he thought himself sufficiently secure in the 
 love and the affection of his subjects. He 
 triumphed over the barbarians, and restored 
 peace in every part of the empire. He died 
 of a dropsy at Milan in the sixtieth year of 
 his age, after a reign of sixteen years, the 
 17th of January, a.d. 395. Theodosius was 
 the last of the emperors who was the sole 
 master of the whole Roman empire. His 
 want of clemency, in one awful instance, 
 was too openly betrayed ; for when the peo- 
 ple of Thessalonica had unmeaningly, per- 
 haps, killed one of his officers, the emperor 
 ordered his soldiers to put all the inhabitants 
 to the sword, and no less than six thousand 
 persons, without distinction of rank, age, or 
 sex, were cruelly butchered in that town in 
 the space of three hours. This violence irri- 
 tated the ecclesiastics, and Theodosius was 
 compelled by St. Ambrose to do open pen- 
 
 ance in the church, and publicly to make 
 atonement for an act of barbarity which had 
 excluded him from the bosom of the church 
 and the communion of the faithful. In his 
 private character Theodosius was an exam- 
 ple of soberness and temperance ; his palace 
 displayed becoming grandeur, but still with 
 moderation. He never indulged luxury, or 
 countenanced superfluities. He was fond of 
 bodily exercise, and never gave himself up 
 to pleasure and enervating enjoyments. The 
 laws and regulations which he introduced in 
 the Roman empire, were of the most salutary 
 nature. 
 
 THERx^MENES, an Athenian philosopher 
 and general in the age of Alcibiades, was 
 one of the thirty tyrants of Athens. He 
 was accused by Critias, one of his colleagues, 
 because he opposed their views, and he was 
 condemned to drink hemlock, though de- 
 fended by his own innocence and the friendly 
 intercession of the philosopher Socrates. 
 He drank the poison with great composure, 
 and poured some of it on the ground, with 
 the sarcastical 'exclamation of, “This is 
 to the health of Critias.” This happened 
 about 404 years before the Christian era. 
 
 THERMOPYLAE, a small pass leading 
 from Thessaly into Locris and Phocis. It 
 has a large ridge of mountains on the west, 
 and the sea on the east, with deep and dan- 
 gerous marshes, being in the narrowest part 
 only twenty-five feet in breadth. It is cele- 
 brated for a battle which was fought there 
 b.c. 480, on the 7th of August, between 
 Xerxes, and the Greeks under Leonidas. 
 Xerxes assembled his troops and encamped 
 on the plains of Thracis. Xerxes having no 
 particular quarrel with the Spartans, sent 
 messengers to desire them to lay down their 
 arms ; to which the Lacedaemonians boldly 
 replied, “Let Xerxes come and take them.” 
 On the evening of the seventh day after 
 Xerxes had arrived at the straits of Thermo- 
 pylae, twenty thousand chosen men, com- 
 manded by Hydarnes, and conducted by the 
 traitor Epialtes, who had offered to lead 
 them through another passage in the moun- 
 tains, left the Persian camp. The next morn- 
 ing they perceived a thousand Phocians, 
 whom Leonidas had sent to defend this im- 
 portant, but general^ unknown, pass. The 
 immense shower of darts from the Persians 
 
 THE 
 
862 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 compelled the Phocians to abandon the pas- 
 sage they had been sent to guard ; *and they 
 retired to the highest part of the mountain. 
 This gave the Persians an opportunity of 
 seizing the pass, through which they marched 
 with the greatest expedition. In the dead 
 of the night the Spartans, headed by Leoni- 
 das, and full of resentment and despair, 
 marched in close battalion to surprise the 
 Persian camp. Dreadful was the fury of the 
 Greeks ; and on account of want of disci- 
 pline, there being no advance guard or watch, 
 greatly destructive to the Persians. Num- 
 bers fell by the Grecian spears, but far more 
 perished by the mistakes of their own troops, 
 who, in the confusion that prevailed, could 
 not distinguish friends from foes. W earied 
 with slaughter, the Greeks penetrated to the 
 royal tent ; but Xerxes, with his favorites, 
 had fled to the extremity of the encamp- 
 ments. The dawn of day discovered to the 
 Persians a dreadful scene of carnage. The 
 handful of Greeks by whom this terrible 
 slaughter had been made, retreated to the 
 straits of Thermopylae; an.d the Persians, 
 by menaces, stripes, and blows, could scarce- 
 ly be compelled to advance against them. 
 The Greeks halted where the pass was wid- 
 est, to receive the charge of the enemy. The 
 shock was dreadful. After the Greeks had 
 blunted or broken their spears, they attacked 
 with sword in hand, and made an incredible 
 havoc. Four times they dispelled the thick- 
 est ranks of the enemy, in order to obtain 
 the sacred remains of their king Leonidas, 
 who had fallen in the engagement. Two 
 days had they held the pass : on the third, 
 when their unexampled valor was about to 
 carry off the inestimable prize, the hostile 
 battalions under the conduct of Epialtes, 
 were seen descending the hill. All hopes 
 were now dispersed, and nothing remained to 
 be attempted but the last effort of a gener- 
 ous despair. Collecting themselves into a 
 phalanx, the Greeks retired to the narrowest 
 part of the strait ; and on a rising ground, 
 took post behind a wall which the Phocians had 
 sometime raised, now mostly in ruins. As 
 they made this movement, the Thebans, 
 whom fear had hitherto restrained from de- 
 fection, revolted to the Persians ; declaring 
 that their republic had sent earth and water 
 in token of their submission to Xerxes ; and 
 
 that they had been reluctantly compelled to 
 resist the progress of his arms. In the mean 
 time, the Lacedaemonians and Thespians were 
 assaulted on every side ; the wall was beaten 
 down, and the enemy entered the breaches. 
 But instant death befel the Persians that 
 entered. In this last struggle, the most he- 
 roic and determined courage was displayed 
 by every Grecian. It being observed to 
 Diocenes, the Spartan, that the Persian ar- 
 rows were so numerous as to intercept the 
 light of the sun, he replied this was a favor- 
 able circumstance, because the Greeks there- 
 by fought in the shade. At length it became 
 impossible for the Greeks to resist the impet- 
 uosity and weight of the darts and other mis- 
 siles continually poured upon them. They 
 therefore fell, not conquered, but buried un- 
 der a trophy of Persian arms. In this dread- 
 ful conflict, the Persians lost 20,000 men, 
 and according to some historians, the whole 
 of the Persian army amounted to five mil- 
 lions ! 
 
 Of the 300 Spartans one only returned, 
 and he was fiercely reproached for escaping 
 from a field where all his companions had 
 fallen. After the defection of the Thebans, 
 Leonidas had only his countrymen and 700 
 Thespians. 
 
 THESPIS, a famous Greek tragic poet, 
 and first representer of tragedy at Athens ; 
 flourished 536 b.c. His stage was a wagon. 
 
 THESSALY was one of the principal di- 
 visions of Northern Greece. It contained 
 four provinces, mostly surrounded with 
 mountains. In the centre of Thessaly, on 
 the river Enipeus, were the city and plain of 
 Pharsalus, famous for the battle fought there 
 between Caesar and Pompey. Thessaly was 
 governed by its own kings till it became sub- 
 ject to Macedon. 
 
 With the exception of a short period under 
 Jason of Pherae, b.c. 371, Thessaly never 
 assumed a prominent position in the affairs 
 of Greece. This region was the cradle of 
 many of the Grecian nations, as the Dorians, 
 the Achaians, the AEtolians, &c. Here were 
 Olympus, Ossa, and Pclion, mountains great 
 in fable, and here was laid the scene of many 
 a classical adventure. 
 
 TIIISTLEWOOD, Arthur, a disappointed 
 man and desperate politician, who, in 1819, 
 planned a conspiracy to assassinate the Brit- 
 
 THI 
 
HISTORY AND 
 
 ish ministers, at a cabinet dinner in Grosve- 
 nor square, and overthrow the government. 
 He, and his confederates, fifteen or sixteen 
 in number, assembled in a stable-loft in Cato 
 street, Mary-le-bone, on the evening on which 
 they proposed to effect their purpose, but the 
 police having notice, they were surrounded, 
 and most of them captured. Thistlewood 
 and four others were tried at the Old Bailey, 
 and being convicted, were executed in the 
 usual manner in which death is inflicted for 
 high treason, May 1st, 1S20. 
 
 The plot is called the Cato street conspir- 
 acy. Rumor attributed this, with other com- 
 binations of the time, to the machinations 
 of ministerial spies, who perfidiously abetted 
 the designs of malcontents, so as to bring 
 them within the clutch of the law. 
 
 THOMSON, Charles, secretary of the con- 
 tinental Congress, was born in Ireland, No- 
 vember, 1729, and came to America at the 
 age of eleven. He went into business in 
 Philadelphia, where he distinguished him- 
 self by his early opposition to the obnoxious 
 measures of the British ministry. From 
 1774 till his resignation in 1789 he was the 
 untiring secretary of Congress. He died 
 Aug. 10 th, 1824. 
 
 THOMSON, James, was born in Roxburgh- 
 shire, Scotland, in 1700, and spent his boy- 
 hood among the Cheviot Hills. After study- 
 ing at Edinburgh, he sought his fortunes in 
 London. The publications of the “ Seasons ” 
 gained him friends and fame at once. He 
 died at Kew, near London, Aug. 27th, 
 1748. 
 
 THORNTON, Matthew, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 Ireland in 1714, and when only three years 
 of age was brought by his father to America. 
 He was bred at Worcester, Mass., studied 
 medicine, and served as surgeon in the expe- 
 dition of 1745 against Louisburg. He set- 
 tled as a physician in Londonderry, N. H. ; 
 was sent to the continental congress in 1776. 
 The same year he was made chief-justice of 
 the court of common pleas of New Hamp- 
 shire and afterward he was raised to the 
 bench of the superior court. He died in 
 Massachusetts, June 24th, 1803. 
 
 THORWALDSEN, Albert, was born at 
 Copenhagen, Nov. 19th, 1770. He was long 
 a student and resident in Rome, and gained a 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 863 
 
 lofty reputation as a sculptor. He died at 
 Copenhagen, March 24th, 1844. 
 
 THRACE, a large country of ancient Eu- 
 rope, south of Scythia, bounded by Mount 
 Haemus. It had the iEgean Sea on the south, 
 on the west Macedonia and the river Stry- 
 mon, and on the east the Euxine Sea, the 
 Propontis, and the Hellespont. Its northern 
 boundaries extended as far as the Ister (now 
 the Danube), according to Pliny and others. 
 The Thracians were looked upon as a cruel 
 and barbarous nation ; they were naturally 
 brave and warlike, addicted to drinking and 
 licentious pleasures, and they sacrificed, 
 without the smallest humanity, their ene- 
 mies on the altars of their gods. Their gov- 
 ernment was originally monarchical, and 
 divided among a number of independent 
 princes. Thrace received its name from 
 Thrax, the son of Mars, the chief deity of 
 the country. The first inhabitants lived 
 upon plunder, and on the milk and flesh of 
 sheep. 
 
 THRASYBULUS, a famous general of 
 Athens, who began the expulsion of the thirty 
 tyrants of his country, though he was only 
 assisted by thirty of his friends. His efforts 
 were attended with success, b.c. 401, and the 
 only reward he received for this patriotic 
 action, was a crown made with two twigs of 
 an olive branch ; a proof of his own disin- 
 terestedness and of the virtues of his coun- 
 trymen. The Athenians employed a man 
 whose abilities and humanity were so con- 
 spicuous, and Thrasybulus was sent with a 
 powerful fleet to recover their lost power in 
 the iEgean, and on the coast of Asia. After 
 he had gained many advantages, this great 
 man was killed in his camp by the inhabi- 
 tants of Aspendus, whom his soldiers had 
 plundered without his knowledge, b.c. 391. 
 
 THRASYMENUS, a lake of Italy near 
 Perugia, celebrated for a battle fought on its 
 shore between Hannibal and the Romans, 
 under Flaminius, b.c. 217. No less than 
 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of 
 battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners, or, ac- 
 cording to Livy, 6,000, or Polybius 15,000. 
 The loss of Hannibal was about 1,500 men. 
 About 10,000 Romans made their escape, 
 covered with wounds. This lake is now 
 called the Lake of Perugia. 
 
 THUCYDIDES was an Athenian, born 
 
COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 B64 
 
 about b.c. 471. He held a command in the 
 Peloponnesian war, and for failing to raise 
 the siege of Amphipolis, was sent into exile. 
 For twenty years he was a refugee. During 
 this time he busied himself with the history 
 of the war, which has given him a high rank 
 among classic authors. When peace was 
 concluded between Athens and Sparta, b.c. 
 404, the return of exiles was permitted, and 
 Thucydides was restored to his country the 
 next year. It is supposed that he was assas- 
 sinated at Athens, about 391 b.c. 
 
 THURLOW, Lord Edward, a famous 
 chancellor of England during the reign of 
 George III., died in 1806, at the age of sev- 
 enty-four. 
 
 TIBERIUS, Claudius Nero, a Roman 
 emperor after the death of Augustus, was 
 descended from the family of the Claudii. 
 His first appearance in the Roman armies 
 was under Augustus, in the war against the 
 Cantabri ; and afterward in the capacity of 
 general, he obtained victories in different 
 parts of the empire, and was rewarded with 
 a triumph. He had the command of the Roman 
 armies in Illyricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, 
 and seemed to divide the sovereign power 
 ■with Augustus. At the death of this cele- 
 brated emperor, Tiberius, who had been 
 adopted, assumed the reins of government. 
 The beginning of his reign seemed to prom- 
 ise tranquillity to the world ; Tiberius was a 
 watchful guardian of the public peace ; he 
 was the friend of justice ; and never assumed 
 the sounding titles which must disgust a free 
 nation, but he was satisfied to say of himself 
 that he was the master of his slaves, the gen- 
 eral of his soldiers, and the father of the cit- 
 izens of Rome. That seeming moderation, 
 however, which was but the fruit of the 
 deepest policy, soon disappeared, and Tibe- 
 rius was viewed in his real character. The 
 armies mutinied in Pannonia and Germany, 
 but the tumults were silenced by the pru- 
 dence of the generals and the fidelity of the 
 officers, and the factious demagogues w T ere 
 abandoned to their condign punishment. 
 This acted as a check upon Tiberius in 
 Rome ; he knew from thence, that his power 
 was precarious, and his very existence in 
 perpetual danger. He continued, as he had 
 begun, to pay the greatest deference to the 
 senate : all libels agains thim he disregarded, 
 
 and he observed, that, in a free city, the 
 thoughts and the tongue of every man should 
 be free. While Rome exhibited a scene of 
 peace and public tranquillity, the barbarians 
 were severally defeated on the borders of 
 the empire, and Tiberius gained new honors, 
 by the activity and valor of Germanicus and 
 his other faithful lieutenants. He at last 
 retired to the island of Capreae on the coast 
 of Campania, where he buried himself in 
 unlawful pleasures. The care of the empire 
 was intrusted to favorites, among whom Se- 
 janus for a while shone with uncommon 
 splendor. In this solitary retreat, the em- 
 peror proposed rewards to such as invented 
 new pleasures, or could produce fresh luxu- 
 ries. While the emperor was lost to himself 
 and the world, the provinces were harassed 
 on every side by the barbarians, and Tibe- 
 rius found himself insulted by those enemies 
 whom hitherto he had seen fall prostrate at 
 his feet with every mark of submissive adu- 
 lation. At last grown weak and helpless 
 through infirmities, he thought of his ap- 
 proaching dissolution ; and as he well knew 
 that Rome could not exist without a 
 head, he nominated, as his successor, Caius 
 Caligula. Tiberius died at Misenum, the 
 16th of March, a.d. 37, in the seventy-eighth 
 year of his age, after a reign of twenty-two 
 years, six months, and twenty-six days. It 
 has been wittily observed by Seneca, that he 
 never was intoxicated but once all his life, 
 for he continued in a perpetual state of intox- 
 ication from the time he gave himself to 
 drinking, till the last moment of his life. 
 
 TICONDEROGA, Fort, was situated on a 
 peninsula at the junction of the outlet of 
 Lake George with Lake Champlain. The 
 French built a fortress here in 1756. An 
 English army under Abercrombie attacked 
 it, July 6th, 1758, and was severely repulsed 
 by the forces of Montcalm. Lord Amherst 
 was more successful in 1759. He commenced 
 a siege; the garrison saw that surrender 
 would be inevitable, so that they dismantled 
 the works, and their flight left it to the pos- 
 session of the English. The bold exploit of 
 Ethan Allen secured it to the Americans in 
 1775, the 10th of May. It was evacuated 
 by Gen. St. Clair when threatened by the 
 host of Burgoyne in 1777. The fortress is 
 now in ruins. 
 
 TIC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 865 
 
 TTGRANES, akingof Armenia, who made 
 himself master of Assyria and Cappadocia. 
 By the advice of Mithridates, his father-in-law, 
 he declared war against /the Romans. He 
 despised these distant enemies, and even or- 
 dered the head of the messenger to he cut 
 off who first told him that the Roman general 
 was boldly advancing toward his capital. Hie 
 pride, however, was soon abated, and though 
 he ordered the Roman consul Lucuilus to be 
 brought alive into his presence, he fled with 
 precipitation from his capital, and was soon 
 after defeated near Mount Taurus. This to- 
 tally disheartened him ; he refused to receive 
 Mithridates into his palace, and even set a 
 price upon his head. His mean submission 
 to Pompey, the successor of Lucuilus in 
 Asia, and a bribe of 60,000 talents, insured 
 him on his throne; he received a garri- 
 son in his capital, and continued at peace 
 with the Romans. His second son, of the 
 same name, revolted against him, and at- 
 tempted to dethrone him with the assistance 
 of the king of Parthia, whose daughter he 
 had married. This did not succeed, and the son 
 had recourse to the Romans, by whom he was 
 put in possession of Sophene, while the father 
 remained quiet on the throne of Armenia. 
 The son was afterward sent in chains to 
 $ome, for his insolence to Pompey. 
 
 TILLOTSON, John, an eminent English 
 divine (1630-1694), was the son of a clothier 
 pt Sowerby, near Halifax and was bred in 
 the Calvinistic faith of the Puritans. While 
 studying at Cambridge, his views were some- 
 what modified, and at the passing of the act 
 *if uniformity in 1662, he submitted to the 
 »aw, and accepted a curacy. He quickly be- 
 came noted as a preacher, rose in the church, 
 and after the revolution was made Archbishop 
 of Canterbury. 
 
 TILLY, John Tzerkles, Count de, a cele- 
 brated general in the ‘ thirty years war ’ in 
 Germany, was born near Brussels, and is said 
 to have been originally a Jebiiit, which order he 
 quitted for the Spanish army, and served un- 
 der Alva in Flanders. He commanded the Ba- ! 
 varian troops under Duke Maximilian, and had 
 a great share in the battle of Prague, Nov. 8th, 
 1620. At that of Lutter, in Lunenburg, in 
 1626, he defeated the king of Denmark, with 
 whom he afterward concluded a treat}'. In 
 1631 he took the city of Magdeburg, where 
 
 he committed a horrible massacre. The 
 same year he was routed by Gustavus Adol- 
 phus ; and while defending the passage of 
 the Lech against the Swedes, he received a 
 mortal wound, April 30th, 1632. 
 
 TILSIT, a town on the Niemen in East 
 Prussia, celebrated for a memorable treaty 
 concluded between France and Russia, July 
 7th, 1807, whereby Napoleon restored to the 
 Prussian monarch one-half his dominions, 
 and Russia recognized the confederation of 
 the Rhine, and the elevation oi Joseph, 
 Louis, and Jerome Bonaparte to the thrones 
 of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Napo- 
 leon and Alexander met on a raft in the mid- 
 dle of the Niemen to arrange the terms of 
 this peace. 
 
 TIME. TnE year. — The Egyptians, it is 
 said, were the first who fixed the length of 
 the year. The Roman year was intro- 
 duced by Romulus, 738 b.c. The solar or 
 astronomical year was found to comprise 365 
 d.,5 h.,48m., 51.6 s., 265 b.c. The sidereal 
 year , or return to the same star, is 365 d. 6 h., 
 
 9 m., 11 s. A lunar year is the space of time 
 comprehended in twelve lunar months, or 
 354 d., 8 h., 48 m., and was in use among the 
 Chaldeans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 
 Once in every three years was added another 
 lunar month, so as to make the solar and the 
 lunar years nearly agree. But though the 
 months were lunar, the year was solar ; that 
 is, the first month was of thirty days, the 
 second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
 and the month added triennially was called 
 the second Adar. The Jews afterward fol- 
 lowed the Roman style of computing time. 
 The sabbatical year was every seventh year 
 among the Jews. Then the ground lay fal- 
 low, and people and beasts had rest. 
 Every seventh sabbatical year was called the 
 1 jubilee year. Then there was joy and re- 
 joicing ; all debts were forgiven ; all slaves 
 were set at liberty. 
 
 Different nations commenced the year at 
 different seasons. The Jews dated the be- 
 ginning in the month of March ; the Athe- 
 nians began the year in the month of June ; 
 the Macedonians on the 24th of September ; 
 the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 
 29th or 30th of August, and the Persians 
 and Armenians on the 11th of the same 
 month. Nearly all the nations of Christen- 
 
 TIM 
 
866 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 dom now commence the year with the 1st 
 of January. Charles IX. ordered this in 
 France in 1564. The English began their 
 year on the 25th of December, until the Con- 
 quest. William the Conqueror having been 
 crowned Jan. 1st, the year thereafter began 
 at that time. But though the historical year 
 thus began, the civil or legal year did not 
 commence till the 25th of March, and this 
 continued as late as 1752, the time of the 
 change from old to new style. This discrep- 
 ancy caused great practical inconveniences ; 
 since January, February, and part of March 
 sometimes bore two dates ; and we often find 
 in old records, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 
 174|. Such reckoning often led to chrono- 
 logical errors; thus the revolution of 1688, 
 as it is generally called, happened in Febru- 
 ary of the year 1688, according to the then 
 mode of computation ; but if the year were 
 held to begin, as it does now, on the 1st of 
 January, it would be the revolution of 1689. 
 
 The Roman calendar has in great part 
 been adopted by almost all nations. Romu- 
 lus divided the year into ten months, com- 
 prising three hundred and four days. Being 
 fifty days shorter than the lunar year, and 
 sixty-one less than the solar, its commence- 
 ment of course did not correspond with any 
 fixed season. Numa Pompilius (718 b.c.) 
 corrected this calendar, by adding two 
 months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make 
 it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 
 three hundred and sixty-five days, six hours, 
 45 b.c. The six hours were set aside, and 
 at the end of four years forming a day, the 
 fourth year was made to consist of three 
 hundred and sixty-six days. The day thus 
 added was called intercalary, and was counted 
 before the 24th of February, which among 
 the Romans was the 6th of the calendar, and 
 which was therefore counted twice and called 
 1 bissextile . It is now the 29th of Februarj^. 
 This almost perfect arrangement was denom- 
 inated the Julian style, and prevailed general- 
 ly throughout the Christian world till the time 
 of Pope Gregory XIII. It was defective in 
 this particular ; that the solar year consisted 
 of three hundred and sixty-five days, five 
 hours, and forty-nine minutes, and not of 
 three hundred and sixt}^-five days, six hours. 
 This difference of eleven minutes, each year, 
 at the time of Gregory had amounted to ten 
 
 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on 
 the 11th instead of the 21st of March. To 
 obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
 that that year should consist of three hun- 
 dred and fifty -five days only ; and to prevent 
 further irregularity, it was determined that a 
 year beginning a century should not be bis- 
 sextile, with the exception of that beginning 
 each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 
 were not bissextile, nor will 1900 be so, but 
 the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this 
 manner three days are retrenched in four 
 hundred years, because the lapse of the 
 eleven minutes each year makes three days 
 in about that period. The year of the calen- 
 dar is thus made as nearly as possible to cor- 
 respond with the true solar year, and future 
 errors of chronology are avoided. 
 
 The new calendar was called the Grego- 
 rian, from the pontiff who had ordained the 
 alteration, and was at once adopted in the 
 Roman Catholic states of Europe. England, 
 Denmark, and Sweden rejected it then ; but 
 in 1751 an act of parliament ordered its use 
 in Great Britain. To the time of Gregory, 
 the deficiency in the Julian calendar had 
 amounted to ten days, we have seen ; in 1751 
 there was a difference of another day. Eleven 
 days, therefore, were dropped from the Brit- 
 ish September, in 1752, the third being made 
 the fourteenth. The former reckoning is 
 known as old style , while that of the Grego- 
 rian calendar is called new style. 
 
 The. Months. — January was added to the 
 year by Numa when he reformed the Roman 
 calendar, and derives its name from Janus, a di- 
 vinity among the early Romans. Numa placed 
 it about the winter solstice, and made k the 
 first month, because Janus was supposed to 
 preside over the beginning of all business. 
 The first day was a festival. February was 
 also added by Numa, and so called from Feb- 
 rua, a feast which was held in behalf of the 
 manes of deceased persons, when sacrifices 
 were performed, and the last offices were paid 
 to the shades of the dead. March was the 
 first month of the year till the time of Numa. 
 Romulus gave it the name of his supposed 
 father, Mars ; though Ovid observes that the 
 people of Italy had the month of March 
 before the rule of Romulus, but that they 
 placed it very d ; fferently in the calendar. 
 Of the origin of April we have no account. 
 
 TIM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 867 
 
 May received its name, some say, from Rom- 
 ulus, who gave it this appellation in respect 
 to the senators and nobles of his city, who 
 were denominated major es ; though others 
 suppose it was so called from Maia, the 
 mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were 
 offered on the first day. On May-day the 
 ancient Romans went in procession to the 
 grotto of Egeria. It has been immemorially 
 observed in England as a rural festival ; and 
 high poles, called May -poles, are yet in many 
 places thickly hung with garlands wreathed 
 in honor of the day. June some derive 
 a Junone , and others a Junioribus, this being 
 for the young, as the month of May was for- 
 aged persons. Ovid, in his Fasti , introduces 
 Juno as claiming this month. July was 
 named by Marc Antony in honor of Julius 
 Caesar, whose birth fell in it. August , in 
 like manner, was so called in honor of 
 Augustus Caesar, because in this month he 
 was born, was created consul, thrice tri- 
 umphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the 
 Roman empire, and made an end of the civil 
 wars. It was previously called Sextilis , or 
 the sixth from March. September being the 
 seventh month in the year before January 
 and February were added, has its name from 
 s^timus, seventh. The emperor Domitian 
 gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the sen- 
 ate under Antoninus Pius called it Antoni- 
 nus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Hercu- 
 leus ; and the emperor Tacitus his own 
 name, Tacitus. But these names all fell into 
 disuse. So,- also, the senate ordered October 
 to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina; 
 wife of Antoninus the emperor ; Commodus 
 would have had it called Invinctus, and 
 Domitian Domitianus : in spite of all these 
 changes, the month retains the name denot- 
 ing that it was at first eighth in the year. 
 October was sacred to Mars. November was 
 anciently the ninth month, whence its name. 
 When the Roman senators would have called 
 this month after Tiberius, in imitation of 
 the similar honor paid to Julius Caesar and 
 Augustus, the emperor absolutely refused, 
 saying, “ What will you do, conscript fathers, 
 if you have thirteen Caesars?” December 
 took its name from decern , being at first the 
 tenth nrvonth. In the reign of Commodus, it 
 was called Amazonius, in flattery of a 
 courtesan whom that emperor passionately 
 
 loved, and had got painted like an Ama- 
 zon. 
 
 Days of the Week. — The week is supposed 
 to have been first used among the Jews, who 
 observed the Sabbath every seventh day. 
 They had three sorts of weeks : the first the 
 common one of seven days ; the second of 
 years, which was seven years ; the third of 
 seven times seven years, at the end of which 
 was the jubilee. 
 
 The following are the names of the days 
 of the week among several nations: — 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Saxon 
 
 English. 
 
 Dies Solis, 
 
 Sun’s Day, 
 
 Sunday, 
 
 Dies Luna?, 
 
 Moon’s Day, 
 
 Monday, 
 
 Dies Martis, 
 
 Tiw’s day, 
 
 Tuesday, 
 
 Dies Mercurii, 
 
 Woden’s day, 
 
 Wednesday, 
 
 Dies Jo vis, 
 
 Thor’s day, 
 
 Thursday, 
 
 Dies Veneris, 
 
 Friga’s day, 
 
 F riday, 
 
 Dies Saturni, 
 
 Sa:erne’s day, 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 German. 
 
 French. 
 
 » Spanish. 
 
 Sormtag, 
 
 Dimanche, 
 
 Domingo, 
 
 Montag, 
 
 Lundi, 
 
 Lunes, 
 
 Dienstag, 
 
 Mardi, 
 
 Mereredi, 
 
 Martes, 
 
 Miercoles, 
 
 Mittwoche, 
 
 Donnerstag, 
 
 Jeudi, 
 
 Jueves, 
 
 Freitag, 
 
 Vendredi, 
 
 Yiernes. 
 
 Sonnabend, or 
 Sanistag, 
 
 Samedi, 
 
 Sabado. 
 
 The present English names are all derived 
 from the Saxon. Sunday was the day on 
 which, anciently, divine adoration was paid 
 to the sun. Among Christians it is com- 
 monly called Dies Dominica, or Lord’s day, 
 on account of the Saviour’s appearance after 
 the resurrection, in commemoration whereof 
 it is observed as the Christian Sabbath. In 
 the year 960 the Sabbath was ordained to be 
 kept holy in England from Saturday at three 
 in the afternoon till Monday at break of day. 
 It is very remarkable that the heathen na- 
 tions, who can not be supposed to have had 
 any knowledge of the law or history of 
 Moses, accounted one day of the seven more 
 sacred than the rest. Hesiod styles the sev- 
 enth day “ the illustrious light of the sun 
 and Homer says, “then came the seventh 
 day, which is sacred or holy.” Almost all 
 nations, likewise, having any notions of reli- 
 gion, have appropriated one day in seven to 
 the purposes of devotion, though they have 
 differed with regard to the day. Tuesday 
 was so called from Tuisto, Tiw, or Tuesco, a 
 Saxon deity particularly worshiped on this 
 day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus. 
 Wednesday is a corruption of Woden’s day, 
 
 TIM 
 
868 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 so called from the Saxon god Woden, or Odin, 
 worshiped on this day. Woden was the 
 reputed author of magic and the inventor of 
 all the arts, and is thought to answer to the 
 Mercury of the Greeks and Romans ; others 
 suppose him to be the same as Mars. Thurs- 
 day derived its name from Thor, a deified 
 hero worshiped by the ancient northern na- 
 tions, especially by the Scandinavians and 
 Celts. His authority extended over the 
 winds and seasons, and particularly over 
 thunder and lightning. He is . said to have 
 been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. 
 This day, which was consecrated to Thor, 
 still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, 
 and Low Dutch languages, as well as in the 
 English. [See Friday.] Saturday owes its 
 name to the ancient Saxon idol Seater, or 
 Saterne, the same with Saturn. The Jews 
 still observed as the Sabbath, in commemo- 
 ration of the creation, and their redemption 
 from the bondage of Egypt. 
 
 The Hours. — Da}^ began at sunrise among 
 most of the northern nations, at sunset 
 among the Athenians and Jew r s, and among 
 the Romans at midnight, as it does with us. 
 It began to be divided into hours from the 
 year 293 b.c., wiien L. Papirius Cursor 
 erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus 
 at Rome. Before the invention of water- 
 clocks, 158 b.c., the time was called at Rome 
 by public criers. The Chinese divided the 
 day into twelve parts of two hours each. 
 The Italians reckon the day from sunset to 
 sunset, counting tw T enty-four hours round, 
 instead of tw r o divisions of twelve hours each 
 as we do. In England the measurement of 
 time in early days was alike uncertain and 
 difficult. One w r ay was by wax candles, 
 three inches burning an hour, and six can- 
 dles burning a day. These candles were in- 
 vented by Alfred, a.d. 886, clocks and hour 
 glasses not being then known in England. 
 Seamen have a way of their own for reckon- 
 ing time, by watches and bells. The w r atches 
 are as follows : from twelve at night to four 
 in the morning, from four to eight o’clock, 
 and from eight till noon ; then from noon to 
 four, from four to six, from six to eight, and 
 from eight till midnight. The two short 
 watches in tl\e afternoon are called the dog- 
 watches. At the first half-hour of each 
 watch, the ship’s bell is struck once,- at the 
 
 second half-hour twice, and so on ; so that 
 eight strokes, or eight hells as the phrase is, 
 denote the end of the w r atch. 
 
 In the year 1792, the French nation, in 
 their excessive desire to change all the exist- 
 ing institutions, decided to adopt a new cal- 
 endar founded on philosophical principles ; 
 but as they w r ere unable to produce any plan 
 more accurate and convenient than that pre- 
 viously in use, they w'cre contented to follow 
 the old plan under a new* name, merely 
 changing some of the minor details and sub- 
 divisions, andcommencing the year at a differ- 
 ent period. The first year of the era of the 
 republic began on the 22d of September, 
 1792. As all the public acts of the French 
 nation w r ere dated according to this altered 
 style for a period of more than tw-elve years, 
 its record here may be useful. Autumn : 
 Vendemiare (vintage month), from Sept. 22d 
 to Oct. 21st; Brumaire (fog month), Oct. 
 22d to Nov. 20th ; Frimaire (sleet month), 
 Nov. 21st to Dec. 20th. Winter: Nivose , 
 (snow month), Dec. 21st to Jan. 19th ; Flu- 
 viose (rain month), Jan. 20th to Feb. 18th; 
 Ventose (wind month), Feb. 19th to March 
 20th. Spring : Germinal (sprouts’ month), 
 March 21st to April 19th; Florlal (flowers’ 
 month), April 20th to May 19th; Prairjfl 
 (pasture month), May 20th to June 18th. 
 Summer: Messidor (harvest month), June 
 19th to July 18th; Fervidor (hot month), 
 July 19th to Aug. 17th; Fructidor (fruit 
 month), Aug. 18th to Sept. 16th. Sanscu- 
 lottides, or feasts dedicated to — Les Vertus 
 (the virtues), Sept. 17th ; Le Genie (genius), 
 Sept. 18th; Le Travail (labor), Sept. 19th; 
 F Opinion (opinion), Sept. 20th ; Les Recom- 
 penses (rewards), Sept. 21st. Though this 
 era commenced Sept. 22d, 1792, its establish- 
 ment w T as not decreed until the 4th Frimaire 
 of the year II. (Nov. 24th, 1793). This rev- 
 olutionary calendar existed until the 10th 
 Nivose, year of the republic XIV., being the 
 31st of December, 1805, when Napoleon re- 
 stored the Gregorian mode of calculation. 
 
 TIMOLEON was born in Corinth about b.c. 
 41 0. His first exploit was the deliverance of 
 Corinth from the tj'ranny of his elder brother 
 Timophanes, in which it was necessary to put 
 him to death. Timoleon’s patriotism w r as 
 not appreciated, and amid execrations for his 
 share in the tragedy, he gloomily withdrew 
 
 TIM 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 869 
 
 from public life. When twenty years there- 
 after, the Syracusans, oppressed with the 
 tyranny of Dionysius the younger, and of 
 the Carthaginians, had solicited the assistance 
 of the Corinthians, every one looked upon 
 Timoleon as a proper deliverer ; but all ap- 
 plications would have been disregarded, if 
 one of the magistrates had not thus spoken : 
 “ Timoleon, if you accept of the com- 
 mand of this expedition, we will believe that 
 you have killed a tyrant; but if not, we can 
 not but call you your brother’s murderer.” 
 This had due effect ; and Timoleon sailed for 
 Syracuse in ten ships, accompanied by about 
 1,000 men. The Carthaginians attempted to 
 oppose him, but Timoleon eluded their vigi- 
 lance. Icetas, who had the possession of the 
 city, was defeated, and Dionysius, who 
 despaired of success, gave himself up into 
 the hands of the Corinthian general. This 
 success gained Timoleon adherents in Sicily ; 
 many cities which hitherto had looked upon 
 him as an invader, claimed his protection ; 
 and when he was at last master of Syracuse, 
 by the total overthrow of Icetas, and of the 
 Carthaginians, he razed the citadel which 
 had been the seat of tyranny, and erected on 
 the spot a common hall. When Syracuse 
 wSis thus delivered from tyranny, Timoleon 
 extended his benevolence to the other states 
 of Sicily, and all the petty tyrants were re- 
 duced and banished from the island. A code 
 of salutary laws was framed for the Syracu- 
 sans ; the armies of Carthage, which had 
 attempted again to raise commotions in Sicily, 
 were defeated, and peace was at last re-estab- 
 lished. The gratitude of the Sicilians was 
 shown everywhere to their deliverer. Timo- 
 leon was received with repeated applause in 
 the public assemblies ; and though a private 
 man, unconnected with the government, he 
 continued to enjoy his former influence at 
 Syracuse ; his advice was consulted on mat- 
 ters of importance, and his authority respect- 
 ed. He ridiculed the accusations of malevo- 
 lence ; and when some informers had charged 
 him with oppression, he rebuked the Syra- 
 cusans, who were going to put the accusers 
 to immediate death. Timoleon died at Syra- 
 cuse, about 337 years before the Christian 
 era. His body received an honorable burial, 
 in a public place, called, from him, Timole- 
 onteum ; but the tears of a grateful nation 
 
 were more convincing proofs of the public 
 regret, than the institution of festivals and 
 games yearly to be observed on the anniver- 
 sary of his death. 
 
 TIPPECANOE, Battle of. In this fierce 
 engagement, Nov. 7th, 1811, Gen. Harrison, 
 then governor of the territory of Indiana, 
 defeated a large body of Shawnees. 
 
 TIPPOO SAIB, the son of Hyder Ali, and 
 the last Sultan of Mysore, resisted the spread 
 of the British power in India with unavail- 
 ing energy and bravery. Cooped up at last 
 in Seringapatam, his capital, he refused the 
 grasping terms his enemies offered. The 
 British stormed the stronghold, May 4th, 
 1799, and Tippoo Saib fell amid heaps of 
 slain. His age was fifty. 
 
 TITIAN. Tiziano Vecellio was born in 
 the Venetian territories in 1477. He com- 
 menced the study of painting £t the age of 
 ten. He first appeared as a great painter in 
 1514, at the court of Alfonso I., Duke of 
 Ferrara, where he executed several eminent 
 works, and painted a portrait of Ariosto, who 
 had commemorated him in the “ Orlando 
 Furioso.” At Venice he produced a succes- 
 sion of magnificent pictures. In 1530 he 
 painted a portrait of Charles V. at Bologna, 
 and is supposed to have accompanied the 
 emperor into Spain. There are many of his 
 master-pieces at Madrid. Charles V. made 
 him count palatine of the empire, and knight 
 of the order of St. Iago. During a visit to 
 Rome Michael Angelo visited him, praised 
 highly a painting upon which he was en- 
 gaged, and afterward said that “ if Titian 
 had been as much assisted by art as he is by 
 nature, nothing could surpass him.” Titian 
 excelled as a colorist and portrait painter. 
 He continued to wield the pencil till after he 
 was ninety, and died of the plague at Venice, 
 in 1576, at the advanced age of ninety -nine. 
 
 TITUS, Flavius Vespasianus, son of Ves- 
 pasian and Flavia Domitilla, became known 
 by his valor in the Roman armies, particularly 
 at the siege of Jerusalem. In the seventy- 
 ninth year of the Christian era, he was in- 
 vested with the imperial purple, and the Ro- 
 man people had every reason to expect in 
 him the barbarities of a Tiberius and the 
 debaucheries of a Nero. When raised to 
 the throne, he thought himself bound to be 
 the father of his people, the guardian of vir- 
 
870 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 ARCH OF TIT 
 
 tue, and the patron of liberty ; and Titus is, 
 perhaps, the only monarch who, when in- 
 vested with uncontrollable power, bade adieu 
 to those vices, luxuries, and indulgences, 
 which as a private man he had never ceased 
 to gratify. All informers were banished from 
 his presence, and even severely punished. 
 A reform was made in the judicial proceed- 
 ings, and trials were no longer permitted to 
 be postponed for years. To do good to his 
 subjects was the ambition of Titus ; and it 
 was at the recollection that he had done no 
 service, or granted no favor, one day, that he 
 uttered the memorable words, “ My friends, 
 I have lost a day ! ” Two of the senators 
 conspired against his life, but the emperor 
 
 U S AT ROME. 
 
 disregarded their attempts. He made them 
 his friends by kindness, and, like another 
 Nerva, presented them with a sword to de- 
 stroy him. During his reign, Rome was 
 three days on fire ; the towns of Campania 
 were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius ; 
 and the empire was visited by a pestilence, 
 which carried off an infinite number of in- 
 habitants. In this time of public calamity, 
 the emperor’s benevolence and philanthropy 
 were conspicuous. The Romans, however, 
 had not long to enjoy the favors of this mag- 
 nificent prince-. Titus was taken ill ; and as 
 he retired into the country of the Sabines, to 
 his father’s house, his indisposition was in- 
 creased by a burning fever, lie died the 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 871 
 
 13th of September, a.d. 81, in the forty-first 
 year of his age, after a reign of two years, 
 two months, and twenty days. 
 
 TOULON, a seaport in the south-east of 
 France. The most remarkable event in its 
 history is the occupation of the town and 
 harbor by the British, in the autumn of 
 1793, the subsequent siege by the republi- 
 can troops of France, and the precipitate 
 abandonment of the place by the British 
 troops, on the 19th of December, 1793, after 
 burning and carrying off about half the 
 squadron contained in the port. Bonaparte, 
 then only a lieutenant, commanded part of 
 the besieging artillery, and conducted it with 
 great judgment. 
 
 TOULOUSE, a city of France, formerly 
 capital of the province of Languedoc, and now 
 of the department of Upp'er Garonne, contain- 
 ing 85,500 inhabitants. An obstinate battle 
 was fought here on the 10th of April, 1814, 
 between the British under Lord Wellington, 
 and the French, under Soult ; neither com- 
 mander having been apprised of the abdica- 
 tion of Bonaparte. The British troops were 
 successful, but suffered severely ; their loss, 
 in killed and wounded, was between four and 
 five thousand men ; that of the French ex- 
 ceeded 10,000. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS. The first authentic 
 mention of a tournament is to be found in the 
 Chronicle of Tours, which records the death 
 of Geoffrey de Friuli in 1066 ; adding the 
 words, qui torneamenta invenit , “who in- 
 vented tournaments.” From the appearance 
 of these exercises in Germany about the same 
 time, we may conclude that this date is pretty 
 nearly correct ; and that if tournaments were 
 not absolutely invented at that precise pe- 
 riod, they were then first regulated by dis- 
 tinct laws. In England they did not appear 
 till several years later, when the Norman 
 manners introduced after the conquest had 
 completely superseded the customs of the 
 Saxons. 
 
 The ceremonies and the splendor of the 
 tournament of course differed in different ages 
 and different countries ; but the general prin- 
 ciple was the same. It was a chivalrous 
 game, originally institute^ for practicing 
 those exercises, and acquiring that skill, 
 which were likely to be useful in knightly 
 warfare. 
 
 A tournament was usually given upon the 
 occasion of any great meeting, for either mil- 
 itary or political purposes. Sometimes it 
 was the king himself who sent his heralds 
 through the land to announce to all noblemen 
 and ladies, that on a certain day he would 
 hold a grand tournament, where all brave 
 knights might try their prowess. At other 
 times a tournament was determined on by a 
 body of independent knights ; and messen- 
 gers were often sent into distant countries to 
 invite all gallant gentlemen to honor the pas- 
 sage of arms. 
 
 The spot fixed upon for the lists was usu- 
 ally in the immediate neighborhood of some 
 abbey or castle, where the shields of the va- 
 liious cavaliers who proposed combating, 
 were exposed to view for several days pre- 
 vious to the meeting. A herald was also 
 placed beneath the cloisters to answer all 
 questions concerning the champions, and to 
 receive all complaints against any individual 
 knight. If, upon investigation, the kings of 
 arms and judges of the field found that a just 
 accusation was laid against one of the knights 
 proposing to appear, a peremptory command 
 excluded him from the lists ; and if he dared 
 in despite thereof to present himself, he was 
 driven forth with blows and ignominy. 
 
 Round about the field appointed for the 
 spectacle were raised galleries, scaffoldings, 
 tents, and pavilions, decorated with all the 
 magnificence of the age. Banners and scutch- 
 eons, and bandrols, silks and cloth of gold, 
 covered the galleries and floated round the 
 field ; while all that rich garments and pre- 
 cious stones, beauty and youth, could do to 
 outshine the inanimate part of the scene, was 
 to be found among the spectators. Here too 
 was seen the venerable age of chivalry ; all 
 those old knights w r hose limbs were no longer 
 competent to bear the weight of arms, sur- 
 rounding the field to view the prowess of 
 their children, and judge the deeds of the 
 day. Heralds and pursuivants, in the gay 
 and many-colored garments which they pe- 
 culiarly affected, fluttered over the field, 
 and bands of warlike music were stationed 
 near to animate the contest and to salute the 
 victors. 
 
 The knights, as they appeared in the lists, 
 were greeted by heralds and the people ac- 
 cording to their renown ; but the approba- 
 
 TOU 
 
872 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 spectators was | home, was greeted with loud acclamations ; 
 chivalry of the ! and valor met both its incitement and its 
 reward, in the expecting silence and the 
 
 tion of the female part of the 
 the great stimulus to all the 
 field. Each knight, as a part of his duty, 
 either felt or feigned himself in love ; and it 
 was upon these occasions that his lady might 
 descend from the high state to which the 
 mystic adoration of the day had raised her, 
 and bestow upon her favored champion a 
 glove, a riband, a bracelet, a jewel, which, 
 borne on his crest through the hard-contested 
 field, was the chief object of his care, and the 
 great excitement to his valor. Often, too, 
 in the midst of the combat, if accident or 
 misfortune deprived the favored knight of. the 
 gage of his lady’s affection, her admiration 
 or her pity won her to supply another token, 
 sent b)' - a page or squire, to raise again her 
 lover’s resolution, and animate him to new 
 exertions. 
 
 The old romance of Perce-forest gives a cu- 
 rious picture of the effects visible after a 
 tournament, by the eagerness with which the 
 fair spectators had encouraged the knights. 
 “ At the close of the tournament, the ladies 
 were so stripped of their ornaments, that the 
 greater part of them were bareheaded. Thus 
 they went their ways with their hair float- 
 ing on their shoulders more glossy than fine 
 gold, and with their robes without the 
 sleeves ; for they had given to the knights to 
 decorate themselves, wimples and hoods, 
 mantles and shifts, sleeves and bodies. When 
 they found themselves undressed to such a 
 pitch, they were at first quite ashamed ; but 
 as soon as they saw every one was in the 
 same state, they began to laugh at the whole 
 adventure, for they had all bestowed their 
 jewels and their clothes upon the knights 
 with so good a will, that they had not per- 
 ceived that they uncovered themselves.” 
 
 This is perhaps an exaggerated account of 
 the enthusiasm which the events of a tourna- 
 ment excited in the bosom of the fair ladies 
 of that day : still, no doubt can be entertain- 
 ed, that they not only decorated their knights 
 before the tournament with some token of 
 their approbation, but in the case of its loss, 
 often sent him even a part of their dress in 
 the midst of the conflict. The other specta- 
 tors, also, though animated by less thrilling 
 interest, took no small share in the feelings 
 and hopes of the different parties. Each 
 blow of the lance or sword, struck well and 
 
 thundering plaudits with each good cham- 
 pion’s movements were waited for and seen. 
 
 In the meanwhile, without giving encour- 
 agement to any particular knight, the her- 
 alds strove to animate all by various quaint 
 and characteristic exclamations; such as, 
 “The love of ladies!” “Death to the 
 horses ! ” “ Honor to the brave ! ” “ Glory 
 
 to be won by blood and sweat ! ” “ Praise to 
 
 the sons of the brave ! ” 
 
 It would occupy too much space to enter 
 into all the details of the tournament, or to 
 notice all the laws by which it was governed. 
 Every care was taken that the various knights 
 should meet upon equal terms, and many a 
 precaution was made use of to prevent acci- 
 dents, and to render the sport both innocent 
 and useful. But no regulations could be 
 found sufficient to guard against the danger- 
 ous consequences of such furious amuse- 
 ments ; and Ducange gives a long list of 
 princes and nobles who lost their lives in 
 these fatal exercises. The church dften in- 
 terfered, though in vain, to put them down ; 
 and many monarchs forbade them in their 
 dominions ; but the pomp with which they, 
 were accompanied, and the excitement they 
 afforded to a people fond of every martial 
 stimulus, rendered them far more permanent 
 than might have been expected. 
 
 The weapons in tournaments were, in al- 
 most all cases, restrained to blunted swords 
 and headless spears, daggers and battle-axes ; 
 but, as may well be imagined, these were not 
 to be used without danger ; so that even those 
 festivals that passed by without the absolute 
 death of any of the champions, left, neverthe- 
 less, many to drag out a maimed and miser- 
 able existence, or to die after a long and 
 weary sickness. And yet the very peril of 
 the sport gave to it an all-powerful interest, 
 which we can best conceive, at present, from 
 our feelings at some deep and thrilling trag- 
 edy. 
 
 After the excitement, and the expectation, 
 and the suspense, and the eagerness, came 
 the triumph and the prize ; and the chosen 
 queen of the field bestowed upon the cham- 
 pion whose feats were counted best, that 
 reward, the value of which consisted more in 
 
 TOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 873 
 
 the honor than the thing itself. Sometimes 
 it was a jewel, sometimes a coronet of flow- 
 ers or of laurel ; but in all cases the award 
 implied a right to one kiss from the lips of 
 the lady appointed to bestow the prize. It 
 seems to have been as frequent a practice to 
 assign this prize on the field, as in the cha- 
 teau or palace whither the court retired after 
 the sports were concluded ; and we often find 
 that the female part of the spectators were 
 called to decide upon the merits of the sev- 
 eral champions, and to declare the victor 
 as well as confer the reward. Mirth and fes- 
 tivity ever closed the day of the tournament, 
 and song and sports brought in the night. 
 
 Everything that could interest or amuse a 
 barbarous age was collected on the spot 
 where one of these meetings was held. The 
 minstrel, the juggler, the saltimbank, the 
 story-teller, were present in the hall to soothe 
 or to entertain ; but still the foundation of 
 tale and song was chivalry ; the objects of 
 all praise were noble deeds and heroic ac- 
 tions ; and the very voice of love and tender- 
 ness, instead of seducing to sloth and effem- 
 inacy, was heard prompting to activity, to 
 enterprise, and to honor — to the defense of 
 virtue, and the search for glory. 
 
 . It may be here necessary to remark, that 
 there were several sorts of tournaments, 
 which differed essentially from each other ; 
 but we shall not pause upon these any longer 
 than merely to point out the particular differ- 
 ences between them. The joust, w r hich was 
 certainly a kind of tournament, was always 
 confined to two persons, though these per- 
 sons encountered each other with blunted 
 arms. 
 
 The combat at outrance "was, in fact, a 
 duel, and only differed from the trial by bat- 
 tle in being voluntary, while the other was 
 enforced by law. This contest was often the 
 event of private quarrels, but was, by no 
 means, always so ; and, to use the language 
 ofDucangc, “though mortal, it took place 
 ordinarily between two persons who most 
 frequently did not know each other, or, at 
 least, had no particular misunderstanding, 
 but who sought alone to show forth then- 
 courage, generosity, and skill in arms.” 
 Sometimes, however, the combat at outrance 
 was undertaken by a number of knights to- 
 
 gether, and often much blood was thus shed, 
 without cause. 
 
 The pas i Varmes , or passage of arms, dif- 
 fered from general tournaments, inasmuch 
 as a certain number of knights fixed their 
 shields and tents in a particular pass, or spot 
 of ground, which they declared their inten- 
 tion to defend against all comers. The space 
 before their tents was generally listed in, as 
 for a tournament ; and during the time fixed 
 for the defense of the passage, the same con- 
 course of spectators, heralds, and minstrels 
 was assembled. 
 
 The round table was another distinct sort 
 of tournament, held in a circular amphithea- 
 tre, wherein the knights invited jousted 
 against each other. The origin of this festi- 
 val, which was held, we believe, for the last 
 time by Edward III., is attributed to Roger 
 Mortimer, who, on receiving a knighthood, 
 feasted a hundred knights and a hundred 
 ladies at a round table. The mornings were 
 spent in chivalrous games, the prize of which 
 was a golden lion, and the evenings in ban- 
 quets and festivities. This course of enter- 
 tainment continued three days with the most 
 princely splendor; after which Mortimer, 
 having won the prize himself, conducted his 
 guests to Warwick, and dismissed them. 
 
 From this account, taken from the history 
 of the Priory of Wigmorc, Monestrier deduces 
 that those exercises called “round tables” 
 were only tournaments, during which the 
 lord or sovereign giving the festival, enter- 
 tained his guests at a table which, to prevent 
 all ceremony in respect to precedence, was in 
 the form of a circle. Perhaps, however, this 
 institution may have had a different and an 
 earlier origin, though we find it mentioned in 
 no author previous to the year 1279. 
 
 Chivalry, which, in its pristine purity, 
 knew no reward but honor, soon — as it be- 
 came combined with power — appropriated to 
 itself various privileges, which, injuring its 
 simplicity, in the end brought about its fall. 
 In the first place, the knight was, by the fact 
 of his chivalry, the judge of all his equals, and 
 consequently of all his inferiors. He was 
 also, in most cases, the executor of his own 
 decree, and it would indeed have required a 
 different nature from humanity to secure such 
 a jurisdiction from frequent perversion. The 
 
 TOU 
 
874 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 knight also took precedence of all persons 
 who had not received chivalry, a distinction 
 well calculated to do away with that humility 
 which was one of knighthood’s strictest laws. 
 Added to this was the right of wearing par- 
 ticular dresses and colors, gold and jewels, 
 which were restrained to the knightly class 
 by very severe ordinances. Scarlet and green 
 were particularly reserved for the order of 
 knighthood, as well as ermine, minever, and 
 some other furs. Knights also possessed 
 what was called privilege of clergy ; that is to 
 say, in case of accusation, they could claim 
 to be tried before the ecclesiastical judge. 
 Their arms were legally forbidden to all other 
 classes, and the titles of sire, monseigneur, 
 sir, don, &c., were applied to them alone, till 
 the distinction was lost in the course of time. 
 [See Chivalry.] 
 
 In 1559, Henry II. of France, in a tilt with 
 the Comte de Montmorency, when celebrat- 
 ing the nuptials of his sister with the Duke 
 of Savoy, had his eye struck out, an accident 
 which caused his death in a few days ; and 
 from this event tournaments were abolished 
 in France. One was held in Smithfield so 
 late as the twelfth century, when the taste 
 for them declined in England. 
 
 TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE ; a mulatto 
 of St. Domingo, rose to the command of the 
 blacks of that island, formed a constitution, 
 and adopted the wisest and most humane 
 regulations. He was treacherously betrayed 
 and imprisoned by the French, and died in 
 France in 1803, aged sixty. 
 
 TRAFALGAR, Battle of, between the 
 British fleet under Lord Nelson, and the com- 
 bined fleet of France and Spain, on the 21st 
 of October, 1805. On the 19th, it was com- 
 municated to his lordship that this fleet had 
 put to sea, and as he concluded that their 
 destination was the Mediterranean, he imme- 
 diately made all sail for the entrance of the 
 straits of Gibraltar with twenty-seven ships, 
 three of them sixty-fours. On Monday, 21st, 
 at daylight, the enemy was discovered off 
 Cape Trafalgar. The commander-in-chief 
 immediately made a signal for the fleet to 
 bear up in two columns, as they formed in 
 order of sailing ; a mode of attack which he 
 had previously directed, to avoid the incon- 
 venience and delay in forming a line of battle 
 in the usual manner, while he gave out, as the 
 
 signal, “ England expects every man to do 
 his duty.” Never was expectation more 
 amply fulfilled, or orders obeyed with more 
 perfect regularity and effect. The enemy’s 
 line consisted of thirty-three ships, of which 
 eighteen were French and fifteen Spanish ; 
 the French under Admiral Villeneuve, who 
 was also commander-in-chief, and the Span- 
 iards under Admiral Gravina. The action 
 began at twelve o’clock, by the leading ships 
 of the columns breaking through the enemy’s 
 line ; the commander-in-chief about the tenth 
 ship from the van, and Admiral Collin gwood 
 about the twelfth from the rear, leaving the 
 van of the enemy unoccupied, the succeeding 
 ships breaking through, in all parts, astern 
 of their leaders, and engaging the enemy at 
 the muzzles of their guns. The conflict was 
 severe, and the enemy fought with great brav- 
 ery, but the impulse of British skill and cour- 
 age was irresistible. About three in the 
 afternoon, many of the French and Spanish 
 ships having struck their colors, their line 
 gave way. Admiral Gravina, with ten ships, 
 joining their frigates to leeward, stood toward 
 Cadiz. The five headmost ships in their van 
 tacked, and standing to the southward, to 
 windward of the British line, were engaged, 
 and the sternmost of them taken ; the others 
 went off, leaving to the English nineteen 
 ships of the line, of which two were first- 
 rates, with Villeneuve, commander-in-chief, 
 and two other flag officers. Such a battle 
 could not have been fought without sustain- 
 ing great loss of men. The number of killed, 
 however, did not exceed four hundred and 
 twenty-three, nor that of the wounded eleven 
 hundred and sixtv-four. The gallant Nelson 
 fell in the arms of victory. About the mid- 
 dle of the action, his lordship received a 
 musket-ball in his left breast, which was aim- 
 ed at him from the top of the ship with which 
 the Victory was engaged. On his being car- 
 ried below, he complained of acute pain in 
 the breast, and of privation of sense and mo- 
 tion of the body and inferior extremities : his 
 respiration became short' and difficult; his 
 pulse small, weak, and irregular; he fre- 
 quently declared that his back seemed shot 
 through ; that he felt every instant a gush 
 of blood within his breast, and that he had 
 sensations which indicated to him the ap- 
 proach of death. In the course of an hour 
 TRA 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 875 
 
 his pulse became indistinct, his extremities 
 and forehead cold, but he retained his wonted 
 energy of mind, and exercise of his faculties, 
 till the latest moment of his existence ; and 
 when victory, as signal as decisive, was an- 
 nounced to him, he expressed his heart-felt 
 satisfaction at the glorious event, in the most 
 emphatic language. He delivered his last 
 orders with his usual precision, and in a few 
 minutes after expired without a struggle. 
 
 TRAJAN, Marcus Ulpius, a Roman em- 
 peror, was born near Seville in Spain, a.d. 
 53, and was adopted by Nerva. After Nerva 
 died, the accession of Trajan to the vacant 
 throne was confirmed by the unanimous re- 
 joicings of the people, and the free concurrence 
 of the armies on the confines of Germany and 
 the banks of the Danube. The barbarians 
 continued quiet, and the hostilities which 
 they generally displayed at the election of a 
 new emperor whose military abilities they 
 distrusted, were now few. Trajan, however, 
 could not behold with satisfaction and uncon- 
 cern the insolence of the Dacians, who claim- 
 ed from the Roman people a tribute which 
 the cowardice of Domitian had offered. De- 
 cebalus, their warlike monarch, soon began 
 hostilities, by violating the treaty. The em- 
 peror entered the enemy’s country, by throw- 
 ing a bridge across the rapid stream of the 
 Danube, and a battle was fought, in which 
 the slaughter was so great, that in the Roman 
 camp linen was wanted to dress the wounds 
 of the soldiers. Trajan obtained the victory ; 
 Decebalus, despairing of success, destroyed 
 himself, and Dacia became a province of 
 Rome. An expedition was now undertaken 
 into the east, and Parthia threatened with 
 immediate war. Trajan passed through the 
 submissive kingdom of Armenia, and by his 
 well directed operations made himself master 
 of the provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia. 
 He extended his conquests in the east, ob- 
 taining victories over unknown nations ; and 
 when on the extremity of India, he lament- 
 ed that he possessed not the vigor and youth 
 of an Alexander, that he might add unex- 
 plored provinces and kingdoms to the Roman 
 empire. Trajan had no sooner signified his 
 intention of returning to Italy, than the 
 conquered barbarians appen red again in arms, 
 and the Roman empire did not acquire one 
 single acre of territory from the conquests of 
 
 her sovereign beyond the Tigris. The return 
 of the emperor toward Rome was hastened 
 by indisposition. He expired in the begin- 
 ning of August, a.d. 117, after a reign of 
 nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days, 
 in the sixty -fourth year of his age. 
 
 TRENCK, Frederick, Baron von, a Prus- 
 sian officer, born at Konigsberg, in 1726, aid- 
 de-camp of Frederick the Great, served with 
 distinction in the seven years’ war; but, in 
 consequence of an intrigue with the Princess 
 Amelia, sister of Frederick, was imprisoned 
 in the fortress of Glatz, from which he con- 
 trived to make his escape, entering the Aus- 
 trian service. In 1758, having gone to Dant- 
 zic for the purpose of arranging the disposi- 
 tion of his mother’s property, he was arrested 
 and imprisoned in the fortress of Magdeburg, 
 from which he was freed in 1763 by the in- 
 terference of the Princess Amelia. He next 
 went to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he married 
 the daughter of a burgomaster of the city in 
 1765. Here he engaged in literature, poli- 
 tics, and commerce. On the failure of his 
 wine-trade he returned to Germany, where he 
 was received with favor and employed in va- 
 rious missions. In 1787, he revisited his 
 native country and was favorably received 
 by the successor of Frederick and the Prin- 
 cess Amelia. In 1791 he went to France, but 
 falling under suspicion, was guillotined, July 
 25 th, 1794. 
 
 TRENTON, the capital of New Jersey, on 
 the eastern bank of the Delaware River, thirty 
 miles north-cast of Philadelphia, contains 
 22,874 inhabitants, Here was fought a mem- 
 orable battle at early morn on the 26th of 
 December, 1776. On the night cf the 25th, 
 the American army, under the command of 
 Washington, crossed the Delaware, during the 
 fury of a winter storm, and suddenly attacked 
 the Hessians here, defeating them complete- 
 ly. Of the British, twenty men were killed, 
 and nearly 1,000 taken prisoners ; of the 
 Americans, only two were killed, two frozen 
 to death, and five wounded. 
 
 TRIPOLI, the most easterly of the Barba- 
 ry states, is the least fertile. The great moun- 
 tain range which diffuses verdure and fertility 
 through the others, terminates, and the great 
 desert presses close upon the cultivated 
 territory. The tract in which the city of 
 Tripoli stands is only an oasis, and a short 
 
 TRI 
 
876 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 journey carries one into the midst of the 
 sandy wastes. Tripoli thus can not equal the 
 other capitals of Barbary ; and its population 
 does not exceed 20,000. Even this is sup- 
 ported rather by commerce and industry, 
 than by the limited productions of the soil. 
 It is a theatre of trade with the interior coun- 
 tries of Africa, by means of caravans across 
 the desert. The rulers of Tripoli have shown 
 a more enlightened spirit than has been dis- 
 played in the other states of Barbary. In 
 the midst of the tenantless and desolate 
 wastes eastward from the cit}' - of Tripoli, 
 occur fertile districts, in which thick groves 
 of the olive and the date rise about the villa- 
 ges, luxuriant crops of grain spring up, and 
 flocks of sheep and goats browse on the wel- 
 come pasturage. Barca, the ancient Cyrena- 
 ica, across the ancient Gulf of Syrtis, so 
 fearful to the mariners of old, exhibits a 
 very improved aspect. It is traversed by a 
 steep ridge, abounding in numerous springs, 
 which sprinkle the surrounding deserts with 
 valleys of brilliant verdure. 
 
 Throughout this land are the traces of 
 cities that flourished in the times of Greece 
 and Rome, now either wholly deserted, or 
 dwindled into miserable Arab villages ; the 
 Cyrene of the Greeks, the Berenice of the 
 Ptolemies, Leptis Magna, Teuchira, Ptole- 
 meta, &c. Remains of their magnificence 
 linger with the shattered columns and 
 rich entablatures, that lie buried in the 
 sand till borne away by some Arab utilitarian 
 for millstones or building materials, and in 
 the dismantled walls and gatewaj^s, whose 
 strength vainly prolongs the struggle with 
 time. Of all these ruins the best preserved 
 are the tombs and sepulchral grottoes, over 
 whose ornaments and inscriptions shrubs and 
 weeds thickly cluster. The city of the living 
 has gone to decay ; the city of the dead has 
 better survived ; only the cr} r of the jackal 
 and the hyena, the noise of the owl and the 
 bat, disturb its pious solitude with discord- 
 ant sounds of life. 
 
 After the conquest of Carthage, Tripoli 
 became a Roman province. After the Van- 
 dals, it was under the dominion of kings, 
 natives of the country, but afterward fell into 
 the hands of the Saracens, who came from 
 Egypt, and who carried awa)’' a great num- 
 ber of slaves, both from the kingdom and 
 
 the capital. The sceptre was then assumed 
 by pirates or adventurers, from whom it was 
 wrested by the Spaniards in 1510. The 
 latter resigned it to the knights of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, who in 1551, were obliged to 
 yield it to three famous corsairs, Salha Rais, 
 Sinan Dassat, and Dragut, who were assisted 
 with troops furnished by the grand seignior 
 for this purpose, and who fully established 
 the authority of the Turks. Tripoli then 
 became famous, like the other Barbary states, 
 for its piracies. In 1713 Hamet the Great 
 massacred the Turkish officers and garrison, 
 and established himself as bashaw independ- 
 ent of the Porte. The authority continued 
 hereditary in his family till 1832, when Tur- 
 key recovered her power over the country, 
 and it is now governed by a bashaw sent 
 from Constantinople. The Araibs of the in- 
 terior are substantially independent, and 
 frequently war with the Turkish authority. 
 
 The depredations of the corsairs of Tri- 
 poli upon our commerce led in 1801 to a war 
 between it and the United States. In August, 
 1804, Commodore Preble repeatedly bom- 
 barded the city of Tripoli. Soon after, the 
 bashaw offered acceptable terms of peace, and 
 a treaty was concluded June 3d, 1805. 
 
 TRIUMPH. The triumphal military pro- 
 cession of a victorious Roman general was a 
 spectacle of great splendor and interest. 
 When a general gained a considerable victo- 
 ry, he demandod a triumph of the senate. It 
 was the highest military honor which could 
 be obtained in the Roman state, and was re- 
 served for those generals who, by hard-earned 
 victories and glorious achievements, had 
 added to the territories of the commonwealth, 
 or delivered the state from threatened dan- 
 ger. The triumphal procession began from 
 the Campus Martius, without the city, and 
 passed through the most public places of the 
 city to the capitol ; the streets being strewed 
 with flowers, and the altars smoking with 
 incense. First went musicians of various 
 kinds ; the oxen destined for the sacrifice 
 next followed, having their horns gilt, and 
 their heads adorned with garlands ; then in 
 carriages were brought the spoils taken from 
 the enemy, statues, pictures, plate, armor, 
 &c., with the titles of the vanquished nations, 
 and their images or representation. The 
 spoils were succeeded by the captive kings 
 
 TRI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 877 
 
 or leaders, with their children and attendants ; 
 after the captives came the lictors, having 
 their fasces wreathed with laurel, followed 
 by a great company of musicians and dan- 
 cers, dressed like satyrs, and wearing golden 
 crowns ; and next came a long train of persons 
 carrying perfumes. After these came the tri- 
 ufnphant general, dressed in purple embroid- 
 ered with gold, with a crown of laurel upon 
 his head, a branch of laurel in his right hand, 
 and in his left an ivory sceptre with an eagle 
 on the top ; the general’s face was painted 
 with vermilion, and a gold ball hung from his 
 neck on his breast. The chariot in which 
 the triumphant general stood was gilt, adorn- 
 ed with ivory, and drawn by four white 
 horses abreast, or sometimes by elephants. 
 That he might not be too much elated, a 
 slave stood behind him, who frequently whis- 
 pered in his ear, “ Remember that thou art a 
 man ! ” The general was attended by his 
 relatives, and a great crowd of citizens all in 
 white ; after his car followed the consuls and 
 senators ; and last came the victorious army 
 crowned with laurel, decorated with the gifts 
 which they had received for their valor, and 
 singing the general’s praises, in which the 
 citizens as they passed along also joined. 
 
 There was a lesser triumph, called the ova- 
 tion, which was awarded to generals whose 
 victories were not so considerable. He who 
 was thus rewarded entered the city with a 
 myrtle crown upon his head, that tree be- 
 ing consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when 
 an ovation was decreed to Marcus Crassus, 
 he particularly desired it as a favor of the 
 senate, to be allowed a laurel crown instead 
 of one of myrtle. This triumph was called 
 ovation, because the general offered a sheep 
 when he came to the capital ; whereas in 
 the great triumph he offered a bull. Pub- 
 lius Posthumus Tubertus was the first who 
 was decreed an ovation, b.c. 503. Triumphs 
 were also distinguished into land and' sea 
 triumphs, according as the victory had been 
 gained. 
 
 TRIUMVIRI, were 'three magistrates ap- 
 pointed equally to govern the Roman state 
 with absolute power. The first triumvirate, 
 b.c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus, who, at the expiration 
 of their office, kindled a civil war. The 
 second and last triumvirate, b.c. 43, was un- 
 
 der Augustus, M. Antony, and Lepidus, and 
 through them the Romans totally lost their 
 liberty. The triumvirate was in full force 
 at Rome for the space of about twelve years. 
 There were also officers who were called tri- 
 umviri capitales , created a.u.c. .464. They 
 took cognizance of murders and robberies, 
 and everything in which slaves were con- 
 cerned. Criminals under sentence of death 
 were intrusted to their care, and they had 
 them executed according to the commands 
 of the praetors. The triumviri nocturni 
 watched over the safety of Rome in the night 
 time, and in case of fire, were ever ready to 
 take the most effectual measures to extinguish 
 it. The triumviri agrarii had the care of 
 colonies, that were sent to settle in different 
 parts of the empire. They made a fair divis- 
 ion of the lands among the citizens, and exer- 
 cised over the new colony all the power which 
 was placed in the hands of the consuls at 
 Rome. The triumviri monetales were mas- 
 ters of the mint, and had the care of the 
 coin, hence their office was generally inti- 
 mated by the following letters often seen on 
 ancient coins and medals: iiiyik. a.a.a.f. f. 
 
 i. e., Triumviri auro, argento , cere, fando, 
 feriendo. The triumviri valetudinis were? 
 chosen w r hen Rome was visited by a plague 
 or some pestiferous distemper, and they took 
 particular care of the temples of health and 
 virtue. The triumviri senatus leg end i 
 w’ere appointed to name those that were 
 most worthy to be made senators from 
 among the plebeians. The triumviri men- 
 sarii y were chosen in the second Punic war, 
 to take care of the coin and prices of ex- 
 change. 
 
 TROMP, Martin IIarpertzoon, a great 
 Dutch naval commander, was born at the 
 Brill, in Holland, in 1579. He rose from the 
 lowest station to the rank of admiral. In 
 the war between England and the United 
 Provinces, Van Tromp fought five desperate 
 engagements, in the last of which, July 29th, 
 1653, he was killed by a musket shot. The 
 states-general struck medals to his honor. 
 He carried a broom at the mast-head, to im- 
 ply that he would sweep the English from 
 the seas. 
 
 TROY, a city, the capital of Troas, in Asia 
 Minor, or according to others, a country of 
 which Ilium was the capital. Of all the 
 
 TRO 
 
S78 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 PLAINS OF TROY. 
 
 wars which have been carried on among the 
 ancients, that of Troy is the most famous. 
 The Trojan war was undertaken by the 
 Greeks, to recover Helen, whom Paris, the 
 son of Priam, king of Troy, had carried 
 away from the house of Menelaus. The 
 armament of the Greeks amounted to a thou- 
 sand ships. Agamemnon was chosen gene- 
 ral of all the forces ; but the princes and 
 kings of Greece were admitted among his 
 counselors, and by them all the operations 
 of the war were directed. The Grecian army 
 was opposed by a more numerous force. 
 The king of Troy received assistance 
 from the neighboring princes in Asia Mi- 
 nor, and reckoned among his most active 
 generals, Rhesus, king of Thrace, and 
 Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 
 Assyrians and Ethiopians. The army of 
 the Greeks was visited by a plague, and the 
 operations were not less retarded by the 
 quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles. After 
 the siege had been carried on for ten years, 
 some of the Trojans, among whom were 
 AEneas and Antenor, betrayed the city into 
 the hands of the enemy, and Troy was re- 
 
 duced to ashes. The poets, however, main- 
 tain, that the Greeks made themselves mas- 
 ters of the place by artifice. The greatest 
 part of the inhabitants were put to the sword, 
 and the others carried away by the conquer- 
 ors. This happened, according to the Arun- 
 delian marbles, about 1184 years before the 
 Christian era. Some time after, a new city 
 was raised, about thirty stadia from the ruins 
 of the old Troy : but though it bore the 
 ancient name, and received ample donations 
 from Alexander the Great, when he visited 
 it in his Asiatic expedition, yet it continued 
 to be small, and in the age of Strabo it was 
 nearly in ruins. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Joiin, was born in Water- 
 town, Conn., in 1750, and educated at Yale 
 College, of which he became a tutor in 1771. 
 He subsequently studied law in the office of 
 John Adams, in Boston, and became acquain- 
 ted with the leading patriots of Massachu- 
 setts. In 1775 was published the first part 
 of “McFingal,” apolitical satirical poem in 
 the style of Hudibras, which passed through 
 thirty editions. For many years Mr. Trum- 
 bull was a member of the legislature of Con- 
 
 TRU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 879 
 
 necticut, and was appointed a judge of the 
 superior court in 1801, and afterward of the 
 court of errors. In 1825 he removed to 
 Detroit, Michigan, where he died May 12th, 
 1831. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Jonathan, eminent lawyer 
 of Connecticut, patriot of the revolution, 
 chief justice of the supreme court of Con- 
 necticut, and fifteen years governor of that 
 state, died in 1785, at Lebanon, Conn., in 
 the seventy-fifth year of his age. Gen. 
 Washington relied upon him as one of his 
 main pillars of support. He was the origi- 
 nal Brother Jonathan. 
 
 TRUXTON, Thomas, a captain in the 
 United States’ navy, was born on Long 
 Island, New York, Feb. 17th, 1755. Being 
 impressed, he served a short time on board 
 the President, a British sixty-four. In 1775 
 he brought some powder to the colonies, and 
 was afterward captured, but escaped. He 
 was then appointed lieutenant on board the 
 Congress, a private armed ship, and, sailing 
 in company with another vessel in 1776, 
 took several valuable prizes. While in com- 
 mand of the St. James, of twenty guns, he 
 beat off a British vessel of thirty-two guns. 
 In the short war with France he commanded 
 the frigate Constellation, and captured the 
 French frigate L’lnsurgente of fifty -four 
 guns. In 1800 he retired from the service. 
 He died May 5th, 1822, in his sixty-seventh 
 year. 
 
 TUDOR, the House of. The sovereigns 
 of this family who reigned over Britain and 
 Ireland, were five in number : Henry VII., 
 
 Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 Henry VII., the son of Edmund Tudor, 
 Earl of Richmond, and Margaret, a descend- 
 ant of John of Gaunt, was born in 1455. 
 He was grandson of Catherine, queen of 
 Henry V., who married Owen Tudor after 
 her royal husband’s death. Young Rich- 
 mond landed at Milford Haven, Aug. 7th, 
 1485, and having defeated the usurper Rich- 
 ard III. at the memorable battle of Bos- 
 worth, in the same year, was proclaimed 
 king. Jan. 18th, 1486, he married Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Edward IV. By this mar- 
 riage the claims of the royal houses of York 
 and Lancaster were united. The queen died 
 Feb. 11th, 1503. Henry, soon after his mar- 
 
 riage, went into the north, where the parti- 
 sans of Richard were strong, and making 
 hostile preparations, but they were quelled. 
 The conspiracy of 1487, headed by Lambert 
 Simnel, an impostor who pretended to be a 
 Plantagenet, was also put down. Henry re- 
 ceived, as a compromise for his claim upon 
 the French crown, £186,250, besides twenty' 
 five thousand crowns yearly. In 1492 the 
 country was disturbed by an impostor named 
 Osbeck, or Warbeck. [See Warbeck.] The 
 schemes of another impostor, named Wilford, 
 who personated the Earl of Warwick, afford' 
 ed Henry a pretext for arresting the earl, and 
 signing his death-warrant. Henry died of a 
 consumption in 1509. By his avarice and 
 rapacity, he is said, at one period, to have 
 amassed £1,800,000. 
 
 Henry VIII. was born in 1491. His eldef 
 brother, Prince Arthur, having died in 1502, 
 he succeeded his father in 1509, and wedded 
 his brother’s widow, Catherine of Arragon, 
 the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 His interview with Francis I. of France, at 
 Ardres, a small town ^'ithin the English 
 pale, near Calais, May 31st, 1520, is famous 
 for its magnificence. The nobles attendant 
 upon the monarchs, indulged in display so 
 rich and expense so lavish, as to win for the 
 plain of meeting the name of The Field of 
 the Cloth of Gold. Many of Henry’s retinue 
 sank themselves in great debt, and were not 
 able, by the penury of their whole lives, to 
 repair the vain extravagance of these few 
 days. 
 
 Henry began to dabble in theology, and 
 wrote a tract in behalf of the church of 
 Rome and against Luther, who had j ust com- 
 menced the reformation in Germany ; upon 
 which Pope Leo X. granted him in 1521 the 
 title of Defender of the Faith, which is still 
 retained by the sovereigns of Great Britain. 
 In 1527 Henry having conceived a violent 
 passion for the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one 
 of the queen’s maids of honor, was badly 
 troubled in conscience that he should be the 
 husband of his brother’s widow, and he im- 
 mediately set about procuring a divorce. 
 But both the pope and Cardinal Wolsey 
 were unwilling to sanction this unjustifiable 
 scheme. Wolsey was therefore forced to give 
 place to Thomas Cranmer, and after being 
 arrested, died at Leicester Abbey, not with* 
 
 TUD 
 
880 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 out suspicion of having been poisoned. Hen- 
 ry privately married Anne Boleyn (whom he 
 had created Marchioness of Pembroke), 
 Nov. 14th, 1532. He had previously repudi- 
 ated Catherine, and a formal divorce was de- 
 clared, May 23d, 1533. The unhappy queen 
 retired to a monastery, and died Jan. 6th, 
 1536. The royal amour involved a great 
 religious revolution. Henry declared him- 
 self the “head of the church,” and since 
 Clement VII. would not sanction the union 
 with Anne Boleyn, the authority of the pon- 
 tiff in England was abolished. The abbeys 
 and other ecclesiastical foundations were 
 despoiled, and their great wealth seized by 
 the crown, or bestowed upon citizens. Yet 
 the Anglican church, as at first established 
 in 1534, was not Protestant. It differed from 
 the Romish church on the point of the papal 
 supremacy, and on that point alone. Henry 
 burnt as heretics those who avowed the 
 tenets of Luther, while he hung as traitors 
 those who owned the authority of the pope. 
 
 The wives of “bluff King Hal” held as 
 ticklish hold on life or favor as those of Blue- 
 beard. Conceiving a passion for Jane Sey- 
 mour, maid of honor to Anne Boleyn, the 
 latter, accused of high treason and adultery, 
 was beheaded at the Tower, May 19th, 1536, 
 and the former married on the following day. 
 She died in giving birth to a prince, after- 
 ward Edward VI., Oct. 13th, 1537. Henry 
 was inveigled by the advice of Cromwell, 
 Earl of Essex, and by a flattering portrait of 
 Holbein’s painting, into wedding Anne of 
 Cleves. Both her person and disposition he 
 hated upon acquaintance: she was divorced 
 July 10th, 1540, six months from the time 
 of marriage ; Cromwell was arrested for 
 treason, was not allowed to be heard in de- 
 fense, was convicted, and was beheaded July 
 28th, 1540. The vacancy in the royal bed 
 was soon filled by Catherine Howard, niece 
 of the Duke of Norfolk, married Aug. 8th, 
 1540. She, too, being accused of infidelity, 
 was beheaded on Tower Hill, with the Lady 
 
 TUD 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 881 
 
 Rochford, Feb. 12th, 1542. In 1543, Henry 
 married his sixth and last wife, Catherine 
 Parr. Though his health was de’clining 
 apace, yet his implacable cruelties were not 
 less frequent. The Duke of Norfolk, and his 
 son, the Earl of Surrey, were the last who 
 felt the effects of the tyrant’s suspicions. 
 The latter was arrested, tried, and con- 
 demned for high treason, notwithstanding 
 his eloquent and spirited defense, and the 
 sentence was soon after executed upon him 
 on Tower Hill. The parliament meeting on 
 the 14th of January, 1546, a bill of attainder 
 was found against the Duke of Norfolk. 
 The death-warrant was made out, and imme- 
 diately sent to the lieutenant of the tower. 
 The duke prepared for death, but was saved 
 by the death of Henry. 
 
 Not men only, but women, of the noblest 
 blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent 
 lives, perished beneath the axe. The execution 
 of the venerable Countess of Salisbury was 
 remarkable for her resistance to the execu- 
 tioner. When he directed her to lay her 
 head on the block, she would not ; telling 
 him that she knew of no guilt, and would not 
 submit to die like a criminal. He chased her 
 round and round the block, aiming at her 
 hoary head, and at length took it off, after 
 mangling the neck and shoulders with ghastly 
 gashes. She was daughter of “perjured, 
 fleeting Clarence,” and the last of the royal 
 line of Plantagenet. 
 
 Henry VIII. died Jan. 28th, 1547, at the 
 age of fifty-six, after a reign of nearly thirty- 
 eight years. 
 
 Edward VI., the heir of the crown, was 
 a lad of ten years at his father’s death, and 
 ascended the throne under the protectorate of 
 his maternal uncle, the Duke of Somerset. 
 The most important event during the reign 
 of the boy-king, was the progress of the 
 Reformation. The ecclesiastical system of 
 Henry VIII. was neither Roman Catholic nor 
 Protestant, and was assailed with equal fury 
 by all who were zealous either for the new 
 or for the old opinions. The ministers who 
 held the royal prerogatives in trust for the 
 infant king could, not venture to persist 
 in so hazardous a policy ; it was necessary 
 to make a choice ; the government must 
 either submit to Rome, or must obtain 
 the aid of the Protestants. The govern- 
 
 56 
 
 ment and the Protestants had only one 
 thing in common, hatred of the papal pow- 
 er. The English reformers were eager to go 
 as far as their brethren on the continent, and 
 if left to themselves would have carried on 
 the work of reform as unsparingly as it had 
 been in Scotland. But, as the government 
 needed the support of the Protestants, so the 
 Protestants needed the protection of the gov- 
 ernment. Much was therefore given upon 
 both sides ; a union was effected, and the 
 fruit of that union was the Church of Eng- 
 land. Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 took the chief part in adjusting the new 
 ecclesiastical polity. The liturgy was first 
 framed in 1547-8, and afterward, in 1551, 
 upon the solicitation of Calvin and others, 
 reviewed and altered to nearly its present 
 state. The book of common prayer and the 
 church service were established in 1552. 
 Concerning these beneficent measures, the 
 king, who was an amiable and virtuous 
 youth, acquiesced in the wishes of his sage 
 counselors. 
 
 The might and ambition of the Protector 
 Somerset made him many enemies, and by 
 the machinations of Dudley, Earl of North- 
 umberland, he was driven from power and 
 at last beheaded ; Dudley then swayed 
 with a power as absolute. The king wasted 
 with consumption, and died at Greenwich 
 palace, July 6th, 1553. His father had set- 
 tled the succession, in case of no issue from 
 Edward, upon Mary, the daughter of Cath- 
 erine of Arragon. The ambitious Dudley 
 persuaded Edward to set aside his father’s 
 will, and appoint as his successor Lady Jane 
 Grey, a grand-niece of Henry VIII., who 
 favored the evangelical doctrines of the 
 Reformation, while Mary was a bigoted pa- 
 pist. This being accomplished, Northumber- 
 land married his son, Lord Guilford Dudley, 
 to the new heir of the crown. [See Grey, 
 Lady Jane.] 
 
 Mary was in her thirty-ninth year when 
 she ascended the throne. Her young rivals 
 expiated a short-lived exaltation on the scaf- 
 fold. Mary was gloomy, tyrannical, and 
 sanguinary, and such was her reign. The 
 persecutions and vexations she had endured 
 in the time of her father and brother, for her 
 adherence to the Romish faith, had soured 
 her temper and taught her to oppress others. 
 TUD 
 
 
882 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Papacy was restored, Bishops Latimer, Rid- 
 ley, and Cranmer were burned at the stake, 
 and the flames of martyrdom were lit through- 
 out the realm. Three hundred persons suf- 
 fered at the stake as heretics in the short 
 space of Mary’s reign, and throngs sought 
 refuge abroad. In her blind zeal, the queen 
 thought such horrors were for the glory of 
 God and true religion. In 1554 she wedded 
 Philip II. of Spain, whom she deeply loved, 
 and who in return neglected and despised 
 her. She died childless soon after the loss 
 of Calais, Nov. 17th, 1558. She is popularly 
 known as Bloody Mary. 
 
 Elizabeth the daughter of Anne Boleyn, 
 had been named third in succession by her 
 father. She was born in Greenwich palace, 
 Sept. 7th, 1533, and was therefore in her 
 twenty-fifth year when the death of Mary 
 called her to the throne. The Elizabethan 
 age is deservedly famous. It was tho time 
 of Shakspeare, Bacon, Sidney, Spenser, and 
 Raleigh ; while on the continent these great 
 names were rivaled by those of Luther, Sul- 
 ly, Ariosto, Tasso, Cervantes, Camoens, 
 Michael Angelo, Titian, and Correggio. In 
 the century immediately preceding, printing 
 had been invented, the new world had been 
 discovered, and the reformation effected, and 
 these great events were producing their re- 
 sults upon the world, — results that are yet 
 unfinished and whose value can not be com- 
 puted. So successful was the long reign of 
 the virgin queen, and such a contrast did it 
 afford to that of her predecessor, that she has 
 since been known as Good Queen Bess. By 
 her own sagacity, and the wisdom of her coun- 
 selors, the power of England was greatly 
 strengthened, and the attacks of Philip II. 
 of Spain gloriously warded. Trade and nav- 
 igation flourished, and the manufactures of 
 England began to arise. 
 
 When Elizabeth came to the throne her 
 course as to religion was in doubt. She duti- 
 fully notified the pope of her accession. The 
 arrogant answer of the pontiff, threatening 
 her for assuming the crown without his per- 
 mission, decided her, papal authority was 
 thrown off, and the independent church of 
 England once more established. Those who 
 had been driven from England in the days 
 of Mary returned. While in exile they had 
 become accustomed to a simpler worship and 
 
 a more radical churchdom than the Anglican, 
 and on their return many desired a deeper 
 reform than Elizabeth would sanction. Here 
 was the beginning of the sectaries afterward 
 called Puritans. Elizabeth knew not tolera- 
 tion, and Catholics and Puritans were perse- 
 cuted with relentless vigor. Tho struggle 
 between Papacy and Protestantism involved 
 the nations of Europe in war. At the head 
 of the Catholic party was the greatest mon- 
 arch of the age, Philip II. of Spain. England 
 became the head of the Protestant interest, 
 although Elizabeth was persecuting Protes- 
 tants at home. A' succession of dark plots 
 formed by Roman Catholics against the life 
 of the queen and the existence of the English 
 nation, kept society in constant alarm. What- 
 ever might be the faults of Elizabeth, it was 
 plain that, to speak humanely, the fate of 
 the realm and of all reformed churches was 
 staked on -the security of her person and the 
 success of her administration. To strengthen 
 her hands was therefore the first duty of a 
 patriot and a. Protestant ; and that duty was 
 well performed. The Puritans, even in the 
 depths of the prisons to which she had sent 
 them, prayed, and with no simulated fervor, 
 that she might be kept from the dagger of 
 the assassin, that rebellion might be put 
 down under her feet, and that her arms might 
 be victorious by sea and land. One of the 
 most stubborn of' the stubborn sect, imme- 
 diately after one of his hands had been lop- 
 ped off by the executioner for an offense 
 into which he had been hurried by his in- 
 temperate zeal, waved his hat with the hand 
 that was left him, and shouted, “God save 
 the queen ! ” 
 
 The private character of Elizabeth is far 
 less bright and less noble than her public 
 career. She had many of her father’s traits ; 
 she was imperious, selfish, and avaricious ; 
 she was arbitrary and dangerous in caprice. 
 Tremendous oaths she had in her mouth as 
 often as a fish woman. Yet she had strong 
 desire to be lovely and be loved. From her 
 courtiers she extorted the grossest flattery. 
 She had a singularly homely face, the sight 
 of which in a mirror, when she began to 
 grow old, convulsed her with rage. Yet the 
 warriors, statesmen, and scholars that adorned 
 her court, called her a Venus, a goddess, a 
 nymph, when she had reached the ugliness 
 
 TUD 
 
history and biography. 
 
 883 
 
 of sixty -five. In the exasperation of offended 
 power and jealous self-will, she signed the 
 death-warrant of her favorite, Essex ; the 
 token that should have saved his life did not 
 reach her ; and ever after she writhed in re- 
 morse. [See Devereux.] Her treatment of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, is a foul stain upon 
 her reputation. During the sixteen years 
 that she held the Scotch Queen in durance, 
 she distinctly indicated how welcome would 
 be the assassination of the captive. None 
 would do such a deed, and Mary was at last 
 sacrificed on the scaffold. Queen Elizabeth 
 died unmarried at Richmond, March 24th, 
 1603, having reigned over forty -four years. 
 She was the last* of the race of Tudor, and 
 the throne passed to the house of Stuart, in 
 the person of James VI. of Scotland, son of 
 the unhappy Mary. 
 
 The government of the Tudors was, on 
 the whole, more arbitrary than that of the 
 Plantagenets. Personal character may in 
 some degree explain the difference, for cour- 
 age and force of will were common to all the 
 men and women of the house of Tudor. 
 They exercised their power during a period 
 of a hundred and twenty years, always with 
 vigor, often- with violence, sometimes with 
 cruelty. They, in imitation of the dynast}' 
 which had preceded them, occasionally in- 
 vaded the rights of individuals, occasionally 
 exacted taxes under the name of loans and 
 gifts, occasionally dispensed with penal stat- 
 utes, and, though they never presumed to 
 enact any permanent law by their own au- 
 thority, occasionally took upon themselves, 
 when parliament was not sitting, to meet 
 temporary exigencies by temporary edicts. 
 It was, however, impossible for the Tudors to 
 carry oppression beyond a certain point ; for 
 they had no armed force, and they were sur- 
 rounded by an armed people. The palace 
 was guarded by a few domestics, whom the 
 array of a single shire, or of a single ward 
 of London, could with ease have overpow- 
 ered. These haughty princes were therefore 
 under a restraint stronger than any which 
 mere laws can impose — under a restraint 
 which did not, indeed, prevent them from 
 sometimes treating an individual in an arbi- 
 trary and even in a barbarous manner, but 
 which effectually secured the nation against 
 general and long continued oppression. 
 
 They might safely be tyrants within the pre- 
 cinct of the court, but it was necessary for 
 them to watch with constant anxiety the tem- 
 per of the country. Henry VI 11 , for exam- 
 ple, encountered no opposition when he 
 wished to send Buckingham and Surrey, 
 Anne Boleyn and Lady Salisbury, to the 
 scaffold ; but when, without the consent of 
 parliament, he demanded of his subjects a 
 contribution amounting to one-sixth of their 
 goods, he soon found it necessary to retract. 
 The cry of hundreds of thousands was that 
 they were English and not French, freemen 
 and not slaves. In Kent the royal commis- 
 sioners fled for their lives. In Suffolk four 
 thousand men appeared in arms. The king’s 
 lieutenants in that county vainly exerted 
 themselves to raise an army. Those who 
 did not join the insurrection declared that 
 they would not fight against their brethren 
 in such a quarrel. Henry, proud and self- 
 willed as he was, shrank, not without reason, 
 from a conflict with the roused spirit of a 
 nation. He had before his eyes the fate of 
 his predecessors who had perished at Berkeley 
 and Pomfret. He not only canceled his ille- 
 gal commissions, he not only granted a gen- 
 eral pardon to all the malcontents, but he 
 publicly and solemnly apologized for his in- 
 fraction of the laws. His conduct on this 
 occasion well illustrates the whole policy of 
 his house. The temper of the princes of 
 that line was hot, and their spirit high ; but 
 they understood the temper of the nation 
 which they governed, and never once, like 
 some of their predecessors, and some of their 
 successors, carried obstinacy to a fatal point. 
 The discretion of the Tudors was such that 
 their power, though it was often resisted, 
 was never subverted. The reign of every 
 one of them was disturbed by formidable 
 discontents ; but the government never failed 
 either to soothe the mutineers, or to conquer 
 and punish them. Sometimes, by timely 
 concessions, it succeeded in averting civil 
 hostilities ; but in general it stood firm, and 
 called for help on the nation, The nation 
 obeyed the call, rallied round the sovereign, 
 and enabled him to quell the disaffected 
 minority. — Macaulay , 
 
 TUNIS, one of the Barbary states, consists 
 chiefly of a large peninsula, stretching into the 
 Mediterranean in a north-easterly directioa 
 
 TUN 
 
884 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 It contains about 30,000 square miles, and a 
 population of 2,500,000, of which 100,000 
 are said to be Jews. The eastern part of 
 the country possesses luxuriant fertility, but 
 the western part is less favored by nature and 
 contains a scanty population. Rich in mines 
 of silver, lead, and copper, the Tunisian 
 mountains have never been properly ex- 
 plored. The principal articles of export are 
 grain, olive oil wool, soap, sponge, orchilla 
 seed, gold dust, ivory, and ostrich feathers. 
 Tunis, the capital, an irregularly built city, 
 about ten miles south-west of the site, of an- 
 cient Carthage, contains from 130,000 to 
 
 200,000 inhabitants, of whom about 30,000 
 are Jews. It was once strongly fortified. 
 The gates in its ruined walls are closed for 
 two hours on every Friday in the middle of 
 the day, because of a prediction that the 
 Christians will take possession of the city^ on 
 that day of the week, and in those hours. 
 Tunis is the largest town in Barbary, and its 
 commerce is quite important. About sixty 
 miles south is Kairwan, founded by the Sar- 
 acens about 669, and long the capital of their 
 dominion in Northern Africa. It is the holy 
 city of Africa, and strangers are obliged to 
 pass through it in deep silence. The great 
 mosque, said to be supported by five hun- 
 dred granite or marble pillars, is the most 
 magnificent and the most revered in all Bar- 
 bary. Vestiges of antiquity are scattered 
 through this country : the site of great Car- 
 thage is unoccupied, a few miserable huts 
 stand where Utica was; and many another 
 town of the ancient time or the middle ages 
 has passed away, leaving amphitheatre, or 
 temple, or arch, in ruins to mark its site. 
 The city which the Romans erected on the 
 site of ancient Carthage, was in a flourishing 
 condition, when the Saracens conquered and 
 destroyed it; and Tunis arose with consider- 
 able magnificence. The Normans of Sicily 
 conquered the Tunisians, but were forced to 
 give way, in turn, to Abdalmamum of Moroc- 
 co. In 1530 Charles V. invaded Africa, and 
 defeated the Algerine Turks, who under Bar- 
 barossa had gained possession of Tunis. In 
 1574 the Turks seized upon it, and estab- 
 lished a government at the head of which 
 was a pacha, subject to the grand seignior. 
 The head of the government is now styled 
 the bey, and pays an annual tribute to the 
 
 grand seignior, of whom he is otherwise in- 
 dependent. 
 
 Like the other Barbary states, Tunis was 
 notorious for its corsairs. In 1816 Lord 
 Exmouth threatened it with the fate of Al- 
 giers, and white slavery was forever abolished. 
 
 TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d’Auvergne, 
 Viscomte de, a famous general, was the sec- 
 ond son of Henri de la Tour d’ Auvergne, 
 Duke de Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in 
 1611. He first served under his uncles, the 
 Princes Maurice and Henry of Nassau ; and 
 in 1634 was made major-general. In 1644 
 he became marechal of France ; and 
 though he lost the battle of Mariendal, in 
 1645, he soon after gained that of Nordlin- 
 gen, which restored the Elector of Treves to 
 his dominions ; and the next year he formed 
 a junction with the Swedish army, which 
 compelled the Duke of Bavaria to sue for 
 peace. But the same prince soon afterward 
 broke the treaty, on which Turcnne made 
 himself master of his territories. In the 
 civil wars of France, he joined the discon- 
 tented party ; but was shortly after brought 
 over to the king’s side. In 1654 he com- 
 pelled the Spaniards to raise the siege of 
 Arras; and in 1655 he took Condc, and 
 gained the battle of the Downs, which pro- 
 duced the subjugation of Flanders. In 1667 
 Turenne renounced the Protestant religion ;* 
 which measure is supposed to have 'proceeded 
 from ambitious rather than pious motives. 
 On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 
 1672, he took forty towns in less than a 
 month drove the Elector of Brandenburg to 
 Berlin, and compelled the imperial army to 
 recross the Rhine. In the midst of this 
 career of victory, he was killed by a cannon 
 ball, near Achercn, July 27th, 1675. 
 
 TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, a min- 
 ister of finance in the reign of Louis XVI. 
 of France, whose rigorous scrutiny and re- 
 duction of expenditure, in hope to retrieve 
 the fearful .condition of the exchequer, 
 aroused such enmity amid the corruption of 
 the court, that he was dismissed. lie died 
 in 1781, aged fifty -four. 
 
 TURKEY. The Ottoman empire is situated 
 in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Turkey in Eu- 
 rope contains about 300,000 square miles and 
 
 15.500.000 inhabitants; and Turkey in Asia 
 
 560.000 square miles and 16,050,000 inhab- 
 
 TUR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 885 
 
 itants ; the possessions in Africa, made up 
 of the states of Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, 
 though tributary, are almost independent; 
 and the same may be said of Servia, Molda- 
 via, and Wallachia in Europe. The Sultan 
 of Turkey is almost absolute, his power 
 being less checked by any laws than by cus- 
 tom, public opinion, and the turbulence and 
 fanaticism of his subjects. The inhabitants 
 of the empire are divided into two great 
 classes : the Turks, or more correctly, Turks- 
 Osmanlis, who are the ruling race ; and the 
 Rayas, that is ‘ the flock,’ who are de- 
 scendants of the ancient inhabitants of the 
 countries conquered by the Turks, and occu- 
 py the disadvantageous position of a sub- 
 dued people. With the exception of some 
 pagan tribes, they are Christians of the 
 Greek or Romish faith. In recent years 
 their position has been much mitigated by 
 the sultans, who have also introduced many 
 European improvements and innovations 
 among the customs of the Turks. 
 
 The European countries subject to the 
 Turks have enjoyed lofty renown. Here was 
 Macedon, whose Alexander spread her power 
 beyond the limits of the known world. Here 
 was the seat of the Byzantine or Eastern 
 empire, which shared with Rome the suprem- 
 acy of the earth. Asiatic Turkey comprises 
 regions of even greater memories. 
 
 Syria includes Palestine, or the Holy 
 Land, a country which, as being the theatre 
 of so many wonderful and appalling events, 
 is still visited with intense interest, and holds 
 a conspicuous place in the history of the 
 world. In the south-east portion of Turkey 
 in Asia, lies the ancient and famous Mesopo- 
 tamia. Assyria was one of the earliest and 
 most noted monarchies of Asia. The splen- 
 dor of the Assyrians has been celebrated by 
 all historical writers. To trace the fortunes 
 and varied events of this kingdom alone, 
 would require a much greater space than we 
 can devote to this general view. The mighty 
 kingdom of Babylon gave lustre to Asia in 
 its early days. During the reign of Semira- 
 mis its fame, was at the highest. This sove- 
 reign possessed fewer feminine than mascu- 
 line attributes, and yet shone no less con- 
 spicuously in the court than the camp. She 
 did much to beautify her city, and to extend 
 the fame and power of her kingdom. 
 
 hanging gardens of Babylon, in which trees 
 of great size were supported on terraces at an 
 elevation far above the earth, constituted one 
 of the wonders of the ancient world. Bagdad, 
 the once celebrated seat of the Saracenic ca- 
 liphs, to the splendor of which Haroun 
 al Raschid greatly contributed, has lost 
 most of its former magnificence. Here, when 
 the star of the Saracenic empire was at its 
 zenith, literature and the arts flourished un- 
 der the protection of the caliphs ; poetry and 
 romance shed a charm over every-day exist- 
 ence, and music, with other arts, received the 
 most assiduous cultivation and encourage- 
 ment. We can but briefly allude to other 
 reigns and events which have distinguished 
 Asiatic Turkey — the fate of the celebrated 
 Queen Zenobia, who was compelled to grace 
 the triumph of the Emperor Aurelian, after 
 victory had smiled upon the Roman banners 
 as they waved over the Asiatic plains ; the 
 siege of Jerusalem' by Titus; the destruc- 
 tion of the sacred temple, with all its magnifi- 
 cence; the wild enthusiasm of the crusa- 
 ders, who made Jerusalem the rallying point 
 for the chivalry of Europe in the holy wars ; 
 the siege and fall of Troy, of which now not 
 the slightest trace remains. Changed, in- 
 deed, is the face of all that was formerly glo- 
 rious in these ancient countries ! The foot- 
 steps of Time are deep, and his ravages last- 
 ing. A wretched village, inhabited by a 
 handful of Turks, usurps the spot where 
 once rose in splendor, Ephesus — that Ephe- 
 sus which was the pride of Asia Minor, — 
 that Ephesus which St. Paul has celebrated 
 by his epistle, — that Ephesus which con- 
 tained the superb temple of Diana, fired by 
 Erostratus, that he might immortalize his 
 name. “ Great is Diana of the Ephesians!” 
 was the cry of the proud inhabitants. Ages 
 have passed — and the idol and the idolaters 
 have passed away. What is to be the future 
 of the world, # the ruins of whose by-gone 
 years are so great ! 
 
 The Turks were of Asiatic origin. The 
 foundation of their empire was laid by Os- 
 man, or Ochman, who seized the countries 
 which had been in the possession of the 
 Seleucidae in Asia Minor, about a.d. 1300. 
 He assumed the title of sultan, and, pursu- 
 ing his conquests, took Prusa in Bithynia, 
 which he made the seat of* the Ottoman em- 
 
 The 
 TUR 
 
886 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 pire or kingdom. He died in 1328, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Orchan, who contin- 
 ued the conquests of his father in the Greek 
 empire, and took Nicea or Nicomeaia. 
 
 Murad, or Amurath T., the son and succes- 
 sor of Orchan, succeeded also to his father’s 
 usurpation of the country, in 135G ; and 
 passing the straits of Gallipoli, he took Adri- 
 anople, which he made the seat of ‘his em- 
 pire. lie was succeeded by his son, Bajazet 
 I., in 1389, whose brother, attempting to 
 supplant him, was strangled ; and this is 
 said to have been the first instance of that 
 sanguinary custom, afterward so common, of 
 putting to death princes of the royal blood. 
 This prince is celebrated both by his victo- 
 ries and by the most distressing misfortunes. 
 He flew from Asia to Europe, and returned 
 to Asia, with such inconceivable rapidity, 
 that the Turks have given him the surname 
 of Ilderim, ‘lightning.’ He provoked the 
 attacks of Timur Bee, or Tamerlane, who 
 wished to accommodate their differences, but 
 who accepted the challenge of Bajazet, and 
 in the plains of Prusa proved completely vic- 
 torious, in one of the bloodiest battles that 
 had ever been fought. It continued a whole 
 day, and thousands on both sides fell by the 
 sword; but, while displaying the utmost 
 efforts of valor, Bajazet was defeated and 
 made prisoner. The iron cage that he had 
 designed for Tamerlane in the sure hope of 
 victory, became his own prison, and against 
 its bars he dashed himself to death. 
 
 An interregnum of twelve years succeeded, 
 during which the three sons of Bajazet gov- 
 erned each a separate part of the empire ; 
 but, at length, in 1413, it was united under 
 Mohammed, gifted by nature with strength, 
 courage, and talents. He was succeeded by 
 his son Murad, or Amurath IT., in 1422, who 
 took Thessalonica, or Salonica, and put the 
 inhabitants to the sword ; invaded and sub- 
 dued Servia, destroying all before him ; en- 
 tered Transylvania, ravaging the country, 
 and vanquishing the natives ; and acted the 
 same victorious parts in Wallachia. He 
 gained the famous battle at Varna, in which 
 Ladislaus, king of Hungary, was slain. Amu- 
 rath was less successful against Scanderbeg, 
 Prince of Epirus. He was succeeded by his 
 son, Mohammed II., in 1451, the greatest 
 warrior of all the Turkish sultans. His 
 
 reign lasted thirty years, and was a contin- 
 ued series of battles and victories, almost 
 without a single reverse. However, he had 
 to contend with generals capable of suspend- 
 ing his progress, and of checking his ambi- 
 tion, had their forces been equal to their 
 courage. Among these were the celebrated 
 Iluniadcs, king of Hungary ; Matthias Cor- 
 vinus, his son ; and above all, Scanderbeg, 
 after whose death the Turks made relics of 
 his bones, which they wore as a preservative 
 against dangers. On the 29th of May, 1453, 
 Mohammed took the city of Constantinople. 
 Thus ended the Greek empire, and the seat 
 of the Turkish was founded. After Moham- 
 med had taken the capital, he turned his 
 arms against what still remained of the 
 Greek empire, in the isles and on the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 He was succeeded by his eldest son, Ba- 
 jazet II., in 1481, who subdued the Molda- 
 vians ; rendered several of the Asiatic prin- 
 ces tributary ; had considerable success in 
 Syria ; reduced Croatia ; occasioned great 
 devastation in the Morea ; landed a body of 
 troops in the island of Rhodes ; and paved 
 the way for the conquest of Egypt, by depriv- 
 ing the Mamelukes, who commanded in that 
 country, of the necessary succors which they 
 derifed from Circassia. Exhausted with fa- 
 tigue and debauchery, Bajazet was, desirous 
 of placing the crown on the head of his eld- 
 est son, Ahmed. In this situation of affairs, 
 Selim, the youngest, arrived in the neighbor- 
 hood of Constantinople, under the pretense 
 of paying a visit to his father. This young 
 prince was soon surrounded by the whole 
 court, who ranged themselves under his ban- 
 ners ; and the aged monarch, foreseeing what 
 would be the event of such a visit, resigned 
 his crown into the hands of Selim. 
 
 Selim ascended the throne in the forty-fifth 
 year of his age, in 1512, and caused his 
 brothers, Ahmed and Korkud, with five of 
 his nephews, and a great many of the nobil- 
 ity, to be put to death. As he had received 
 the crown from the suffrages of the soldiers, 
 who wished only for war, he endeavored to 
 gratify their desires, and leading his army 
 into Syria and Egypt, completely defeated 
 the Mamelukes. However, as he imagined 
 he could not insure the quiet possession of 
 Egypt, but by the total extinction of that peo- 
 
 TUR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 887 
 
 pie, he offered rewards to those w’ho should 
 discover any of them, and denounced the 
 severest punishment against such as con- 
 cealed them. When he thought he had 
 them all assembled, he ordered a superb 
 throne to be erected for him upon the banks 
 of the Nile, without the gates of Cairo ; and 
 these unhappy wretches being brought into 
 his presence, he caused them all to be mur- 
 dered before his eyes, and their bodies to be 
 thrown into the river. He also made con- 
 quests in Persia and Armenia. 
 
 Solyman, the. son of Selim, had scarcely 
 mounted the throne, in 1520, when he formed 
 the design of extending his empire as much 
 in Europe, as his father had done in Asia. 
 He directed his attempts against the Chris- 
 tians, and soon took Rhodes from the knights 
 of St. John, who had possessed the island for 
 upward of two hundred years. He attacked 
 Hungary, took Buda, and entered Austria 
 with fire and sword. He laid siege to Vien- 
 na ; where finding a desperate resistance, he 
 withdrew with his troops, but previously 
 massacred all his prisoners, men, women, 
 and children. He made John, king of Hun- 
 gary, tributary to him, and took Bagdad, the 
 whole of Assyria, and Mesopotamia. In 
 short, he extended his reputation as a war- 
 rior to both extremities of the world. 
 
 Selim, the son of Solyman, made peace 
 with Germany and Persia, and took the island 
 of Cyprus from the Venetians, in 1566. In 
 1572, the Turkish navy, heretofore the most 
 formidable in Europe, was almost annihilated 
 in the great battle of Lepanto. Amurath 
 III., the eldest son of Selim, who became 
 sultan in 1575, to give employment to his 
 untractable soldiery, made war upon Russia, 
 Poland, Germany, and Venice, and subdued 
 Georgia. He is said to have been of a quiet 
 disposition, a lover of justice, and very zeal- 
 ous in his religion. He left behind him 
 twenty sons, of whom nineteen were stran- 
 gled by the eldest, his successor. Moham- 
 med III., having thus secured to himself the 
 throne by the slaughter of his brothers, in 
 1506, thought it necessary also to takeaway 
 the life of all the late sovereign’s wives and 
 concubines, by whom it was possible that 
 there should be any posthumous progeny. 
 The insolence of the Janissaries now greatly 
 increased, and they were perpetually revolt- 
 
 ing and fighting with the other soldiers. 
 The pachas also rebelled in many provinces ; 
 and the sultan, through fear, made peace 
 with them, and confirmed them in their 
 office. Immersed in the pleasures of the 
 seraglio, Mohammed bestowed no other at- 
 tention on public affairs than was absolutely 
 necessary. He caused his eldest son, a 
 prince of inestimable qualities, to. be put to 
 death. 
 
 Ahmed ascended the throne when he was 
 scarcely fifteen years old, in 1605, and soon 
 demonstrated that the sceptre was not un- 
 worthily intrusted to him. Under his reign, 
 began those fires which are so common at 
 Constantinople, and which seldom or never 
 break out but when the people are discontent- 
 ed. Ahmed was succeeded by his brother 
 Mustapha, in 1617. His cruelties rendered 
 him so odious, that he was deposed and sent 
 to prison in the castle of the seven towers, and 
 his nephew, Othman, son of Ahmed, placed 
 on the throne, in 1618. Othman, discontent- 
 ed with his Janissaries, meditated revenge 
 against them ; and as he could not drive them 
 from Constantinople, he formed the design of 
 transferring the seat of government into Asia. 
 But the Janissaries discovering his intention, 
 massacred the grand vizier, whom they sup- 
 posed to be the author of the measure, im- 
 prisoned Othman, who was soon after put to 
 death, and reinstated Mustapha on the throne. 
 The uhcle, however, derived very little ben- 
 efit from this event. He was treated as an 
 idiot, led about upon an ass, exposed to the 
 derision and insults of the populace, and then 
 carried back to prison, where he was stran- 
 gled by the orders of his successor. 
 
 Amurath IV., brother to the unfortunate 
 Othman, by intrepidity and courage repress- 
 ed the turbulence of the Janissaries. His 
 amusement was to run about the streets in the 
 night, with a sabre in his hand, and to cut 
 down all whom he met. He was succeeded 
 by his brother Ibrahim, in 1639, who had 
 languished four years in prison, and who, on 
 being restored thus unexpectedly to liberty 
 and empire, was so intoxicated by the new 
 pleasures which they presented, that resign- 
 ing the administration of government to the 
 former ministers, he devoted himself entirely 
 to the luxuries of the harem. The mufti 
 having excited a revolt among the Janissa- 
 
 TUR 
 
883 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 rics, and Ibrahim, finding himself unable to 
 resist, he resigned the crown, and in a few 
 days was put to death. 
 
 Mohammed IV., the eldest son of Ibrahim, 
 succeeded his father, in 1 648. His reign was 
 long and glorious ; but after so many years 
 passed in prosperity, which ought to have 
 established his power, he was forced to ab- 
 dicate the throne, though he survived his 
 deposition, and was not molested in his apart- 
 ment, which served as a prison. The ex- 
 ploits of this emperor, which, if detailed at 
 length, would fill a volume, are not so far 
 distant from the present period as to be 
 obscured by the veil of time. The famous 
 siege of Candia, which subjected the ancient 
 Crete to the dominion of the crescent, makes 
 a conspicuous figure in the page of history. 
 At the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 fathers at Vienna were accustomed to relate 
 to their children the battles which they had 
 witnessed under the walls of that city, when 
 great Sobieski shattered the hopes of the Mo- 
 hammedans. Mohammed IV. distinguished 
 himself by his inclination to mercy, and sel- 
 dom commanded his troops in person ; which 
 probably caused the revolt of the soldiers, 
 who placed the crown on the head of one of 
 his brothers. Solyman II. did not seat him- 
 self on the throne without apprehension, in 
 1687 ; and, while receiving the usual con- 
 gratulations, seemed every moment to expect 
 his formidable brother with the executioners 
 and instruments of death. Solyman had to 
 support a disastrous war against Germany 
 and Venice, the misfortunes of which were 
 attended with the most ruinous consequen- 
 ces. But Kiopruli Mustapha Pacha being 
 appointed grand-vizier, regenerated the em- 
 pire, and putting himself at the head of the 
 main army, besieged and took the fortress 
 of Belgrade. Solyman died of the dropsy, 
 and was succeeded by his brother, Ahmed 
 II., in 1691, who had as little judgment, and 
 as little influence in the government. Kiop- 
 ruli being hilled on the banks of the Danube, 
 when on the point of obtaining a victory, the 
 sovereign soon followed his general to the 
 grave. 
 
 Mustapha II., son of Mohammed IV., gave 
 new vigor to the empire, in 1695, which had 
 languished under his predecessors. He re- 
 solved to command his troops in person, but 
 
 met with a more disgraceful and more com- 
 plete defeat than the Turks had ever expe- 
 rienced. His troops, not receiving their pay 
 in due time, took up arms, deposed Musta- 
 pha, and invited Ahmed his brother to repair 
 to the army. Ahmed III. in the course of 
 five months put to death more than 14,000 
 soldiers who had taken the greatest share in 
 the rebellion ; they were carried away in 
 the night-time, and drowned in the Bospho- 
 rus. A war broke out between the Porte 
 and Russia; that with Germany and Venice 
 was rekindled ; and another was carried on in 
 Persia. These military expeditions, though 
 not always unsuccessful, reduced the empire 
 to a state of general weakness, which was felt 
 particularly in the capital : all tended to irri- 
 tate the minds of men, and produced a revolt 
 that dethroned Ahmed, after a reign of twenty- 
 seven years. On the deposition of Ahmed, in 
 1730, and the elevation of his nephew, Mah- 
 moud I. or Mohammed V., a considerable al- 
 teration took place in the mode of carrying on 
 the government. From the time of Moham- 
 med II. the whole administration had been 
 usually delegated to the vizier ; but as this 
 and the preceding rebellion had originated in 
 the overgrown power and ambition of these 
 officers, Mohammed V. took the authority 
 into his own hands, and determined to change 
 his viziers frequently. This prince w 7 as un- 
 fortunate in his battles both with the Rus- 
 sians and Kouli Khan, whom he was obliged 
 to acknowledge as sophi of Persia. 
 
 On the death of Mohammed, his brother 
 Osman came from confinement to the throne, 
 in 1754. Osman was succeeded by Mustapha 
 III., the son of Ahmed, in 1757. Musta- 
 pha having attacked the Russians, in 1769, a 
 bloody war commenced with the exploits of 
 Prince Gallitzin, who gained four separate 
 and complete victories over the Turks, whom 
 he obliged to abandon Choczin. The Rus- 
 sians speedily overran Moldavia and Walla- 
 chia, and gained a great naval victory off 
 Chesme, where the whole of the Turkish 
 fleet was destroyed. These and other im- 
 portant successes of the Russians compelled 
 the Turks to conclude a dishonorable peace, 
 soon after the death of Mustapha, and the 
 accession of his brother Abdulhamid or 
 Ahmed IV. The peace of 1774 was the first 
 great step toward the limitation of the Turk' 
 TUR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 889 
 
 lsh empire. On the death of Abdulhamid, 
 in 1789, Selim III., son of Mustapha, ascend- 
 ed the throne, at a time when the empire 
 was engaged in another unsuccessful war 
 with Russia, which terminated greatly in 
 favor of the latter power. From this period, 
 the most interesting and important concerns 
 relating to the Ottoman empire, were for 
 some time connected with internal and civil 
 broils. Civil war, which was probably fo- 
 mented by the French, when they invaded 
 Egypt, appeared likely to become general 
 throughout Turkey. A revolution was effect- 
 ed by the Janissaries, who deposed Selim 
 III. and raised to the throne Mustapha IV., 
 son of Abdulhamid, in 1807. Mustapha was 
 deposed in 1808, and succeeded by his broth- 
 er, Mahmoud. 
 
 Russia declared war against Turkey, on 
 the pretext of a peace concluded with Eng- 
 land by the latter power, in 1809, and the 
 Turks and Russians commenced hostilities 
 against each other with no other apparent 
 object than mutual destruction. At length 
 mutual exhaustion rendered the operations on 
 both sides languid ; and Russia finding herself 
 invaded by the formidable power of France, a 
 treaty of peace was concluded with Turkey in 
 1812, which ceded the cities and districts on the 
 east of the Pruth as the price of pacification. 
 
 The loss of Greece was a serious blow to 
 Turkey, and in 1828 and 1829 another disas- 
 trous war was sustained with Russia. Mehe- 
 met Ali, who as pacha of Egypt had raised 
 himself to independence, also resisted the 
 arms of the sultan. Abdul Medjid, son of 
 Mahmoud, succeeded in 1839. He carried 
 on the reforms which had been commenced 
 by his father, to civilize and enlighten the 
 policy and customs of the Turks. The war 
 with Russia, in which he was assisted by 
 Great Britain and France, we have noticed 
 in our sketch of Russia. 
 
 SULTANS OP TURKEY. 
 
 1299. Othman, or Ottoman, who assumed the 
 title of Grand Seignior. 
 
 1326. Orchan, son of Othman. 
 
 1360. Amurath I. : stabbed by a soldier, of which 
 wound he died. 
 
 1389. Bajazet I., his son; defeated by Tamer- 
 lane, and died imprisoned. 
 
 1402. Solyman, son of Bajazet: dethroned by 
 his brother and successor. 
 
 1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
 
 1413. Mohammed I., also son of Bajazet. 
 
 1421. Amurath II., succeeded by his son. 
 
 1451. Mohammed II., by whom Constantinople 
 was taken in 1453. 
 
 1481. Bajazet II., deposed by his son. 
 
 1512. Selim I., who succeeded him. 
 
 1520. Solyman the Magnificent, son of Selim. 
 1566. Selim II., son oi Solyman. 
 
 1574. Amurath III., his son. 
 
 15tt5. Mohammed 111., son of Amurath. 
 
 16o3. Ahmed, or Achmet, his son: succeeded 
 by his brother. 
 
 1617. Mustapha I., succeeded by his nephew. 
 
 1618. Osman I. : strangled by the Janissaries, 
 and his uncle restored. 
 
 1622. Mustapha I. again: again deposed. 
 
 •1623. Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
 1640. Ibrahim: strangled by the Janissaries. 
 1649. Mohammed IV., son of Ibrahim : deposed. 
 1687. Solyman III., his brother. 
 
 1691. Ahmed, or Achmet II.: succeeded by his 
 nephew. 
 
 1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mohammed 
 IV. : deposed ; succeeded by his bro- 
 ther. 
 
 1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. : deposed. 
 
 1730. Mahmud, or Mohammed V., succeeded his 
 uncle, the preceding sultan. 
 
 1754. Osman II., brother of Mahmud. 
 
 1757. Mustapha III., brother of Osman. 
 
 1774. Abdul-Ahmed. 
 
 1788. Selim III. : deposed by the Janissaries, 
 and his nephew raised to the throne. 
 
 1807. Mustapha IV. : deposed, and, with the 
 late sultan, Selim, murdered. 
 
 1808. Mahmud II. : succeeded by his son. 
 
 1839. Abdul-Medjid. 
 
 1861. Abdul Aziz, brother of Abdul Medjid. 
 
 TURNER, Siiaron, an English historian 
 of some note, and a solicitor by profession. In 
 1798 he published a “ History of the Anglo- 
 Saxons,” and afterward a “ History of England 
 during the Middle Ages.” The first is the 
 most valuable. He received a pension of 
 £300 from government, and with the habits 
 evinced by the following anecdote, must have 
 made both ends meet. The third volume of 
 his “Sacred History of the World” was 
 written upon paper which did not cost him a 
 farthing. The copy consisted of torn and 
 angular fragments of letters and notes ; of 
 covers of periodicals, — gray, drab, or green, 
 — written in thick, round hand over a small 
 print ; of shreds of curling paper, unctuous 
 with pomatum or bear’s grease; and of the 
 white wrappers in which his proofs were 
 sent from the printers. The paper, some- 
 times as thin as a bank-note, was written on 
 both sides, and was so sodden with ink, plas- 
 tered on with a pen worn to a stump, that 
 hours were wasted in discovering on which 
 side of it certain sentences were written. 
 First-rate compositors could hardly gain 
 TUR 
 
890 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 money upon it sufficient to keep them alive. 
 Often, by way of hint, slips of stout white 
 paper were sent with the proofs; but the 
 good old gentleman could not afford to use 
 them, and they never came back as copy. 
 There are too many writers who are as care- 
 less in respect of copy, if not as niggardly, 
 as Mr. Sharon Turner. 
 
 TURNER, Josepii Malleed William, one 
 
 | of the greatest of English painters, was born 
 in London, in 1775. After a life of almost 
 unrivaled success and unsurpassed industry, 
 this great landscape artist died unmarried’ 
 and under an assumed name, in an obscure 
 lodging at Chelsea, Dec. 19th, 1851, bequeath- 
 ing his pictures to the nation, and his funded 
 property for the establishment of an institu- 
 tion to benefit decayed artists. 
 
 LEANING TOWER OF PISA. 
 
 TUSCANY, a grand duchy of central Italy, 
 bounded north by Parma, Modena, and the 
 States of the Church, east by the States of 
 the Church, and south-west by the Tuscan 
 Sea, a part of the Mediterranean. It in- 
 cludes Elba and a few smaller islands, and is 
 divided into Florence, Pisa, and Sienna, con- 
 taining 8,494 square miles, and 1,816,000 
 
 inhabitants. The face of the country is 
 agreeably diversified, and the well-watered 
 soil produces wheat, maize, beans, peas, clo- 
 ver, vines, mulberries, olives, oranges, lem- 
 ons, figs and rice. The minerals are copper, 
 lead, quicksilver, marble, &c. The Tuscan 
 dialect is considered the purest Italian. 
 
 Florence, the capital, is one cf the most 
 
 TUS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 891 
 
 / beautiful cities of Italy, justly deserving the 
 name which has been bestowed upon it — 
 Florence the Fair. It contains 110,000 in- 
 habitants. It isinteresting from its histori- 
 cal associations, and from the invaluable 
 monuments of art which it contains, and 
 with which the Florentine gallery is founded. 
 The Pitti palace, the cathedral, the church 
 of St. Croce, the church del Carmine, &c., 
 can never be sufficiently admired. The re- 
 vival of the arts took place here, and thence 
 the regeneration of Europe followed. 
 
 Tuscany anciently belonged to the empe- 
 rors of Germany, w T ho governed it by depu- 
 ties till the year 1240, when the famous dis- 
 tinctions of the Guelphs, who were the par- 
 tisans of the pope, and the Ghibeliines, who 
 were in the emperor’s interest, took place. 
 The popes then persuaded the imperial gov- 
 ernors in Tuscany to put themselves under 
 the protection of the church ; but the Flo- 
 rentines, in a short time, formed themselves 
 into a free commonwealth, and bravely de- 
 fended their liberties against both parties by 
 turns. Faction at last shook their freedom ; 
 and the family of Medici, long before they 
 were declared either princes or dukes, in 
 fact governed Florence, though the rights 
 and privileges of the people seemed still to 
 exist. The Medici, particularly Cosmo, who 
 was called the father of his country, shared 
 with the Venetians in the immense profits 
 of the East India trade, before the discove- 
 ries made by the Portuguese. Pope Pius V. 
 gave one of his descendants, Cosmo (the 
 great patron of the arts), the title of Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany, in 1570, which continued 
 in his family to the death of Gaston de Medi- 
 cis, in 1737, without issue. The great duchy 
 was then claimed by the Emperor Charles 
 VI. as a fief of the empire, and given to his 
 son-in-law, Francis, Duke of Lorraine, in 
 lieu of the duchy of Lorraine, which was 
 ceded to France by treaty. 
 
 Francis had married Maria Theresa, and so 
 became Emperor of Germany. On his death 
 Leopold, his second son, succeeded to the 
 throne of Tuscany. When the death of his 
 brother Joseph gave him the imperial sceptre, 
 Tuscany devolved to his second son, Ferdi- 
 nand. By the treaty of Luneville (February, 
 1801), the grand duchy of Tuscany received 
 the title of the kingdom of Etruria, and was 
 
 transferred to the hereditary prince of Parma. 
 In the subsequent incorporations of Bona- 
 parte, it was declared an integral part of the 
 French empire ; but on his downfall in 1814, 
 it was restored to the Archduke Ferdinand, 
 and resumed its proper designation of grand 
 duchy. 
 
 In 1849, a republic was for a while estab- 
 lished in Florence, but the fugitive grand- 
 duke was restored by Austrian bayonets. 
 He then greatly abridged the political privi- 
 leges of his subjects, which had before been 
 more liberal 'than those of any other nation 
 of Italy. 
 
 Much interest and sympathy were excited 
 in Protestant countries, by the imprisonment 
 at Florence of the Madiai (husband and wife), 
 who had embraced the English reformed 
 religion, and read the Bible in due con- 
 formity with the teaching of their new 
 faith. For this “ crime ” they were separate- 
 ly incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and 
 subjected to all the rigors of the Romish 
 ecclesiastical law. A Protestant deputation 
 from England, headed by the Earls of Shaftes- 
 bury and Roden, proceeded to Florence in 
 October, 1852, with the view to their release 
 from confinement; but the grand-duke re- 
 fused to receive it. However, after some 
 months’ captivity, they were set at liberty, 
 March, 1853. 
 
 Upon the breaking out of war between 
 Austria and Sardinia in May, 1859, the peo- 
 ple of Tuscany threw off the rule ‘of the 
 Grand-duke Leopold II. ; and on March 22, 
 1860, the duchy was formally annexed to the 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 TUSSAUD, Madame, the well known ex- 
 hibitor of wax figures in London, died April 
 10th, 1850, in her ninetieth year. She was 
 a native of Berne, but left Switzerland when 
 but six years old for Paris, where she be- 
 came a pupil of her uncle, M. Curtis, “ art- 
 iste to Louis XVI.” by whom she was in- 
 structed in the fine arts, of which he was an 
 eminent professor. Madame Tussaud prided 
 herself upon the fact of having instructed 
 Madame Elizabeth to draw and model, and 
 she continued to be employed by that prin- 
 cess till October, 1789. She passed unharmed 
 through the horrors of the revolution, per- 
 haps by reason of her peculiar ability as a 
 modeler ; for she was employed to take heads 
 
 TUS 
 
892 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of most of the revolutionary leaders, which 
 of course she could not have done had they 
 taken hers. In 1802 she went to-England, 
 and from that time occupied herself in gath- 
 ering the popular exhibitions of wax-work 
 which is still known by her name. 
 
 TYLER, Wat, the leader of an insurrec- 
 tion celebrated in English history, which 
 arose in the opposition of the people to the 
 poll-tax levied in 1378, in the commencement 
 of the reign of Richard II. Tyler was a 
 blacksmith. A collector’s indecent brutality 
 to his daughter to prove her of age (fifteen) to 
 pay the poll, the indignant father avenged by 
 striking him dead on the spot. The incensed 
 populace gathered upon Blackheath, to the 
 number of a hundred thousand, June 12th, 
 1381. The king invited Tyler to a parley in 
 Smithfield, to declare the popular grievances. 
 Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till 
 he should give them a signal, boldly ventured 
 to meet the king in the midst of his retinue, 
 and began the conference. He required that 
 all slaves should be set free ; that all com- 
 monages should be open to the poor as well 
 as the rich ; and that a general pardon should 
 be passed for the late outrages. Whilst he 
 made these demands he occasionally lifted up 
 his sword in a menacing manner, which so 
 raised the indignation of William Walworth, 
 the mayor of London, attending on the king, 
 that he stunned Tyler with a blow of his 
 mace, and one of the king’s knights, riding 
 up, dispatched him with his sword. Richard 
 soothed the insurgents with promises of re- 
 dress, and awed by their leader’s murder, 
 they dispersed. 
 
 TYLER, John, tenth President of the 
 United States, was born in Charles City Co., 
 Va., March 29, 1790. He was a graduate of 
 William and Mary College in 1807, admitted 
 to the bar 1809, member of State Legislature 
 1811-16, and 1823-25, member of Congress 
 1816-21, Governor of Virginia 1826-27, and 
 U. S. Senator 1827—1836. He first supported 
 Gen. Jackson, but favored the “nullification 
 scheme” in South Carolina, and voted alone 
 against the “ Force Bill.” Elected by the 
 Whigs to the Vice Presidency in 1840, on the 
 death of Gen. Harrison in 1841 he became 
 President. His vetoes of two successive 
 bank bills, and his seeking support and coun- 
 sel from leading Democrats, lost him the 
 
 confidence of the Whigs. Betraying them, 
 he selected a cabinet from the Democratic 
 party. The most important event of his 
 administration was the annexation of Texas. 
 In February, 1861, he was President of the 
 Peace Congress. Soon after, he avowed him- 
 self a secessionist, was elected Senator in the 
 Confederate Congress, and died while serv- 
 ing as such, in Richmond, Jan. 18, 1862. 
 
 TYRANTS, an aristocratical council of 
 thirty, who usurped and conquered the gov- 
 ernment of the Athenians, b. c. 404. Critias 
 was at the head of this council, who con- 
 demned to death Niceratus, the son of Nicias, 
 Leon, Theramanes, and Antiphon, and ban- 
 ished Thrasybulus and Anytus. After com- 
 mitting innumerable atrocities, they were 
 deposed by the people, and ten decemvirs 
 elected in their stead. 
 
 TYRE, a great city of Phoenicia, the site 
 of which is now occupied by an insignificant 
 village, eighteen miles southwest of Sidon. 
 This city was built in 1048 b. c. by the Sido- 
 nians, who fled from the Edomites when they 
 conquered Sidon, after having been expelled 
 from their own country by David. It was 
 demolished by Nebuchadnezzar in 572, after 
 a siege of thirteen )’ears. The Tyrians re- 
 moved to an opposite island, and built a new 
 and magnificent city. Having been under 
 the rule of the Persians, Syrians, Romans, 
 Franks, Tartars, and Christians, it was con- 
 quered by the Sultans of Egypt in 1292, w T ith 
 the fate of which it has since been connected. 
 
 The Tyrians in early ages colonized the 
 coasts of Spain, Italy, and Africa. Their 
 commerce reached to Britain and India. 
 Carthage was the greatest of the colonies 
 they planted. 
 
 TYROL, an Austrian province bordering 
 on Bavaria, Illyria, Austria, the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom, Switzerland, and Lake 
 Constance, containing 11,141 square miles, 
 and 859,000 inhabitants. The inhabitants 
 have an invincible attachment to their coun- 
 try, sterile as it is. They are hardy, brave, 
 honest, and cheerful. This country in 1359 
 was attached to Austria, and with the excep- 
 tion of the period from 1805 to 1814, has re- 
 mained in her possession. 
 
 TYRONE, Earl of, a celebrated leader in 
 the Irish rebellion, who, in 1696 assumed the 
 title of King of Ulster, and entered into a 
 
 TYR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 893 
 
 TYROLESE PEASANTS. 
 
 correspondence with Spain, whence he re- 
 ceived a supply of arms and ammunition. 
 During the violent contentions between Ty- 
 rone and the forces of the Earl of Essex, 
 then deputy of Ireland, every enormity was 
 committed by both parties ; but at length, 
 in 1603, Tyrone’s followers being reduced, 
 he surrendered himself to the royal power. 
 Thus the rebellion closed ; but the reduction 
 of Ireland, through the gloomy tracks of fam- 
 ine, pestilence, and blood, cost England no 
 less a sum than £1,198,717. 
 
 TYRREL, Sir James, employed by Rich- 
 ard, Duke of Gloucester, to murder his two 
 nephews in the Tower. Tvrrel chose three 
 associates, who, finding the young princes in 
 bed, in a profound sleep, suffocated them 
 with the bolster and pillows, and showed 
 their naked bodies to Tyrrel, who ordered 
 
 them to be buried at the foot of the stairs, 
 under a heap of stones. In the reign of 
 Charles II. the bones of two persons were 
 found in the place indicated, which corre- 
 sponded, by their size, to the ages of Edward 
 V. and his brother ; and being judged the 
 undoubted remains of these unhappy prin- 
 ces, they were deposited in Westminster 
 Abbey, under a marble tomb. 
 
 TYRREL, Walter, a French gentleman, 
 who, when hunting in the New Forest with 
 William Rufus, let fly an arrow, which, 
 glancing from a tree, struck the king in the 
 breast, and instantly killed him. Tyrrel, 
 fearful lest he might be accused of murder, 
 gained the sea-shore, embarked for France, 
 and joined the crusade, as a penance for his 
 involuntary crime. 
 
 TYR 
 
894 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 u. 
 
 UKRAINE (the Frontier,) an extensive 
 country in the southern part of Russia, now 
 forming the governments of Kiew, Podolia, 
 Charkovv, and Poltawa. The surface is level, 
 extremely fertile, and the region is famous 
 for its fine breed of horses and wild cattle. It 
 includes part of the country of the Cossacks. 
 
 ULM, formerly a free imperial city, is situ- 
 ated at the confluence of the Danube with 
 the Uler and Blau, and contains 14,000 in- 
 habitants. After the battle of Blenheim (in 
 1704), it sustained a siege. In 1800 it was 
 the scene of military manoeuvres, conducted 
 on the part of Moreau with great skill ; and 
 it was here that in 1803, the errors of Mack, 
 and the combinations of Bonaparte, led to 
 the surrender of a large Austrian army. In 
 1810 it was transferred from Bavaria to Wir- 
 temberg, to which government it continues 
 subject. 
 
 UMBRELLA. Described in early diction- 
 aries as “ a portable pent-house to carry in a 
 person’s hand to screen him from violent 
 rain or heat.” Umbrellas are very ancient: 
 it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that 
 umbrellas were used at very remote periods 
 by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visit- 
 ed the southern part of Arabia, informs us 
 that he saw a great prince of that country 
 returning from a mosque, preceded by some 
 hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each 
 of the princes of his numerous family caused 
 a large umbrella to be carried by his side. 
 The old china ware in our pantries and cup- 
 boards shows the Chinese shaded by an 
 umbrella. It is said that the first person 
 who used an umbrella in the streets of Lon- 
 don was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, 
 who died in 1786. He had become accus- 
 tomed to it during his journeyings in the 
 East. 
 
 For a long while it was not usual for men 
 to carry them without incurring the brand 
 of effeminacy. At first a single umbrella 
 seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for 
 extraordinary occasions — lent as a coach or 
 chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly 
 carried by the walkers. The Female Taller 
 
 advertises: “The young gentleman belong- 
 ing to the custom-house, who, in fear of rain, 
 borrowed the umbrella from Wilks's coffee- 
 house, shall the next time be welcome to the 
 maid’s pattens." As late as 1778, one John 
 Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own 
 life, informs us that he had “a fine silk um- 
 brella, which he brought from Spain ; but he 
 could not with any comfort to himself use it, 
 the people calling out ‘Frenchman! why 
 don’t you get a coach The fact was, the 
 hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining 
 with the true esprit de corps, were clamorous 
 against this portentous rival. The footman, 
 in 1778, gives us some farther information. 
 “At this time there were no umbrellas wore 
 in London, except in noblemen’s and gentle- 
 men’s houses, where there was a large one 
 hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rain- 
 ed, between the door and her carriage.” This 
 man’s sister was compelled to quit his arm 
 from the abuse he drew down on himself and 
 his umbrella. But he adds, that “ he per- 
 sisted for three months,, till they took no 
 further notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
 began to use theirs, and then the English.” 
 
 UNION of the crowns of England and 
 Scotland, 1603; of the two kingdoms at- 
 tempted, 1604, but failed; again ditto, 1670 ; 
 carried into effect, May 1st, 1707, and thence 
 the island is called Great Britain. Union of 
 Great Britain and Ireland took place Jan. 
 1st, 1801. 
 
 UNITED STATES. The United States 
 of America, originally colonies of Great Bri- 
 tain, declared themselves independent in 
 1776. Historical notices of the different 
 states have been given under separate- heads, 
 and only a general view is requisite in the 
 present article. 
 
 The following dates of the settlement of 
 the original colonies, and of the admission of 
 the latter states, are given for reference. 
 Virginia, at Jamestown, 1607. New York, 
 by the Dutch, 1614; taken by the English, 
 1664. Massachusetts, at Plymouth, 1620. 
 New Hampshire, 1623. New Jersey, by the 
 Dutch, 1624 ; occupied by the English, 1664. 
 
 UNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 895 
 
 Delaware, by the Swedes, 1031. Maryland, 
 1033. Connecticut, 1033. Rhode Island, at 
 Providence, 1030. North Carolina, 1050. 
 South Carolina, 1070. Pennsylvania, 1082. 
 Georgia, 1733. 
 
 Vermont, admitted into the Union, 1791. 
 Kentucky, 1792. Tennessee, 1790. Ohio, 
 1803. Louisiana, 1812. Indiana, 1810. Mis- 
 sissippi, 1817. Illinois, 1818. Alabama, 
 1819. Maine, 1820. Missouri, 1821. Arkansas, 
 1830. Michigan, 1837. Florida, 1845. Texas, 
 1845. Iowa, 1840. Wisconsin, 1848. Cal- 
 ifornia, 1850. Minnesota, 1857. Oregon, 1859. 
 Kansas, 1801. West Virginia, 1803. Nevada, 
 1864. Nebraska, 1867. In all, 37 states. 
 Territories, Arizona, Colorado, Dakota, Dist. 
 of Columbia, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, 
 Utah, Washington, Wyoming. 
 
 The English settlers in the northern parts 
 of America were influenced by different mo- 
 tives from those which, actuated the Spaniards 
 who quitted their native country for the shores 
 of the New World. The latter were urged 
 onward by a spirit of adventure, by the 
 promptings of imagination, and by cupidity. 
 The former were impelled by far worthier 
 motives. Many causes operated together in 
 the mother country, to favor emigration 
 among the resolute and hardy. 
 
 The people of England had been led to 
 examine into the nature of the power to 
 which they were subjected, and the mon 
 strous doctrines of royal prerogative and 
 religious intolerance were denounced by 
 many who had courage to think and speak 
 for themselves upon the subjects. The 
 friends of republican institutions multiplied 
 with great rapidity, the natural result of the 
 progress of literature and the increase of 
 wealth with the commons. In 1628 the 
 wealth of the house of commons far exceeded 
 that of- the house of lords. At the same 
 time the reformation which had been carried 
 into effect by Henry VIII., while it had 
 purged the country of the abuses of the Ro- 
 mish church, had established a form of wor- 
 ship which was regarded by many as little 
 better than that which had given way before 
 it. Those who refused to conform to the 
 established form, contemptuously termed 
 Puritans by their opponents, anxiously 
 sought scope for the exercise of religious 
 rights, and, since the immunities they de- 
 
 manded were not granted them at home, 
 determined to seek refuge from persecution 
 in a remote quarter of the globe. The result 
 was the founding of New England. 
 
 King James granted, in 1606, letters pa- 
 tent to two companies, called the London 
 and Plymouth companies, by which posses- 
 sion was given them of the territories lying 
 between the thirty-fourth and forty -fifth de- 
 grees of north latitude ; the southern part to 
 the London, and the northern part to the Ply- 
 mouth company ; the king himself having 
 undertaken to frame for them a code of laws. 
 Three ships were provided by the London 
 company, on board of which were one hun- 
 dred and five persons, who were expected to 
 remain at Roanoke, which was the place of 
 their destination. The command of this 
 squadron was given to Captain Christopher 
 Newport, who sailed from London on the 
 20th of December, 1606, and after a tedious 
 and disastrous passage of four months, by 
 the circuitous route of the West Indies, on 
 the 26th of April, discovered Cape Henry, 
 the southern cape of the Chesapeake, a storm 
 having driven him in a northerly direction 
 from his place of destination. He soon after 
 discovered Cape Charles, and entered Chesa- 
 peake Bay. Charmed with the appearance 
 of the country, the company determined to 
 commence a settlement, and soon explored 
 the neighborhood. Passing above Old Point 
 Comfort, a party proceeded up a beautiful 
 river, called by the Indians Powhatan, and 
 by the colonists, in honor of the king, James 
 River. They made a settlement on a penin- 
 sula, and called it Jamestown. This was the 
 first permanent settlement made by the Eng- 
 lish in Virginia. Shortly after, the company 
 received supplies from England, and an ac- 
 cession to their numbers, swelling the amount 
 to two hundred. Two vessels were freighted 
 for England ; one loaded with a yellow and 
 brilliant sand, common m many places in the 
 vicinity, but supposed by the colonists to 
 contain a large proportion of gold. The 
 other vessel was loaded with tobacco. 
 
 The most efficient member of the council 
 was Captain John Smith, who was taken by 
 the Indians while on an exploring expedi- 
 tion. He was led to the place of execution, 
 and his head placed upon a stone, while Pow- 
 hatan, the Indian chieftain, stood over him 
 
896 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 with uplifted club, regardless of the earnest 
 solicitations of his daughter Pocahontas, 
 then about thirteen years of age. The mer- 
 ciful maiden finding her entreaties unavail- 
 ing, fell upon Smith, folded him in her arms, 
 and laid her face upon his, determined to 
 meet death with him she could not save. 
 Moved by this touching devotion, Powhatan 
 relented, and two days afterward sent Smith 
 to Jamestown. In 1609 the destruction of 
 the whole colony was planned by the Indians, 
 but their plans were defeated by the exer- 
 tions of Pocahontas, who, in a dark night, 
 went to Jamestown, and put the president 
 upon his guard. Pocahontas married an 
 English gentleman by the name of Rolfe, 
 embraced the Christian religion, and W'as 
 baptized by the name of Rebecca. She died 
 four years after at Gravesend, on her return 
 with her husband from England. 
 
 In 1619 one hundred and fifty young wo- 
 men, “handsome and uncorrupt,” were sent 
 to Virginia and sold to the planters for one 
 hundred and one hundred and fifty pounds 
 of tobacco each, tobacco being then valued 
 at about three shillings the pound. At the 
 same time twenty negroes were brought to 
 Virginia in a Dutch ‘vessel, and sold to the 
 colonists, whence one may date the com- 
 mencement of the slaveholding system. 
 
 In 1614 Captain Smith was sent from 
 England to explore North Virginia. He 
 ranged the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, 
 making observations on the shores, harbors, 
 islands, and headlands ; and made a map of 
 the country, which on his return to England, 
 he showed to Prince Charles (afterward 
 Charles I.), who gave it the name of New 
 England. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Robinson, with his Puritan 
 flock, removed to Amsterdam from the north 
 of England, in 1 608, and soon after to Ley- 
 den. A variety of motives led his congre- 
 gation to turn their attention to the New 
 World : the principal were, the enjoyment of 
 perfect liberty of conscience; “the preser- 
 vation of ecclesiastical affairs distinct from 
 those of the state ; ” and a hope of laying the 
 foundation of an extensive empire, that should 
 be purged from all religious impurities. 
 Having made an arrangement with the Vir- 
 ginia company, they sailed from Plymouth, 
 England, on the 6th of September, 1620, and 
 
 on the 10th of November, anchored in Prov- 
 incetown harbor. Perceiving that they were 
 so far north as to be without the territory of 
 the Virginia company, some hesitation arose ; 
 but the winter was at hand, and it was now 
 too late to go in search of a settlement with- 
 in the jurisdiction of that company. Previ- 
 ous to their landing, after prayer and thanks- 
 giving, they formed themselves into a body 
 politic, binding themselves by a written cov- 
 enant to be governed by the decisions of a 
 majority. This instrument was subscribed 
 by forty-one persons, who with their children 
 and domestics, composed a company of one 
 hundred and one persons. Mr. John Carver 
 was chosen, without one dissentient voice, 
 governor for one year. 
 
 Parties were sent on shore to make dis- 
 coveries. Some Indians were seen but could 
 not be overtaken. A considerable quantity 
 of corn was found in heaps of sand, secured 
 in baskets, which served (or seed the ensuing 
 spring,, and tended to save the adventurers 
 from famine. On the 6th of December, Car- 
 ver, Standish, Winslow, Bradford, and others, 
 sailed to various places, to discover a suitable 
 situation for a settlement. Monday, Dec. 
 11th, o.s., they landed at what was afterward 
 called Plymouth, and from the excellence of 
 the harbor, and the favorable appearance of 
 the land, they resolved to commence a settle- 
 ment here. 
 
 In 1628 the council for New England sold 
 to several gentlemen in England a patent for 
 all that part of tlew England, lying between 
 three miles north of the Merrimack, and 
 three miles south of Charles River. In 1629 
 King Charles incorporated “The governor 
 and company of Massachusetts Bay in New 
 England.” Their colony soon became more 
 important than the older settlement at Ply- 
 mouth, and in 1692 the latter was incorpora- 
 ted with it. 
 
 Such was the origin of the early settlements 
 of the English on the new continent. Dur- 
 ing the century they founded colonies from 
 Maine ■ to Georgia, and wrested New York, 
 New Jersey, and Delaware from the Dutch. 
 The colonists had to contend with the natu- 
 ral difficulties of their situation, to struggle 
 in an almost constant warfare with a barba- 
 rous foe, and to bear a heavy burden in the 
 wars of the mother country with France. In 
 
 UNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 897 
 
 spite of all these drawbacks they throve to a 
 prosperity which aroused jealousy in Eng- 
 land, whose uniform policy was to advance 
 her own profit rather than benefit her own 
 offspring. 
 
 We now come to the commencement of 
 those acts which created that patriotic feel- 
 ing in the colonies, which resulted in the 
 declaration of their independence. 
 
 In 1764 the parliament of Great Britain 
 passed an act, the preamble to which ran thus : 
 “ Whereas it is just and necessary that a rev- 
 enue be raised in America, for defraying the 
 expenses of defending, protecting, and secur- 
 ing the same,” &c. The act then proceeded 
 to lay a duty on sugar, indigo, coffee, silk, 
 molasses, calicoes, &c., being the produce of 
 a colony not under the dominion of his 
 majesty. To this the colonists submitted ; 
 though not without complaint and remon- 
 strance. Before this the subject of taxing 
 the American colonies had been in agitation. 
 “ There is something curious,” says Fox, 
 “ in discovering that even at this early period 
 (1685) a question relative to North American 
 liberty, and even to North American taxa- 
 tion, was considered as the test of principles 
 friendly or adverse to arbitral power at 
 home. But the truth is, that, among the 
 several controversies which have arisen, 
 there is no other where the natural rights of 
 man, on the one hand, and the authority of 
 artificial institutions, on the other, as applied 
 respectively by the whigs and tories to the 
 English constitution, are sfl fairly put in is- 
 sue, nor by which the line of separation be- 
 tween the two parties is so strongly and dis- 
 tinctly marked.” 
 
 When a scheme for taxing the colonies was 
 proposed to Sir Robert Walpole, he replied : 
 
 “ I will leave that for some of my successors 
 who may have more courage than I have, 
 and be less a friend to commerce than I am. 
 It has been a maxim with me, during my 
 administration, to encourage the trade of the 
 American colonies in the utmost latitude. 
 Nay, it has been necessary to pass over some 
 irregularities in their trade with Europe ; for, 
 by encouraging them to an extensive, grow- 
 ing foreign commerce, if they gain £500,000, 
 
 I am convinced that, in two years afterward, 
 full £250,000 of their gains will be in his 
 majesty’s exchequer, by the labor and pro- 
 
 57 
 
 duct of this kingdom. This is taxing them 
 more agreeably to their constitution and 
 ours.” 
 
 Instead of a repeal of the act imposing the 
 first tax, parliament, the next year, imposed 
 a duty on stamps. Resolutions were passed 
 by the popular branches of most of the 
 colonial legislatures, against this duty. Mas- 
 sachusetts recommended a colonial congress, 
 to consult for the general welfare. A con- 
 gress from most of the colonies, consisting 
 of twenty-eight members, met at Nc5w York ; 
 remonstrated against the act of parliament ; 
 
 . petitioned for its repeal ; and made a declara- 
 tion of the rights of the colonies ; declaring 
 that taxation and representation were insep- 
 arable, and that parliament had no right to 
 take their money without their consent. 
 Disturbances arose throughout the country. 
 Business was conducted without stamped 
 paper, and the validity of obligations was 
 established by the courts. Meanwhile the 
 colonists entered into associations to prevent 
 the importation of British goods, till the 
 stamp act should be repealed. 
 
 When information of the almost universal 
 opposition of the Americans to the stamp 
 act, reached the ears of parliament, great agi- 
 tation arose. Mr. Pitt said, “ You have no 
 right to tax America. I rejoice that America 
 has resisted. Three millions of our fellow- 
 subjects so lost to every sense of virtue, as 
 tamely to give up their liberties, would be 
 fit instruments to make slaves of the rest.” 
 The act was repealed, but the repealing act 
 had this sweeping sentence, “that the parlia- 
 ment had, and of right ought to have, power 
 to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.” 
 
 In 1767 Mr. Townshend, the chancellor of 
 the exchequer, brought into parliament a 
 bill for imposing a duty to be collected in the 
 colonies on glass, paper, painters’ colors and 
 tea. The bill having passed, was, the next 
 year, sent to the colonies. A bill was also 
 passed for establishing at Boston a board of 
 commissioners, to manage the revenue aris- 
 ing from the duties. An act was also passed 
 to compel the colonies, to provide for the 
 British troops, and support them at their 
 own expense. These various acts of parlia- 
 ment resuscitated the flames of resentment 
 and opposition, which had been almost ex- 
 tinguished. The most spirited resolutions 
 
 UNI 
 
898 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 were passed by the colonies, among which 
 the non-importation resolutions were the 
 most important. 
 
 On the 5th of March, 1770, some British 
 soldiers, being insulted and pressed upon by 
 a mob in King’s (now State) street, Boston, 
 fired upon the populace, killed three, and 
 wounded six. Captain Preston, who com- 
 manded the party, and his men, were tried 
 and acquitted, with the', exception of two who 
 were brought in guilty of manslaughter. In 
 1773, but little tea having been imported into 
 America, parliament enjoyed her supposed 
 right without benefit, and the Americans 
 denied it without injury. Affairs therefore 
 remained in the same state, till the East India 
 company, who had on hand about seventeen 
 million pounds of tea, were allowed by act 
 of parliament to export to America free from 
 the duties they had before paid in England ; 
 retaining those only which were to be paid in 
 America. It was thought the colonists 
 would pay the small tax of three pence a 
 pound, as even then tea would be cheaper 
 than in England. But the principle involved 
 was the same odious one, and the Americans 
 were determined not to accept the bribe. 
 
 The corresponding committees, which had 
 been forming throughout the colonies for the 
 last two years, excited resistance. The con- 
 sequence was that the cargoes of tea, sent to 
 New York and Philadelphia, were sent back, 
 and those sent to Charleston were stored, but 
 not offered for sale. The tea ships intended 
 for the supply of Boston, after the inhabi- 
 tants had tried in vain to have them returned, 
 they being consigned to the relations of Gov. 
 Hutchinson, were entered by about seventeen 
 persons in the disguise of Indians, and three 
 hundred and forty-two chests of tea were 
 thrown into the dock, no other damage being 
 done. 
 
 In 1774 parliament, receiving information 
 of the treatment of the East Indian company 
 with respect to their tea, were much exas- 
 perated. Though the opposition was general, 
 the province of Massachusetts, and especially 
 the town of Boston, were considered the fo- 
 mentcrs of disobedience to their authority. 
 Boston was therefore selected as the mark 
 against which to direct their vengeance. 
 Hence a bill was passed, by which the port 
 
 of landing and discharging, or of lading and 
 shipping, wares and merchandize. Another 
 bill was also passed, essentially altering the 
 charter of the province, making the appoint- 
 ment of the council, justices, judges, sheriffs, 
 &c., dependent on the crown, or its imme- 
 diate agent. Another act directed the gover- 
 nor to send to another colony or to Great 
 Britain for trial, any person indicted for mur- 
 der or any other capital offense. When 
 these acts arrived in America, they were cir- 
 culated with rapidity throughout the conti- 
 nent. But one sentiment of indignation and 
 opposition governed the people. The town 
 of Boston recommended an universal associ- 
 ation to stop importations. 
 
 The house of burgesses in Virginia, which 
 colony had ever been forward in seconding 
 the spirits and measures of Massachusetts, 
 ordered that the day on which the Boston 
 port bill was to go into operation should be 
 kept as a day of fasting and prayer. Pam- 
 phlets, newspaper discussions, addresses and 
 essays, were multiplied without number, 
 proving the wickedness of the acts of parlia- 
 ment, and urging an union of the colonies for 
 resistance. Massachusetts recommended a 
 meeting of delegates from all the colonies, 
 the assembly electing five for that purpose. 
 On the 4th of September, the deputies of 
 eleven colonics appeared at Philadelphia, or- 
 ganized themselves by choosing Peyton Ran- 
 dolph president, and Charles Thompson sec- 
 retary, and agreed to vote by states. A non- 
 importation and non-consumption agreement 
 were made ; an address to the king,*a memo- 
 rial to the inhabitants of British America, 
 and an address to the people of Great Bri- 
 tain, were also framed. After a few' w'eeks 
 they dissolved; recommending the 10th of 
 the succeeding May, if their grievances 
 should remain unredressed, for another ses- 
 sion of congress. 
 
 Oct. 5th, General Gage, the governor of 
 Massachusetts, as w r ell as commandcr-in- 
 chief of all the royal forces in North Amer- 
 ica, issued w'rits for holding a general assem- 
 bly in Salem. lie afterward countermanded 
 the w'rits. Ninety members met, formed 
 themselves into a provincial congress, ad- 
 journed to Concord, and chose John Hancock 
 president. They afterward adjourned to 
 Cambridge, and drew up a plan for placing 
 
 ©f Boston w T as precluded from the privilege 
 
 UNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 899 
 
 the province in a posture of defense, by en- 
 listing men, choosing general officers, &c. 
 
 In January, 1775, the Earl of Chatham 
 brought forward a conciliatory bill in the 
 house of peers, which was rejected two to 
 one. Lord North, the prime minister, intro- 
 duced a bill for restraining the trade of the 
 New England colonies. Receiving informa- 
 tion of the general opposition in the southern 
 colonies, he introduced another bill, equally 
 restraining their trade, but excepting North 
 Carolina, Delaware, and New York. The 
 time had now come for testing the nerve of 
 the colonists. An attempt was made by the 
 British troops to seize the military stores at 
 Concord, April I Oth, but they had to encoun- 
 ter the armed opposition of the militia at 
 Concord and Lexington. Boston was now 
 blockaded by the colonists, Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point were taken. The battle of 
 Bunker’s Hill followed, and an unsuccessful 
 expedition against Canada preceded the 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 On May 10th, 1775, the continental con- 
 gress met at Philadelphia, and on the 15th 
 of June unanimously elected George Wash- 
 ington, then a member from Virginia, com- 
 mander in-chief of the forces raised, and to 
 be raised, for the defense of the colonies. 
 June 7th, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of 
 Virginia, made a motion in congress, for 
 declaring the colonies free and independent. 
 After much debate, on the fourth of July, 
 the thirteen colonies were declared free 
 and independent, under the^title of the Uni- 
 ted States of America. [ See Declaration 
 of Independence.] 
 
 Thus opened the great drama of our Revo- 
 lution. Its glorious result was won by our 
 fathers against heavy odds and through much 
 suffering. [See Revolution.] 
 
 On the 19th of October, 1781, Cornwallis 
 surrendered at Yorktown. The fall of this 
 large British army may be considered as the 
 closing of the war. Gen. Washington or- 
 dered divine service in the different divisions 
 and brigades. Congress went in solemn pro- 
 cession to the Dutch Lutheran church in 
 Philadelphia, returned thanks to Almighty 
 God for the success of the combined armies, 
 and recommended a day of general thanks- 
 giving and prayer throughout the United 
 States. Savannah was evacuated in July 
 
 (1782) and Charleston in December. Great 
 Britain acknowledged our independence Nov. 
 30th, 1782, and the cessation of hostilities 
 was proclaimed April 19th, 1783. Holland 
 acknowledged the independence of the Uni- 
 ted States in April; Sweden in February, 
 1783; Denmark in the same month; Spain 
 in March ; Russia in July. 
 
 The debt of the United States, at the close 
 of the war, was about forty millions of dol- 
 lars. Congress had power to make war, and 
 to create debts, but no power to carry on the 
 war, nor ability to pay debts, but by appeals 
 or recommendations to thirteen independent 
 sovereignties, whose unanimity alone, seldom 
 to be expected, could support public credit, 
 or give efficacy to the proceedings of congress. 
 For the payment of the public debt, a pro- 
 posal was made by congress to the several 
 states to lay a duty of five per cent, on all 
 goods imported from foreign countries, till 
 the national debt should be paid. This plan 
 failed ; some states adopting it altogether, 
 some agreeing to it in part, and some totally 
 rejecting it. Thus, no efficient funds being 
 provided, the evidences of the public debt 
 began to decrease in value, till they were sold 
 at length for two shillings in the pound. 
 xVnother and less cumbrous form of govern- 
 ment was a necessity. A convention accord- 
 ingly met at Philadelphia in May, 1787, .and 
 framed a constitution, which was duly rati- 
 fied by the several states. [See Constitu- 
 tion.] 
 
 The new federal government was estab- 
 lished in 1789. Washington was unani- 
 mously chosen the first president, and John 
 Adams vice-president. Mr. Jefferson was 
 selected for the department of state ; Alexan- 
 der Hamilton was appointed secretary of the 
 treasury ; Gen. Knox secretary of war, and 
 Edmund Randolph attorney-general of the 
 United States. John Jay was made chief 
 justice of the supreme court of the United 
 States ; John Rutledge, James Wilson, Wil- 
 liam Cushing, Robert Harrison and John 
 Blair were named associate judges. The In- 
 dian war on the northwest frontier, and an 
 insurrection in the western part of Pennsyl- 
 vania, on account of the tax on domestic 
 spirits, were favorably terminated. The 
 insults and maritime depredations committed 
 by the French, induced America to take up 
 
 UNI 
 
900 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 arms in defense of her rights, but a change 
 of rulers in France prevented the effusion 
 of blood. 
 
 The claim of searching American vessels, 
 and impressing from them British seamen, 
 and the British orders in council pro- 
 hibiting the exportation of the United 
 States, together with other outrages com- 
 mitted by the British, produced a decla- 
 ration of war against Great Britain in June, 
 1812. The successes of the British were 
 but few and trifling, while the American navy 
 triumphed in a series of brilliant exploits, 
 and the gallant defense of New Orleans by 
 Gen. Jackson, crowned the American arms 
 with laurels. Peace was concluded at Ghent, 
 Dec. 24th, 1814. The battle of New Orleans 
 was fought the 8th of January, 1815, before 
 the news of peace reached the United States. 
 
 The country continued to increase in power 
 and prosperity. A rapid increase of popu- 
 lation by emigration followed upon the con- 
 clusion of .the war, and within ten years six 
 states were added to the Union. The cession 
 of Florida was obtained from Spain in 1 820. 
 In the summer of 1824 the venerable Lafay- 
 ette came, at the invitation of Congress, once 
 more to the land whose freedom he had so 
 largely helped to win. During his stay he 
 visited every state, and was everywhere 
 hailed as the nation’s guest. A new frigate 
 was made ready to bear him home, and 
 named the Brandywine, in memory of the 
 battle in which he was wounded. He em- 
 barked at Washington, attended to the ves- 
 sel by a large concourse, and President 
 Adams bade him an affectionate farewell in 
 behalf of the nation. In passing Mount 
 Vernon the veteran landed to pay his last 
 visit to the tomb of Washington. A pros- 
 perous voyage then bore him home. On the 
 4th of July, 1826, there occurred, in striking 
 coincidence, the deaths of Thomas Jefferson 
 and John Adams, two of the most illustrious 
 champions of the independence of which the 
 day was the fiftieth anniversary. 
 
 In 1835 the Seminoles, an Indian tribe in 
 Florida, commenced hostilities in resistance 
 to their removal to lands west of the Missis- 
 sippi ; Osceola, their most famous chief, said 
 he “ wished to rest in the land of his fathers, 
 and his children to sleep by his side.” The 
 bloody and costly war is even how hardly 
 
 terminated. A portion of the Seminoles 
 were removed to the west, but a remnant 
 still lurk among the glades. Through the 
 annexation of Texas, the country became 
 involved in war with Mexico in 1847. The 
 leading features of this contest were, the in- 
 vasion of the north of Mexico, and the defeat 
 of Santa Anna, by Gen. Taylor ; the brilliant 
 campaign of Gen. Scott, beginning with the 
 capture of Vera Cruz, and ending with that 
 of the city of Mexico ; the conquest of New 
 Mexico by Gen. Kearney ; and the seizure 
 of California by Fremont. [See Buena Vista, 
 Cerro Gordo, &c.] Peace was restored by 
 the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 
 1848 ; by the terms of which the United 
 States obtained a large cession of territory, 
 in exchange for $15,000,000 and the liquida- 
 tion of all debts due American citizens from 
 the Mexican government. California, which 
 was included in this cession, speedily at- 
 tracted the attention of the world by the 
 discovery of her teeming mines of gold. 
 
 For the chief facts of the Rebellion, see the 
 Chronology at the close of this volume. 
 
 The government of the United States is a 
 pure democracy. Each of the states has a 
 separate and independent legislature for the 
 administration of its local affairs, but all are 
 ruled in matters of common policy by two 
 houses of congress, the senate and the house 
 of representatives, to which delegates are 
 sent from the different members of the con- 
 federacy. The president is elected by the 
 free voice of the people. The Americans are 
 truly a self-governed nation ; and exhibit the 
 first example of a democracy which has suc- 
 ceeded in combining a vast amount of free- 
 dom with good order and subordination to 
 the law. 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 1789. George Washington, of Mt. Vernon, Va. 
 1797. John Adams, of Quincy, Mass. 
 
 1 801. Thomas Jefferson, of Monticello, Va. 
 
 18 )9. James Madison, of Montpelier, Va. 
 
 1817- James Monroe, of Loudon County, Va. 
 1825. John Quincy Adams, of Quincy, Mass, 
 1829. Andrew Jackson of Nashville, Tenn.^ 
 1837. Martin Van Buren, of Kinderhook, N. Y. 
 ISfl. William Henry Harrison, of North Bend, 
 Ohio. Died in office, April 4, 1841. 
 1841. John Tyler, of Williamsburg, Va. 
 
 1845. James Knox Polk, of Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 1849. Zachary Taylor, of Baton Rouge, La. 
 
 1850. Millard Fillmore, of Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 1853. Franklin Pierce, of Concord, N. H. 
 
 1857. James Buchanan, of Lancaster, Pa. 
 
 UNI 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 901 
 
 1861. Abraham Lincoln, of Springfield, 111. As- 
 sassinated, April 14, 1865. 
 
 1865. Andrew Johnson, of Greenville, Tenn. 
 1869. Ulysses S. Grant, of Galena, 111. 
 
 “I appeal to History!” says Phillips. 
 “ Tell me, thou reverend chronicler of the 
 grave, can all the illusions of ambition real- 
 ized, can all the wealth of a universal com- 
 merce, can all the achievements of successful 
 heroism, or all the establishments of this 
 world’s wisdom, secure to empire the perma- 
 nency of its possessions ? Alas ! Troy 
 thought so once ; yet the land of Priam lives 
 only in song ! Thebes thought so once ; yet 
 her hundred gates have crumbled, and her 
 very tombs are but as the dust they were 
 vainly intended to commemorate ! So 
 thought Palmyra — where is she ? So thought 
 the countries of Demosthenes and the Spar- 
 tan ; yet Leonidas is trampled by the timid 
 slave, and Athens insulted by the ser- 
 vile, mindless, and enervate Ottoman ! In 
 his hurried march, Time has but looked at 
 their imagined immortality ; and all its vani- 
 ties, from the palace to the tomb, have, with 
 their ruins, erased the very impression of 
 his footsteps ! The days of their glory are 
 as if they had never been ; and the island 
 that was then a speck, rude and neglected in 
 the barren ocean, now rivals the ubiquity of 
 their commerce, the glory of their arms, the 
 fame of their philosophy, the eloquence of 
 their senate, and the inspiration of their 
 bards ! Who shall say, then, contemplating 
 the past, that England, proud and potent as 
 she appears, may not, one day, be what Ath- 
 ens is, and the young America yet soar to be 
 what Athens was ! Who shall say, that, 
 when the European column shall have moul- 
 dered, and the night of barbarism obscured 
 its very ruins, that mighty continent may 
 not emerge from the horizon, to rule, for its 
 time, sovereign of the ascendant ! ” 
 
 URIM and THUMMIM. Light and Per- 
 fection. Much dispute has existed among 
 the learned as to what this ceremony was 
 among the ancient Jews ; but no certainty 
 has been hitherto arrived at. It is conjec- 
 tured to have been some means of inducing 
 an answer fVom God upon extraordinary oc- 
 currences. The high priest was the officiat- 
 ing minister, and whenever the ceremony 
 was performed, he dressed in all his richest 
 pontificals, and wore the most costly orna- 
 
 ments. It was never used for a private per- 
 son or occasion, but only for the king, the 
 president of the sanhedrim, the general of 
 the army, &c., and always upon something 
 relating to the common welfare of the church 
 or state. 
 
 URUGUAY. The Oriental republic of 
 th*e Uruguay is bounded on the north and 
 east by Brazil ; south by the Atlantic, and 
 west by the Uruguay, which divides it from 
 the states of Corrientes and Entre Rios. It 
 has an area of 120,000 square miles, and a 
 population of 250,000 souls. This territory 
 formerly belonged to the Spanish vice-royalty 
 of the Plata, and was called the Banda Ori- 
 ental (Eastern Frontier) from its * geographi- 
 cal position. It was afterward claimed by 
 Brazil, but in 1828, after a bloody war be- 
 tween the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans, 
 the two parties agreed to its being erected 
 into an independent state. 
 
 Monte Video, the capital of the republic, 
 is situated on the Plata, and is regularly 
 built, but the houses are low and the streets 
 are not paved. It has a good harbor, and 
 formerly enjoyed an extensive commerce. 
 The prosperity of the city has been much affect- 
 ed by the wars between the neighboring states, 
 and its population has much diminished. 
 It now contains about 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Maldonado and Colonia are small towns 
 on the Plata, with good harbors. 
 
 USIIANT, Battle of. Between the Brit- 
 ish and French fleets, July 27th, 1778, when, 
 after an indecisive action of three hours, the 
 latter, under cover of the night, withdrew in 
 a deceptive manner to the harbor of Brest. 
 The brave Admiral Keppel commanded the 
 English fleet ; the Count d’Orvilliers the 
 French. The failure of a complete victory 
 was by many attributed to Sir Hugh Palli- 
 ser’s non-compliance with the admiral’s sig- 
 nals. This gentleman, who was vice-admiral 
 of the blue, preferred articles of accusation 
 against his commander, who was in conse- 
 quence tried by a court-martial, but acquitted 
 in the most honorable manner, and the charge 
 against him declared by the court to be “ ma- 
 licious and ill-founded.” — Lord Howe signal- 
 ly defeated the French fleet, taking six ships 
 of the line, and sinking one of large force, 
 and several others, 4th June, 1794. While 
 the two fleets were engaged in this action, a 
 
 USII 
 
902 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 large fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of 
 which the French nation depended for its 
 means of prosecuting the war, got safely into 
 Brest harbor, which gave occasion to the en- 
 emy to claim the laurels of the day, notwith- 
 standing their loss in ships, and in killed and 
 wounded, which was very great. 
 
 USHER, James, Archbishop of Armagh, 
 and primate of Ireland, was born at Dublin, 
 in 1581. He was very earnest in opposing 
 the Catholics, and some of the views he main- 
 tained subjected him to the charge of being 
 a favorer of Puritanism. In the political 
 convulsions of the reign of Charles I., he 
 wrote a treatise to assert the absolute unlaw- 
 fulness of taking up arms against the king. 
 The Irish rebellion in 1041 drove Usher to 
 England, where after various shiftings of 
 residence made necessary by the civil war, 
 he died at Ryegate in 1656. Most of the 
 writings of this eminent scholar relate to 
 ecclesiastical history and antiquities, to fur- 
 nish arguments against the Catholics ; but 
 the production for which he is chiefly cele- 
 brated is his great chronological digest of 
 universal history from the creation down to 
 the dispersion of the Jews in the reign of 
 Vespasian. 
 
 UTRECHT, a city of the Netherlands, 
 capital of a province of the same name, con- 
 tains 45,000 inhabitants. The treaty of 
 Utrecht was concluded April 11th, 1713, be- 
 tween the allies and the French. The first 
 stipulation of this famous treaty was, that 
 Philip of Anjou, being acknowledged king 
 of Spain, should renounce all right to the 
 drown of France, the union of two such pow- 
 erful kingdoms being thought dangerous to 
 the liberties of Europe. It was agreed that 
 the Duke of Berri, Philip’s brother, and 
 
 after him in succession, should also renounce 
 his right to the crown of Spain, in case he 
 became king of France. It was stipulated 
 that the Duke of Savoy should possess the 
 island of Sicily, with the title of king, to- 
 gether with Fencstrelles, and other places on 
 the continent, which increase of dominion 
 was in some measure made out of the spoils 
 of the French monarchy. The Dutch had 
 that barrier granted them, which they so 
 long sought after ; and if the crown of 
 France was deprived of some dominions to 
 enrich the Duke of Savoy, on the other hand 
 the house of Austria was taxed to supply 
 the wants of the Hollanders, w T bo were put 
 in possession of the strongest towns in Flan- 
 ders. With regard to England, its glory and 
 its interests were secured. The fortifications 
 of Dunkirk, a harbor that might be danger- 
 ous to English trade in time of war, were 
 ordered to be demolished, and its port de- 
 stroyed. Spain gave up all right to Gibraltar 
 and the island of Minorca. France resigned 
 her pretensions to Hudson’s Bay, Nova Sco- 
 tia, and Newfoundland, but was left in pos- 
 session of Cape Breton, and the liberty of 
 drying fish upon the shore. Among these 
 articles, glorious to the English nation, their 
 setting free the French Protestants confined 
 in the prisons and galleys for their religion, 
 was not the least meritorious. For the em- 
 peror, it was stipulated that he should pos- 
 sess the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of 
 Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands. The 
 king of Prussia was to have Upper Guelders ; 
 and a time was fixed for the emperor’s acce- 
 ding to those articles, as he had for some 
 time obstinately refused to assist at the nego- 
 tiation. The security of the Protestant suc- 
 cession in England was also guaranteed. 
 
 UTR 
 
history and biography. 
 
 903 
 
 y. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, a fortified city of 
 France, on the Scheldt, containing 23,000 
 inhabitants. In 1793 this town formed one 
 of the first objects of attack by the allies, 
 after the defeat of Dumouriez. The siege 
 conducted under the command of the Duke 
 of York, was long and obstinate, and part 
 of the town was laid in ashes before the 
 capitulation. It was retaken, with great 
 quantities of stores and specie, by the French 
 in 1794 ; escaped attack in the invasion by 
 the allied powers in 1814 and 1815 ; and 
 was definitely confirmed to Fiance by the 
 treaties of these years. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, a son of Gratian, born 
 in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian took 
 him as his colleague on the throne, and ap- 
 pointed him over the eastern parts of the 
 Roman empire. By perseverance, Valens 
 was enabled to distinguish himself in his 
 wars against the northern barbarians. But 
 his lenity to these savage intruders proved 
 fatal to the Roman power ; and by permit- 
 ting some of the Goths to settle in the prov- 
 inces of Thrace, and to have free access to 
 every part of the country, Valens encouraged 
 them to make depredations on his subjects, 
 and to disturb their tranquillity. His eyes 
 were opened too late ; he attempted to repel 
 them, but he failed in the attempt. A 
 bloody battle was fought, in which the bar- 
 barians obtained some advantage, and Va- 
 lens was hurried away into a lonely house, 
 which the Goths set on fire. Unable to make 
 his escape, he was burnt alive, in the fiftieth 
 year of his age, after a reign of thirteen 
 years, a.d. 378. 
 
 VALENTINIAN I., a son of Gratian, 
 raised to the imperial throne of Rome by his 
 merit and valor. He kept the western part 
 of the empire for himself, and appointed 
 over the east his brother Valens. He gave 
 convincing proof of his military valor in the 
 victories which he obtained over the barba- 
 rians in the provinces of Gaul, the deserts 
 of Africa, and on the banks of the Rhine 
 and Danube. The insolence of the Quadi 
 he punished with great severity ; and when 
 
 these desperate and indigent barbarians had 
 deprecated the conqueror’s vengeance, Valen- 
 tinian treated them with contempt, and up- 
 braided them with every marl of resent- 
 ment. While he spoke with such warmth, 
 he broke a blood-vessel, and fell lifeless on 
 the ground. He was conveyed into his pal- 
 ace by his attendants, and soon after died, 
 after suffering the greatest agonies, from vio- 
 lent fits and contortions of his limbs, on the 
 17th of November, a.d. 375. He was then 
 in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and had 
 reigned twelve years. 
 
 VALENTINIAN II. About six days after 
 the death of Valentinian, his second son, 
 Valentinian II., was proclaimed emperor, 
 though only five years old. He was associa- 
 ted with his elder brother Gratian, whom he 
 succeeded in 383, but his youth seemed to 
 favor dissension, and the attempts and the 
 usurpations of rebels. He was robbed of 
 his throne by Maximus, four years after the 
 death of Gratian ; and in this helpless situa- 
 tion he had recourse to Theodosius, who was 
 then emperor of the east. He was success- 
 ful in his applications ; Maximus was con- 
 quered by Theodosius, and Valentinian en- 
 tered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his 
 benefactor. He was some time after strangled 
 by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called 
 Arbogastes, 392. He was fond of imitating 
 the virtues and exemplary life of his friend 
 and patron Theodosius, and if he had lived 
 longer, the Romans might have enjoyed 
 peace and security. 
 
 VALENTINIAN III. was son of Constan- 
 tius and Placidia, the daughter of Theodo- 
 sius the Great, and therefore, as related to 
 the imperial family, he was saluted emperor 
 in his youth, and publicly acknowledged as 
 such, at Rome, the 3d of October,, a. d. 423, 
 about the sixth year of his age. He was at 
 first governed by his mother, and the in- 
 trigues of his generals and courtiers ; and 
 when he came to years of discretion, he dis- 
 graced himself by violence, oppression, and 
 incontinence. He was murdered in the 
 midst of Rome, a.d. 454, in the thirty -sixth 
 
 VAL 
 
904 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 year of his age, and thirty-first of his reign, 
 by Petronius Maximus, to whose wife he had 
 offered violence, who succeeded him. 
 
 YALERIANUS, Publius Licinius, a Ro- 
 man, proclaimed emperor by the armies in 
 Rhsetia, a.d. 253. He took his son Gallie- 
 nus as his colleague in the empire, and 
 showed the malevolence of his heart by per- 
 secuting the Christians, whom he had for a 
 while tolerated. He also made war against 
 the Goths and Scythians ; but in an expedi- 
 tion which he undertook against Sapor, king 
 of Persia, his arms were attended with ill 
 success. He was conquered in Mesopotamia, 
 and when he wished to have a private con- 
 ference with Sapor, the conqueror seized his 
 person, carried him in triumph to his capital, 
 and exposed him in all the cities of his em- 
 pire, to the ridicule and insolence of his sub- 
 jects. When the Persian monarch mounted 
 on horseback, Valerian served as a footstool, 
 and the many other insults which he suffered, 
 excited indignation even among the courtiers 
 of Sapor. The monarch at last ordered him 
 to be flayed alive, and salt to be thrown over 
 his mangled body, so that he died in the 
 greatest torments. His skin was tanned, and 
 painted in red ; and that the ignominy of the 
 Roman empire might be lasting, it was nailed 
 in one of the temples of Persia. Valerian 
 died in the seventy-first year of his age, a.d. 
 260, after a reign of seven years. 
 
 VALERIUS, Publius, a celebrated Roman, 
 surnamed Poplicola , from his popularity. 
 He was very active in assisting Brutus to 
 expel the Tarquins, and he was the first that 
 took an oath to support the liberty and inde- 
 pendence of his country. He was honored 
 with the consulship on the expulsion of Col- 
 latinus, and he triumphed over the Etruri- 
 ans, after he had gained the victory in the 
 battle in which Brutus and the sons of Tar- 
 quin had fallen. Valerius died after he had 
 been four times consul, and enjoyed the pop- 
 ularity, and received the thanks and the grati- 
 tude, which people redeemed from slavery 
 and oppression usually pay to their deliver- 
 ers. To do him honor, his body was buried 
 at the public expense. 
 
 VALERIUS, Marcus, surnamed Corvinus , 
 a tribune of the soldiers under L. Furius 
 Camillus. When the Roman army was 
 challenged by one of the Senones, remarka- 
 
 ble for his strength and stature, Valerius un- 
 dertook to engage him, and obtained an easy 
 victory by aid of a raven that attacked the 
 face of the Gaul, whence his surname of 
 Corvinus. He vanquished the states that 
 made war against Rome, and was six times 
 honored with the consulship. He died in the 
 hundredth year of his age. 
 
 VALETTE, John Parisot, the forty-eighth 
 grand-master, of the order of St. John of 
 Jerusalem. During his reign the knights’ 
 galleys took above fifty Turkish ships in less 
 than five years, which so enraged Solyman 
 II., that he resolved to lay siege to Malta, 
 and drive the knights thence. His forces set 
 out from Constantinople in April, 1865, and 
 arrived at Navarin the 11th of May. The 
 fleet consisted of one hundred and fifty gal- 
 leys, nine men-of-war, &c. The Knights 
 fought with the greatest valor, defying the 
 assaults of the Turks, four months. Forty- 
 nine Christian galleys arriving then, the 
 Turkish commander raised the siege and 
 escaped by night. The Turks lost 20,000 
 men, and about 9,000 Christians died of their 
 wounds. Valette rebuilt the city, calling it 
 by his own name. He died in 1568. 
 
 VALMY, a village in the north-east of 
 France. An action was fought here, Sept. 
 20th, 1792, between the French and Prus- 
 sians. • 
 
 VAN BUREN, Martin, eighth President 
 of the United States, was born in Kinder- 
 hook, N. Y., Dec. 5, 1782. He began the 
 study of law at the age of fourteen, and in 
 1812 was a prominent Democratic politician, 
 warmly supporting in the State Senate the 
 war with Great Britain. He then became 
 Attorney General of the State, and in 1818 
 set on foot a new organization of the Dem- 
 ocratic party, known for twenty 3 r ears as the 
 “Albany Regency.” He was twice elected 
 U. S. Senator, in 1821 and 1827, Governor 
 in 1828, was Secretary of State under Presi- 
 dent Jackson, became minister to Eng- 
 land, was elected Vice President in 1832, 
 and President in 1836. During his adminis- 
 tration occurred the great financial crisis of 
 1837, the Canadian insurrection, and the 
 anti-slavery agitation. The financial distress 
 of the country being ascribed to his party, 
 his re-election was defeated by Gen. Harrison 
 in 1840. In 1848, Gen. Cass having been 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 905 
 
 nominated for President, on a platform toler- 
 ating the introduction of slavery into new 
 territories, a portion of the party", under the 
 name of Free Democracy, nominated Mr. 
 Van Buren for the Presidency on a platform 
 of determined opposition to the extension or 
 encouragement of slavery. The Democracy 
 were defeated, and Gen. Taylor, the Whig 
 candidate, was elected. Mr. Yan Buren died 
 at Kinderhook, July 24, 1862. 
 
 VANDALS, originally a Gothic nation, who 
 came out of Scandinavia with the other 
 Goths, and settled in the countries now known 
 as Mecklenberg and Brandenberg. Another 
 colony settled in Pomerania. In process 
 of time they extended themselves into Dal- 
 matia, Illyricum, and Dacia. They attacked 
 Greece, whencethey went to Spain ; and then 
 under the famous Geneseric, passed over into 
 Africa, where they fixed the throne of their 
 power. This Prince reduced Carthage, Sar- 
 dinia, Sicily, and all the islands between Italy 
 and Africa. In 475 he concluded peace with 
 the Emperor Zeno, whom he compelled to 
 renounce all claim to the provinces of Africa. 
 Justinian afterward gained a complete victory 
 over the Vandals, and reunited the provinces 
 of Africa to the Greek empire. 
 
 VANDERLYN, John. Aaron Burr was 
 riding along in a curricle and pair, one day, 
 when one of his horses lost a* shoe; and he 
 stopped at the next blacksmith’s to have it 
 replaced. It was a lonely country place, not 
 far from Kingston, in Ulster Co., N. Y. He 
 strolled about while the blacksmith was at 
 work, and, returning, saw upon the side of 
 a stable near by, a charcoal drawing of his 
 own curricle and horses, wonderfully accu- 
 rate and spirited. Turning round, he noticed 
 a boy a little way off, dressed in coarse home- 
 spun. “Who did that?” inquired Burr, 
 pointing to the picture. “ I did it,” said the 
 boy. The astonished traveler entered into 
 conversation with the lad ; found him intelli- 
 gent, though ignorant ; learned that he was 
 born in the neighborhood, had had no in- 
 struction in drawing, and was engaged to 
 work for the blacksmith six months. Burr 
 wrote a few words on a piece of paper, and 
 said, as he wrote. “My boy, you are too 
 smart a fellow to stay here all your life. If 
 ever you should want to change your em- 
 ployment and see the world, just put a clean | 
 
 shirt into your pocket, go to New York, and 
 go straight to that address,” handing the boy 
 the paper. Several months passed away, and 
 the circumstance had nearly faded from the 
 busy senator’s recollection. As he was sit- 
 ting at breakfast one morning, a servant put 
 into his hand a small paper parcel, saying it 
 was brought by a boy who was waiting out- 
 side. Burr opened the parcel, and found a 
 Coarse country -made clean shirt. Supposing 
 it to be a mistake, he ordered the boy to be 
 shown in. Who should enter but the genius 
 of the roadside, who placed in Burr’s hand 
 the identical piece of paper he had given 
 him. The lad was warmly welcomed. Burr 
 took him into his family, educated him, and 
 procured him instruction in the art which 
 nature had indicated should be the occupa- 
 tion of* his lifetime. Afterward, Burr as- 
 sisted him to go to Europe, where he spent five 
 years in the study of painting, and became a 
 famous artist — Vanderlyn. 
 
 Vanderlyn painted the well known ‘Land- 
 ing of Columbus’ fora panel in the rotunda 
 for the capitol at Washington. He died at 
 Kingston in 1852. 
 
 VANDERVELDE, William, the Elder, 
 born at Leyden, in 1610, was an eminent ma- 
 rine painter. His son, William the Younger, 
 born at Amsterdam, in 1633, was still more 
 famous. Walpole calls him “the greatest 
 man that has appeared in this branch of 
 painting ; the palm is not less disputed with 
 Raphael for history, than with Vandervelde 
 for sea-pieces.” Both the Vanderveldes w T ere 
 established in England in the service of 
 Charles IT. in 1675. They were each granted 
 a pension of £100 a year by the king; the 
 father “ for taking and making draughts of 
 sea-fights,” and the son “ for putting the said 
 draughts into colors.” The elder Vander- 
 velde, at least, well earned his annual hundred 
 sterling. At the great naval fight between the 
 Duke of York and the Dutch admiral Opdam, 
 he sailed between the hostile fleets in a light 
 skiff, to mark their positions and observe 
 their operations ; and in this manner, it is 
 said, he was also a spectator of the memora- 
 ble three days’ engagement between Monk 
 and De Ruyter. These painters dwelt at 
 Greenwich, where the father died in 1693 ; 
 the son died in London in 1707. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN’S LAND. This island iu 
 
906 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the Indian Ocean was discovered by Tasman 
 in 1633, and named after the governor of 
 Batavia. It was visited by Furneaux in 
 1773 ; by Captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
 deemed the south extremity of New Hol- 
 land (now Australia) until 1799. A British 
 settlement was established on the south-east 
 part, within the mouth of the Derwent, and 
 named Hobart Town, which is the seat of 
 government, 1804. This island was made a 
 convict colony of Great Britain. It is some- 
 times called Tasmania. The area is about 
 22,630 square miles. 
 
 VANDYCK, Antony, was born at Ant- 
 werp, March 22d, 1599. His father, a glass 
 painter, of Bois-le-Duc, was his first instruc- 
 tor in art, and he was also much indebted to 
 his mother, who was an elegant landscape 
 artist, and very skillful in embroidery. But 
 his great master was Rubens, with whom he 
 lived about four years. By his advice Van- 
 dyck visited Italy, where he remained some 
 five years. After his return to Antwerp, 
 his picture of the Crucifixion for the church 
 of St. Michael at Ghent, established his 
 celebrity as one of the first masters of the 
 age, and in portraiture he acquired an unri- 
 valed reputation. In 1632 Charles I. sent 
 him an express invitation to come to Eng- 
 land. There he settled down. He was 
 knighted ; a pension of £200 a year for life 
 was bestowed upon him, with the title of paint- 
 er to his majesty ; and his successful career 
 as a portrait painter enabled him to live in 
 great style. He had a country-house at 
 Eltham in Kent, where he spent a portion 
 of the summer; he kept great state when in 
 town ; “ he always went magnificently 
 dressed, had a numerous and gallant equip- 
 age, and kept so good a table in his apart- 
 ment, that few princes were more visited or 
 better served.” Yandyck died in London, 
 Dec. 2d, 1641, and was buried in the old 
 church of St. Paul, near the tomb of John 
 of Gaunt. He left a daughter, his only 
 child, by his wife Mary Ruthven, grand- 
 daughter of the unfortunate Lord Ruthven, 
 Earl of Gowrie. Notwithstanding his ex- 
 pensive style of living, he left property to 
 the value of £20,000. His portraits of women 
 are especially superior. 
 
 YANE, Sir Henry, an English statesman, 
 was born in Kent, in 1589. In 1639 he was 
 
 made treasurer of the household, and soon 
 after, principal secretary of state; but, on 
 joining in the prosecution of the Earl of Straf- 
 ford, he was removed from all his places. 
 He died in 1654. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1612. His religious 
 principles led him to emigrate to New Eng- 
 land. He became governor of Massachu- 
 setts in 1635, but soon returned to England. 
 In 1640 he was elected into parliament, where 
 he was the principal mover of the solemn 
 league and covenant, and also of the self-de- 
 nying ordinance ; but he took no part in the 
 king’s trial, and he resisted Cromwell to such 
 a degree, that the general sent him to Caris- 
 brooke Castle. On the death of Oliver, he 
 labored to institute a perfect commonwealth, 
 but the Stuarts being restored, he was brought 
 to trial for treason, and condemned to be 
 beheaded, which was put in execution on 
 Tower Hill, June 14th, 1662. 
 
 Vx\RRO, Marcus Teiientius, a Roman 
 statesman and author of great learning. He 
 was eighty years old when he wrote his “ Dc 
 Re Rustica.” He died b.c. 27, aged eighty- 
 nine. 
 
 YARUS, Quintilius, a Roman pro-consul, 
 descended from an illustrious family. He 
 was appointed governor of Syria, and after- 
 ward made commander of the armies in Ger- 
 many. He was surprised by the Germans, 
 under Hermann, and his army was cut to 
 pieces. When he saw that every thing was 
 lost, he killed himself, a.d. 10, and his exam- 
 ple was followed by some of his officers. 
 
 VATTEL, Emmerich, native of Switzer- 
 land, author of valuable writings on jurispru- 
 dence and international law, died in 1767, 
 aged fifty-three. 
 
 VAUBAN, Sebastian Lepreste de, a 
 famous military engineer and tactician of 
 France, was born in Burgundy in 1632. He 
 took part in the wars of Louis XI Y., and 
 rose to the rank of marshal. He constructed 
 or improved an immense number of for- 
 tresses, directed as many as fifty-three sieges, 
 and was present at one hundred and forty 
 battles. He died in 1707. 
 
 YEGA, Lopez de la, was born at Madrid 
 in 1562. He was very eminent as a poet, and 
 wrote an almost innumerable number of 
 dramas. He died in 1635 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 907 
 
 VELAZQUEZ, Don Diego, a painter very 
 eminent in history, portrait, and landscape, 
 was born at Seville in the Spring of 1599, 
 and died at Madrid, Aug. 7th, 1660. He is 
 the most eminent of Spanish painters. 
 
 VENDEE, a department in the west of 
 France. It is memorable in the history of 
 the French revolution, for the resistance made 
 to the republican army in 1793, 1794, and 
 1795, which was attended for a time with 
 great success, though commenced without 
 any concert with the other royalists of 
 France, arid carried on for a season with 
 very limited support from England. La Ven- 
 dee was also the scene of some sharp fighting 
 in 1815. 
 
 VENEZUELA, a republic in South Amer- 
 ica, contains 416,600 square miles, and 
 1,356,000 inhabitants. It is a plain stretch- 
 ing from the Andes westward to and beyond 
 the Orinoco. The forests beyond the Ori- 
 noco are in an unsubdued and savage state, 
 peopled by the Caribs and other wandering 
 and warlike tribes. A second division con- 
 sists of the Llanos, boundless grassy plains, 
 where the eye, in the compass of a wide 
 horizon, often does not descry an eminence 
 six feet in height. Like the pampas of La 
 Plata, they are covered with luxuriant pas- 
 tures, on which thousands of cattle and 
 horses are fed. The export of hides forms a 
 principal branch of the commerce of Vene- 
 zuela. Culture and civilization are confined 
 to the territory adjoining the coast. 
 
 Venezuela, under the Spanish rule, was 
 known as the captaincy general of Carac- 
 cas. When independence of the mother- 
 country was achieved, it became part of the 
 republic of Colombia ; since whose dissolu- 
 tion in 1830, it has been an independent 
 republic. The civil wars and convulsions 
 have retarded its progress and prosperity. 
 Caraccas is the capital. By the awful earth- 
 quake of 1812, and the political convulsions, 
 the number of inhabitants of the city of 
 Caraccas was greatly reduced. It has since 
 increased, and is now about 50,000, the 
 former population. 
 
 VENICE, the capital formerly of the repub- 
 lic of Venice, stands upon a cluster of little 
 isles, about eighty in numher, and intersected 
 by canals, at the head of the Adriatic. These 
 canals serve the purpose of streets in other 
 
 towns, and the long, black gondolas con- 
 stantly plying along them answer for car- 
 riages. The public buildings of Venice are 
 numerous, and splendid though decayed: 
 there are the great cathedral of San Marco, 
 (the patron saint of Venice), the vast palace 
 of the doges, many fine churches, and the 
 marble mansions of a nobility that once had 
 wealth. The city is divided into two parts 
 by a canal broader than the rest, called the 
 grand canal, over which there is only one 
 bridge, the Rialto. The great arsenal, long 
 the main instrument of the power of the 
 republic, once employed 16,000 workmen; 
 it is now the dockyard of the Austrian navy. 
 The number of inhabitants is 100,000, exclu- 
 sive of the garrison. All the ancient spirit 
 and prosperity of the place are gone. 
 
 In the year 452 the people of Aquileia, 
 Iladua, and other Italian cities, to escape from 
 the fury of the savage followers of Attila, 
 fled to the islands at the mouth of the Brenta. 
 There they founded two cities, Rivoalto and 
 Malamocco, which in 697 were incorporated 
 under one magistrate, entitled a doge, or 
 duke. The first doge was Paolo Luca Ana- 
 festo. Pepin, as king of Italy, granted to 
 the rising town territory along the Adige, 
 and Rivoalto (Rialto), united with neighbor- 
 ing islands (now also built upon) took the 
 name of Venetiae from the province Venetia 
 (territory of the ancient Veneti), of which 
 these islands formed a dependency. The se- 
 cure position of the city'', its facilities for trade, 
 and the commercial enterprise of its inhabit- 
 ants, had in the eleventh century already rais- 
 ed it to great prosperity. Its fleets were pow- 
 erful, and its flag respected in all parts of the 
 Mediterranean. In the twelfth century Ven- 
 ice bore an illustrious part in the crusades. 
 In the dispute between Frederick Barbarossa 
 and Pope Alexander III., she took the side 
 of the holy see, and was thus involved in 
 war with the emperor. In a naval engage- 
 ment off the Istrian coast in 1177, the impe- 
 rial fleet, though superior in numbers, was 
 badly defeated, and Otho, the emperor’s son, 
 fell a captive to the Venetians. Alexander 
 was then at Venice, a refugee. When Ziani, 
 the victorious doge, returned, the pope has- 
 tened in person to receive his deliverer. As 
 soon as the doge touched the land, the holy 
 father gave him a golden ring. “ Take,” he 
 
 VEN 
 
908 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 said, “this ring; and with it take, on my 
 authority, the sea as your subject. Every 
 year, on the return of this happy day, you 
 and your successors shall make known to all 
 posterity that the right of conquest has sub- 
 jugated the Adriatic to Venice, as a spouse 
 to her lord.” Such was the origin of the 
 ceremony of wedding the Adriatic, and for 
 more than six hundred years every return 
 of the feast of Ascension witnessed these fig- 
 urative nuptials. 
 
 Genoa grew to be the commercial rival of 
 Venice, and a bitter jealousy existed between 
 the two republics. They came to blows in 
 1258, and after that their wars were frequent 
 and their battles sanguinary. In 1293 a 
 Venetian fleet was defeated by an inferior 
 Genoese armament, and among 7,000 cap- 
 tives made was Andrea Dondolo, its admiral. 
 The conquerors loaded him with chains, and 
 exposed him conspicuously to the rude gaze 
 of their fleet, as a signal token of victory. 
 
 In an agony of despair, the unfortunate Ve- 
 netian dashed out his brains against the side 
 of the galley. In the next century the tide 
 of triumph turned against Genoa. Off the 
 Sardinian coast in 1353, the Venetians gained 
 a great victory over her fleet, which, follow- 
 ing close upon previous reverses, caused the 
 utmost consternation among the Genoese, 
 and in their despair they offered the sove- 
 reignty of their dominions to Viscount, Arch- 
 bishop of Milan, in return for aid against 
 their foe. The end of the century saw Ven- 
 ice compelled to purchase peace : nevertheless 
 Genoa, though her power was apparently 
 increased, rapidly verged to decline ; while 
 Venice retrieved her losses, extended her 
 commerce, and maintained her independent 
 sovereignt}' - unshaken. 
 
 In 1355, Marino Faliero, fifty-seventh doge, 
 plotted a seizure of absolute power, through 
 a massacre of the entire aristocracy. The 
 attempt failed from the compunction of one 
 of the conspirators, who shrank from the 
 murder of a benefactor. He was anxious to 
 save the life of Nicolo Lioni, a noble in whose 
 family he had been reared ; and through a 
 mysterious warning to Lioni on the eve of 
 the rising, its impending danger became 
 known. The ringleaders were at once ar- 
 rested. The lesser of them perished on the 
 rack and the gibbet ; Faliero was beheaded. I 
 
 VEN 
 
 The wealth, grandeur, and power of Venice 
 continued to increase. She was embroiled in 
 frequent hostilities with the Turks, with the 
 Genoese, the Florentines, the Milanese, and 
 sometimes indeed all Italy, — -with varied suc- 
 cess and reverse. In 1489 the rich island 
 of Cyprus was annexed to the republic, 
 which was now at the meridian of power and 
 prosperity. By her growing continental ac- 
 quisitions she became more and more in- 
 volved in the labyrinth of European politics. 
 Jealous of her strength and opulence, almost 
 all the states of Christendom, suspending 
 their quarrels against each other, united for 
 her destruction. The famous league of Cam- 
 bray, Dec. 10th, 1508, was entered into by 
 Louis XII. of France, the Emperor Maximil- 
 ian, Pope Julius II., and Ferdinand of Arra- 
 gon, as an old chronicler says, “to ruin the 
 signory of Venice, which in great pomp and 
 with little regard to God lived gloriously and 
 gorgeously, making small account of the other 
 princes of Christendom.” By the battle of 
 Agnadello, in which the French were victo- 
 rious, the republic lost all her continental 
 territories ; but her fleet, her wealth, the 
 courage and -firmness of her citizens, and the 
 dissension that soon broke out among the 
 allies, raised her out of calamity and pro- 
 longed the term of her greatness. 
 
 In 1569, during the dogeship of Pietro 
 Loredano, Selim, the second Turkish sultan 
 of that name, cast his covetous eye upon the 
 fair isle of Cyprus, and at the terrible cost 
 of more than fifty thousand men, it was won. 
 The Venetian army had capitulated on hon- 
 orable terms : nevertheless Bragadino, their 
 commander, after having his ears, nose, and 
 lips cut off, was flayed alive, by order of Mus- 
 tapha, the Turkish general ; and several hun- 
 dred of his companions were massacred. 
 The success of the Ottoman arms alarmed 
 Christendom, and a league was formed by 
 Spain and the pope with Venice. The splen- 
 did victory of Lepanto, in 1571, filled the 
 Turks v, T ith consternation; jet, after all, “the 
 battell loste was unto Selyn.us as if a man 
 should shave his bearde, which would ere 
 long grow again ; but the losse of Cyprus 
 was unto the Venetians as the losse of an 
 arme, which once cut offc could never be 
 again e recovered.” 
 
 Venice had enjoyed only a brief respite 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 900 
 
 from the horrors of war, when she was 
 scourged by the plague, in 1575, which swept 
 off thousands of her people ; among them the 
 illustrious Titian. Then came a breathing 
 spell of quiet. Much attention was given to 
 the embellishment of the capital ; the single 
 marble arch of the far-famed Rialto was 
 thrown between the two great halves of the 
 city ; the prisons were made the strongest 
 in Europe. The commencement of the sev- 
 enteenth century was marked by a contest 
 with Pope Paul V. Throughout her history 
 Venice maintained with unbending firmness 
 stout barriers against the despotism of the 
 Vatican Paul’s bull of interdict had no 
 terrors for the Venetian senate ; their coun- 
 try’s exclusion from a jubilee which he pro- 
 claimed, troubled them as little. When the 
 pope threatened to use temporal instead of 
 spiritual weapons, they coolly made ready to 
 receive his armies. In order to animate the 
 populace, the doge, upon appointing an ad- 
 miral of the fleet, proceeded to the arsenal ; 
 from which establishment soldiers lined the 
 way on either side to the mint. One million 
 five hundred thousand ducats were spread 
 upon a table before the prince ; around that 
 table and the arcades of the portico was 
 stretched a chain of solid gold one hundred 
 feet in length ; and from the vast and glitter- 
 ing heap before him Donato distributed their 
 pay to the mariners. The quarrel never 
 came to war, for the pope drew in his horns, 
 and St. Mark triumphed over St. Peter. 
 
 A conspiracy formed by the emissaries of 
 Spain, in 1618, brought Venice to the brink 
 of destruction ; but the senate obtaining in- 
 formation in season, had most of the accom- 
 plices drowned in the canals. In a few years 
 the republic was embroiled in another war 
 with the Porte, an arduous struggle that 
 lasted more than a quarter-century, 1641- 
 1669. The Turkish attack was directed 
 against Candia, the last remnant of the share 
 of Venice in the partition of the Eastern em- 
 pire. For twenty years the siege of the city of 
 Candia was continued, and the grand vizier, 
 and many of his officers, instead of dwelling 
 in tents, erected substantial houses. The city 
 was surrounded in September, 1669, and 
 peace was made. During this long war, the 
 Venetians won many brilliant naval victories. 
 
 The prolonged and mighty contest had 
 
 exhausted the resources of the republic, and 
 with the loss of Candia her decline began, — 
 not, however, wholly on account of the war. 
 Her greatness had its rise in the commercial 
 spirit of her people, and their enterprise in 
 navigation and ship-building. The products 
 of the east were transported by Venetian 
 keels from the Levant to the island city, and 
 thence distributed over Europe. The cru- 
 sades threw great sums into Venetian coffers 
 in pay for the transport of troops, and helped 
 to render her mistress of the Morea, the 
 iEgean Islands, and other parts of the Greek 
 empire. But after Vasco di Gama had found 
 the way to India by sea, the commerce of 
 Venice gradually diminished, and with it her 
 political eminence slowly dwindled away. 
 
 Hostilities in Turkey were renewed in 
 1683, and a brief season of glory rested on 
 the arms of the decaying republic. The 
 Morea was wrested from the infidel, and the 
 peace of 1699 left it in Venice’s possession. 
 But she could not maintain it, and the treaty 
 of Passarowitz in 1718 gave it back. Thence- 
 forth she is a cipher in the history of Eu- 
 rope. Twice more only did she appear in 
 arms: in 1765 and in 1774 she chastised the 
 pirates of Tripoli and Tunis with a spirit 
 worthy of her better days. She became 
 famous as a haunt of unlicensed pleasure, 
 and seemed to seek in excess a compensation 
 for the surrender of ambition. Her year 
 was so filled with political or religious festi- 
 vals as to be one continued holiday. The 
 carnival seldom attracted less than fifty thou- 
 sand strangers to mingle in unrestrained 
 indulgence and sin among the gay masks of 
 Venice. The fever of gambling raged un- 
 checked, and the trade of the courtesan was 
 protected by the government. The city 
 seemed abandoned to iniquity. Then came 
 the French revolution, and the invasion of 
 Italy by Bonaparte. The Venetians, in order 
 to check the progress of the republican forces, 
 put Peschiera into the hands of the imperi- 
 alists, in 1796 : but Bonaparte quickly be- 
 coming master of Italy, they endeavored to 
 conciliate the favor of France, by warning 
 out of their territories the Comte de Lille 
 (afterward Louis XVIII.), the unfortunate 
 brother of -the late king, whom they treated 
 with indignity and insult. 
 
 Let us go back a little. On the accession 
 
 VEN 
 
910 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 of Henry of Navarre to the crown of France, 
 Venice was among the first powers that recog- 
 nized his title ; and the great benefit which 
 the king derived from this early acknowledg- 
 ment by a state so renowned for political 
 sagacity was repaid by him with lasting 
 friendship. He knighted the ambassadors 
 of the republic, and presented the treasury 
 of St. Mark’s with a suit of armor, and the 
 sword that he wore on the field of Ivry. 
 The signory, in return, entered his name in 
 the Golden Book, in which the names of the 
 Venetian nobles were enrolled; and in- 
 structed their ambassadors to burn, in the 
 king’s presence, certain obligations for con- 
 siderable sums which he had borrowed dur- 
 ing his necessities. Henry gaily assured the 
 envoy that he had never before warmed him- 
 self at so agreeable a fire. When, now, the 
 Comte de Lille was ordered to depart from 
 the dominions of the degenerate republic, he 
 responded, with more spirit than he often 
 evinced, “I will quit your territories ; but I 
 first demand your Golden Book, that I may 
 erase from it the name of my family; and 
 next the armor which my ancestor Henry IV. 
 presented as a token of amity to your repub- 
 lic.” The signory replied, that they would 
 erase the names themselves, and would return 
 the armor when the debts contracted by 
 Henry IV. had been discharged. 
 
 Bonaparte had already resolved upon the 
 destruction of the Venetian government. 
 What was pusillanimons Venice to resist 
 him! On the 12th of May, 1797, the capital 
 was surrendered to him, and the most ancient 
 government in the world, which had just 
 completed the eleventh century of i:s sway, 
 ceased its existence. By the treaty of Campo 
 Formio, the-next October, Venice, with most 
 of her dependencies, was given to Austria. 
 The peace of Presburg, 1805, ceded her to 
 the kingdom of Italy. In 1814 she was re- 
 stored to Austria. 
 
 In 1860, Austria, sorely defeated by Prus- 
 sia and Italy in alliance, had to surrender 
 Venetia. After 70 years of tyranny, the 
 Austrian soldier was driven out, Venice was 
 liberated, and the fond hope of Italian na- 
 tionality at length realized. The entrance of 
 the King of Italy into this “City of the Sea,” 
 was celebrated by every expression of grati- 
 tude and delight. 
 
 In its ancient days Venice was governed 
 by an elected council which shared the legis- 
 lative power with the doge. The council 
 afterward obtained a great preponderance of 
 power, and its members even appointed their 
 successors, so that the government became a 
 close oligarchy. In course of time a senate 
 was instituted to settle questions of peace 
 and war. The senators, as well as the coun- 
 selors of the doge, were appointed by the 
 great council. The doge and his council con- 
 stituted the signory. The discontents and 
 frequent revolts of the fourteenth century 
 led to the establishment of the black-robed 
 Council of Ten, which by degrees sapped the 
 foundations of republican government. Its 
 members were chosen by the grand counciL 
 Its rule was darkly marked with espionage, 
 assassination, and terror. It much resembled 
 the inquisition. It inquired, sentenced, and 
 punished, according to what it called reason 
 of state. The public eye never penetrated 
 the mystery of its proceedings ; the accused 
 was sometimes not heard, — never confronted 
 with witnesses ; the condemnation was secret 
 as the inquiry, — the punishment like both. 
 Though instituted only for the cognizance of 
 state crimes, and dependent for existence on 
 the will of the grand council, it gradually 
 attributed to itself the control of all branches 
 of the government. A more formidable, 
 remarkable, and execrable magistracy is not 
 known. It fell with the republic it helped 
 to ruin. 
 
 VERA CRUZ, the chief port and commer- 
 cial town of Mexico on the gulf, has a popu- 
 lation of about 11,000. The castle of San 
 Juan de Ulloa, a fortress of great strength, 
 erected at a cost of $40,000,000, defends the 
 entrance to the harbor. In February, 1847, 
 an American land and naval force was con- 
 centrated in the Gulf of Mexico, the army 
 commanded by Gen. Scott, and the squadron 
 by Commodore Conner, who was afterward 
 relieved by Commodore Perry. On the 9th 
 of March the troops were debarked at Vera 
 Cruz, and on the following day a rapid fire 
 of shot and shell was opened from the town 
 and castle on the position occupied by the 
 American army. The landing of the mortars 
 and guns for our batteries was delayed for 
 several days, so that the bombardment did 
 not begin till the 23d. Gen. Scott summoned 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 911 
 
 the town to surrender, a demand that was 
 refused by Morales, the Mexican governor. 
 A continuous fire from the American bat- 
 teries was maintained with terrible effect 
 until the 26th of March, and articles of 
 capitulation were signed on the following day. 
 The surrender of the city took place on the 
 morning of the 29th, when the Mexican 
 soldiers marched to a plain, a mile out of 
 the town, where the Americans were drawn 
 up to receive them. There they laid down 
 their arms, and then departed for the in- 
 terior. 
 
 VERE, Sir Francis, an English general, 
 was the grandson of John Vere, Earl of Ox- 
 ford, and was born in 155L He served first 
 in the Netherlands, under the Earl of Lei- 
 cester, and next under Lord Willoughby, 
 who, for his conduct in the defense of Ber- 
 gen-op-Zoo:n, conferred on him the honor of 
 knighthood. After this he threw supplies 
 into the town of Berg, on the Rhine, in which 
 hazardous service he received many wounds. 
 In 1591 he took a fort near Zutphen b} 7- strat- 
 agem, and was chiefly instrumental in the 
 capture of Deventer. In 1596 he w r as re- 
 called from the Netherlands, and employed 
 in the expedition against Cadiz, with the title 
 of lord marshal. The last great action of 
 this gallant commander was the defense of 
 Ostend for the Dutch, where he succeeded in 
 
 repelling, with a small garrison of twelve 
 hundred men, an army of ten thousand Span- 
 ish troops commanded by Albert, Archduke 
 of Austria, who was forced to raise the siege 
 in March, 1602, after lying ten months before 
 the place. Sir Francis died Aug. 28th, 1608, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 VERE, Sir Horace, Baron of Tilbury, 
 younger brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Kirby Hall in Essex, in 1565. He served 
 with his brother in the Netherlands, and had 
 a considerable share in the victory near Nieu- 
 port ; as he afterward had in the defense of 
 Ostend. In the reign of James I., he com- 
 manded the forces sent to the assistance of 
 the elector palatine : on which occasion he 
 effected a memorable retreat from Spinola, 
 the Spanish general. He was the first per- 
 son raised to the peerage by Charles I. He 
 died in 1635. 
 
 VERGENNES, Charles Gravier, Comte 
 de, an eminent French statesman, was born 
 at Dijon in 1717. On the accession of Louis 
 XYI. to the throne he was made secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs. In this situation 
 he distinguished himself by what he, no 
 doubt, considered a master-stroke of policy, 
 that of separating England and her colonies ; 
 but in this he only accelerated a more fatal 
 blow to his own country. He died at Ver- 
 sailles, Feb. 13 th, 1787. 
 
 VERMONT has an area of 10,212 square 
 miles, and in 1870 had 330,551 inhabitants. 
 The most striking feature of the state is the 
 mountainous range called the Green Moun- 
 tains, which traverses it from north to south. 
 
 The Green Mountains are from ten to fifteen 
 miles broad, much intersected with valleys, 
 and they derive their name from their per- 
 petual verdure, their sides being covered 
 with evergreen shrubs and trees, and their 
 
 VER 
 
912 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 summits with green moss and winter grass. 
 There are many fine farms among the moun- 
 tains, arid much of the land upon them is fit 
 for grazing. The highest summit is Mans- 
 field Mountain, in Lamoille county, 4,279 
 feet. Vermont is an agricultural state. Be- 
 tween the mountains and Lake Champlain 
 is much good arable land, and fertile tracts 
 skirt the Connecticut ; but generally the soil 
 is better fitted for pasturage. Many excellent 
 horses are raised for the markets of other 
 states, and cattle and sheep are reared in 
 large numbers. Iron ore is found in abun- 
 dance along the western base of the Green 
 Mountains. Large quantities of copperas 
 are made from the sulphuret of iron. Hand- 
 some marble is quarried, beside soapstone, 
 granite, &c. 
 
 Fort Dummer was built by Massachusetts 
 on Connecticut River in 1724, and when in 
 1731 a fort was built at Crown Point by the 
 French from Canada, they also settled on the 
 opposite shore of Lake Champlain, within 
 the present limits of Vermont. In 1741 a 
 boundary line was run between Massachu- 
 setts and New Hampshire, and in 1749 Ben- 
 ning Wentworth, governor of New Hamp- 
 shire, concluding that the boundary of that 
 colony extended as far west as that of Mas- 
 sachusetts, that is, to within twenty miles of 
 the Hudson, made a grant of a township of 
 land, six miles square, which from his own 
 first name was called Bennington. Other 
 grants were subsequently made, and several 
 towns planted on the west side of Connecti- 
 cut River. But New York also claimed the 
 jurisdiction, and in the year 1764 the king 
 annexed the territory west of the Connecti- 
 cut River to that province ; the government 
 of which declared the New Hampshire grants 
 null and void, and demanded that the settlers 
 should take out new deeds, and pay for their 
 lands a second time. This was refused, and 
 the next year several of the officers in at- 
 tempting to execute the judgments of the 
 courts of New York, were resisted and 
 wounded. At the head of this opposition 
 were Ethan Allen and Seth Warner, men of 
 coolness and resolution. 
 
 In 1774 the government of New York 
 passed a law demanding the surrender of all 
 offenders under severe penalties, and offering 
 a bounty of £50 per head on the apprehen- 
 
 sion of eight of the most obnoxious settlers. 
 While preparing for civil war, the revolution 
 commenced, the importance of which absorbed 
 all minor considerations. In 1777, the dec- 
 laration of independence having left the set- 
 tlers in a critical situation, a convention of 
 representatives from the towns on both sides 
 of the mountains, was held at Westminster, 
 and the district was declared a free and inde- 
 pendent state. It received its name from the 
 French words Verd mont (green mountain), 
 which name had been conferred by Ethan 
 Allen on the mountains, and was afterward 
 transferred to the state. In 1790 the dispute 
 between New York and Vermont was ad- 
 justed, the latter giving 20,000 dollars for the 
 quitclaim of the former ; the claims of New 
 Hampshire were also adjusted ; and the next 
 year Vermont was admitted into the Union. 
 
 The present constitution was adopted in 
 1793. An amendment establishing a senate 
 was adopted in 1836, and the legislative 
 power is now vested in the general assembly, 
 elected by the people annually ; the executive 
 in a governor, chosen at the same time. The 
 right of suffrage belongs to every male adult 
 who has resided in the state one year, and is 
 of quiet and peaceable behavior. The su- 
 preme court is composed of six judges, 
 and holds a stated session in each county an- 
 nually. 
 
 Montpelier, the capital of the state, lies in 
 a pleasant valley between the eastern and 
 western chains of the mountains, at the 
 junction of the north and south branches of 
 the Onion or Winooski River; population in 
 1870, 3,023. Burlington, the largest town 
 and the chief commercial place on Lake 
 Champlain, is handsomely situated on a gen- 
 tly rising slope that overlooks the lake, and 
 has an excellent harbor ; population in 1870, 
 14,387. 
 
 VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, 
 was born in Westminster, of a Staffordshire 
 family, Nov. 12th, 1684. Ilis father was 
 secretary of state to King William, and re- 
 luctantly suffered him to enter into the sea 
 service under Admiral Hopson. In 1704 he 
 was with Sir George Rooke, at the battle of 
 Malaga. After a variety of service under 
 different commanders, he was made vice- 
 admiral of the blue in 1739, and sent with a 
 squadron to Spanish America, where lie took 
 
 VER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 913 
 
 Porto Bello, and destroyed the fortifications ; 
 but in 1741 he proved unsuccessful in an at- 
 tack upon Carthagena, from disagreement 
 with Gen. Wentworth, commander of the 
 land forces. On his return home, he was 
 employed in guarding the coasts of Kent and 
 Sussex during the rebellion of 1745 ; but 
 soon after he was superseded, and even struck 
 off the list of admirals for acting in opposi- 
 tion to the ministry. He died Oct. 29th, 
 1757. 
 
 Admiral Vernon’s nickname at sea was 
 Old Grog, from a rough grogram cloak he 
 wore, and his favorite beverage of rum and 
 water took the name from him. 
 
 VERONESE. Paolo Cagliari, commonly 
 known, from the place of his birth, as Paul 
 Veronese, was born at Verona in 1528. He 
 established himself in Venice, where he ulti- 
 mately became the rival of Titian, Tinto- 
 retto, and other great masters of the Vene- 
 tian school in painting ; and there he died, 
 April 20th, 1588. His pictures are noted for 
 their rich coloring and freedom of execution, 
 though often careless in drawing and capri- 
 cious in costume. Some of them have splen- 
 did architectural backgrounds. 
 
 VERRES, Caius Licinius, a Roman who 
 governed the province of Sicily as praetor. 
 The oppression and rapine of which he was 
 guilty, while in office, so offended the Sicil- 
 ians, that they brought an accusation against 
 him before the Roman senate. Cicero under- 
 took the cause of the Sicilians. Verres was 
 defended by Hortensius, but as he despaired 
 of the success of his defense, he left Rome 
 without waiting for his sentence, and lived in 
 great affluence in one of the provinces. He 
 was at last killed by the soldiers of Antony 
 the triumvir, about twenty-six years after 
 his voluntary exile from the capital. 
 
 VERSAILLES. In the reign of Louis 
 
 XIII. Versailles was only a small village, in 
 a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this 
 prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis 
 
 XIV. in 1687 enlarged .it into a magnificent 
 palace, which was finished in 1708, and was 
 the usual residence of the court of France 
 till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family 
 were removed from it to Paris. It was after- 
 ward the residence of Louis Philippe, and is 
 still a royal palace. 
 
 The definitive treaty of peace between 
 
 58 
 
 Great Britain and the United States, by 
 which the latter power was admitted to be a 
 sovereign and independent state, was signed 
 at Paris. On the same day the definitive 
 treaty was signed at Versailles between 
 Grqat Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3d, 
 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Ver- 
 sailles, Pondicherry and Carical, with the 
 former possessions in Bengal, were restored 
 to France. Trincomalee at the same time 
 was restored to the Dutch. 
 
 In the park of Versailles are the two royal 
 seats, the Grand Trianon and the Petit Tria- 
 non ; the former was built by Louis XIV., 
 the latter by Louis XV. 
 
 VESPASIANUS, Titus Flavius, a Roman 
 emperor, descended from an obscure family 
 at Reate. He was honored with the consul- 
 ship, not so much by the influence of the 
 imperial courtiers, as by his own private merit 
 and his public services. He accompanied 
 Nero into Greece, but he offended the prince 
 by falling asleep while he repeated one of 
 his poetical compositions. This momentary 
 resentment of the emperor did not prevent 
 Vespasian from being sent to carry on a war 
 against the Jews. His operations were 
 crowned with success ; many of the cities 
 of Palestine surrendered, and Vespasian be- 
 gan the siege of Jerusalem. This was, how- 
 ever, achieved by his son Titus. After the 
 death of Otho, a.d. 69, he was induced by 
 his army to become emperor ; and he easily 
 overcame Vitellius. The choice of the army 
 was approved by every province of the em- 
 pire ; but Vespasian did not betray any 
 signs of pride at so sudden and so unexpected 
 an exaltation, and he behaved, when invested 
 with the imperial purple, with the dignity 
 and greatness which became a successor of 
 Augustus. In the beginning of his reign, 
 Vespasian attempted to reform the manners 
 of the Romans. He took away an appoint- 
 ment which he had a few days before granted 
 to a young nobleman, when the fellow ap- 
 proached him to return him thanks, all 
 smelling of perfumes and covered with oint- 
 ment ; adding, “ I had rather you had smelt 
 of garlic.” After he had reigned with great 
 popularity for ten years, Vespasian died of a 
 complaint in his bowels, a.d. 79, in the sev- 
 entieth year of his age, to the great grief of 
 all the empire. He was the first of the Ro- 
 
 VES 
 
914 : 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 man emperors who was succeeded by his own i The Coliseum was commenced by Vespa- 
 son on the throne. Vespasian has been ad- sian in the last year of his life, and completed 
 mired for his great virtues. | in the reign of his son Titus. 
 
 VESUVIUS. 
 
 VESUVIUS, Mount, threw out such a 
 quantity of flame and smoke, that the air 
 was darkened, and the cities of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the 
 burning lava, a.d. 79. More than 250,000 
 persons perished by the destruction of those 
 cities ; the sun’s light was totally obscured 
 for two days throughout Naples ; great quan- 
 tities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were 
 carried not only to Rome, but also beyond 
 the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
 suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the 
 ground, and the fishes perished in the neigh- 
 boring waters, which were made hot and 
 infected by it. This eruption proved fatal 
 to Pliny, the naturalist. Herculaneum was 
 discovered in 1787, and many curious arti- 
 cles have been dug from the ruins since that 
 time ; but everything combustible had the 
 marks of having been burned by fire. Nu- 
 merous eruptions have occurred, causing great 
 devastation and loss of life. In 1631 the 
 town of Torre del Greco, with four thousand 
 persons, and a great part of the surrounding 
 country, were destroyed. One of the most 
 dreadful eruptions ever known took place 
 suddenly, Nov. 24th, 1759. The violent 
 burst in 1767 was the thirty -fourth from the 
 time of Titus, when Pompeii was buried. 
 
 One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava 
 flowed over five thousand acres of rich vine- 
 yards and cultivated lands. .There have been 
 several eruptions since: one in May, 1855, 
 caused great destruction of property, and 
 another in Nov. 1867, issuing volumes of 
 smoke and flame from several new craters. 
 
 VIENNA (Wien), the capital of the Aus- 
 trian empire, stands on the south bank of the 
 Danube, at its confluence with the little river 
 Wien, which flows through the city. The 
 population, exclusive of the military, num- 
 bers above 410,000. Vienna consists of the 
 interior or old' city, which is walled, and the 
 suburbs. Its palaces, churches, charitable 
 establishments, literary institutions, fine 
 promenades and parks, and the gaycty of the 
 society, make this one of the most noted of 
 European capitals. St. Stephen’s cathedral, 
 a majestic gothic structure of freestone, 
 built in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 
 is one of the finest specimens of ancient Ger- 
 man architecture. In the highest of its four 
 towers (above 450 feet), hangs the great bell, 
 weighing 357 cwt., cast in 1711 out of 180 
 pieces of Turkish cannon, which had been 
 used in the siege of Vienna. The crypt be- 
 neath the church consists of thirty large 
 vaults, in which since the time of Ferdinand 
 
 VIE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 915 
 
 HI. the bowels of all the deceased members 
 of the imperial family are deposited in cop- 
 per or silver urns ; their hearts being depos- 
 ited in the Augustinian church, and their 
 bodies in the church of the Capuchins. 
 The Burg, the imperial palace, is an 
 old and irregular edifice. It contains 
 the imperial jewel office, one of the richest 
 collections of the kind in Europe, a fine cab- 
 inet of works of art, a very extensive col- 
 lection of natural history, and the cabinet of 
 medals, which far surpasses all other numis- 
 matic collections. The imperial library is 
 rich in oriental manuscripts and valuable en- 
 gravings. The palace of the Archduke 
 Charles also has an extensive library and 
 collection of engravings and drawings. The 
 university of Vienna, founded in 1365, is 
 famous as the first medical school in Germa- 
 ny, and is attended by over two thousand 
 students. 
 
 Vienna is the centre of the commerce and 
 manufactures of Austria. Steam vessels ply 
 along the Danube, and to Constantinople, 
 Trebizond, Smyrna, &c. Railways connect 
 the city with all the important towns of the 
 empire, and the electric telegraph gives it 
 instant communication with all the chief 
 cities in Europe. The principal manufac- 
 tures are silk, velvet, shawls, gold and sil- 
 ver lace, cottons, woolens, ribands, carpets, 
 leather, porcelain, jewelry, mathematical and 
 musical instruments, cannon and fire-arms, 
 gold and silver plate, watches, fine cutlery, 
 carriages, gloves, lace, straw hats, paper, &c. 
 The printing of large and accurate maps, and 
 of books in various dialects of human speech, 
 is much encouraged by the government. 
 The imperial printing-office is the most com- 
 plete in the world. 
 
 One of the favorite promenades of the 
 Viennese is on the ramparts of the old town, 
 and the broad glacis or esplanade between 
 them and the suburbs. Here is commanded 
 a fine view of the picturesque environs, — the 
 beautiful islands of the Danube, the Noric 
 Alps, the lofty Kahlcnberg mountain, thick 
 forests, rich vineyards, ruined castles, an- 
 tique churches, modern palaces, and hand- 
 some country seats. Another thronged re- 
 sort is the Prater, an immense park opened 
 to the public by Joseph II. in 1766. It is a 
 league and a half in length, and is traversed 
 
 by six noble avenues of chestnut-trees, run- 
 ning in different directions, the principal one 
 being 15,000 feet long. These are divided 
 into three parts, one for horsemen, one for 
 pedestrians, and the broad road between 
 them for carriages. Beyond the avenues are 
 fine meadows, with groups of stately trees 
 and large herds of deer. The Prater is 
 crowded with company every Sunday in the 
 spring: its grand day is Easter Monday, 
 when there may be 20,000 pedestrians, and 
 an uninterrupted line of carriages six miles 
 in length. Along the walks are many coffee- 
 houses. The most characteristic part of the 
 Prater, however, is the Wurstel Prater, so 
 called from the puppet-shows ( Wurstel-spiele ) 
 there exhibited. It is covered with innume- 
 rable booths, swings, roundabouts, jugglers, 
 and all sorts of diversions for the lower 
 classes. The whole is like a great encamp- 
 ment of sutlers’ shops ; long rows of tables 
 and benches are constantly supplied with 
 guests. 
 
 Vienna, called by the Romans Vindobona , 
 was long the head-quarters of a Roman le- 
 gion, and the capital of Pannonia. It was 
 overrun by the Goths and Huns. Charle- 
 magne annexed it to his dominions in 791. 
 Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136, 
 and was walled and enlarged with the ransom 
 paid for Richard I. of England, £40,000, in 
 1194. The most remarkable events in its 
 annals are the sieges it has sustained. In 
 484 it was taken by Mathias, King of Hun- 
 gary, who resided in it till his death, when 
 it was restored to Austria. Besieged by the 
 Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with 
 an army of 300,000 men ; but he was forced 
 to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 
 his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 
 1683, when the siege was raised by John 
 Sobieski, King of Poland, who totally de- 
 feated the Turkish army of over 100,000 
 which had cannonaded the city from July 
 24th to the beginning of November. Vienna 
 was taken by the French, under Murat, Nov. 
 14th, 1805 ; and evacuated Jan. 12th follow- 
 ing. They again captured it, May 13th, 
 1809 ; but restored it once more on the con- 
 clusion of peace between the two countries. 
 Oct. 14th same year. Conference of the min- 
 isters of the allies and France, Sept. 28th, 
 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2d, 1814 
 
916 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 In the Hungarian war of 1848-9, in an in- 
 surrection here, Count Latour, minister of 
 war, was assassinated; Vienna was in the 
 hands of the insurgents, and the emperor 
 fled, Oct. 6th, 1848. The imperialists under 
 Prince Windischgratz, amounting to 75,000 
 men, commenced, Oct. 28th following, an at- 
 tack on the city, which continued until Nov. 
 1st, when they recovered possession of it, 
 totally defeating the Hungarian army. 
 
 Vienna has been an important spot in di- 
 plomacy. Here was signed, April 30th, 
 1725, the celebrated treaty between the Empe- 
 ror of Germany and the King of Spain, by 
 which they confirmed to each other such 
 parts of the Spanish dominions as they were 
 respectively possgssed of, and by a private 
 treaty the emperor engaged to employ a 
 force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar 
 to Spain, and to use means for placing the 
 Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. 
 Spain guaranteed the pragmatic sanction. 
 This was followed, March 16th, 1731, by a 
 treaty of alliance at Vienna between the 
 Emperor Charles VI., George II. of England, 
 and the States of Holland, by which the 
 pragmatic sanction was guaranteed, and the 
 disputes as to the Spanish succession termi- 
 nated. Spain acceded to this treaty -on the 
 22 d of July. 
 
 Here was made a definitive treaty of peace 
 between the Emperor Charles VI. of Ger- 
 many and Louis XV. of France, by which 
 the latter power agreed to guarantee the 
 pragmatic sanction, and Lorraine was ceded 
 to France, Nov. 18th, 1738. 
 
 One of the most noted treaties of Vienna 
 is that between Napoleon and the Emperor 
 Francis, Oct. 14th, 1809 ; to which the latter 
 was brought by the decisive battle of Wag- 
 ram. Austria ccc(ed a great portion of her 
 territory ; agreed to a contribution to indem- 
 nify France for the expenses of the war, and 
 acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte king of 
 Spain. To Bavaria she gave up Saltz- 
 burg, and a tract of country along the 
 banks of the Danube, from Passau to 
 Lintz. To Saxony she yielded the whole of 
 western Gallicia. To Russia so much of the 
 eastern part of that province as contained a 
 population of 40,000 souls. To France she 
 ceded Fiume and Trieste, with the whole of 
 the country south of the Saave, to where 
 
 that river enters Bosnia. She also gave up 
 the inhabitants of the Tyrol, on condition of 
 their receiving from Bonaparte a full and 
 free pardon ; and engaged to adhere to the 
 prohibitory system adopted toward England 
 by France and Russia. 
 
 The treaty of Vienna between Great Brit- 
 ain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming 
 the principles on which they had acted by 
 the treaty of Chaumont, March 1st, 1814; 
 signed March 23d, 1815. The treaty of Vien- 
 na between the King of the Low Countries 
 on the one part, and Great Britain, Russia, 
 Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing 
 to the enlargement of the Dutch territories, 
 and vesting the sovereignty in the house of 
 Orange, May 31st, 1815. The treaty of 
 Vienna : Denmark cedes Swedish Pomera- 
 nia and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for 
 Lauenburg, June 4th, 1815. The federa- 
 tive constitution of Germany signed at Vien- 
 na, June 8th, 1815. 
 
 After the Russians had passed the Pruth, 
 in July, 1853, a conference of the four great 
 powers, England, France, Austria, and Prus- 
 sia, was held at Vienna, July 24th, when a 
 note was. agreed on and transmitted for ac- 
 ceptance to St. Petersburg and Constantino- 
 ple, July 31st. This note was accepted by 
 the czar, Aug. 10th, but the sultan required 
 modifications which were rejected by Russia, 
 Sept. 7th. On Dec. 5th, the four powers 
 transmitted a collective note to the Porte, 
 deploring the war and requesting to know 
 on what terms the sultan would treat for 
 peace. The sultan replied in a note, dated 
 Dec. 31st, containing four points : 1. The 
 promptest possible evacuation of the princi- 
 palities ; 2. Revision of the treaties ; 3. 
 Maintenance of religious privileges to the 
 communities of all confessions ; 4. A defini- 
 tive settlement of the convention respecting 
 the holy places. These points were approved 
 by the four powers, Jan. 15th, 1854, and the 
 conferences closed on Jan. 16th following. 
 On April 9th, 1854, a treaty was signed at 
 Vienna by the representatives of England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia, for the main- 
 tenance of Turkey, evacuation of the princi- 
 palities, &c. A new conference was proposed 
 in January, 1855, which met in March, con- 
 sisting of plenipotentiaries from Great Brit- 
 ain (Lord John Russel), France (M. Drouin 
 
 VIE 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 917 
 
 de l’Huys), Austria (Count Buol), Turkey 
 (Arif Effendi), and Russia (Count Gortscha- 
 koff). Two points, the protectorate of the 
 principalities, and the free navigation of the 
 Danube, were agreed to ; but the proposals 
 of the powers as to the reduction of the 
 Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected 
 by the czar, and the conference was again 
 closed June 5th, 1855. The English and 
 French envoys’ assent to the Austrian propo- 
 sitions was not approved of by their respec- 
 tive governments, and they both resigned 
 their official positions. 
 
 YILLARS, Louis Hector, Duke of, a 
 French general, was born at Moulins, in 
 1653. After a variety of services, he gained 
 the battle of Friedlingen in 1762 ; for which 
 he was made marshal of France. The fol- 
 lowing year he took the fortress of Kehl, 
 and put an end to the insurrection in the 
 Cevennes, for which he was created Duke of 
 Villars. In 1707 he forced the lines at Stol- 
 hotfen ; but in 1709 he lost the battle of 
 Malplaquet, and was wounded. In 1712 he 
 acquired glory by forcing the Austrian in- 
 trenchments at Denain on the Scheldt, which 
 exploit was succeeded by the capture of 
 Marchiennes, Douay, Bouchain, Landau, and 
 Friburg. The peace of Rastadt followed ; 
 after which Villars was made president of 
 the council of war, and minister of state. 
 In 1733 he commanded in Italy, with the 
 title of marshal-general of the French camps 
 and armies. He died at Turin, June 17th, 
 1734. 
 
 VILLIERS, George, Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, was the son of Sir George Villiers, of 
 Brookesby in Leicestershire, and was born 
 there in 1592. He attracted the notice of 
 James I. at the performance of the play of 
 “Ignoramus,” in 1615 ; soon after which he 
 was successively appointed cup-bearer to the 
 king, gentleman of the bedchamber, and 
 knight of the garter. He also rose to the 
 rank of marquis, and became lord admiral 
 of England, warden of the cinque ports, and 
 master of the horse. But in 1623 he lost the 
 royal favor, in a great degree, by persuading 
 Prince Charles to visit the Court of Spain, 
 for the purpose of paying his addresses in 
 person to the infanta. Though Buckingham 
 was created a duke in his absence, it was 
 supposed that if the king had lived, his fall 
 
 would have been as rapid as his rise. The 
 accession of Charles in 1625 increased the 
 power of the favorite, but it also multiplied 
 his enemies and injured his master. The 
 nation hated Buckingham, and two parlia- 
 ments were dissolved for impeaching him. 
 At this period the duke involved the king- 
 dom in a disgraceful war with France, and 
 went himself on an expedition to the Isle of 
 Rhe, where he lost the flower of his army. 
 He then returned to repair his fleet, and was 
 about to sail for Rochelle, when he was assas- 
 sinated, at Portsmouth, by Felton, a fanatical 
 lieutenant, Aug. 23d, 1628. He had abused 
 his power shamelessly, and displayed great 
 ambition, avarice, and caprice. When he 
 visited the court of Louis XIII., to finish the 
 negotiations for the marriage of Charles and 
 Henrietta Maria, pearls were sewed so loosely 
 upon his velvet mantle that at every step he 
 scattered them for the profit of the surround- 
 ing courtiers. 
 
 VILLIERS, George, the second Duke of 
 Buckingham, was the son of the preceding, 
 and was born in 1627. After studying at 
 Cambridge, he went abroad, and on his re- 
 turn entered into the royal army, for which 
 he was deprived of his estate by the parlia- 
 ment, but recovered a great part of it in 
 1657, by marrying the daughter of Lord 
 Fairfax. At the restoration he was made one 
 of the lords of the bed-chamber, lord-lieu- 
 tenant of Yorkshire, and master of the horse. 
 Of these honors, however, he was deprived 
 in 1666, for being concerned in a plot to 
 effect a change of government. Notwith- 
 standing this, he recovered the royal favor, 
 and retained it awhile. In the course of his. 
 vagrant amours he was attracted for a mo- 
 ment by the Countess of Shrewsbury. 
 She was easily won. Her lord challenged 
 the gallant, and fell. Some said that the 
 abandoned woman witnessed the combat 
 in man’s attire, and others that she clasped 
 her victorious lover to her bosom while he 
 was yet dripping with the blood of her hus- 
 band. Another of Buckingham’s outrages 
 was the hiring of Blood to seize the Duke of 
 Ormond in his coach. In 1676 the duke, 
 with the Earls of Shaftesbury and Salisbury, 
 and Lord Wharton, were sent to the Tower, 
 by order of the house of peers, for contempt. 
 On a petition to the king, however, they were 
 
 VIL 
 
918 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 all released. This profligate nobleman died 
 at an obscure house at Kirkby Moorside, of 
 a fever, April 16th, 1688. His wit and tal- 
 ents were brilliant, and he did something to 
 improve the literary taste of his age. 
 
 VIMEIRA, a village of Portuguese Estre- 
 madura, three miles from Torres Yedras, and 
 twenty-eight miles north-west of Lisbon. It 
 is remarkable for a battle between the Brit- 
 ish, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, and the 
 French, under Marshal Junot, 21st August, 
 1808. The French commenced the attack on 
 various points with their usual impetuosity, 
 and met a resistance to which they had long 
 been unaccustomed. The flower of their 
 troops made a charge against the British cen- 
 tre and left, who received them with a tre- 
 mendous volley, then charged with the bay- 
 onet, and in one moment their front rank fell 
 like grass before the mower’s scythe. They 
 gave way, and abandoned six pieces of can- 
 non in their flight. Having failed in their 
 other attacks, they commenced a retreat, af- 
 ter sustaining a loss of 1,800 men, and thir- 
 teen pieces of cannon. In this decisive vic- 
 tory not more than half the British army 
 was engaged. Their loss was 720. 
 
 VINCI, Leonardo da, was born in the 
 valley of the Arno near Florence, in 1452. 
 He was placed early with Andrea Verroc- 
 chio, a Florentine painter and sculptor, who 
 finding after a short time that he was sur- 
 passed by his pupil in painting, gave up that 
 art in despair and confined himself thence- 
 forth to sculpture, wherein he found reward 
 of great success and eminence. Leonardo 
 seems to have been an almost universal genius. 
 Besides his devotion to painting, he excelled 
 in seulpture, architecture, engineering, and 
 mechanics generally ; botany, anatomy, 
 mathematics, and astronomy, he was well 
 versed in ; he was a poet also, and an admi- 
 rable extempore performer on the lyre. The 
 letter in which he offered his services to 
 Lodovico il Moro, Duke of Milan, about 1483, 
 contained this proud passage : “ I will also 
 undertake any work in sculpture, in marble, 
 in bronze, or in terra-cotta : likewise in paint- 
 ing, I can do what can be done, as well as 
 any man, be he whom he may.” The duke 
 took Leonardo into his service, and the cele- 
 brated painting of “ The Last Supper,” exe- 
 cuted in oil on the wall in the refectory of 
 
 the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle 
 Grazie, about 1495, was considered the great- 
 est work that had been executed in the art 
 up to that time, and more than redeemed the 
 bold pledge we have quoted. This was his 
 last great work at Milan, which he left in 
 1499 when Duke Lodovico fled before Charles 
 XII. of France. Leonardo afterward dwelt at 
 Florence and a short time at Rome. In his 
 old age he entered the service of Francis I. 
 of France, and died at Cloux, near Amboise 
 in that kingdom, May 2d, 1519. 
 
 VIRGIL. Publius Virgjlius Maro was 
 born at Andes, a small village near Mantua, 
 Oct. 15th, b.c. 70. He was no less remarka- 
 ble for his varied learning than for the poeti- 
 cal genius displayed in the “iEneid,” the 
 “ Bucolics,” and the “ Georgies.” His appli- 
 cation to study at Rome enfeebled his health, 
 and he retired to his little paternal farm. 
 Augustus, after the triumph of his arms 
 over Antony, rewarded some of his veterans 
 with lands in the vicinity of Mantua. Virgil 
 was thereby driven from his peaceful seclu- 
 sion and robbed of his inheritance. It was 
 restored, through the intercession of potent 
 friends, and soon after the poet was introduced 
 to the emperor and the munificent Maecenas, 
 whose friendship and patronage he thereafter 
 enjoyed. In the year 19 b.c. he visited 
 Greece, intending to make a tour of that 
 country, and to revise and perfect his 
 “ iEneid.” Rapidly declining health drove 
 him back, and he died soon after landing at 
 Brundusium, on the 22d of September, 19 
 b.c. In compliance with his wish his body 
 was borne to Naples, and buried two miles 
 out of the city. Since the “iEneid” had not 
 received the finishing revision he intended, 
 he ordered, in his last illness, that it should 
 be burned ; but it was saved and published, 
 by his friends Yarius and Tucca. 
 
 VIRGINIA has an area of 61,352 square 
 miles. In 1870 the population was 1,225,163, 
 consisting of 712,089 whites, and 512,841 
 colored. The great ridge of the Alleghanies 
 divides the state into two sections. In her 
 natural resources, in her genial and salubri- 
 ous climate, her fine rivers, and her scenery, 
 Virginia is favored with advantages surpassed 
 by no state in the Union. The principal riv- 
 ers are the Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahan- 
 nock, York, James, Appomattox, Elizabeth, 
 
 VIR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 919 
 
 Kanawha, Ohio, Sandy, and Monongahela. 
 Iron, limestone, lead, coal, and salt are chief 
 among the rich mineral wealth. Maize, 
 wheat, and tobacco are the great agricultural 
 products. Cotton is cultivated in the south ; 
 and hemp and wool are prominent staples in 
 the western portion. 
 
 Virginia was the first settled of all the 
 English colonies in North America. 
 
 Of the earlier occurrences in her history 
 we have taken notice in the article on the 
 United States. Charles II. in exile was 
 highly gratified with a formal act of the Vir- 
 ginia assembly, declaring that they were born 
 under monarchy, and would never degene- 
 rate from the condition of their birth, by 
 being subject to any other government. The 
 colonists invited him to come over and reign 
 in Virginia. He was on the point of sailing, 
 when he was restored to the thrones of Eng- 
 land and Scotland. He caused the arms of 
 Virginia to be quartered with those of Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, as an indepen- 
 dent member of the realm. Hence she re- 
 ceived the name of the Old Dominion. 
 Though Charles gave the fullest assurance 
 that their form of government should never 
 be changed ; none of the colonies suffered 
 more than Virginia from the despotism of. a 
 royal government. In violation of char- 
 tered rights, the colony was divided into 
 parts, and conveyed away by proprietary 
 grants ; not grants of uncultivated wood- 
 lands, but of plantations that had long been 
 cultivated according to the encouragement 
 and laws of kings and charters. 
 
 The colony suffered, too, from the mise- 
 ries of civil war, in 1676, during Bacon’s re- 
 bellion ; Jamestown was burned, and the ad- 
 jacent districts laid waste. She shared 
 largely in the calamities of the French wars, 
 and was among the foremost in taking a de- 
 cided stand in the dispute with the mother 
 country. Some of the most important inci- 
 dents of the great drama of the Revolution 
 took place within her borders. 
 
 Richmond, on the James River, is the cap- 
 ital; population 51,038 in 1870. The state 
 house is a copy of the Mai son Carree of 
 Nismes, and contains a statue of Washington 
 by Houdon. Norfolk (population 19,229) is 
 the chief port, and the second town in size. 
 Its harbor is deep and capacious, and easy of 
 access. At Gosport, near Norfolk, is one of 
 the finest of the national navy-yards. Peters- 
 burg on the Appomattox, Wheeling on the 
 Ohio, Lynchburg and Winchester, are thriv- 
 ing towns. 
 
 In Westmoreland county, on the Poto- 
 mac, is the spot where Washington was 
 born; the house stood on Bridge’s Creek, 
 about half a mile from the river, on a plan- 
 tation called Wakefield. A simple stone, 
 with the inscription, “ Here, on the 11th of 
 February [o.s.], 1732, George Washington 
 was born,” designates the consecrated spot. 
 Farther up the Potomac, eight miles from 
 Alexandria, is Mount Vernon, where he died, 
 and where his ashes lie. 
 
 Virginia was the key-stone of the rebellion, 
 the headquarters of its civil government, the 
 key of its whole military position, the center 
 
920 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and field of its leading military movements, the 
 scene of its earliest triumphs, and of its final 
 and shattering defeat by the Army of the 
 Potomac. The mountains and rivers of the 
 Estate make its eastern part, when attacked 
 from the north, one of the strongest countries 
 for defence in the world ; and the two sides 
 of the Blue Ridge form a “whip-row” on 
 either side of which the rebels could maneu- 
 vre at pleasure. With these advantages the 
 rebels were able to maintain themselves here 
 as in a citadel against the successive com- 
 manders of the Army of the Potomac, until 
 the tremendous will and adamantine perse- 
 verence of Grant assaulted their main army, 
 pushed it struggling back to the lines of 
 Richmond, held it within them for three- 
 quarters of a year, and at last dashed it to 
 pieces. The state underwent a most severe 
 discipline during the war, from the four 
 years’ constant ravages of great armies. 
 Virginia seceded April 25, 1861. May 22, 
 1861, the central rebel government estab- 
 lished itself there. In April, 1865, that gov- 
 ernment ran away and disappeared. 
 
 One result of the secession movement was 
 the formation from the western or mountain- 
 ous part of Virginia, of a new state, called 
 West Virginia, and which was admitted to 
 the Union, June 20, 1863. 
 
 VIRGINIA was the daughter of the cen- 
 turion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
 decemvir, became enamored of her, and 
 attempted to abduct her. She was claimed 
 by one of his favorites as the daughter of a 
 slave, and' Appius, in the capacity and with 
 the authority of judge, had pronounced the 
 sentence, and delivered her into the hands 
 of his friend, when Virginius, informed of. 
 his violent proceedings, arrived from the 
 camp. The father demanded to see his daugh- 
 ter, and when this request was granted, he 
 snatched a knife and plunged it into Vir- 
 ginia’s breast, exclaiming, “ This is all, my 
 daughter, I can give thee to preserve thee 
 from the lust of a tyrant.” No sooner was 
 the blow given than Virginius ran to the 
 camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The 
 soldiers were astonished and incensed, not 
 against the murderer, but the tyrant, and 
 they immediately marched to Rome. Appius 
 was seized, but he destro}’ed himself in 
 prison, and prevented the execution of the 
 
 law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decem- 
 virs, who had not opposed the tyrant’s views, 
 killed himself also; and Marcus Claudius, 
 the favorite of Appius, was put to death, and 
 the decern viral power abolished, 449 b.c. 
 
 VITELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman raised by 
 his vices to the throne. He was descended 
 from one of the most illustrious families of 
 Rome, and as such he gained an easy admis- 
 sion to the palace of the emperors. He 
 passed through all the offices of the state, 
 and gained over the soldiery by donations 
 and liberal promises. lie was at the head 
 of the Roman legions in Germany when Otho 
 was proclaimed emperor, and the exaltation 
 of his rival was no sooner heard in the camp, 
 than he was likewise invested with the 
 purple by his soldiers. He accepted with 
 pleasure the dangerous office, and instantly 
 marched against Otho. Three battles were 
 fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. 
 A fourth, however, in the plains between 
 Mantua and Cremona, left him master of the 
 field, and of the Roman empire. He feasted 
 his eyes in viewing the bodies of the slain 
 and the ground covered with blood, and 
 regardless ’of the insalubrity of the air, pro- 
 ceeding from so many carcases, he told his 
 attendants that the smell of a dead enemy 
 was always sweet. His first care was not 
 like that of a wise conqueror, to alleviate the 
 distresses of the conquered, or patronize the 
 friends of the dead, but it was to insult their 
 misfortunes, and to intoxicate himself with 
 the companions of his debauchery on the 
 field of battle. Each successive day exhib- 
 ited a scene of greater extravagance, which, 
 though it delighted his favorites, soon raised 
 the indignation of the people. Vespasian 
 was proclaimed emperor by the army, and 
 his minister Primus was sent to destroy the 
 imperial glutton. Vitellius concealed him- 
 self under the bed of the porter of his palace, 
 but this obscure retreat betrayed him ; he 
 was dragged naked through the streets, his 
 hands were tied behind his back, and a 
 drawn sword was placed under his chin to 
 make him lift his head. After suffering the 
 greatest insults from the populace, he was at 
 last carried to the place of execution, and 
 put to death with repeated blows. His head 
 was cut off and fixed to a pole, and his mu- 
 tilated body dragged with a hook and thrown 
 
 VIT 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 921 
 
 into the Tiber, a.d. 69, after a reign of one 
 year, except twelve days. 
 
 VITTORIA, Battle of, in Spain, was 
 fought on the 21st of June, 1813, between 
 the army of Lord Wellington, and that of 
 the French general Jourdan, in which the 
 latter was defeated. On the 19th, the French 
 rear-guard was driven back toward Vittoria ; 
 and on the 21st a long and fearful battle took 
 place, in which the French forces, commanded 
 by Joseph Bonaparte, having Marshal Jour- 
 dan as his major-general, were so completely 
 defeated, that they were under the necessity 
 of abandoning all their artillery, ammunition, 
 baggage, and cattle. One hundred and fifty- 
 one pieces of cannon and four hundred and 
 fifteen ammunition wagons were taken on 
 the field ; and among the trophies was the 
 baton of Marshal Jourdan. The loss of the 
 allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese was 
 about 700 killed and 4,000 wounded, but that 
 of the French was considerably greater. 
 Wellington’s fierce pursuit threw the French 
 into irretrievable confusion, and on the 25th 
 Jourdan’s only remaining cannon was cap- 
 tured. In this great engagement, the con- 
 tending armies were nearly equal, numbering 
 from 70,000 to 75,000 men each. 
 
 YOLNEY, Constantine Chassebceuf, 
 Comte de, a celebrated French deistical wri- 
 ter, was born in Anjou in 1757, and inherited 
 a property adequate to gratify his love for 
 traveling and miscellaneous studies. He was 
 a Girondist during the revolution. He was 
 created a peer after the restoration, and died 
 in 1820. 
 
 VOLTA, Alexander, born at Como, in the 
 duchy of Milan, Feb. 14th, 1745, died there 
 March 5th, 1827. For thirty years he was 
 professor of natural philosophy in the uni- 
 versity of Pavia. He was especially distin- 
 guished for his discoveries in electricity, and 
 in 1800 opened a new era in its importance 
 by the invention of the great battery known 
 by his name. 
 
 VOLTAIRE was the name capriciously 
 assumed by Francois Marie Arouet. He 
 was born near Paris in 1694. He distin- 
 guished himself in boyhood by his aptness 
 for learning, his malignant wit, and his in- 
 clination to scoff at religion. His godfather, 
 a fashionable and literary abbe, introduced 
 him at an early age into courtly circles, where 
 
 V 
 
 he speedily learned the hollowness of every- 
 thing around him, and gratified his taste for 
 artful compliment and biting repartee. His 
 notoriety caused him to be accused (wrong- 
 fully for once) of writing indecent satirical 
 lines on the death of Louis XIV., and he 
 passed a year in the Bastile. There he wrote 
 his tragedy of “ GEdipe” and sketched his 
 epic, “ L’Henriade." The latter, stolen in 
 manuscript, as he alleged, was printed with 
 satirical verses which he said were interpo- 
 lations. The publication, thu» called surrep- 
 titious, made him famous; and the same 
 farce was repeated so oittn in his literary 
 career, as plainly to appear the device of the 
 author. 
 
 A man of quality, affronting the young 
 poet in society, was silenced by an apt retort; 
 he took revenge by making his servants give 
 the upstart a beating; Voltaire learned to 
 fence, challenged his insulter, and was an- 
 swered by an imprisonment of six months. 
 On his release he was banished from the 
 kingdom. He dwelt in England from 1726 
 to .1729. By the English profits of an edi- 
 tion of the Ilenriade he laid the foundation 
 of a fortune, which he afterward largely in- 
 creased by lottery tickets, speculations, and 
 usury. 
 
 In 1750 Voltaire, on the invitation of 
 Frederick II. of Prussia, went to Berlin to 
 dwell. He remained there for three years, 
 during which he enlivened the royal circle 
 by his wit, corrected the bad French of the 
 royal philosopher and poet, and learned, not 
 only that courts are wearisome places, but 
 that Frederick of Prussia and Frangois 
 Arouet were too like each other to be really 
 friends. 
 
 In 1758 he purchased two small estates not 
 far from Geneva, and at his chateau of Fer- 
 ney, on one of these, he passed the last 
 twenty-two years of his life, sedulously pur- 
 suing his literary labors. He was a liberal 
 landlord and a charitable neighbor. He died 
 during a visit to Paris in 1778. 
 
 The genius of Voltaire was of wide variety ; 
 he contributed to almost all departments of 
 literature. He was a malignant enemy of 
 Christianity, and sneered at all that is true 
 and holy. 
 
 VORTIGERN, the chief of Britain, upon 
 the Romans quitting that island, about 447. 
 
922 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 The Britons being threatened with an inva- 
 sion from the Scots and Piets, they addressed 
 him from all parts for relief, and at iast/made 
 him summon a general council of the nation, 
 to provide against their approaching ruin. 
 Vortigern, in the name of all the Britons, 
 sent ambassadors to the Saxons, who, hav- 
 ing first consulted their gods, readily com- 
 plied with his desire. All things being fairly 
 agreed on, and the isle of Thanet in Kent 
 bestowed upon them, for their encourage- 
 ment, they landed in the island in 450, under 
 the command of Hcngist and Horsa, who 
 shortly after encountered the Piets, then 
 advanced as far as Stamford in Lincolnshire, 
 and put them to flight. Thus the Britons, 
 under Vortigern, defeated the Piets, by the 
 help of the Saxons. . The latter soon quarreled 
 with the Britons, and wars ensued, which 
 ended in the total overthrow and ruin of the 
 natives. Vortigern retired into Wales, and 
 
 built a strong castle in Radnorshire. His 
 son V ortiiner reigned in his stead, who bore 
 a strong hand against the Saxons ; but he 
 dying before his father, Vortigern resumed 
 the government. He had two wives; one 
 of them Rowena, daughter of Hengist. On 
 being restored to the crown, he was disposed 
 to conclude a new treaty with his father-in 
 law ; and both parties met without weapons. 
 But Hengist’s design being to murder, he 
 ordered his men to be secretly armed, and 
 gave them the watchword for execution ; so 
 that a quarrel being designedly raised, his 
 men, upon the signal, stabbed each his next 
 man ; and no less than three hundred per- 
 ished by this treachery. They spared the 
 life of Vortigern, but they kept him in cus- 
 tody till he granted Hengist, for his ransom, 
 those provinces which were afterward called 
 Essex, Sussex, and Middlesex. 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGRAM, Battle op, fought by the Aus- 
 trians and French, July 5th, 1809 ; the latter 
 were victorious, and the former severely over- 
 thrown. The slaughter on both sides was 
 dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by 
 the French, and the defeated army retired to 
 Moravia. This battle led to an armistice, 
 signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24th, to a 
 treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all 
 her sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms 
 of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her 
 expense. The emperor was obliged also to 
 yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gal- 
 licia to Russia. The emperor also acknowl- 
 edged Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Priscilla, author of many 
 popular and useful works for children and 
 young persons, and one of the earliest pro- 
 moters of those provident institutions called 
 savings banks. She died in London, Sept. 
 12th, 1832, in her eighty-second year. She 
 was of Quaker parentage and her maiden 
 name was Trewman. 
 
 WALCIIEREN, an island of the Nether- 
 lands. With a view to occasion a diversion 
 on behalf of the Austrians, and also to 
 
 attempt the capture or destruction of the 
 French vessels lying in the Scheldt, a British 
 army of fifty thousand men was landed in 
 July, 1809, on the island of Walcheren ; but a 
 considerable time having elapsed prior to the 
 reduction of Flushing, the French collected 
 a numerous force, raised several formidable 
 batteries, and conveyed their ships up the 
 river, beyond Fort Lillo. That part of the 
 country also, where the English might have 
 landed, was completely inundated. Walche- 
 ren, the only fruit of this expensive and 
 unfortunate expedition, was to have been 
 retained by the conquerors, for the purpose 
 of shutting up the mouth of the Scheldt, and 
 of facilitating the introduction of British 
 manufactures into Holland. This design, 
 however, was rendered abortive by the un- 
 healthiness of the climate and the inefficiency 
 of Lord Chatham (son of the great earl), the 
 commanding general ; and after great num- 
 bers of the troops had fallen a sacrifice, the 
 British army evacuated the island on the 23d 
 of December, having previously destroyed 
 the fortifications, arsenal, docks, and basin. 
 Some old ships filled with stores were also 
 
 WAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 923 
 
 sunk at the entrance of the Scheldt, to pre- 
 clude an escape of the French fleet from the 
 place of its retreat. 
 
 WALDENSES. Pierre Yaldo, after ac- 
 quiring a large fortune in commerce at Lyons 
 in the twelfth century, devoted himself to the 
 spiritual instruction of his poorer brethren. 
 The only version of the Bible then in use 
 was the Latin Vulgate, and Yaldo rendered 
 the gospels into French, the first appearance 
 of the Scriptures in any modern tongue. 
 The teachings of Valdo were soon denounced 
 by the priesthood as heretical. He and his 
 flock took refuge in the mountains of Dau- 
 phiny and Piedmont, and thbnce sprang those 
 communities which grew in peace, and flour- 
 ished in rustic simplicity, “ pure as a flower 
 amid Alpine snows.” From these mountain 
 valleys flowed rivulets of truth that finally 
 swelled into the flood of the Reformation. 
 Yaldo wandered through Europe, teaching 
 the purer doctrine, and died in I^phemia. 
 
 A persecution of the Waldenses in the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century led to 
 the establishment of the Inquisition. Pope 
 Innocent III. had commissioned some monks 
 to preach against the heresies of the Wal- 
 denses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the 
 Romish bishops were at first jealous of this 
 mission, armed as it was with great power, 
 and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the 
 orders of the legates, a.d. 1203-4. One of 
 the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateau- 
 neuf, having been assassinated, the aspiring 
 pontiff called on all the neighboring powers 
 to march into the heretical district. All ob- 
 stinate heretics were placed at the disposal 
 of Simon de Montfort, commander of this 
 crusade, and the whole race of the Walden- 
 ses and Albigenses were ordered to he pur- 
 sued with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, 
 nor condition was spared ; the country be- 
 came a wilderness, and the towns heaps of 
 smoking ruins. Such was the era of the 
 inquisition. Dominic de Guzman was con- 
 stituted first inquisitor-general, 1208. 
 
 WALES, a principality in the west of 
 Great Britain from 130 to 180 miles long, 
 and from 50 to 80 broad, with an area of 
 7,398 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is very rugged and mountainous. 
 Wales is now an integral part of England 
 for purposes of government. Its four bish- 
 
 oprics, Bangor, St. Asaph, Llandaff, and St. 
 David, are included in the ecclesiastical prov- 
 ince of Canterbury. The principality is 
 divided into North and South Wales; the 
 former comprised in the counties of Angle- 
 sey, Caernarvonshire, Denbighshire, Flint- 
 shire, Merionethshire, and Montgomeryshire; 
 the latter, those of Brecknockshire, Cardi- 
 ganshire, Caermarthenshire, Glamorganshire, 
 Pembrokeshire, and Radnorshire. The mines 
 and quarries of Wales are very valuable. 
 Over a large portion the W elsh language is 
 still spoken, though the use of the English 
 is steadily increasing. The early history of 
 Wales is uncertain, on account of the num- 
 ber of petty princes who governed it. It 
 was formerly inhabited by three different 
 tribes of the Britons ; the Silures, the Di- 
 metae, and the Ordovices. These people do 
 not appear ever to have been entirely sub- 
 dued by the Romans ; though part of their 
 country, as appears from the ruins of castles, 
 was bridled by garrisons. The ancient 
 Britons retreated into the west of the island 
 before the Saxons, Angles, &c. Though the 
 Saxons conquered the counties of Monmouth 
 and Hereford, yet they never penetrated 
 farther, and the Welsh remained an inde- 
 pendent people governed by their own 
 princes and their own laws. About the year 
 870, Roderic, king of Wales, divided his 
 dominions among his three sons ; and the 
 names of these divisions were, Ceredigion 
 and Dyved, or South Wales; Povesia, or 
 Powis-land, comprising parts of Montgomery- 
 shire, Shropshire, and Radnorshire, and Gwy- 
 redd, or North Wales. This division gave 
 a mortal blow to the independency of Wales, 
 though in the tenth century it was reunited. 
 About the year 1112, Henry. I. of England 
 planted a colony of Flemings on the frontiers 
 of Wales, and gave various noblemen estates 
 and pow’er in the marches, to serve as a bar- 
 rier to England, none of the Welsh princes 
 being powerful enough to extirpate them. 
 They made, however, many vigorous and 
 brave attempts against the Norman kings of 
 England, to maintain their liberties. In 1237 
 the crown of England was supplied with a 
 handle for the future conquest of Wales ; the 
 old and infirm prince Llewellyn, having put 
 himself under subjection and homage to 
 Henry III. But no capitulation could satisfy 
 
924 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 the ambition of Edward L, who resolved to 
 annex Wales to the crown of England; and 
 Prince Llewellyn, disdaining the subjection 
 to which old Llewellyn (his grandsire) had 
 submitted, was opposed by the army of Ed- 
 ward, which penetrated as far as Flint, and 
 taking possession of the isle of Anglesey, 
 drove the Welsh to the mountains of Snow- 
 don, and obliged them to submit to pay a 
 tribute. The Welsh, however, made several 
 efforts under young Llewellyn ; but at last, 
 in 1285, he was killed in battle. He was 
 succeeded by his brother David, the last in- 
 dependent prince of Wales, who, falling into 
 Edward’s hands through treachery, was by 
 him barbarously and unjustly hanged ; and 
 Edward, from that time, pretended that 
 Wales was annexed to the crown of England. 
 It was about this time, probably, that Ed- 
 ward perpetrated the inhuman massacre of 
 the W elsh bards. Perceiving that his cruelty 
 was not sufficient to complete his conquest, 
 he sent his queen to be delivered in Caernar- 
 von Castle, that the Welsh, having a prince 
 born among themselves, might the more 
 readily recognize his authority. This prince, 
 by the death of an elder brother, eame to 
 the throne as Edward II., and from him the 
 title of Prince of Wales has always since 
 descended to the eldest sons of the English 
 kings. 
 
 WALKER, John, a well known English 
 lexicographer, died in 1807, aged seventy- 
 five. 
 
 WALLACE, Sir William, a distinguished 
 hero in Scottish history, who defended the 
 independence of his country against the un- 
 principled invasion of Edward I. of England, 
 was the son of a small landholder, who pos- 
 sessed the estate of Elderslie, near Paisley. 
 It is probable that he had not greatly ex- 
 ceeded the age of opening manhood, at the 
 time when his country was subdued by the 
 English. Many of his first deeds of heroism, 
 although imperfectly commemorated in the 
 rude and often doubtful tale of Blind Harry, 
 the minstrel, have unluckily been preserved 
 by no records upon the evidence of which they 
 might be received into the pages of authentic 
 history. Within less than a year after the 
 conquest of Edward, when the whole country 
 seemed to have acquiesced in this fate, he 
 undertook the desperate enterprise of break- 
 
 ing her fetters, and by the success of his 
 enterprises, made himself known so advan- 
 tageously to his countrymen, that he was 
 joined by many who were desirous to par- 
 take of his renown; amongst the rest, by 
 Sir William Douglas and some others of con- 
 siderable rank. In May, 1297, he led his fol- 
 lowers to attack Ormesby, the English justi- 
 ciary, who was holding his court at Scone. 
 Ormesby, with difficulty, made his escape 
 into England, and the other officers followed 
 his example. From the north-east, Wallace 
 passed into the west, where his glory, and 
 hatred of the English, procured him many 
 adherents, amongst others, Robert Bruce, 
 the grandson of him who had been competi- 
 tor with Baliol for the crown. King Edward 
 was then abroad, carrying on war in Guienne : 
 but Warrene, who had been left governor of 
 Scotland, collecting an army of forty thou- 
 sand men, and determined to re-establish his 
 authority, Sfent them forward under the com- 
 mand of Sir Henry Picrcy and Sir Robert 
 Clifford. When the English army came up, 
 many of the adherents of Wallace made sub- 
 mission ; but he himself, with his chosen fol- 
 lowers, retired into the north. Finding his 
 forces increasing, he laid siege to Dundee, 
 which he relinquished on hearing of the 
 approach of the English army to the Forth, 
 and hastened to oppose their passage, which 
 they attempted at the bridge of Stirling. 
 The English, under Cressingham, first crossed 
 the river, when Wallace attacked them, and 
 put them to the sword or drove them into 
 the stream. Those on the other side, burn- 
 ing their tents and leaving their baggage, 
 fled to Berwick. Wallace having gained this 
 victory, hastened back to Dundee, which 
 now surrendered at his approach. He was 
 then chosen regent by his followers, and all 
 Scotland was cleared of the English. King 
 Edward, returning from France, led a power- 
 ful army into Scotland. Both armies en- 
 gaged at Falkirk, July 22d, 1298, and the 
 English gained the victory, from their supe- 
 riority of numbers and military skill, and 
 the dissensions of their opponents. Wallace 
 seeing all hope lost, rallied the broken rem- 
 nants of his forces and retreated beyond the 
 Forth. .All Scotland submitted to Edward ; 
 but the dauntless spirit of Wallace never 
 would surrender his country’s independence. 
 
 WAL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 925 
 
 Whether he went abroad for a short time to 
 France, or wandered in the fastnesses of the 
 Highlands, can not be certainly known ; but 
 in 1304 he was in Scotland, and Edward 
 could never believe he had secure possession 
 till Wallace was in his power. This was 
 •effected by the treachery of Sir John Mon- 
 teith ; and" Wallace was conducted to London, 
 arraigned, and tried as a traitoi*, and con- 
 demned as guilty of high treason against Ed- 
 ward, although he had never acknowledged 
 him as his king, nor owed him allegiance. 
 Wallace, still undaunted, during and after his 
 trial, asserted the rights of his country, and 
 bore his fate, which was inflicted with every 
 circumstance of ignominy and cruelty, with 
 the magnanimity with which he had lived. He 
 was executed Aug. 23d, 1305. His head was 
 placed on London bridge, and his mangled 
 limbs were distributed over the kingdom. It 
 was reserved for Robert Bruce to accomplish 
 what Wallace had so nobly atter#pted. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN, Albert, Duke of Fried- 
 land, born in 1583, was the most renowned 
 imperial general in the thirty years’ war. 
 He was of a noble family, and greatly in- 
 creased his wealth and power by marriage. 
 He was assassinated Feb. 25th, 1634, his 
 murderers rewarded by the emperor, and his 
 vast possessions confiscated, upon the ground 
 that he was intriguing to make himself king- 
 of Bohemia. 
 
 WALLER, Edmund, an English poet 
 famous in his day, was born in Hertford- 
 shire in 1605, and in his infancy inherited 
 an estate of £3,000 a year. His mother, 
 though a sister of John Hampden, was an 
 ardent royalist, and used to lecture Crom- 
 well for his share in the death of Charles I. 
 Her son was royalist or roundhead, as best 
 served the time. He entered parliament, 
 and wrote his first poem, when he was 
 eighteen. At twenty-five he married a rich 
 London heiress, who died the same year, and 
 the widower at once became a suitor of Lady 
 Dorothea Sidney, eldest daughter of the Earl 
 of Leicester. To this proud and peerless 
 fair one Waller dedicated the better portion 
 of his poetry, and the groves of Penshurst 
 echoed to the praises of his Sacharissa. Lady 
 Dorothea, however, wedded the Earl of Sun- 
 derland. Long afterward, when she was far 
 advanced in years, the lady and her former 
 
 wooer met. She asked when again he would 
 write such verses upon her. “ When you 
 are as young, madam, and as handsome as 
 you were then,” said ungallant Waller. The 
 incident gives a key to his character : he 
 was easy, witty, and accomplished, but cold 
 and selfish ; destitute alike of high principle 
 and deep feeling. In parliament Waller dis- 
 tinguished himself on the popular side at 
 first, and shortly afterward was detected in 
 intrigues with the cavaliers. He was sen- 
 tenced to one year’s imprisonment and a fine 
 of £10,000. Others implicated lost their lives, 
 and he escaped only through abject submis- 
 sion and cowardly betrayal of the secrets of 
 his friends. At the end of his imprisonment 
 he went abroad, and resided in France with 
 much splendor and hospitality. He returned 
 during the protectorate, and commemorated 
 the death of Cromwell in one of his most 
 vigorous and impressive poems. The restora- 
 tion soon came, and Waller was ready with 
 a congratulatory address to Charles II. It 
 was considered inferior to the panegyric on 
 Cromwell, and the kihg, who admitted the 
 poet as one of his intimates, told him of the 
 disparity. “Poets, sire,” replied the witty, 
 self-possessed Waller, “succeed better in 
 fiction than in truth.” Waller sat in par- 
 liament through Charles’s reign. At the 
 accession of James, the venerable poet, then 
 eighty years of age, was chosen for a borough 
 in Cornwall. His wariness and sagacity pre- 
 dicted the end of James’s mad career. He 
 purchased a little estate at Coleshill, his 
 native place, saying, “ he would be glad to 
 die like the stag, where he was roused.” The 
 wish was not fulfilled : he died at his resi- 
 dence near Beaconsfield, Oct. 21st, 1687. 
 He continued to write his smooth, elegant, 
 and courtly verse down to the close of life. 
 
 WALPOLE, Horace, third son of the 
 great statesman, was born in 1717. The 
 sinecures conferred upon him by his father 
 enabled him to indulge his natural indolence, 
 and he passed a lounging life, dabbling in 
 literature and art, and gathering antiquarian 
 nicknacks, works of art, rare books, and curi- 
 ous all-sorts, in his “little plaything house” 
 of Strawberry Hill at Twickenham. He was 
 a shrewd and witty observer, and his “ Let- 
 ters” and “ Memoirs” furnish sparkling and 
 sarcastic pictures of the men and times of 
 
 WAL 
 
926 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 his day. In 1791 the death of his nephew 
 gave him the earldom of Orford. He died 
 in 1797. 
 
 W ALPOLE, Sir Robert, afterward Earl of 
 Orford, an eminent Whig statesman, was 
 born in 1 076. In 1700 he married the daugh- 
 ter ol Sir John Shorter, and soon after be- 
 came member for Castle Rising ; but in 
 1702 he was chosen for King’s Lynn, which 
 he represented in several parliaments. In 
 1708 he was made secretary at war, and the 
 year following treasurer of the navy. He 
 was one of the managers of the trial of 
 Sacheverel ; but on the change of ministry, 
 was committed to the Tower, and expelled 
 the house, for breach of trust and corrup- 
 tion. The borough of Lynn, however, re- 
 elected him, and he took an active part 
 against ministers during the remainder of 
 Queen Anne’s reign. Early in that of George 
 I. he became prime minister, but some 
 difference arising between him and his col- 
 leagues, he resigned, and joined the opposi- 
 tion. In 1720 he accepted the paymaster- 
 ship of the forces, and not long after was 
 appointed first lord of the treasury and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. In 1723 he was 
 sworn sole secretary of state. In 1725 he 
 received the order of the Bath, and the year 
 following that of the Garter. He continued 
 in power, though assailed by powerful ene- 
 mies, till 1742, when he resigned, and was 
 created Earl of Orford. He died in 1745. 
 His brother, Horatio Walpole, Lord Wal- 
 pole, was born in 1G78. He filled several 
 offices under government, and in 1756 was 
 created a peer, but died the year following. 
 
 WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, an English 
 statesman in the reign of Elizabeth, was born 
 in 1536, at Chislehurst, in Kent. In 1573 
 he was appointed one of the secretaries of 
 state, and knighted. In 1583 he went on an 
 embassy to James, king of Scotland, and 
 three years afterward sat as one of the com- 
 missioners on the trial of that monarch’s 
 unfortunate mother. Sir Francis was next 
 made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster ; 
 and he was also honored with the order of 
 the Garter. But with all these distinctions 
 and services he died poor, April 6th, 1590, 
 and was buried in St. Paul’s. 
 
 WALTON, George, a signer of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, was born in Fred- 
 
 erick county, Virginia, about the year 1740. 
 He was bred a carpenter, but studied law 
 and commenced practice in Georgia. Ho 
 was sent to congress in 1776 and returned 
 in 1778. He took a prominent part in the 
 affairs of the revolution, was wounded in 
 the defense of Savannah, and made prisoner 
 when it was taken by the British. He was 
 chosen governor of Georgia in 1779, was 
 again sent to congress in 1780, was afterward 
 chief justice, and United States senator in 
 1795 and 1796. He died at Augusta, Feb. 
 2d, 1804. 
 
 WALTON, Izaak, the quaint author of 
 “ The Complete Angler, or Contemplative 
 Man’s Recreation,” was a linen-draper in 
 London till the gains of his .industry permit- 
 ted him to leave the town and dwell among 
 the green fields and babbling brooks he 
 loved so well. Fie wrote a life of Dr. Donne 
 and other biographies, all marked by a sim- 
 ple, touchirfg, and impressive style. He died 
 at Winchester in 1683, in his ninetieth 
 year. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. How this most 
 popular legend took its origin, whether from 
 an incident mentioned in some one of the 
 many gospels unaccepted by the church, 
 whether brought from the orient by the cru- 
 saders, or invented in the dark ages, is not 
 known. So far back as the year 1000, such 
 a lasting vagabond was said to be talked of; 
 but since 1228 the tradition is known with 
 certainty to have been prevalent ; and thus 
 an ancient writer tells it. “ The Jews drag- 
 ged Jesus from the judgment hall, and when 
 he fell upon the threshold, Cartaphilus, or 
 Calaphilus, who was the porter of Pontius 
 Pilate, insolently pushed him, striking him 
 on the back with his fist, and saying to him 
 with a mocking laugh, ‘ Go faster, Jesus, go 
 faster ; why dost thou linger ? ’ Then Jesus 
 looked on him with a frown, and said, ‘ I go, 
 but thou shalt tarry until I come.’ And, 
 indeed, according to the Lord’s word, Carta- 
 philus yet awaits the coming of Jesus Christ. 
 He was about thirty years of age at the 
 period of the Passion ; and ever since, when- 
 ever he attains the age of a hundred years, 
 he is seized with a strange infirmity, which 
 seems incurable, and ends in a trance ; after 
 which he becomes as young again as at the 
 moment of the Passion. After the death of 
 
 WAN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 927 
 
 the Saviour, Cartaphilus became a Christian, 
 was baptized by the apostle Avanius, and 
 took the name of Joseph. At the present 
 day this Joseph generally resides in the one 
 or other Armenia, and in various lands of the 
 east. He is a man of holy conversation and 
 great piety, speaking little, and never smil- 
 ing. He perfectly remembers the death and 
 resurrection of Christ.” 
 
 WAltBECK, Perkin, made his appearance 
 in England, in the reign of Henry VII., and 
 assumed the character of Richard, Duke of 
 York, the younger son of Edward 1^., sup- 
 posed to have been murdered in the Tower, 
 together with his brother, by ord£r of Rich- 
 ard III. His cause was espoused by many 
 persons of rank ; Margaret, Duchess of Bur- 
 gundy, owned him her nephew ; and upon 
 landing in Cornwall, he was joined by thou- 
 sands of adherents. He was captured by 
 Henry VII., confined in the Tower awhile, 
 and eventually hanged, drawn, and quartered, 
 1499. Henry published an alleged confes- 
 sion of the prisoner, purporting that he was 
 the son of a converted Jew of Tournay ; but 
 many have thought him an illegitimate son 
 of Edward IV. 
 
 WARBURTON, William, a distinguished 
 bishop of the English church, was born at 
 Newark in 1098. He abandoned the law for 
 the church, and rose from obscurity to be 
 Bishop of Gloucester in 1759. His great 
 learning and originality were equaled by his 
 arrogance and indomitable self-will. He 
 wasted his powers in sustaining paradoxes 
 and in ruthless tilts with his contemporaries 
 in letters. His latter years were spent in a 
 melancholy state of mental weakness, caused 
 by grief for the loss of a son, and he died in 
 1779. 
 
 WARD, Artemas, commander at Cam- 
 bridge when Washington arrived. He was 
 the first of the four major-generals Congress 
 commissioned under Washington, and com- 
 manded the right wing during the siege of 
 Boston in 1776, soon after which he resigned. 
 In 1786 he was speaker of the house of repre- 
 sentatives of Massachusetts, and was after- 
 ward elected to congress. He died at Shrews- 
 bury, Mass., Oct. 28th, 1800, aged seventy- 
 three. 
 
 WARREN, Josepii, was born at Roxbury, 
 Mass., in 1740, and graduated at Harvard 
 
 University in 1759. Having studied medi- 
 cine he commenced the practice of it in 
 Boston with great success. He was one of 
 the earliest and most earnest patriots in Bos- 
 ton. Four days before the battle of Bunker 
 Hill the provincial congress of Massachusetts 
 gave him a major-general’s, commission, but 
 in that contest he fought as a volunteer. On 
 the retreat from the redoubt, he was shot in 
 the trenches, and expired, at the age of thirty- 
 five. His death was a severe loss to the 
 cause he so ardently had at heart. 
 
 WARSAW, formerly the capital of the 
 kingdom of Poland, on the west bank of the 
 Vistula, contained, in 1851, 164,115 inhabit- 
 ants. In the war with the Swedes, in the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, Warsaw 
 was occupied by these invaders, who made it 
 the depot of their spoils. When Charles 
 XII. advanced, at a subsequent period, to 
 Warsaw, it surrendered to him without oppo- 
 sition. It was defended by Kosciusko against 
 the Prussians, in 1794, who were obliged to 
 raise the siege. Warsaw at length submit- 
 ted to Suwarrow and the Russians. On the 
 final partition of Poland, in 1795, this part 
 of the country fell to the share of Prussia, 
 and Warsaw had no other rank than that of 
 a capital of a province, until the end of 1806, 
 when the overthrow of the power of Prus- 
 sia led to the formation, by Bonaparte, of the 
 independent state called the duchy of War- 
 saw. It w r as overrun by the Russians in 
 1813, and Warsaw became the residence of 
 a Russian viceroy. The Polish revolution 
 commenced here, Nov. 29th, 1830. 
 
 WARWICK, Richard Neville, Earl of, 
 known by the appellation of the Icing-maker , 
 was one of the most celebrated generals of 
 his age. He put himself at the head of the 
 Yorkists, and gave battle to the Lancastrians 
 at St. Albans, in which he was defeated, in 
 1461. He afterward harangued the citizens 
 of London, assembled in St. John’s Fields, 
 setting forth the title of Edward, the eldest 
 son of the Duke of York, and inveighing 
 against the tyranny and usurpation of the 
 house of Lancaster. After the decisive bat- 
 tle of Towton, and Edward IV. was safely 
 fixed on the throne, Warwick advised him to 
 marry, and with his consent went over to 
 France, to procure Bona of Savoy as queen. 
 But while the earl was hastening the nego- 
 
 WAR 
 
928 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tiation in France, the king married Elizabeth 
 Woodville. Having thus given Warwick 
 real cause of offense, he widened the breach, 
 by driving him from the council. Warwick, 
 whose prudence was equal to his bravery, 
 soon made use of both to assist his revenge ; 
 and formed such a combination against Ed- 
 ward, that he was, in turn, obliged to fly the 
 kingdom, and Henry VI. was released from 
 prison, to be placed again upon a dangerous 
 throne. A parliament was called, which con- 
 firmed Henry’s title, with great solemnity, 
 and Warwick was himself received among 
 
 the people under the title of the king-maker. 
 Edward, however, did not long remain 
 abroad ; and, having made a descent at Ra- 
 venspur, in Yorkshire, he proceeded wdth an 
 increasing army toward London. Nothing 
 remained to Warwick, but to cut short a 
 state of anxious suspense, by hazarding a 
 battle. Edward’s fortune prevailed. They 
 met at Barnet, April 14th, 1471, and the Lan- 
 castrians were defeated, while Warwick him- 
 self, leading a chosen body of troops into 
 the thickest of the fight, fell in the midst of 
 his enemies, covered with wounds. 
 
 MOUNT VERNON. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, the third son of 
 Augustine Washington, was born Feb. 22d, 
 (11th, o.s.), 1732, on the banks of the Po- 
 tomac, in the county of Westmoreland, 
 Virginia. His father died when ho was but 
 eleven years old,, and the care of his edu- 
 cation devolved upon his mother. That a 
 mother should love such a son as George 
 proved himself to be, and that a son should 
 
 love such a mother as Mrs. Washington cer- 
 tainly was, is not at all surprising. From 
 his earliest days she exerted her whole influ- 
 ence to imbue him with a love of “ whatever 
 was lovely and of good report,” and her ex- 
 ertions were not in vain. How well he repaid 
 her for her care, may be seen in the following 
 incident. When about fourteen years of age 
 he became strongly inclined to go to sea, 
 
 WAS^ 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 929 
 
 with a view of enlisting in the service of the 
 mother country, at that * time engaged in a 
 war with France and Spain. He was resolved 
 to go. Preparation had been made. A mid- 
 shipman’s berth had been procured for him 
 on board a British man-of-war, then lying in 
 sight of Mount Vernon; and even his trunk 
 was on board. "When the time arrived that 
 he was to go, he passed into the sitting-room 
 of his mother, to take leave of her. She 
 was sitting in tears. He approached her, 
 and putting his arms about her neck, affec- 
 tionately kissed her. He was about to bid 
 her farewell ; but he hesitated. Her affection 
 and affliction unmanned him. He was } r oung 
 and ambitious ; and at that early day the 
 spirit of patriotism, which so nobly charac- 
 terized him in after life, in respect to his 
 country, was stirring within him. Yet the 
 feelings of his heart were stronger than any 
 other ties ; and here, nobly sacrificing his 
 pride and ambition, he relinquished his pur- 
 pose, and stayed to comfort her who gave 
 him birth. 
 
 His brother Lawrence, having married a 
 connection of Lord Fairfax, his lordship gave 
 George Washington, in his sixteenth year, 
 the appointment of surveyor, to examine and 
 survey his broad lands beyond the Blue 
 Ridge. In 1751 he was appointed one of the 
 adjutant-generals of Virginia, with the rank 
 of major. Soon afterward he was sent by 
 the governor of Virginia to carry a letter to 
 the French commander on the Ohio, forbid- 
 ding his encroachment on the lands belonging 
 to Virginia. The journey was about four 
 hundred miles, half of which lay through a 
 trackless wilderness, inhabited by Indians. 
 He left Williamsburg on the 31st of October, 
 and delivered his letter on the 12th of De- 
 cember. Having received an answer, he set 
 out immediately on his dangerous and toil- 
 some return. The following is his own ac- 
 count of it : — 
 
 “As I was uneasy to get back, to make a 
 report of my proceedings to his honor the 
 governor, I determined to prosecute my jour- 
 ney the nearest way, through the woods, and 
 on foot. I took my necessary papers, pulled 
 olf my clothes, and tied myself up in a watch- 
 coat. Then, with a gun in my hand, and 
 pack on my back, in which were my papers 
 and provisions, I set out with Mr. Gist, fitted 
 
 59 
 
 in the same manner. We fell in with a 
 party of Indians, who had lain in wait for us. 
 One of them fired not fifteen steps off, but 
 fortunately missed ; we walked on the remain- 
 ing part of the night, without making any 
 stop, that we might get the start so far as to 
 be out of the reach of their pursuit the next 
 day, as we were well assured that they would 
 follow our track as soon as it was light. The 
 next day we continued traveling until quite 
 dark and got to the river. We expected to 
 have found the river frozen, but it was not 
 more than fifty yards from each shore. The 
 ice, I suppose, had been broken up, for it was 
 driving in vast quantities. There was no 
 way of getting over but on a raft, which we 
 set about making with one poor hatchet, and 
 finished just after sun-setting: this was one 
 day’s work. We got it launched, then went 
 on board of it, and set off ; but before we 
 were half-way over, we were jammed in the 
 ice, in such a manner that we expected every 
 moment our raft to sink and ourselves to 
 perish. I put out my setting-pole to en- 
 deavor to stop the raft, that the ice might 
 pass by, when the rapidity of the stream 
 threw it with so much violence against the 
 pole, that it jerked me out into ten feet 
 water.” At length, on the 16th of January, 
 he arrived at Williamsburg, and delivered 
 the important letter to the governor. 
 
 Having been appointed colonel of a regi- 
 ment raised to defend the rights of the colo- 
 nists against the encroachments of the French, 
 Washington distinguished himself greatly by 
 his defense of Fort Necessity, although he 
 was finally forced to capitulate. Having 
 resigned his commission, he retired in 1754 
 to Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, a country- 
 seat which had been bequeathed him by his 
 brother. In 1755 he accepted the invitation 
 of Gen. Braddock to enter his family as a 
 volunteer aid-de-camp, and accompanied him 
 in the memorable and unfortunate expedi- 
 tion to the Ohio, the result of which would 
 probably have been very different from what 
 it was, had Braddock followed the prudent 
 advice of his aid. When the troops fell into 
 the Indian ambuscade, the officers were sin- 
 gled out by their savage foes and deliberately 
 shot, Washington being the only aid that was 
 unwounded, and on him devolved the whole 
 i duty of carrying the orders of the com- 
 WAS 
 
930 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 mander-in-chief. Though he had two horses 
 killed under him, and four balls through his 
 coat, he escaped unhurt, while every other 
 officer on horseback was either killed or 
 wounded. Dr. Craik, the physician w T ho 
 attended him in his last sickness, was present 
 at this battle, and says, “ I expected every 
 moment to see him fall. Nothing but the 
 superintending care of Providence could have 
 saved him from the fate of all around him.” 
 After an action of three hours, the troops 
 gave way in all directions, and Col. Washing- 
 ton and two others brought off the mortally 
 wounded Braddock. Washington attempted 
 to rally the retreating troops ; but, as he said 
 himself, it was like attempting to stop the 
 wild bears of the mountains. The conduct 
 of the regular troops was most cowardly. 
 The enemy were few in numbers, and had 
 no expectation of victory. The preservation 
 of AY ashington during this battle was almost 
 miraculous. He was exposed more than any 
 other officer, and was particularly the object 
 of savage attacks on account of his superior 
 bravery. After the defeat, a famous Indian 
 warrior w T ho acted a distinguished part in 
 that bloody tragedy, was heard to say that 
 Washington was never born to be killed by a 
 bullet; “For,” said he, “I had seventeen 
 fair shots at him with my rifle, and yet I 
 could not bring him to the ground.” 
 
 Washington continued employed in public 
 affairs till the expulsion of the French from 
 the Ohio, and the cessation of hostilities on 
 the part of the Indians. While journeying to 
 AYilliamsburg in 1758, to transact business 
 with the council, he met his future wife. 
 Irving thus tells the story of the courtship. 
 “In crossing a ferry of the Pamunkey, a 
 branch of York River, he fell in company with 
 a Mr. Chamberlayne, who lived in the neigh- 
 borhood, and who, in the spirit of Virginian 
 hospitality, claimed him as a guest. It was 
 'with difficulty AYashington could be pre- 
 vailed on to halt for dinner, so impatient w T as 
 he to arrive at Williamsburg, and accom- 
 plish his mission. Among the guests at Mr. 
 Chamberlayne’s was a young and blooming 
 wddow r , Mrs. Martha Custis, daughter of Mr. 
 John Dandridge, both patrician names in the 
 province. Her husband, John Parke Custis, 
 had been dead three years, leaving her w ith 
 two young children and a large fortune. 
 
 W 
 
 She is represented as being rather below the 
 middle size, but extremely w r ell shaped, with 
 an agreeable countenance, dark hazel e} T es 
 and hair, and those frank, engaging manners, 
 so captivating in Southern women. AYe are 
 not informed whether AA^ashington had met 
 with her before ; probably not during her 
 widowhood, as during that time he had been 
 almost continually on the frontier. AYe have 
 showm that, with all his gravity and reserve, 
 he was quickly susceptible to female charms, 
 and they may have had a greater effect upon 
 him when thus casually encountered, in fleet- 
 ing moments snatched from the cares and 
 perplexities and rude scenes of frontier war- 
 fare. At any rate, his heart appears to have 
 been taken by surprise. The dinner, which, 
 in those days, W’as an earlier meal than at 
 present, seemed all too short. The afternoon 
 passed aw^ay like a dream. Bishop (the mil- 
 itary servant) was punctual to the orders he 
 had received on halting ; the horses pawed 
 at the door ; but for once AYashington loitered 
 in the path of d\ity. The horses w^ere coun- 
 termanded, and it was not until the next 
 morning that he was again in the saddle, 
 spurring for AYilliamsburg. Happily, the 
 AYhite House, the residence of Mrs. Custis, 
 w 7 as in New Kent County, at no great dis- 
 tance from that city, so that he had opportu- 
 nities of visiting her in the intervals of busi- 
 ness.” They were married on the Gth of 
 January, 1759. 
 
 He continued to be an active member of 
 the general assembly, and on the approach 
 of hostilities with Great Britain, was chosen 
 to the first congress. On the 14th of June, 
 1775, he was chosen commander-in-chief of 
 the armies of the united colonies. He re- 
 paired immediately to the head-quarters of 
 the American army at Cambridge, Mass., 
 and having forced the British to evacuate 
 Boston, led his army to New York, where he 
 was doomed to witness the defeat of the 
 Americans on Long Island, on the 27th of 
 August, but his retreat of the army was con- 
 ducted in a masterly manner. After the bat- 
 tle of AYhite Plains, the prospects of the 
 Americans appeared hopeless, but the suc- 
 cesses of Trenton and Princeton inspired the 
 army w r ith fresh courage. By these, Phila- 
 delphia w T as saved, and New Jersey regained. 
 On the 25tli of August, 1777 the British for- 
 AS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 931 
 
 ces under Ilowe, widely had sailed for New 
 York, disembarked at the ferry of Elk Paver, 
 and on the 10th of September, the battle of 
 Brandywine was fought and the Americans 
 defeated. 
 
 Major Ferguson, who commanded a British 
 rifle corps a day or two previous to this bat- 
 tle, was the hero of a very singular adven- 
 ture which he thus describes in a letter to a 
 friend. “ We had not lain long, when a rebel 
 officer, remarkable by a hussar dress, pressed 
 toward our army, within a hundred yards of 
 my right flank, not perceiving us. He was 
 followed by another, dressed in dark green 
 and blue, mounted on a bay horse, with a 
 remarkably high cocked hat. I ordered 
 three good shots to stand near, and fire at 
 them ; but the idea disgusting me, I recalled 
 the order. The hussar, in returning, made 
 a circuit, but he passed within a hundred 
 yards of us ; upon which I advanced from the 
 woods toward him. Upon my calling, he 
 stopped ; but, after looking at me, again pro- 
 ceeded. I again drew his attention, and made 
 signs to him to stop, leveling my piece at 
 him ; but he slowly cantered away. By 
 quick firing, I could have lodged half a doz- 
 en balls in or about him, before he was out 
 of my reach. I had only to determine ; but 
 it was not pleasant to fire at the back of an 
 unoffending individual, who was very coolly 
 acquitting himself of his duty ; so I let it 
 alone. The next day, the surgeon told me 
 that the wounded rebel officers informed him 
 that Gen. Washington was all the morning 
 with the light troops, and onty attended by 
 a French officer in the hussar dress, he him- 
 self dressed and mounted as I have before 
 described. I am not sorry I did not know 
 who it was at the time.” 
 
 The battle of Brandywine opened the way 
 to Philadelphia for the British, who entered 
 it on the 26th of September. After the un- 
 satisfactory engagement at Germantown, the 
 American troops were quartered for the win- 
 ter at Valley Forge, where their sufferings 
 were extreme. One day a Quaker by the 
 name of Potts had occasion to go to a cer- 
 tain place, which led him through a large 
 grove at no great distance from head-quar- 
 ters. As he was proceeding along, he thought 
 he heard a noise. He stopped and listened. 
 He did hear the sound of a human voice at 
 
 some distance, but quite indistinctly. As it 
 was in the direct course he was pursuing, he 
 went on, but with some caution. At length 
 he came within sight of a man whose back 
 was turned toward him, on his knees, in the 
 attitude of prayer. Potts now stopped, and 
 soon saw Washington himself, the command- 
 er of the American armies, returning from 
 bending before the God of hosts above. 
 Potts himself was a pious man, and no sooner 
 had he reached home, than in the fullness of 
 his faith, he broke forth to his wife Sarah : 
 “All’s well! all’s well! Yes, — George 
 
 Washington is sure to beat the British — 
 sure!” — “What’s the matter with thee, 
 Isaac ? ” replied the startled Sarah. “ Thee 
 seems to be much moved about something.” — 
 “Well, what if I am moved? Who would 
 not be moved at such a sight as I have seen 
 to-day?” — “And what hast thou seen, 
 Isaac ? ” — “ Seen ! I’ve seen a man at prayer ! 
 — in the woods ! — George Washington him- 
 self! And now I say, — just what I have said, 
 — ‘All’s well ! George Washington is sure 
 to beat the British ! — sure ! ’ ” 
 
 In June, 1778, the British evacuated Phil- 
 adelphia, and retreated upon New York 
 closely followed by Washington, who at- 
 tacked them at Monmouth on the 24th, and 
 fought them with advantage, although with- 
 out gaining a decided vidxny. Washington 
 was personally engaged in forming the line 
 of the main body near the court house, and 
 was speaking with Col. Hartley of the Penn- 
 sylvania line, when a cannon-ball struck just 
 at his horse’s feet, throwing the dirt in his 
 face and over his clothes. The general con- 
 tinued giving orders without noticing the 
 derangement of his toilette. “Never,” says 
 Lafayette, “ was Gen. Washington greater in 
 war than in this conflict : his presence stopped 
 the retreat, his dispositions fixed the victory. 
 His fine appearance on horseback, his calm 
 courage, roused by the animation produced 
 by the vexation of the morning, gave him 
 the air best calculated to excite enthusiasm.” 
 In 1781 Washington, in conjunction with 
 Count Rochambeau, planned an expedition 
 against New York, which was abandoned 
 with a view of directing their operations to 
 the south. Demonstrations, however, were 
 made against the city, and Sir Henry Clinton 
 was not aware of the change in their inten- 
 
932 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 tions. The siege of Yorktown commenced on 
 the 28th of September, and Lord Cornwallis 
 was compelled to surrender after much 
 hard fighting, on the 19th. This was the 
 last action of the war. In the trying times 
 thus crowned by 'victor}', not only did Wash- 
 ington display the qualities of a great and 
 prudent commander, in opposition with the 
 British armies : he had also to contend with 
 turbulence and factions in the American 
 ranks and councils. The intrigues and 
 jealousies of aspiring men often embarrassed 
 his operations, and sometimes impugned his 
 capacity for the post he held. But he rose 
 above them. 
 
 If we are called upon to admire the con- 
 duct and successes of Washington in action, 
 our admiration is no less due to his behavior 
 in those intervals of repose when the Ameri- 
 can forces had time to reflect upon their 
 wants, and brood over their supposed griev- 
 ances. He quelled mutiny, but he pitied the 
 sufferings that produced it; and while he 
 was resolved to enforce subordination, he was 
 no less determined to administer all the com- 
 fort which it was in his power to bestow. 
 
 On the 25th of November, 1783, Wash- 
 ington made his public entry into the city of 
 New York. On the 4th of December, the 
 principal officers of the army assembled at 
 Fraunces’ tavern in that city, to take a final 
 leave of their beloved commander-in-chief. 
 Soon after his excellency entered the room. 
 His emotions overcame his usual self-com- 
 mand. Filling a glass, and turning to them, 
 he said : “ With a heart full of love and 
 
 gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most 
 devoutly wish that your latter days may be 
 as prosperous and happy as your former ones 
 have been glorious and honorable.” Having 
 drank, he added, “ I can not come to each 
 of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged 
 to you if each of you will come and take me 
 by the hand.” General Knox, being nearest, 
 turned to him. Incapable of utterance, 
 Washington in tears grasped his hand, em- 
 braced and kissed him. In the same affec- 
 tionate manner, he took leave of each suc- 
 ceeding officer. Leaving the room, he passed 
 through the corps of light-infantry,' and 
 walked to Whitehall ferry, where a barge 
 waited to convey him to Pauliis’ Hook. The 
 whole company followed in mute and solemn 
 
 procession, with dejeeted countenances, testi- 
 fying feelings of melancholy which no pen 
 can describe. Having entered the barge, he 
 turned to the company, and waving his hat, 
 he bade them a silent adieu. They paid him 
 the same affectionate compliment, watched 
 the barge till out of sight, and then returned 
 in the same solemn manner, to the place 
 where they had assembled. 
 
 On the 23d of December, 1783, Washing- 
 ton resigned his commission to Congress, 
 then sitting at Annapolis. On this interest- 
 ing and solemn occasion he appeared in the 
 hall of Congress. As he rose to speak, every 
 eye was fixed upon him. He began by ex- 
 pressing his humble joy at the accomplish- 
 ment of his wishes and exertions, in the in- 
 dependence of his country. Next, he recom- 
 mended to Congress and to the country the 
 companions of nis toils and trials, and con- 
 cluded as follows: “I consider it an indis- 
 pensable duty to close this last solemn act of 
 my official life, by commending the interests 
 of our dearest country to the protection of 
 Almighty God, and those who have the su- 
 perintendence of them to his holy keeping. 
 Having now finished the work assigned me, 
 I retire from the great theatre of action, 
 and, bidding an affectionate farewell to 
 this august body, under whose orders I have 
 long acted, I here offer my commission, arjd 
 take my leave of all the employments of pub- 
 lic life.” 
 
 Upon accepting his commission, Congress, 
 through their president, expressed in glowing 
 language to Washington their high sense of 
 his wisdom and energy, in conducting the 
 war to so happy a termination, and invoked 
 the choicest blessings on his future life. Pres- 
 ident Milfiin concluded as follows: “We 
 
 join you in commending the interests of our 
 dearest country to Almighty God, beseeching 
 him to dispose the hearts and minds of its 
 citizens to improve the opportunity afforded 
 them of becoming a happy and respectable 
 nation. And as for you, we address to him 
 our earnest praj r ers, that the life so beloved 
 may be fostered with all his care ; that your 
 days may be as happy as they have been 
 illustrious ; and that he will finally give you 
 that reward which the world can not give.” 
 
 A profound stillness pervaded the assem- 
 bly. The grandeur of the scene, the recol- 
 
 WAS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 933 
 
 Washington’s tomb. 
 
 lection of the past, the felicity of the pres- 
 ent, the hopes of the future, crowded fast 
 upon all, while they united in invoking bless- 
 ings upon the man who, under God, had 
 achieved so much, and who now, in the char- 
 acter of a mere citizen, was hastening to a 
 long desired repose, at his seat at Mount 
 Vernon in Virginia. Congress voted the vic- 
 torious general an equestrian statue, and the 
 legislature of Virginia decreed to him “a 
 statue of the finest marble and best work- 
 manship.” 
 
 But Washington was not permitted to re- 
 main in his dignified retirement ; for the na- 
 tion, aware of the importance of securing his 
 
 wisdom and influence, chose him the first 
 president, under the new constitution of 
 1789. His feelings on this occasion are ex- 
 pressed in a letter to a friend, of which the 
 following is an extract : “ I am unwilling 
 
 in the evening of a life almost consumed in 
 public cares, to quit a peaceful abode for an 
 ocean of difficulties, without the competency 
 of political skill, abilities, and inclination, 
 which are necessary to manage the helm. I 
 am sensible that I am embarking on a haz- 
 ardous voyage, but what returns will be 
 made Heaven alone can foretell. Integrity 
 and firmness are all I can promise; these, 
 be the voyage long or short, shall never for- 
 
 WAS 
 
934 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 sake me, although I may be deserted by all 
 men, for of all consolations which are to be 
 derived from these, under any circumstan- 
 ces, the world can not deprive me.” 
 
 In the first presidency, the door of the 
 president’s house gathered but little just on 
 its hinges, while often was its latch lifted by 
 the “broken soldier.” Scarce a day passed 
 that some veteran of the heroic time did not 
 present himself at head-quarters. The most 
 battered of these types of the days of priva- 
 tion and trial were “kindtybid to stay,” 
 were offered refreshment, and a glass of 
 something to the old general’s health, and 
 then dismissed with lighter hearts and heav- 
 ier pouches. 
 
 Throughout the eight years of his presi- 
 dential career, Washington did nothing to 
 forfeit the esteem of his fellow-citizens, who 
 acknowledged him “first in peace, first in 
 war, and first in the hearts of his country- 
 men.” An Englishman in Philadelphia, 
 speaking of the presidency of Washington, 
 was expressing a desire to see him. While 
 this conversation passed, “ There he goes,” 
 cried the American, pointing to a tall, erect, 
 dignified personage, passing on the other 
 side of the street. “ That General Washing- 
 ton ! ” exclaimed the Englishman; “where 
 is his guard ? ” “ Here /” replied the Amer- 
 ican, striking on his breast with emphasis. 
 
 On Friday, the 13th of December, 1799, 
 exposure to wet produced an inflammatory 
 disorder of the throat, which terminated fa- 
 tally on the night of Saturda} r . The deep 
 and wide-spread grief occasioned by this 
 melancholy event, assembled a great con- 
 course of people for the purpose of paying 
 the last tribute of respect to the first of 
 Americans. On Wednesday, the 18th of 
 December, attended by military honors and 
 the ceremonies of religion, his body was de- 
 posited in the family vault at Mount Yernon. 
 
 So short was his illness, that, at the scat 
 of government, the intelligence of his death 
 preceded that of his indisposition. It was 
 first communicated by a passenger in the 
 stage to an acquaintance whom he met in the 
 street, and the report quickly reached the 
 house of representatives, which was then in 
 session. A solemn silence prevailed for sev- 
 eral minutes ; Judge Marshall, then a mem- 
 ber of the liouso, stated in his place the mel- 
 
 ancholy information which had been received. 
 This information, he said, was not certain, 
 but there was too much reason to believe it 
 true. “ After receiving intelligence,” he 
 added, “ of a national calamity so heavy and 
 afflicting, the house of representatives can be 
 but ill fitted for public business.” He there, 
 fore moved an adjournment, and the house 
 adjourned. 
 
 The expression of Washington’s counte- 
 nance was serious, but very pleasing ; his 
 eyes were a mild blue ; and the flush of 
 health gave a glow to his cheeks. His step 
 was always firm ; but after the toils of the 
 long war, his body was a little bent as he 
 walked, and his once smooth forehead and 
 cheeks were marked with care-worn furrows. 
 General AYashington, in the prime of life, 
 stood six feet two inches, and measured pre- 
 cisely six feet when attired for the grave. 
 To a majestic height was added correspond- 
 ing breadth and firmness ; and his whole per- 
 son was so cast in nature’s finest mould, as 
 to resemble the classic remains of ancient 
 statuary, where all the parts contribute to 
 the purity and perfection of the whole. 
 Bred in the vigorous school of the frontier 
 warfare, “ the earth his bed, his canopy the 
 heavens,” he excelled the hunter and the 
 woodsman in their athletic habits, and in 
 those trials of manhood which distinguished 
 the hardy days of his early life ; he was amaz- 
 ingly swift of foot, and could climb the moun- 
 tain steep, and “not a sob his toil confess.” 
 
 Bancroft thus sketches the character of 
 AA r ashington : “ Courage was so natural to 
 him, that it was hardly spoken of to his 
 praise ; no one ever at any moment of his 
 life discovered in him the least shrinking in 
 danger ; and he had a hardihood of daring 
 which escaped notice, because it was so en- 
 veloped by superior calmness and wisdom. 
 He was as cheerful as he was spirited, frank 
 and communicative in the society of friends, 
 fond of the fox-chase and the dance, often 
 sportive in his letters, and liked a hearty 
 laugh. This joyousness of disposition re- 
 mained to the last, though the vastness of 
 his responsibilities was soon to take from 
 him the right of displaying the impulsive 
 qualities of his nature, and the weight which 
 he was to bear up was to overlay and repress 
 his gaycty and openness. 
 
 AY AS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 935 
 
 “ His hand was liberal ; giving quietly and 
 without observation, as though he was 
 ashamed of nothing but being discovered in 
 doing good. He was kindly and compassion- 
 ate, and of lively sensibility to the sorrows 
 of others ; so that if his country had only 
 needed a victim for its relief, he would have 
 willingly offered himself as a sacrifice. But 
 while he was prodigal of himself, he was 
 considerate for others ; ever parsimonious of 
 the blood of his countrymen. He was pru- 
 dent in the management of his private 
 affairs, purchased rich lands from the Mo- 
 hawk valley to the flats of the Kanawha, and 
 improved his fortune by the correctness of 
 his judgment ; but, as a public man, he knew 
 no other aim than the good of his country, 
 and, in the hour of his country’s poverty, 
 he refused personal emolument for his 
 service. 
 
 “ His faculties were so well balanced and 
 combined that his constitution, free from 
 excess, was tempered evenly with all the 
 elements of activity, and his mind resembled 
 a well-ordered commonwealth ; his passions, 
 which had the intensest vigor, owned alle- 
 giance to reason ; and, with all the fiery 
 quickness of his spirit, his impetuous and 
 massive will was held in check by consum- 
 mate judgment. He had in his composition 
 a calm which gave him, in moments of high- 
 est excitement, the power of self-control, and 
 enabled him to excel in patience even when 
 he had most cause for disgust. Washington 
 was offered a command when there was little 
 to bring out the unorganized resources of the 
 continent but his own influence, and au- 
 thority was connected with the people by the 
 most frail, most attenuated, scarcely discern- 
 ible threads ; yet, vehement as was his 
 nature, impassioned as was his courage, he 
 so restrained his ardor that he never failed 
 continuously to exert the attracting power 
 of that influence, and never exerted it so 
 sharply as to break its force. 
 
 “ In secrecy, he was unsurpassed ; but his 
 secrecy had the character of prudent reserve, 
 not of cunning or concealment. His under- 
 standing was lucid and his judgment accu- 
 rate, so that his conduct never betrayed hurry 
 or confusion. No detail was too minute for 
 his personal inquiry and continued supervi- 
 sion ; and, at the same time, he comprehended 
 
 events in their widest aspects and relations. 
 He never seemed above tne object which en- 
 gaged his attention, and he was always equal 
 without an effort, to the solution of the high 
 est questions, even when there existed no 
 precedents to guide his decision. In this 
 way, he never drew to himself admiration 
 for the possession of any one quality in 
 excess, never made in council any one sug- 
 gestion that was sublime but impracticable, 
 never in action took to himself the praise or 
 the blame of undertakings astonishing in 
 conception, but beyond his means of execu- 
 tion. It was the most wonderful accom- 
 plishment of this man, that placed upon the 
 largest theatre of events, at the head of the 
 greatest revolution in human affairs, he never 
 failed to observe all that was possible, and at 
 the same time to bound his aspirations by 
 that which was possible. 
 
 “A slight tinge in his character percepti- 
 ble only to the close observer, revealed the 
 region from which he sprung, and he might 
 be described as the best specimen of manhood 
 as developed in the south ; but his qualities 
 were so faultlessly proportioned, that his 
 whole country rather claimed him as its 
 choicest representative, the most complete 
 expression of all its attainments and aspira- 
 tions. He studied his country and conformed 
 to it. His countrymen felt that he was the 
 best type of America, and rejoiced in it, and 
 were proud of it. They lived in his life, and 
 made his success and his praise their own. 
 
 “ Profoundly impressed with confidence in 
 God’s Providence, and exemplary in his 
 respect for the forms of public worship, no 
 philosopher of the eighteenth century was 
 more firm in the support of freedom of reli- 
 gious opinion ; none more tolerant or more 
 remote from bigotry ; but belief in God, and 
 trust in his overruling power, formed the 
 essence of his character. Divine wisdom not 
 only illumines the spirit, — it inspires the will. 
 
 “Washington was a man of action, and 
 not of theory or words ; his creed appears in 
 his life, not in his professions, which burst 
 from him very rarely, and only at those great 
 moments of crisis in the fortunes of his 
 country when earth and heaven seemed 
 actually to meet, and his emotions became 
 too intense for suppression ; but his wh(?le 
 being was one continued act of faith in the 
 
 WAS 
 
936 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 eternal, intelligent, moral order of the uni- 
 verse. Integrity was so completely the law of 
 his nature, that a planet would sooner have 
 shot from its sphere than he have departed 
 from his uprightness, which was so constant 
 that it often seemed to be almost impersonal. 
 
 “ They say of Giotto, that he introduced 
 goodness into the art of painting : Washing- 
 ton carried it with him into the camp and 
 the cabinet, and established a new criterion 
 of human greatness. The purity of ins will 
 confirmed his fortitude ; and as he never fal- 
 tered in his faith in virtue, he stood fast by 
 that which he knew to be just, free from illu- 
 sions, never dejected by the apprehension 
 of the difficulties and perils that went before 
 him, and drawing the promise of success 
 from the justice of his cause. Hence he was 
 persevering, leaving nothing unfinished; free 
 from all taint of obstinacy in his firmness, 
 seeking and gladly receiving advice, but im- 
 movable in his devotedness to right. 
 
 “Of a ‘ retiring modesty and habitual 
 reserve,’ his ambition was not more than the 
 consciousness of his power, and was subor- 
 dinate to his sense of duty ; he took the fore- 
 most place, for he knew, from inborn mag- 
 nanimity, that it belonged to him and he 
 dared not withhold the service equired of 
 him ; so that, with all his humility, he was 
 by necessity the first, though never fcr him- 
 self or for private ends. He loved fame, the 
 approval of coming generations, the good 
 opinion of his fellow-men of his own time, 
 and he desired to made his conduct coincide 
 with their wishes ; but not fear of censure, 
 not the prospect of applause, could tempt 
 him to swerve from rectitude ; and the praise 
 which he coveted was the sympathy of that 
 moral sentiment which exists in every human 
 breast, and goes forth only to the welcome 
 of virtue. 
 
 “ There have been soldiers who have 
 achieved mightier victories in the field, and 
 made conquests more nearly -corresponding 
 to the boundlessness of selfish ambition ; 
 statesmen who have been connected with 
 more startling upheavals of society ; but it 
 is the greatness of Washington, that in public 
 trusts he used power solely for the public 
 good ; that he was the life, and moderator, 
 and stajq of the most momentous revolution 
 in human affairs, its moving impulse and its 
 
 W 
 
 restraining power. Combining the centri- 
 petal and the centrifugal forces in their ut- 
 most strength and in perfect relations, with 
 creative grandeur of instinct he held ruin in 
 check, and renewed and perfected the insti- 
 tutions of his country. Finding the colonies 
 disconnected and dependent, he left them 
 such a united and well-ordered common- 
 wealth as no visionary had believed to be 
 possible. So that it has been truly said, ‘ he 
 was as fortunate as great and good.’ ” 
 
 WASHINGTON, William Augustine, a 
 distinguished cavalry officer in the American 
 revolution, was born, in Virginia. He dis- 
 tinguished himself particularly at Guilford, 
 and Eutaw, where, however, he was made 
 prisoner, and detained until the close of the 
 war. During the presidency of Adams, 
 General Washington attached his relative to 
 his staff w r ith the .rank of brigadier -general. 
 He died March 6th, 1810. He had married 
 a South Carolinian lady to whom he became 
 attached during his captivity, and settled in 
 Charleston. 
 
 WATERLOO, Battle of, called by French 
 writers the battle of Mont St. Jean. Water- 
 loo, the village near which it was fought, is 
 in theBelgic province of South Brabant, on the 
 road from Charleroi to Brussels, ten miles from 
 the latter city, at the entrance of the forest of 
 Soignies. The European confederates having 
 outlawed Napoleon by a declaration at Vi- 
 enna, assembled their forces to invade France 
 by the east and north. A Prussian army of 
 130,000 w 7 as collected at Namur, under Blu- 
 cher, and an English, Hanoverian, Dutch, 
 and Flemish army of 100,000, under Wel- 
 lington, in advance of Brussels. To oppose 
 these Napoleon had a force of 120,000. 
 It was his design to attack and defeat them 
 separately, before they could combine. He 
 took possession of Charleroi early in the 
 morning of the 15th of June, 1815. Ney 
 w’as dispatched with 40,000 men to gain 
 the important position of Quatrc-bras, which 
 would have cut off Wellington from Blucher. 
 It was Napoleon’s intention to leave a small 
 force behind the intrenchments there, to 
 beat back the Russians, while he destroyed 
 the army of Wellington. The news of the 
 emperor’s advance reached Wellington that 
 night amid the gayeties of a ball given by 
 the Duchess of Richmond at Brussels. lie 
 \T 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 937 
 
 was aware of the importance of Quatrebras, 
 and before morning his troops had possession 
 of it. All the fierce assaults of Ney the 
 next day could not gain it. 
 
 Blucher had left Namur with 80,000 men 
 to join Wellington. Napoleon met him at 
 Ligny on the 16th with 60,000. A despe- 
 rate conflict lasted all day, and at sunset the 
 French were everywhere victorious. Blucher 
 retreated during the night toward Wavre. 
 Wellington, hearing of this, fell back from 
 Quatre-bras, halted at Waterloo, and anx- 
 iously awaited the arrival of Blucher. Na- 
 poleon, after dispatching Grouchy to pursue 
 the Prussians, joined with Ney and followed 
 AVellington, reaching Waterloo at nightfall 
 on the 17th. Wellington’s army is variously 
 estimated at from 72,000 to 90,000; Napo- 
 leon’s at from 65,000 to 75,000. Blucher, at 
 Wavre, a few hours’ march away, had 72,000. 
 Wellington was admirably posted: the cha- 
 teau of Hougomont protected his right, 
 acclivities of ground his left and centre, and 
 the great forest of Soignies his rear. 
 
 The battle commenced an hour before noon 
 o» the 18th, with a bloody attack upon the 
 chateau of Hougomont, and extended to 
 other portions of the field. The carnage was 
 awful. In the afternoon, when the English 
 line was giving way and flying in dismay 
 toward Brussels, Bulow, with the Prussian 
 van-guard, came upon the scene. Ten thou- 
 sand French beat back this fresh force of 
 thirty thousand, while the emperor continued 
 with lessened numbers his terrible attack 
 upon the English, hoping every moment for 
 the appearance of Grouchy. That general 
 heard the booming of the guns in battle, yet 
 unaccountably refused to stir. Wellington 
 was no less anxious for the arrival of Blu- 
 cher. As he saw his lines falter, he cried, 
 “Would to Heaven that Blucher or night 
 would come.” Blucher came, and the odds 
 of numbers were three to one against the 
 exhausted French. As a last hope Napoleon 
 ordered a charge Of the imperial guard ; he 
 wished to lead the attack in person, but the 
 entreaties of his officers led him to give place 
 to Ney. All the valor of this renowned and 
 intrepid body could not avail, and it was 
 annihilated before the overwhelming strength 
 of the foe. The French fled in panic, leav- 
 ing their cannon and baggage, and the Prus- 
 
 sians followed in hot pursuit. Cambronne, 
 with a little remnant of the guard, alone 
 covered the flight. When summoned to 
 yield, he answered, “ The Guard dies, but 
 never surrenders.” And so the Guard died 
 upon the field of Waterloo. 
 
 WATT, James, was born at Greenock, 
 Scotland, Jan. 19th, 1736. While yet a boy 
 he got a hint of his great invention as he sat 
 by the fireside and watched the tea-kettle. 
 The improvements which he made in the 
 steam-engine have immortalized him. He 
 died near Birmingham, Aug. 25th, 1819. 
 
 WATTS, Isaac, D.D., was born at South- 
 ampton, July 17th, 1674. His parents were 
 remarkable for piety. He was educated 
 among dissenters, and in 1698 was chosen 
 minister by a congregation at Stoke Newing- 
 ton, and afterward by one in Mark Lane, 
 London. Ill health drove him from his post* 
 and in 1712 he was received into the house 
 of a benevolent gentleman of his neighbor- 
 hood, Sir Thomas Abney, of Abney Park, 
 where he spent all the remainder of his life. 
 There he composed those devotional hymns 
 for which his name is revered by all lovers 
 of Christianity. His treatises on “Logic” 
 and on the “Improvement of the Mind” ar? 
 cogent in argument and felicitous in illustra- 
 tion. He died Nov. 25th, 1748. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, a general in the 
 American Revolution, born in Chester county, 
 Penn., Jan. 1st, 1745. He was educated at 
 a Philadelphia academj^. Having served his 
 country in a civil capacity, he raised a com- 
 pany of volunteers in 1775, and was elected 
 colonel. In the retreat from Canada he 
 behaved with great prudence, and Feb. 12th, 
 1777, was made brigadier-general by the con- 
 tinental congress. Fie distinguished himself 
 at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, 
 and Monmouth, but his most brilliant service 
 was performed in carrying Stony Point by 
 assault. He was in continual service through- 
 out the war, and in 1792 was appointed by 
 Washington to succeed St. Clair in the com- 
 mand of the army employed against the 
 Indians on the western frontier. Aug. 20th, 
 1794, he gained a victory near Miami on the 
 lakes, and successfully ended the war by 
 treaty the next year. While returning home 
 from the west, he was seized with the gout, 
 and died in a hut at Presque Isle, on the 
 
 WAY 
 
938 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 shore of Lake Erie, in December, 1796. His 
 reckless daring gained him the name of Mad 
 Antony. 
 
 WEBER, Carl von, a great German com- 
 poser, the author of “Der Freischutz,” 
 “Oberon,” &c., was born at Eutin in Hol- 
 stein, in December, 1786. “Oberon” was 
 composed for the English stage, and was 
 
 brought out at Covent Garden, conducted by 
 Weber himself, April 12th, 1826. Symptoms 
 of pulmonary disease soon showed them- 
 selves ; the health of the talented composer 
 sank rapidly ; and his illustrious career 
 closed on the 5th of June, 1826, when he 
 was found lifeless in his bed. 
 
 WEBSTER, Daniel, was the second son 
 of Ebenezer Webster, of Salisbury, N. H., a 
 captain in the Revolutionary army, and after- 
 ward, though not bred to the law, one of the 
 judges of the court of common pleas. He 
 was born in that part of Salisbury now called 
 Boscawen, the 18th of September, 1782. He 
 received his academical education at Exeter 
 and Hanover, graduating at Dartmouth Col- 
 lege in 1801, at the age of nineteen. He had 
 scantily replenished his slender exchequer by 
 teaching school during his vacations. After 
 one year’s experience as a pedagogue at 
 Fryeburg, Me., he returned home and com- 
 menced the study of law. In 1804 he 
 betook himself to Boston, continued his 
 
 studies with Christopher Gore, a leading 
 counselor, afterward governor of Massachu- 
 setts, and in the following year was admitted 
 to the bar. He returned to Salisbury and 
 began practice. His father strongly urged 
 him to take the clerkship of the court of 
 common pleas, which was tendered for his 
 acceptance. The position was tempting then, 
 but he fortunately persisted in refusing it. 
 After his father’s decease in 1807, he removed 
 to Portsmouth, where he made the acquaint- 
 ance of Dexter, Story, Mason, and others, 
 afterward eminent at the bar and in public 
 life. His abilities soon won him a prominent 
 position in his profession and public esteem ; 
 so that in 1812 he was chosen representative 
 
 WEB 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 939 
 
 in congress. He took his seat at the extra 
 session in May, 1813, and on the 10th of 
 June delivered his first speech, on the subject 
 of the orders in council, manifesting clearly 
 the extraordinary powers of mind which 
 were so fully developed in after life. 
 
 He was re-elected to congress for the next 
 term. In 1817 he removed to Boston, where 
 for several } r ears he devoted himself assidu- 
 ously to the practice of his profession, in 
 which he had acquired a high standing. He 
 was a member of the convention which 
 revised the constitution of Massachusetts in 
 1821, and the next year was elected to con- 
 gress from the Boston district. His famous 
 speech on Greek independence was delivered 
 in 1823. lie was re-elected in 1824 and 182G, 
 and in 1825 delivered the address on laying 
 the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill monu- 
 ment. In 1827 he was chosen to Ihe United 
 States senate, by the legislature of Massa- 
 chusetts, and in that year uttered his eulog} r 
 on Adams and Jefferson. In the senate he 
 at once ranked among the master minds. 
 His memorable speeches in reply to Hayne, 
 in 1830, established undeniably his claim to 
 the highest position among American states- 
 men. 
 
 Mr. Webster continued in the senate till 
 1841. At the presidential election in 1836, 
 he received the electoral vote of Massachu- 
 setts. Upon the accession of General Harri- 
 son to the executive chair in 1841, Webster 
 was appointed secretary of state. The sud- 
 den death of Gen. Harrison, and the course 
 pursued by his successor, Mr. Tyler, soon 
 caused a disruption of the cabinet, and all 
 the members but Webster resigned. He re- 
 mained in office, and negotiated the Ashbur- 
 ton treaty in 1842, which settled the vexed 
 question of the north-eastern boundary, and 
 ended a protracted dispute which had threat- 
 ened war with Great Britain. This accom- 
 plished, he retired from the cabinet. In 1845 
 he was again chosen to the senate, in which 
 he remained till in 1850 he was called by 
 Mr. Fillmore again to the head of the cabinet. 
 In this office he died, at his residence in 
 Marshfield, the 24th of October, 1852. 
 
 Such is a meagre outline of the public life 
 of one of the most eminent statesmen of 
 America. As a man he was warmly esteemed 
 and loved by his intimates. His heart was 
 
 as deep and strong as was his intellect. He 
 was country-bred, and he never lost his love 
 for nature. He loved out-door and manly 
 sports, — boating, fishing, fowling. He loved 
 New Hampshire’s mountain scenery. He 
 had started small and poor, had risen great 
 and high, and honorably had fought his way 
 alone. He was a farmer, and took a country- 
 man’s delight in country things, — in loads 
 of hay, in trees, in noble Indian corn, in 
 monstrous swine. He had a patriarch’s love 
 of sheep, and choice breeds thereof he had. 
 He took delight in cows — short-horned Dur- 
 hams, Herefordshires, Ayrshires, Alderneys. 
 He tilled paternal acres with his own oxen. 
 He loved to give the kine fodder. It was 
 pleasant to hear his talk of oxen. And but 
 three days before he left the earth, too ill to 
 visit them, his oxen, lowing, came to see 
 their sick lord, and as he stood in his door, 
 his great cattle were driven up, that he might 
 smell their healthy breath, and look his last 
 on those broad, generous faces that were 
 never false to him. He was a friendly man : 
 all along the shore there were plain men that 
 loved him — whom he also loved ; a good 
 neighbor, a good townsman — 
 
 “ Lofty and sour to those that loved him r.ot, 
 But to those men that sought him, sweet as 
 summer.” 
 
 WEBSTER, Noah, the great American lex- 
 icographer, was born at West Hartford, Conn., 
 Oct. 16th, 1758. He was bred to the bar, 
 and practiced his profession with success, 
 but a great share of his life was devoted to 
 the compilation of his dictionary and other 
 literary avocations. He died at New Haven, 
 May 28th, 1843. 
 
 WELLINGTON. Arthur Wellesley was 
 born at Dangan Castle, county of Meath, Ire- 
 land, May 1st, 1769. His father was Lord 
 Mornington, an Irish peer of Norman descent. 
 He was placed at Eton school, and received 
 a military education at the military school of 
 Angers in France. His first active service 
 was seen in 1793, when his regiment (the 
 thirty-third) was ordered against the French 
 in Flanders. Young Wellesley acquitted 
 himself well in the disastrous campaign, and 
 gained the rank of major. In 1799 his regi- 
 ment was ordered to India, of which empire, 
 his elder brother, the Marquis of Wellesley, 
 was then governor-general. The services he 
 
 WEL 
 
940 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 rendered in the campaigns against Tippoo 
 Saib and the Mahrattas, won him the rank 
 of general. His career in India culminated 
 with his splendid victory at Assay e. He had 
 stormed the strong fortress of Achmednaghur, 
 and came up with the Mahratta army, posted 
 at the village of Assaye. While Gen. Wel- 
 lesley’s force was but a handful of 4,500 
 men, of whom only 1,700 were Europeans, 
 the Mahrattas were 30,000 strong. His ar- 
 my, moreover, was divided, a half of it march- 
 ing by another road, separated from his own. 
 by a ridge of hills. He, nevertheless, at 
 once threw himself upon the outnumbering 
 foe without awaiting the arrival of the re- 
 serve. Such boldness the event proved true 
 wisdom, and his heroism won a brilliant tri- 
 umph, which materially broke the power of 
 the Mahrattas, and aided in compelling them 
 to make peace. He was made a knight of the 
 order of the Bath, and returned to England 
 in 1805, Sir Arthur Wellesley. 
 
 Soon after, he was appointed secretary for 
 Ireland, stipulating that ministerial service 
 should not interfere with his professional du- 
 ties. The same year (1807) he commanded 
 a division in the Copenhagen expedition un- 
 der Lord Cathcart. He was not engaged in 
 the siege, but headed a corps detailed to dis- 
 perse a Danish force that had collected in the 
 rear of the British army on the island of 
 Zealand. He returned to England, after the 
 fall of Copenhagen, and in 1808 was ordered 
 to Portugal. The next year he received the 
 chief command of the army there. His suc- 
 cess in the Peninsula is historical. The des- 
 perate battle of Talavera, the passage of the 
 Douro, the impregnable lines of Torres 
 Vedras, the terrible contests of Fuentes 
 d’Onore and Albuera, the storming of Ciudad 
 Rodrigo and Badajoz, the severe fight of Sal- 
 amanca, the decisive victory of Yittoria, the 
 siege of St. Sebastian, the capture of Pam- 
 peluna — these are the prominent features of 
 the Peninsular campaigns. Seven of Napo- 
 leon’s marshals were foiled or defeated there 
 by Wellington — Junot, Soult, Ney, Massena, 
 Mortier, Marmont, and Jourdan. The last 
 of this great series of encounters was fought 
 between Wellington and Soult, at Toulouse, 
 April 10th, 1814, and was won by the for- 
 mer. 
 
 When Napoleon returned from Elba, Wel- 
 
 W1 
 
 lington was appointed to command the army 
 of British, Hanoverians, and Belgians, gath- 
 ered in the Netherlands to help annihilate 
 the French emperor. The two great gene- 
 rals met on the bloody field of Waterloo, and 
 Napoleon was defeated. Wellington com- 
 manded the army of observation which held 
 the frontier fortresses of France for the next 
 three j'ears. The victories he had gained 
 were rewarded by England with munificent 
 donations, and an enumeration of the titles 
 and honors bestowed upon him at home and 
 abroad would fill pages. He was not so suc- 
 cessful as a statesman. He was prime-minister 
 from 1828 to 1880. He was again made 
 commander-in-chief, and discharged the du- 
 des of that position regularly till his death, 
 which took place at Walmer Castle, Sept. 
 14th, 1852. The nation gave him a public 
 funeral, and he was interred by the side of 
 Nelson, beneath the great dome of St. Paul’s. 
 
 The Duke of Wellington was very simple 
 and abstemious in his habits ; noted for his 
 punctuality, and rigid observance of duty. 
 The ascendency he obtained was attested by 
 the frequent familiar mention of him as The 
 Duke, par excellence. 
 
 WESLEY, Charles, was born at Epworth 
 in April, 1708. He was an important coad- 
 jutor of his brother John in founding Meth- 
 odism. He wrote many devotional hymns 
 of great beauty. He died in 1788. 
 
 WESLEY, John, came of a clerical stock. 
 The great-grandfather, John Wesley, was a 
 reverend and very learned clergyman in the 
 church of England, who suffered severely 
 for nonconformity in the reign of Charles 
 II. : his wife was a niece of Thomas Fuller, 
 the church historian. Samuel Wesley, the 
 father, was also a clergyman of the Anglican 
 church. John was born at Epworth, Lin- 
 colnshire, J une 1 7 th, 1 7 03. U nder the teach- 
 ings of his mother hi’s heart was early imbued 
 with piety. At Christ Church college, with 
 his brother Charles and a few other students, 
 he entered upon a strict system of pious 
 study and discipline, which won them the 
 nickname of Methodists. John Wesley was 
 well fitted, by nature and scholastic attain- 
 ments, to found a new sect. Macaulay says 
 his genius for government was not inferior to 
 that of Richelieu. After officiating a short time 
 as curate to his father, the young enthusiast, 
 ES 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 941 
 
 accompanied by Charles, set off on a mission 
 to Georgia, where he remained about two 
 years. Shortly after his return in 1738, he 
 commenced field-preaching, traveling through- 
 out Great Britain and Ireland, and establish- 
 ing Methodist congregations. Thousands 
 flocked to his standard. For a time he was 
 associated with Whitefield, but they differed 
 upon the doctrine of election, which Wesley 
 rejected, and so they separated. 
 
 Wesley continued writing, preaching, and 
 journeying, till he was eighty-eight years of 
 age ; his apostolic earnestness and venerable 
 appearance procured for him everywhere pro- 
 found respect. He had preached about forty 
 thousand sermons and traveled three hundred 
 thousand miles. His useful and laborious 
 career ended -on the 2d of March, 1791. 
 His body lay in a kind of state in his chapel 
 at London the day previous to interment, 
 dressed in his clerical habit, with gown, cas- 
 sock, and band ; the old clerical cap on his 
 head, a Bible in one hand, and a white hand- 
 kerchief in the other. The funeral service 
 was read by one of his old preachers. When 
 he came to that part of the service, “Foras- 
 much as it hath pleased God to take unto 
 himself the soul of our dear brother ,” his 
 voice changed, and he substituted the word 
 father; and the feeling with which he did 
 this was such, that the congregation, who 
 were shedding silent tears, burst at once into 
 loud weeping. 
 
 WEST, Sir Benjamin, a v.ery eminent 
 painter, born in Pennsylvania, in 1738, of 
 Quaker parentage; went to Rome in 1760, 
 thence to England in 1763, where he became 
 successor to Sir Joshua Reynolds, the presi- 
 dent of the Royal Academy ; he died in 1820. 
 From 1767 to 1802 his services were almost 
 constantly engrossed by George III. In the 
 latter year, the king’s illness lost Sir Benja- 
 *min the patronage of the court, and he then 
 commenced his series of great religious pic- 
 tures. In his historical paintings he sensi- 
 bly abandoned the absurdity of the Greek 
 and Roman costume, and dressed liis heroes 
 in the garb of their day. 
 
 WEST POINT, a village of New York, and 
 military post, on the west bank of the Hud- 
 son, fifty-three miles above New York. It 
 was the scene of the treachery of Arnold. 
 
 During the war of the Revolution it was a 
 
 fortress of great importance, as it commanded 
 the river, and prevented communication be- 
 tween Canada and the city of New York. 
 The rocky promontory juts into the stream, 
 impelling the current toward the opposite 
 bank, and reducing the channel to less than 
 half a mile in breadth. This natural forma- 
 tion was eminently favorable to the object of 
 the fortifications erected here. The cliff rises 
 from the river in terraces ; upon the third of 
 which, 188 feet above the water, and spread- 
 ing out into a broad plateau, old Fort Clinton 
 was erected. Upon eminences still higher 
 in the rear, redoubts were erected covering 
 this fort ; one of which was Fort Putnam, at 
 the height of 598 feet above the river, the 
 ruins of which are still seen. On Constitu- 
 tion Island, the opposite side of the river, 
 works were also constructed; and a heavy 
 chain, supported by buoys, was stretched 
 across the angle made by the river, forming 
 an effectual bar to the passage of the enemy’s 
 ships. 
 
 The works were erected in 1778 under the 
 superintendence of Kosciusko, assisted by 
 French engineers. They, were completed 
 within a year, and West Point was considered 
 the. strongest fortress in the country. After 
 the Revolution they fell into decay. In 1802 
 the United States established the military 
 academy here. 
 
 WEST INDIES, the great Archipelago 
 which lies between North and South Amer- 
 ica. The richness of their products, the 
 splendor of their tropical vegetation, the 
 beauty of their scenery, their history, and 
 the singular forms of society existing among 
 them, render these islands peculiarly inter- 
 esting. Nature is not so partial as she seems. 
 For the wealth of soil and clime wherewith 
 she endowed these islands, they have paid 
 heavy taxes in sweeping hurricanes, deso- 
 lating earthquakes, and terrible volcanic fires. 
 They were the portal through which the 
 Spaniards entered upon the riches of the 
 New World. By the cruelty of the Spanish, 
 the natives were almost utterly exterminated. 
 For about a century and a half they remained 
 in the possession of Spain, though neglected 
 for the more splendid regions of Mexico and 
 Peru. During the seventeenth century the 
 smaller isles became the haunt of desperate 
 outlaws and pirates, the buccaneers, who 
 
 WES 
 
942 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 waged with success a predatory warfare 
 along the Spanish main ; and at the same 
 time England and France, not without con- 
 currence with these adventurers, sought to 
 obtain possession in the archipelago. Before 
 the end of the century, the English were 
 masters of Jamaica, the French held half of 
 St. Domingo, and the two nations had divided 
 between them nearly the w r hole of the Wind- 
 ward Islands. Other European nations gained 
 a foothold also, and the buccaneers being put 
 down, the isles, w 7 ith the exception of those 
 held by decayed Spain, rose in cultivation 
 and importance. Slavery has been gradually 
 done aw r ay by the various powers, till it only 
 remains on those held by the Spanish. 
 
 Various names are given by seamen of 
 different nations to different portions of the 
 archipelago. The Windward Islands are 
 Martinique and those south of it ; those be- 
 tween Martinique and Porto Rico are called 
 the Leeward Islands : these two groups, with 
 the islets along the coast of Venezuela, con- 
 stitute the Lesser Antilles. The most north- 
 erly of the Leeward Islands are also known 
 as the Virgin Isles. Porto Rico, St. Domin- 
 go, Jamaica, and Cuba are called the Greater 
 Antilles ; while outside of these are the great 
 banks on which rest the Lucayas, or Baha- 
 mas. 
 
 Hayti, or San Domingo, is divided into the 
 independent republics of Ilayti and Domin- 
 ica. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain. 
 Guadaloupe, Martinique, and the north side 
 of St. Martin’s arc held by the French. The 
 Dutch have the south side of St. Martin’s 
 and Curacoa; the Danes, Santa Cruz, St. 
 Thomas, and St. John’s ; the Swedes, St. Bar- 
 tholomew’s. The remainder, Jamaica, Trin- 
 idad, Barbadoes, Antigua, &c., are under 
 British rule. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman em- 
 pire was divided by Valentinian and Valens, 
 of whom the former had the western portion, 
 or Rome, properly so called, a.d. 3G4. Odo- 
 accr, a chief of the Ilcruli, entered Italy, de- 
 feated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, 
 deposed Augustulus, and assumed the title 
 of king of Italy, Aug. 23d, which ended the 
 Western empire, 507 years after the battle 
 of Actium, a.d. 47G. [See Eastern Empire.] 
 emperors. 
 
 364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the West- 
 
 ern Empire, and his brother Valens, the 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made 
 a colleague in the government, by his 
 father. 
 
 375. Valentinian II., another son, also very 
 young, is, on the death of his father, asso- 
 ciated with his brother in the empire. 
 Gratian is assassinated by his general, 
 Andragathius, in 383: Valentinian mur- 
 dered by one of his officers, Arbogastes, 
 in 392. 
 
 392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial 
 dignity : he and Arbogastes are defeated 
 bv Theodosius the Great, who becomes 
 sole emperor. Andragathius throws him- 
 self into the sea, and Arbogastes dies by 
 his own hand. 
 
 395. Ilonorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his 
 father’s death, in the West, and his brother, 
 Arcadius, in the East. Ilonorius dies in 
 423. 
 
 [Usurpation of John, the Notary, who is 
 defeated and slain, near Ravenna.] 
 
 425. Valentinian III., son of the Empress Pla- 
 cidia, daughter of Theodosius the Great: 
 murdered at the instance of his successor. 
 
 455. Maximus: he marries Eudoxia, widow of 
 
 Valentinian, who, to avenge the death of 
 her first husband and the guilt of her 
 second, invites the African Vandals into 
 Italy, and Rome is sacked. Maximus 
 stoned to death. 
 
 456. Marcus Mascilius Avitus : forced to resign, 
 
 and dies in his flight toward the Alps. 
 
 457. Julius Valerius Mcjorianus : murdered at 
 
 the instance of his minister, Ricimer, who 
 raises 
 
 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the 
 supreme power. Severus is poisoned by 
 Ricimer. 
 
 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the author- 
 ity, without assuming the title, of empe- 
 ror.] 
 
 467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages 
 of the senate and army : murdered by 
 Ricimer, who dies soon after. 
 
 472. Flavius Anicius Olvbrius : slain by the 
 
 Goths soon after his accession. 
 
 473. Glycerius : forced to abdicate by his succes- 
 
 sor. 
 
 474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, 
 
 Orestes, and retires to Salonan 
 
 475. Romulus Augustulus, son of Orestes. Ores- 
 
 tes is slain, and the emperor deposed by 
 
 476. Odoacer, king of the Ilcruli, who takes 
 
 Rome, assumes the style of king of Italy, 
 and completes the fall of the Western 
 Empire. 
 
 WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, 
 in former times, to the dukes of Saxony. 
 On the secularization of 1802, it was made 
 over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814, w r as 
 ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The 
 kingdom of Westphalia, one of the tempo- 
 rary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
 
 WES 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 943 
 
 conquests from Prussia, Hesse Casscl, Hano- 
 ver, and the smaller states to the west of the 
 Elbe, was created Dec. 1st, 1807, and Jerome 
 Bonaparte appointed king. Hanover was 
 annexed March 1st, 1810. This kingdom 
 was overturned in 1813. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, Peace of. Signed at 
 Munster and at Osnaburg, between France, 
 the emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing 
 the war against France. By this peace the 
 principle of a balance of power in Europe 
 was first recognized ; Alsace given to France, 
 and part of Pomerania and some other dis- 
 tricts to Sweden ; the elector palatine restored 
 to the Lower Palatinate ; the civil and polit- 
 ical rights of the German states established ; 
 and the independence of the Swiss confede- 
 ration recognized by Germany, Oct. 24th, 
 1648. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA was formerly a portion 
 of the state of Virginia, was admitted to the 
 Union in 1863, and contains 20,000 square 
 miles. The population of the state according 
 tJ the last census, is 442,013. The eastern 
 part of the state is very mountainous, while 
 the western is level, sloping towards the Ohio 
 and Big Sandy rivers. The products are 
 chiefly corn and wheat ; the minerals are coal, 
 iron, and salt. 
 
 The governor is elected for two years, and 
 must reside at the seat of government. The 
 senate is composed of eighteen and the house 
 of delegates of forty-seven members ; the for- 
 mer hold office for two years, the latter for 
 one. The right of suffrage is granted to 
 male citizens twenty-one years cf age. The 
 judicial power of the state is vested in a su- 
 preme court of appeals, circuit court, and 
 such inferior tribunals as the legislature may 
 establish. The circuit judges hold office six 
 years. There are three judges of the supreme 
 court of appeals who hold office for twelve 
 years, one being elected every four years. 
 The state has a large school fund, and a su- 
 perintendent of public schools. The capital 
 of the state is Charleston, situated on the 
 Great Kanawha river. It contains 3,162 in- 
 habitants. The principal towns of the state 
 are Wheeling, numbering 19,280; Parkers- 
 burg 6,641, and Harper’s Ferry with 13,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 WHIPPLE, William, a signer of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, was born at Ivit- 
 
 W 
 
 tery, Me., in 1730. In 1759, he commenced 
 business at Portsmouth, N. II. He was an 
 active republican, and in 1776 was elected to 
 Congress. He was brigadier of the state 
 militia in 1777, fought in the battle of Still- 
 water and Saratoga, and assisted in escorting 
 Burgoyne’s captive army toward Boston. He 
 was appointed judge in 1782, and died in 
 November, 1785. 
 
 WHITE, Henry Ivirke, born in Notting- 
 ham, Aug. 2 1st, 1785, died Oct. 19th, 1806. 
 His parents were in humble life. In early 
 childhood he gave promise of genius as a 
 rhymer and student. At the age of four- 
 teen, he was placed at a stocking loom, but 
 his soaring spirit could not be happy 
 there ; to all kinds of trade he had an ex- 
 treme aversion. His temper and tone of 
 mind at this period, are displayed in an ad- 
 dress to Contemplation. Aoout a year after 
 his, he entered upon the study of the law. 
 He applied himself to the study of Latin 
 during his leisure hours, in which language 
 he received only some trifling instruction ; 
 yet in ten months he enabled himself to read 
 Horace with facility, and had made some pro- 
 gress in Greek, studying at the same time 
 the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese langua- 
 ges, in all which he became a tolerable pro- 
 ficient. Chemistry, astronomy, and electri- 
 city were among his studies ; lie paid some 
 attention to drawing and music, and had a 
 turn for mechanics. His friends procured 
 him a sizarsliip at Cambridge. Severe study 
 soon wore out his feeble constitution, and he 
 died at the age of twenty-one, leaving behind 
 him as proofs of his genius, many remarka- 
 ble papers on science, history, theology, and 
 language. 
 
 WHITE PLAINS, Battle of. After the 
 defeat on Long Island, Washington was com- 
 pelled to abandon the city of New York to 
 Sir William Howe. Various skirmishes oc- 
 curred between the British and the gradually 
 retreating Americans. On the 28th of Octo- 
 ber, 1776, Howe attacked the American camp 
 at White Plains. In the short but severe 
 action the advantage belonged to the British, 
 who gained an eminence overlooking Wash- 
 ington’s position. Night came on, and the 
 armies lay within long cannon-shot of each 
 other, anticipating a more deadly conflict on 
 the morrow ; before which time Washington 
 HI 
 
944 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 so strengthened his defenses in appearance 
 that Ilowe dared not attack till Lord Percy 
 should come up with six battalions more. 
 Percy arrived on the thirtieth, but a severe 
 tempest delayed the operations of the Brit- 
 ish, and in the night of the 31st, Washington 
 decamped to a height five miles otf, where 
 he had thrown up stronger works than the 
 redoubts of sods and cornstalks that had so 
 deceived Howe at White Plains ; and thus his 
 feeble and shattered army was saved. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, George, founder of the 
 sect of Calvinistic Methodists, born at Glou- 
 cester, England, 1714, and died at Ncwbury- 
 port, Mass., 1770, where he lies interred. His 
 eloquence in the pulpit was very remarkable. 
 He was in early life associated with John 
 Wesley, but in after life they were separated 
 by difference of opinion. He visited Amer- 
 ica seven times, traveling and preaching 
 through nearly all the colonies, and he jour- 
 neyed also through England, Scotland, and 
 Wales. When his strength began to fail, he 
 put himself on what he termed “short allow- 
 ance,” preaching once only every week-day, 
 and three times on the Sabbath ! 
 
 WHITFIELD, James, Catholic Archbishop 
 of Baltimore, was born at Liverpool in Eng- 
 land on the 3d of November, 1770, and died 
 at Baltimore on the 19th of October, 1834. 
 At the age of seventeen he was bereaved of 
 his father and became the protector of his 
 mother. To assuage her grief, and to restore 
 her sinking health, he accompanied her to 
 Italy. On his return from that country, 
 where he had been for some time engaged in 
 mercantile pursuits, he found himself in 
 France at the time when Napoleon had de- 
 creed that every Englishman in France was 
 a prisoner. He spent the greatest part of his 
 exile in L} r ons, where he became acquainted 
 with Dr. Marechal, who was then professor 
 of theology in the seminary in that city. 
 The piety of his youth inclined his mind to 
 the sacerdotal state, and he commenced the 
 study of divinity under the direction of his 
 learned and pious friend. He distin- 
 guished himself by his solid judgment and 
 persevering industry. In the year 1809 he 
 was ordained priest in the city of Lyons. 
 After the death of his mother, he returned to 
 England, and was employed in the discharge 
 of parochial duties in the town of Crosby. 
 
 When Dr. Marechal was elevated to the 
 archiepiscopal see of Baltimore, he wrote to Mr. 
 AVhitfield, earnestly soliciting him to give 
 his assistance to the flock which Providence 
 had placed under his charge. He complied 
 with the request, and landed on our shores 
 on the 8th of September, 1817. In 1825 he 
 received the degree of doctor of divinity from 
 the court of Rome. At the death of Arch- 
 bishop Marechal, his name was on the list 
 which was first sent to Rome to receive the 
 sanction of his holiness, and he was soon 
 after consecrated Archbishop of Baltimore in 
 the cathedral of that city. 
 
 WICKLIFFE, or Wycliffe, John, a learned 
 ecclesiastic and professor of theology at Ba- 
 liol College, Oxford, the “morning star of 
 the Reformation,” was born at a village of the 
 same name, in Yorkshire, in 1324. He was 
 nominated one of the king’s commissioners, 
 to require of the pope that he would not in- 
 terfere in ecclesiastical benefices. This treaty 
 was carried on at Bruges ; but nothing was 
 concluded, upon which the parliament passed 
 an act against the papal usurpations. This 
 encouraged Wickliffe to go on in exposing 
 the corruptions of the church, and the tyr- 
 anny of the pope, who, in 1377, denounced 
 the reformer as an heretic, and required the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop 
 of London to proceed in judgment upon 
 him. Wickliffe, however, was supported by 
 the Duke of Lancaster (John of Gaunt) and 
 Earl Percy, who appeared with him at St. 
 Paul’s, Feb. 19th, 1378. High words ensued 
 on that occasion between the Bishop of Lon- 
 don and the temporal lords ; in consequence 
 of which, the populace took the bishop’s 
 part, and plundered the duke’s house in the 
 Savoy. Wickliffe, being thus countenanced 
 at court, undertook a translation of the Scrip- 
 tures from the Vulgate into English, which 
 work he accomplished, and thereby increased 
 the number of his enemies. In 1381 Wick- 
 liffe ventured to attack the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, in a piece entitled “De Blas- 
 phemia,” which being condemned at Oxford, 
 he went thither and made a declaration of 
 his faith, and professed his resolution to 
 defend it with his blood. The marriage of 
 Richard II. with Anne of Luxemburg, proved 
 very advantageous to Wickliffe ; for she was 
 a most exemplary princess, and a great friend 
 
 WIC 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 945 
 
 to scriptural knowledge. By her means the 
 writings of the English reformer were sent 
 to Germany, where they afterward produced 
 an abundant harvest. Wickliffe received a 
 citation from the pope to appear at Rome ; 
 but he answered, that “ Christ had taught 
 him to obey God rather than man.” He 
 died of the palsy, at the rectory of Lutter- 
 worth, in 1384. The council of Constance de- 
 nounced him as a heretic, and decreed that his 
 remains should no longer desecrate consecra- 
 ted ground. His bones were exhumed and 
 burnt in 1428, therefore, and the ashes thrown 
 into the neighboring brook. Fuller, the 
 church historian, quaintly says : “ Thus this 
 brook has conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon 
 into Severn, Severn into the narrow seas, they 
 into the main ooean, and thus the ashes of 
 Wickliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, 
 which is now dispersed all the world over.” 
 
 WILBERFORCE, William, one of the 
 most celebrated philanthropists of modern 
 times, one whose able, zealous, long con- 
 tinued, and ultimately successful exertions 
 in favor of the abolition of the slave-trade, 
 have given him a high rank among the bene- 
 factors of the human race, was born Aug. 
 24th, 1759, at Hull. He was educated at St. 
 John’s College, Cambridge, where he formed 
 an intimacy with William Pitt ; was elected 
 a member of parliament for Hull in 1780; 
 for the county of York in 1784 ; and in 1787, 
 be brought forth a motion for the abolition 
 of the slave trade, and the question, after a 
 long and laborious struggle, was finally car- 
 ried during the ministry of Mr. Fox, June 
 10th, 1806. In 1797 Mr. Wilberforce pub- 
 lished his celebrated “Practical View of 
 Christianity,” a work which has been trans- 
 lated into most European languages, and of 
 which numerous editions have been printed 
 in Great Britain and America. He died in 
 London, July 28th, 1833. His remains were 
 consigned to the sanctuary of the illustrious 
 dead in Westminster Abbey ; and his “ fune- 
 ral train included the great and the good of 
 all parties.” 
 
 WILKES, John, was born in Clerkenwell, 
 London, where his father was a distiller^ in 
 1727. He obtained the rank of colonel of the 
 Buckinghamshire militia, and a seat in par- 
 liament for Aylesbury. He conducted the 
 North Briton, and for its violent attacks 
 
 60 w 
 
 upon the Earl of Bute’s administration, he 
 was expelled from the House of Commons ; 
 and convicted in the court of king’s bench. 
 Previous to this, however, he had gained a 
 verdict in the common pleas against the sec- 
 retary of state, for an illegal seizure of his 
 papers by a general warrant. In the mean 
 time, Wilkes incurred another prosecution 
 for printing an obscene poem, called an 
 “ Essay on Woman ; ” and for not appearing 
 to receive judgment, was outlawed. He 
 went to France, where he resided till 1768, 
 when he was elected for Middlesex ; but was 
 prevented from taking his seat, and com- 
 mitted to the King’s Bench prison, which 
 occasioned dreadful riots in St. George’s 
 Fields. Wilkes was again expelled the House 
 of Commons ; but was rechosen, and the 
 election as repeatedly declared void. His 
 popularity was now at its height, and a large 
 subscription was made for the payment of 
 his debts. In 1770 he was chosen an aider- 
 man of London, and in 1774 lord mayor. 
 The same year he was returned again for 
 Middlesex, when he was permitted to take 
 his seat without farther opposition. In 1779, 
 after three unsuccessful attempts, he was 
 elected chamberlain of London. He died 
 Dec. 26th, 1797. In private character Wilkes 
 was very profligate. 
 
 WILLIAM I., King of England, was born 
 in 1027, and though illegitimate, succeeded 
 his father as Duke of Normandy. In 1051 
 he paid a visit to his kinsman Edward the 
 Confessor, in England. In 1066 he made a 
 claim to the crown of England, invaded Eng- 
 land, landed at Pevensey in Sussex, and de- 
 feated the English troops at Hastings, Oct. 
 14th, when Harold was slain. William was 
 crowned at Westminster, Dec. 25th, 1066. 
 In 1072 he repelled the attack of Malcolm, 
 King of Scotland, in Northumberland. In 
 1086 he invaded France. He soon after fell 
 from his horse, and contracted a rupture: 
 he died at Hermentrude, near Rouen, in Nor- 
 mandy, 1087. He was buried at Caen, and 
 was succeeded in Normandy by his eldest 
 son, Robert, and in England by his second 
 son, William Rufus. 
 
 WILLIAM (Rufus) TI. was born in 1057, 
 and crowned at Westminster, Sept. 27th, 
 1087. William was killed by accident, while 
 hunting in the Now Forest, in 1100. 
 
946 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 WILLIAM III., Prince of Orange, was the 
 son of William II., Stadtholder of Holland, 
 and of Mary, daughter of Charles I. of Eng- 
 land. He was born Nov. 14th, 1650. He 
 wedded his cousin Mary, daughter of James 
 II. His landing at Torbay, Nov. 4th, 1688, 
 marks the epoch of the English revolution. 
 He was crowned with his consort Mary, Feb. 
 16th, 1689; William, being a Presbyterian, 
 began his reign by repealing those laws that 
 enjoined uniformity of worship ; and though 
 he could not entirely succeed, a toleration was 
 granted to such dissenters as should take 
 the oaths of allegiance, and hold no private 
 conventicles. In the mean time, James, 
 whose authority was still acknowledged in 
 Ireland, embarked at Brest for that country, 
 and arrived at Kinsale. He soon made a 
 public entry into Dublin, and was well 
 received. After the unsuccessful siege of 
 Londonderry, his army encountered the 
 royal forces, commanded by William in per- 
 son, on the banks of the Boyne, in 1690, 
 when the latter gained a splendid victor} 7 . 
 After a series of disasters, James died Sept. 
 16th, 1700. William, in the mean time, be- 
 came fatigued with opposing the laws which 
 parliament were every day laying around 
 his authority, and thus gave up the contest. 
 He admitted every restraint upon the prerog- 
 ative in England, upon condition of being 
 properly supplied with the means of hum- 
 bling the power of France. For the prose- 
 cution of the war with France, the nation 
 mortgaged the taxes, and involved themselves 
 in what is now called the national debt. 
 The war with France continued during the 
 greatest part of William’s reign, but was at 
 length intermitted by the treaty of Ryswick, 
 in 1697. William was thrown from his 
 horse, Feb. 21st, 1702, when his collar-bone 
 was fractured ; and this hastened his disso- 
 lution. He died in the following month, of 
 an asthma and fever. 
 
 WILLIAM IV., King of England. [See 
 Hanover, House of.] 
 
 WILLIAMS, Otiio Holland, a brigadier- 
 general in the American army, born in Prince 
 George’s County, Maryland, in 1748, and 
 died in July, 1794. He distinguished him- 
 self at the battles of Guilford, Ilobkirk’s 
 Hill, and the Eutaw. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Roger, was born in Wales 
 
 in 1598, and having completed his collegiate 
 education at Oxford, took orders in the estab- 
 lished church, but soon became a non-con- 
 formist, in consequence of which he was 
 obliged to come to America in 1631. His 
 religious principles also drew down upon 
 him the indignation of the authorities of 
 Massachusetts Bay, and he was banished. 
 He settled at Providence, Rhode Island, 
 where he founded a community in which in- 
 tolerance was unknown. He died in April, 
 1683. 
 
 WILLIAMS, William, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born at 
 Lebanon, Conn., April 8th, 1731, and was 
 educated at Harvard College. He prepared 
 for the ministry, but preferring a military 
 life, engaged in the frontier wars in New 
 York in 1755. He was chosen to the conti- 
 nental congress from Connecticut in 1776, 
 was an active member, and retired from 
 public life in 1804. His death occurred Aug. 
 2d, 1811. 
 
 WILSON, Alexander, a distinguished 
 naturalist; author of the “American Orni- 
 thology he died in 1813, aged about forty. 
 He was born at Paisley, Scotland, 1766. 
 
 WILSON, James, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, born in Scotland about 
 1742, and educated at Edinburgh, came to 
 America in 1766. He was at first tutor in 
 the college at Philadelphia, studied law, and 
 practiced in that city. He was a member 
 of congress, 1775-78, 1782-1783,- and 1785- 
 1787. He was also member of the conven- 
 tion that framed the federal constitution, and 
 chairman of the committee which reported 
 it. Upon the organization of the judiciar}’ 
 in 1789, Mr. Wilson was appointed one of 
 the justices of the supreme court of the 
 United States. He died August 28th, 1798. 
 
 WILSON, John, was a native of Paisley, 
 where he was born on the 19th of May, 1785. 
 In youth he was given to adventurous excur- 
 sions among the mountains and glens of his 
 native land, and he early came to a great skill 
 in all athletic sports, — in leaping, wrestling, 
 curling, boxing, running, and swimming. His 
 passionate love for these, and all rural sports 
 and bodily exercise, lasted through his life. 
 He was an excellent scholar, withal, and after 
 a sound preliminary course at the university 
 of Glasgow, he became a gentleman com- 
 
 WIL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 947 
 
 moner of Magdalen, Oxford. Then he pur- 
 chased the beautiful little demesne of Elle- 
 ray, on the shores of Windermere, and went 
 there to reside. He married — built a house 
 and a yacht — enjoyed the magnificent scenery 
 of the lakes — wrote poetry — and tasted the 
 happy days that belong to a man with youth, 
 robust health, fortune, and an exhaustless 
 imagination. Reverses came, and after en- 
 tering the Scottish bar, he obtained the 
 chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. 
 He was the leading contributor to Black- 
 wood's Magazine, in whose pages he poured 
 forth a flood of fancy, humor, learning, and 
 eloquence, like the rush of mighty waters. 
 At last, after a companionship of thirty years, 
 his gentle wife died, and he was almost over- 
 powered. The first time he met his class in 
 the university, after this event, he apologized 
 in a broken voice for not having examined 
 the essays before him : “I could not see to 
 read them in the darkness of the shadow of 
 the valley of death.” The tears rolled down 
 his cheeks ; he said no more, but waved his 
 hand to the class, who had risen to their feet, 
 and hurried from the room. In 1S51 he was 
 smitten with paralysis of the lower limbs. 
 He died April 3d 1854. 
 
 The physique of Wilson was striking. He 
 was stout, tall, athletic, with broad shoul- 
 ders and chest, and prodigiously muscular 
 limbs. His face was magnificent ; his hair, 
 which he wore long and flowing, fell round 
 his massive features like a lion’s mane, to 
 which, indeed, it was often compared, being 
 much of the same hue. His lips were always 
 working, while his gray flashing eyes had a 
 weird sort of look which was highly charac- 
 teristic. The splendor of his varied genius 
 was rivaled by his warmth of heart for all 
 that was generous and good and sacred. He 
 was loved by all men who came within the 
 charm of his presence. 
 
 WINDER, William H., an eminent law- 
 yer of Maryland, brigadier-general in the 
 army of the United States during the second 
 war with Great Britain, died in 1824. 
 
 WINTIIROP, John, first governor of Ii£as- 
 sachusetts, immigrated with the first colo- 
 nists, and died in 1649, aged sixty-two. 
 
 WINTIIROP, John, son of the preceding, 
 governor of the colony of Connecticut, died 
 in 1676, aged forty-three. He was a man of 
 
 great learning and talents, and fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London, of which he was 
 one of the founders. 
 
 WINTIIROP, Fitz John, son of the pre- 
 ceding, and distinguished like his father, for 
 learning and piety ; governor of Connecti- 
 cut; died in 1707. 
 
 WIRT, William, was born at Bladens- 
 burg, Md., on the 8th of November, 1772, 
 and was the youngest of six children. In 
 1795 he married the eldest daughter of Dr. 
 George Gilmer, a distinguished physician, 
 and took up his residence at Pen Park, the 
 seat of his father-in-law, near Charlottesville, 
 where he was introduced to the acquaintance 
 of Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and other 
 persons of celebrity. He contracted habits 
 of great dissipation, from which he is said to 
 have been recovered by a sermon which he 
 heard from a blind preacher, James Waddell, 
 whom he has celebrated in his “ British Spy.” 
 In 1799 his wife died. He was, in 1802, 
 appointed chancellor of the eastern district 
 of Virginia, and then took up his residence 
 at Williamsburg ; and in the same year he 
 married the daughter of Colonel Gamble of 
 Richmond. He soon after resigned his chan- 
 cellorship, and at the close of the year 1803, 
 removed to Norfolk, and entered upon the 
 assiduous practice of his profession. Just 
 before he removed to Norfolk, he -wrote the 
 letters published in the Richmond Argus , 
 under the title of “The British Spy,” which 
 were afterward collected into a small volume, 
 and have passed through many editions. In 
 1806 he took up his residence at Richmond, 
 and, in the following year, he greatly distin- 
 guished himself in the trial of Col. Burr. 
 In 1812 he wrote the greater part of a series 
 of essays, which were originally published 
 in the Richmond Enquirer under the title 
 of “The Old Bachelor.” The “Life of Pat- 
 rick Henry,” his largest literary production, 
 was first published in 1817. 
 
 In 1816 he was appointed by Mr. Madison 
 the United States’ attorney for the district 
 of Virginia; and in 1817, by Mr. Monroe, 
 attorney-general of the United States, a post 
 which he occupied with distinguished repu- 
 tation till 1829, through the entire adminis- 
 trations of Monroe and Adams. In 1830 he 
 took up his residence at Baltimore, for the 
 remainder of his life. As a public and pro- 
 
948 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 fessional man, Mr. Wirt ranked among the 
 first of his time. He died at Washington, 
 Feb. 18th, 1835, aged sixty-two. 
 
 WIRTEMBERG, a mountainous kingdom 
 in the western part of Germany, containing 
 1,800,000 inhabitants, on a mountainous 
 area of 7,500 square miles. In the wars of 
 the French revolution, Wirtemberg was re- 
 peatedly traversed by the hostile armies ; its 
 territory was, in 1796, the ground chosen 
 for conflicts in the advance, as well as in the 
 celebrated retreat, of Moreau. In 1799 it 
 was the scene of the defeat of the French 
 
 under Jourdan; in 1800 of their renewed 
 success under Moreau. This is one of the 
 most ancient states of Germany, and most 
 populous for its extent. The dukes were 
 Protestants until 1772, when the reign- 
 ing prince became a Roman Catholic. The 
 Elector of Wirtemberg assumed the title of 
 king, Dec. 12th, 1805, and was proclaimed 
 Jan. 1st, 1806. His majesty, as an ally of 
 France, lost the flower of his army in Russia, 
 in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free con- 
 stitution in 1819 from William I. 
 
 WISCONSIN, whose area extends over 
 53,924 square miles, contained in 1870, 
 1,054,670 inh ibitants. The northern part hav- 
 ing never been fully explored, excepting by 
 traders and trappers, is consequently but 
 little known. It is, however, represented as 
 a rugged and mountainous wilderness, though 
 frequently presenting large tracts of extra- 
 ordinary fertility, and watered by numerous 
 broad and rapid streams. The surface, in 
 the southern part, consists mostly of prairie 
 land, well timbered along the river sides ; 
 in the central part of the state, the face of 
 the county is more diversified. The rough 
 and hilly tracts at the north produce the 
 white pine in great abundance. The entire 
 region is bountifully supplied with navigable 
 streams, by which it is penetrated in all 
 directions. The soil is generally of an ex- 
 cellent quality, and varies from one to ten 
 feet in depth. It is especially productive on 
 
 W 
 
 the margins of the Mississippi and Wiscon- 
 sin Rivers, where also are found extensive 
 forests of ponderous timber : and the land 
 throughout the state, so far as it has been 
 surveyed, proves to be admirably adapted to 
 agricultural purposes, particularly to the 
 growth of corn and wheat. Indeed, every 
 species of vegetable suited to the climate can 
 be cultivated wdth perfect success ; and mul- 
 titudes of cattle may find ample pasturage 
 upon the rich and almost boundless prairies. 
 The lead, copper, and iron ores of Wisconsin 
 are of great importance ; the lead mines the 
 richest in the world. Its position on the 
 lakes and on the Mississippi, gives it excel- 
 lent facilities for inland trade, and its pros- 
 perity, population, and power are advancing 
 at a rapid pace. 
 
 Wisconsin was organized as a distinct ter- 
 ritory in 1836. Iowa and Minnesota have 
 since been cut from within the bounds then 
 IS 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 949 
 
 set to it. It was admitted into the Union in 
 1848. 
 
 Madison, the capital, pop. 9,176, occupies a 
 site between two small lakes. When Wiscon- 
 sin was organized as a territory, this was 
 selected as the seat of government ; the con- 
 tractor for erecting the necessary buildings 
 was, with his party, eleven days in cutting 
 his way through the wilderness from Mil- 
 waukee. The city of Milwaukee, on Lake 
 Michigan has had a very rapid growth. It 
 was laid out in 1835, had a population of 
 1,742 in 1840 and in 1870, 71,440. It is the 
 chief town in the state, has an extensive 
 commerce, .and busy manufactories, and is 
 the natural outlet of one of the finest grain 
 regions in the country. The cream-colored 
 brick of which the town is so largely built, 
 give it a peculiarly bright and handsome 
 look. Beloit, Janesville, Kenosha, and Ra- 
 cine are important towns, with that pecul- 
 iarity of Western cities, that their growth 
 will not stop long enough to be chronicled. 
 
 WITHERSPOON, John, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was born at 
 Yester, near Edinburgh, Feb. 5th, 1722, and 
 was a descendant of John Knox. He came 
 to America in 1708, to take charge .of the 
 college at Princeton, N. J. ; became very 
 popular as a Christian divine and patriot ; 
 and in 1776 was elected a member of Con- 
 gress, at which post he continued till 1783. 
 He afterward resumed his duties at Prince- 
 ton, and died Nov. 15th, 1794. 
 
 WOLCOTT, Oliver, a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born Dec. 1st, 
 1726, at East Windsor, Conn., graduated at 
 Yale College, and studied medicine, but never 
 practiced it ; became a successful lawyer. 
 During the French war he served as captain. 
 He was delegate to the congresses of 1776, 
 1778, 1780, and 1784. He was an active 
 patriot and an ardent friend of the proposi- 
 tion for independence. He served at the 
 head of a volunteer corps in the army which 
 forced Burgoyne to surrender. After serv- 
 ing ten years as lieutenant-governor, he was 
 chosen governor of Connecticut. He died 
 Dec. 1st, 1797. 
 
 WOLCOTT, Oliver, son of the preceding, 
 succeeded Hamilton as secretary of the treas- 
 ury during Washington’s administration. 
 After residing some years in New York, he 
 
 returned to Connecticut and in 1817 was 
 chosen governor, which office he held ten 
 years. He died in 1833, aged seventy-four. 
 
 WOLFE, James, was the son of Lieuten- 
 ant-general Edward Wolfe, born at Wester- 
 ham, in Kent, in 1726. He entered early 
 into the army, and before he was twenty, 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Laf- 
 feldt. At that of Minden he gained addi- 
 tional laurels, as he afterward did in leading 
 the expedition that besieged Louisburg, 
 whence he had but just returned, when he 
 was appointed to command the hazardous 
 expedition against Quebec. As soon as the 
 St. Lawrence was clear of ice in 1759, he was 
 to ascend the river in a fleet of ships of war, 
 with 8,000 men, and lay siege to the city. 
 
 Wolfe came up the St. Lawrence in June; 
 his troops disembarked on the fertile Isle of 
 Orleans, below Quebec. The strong citadel 
 they were to attack was commanded by the 
 Marquis of Montcalm, a brave and vigilant 
 officer. Anxious for a decisive action, Wolfe 
 changed his position to the lower side of the 
 Montmorency. That tumultuous stream ran 
 between him and the French camp ; at both 
 the fords Montcalm had thrown up breast- 
 works and posted troops. An attack upon 
 the French position met a severe check. 
 Wolfe’s nature was extremely sensitive, and 
 the acute mortification threw him into a fever 
 which kept him from the field. On his bed 
 he changed his plan of operations, and re- 
 solved upon an attempt above the town, 
 though the shore was an almost inaccessible 
 cliff. The camp at Montmorency was accord- 
 ingly broken up, the troops transported to 
 Point Levi, and suitable measures taken to 
 deceive the French as to the object of the 
 movement. 
 
 The. eventful night of the 12th of Septem- 
 ber, 1759, was clear and calm, with no light 
 but that of the stars. Within two hours be- 
 fore daybreak, thirty boats, crowded with 
 sixteen hundred soldiers, cast off from the 
 vessels, and floated downward, in perfect or- 
 der, with the current of the ebb tide. To 
 the boundless joy of the army, Wolfe’s mal- 
 ady had abated, and he was able to command 
 in person. His ruined health, the gloomy 
 prospects of the siege, and the disaster at 
 Montmorency, had oppressed him with the 
 deepest melancholy, but never impaired for 
 
 WOL 
 
950 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 a moment the promptness of his decisions or 
 the impetuous energy of his action. He sat 
 in the stern of one of the boats, pale and 
 weak, but borne up to a calm height of reso- 
 lution. Every order had been given, every 
 arrangement made, and it only remained to 
 face the issue. The ebbing tide sufficed to 
 bear the boats along, and nothing broke the 
 silence of the night but the gurgling of the 
 river, and the low voice of Wolfe, as he re- 
 peated to the officers about him the stanzas 
 of Gray’s “ Elegy in a Country Churchyard,” 
 which had recently appeared, and which he 
 had just received from England. Perhaps, 
 as he uttered those strangely appropriate 
 words, — 
 
 “ The paths of glory lead but to the grave,” 
 the shadows of his own approaching fate 
 stole with mournful prophecy across his mind. 
 “ Gentlemen,” he said, as he closed the reci- 
 tal, “I would rather have written those lines 
 than take Quebec to-morrow.” 
 
 They reached the selected landing-place in 
 safety — an indentation in the shore about a 
 league from the city, and now bearing the 
 name of Wolfe’s Cove. Here a narrow path 
 led up the face of the heights, and a French 
 guard was posted at the top to defend the 
 pass. By the force of the currents, the fore- 
 most boats, including that which carried 
 Wolfe himself, were borne a little below the 
 spot. The general was one of the first on 
 shore. He looked up at the rugged heights 
 that towered above him in the gloom. “ You 
 can try it,” he coolly observed to an officer 
 near him ; “but I don’t think you’ll get up.” 
 
 At the point where the Highlanders landed, 
 one of their captains, Donald Macdonald, was 
 climbing in advance of his men, when he was 
 challenged by a sentinel. He replied in 
 French, by declaring that he had been sent 
 to relieve the guard, and ordering the soldier 
 to withdraw. Before the latter was unde- 
 ceived, a crowd of Highlanders were close at 
 hand, while the steps below were thronged 
 with eager climbers, dragging themselves up 
 by trees, roots, and bushes. The guard 
 turned out, and made a brief though brave 
 resistance. In a moment they were cut to 
 pieces, dispersed, or made prisoners ; while 
 men after men came swarming up the height, 
 and quickly formed upon the plains above. 
 Meanwhile the vessels had dropped down- 
 
 ward with the current, and anchored opposite 
 the landing-place. The remaining troops 
 were disembarked, and with the dawn of 
 day the whole were brought in safety to the 
 shore. 
 
 The sun rose, and from the ramparts of 
 Quebec the astonished people saw the plains 
 of Abraham glittering with arms, and the 
 dark red lines of the English forming in array 
 of battle. Montcalm hastened to repel the 
 unexpected attack. At nine o’clock the ad- 
 verse armies stood motionless, each gazing 
 on the other. The clouds hung low, and at 
 intervals, warm, light showers descended, 
 sprinkling both alike. The coppice and corn- 
 fields in front of the British troops were 
 filled with French sharp-shooters, who kept 
 up a distant spattering fire. Here and there 
 a soldier fell in the ranks, and the gap was 
 filled in silence. 
 
 At a little before ten, the British could see 
 that Montcalm was preparing to advance, and 
 in a few moments all his troops appeared in 
 rapid motion. They came on in three divi- 
 sions, shouting after the manner of their 
 nation, and firing heavily as soon as they 
 came within range. In the British ranks, 
 not a trigger was pulled, not a soldier stirred ; 
 and their ominous composure seemed to 
 damp the spirits of the assailants. It was 
 not till the French were within forty yards 
 that the fatal word was given. At once, 
 from end to end of the British line, the mus- 
 kets rose to the level, as if with the sway of 
 some great machine, and the whole blazed 
 forth at once in one crashing explosion. 
 Like a ship at full career arrested with sud- 
 den ruin on a sunken rock, the columns of 
 Montcalm staggered, shivered, and broke be- 
 fore that wasting storm of lead. The smoke, 
 rolling along the field, for a moment shut 
 out the view ; but when the white wreaths 
 were*scattered on the wind, a wretched spec- 
 tacle was disclosed — men and officers tumbled 
 in heaps, columns resolved into a mob, order 
 and obedience gone ; and when the British 
 muskets were leveled for a second volley, the 
 masses were seen to cower and shrink with 
 uncontrollable panic. 
 
 For a few minutes, the French regulars 
 stood their ground, returning a sharp and not 
 ineffectual fire. But now, echoing cheer on 
 cheer, redoubling volley on volley, trampling 
 
 WOL 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 958 
 
 feet. It covers eleven acres of ground, and 
 is constructed of such huge blocks of stone, 
 that a more marvelous achievement of human 
 labor has not been found on the earth. These 
 vast piles were erected for sepulchral and re- 
 ligious purposes. 2. The tomb built for Mau- 
 solus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
 He was the own brother of Artemisia, and 
 famous for his personal beauty. So fond was 
 she, that at his death she drank in her liquor 
 the ashes of his incremated body, and erected 
 to his memory a monument of great grandeur 
 and magnificence. This monument she called 
 Mausoleum, a name since given to tombs of 
 unusual splendor. She summoned all the 
 poets and bards of the time, and offered a 
 reward to him who composed the best elegiac 
 panegyric upon her husband. Theopompus 
 won the prize, 357 b.c. 3. The temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus. This superb edifice was 
 built at the common charge of all the Asiatic 
 states. Pliny says that two hundred and 
 twenty years were employed in its comple- 
 tion. Its riches were immense. It was four 
 hundred and twenty-five feet long, two hun- 
 dred and twenty-five feet broad, and was sup- 
 ported by one hundred and twenty-seven 
 columns of Parian marble (sixty feet high 
 and each weighing a hundred and fifty tons), 
 furnished by as many kings. On the night 
 of Alexanders nativity, 356 b.c., it was fired 
 by an obscure rascal named Eratostratus, who 
 confessed that his sole motive was a desire to 
 transmit his name to future ages. The temple 
 was rebuilt, and again burnt by the Goths in 
 their naval invasion, a.d. 256. 4. The walls 
 and hanging gardens of Babylon. Where 
 now is desolate ruin, once stood the most 
 magnificent city in the ancient world, Babylon 
 the Great. The hanging gardens are described 
 as having been of a square form, and in ter- 
 races one above another until they rose as 
 high as the walls of the city, the ascent be- 
 ing from terrace to terrace by steps. The 
 whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised 
 on other arches ; and on the top were flat 
 stones closely cemented together with plaster 
 of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of 
 lead, upon which lay the mould of the gar- 
 den, where there were large trees, shrubs, 
 and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. 
 There were five of these gardens, each con- 
 taining about four acres. 5. The Colossus 
 
 at Rhodes. This was a brazen statue of 
 Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected in honor 
 of the sun, and built in twelve years by 
 Chares of Lindus, a pupil of Lysippus, 290 
 b.c. The figure stood on two moles, some say 
 straddling the entrance to the harbor, so that 
 a vessel in full sail could enter beneath. A 
 winding staircase ran to the top, from which 
 could be seen the shores of Syria and sails 
 on the coast of Egypt. An earthquake laid 
 the Colossus low, 224 b.c. ; an oracle forbade 
 its restoration ; and it was finally destroyed 
 by the Saracens, a.d. 672. 6. The statue of 
 
 Jupiter at Olympia in Elis, sculptured in 
 ivory and gold by Phidias, the most eminent 
 statuary among the ancients, 433 b.c. The 
 Elians accused the artist of ‘ cabbaging’ the 
 costly materials they furnished him, and 
 threw him into prison, where he died. Time 
 proved the accusation false, and in expiation 
 the charge of the great image was given as 
 an heir-loom to the descendants of Phidias. 
 Six hundred years afterward his posterity 
 still had the care of it. The Olympian Jupi- 
 ter adorned Elis for about eight centuries ; 
 it was then removed to Constantinople, by 
 the Emperor Theodosius, and was either lost 
 at sea, or destroyed in the fire of the Lau- 
 deion, a.d. 476. 7. The Pharos or watch- 
 
 tower at Alexandria, erected by order of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 2S0 b.c. It 
 was built of white marble, and could be seen 
 at the distance of a hundred miles. Fires 
 j were constantly kept on the top, to direct 
 sailors in the bay. The building of this 
 tower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent 
 to above $825,000, if Attic, or if Alexan- 
 drian, double that sum. There was this in- 
 scription upon it: “King Ptolemy to the 
 gods, the saviors, for the benefit of sailors ; ” 
 but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim 
 all the glory, engraved his own name upon 
 the stones, and afterward filled the hollow 
 with mortar, and wrote the above inscrip- 
 tion. When the mortar had decayed by 
 time, Ptolemy’s name disappeared, and the 
 following inscription then became visible : 
 “ Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, 
 to the gods, the saviors, for the benefit of 
 sailors.” 
 
 WOODWORTH, Samuel, the author of 
 “The Old Oaken Bucket,” died at New York 
 in 1842, aged fifty-seven. He was a printer, 
 
 WOO 
 
954 
 
 COTTAGE CYOLOPEDIA OF 
 
 and served his apprenticeship at Boston, in 
 the office of Major Russell, the publisher of 
 the Centinel. The beautiful and popular bal- 
 lad for which he is best known, is said to 
 have had its origin under the following cir- 
 cumstances. He was employed in an office 
 on the corner of Chestnut and Chambers 
 streets in New York. One day, with a knot 
 of brother typos, he dropped in at an estab- 
 lishment kept by Mallory, on Franklin street, 
 for the purpose of taking “ some brandy and 
 water,” which Mallory was famous for keep- 
 ing. The liquor was excellent, and Wood- 
 worth seemed inspired by it ; for, after tak- 
 ing a draught, he set his glass upon the ta- 
 ble, and smacking his lips, declared that Mal- 
 lory’s eau de vie was superior to anything he 
 ever tasted. “No,” said a comrade, “you 
 are quite mistaken ; there was one thing 
 which, in both our estimations, far surpassed 
 this, in the way of drinking.” “ What was 
 that ? ” asked Woodworth dubiously. “ The 
 draught of pure, fresh spring-water that we 
 used to drink from the old oaken bucket that 
 hung in the well, after our return from the 
 labors of the field on a sultry day in sum- 
 mer.” The tear-drop glistened for a moment 
 in Woodworth’s eye. “True! true!” he 
 replied, and soon after quitted the place. 
 He returned to the office, grasped the pen, 
 and in half an hour “The Old Oaken Bucket,” 
 one of the most delightful compositions in 
 our language, was ready, in manuscript, to 
 be embalmed in the memories of succeeding 
 generations. 
 
 How dear to this heart are the scenes of my child- 
 hood, 
 
 When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild 
 wood, 
 
 And every loved spot which my infancy knew; 
 The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood 
 by it, 
 
 The bridge and the rock where the cataract fell, 
 The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it, 
 
 And e'en the rude bucket that hung in the well! 
 The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
 
 The moss-covered bucket that hung in the well. 
 
 That moss-covered vessel I hailed as a treasure; 
 
 For often at noon, when returned from the field, 
 
 1 found it a source of an exquisite pleasure, 
 
 The purest and sweetest that nature can yield, 
 flow ardent I seized it, with hands that were glow- 
 ing, 
 
 And quick to the white pebbled bottom it fell, 
 Then soon with the emblem of Truth overflowing, 
 And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well; 
 The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
 
 The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. 
 
 How sweet from the green mossy brim to reeeive it, 
 As poised on the curb it inclined to my lips! 
 
 Not a full blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, 
 Though filled with the nectar the fabled god sips. 
 And now far removed from the loved situation, 
 
 The tear of regret will intrusively swell, 
 
 As fancy reverts to my father’s plantation, 
 
 And sighs for the bucket that hung in the well, 
 The old oaken bucket, the iren-bound bucket, 
 
 The moss-covered bucket which hangs in the 
 well. 
 
 WOOSTER, David, was born in Strat- 
 ford, Conn., March 2d, 1711, and was edu- 
 cated at Yale. He served as a captain at the 
 taking of Louisburg, and in the next French 
 war rose to the rank of colonel. At the 
 opening of the Revolution he was appointed 
 brigadier-general, and served with distinction 
 in Canada. He was mortally wounded in 
 repelling the foray of the British upon Fair- 
 field, Conn., in 1777. 
 
 WORCESTER, the chief town of Worces- 
 tershire, England. It suffered much during 
 the wars between the houses of York and 
 Lancaster ; but the most remarkable event 
 here was the famous battle between the Eng- 
 lish army under Cromwell, and the Scotch 
 in the cause of Charles II., Sept. 3d, 1651 ; 
 when the royalists had 2,000 killed and 8,000 
 taken prisoners, most of whom were sold as 
 slaves to the American colonics. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, William, the greatest 
 philosophical poet of England in the present 
 century, was born at Cockermouth in Cum- 
 berland, April 7th, 1770, and educated at the 
 university at Cambridge. His parents de- 
 signed him for the church, but poetry and 
 new prospects turned him into another path. 
 The worship of the muses was almost his 
 only business through life. Coleridge and 
 he became acquainted in 1796, and soon 
 ripened into warm friends, and in 1798 the 
 two poets, accompanied by Miss W ordsworth, 
 made a tour in Germany. In 1808 he mar- 
 ried Miss Mary Hutchinson, his cousin, and 
 settled down among his beloved lakes, first 
 at Grasmere, and afterward at Rydal Mount. 
 Various handsome bequests were bestowed 
 upon him, and influential friends soon pro- 
 cured for him the easy and lucrative situa- 
 tion of stamp distributor for the counties of 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland, a post that 
 left the greater part of his time at his own 
 disposal, and which he held till 1842, when he 
 resigned it in favor of his son, receiving from 
 government a pension of £300 'per annum. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 955 
 
 Wordsworth appeared as a poet in his 
 twenty-third year, 1793, issuing two small 
 volumes, “An Evening Walk” and “De- 
 scriptive Sketches in Verse.” The Walk is 
 among the mountains of Westmoreland ; the 
 Sketches refer to a pedestrian tour made in 
 Switzerland. The latter was read by Cole- 
 ridge (then a stranger) with delight, and he 
 has said, “Seldom, if ever, was the emer- 
 gence of an original poetic genius above the 
 literary horizon more evidently announced.” 
 Wordsworth’s next publication was a volume 
 of “Lyrical Ballads,” a few of which were 
 from Coleridge’s pen. The “Lyrical Bal- 
 lads” were designed by Wordsworth to try 
 how far a simpler kind of poetry than that 
 in vogue would be relished. The experiment 
 was a failure, and years elapsed before he 
 again appeared in print. Having settled 
 down by his native lakes, Southey’s subse- 
 quent retirement to the same beautiful region, 
 and Coleridge’s visits to his brother poets, 
 originated the name of the Lake School of 
 Poetry, — “ the school of whining and hypo- 
 chondriacal poets that haunt the lakes,” — 
 by which the opponents of their principles 
 and the admirers of the Edinburgh Review 
 distinguished these three great poets. 
 
 In 1807 two more volumes of the “Lyri- 
 cal Ballads” were put forth, proving more 
 popular than the first. In 1814 appeared 
 “ The Excursion,” a philosophical poem in 
 blank verse, being a portion of the “Recluse,” 
 the balance of which the poet left behind 
 him unpublished. The critics were hard 
 upon it. “This will never do,” was the 
 memorable opening of the article upon it in 
 the Edinburgh Review. Yet the poem found 
 its admirers among men who thought for 
 themselves. A critic has characterized it as 
 “the noblest production of the author, con- 
 taining passages of sentiment, description, 
 and pure eloquence, not excelled by any liv- 
 ing poet; while its spirit of enlightened 
 humanity and Christian benevolence ex- 
 
 tending over all ranks of sentient and ani- 
 mated being — imparts to the poem a peculiarly 
 sacred and elevated character.” While the 
 critics were yet discussing the merits of “ The 
 Excursion,” Wordsworth published “Peter 
 Bell,” which had been written years before. 
 This brought down upon his head a still 
 heavier shower of ridicule from his deriders, 
 
 and even his fast admirers were somewhat 
 startled at first, and could not praise it. 
 
 The subsequent works of the poet are 
 numerous: “The White Doe of Rylstone,” 
 “ Sonnets on the River Duddon,” “ The 
 Waggoner;” his last publication of import- 
 ance being “Yarrow Revisited, and other 
 Poems,” in 1835. On Southey’s death, he 
 was appointed poet-laureate, in 1843 ; an ap- 
 propriate appointment, if such an office was 
 to be retained at all ; for the laurel dignified 
 by the brows of Ben Jonson, Davenant, 
 Dry den, Thomas Warton, and Southey, had 
 been sullied and degraded^ by appearing on 
 the unworthy heads of Tate, Whitehead, and 
 Pye. Once only did Wordsworth have occa- 
 sion to sing in his new office, and in what 
 he wrote there was great obscurity and little 
 poetry. The last years of his life, in his 
 poetical retirement, were passed in even an 
 added quietness to that he had so much 
 loved. He died at Rydal Mount, the 23d of 
 April, 1850, in the eighty-first year of his 
 age. Those who are curious in the accidents 
 of birth and death, observable in the bio- 
 graphies of celebrated men, have thought it 
 noteworthy that the day of Wordsworth’s 
 death was the anniversary of Shakspeare’s 
 birth. 
 
 If Wordsworth was unfortunate — as he 
 certainly was — in not finding any recognition 
 of his merits till his hair was gray, he was 
 luckier than other poets similarly situated 
 have been, in living to a good old age, and in 
 the full enjoyment of the amplest fame which 
 his youthful dreams had ever pictured. His 
 admirers have carried their idolatry too far ; 
 but there can. be no doubt of the high posi- 
 tion which he must always hold among Brit- 
 ish poets. His style is simple, unaffected, 
 and vigorous ; his blank verse manly and 
 idiomatic ; his sentiments both noble and 
 pathetic ; and his images poetic and appro- 
 priate. His sonnets are among the finest in 
 the language; Milton’s are scarcely finer. 
 “In imaginative power,” says his enthusias- 
 tic friend Coleridge, “ he stands nearest of 
 all modern writers to Shakspeare and Milton, 
 and yet in a mind perfectly unborrowed and 
 his own. To employ his own words, which 
 are at once an instance and an illustration, 
 he does indeed, to all thoughts and to all 
 
 objects, — 
 
 WOR 
 
956 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 ‘Add the gleam, 
 
 The light that never was on sea or land, 
 
 The consecration and the poet’s dream.’ ” 
 
 “The Prelude, or Growth of a Poet’s Mind, 
 an Autobiographical Poem,” was published 
 after his death, having lain in his desk for 
 forty-five years. 
 
 W OHMS, an ancient city in Hesse Darm- 
 stadt. Here was held the celebrated impe- 
 rial diet before which Martin Luther was 
 summoned, April 4th, 1521, and by which 
 he was proscribed. Luther was met by two 
 thousand persons on foot and on horseback, 
 a league from Worms. Such was his con- 
 viction of the justice of his cause, that when 
 Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his 
 danger, he answered, “ If there were as 
 many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon 
 the roofs of its houses, I would go on.” Before 
 the emperor, the Archduke Ferdinand, six 
 electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, 
 thirty bishops and prelates, and many 
 princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Lu- 
 ther appeared, April 17th, in the imperial 
 diet, acknowledged all his writings and opin- 
 ions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
 But Frederick the Wise advised him to 
 seclude himself to save his life, which he did 
 for about ten months, and his triumph was 
 afterward complete. 
 
 WORTH, William, was born at New 
 York, N. Y., in 1794. In the war of 1812 
 he volunteered as a private. Bravery soon 
 won him promotion from the ranks. At 
 Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane, and at Monte- 
 rey, Cerro Gordo, Molino del Re}", &c., in 
 Mexico, his gallantry shone. He died in 
 Texas, 1849, holding the rank of major- 
 general by brevet. 
 
 WOTTON, Sir Henry, an English states- 
 man, was born at Boughton Hall, in Kent, in 
 1568. He became secretary to the Earl of 
 Essex, on whose fall he went abroad, and 
 while at Florence was honored with the con- 
 fidence of the grand-duke ; who sent him on 
 a secret mission to James VI. of Scotland, 
 which gained him the favor of that mnoarch. 
 He died in 1639. 
 
 WOTTON, Nicholas, a statesman, was 
 uncle to the preceding, and born in Kent, 
 about 1497. During the reign of Henry 
 VIII. he was employed on different embas- 
 sies ; and in that of Edward he was made 
 
 secretary of state. In 1551 he went bn a 
 mission to the emperor of Germany ; after 
 which he became resident at the court of 
 France. He died in London, in 1566 ; and 
 was buried at Canterbury. 
 
 WREN, Sir Christopher, was born in 
 Wiltshire, in 1632. The great fire in Lon- 
 don opened a wide field for his architectural 
 labors, and the city abounds with masterly 
 churches of his construction. He died in 
 
 1723, and lies buried in the crypt of St. 
 Paul’s, his most stupendous work, with the 
 concise epitaph, /Si monumentum requiris , 
 circumspice. (“ Do you seek his monument ? 
 look around”). He was a man of learn- 
 ing, and before devoting himself to archi- 
 tecture, held a professorship of astronomy at 
 Oxford. 
 
 WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismund, Count, 
 an Austrian general, was born in Alsace in 
 
 1724. In his youth he served in the French 
 army, and next in that of the emperor, 
 where he rose to the highest honors. In 
 the revolutionary war he drove the republi- 
 cans out of Alsace ; but at last was obliged 
 to retreat before superior numbers. In 1794, 
 however, he took Manheim ; and in 1796 
 defeated the French in Italy. At last being 
 obliged to throw himself into Mantua, he 
 was forced to capitulate. He died in Hun- 
 gary in 1797. 
 
 WURTZCHEN, Battle of. One of the 
 most bloody and fiercely contested battles of 
 the campaign of 1813 ; fought between the 
 allied Russian and Prussian armies, and the 
 French army commanded by Napoleon in 
 person, May 21st, 1813. The carnage was 
 dreadful on both sides, but in the end the 
 allies retreated from the field. The defeat 
 of the allies here, and in the equally momen- 
 tous battle of Bautzen, which immediately 
 preceded, obliged them to recross the Oder. 
 
 WYATT, Sir Thomas, an English states- 
 man, was born at Allington Castle, in Kent, 
 in 1503. His father, Sir Henry Wyatt, was 
 imprisoned in the Tower in the reign of 
 Richard III., where he is said to have been 
 preserved by a cat that fed him daily, for 
 which reason all the portraits of him are 
 painted with that animal in his arms or by 
 his. side. On the accession of Henry VII. he 
 was knighted ; and in the next reign made 
 master of the jewel office. He died in 1533. 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 957 
 
 Thomas became a great favorite with Henry 
 VIII., and by one of his jests hastened on 
 the Reformation. The king having com- 
 plained of the delay of the court of Rome in 
 granting his divorce, Sir Thomas exclaimed, 
 “ Lord ! that a man can not repent him of 
 his sin without the pope’s leave!” This 
 witticism hastened the king’s resolution, and 
 he soon afterward acted upon it as a maxim 
 of sound reason. Wyatt, however, fell into 
 some trouble afterward by his freedom of 
 speech, and was twice tried for sedition, 
 but' acquitted. He died at Sherbourne, 
 in Dorsetshire, in 1541. Sir Thomas was a 
 poet as well, dealing in amatory elegies. and 
 odes. 
 
 His son, of the same name, was a zealous 
 Protestant, and was beheaded by crier of 
 Queen Mary in 1554, for his share in a rebel- 
 lion aroused by her marriage with Philip of 
 Spain. 
 
 WYNDHAM, Sir William, a statesman, 
 was born at Orchard Wyndham, in Somer- 
 setshire, in 1687. In 1710 he was made 
 secretary at war; and in 1713, chancellor 
 of the exchequer. On the accession of 
 George I. he was dismissed from office ; and 
 when the rebellion broke out in Scotland, he 
 was sent to the Tower, but never brought to 
 trial. He continued to act in opposition till 
 his death, which happened at Welles, in 
 1740; when he was succeeded in his title 
 and estate by his eldest son, Sir Charles 
 Wyndham, who became Earl of Egremont, 
 and died in 1763. 
 
 WYOMING. The delightful valley of 
 Wyoming in Pennsylvania has been conse- 
 crated both by the blood of martyrs and by 
 the deathless muse of Campbell. Its first 
 settlers were chiefly from Cor necticut, which 
 claimed the country by virtue of her ancient 
 charter, and there was a severe struggle be- 
 
 tween them and the Pennsylvanians for its 
 possession. In June, 1778, when many of 
 the yeomen of Wyoming were absent in the 
 army, an incursion into the valley was made 
 b}* a force of Tories and Indians, commanded 
 by Col. John Butler, a notorious partisan. 
 The marauding parties spread desolation 
 throughout the valley ; farm-houses were 
 fired; husbandmen were murdered in the 
 fields. Some 360 of the settlers, rudely 
 armed, headed by Col. Zebulon Butler, at- 
 tempted to drive out the invaders, July 3d. 
 The contest w r as suddenly ended by a panic 
 among the patriot militia; the savages 
 dropped their rifles, rushed on with toma- 
 hawks and scalping-knives, and a terrible 
 massacre ensued, from which only a few of 
 the men of Wjmming escaped. The desola- 
 tion of the valley was now completed : fields 
 were laid waste, houses burnt, and their in- 
 habitants murdered. Many women and 
 children perished in fleeing through the wil- 
 derness. In retaliation for the atrocities at 
 Wyoming, Gen. Sullivan invaded the country 
 of the Senecas the next year. 
 
 WYTHE, George, a signer of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born in Elizabeth 
 county, Va., 1726. He was wealthy, and 
 until thirty years of age lived a life of great 
 dissipation*; but at that age he applied him- 
 self assiduously to the study of the law, and 
 an avenue of distinction opened before him. 
 He was a member of the colonial legislature 
 of Virginia, and in 1775 was elected a mem- 
 ber of congress. His labors in the cause of 
 independence were strenuous and unceasing ; 
 and for them be suffered much loss of prop- 
 erty during the war. He was a member of 
 the convention that formed the federal con- 
 stitution, and died June 8th, 1806, having 
 been chancellor of Virginia more than twenty- 
 five years. 
 
 WYT 
 
958 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 X. 
 
 XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general 
 who assisted the Carthaginians in the first 
 Punic war. He defeated the Romans, 256 
 b.c., and took the celebrated Rcgulus prisoner. 
 Such signal services deserved to be rewarded, 
 but the Carthaginians looked with envious 
 jealousy upon Xantippus as a stranger, and 
 he retired to Corinth after he had saved them 
 from destruction. Some authors suppose 
 that the Carthaginians ordered him to be 
 assassinated, and his body to be thrown into 
 the sea as he was returning home ; while 
 others say that they had prepared a leaky 
 ship to convey him to Corinth, which he 
 artfully avoided. 
 
 XENOPHON, an Athenian, son of Gryl- 
 lus, celebrated as a general, a historian, and 
 a philosopher. He was invited by Proxenus, 
 one of his intimate friends, to accompany 
 Cyrus the younger in an expedition against 
 his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia ; but 
 he refused to comply without previously con- 
 sulting his venerable master, and inquiring 
 into the propriety of such a measure. Soc- 
 rates strongly opposed it, and observed that 
 it might raise the resentment of fiis country- 
 men, as Sparta had made an alliance with 
 the Persian monarch ; and before he pro- 
 ceeded further, advised him to consult the 
 oracle at Delphi. Xenophon was ambitious 
 of glory, and eager to engage in a distant 
 expedition. He merely asked the oracle to 
 what gods he should sacrifice to insure suc- 
 cess, and hastened with precipitation to Sar- 
 dis, where he was introduced to the young 
 prince, and treated with great attention. In 
 the army of C} r rus, Xenophon showed that 
 he was a true disciple of Socrates, and that 
 he had been educated in the warlike city of 
 Athens. After the decisive battle in the 
 plains of Cunaxa, 401 b.c., and the fall of 
 young Cyrus, the prudence and vigor of his 
 mind were called into action. The ten thou- 
 sand Greeks who had followed the standard 
 of an ambitious prince, were now at a dis- 
 tance of above six hundred leagues from 
 their native home, in a country surrounded 
 on every side by a victorious enemy, without 
 money, without provisions, and without a 
 
 leader. Xenophon was selected to superin- 
 tend the retreat, and though he was often 
 opposed by malevolence and envy, yet his 
 persuasive eloquence and his activity con- 
 vinced the Greeks that no general could ex- 
 tricate them from every difficulty better than 
 the disciple of Socrates. He rose superior 
 to danger, and though under continual alarms 
 from the sudden attacks of the Persians, 
 he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, pene- 
 trate through vast deserts, gain the tops of 
 mountains, till he could rest secure for 
 a while, and refresh his tired companions. 
 This celebrated retreat was, at last, happily 
 effected ; the Greeks returned home after a 
 march of two hundred and fifteen days, and 
 an absence of fifteen months. Xenophon 
 was no sooner returned from Cunaxa, than 
 he sought new honors, in following the for- 
 tune of Agesilaus in Asia, lie enjoyed his 
 confidence, he fought under his standard, and 
 conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, 
 as well as at the battle of Coronaea. His 
 fame, however, did not escape the asper- 
 sions of jealousy ; he was publicly banished 
 from Athens for accompanying Cyrus against 
 his brother, and being now without a home, 
 he retired to Scillus, a small town in the 
 neighborhood of Olympia. He died at Cor- 
 inth in the nineteenth year of his age, 359 
 years, before the Christian era. 
 
 XERXES succeeded his father Darius on 
 the tnrone of Persia, for though but the 
 second son of the monarch, he was preferred 
 to his elder brother Artabazanes. Xerxes 
 continued the warlike preparations of his 
 father, and added the revolted kingdom of 
 Egypt to his extensive possessions. He after- 
 ward invaded Europe, and entered Greece 
 with an army of millions, the most numer- 
 ous which had ever been collected together 
 in one expedition ; but badly armed and dis- 
 ciplined, and encumbered with a useless at- 
 tendance of servants, women, and eunuchs. 
 It was stopped at Thermopylae, by the valor 
 of three hundred Spartans, and their allies, 
 under Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that 
 such a handful of men should dare to oppose 
 his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to 
 
 XER 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 959 
 
 bring them alive into his presence ; but for 
 three successive days the most valiant of the 
 Persian troops were repeatedly defeated in 
 attempting to execute the monarch’s injunc- 
 tions, and the courage of the Spartans might 
 perhaps have triumphed longer, if a Trach- 
 inian had not led a detachment to the top 
 of the mountain, who suddenly fell upon the 
 devoted Leonidas. The king, himself, nearly 
 perished on this occasion, and it has been 
 reported, that in the night the desperate 
 Spartans sought, for a while, the royal tent, 
 which they found deserted, and wandered 
 through the Persian army, slaughtering thou- 
 sands before them. The battle of Ther- 
 mopylae was the beginning of the disgrace 
 of Xerxes ; the more he advanced, it was to 
 experience new disappointments ; his fleet 
 was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis ; and 
 though he burnt the deserted city of Athens, 
 and trusted to the artful insinuations of The- 
 mistoeles, yet he found his myriads unable 
 to conquer a nation that was superior to him 
 in the knowledge of war and maritime affairs. 
 Mortified with the ill success of his expedi- 
 tion, and apprehensive of imminent danger 
 in an enemy’s country, Xerxes hastened to 
 Persia, and in thirty days marched over all 
 that territory which before he had passed 
 with much pomp and parade in the space of 
 six months. Mardonius, the best of his gene- 
 rals, was left behind with an army of 300,000 
 men, and the rest that had survived the 
 ravages of war, of famine, and pestilence, 
 followed their timid monarch into Thrace 
 where his steps were marked by the numer- 
 ous birds of prey that hovered round him, 
 and fed upon the dead carcases of the Per- 
 sians. When he reached the Hellespont, 
 Xerxes found the bridge of boats which he 
 had erected there, totally destroyed by the 
 storms, and he crossed the straits in a small 
 fishing vessel. Restored to his kingdom and 
 safety, he forgot his dangers, his losses, and 
 
 his defeats, and gave himself up to riot and 
 debauchery. His indolence and luxurious 
 voluptuousness offended his subjects, and 
 Artabanus, the captain of his guards, con- 
 spired against him, and murdered him in his 
 bed, in the twenty-first year of his reign, 
 about 404 years before the Christian era. 
 
 The bridge above alluded to, constructed 
 for the passage of the army of Xerxes across 
 the Hellespont, was formed by connecting 
 together ships of different kinds, some long 
 vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked gal- 
 leys, to the number of 300 on the side toward 
 the sea, and 318 on that of the archipelago ; 
 the former were placed transversely, but the 
 latter, to diminish the strain of their cables, in 
 the direction of the current, — all secured 
 by anchors and cables of great strength. On 
 extended cables between the lines of ship- 
 ping were laid fast-bound rafters, over these 
 a la 3 T cr of unwrought wood, and over the 
 latter was thrown earth ; on each side was a 
 fence, to prevent the horses and beasts of 
 burthen from being terrified by the sea, in 
 the passage from shore to shore. This won- 
 derful work was completed, it is said, in one 
 week, 480 b.c. 
 
 XIMENES, Francis, a Spanish cardinal, 
 was born in 1437, at Torrelaguna, in Old 
 Castile. In 1507 the pope gave him a cardi- 
 nal’s hat, and soon after the king appointed 
 him prime minister, which office he dis- 
 charged with the greatest honor. He was 
 very successful in the conversion of the 
 Moors, three thousand of whom were bap- 
 tized in one day at Grenada. On the death 
 of Ferdinand, in 151 G, the cardinal was ap- 
 pointed regent of the kingdom ; and one of 
 his first acts was to introduce a reformation 
 in the government. He died Nov. 8th, 1517. 
 He was a great patron of letters, and the 
 Complutensian Bible, the first polyglot edi- 
 tion published, was printed at his cost 
 
 XIM 
 
960 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Y. 
 
 YALE, Eliiiu, the donor of Yale College, 
 New Haven, Conn., died in 1724, and was 
 buried at the church in Wrexham, Wales.. 
 His monument, a plain altar tomb, bears this 
 inscription : — 
 
 Born in America, in Europe bred, 
 
 In Africa traveled, in Asia wed, 
 
 Where long he lived and thrived, in London dead, 
 Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all’s even. 
 And that his soul through mercy’s gone to heaven. 
 You that survive and read' this tale, take care, 
 
 For this most certain exit to prepare. 
 
 Where blest in peace the actions of the just 
 Smell sweet, and blossom in the silent dust. 
 
 His father, Thomas Yale, from one of the 
 most respectable families in Wales, came 
 from England with the first colonists of New 
 Haven, and there Elihu was born, April 5th, 
 1058. Elihu went to the East Indies at the 
 age of thirty as an adventurer, became 
 wealthy, obtained the presidency of Madras, 
 and is said to have ruled with oppressive 
 authority. He caused his groom to be hanged 
 for riding out a favorite horse without leave. 
 For this murder he was ordered to England, 
 where he was tried for the crime, but by 
 some means escaped punishment, except a 
 heavy fine. 
 
 YORKE, Philip, Earl of Hardwick, chan- 
 cellor of England, died in 1764, aged seventy- 
 four. 
 
 Y 7 ORKE, Cn arles, second son of the pre- 
 ceding, was an elegant and profound scholar. 
 
 In 1770 he was appointed chancellor, and 
 created Lord Mordan ; but he died in three 
 days, before the seals were affixed to his 
 patent of peerage. 
 
 YORKTOWN, Siege of. In the summer 
 of 1781 Washington succeeded in cooping up 
 Lord Cornwallis and his army of 7,000 men 
 at York town, Ya. The French fleet under 
 
 Count de Grasse guarded the mouth of 
 Chesapeake Bay, and prevented succor by 
 sea. The combined American and French 
 armies, commanded by Washington and 
 Rochambeau, were 12,000 strong, exclusive 
 of the Virginia militia that patriotic Gov. 
 Nelson had brought into the field. Gen. 
 Lincoln opened the first parallel on the 6th 
 of October, and on the 9th the batteries com- 
 menced fire, Washington putting the match 
 to the first gun. Cornwallis looked in vain 
 for relief from Sir Ilenr}' Clinton, who was 
 hampered by naval delays ; he held out as 
 long as was possible, and surrendered on the 
 19th. 
 
 Congress voted thanks to the victors, with 
 appropriate trophies to Washington, Rocham- 
 beau, and De Grasse, and appointed a day 
 for general thanksgiving and prayer. When 
 Lord North, the British premier, heard of 
 the capture of Cornwallis and his army, he 
 wildly exclaimed, “ O God ! it is all over ! ” 
 The event was a death blow to the war. 
 
 Y^OUNG, Edward, the author of “Night 
 Thoughts,” was born at his father’s parson- 
 age near Winchester in 16S4, and died in 
 1765. He commenced life as a courtier and 
 poet, and continued such till his death. 
 When upward of fifty he took orders. 
 
 YYRES (now Ivky), Battle of, March 2d, 
 1590, between Henry IY. of France, aided 
 by his chief 'nobility, and the generals of the 
 Catholic league, over whom the king obtained 
 a complete victory. This success enabled 
 Ilenr}^ to blockade Paris, and reduce that 
 capital to the last extremity by famine; but 
 the . Duke of Parma, by orders from Philip 
 of Spain, marched to the relief of the league, 
 and obliged the king to raise the blockade. 
 
 YYR 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 961 
 
 ZAMA, Battle of. Between the two 
 greatest commanders in the world at the 
 time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, b.c. 202. 
 This battle has been called the most impor- 
 tant that was ever fought ; it was won by 
 Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Car- 
 thage ; it ltd to an ignominious peace, which 
 was granted the year after, and closed the 
 second Punic war. The Romans lost but 2,000 
 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians 
 lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; 
 some historians make the loss greater. 
 
 ZAMOSZ, a strong fortress in the south- 
 east of Poland. In 1650 it was unsuccess- 
 fully besieged by the Swedes; in 1715 it was 
 surprised by the Saxons ; and in the civil 
 contests of 1771, the Poles were defeated in 
 its vicinity, by the Prussians. In 1812 it 
 was one of the few towns in which the French 
 left a garrison, after their retreat from Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 ZAMOSKI, John, great chancellor of Po- 
 land, and general of the army of that king- 
 dom. He was one of the ambassadors to 
 France to offer the crown to the Duke of 
 Anjou, whom the Polanders had chosen king. 
 This prince being recalled to take possession 
 of the kingdom of France as Henry III., 
 Stephen Bathori, Prince of Transylvania, 
 was chosen king of Poland, who had so great 
 a consideration for Zamoski, that he gave his 
 niece to him in marriage, made him chancel- 
 lor of the kingdom, and first gave him the 
 command of eight thousand men in the war 
 with Muscovy, and afterward of all the army 
 of Poland. Zamoski acquitted himself in 
 all these employments with much courage 
 and great success. He died in 1605. 
 
 ZANTE (Zakynthos), one of the Ionian 
 Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea. Zante, 
 the capital, has a population of 24,000. Its 
 harbor is spacious, and its ^environs are 
 pleasant and picturesque. In 1820 several 
 hundred houses were overthrown bj r an 
 earthquake. The island was in possession 
 of the Venetians from the end of the four- 
 teenth to the end of the eighteenth century. 
 In 1797 it was taken by the French, and in 
 1799 by the Russians. In 1815 it became 
 61 ZI 
 
 one of the members of the Ionian repub- 
 lic. The wine of Zante is in great request, 
 
 , but the most important product of the 
 island is the currant, which is the fruit of a 
 , dwarf species of the vine originally brought 
 from Corinth. 
 
 ZELA, Battle of. In which Julius Caesar 
 defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of 
 Mithridates, 47 b.c. Caesar, in announcing 
 this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the 
 senate of Rome, in these words, “ Veni } vidi , 
 vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered), so rapidly 
 and easily was his triumph obtained. This 
 battle concluded the war; Pharnaces es- 
 caped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by 
 his lieutenant Asander; and Pontus was 
 made a province of Rome, and Bosphorus 
 given to Mithridates of Pergamus. 
 
 ZENO, of Cittium in Cyprus, lived from 
 862 b.c. to 264 b.c. He was the founder of 
 the sect of the Stoics, which was so called 
 from a public portico, from which the phi- 
 losopher delivered his harangues. It was 
 the most famous portico in Athens, and was 
 called by way of eminence, stoa , the porch. 
 In order to form his own school of philoso- 
 phy, and to collect materials for a new sys- 
 tem, Zeno had attended the schools of 
 various masters, and among others he offered 
 himself as a disciple of Polemo. This philoso- 
 pher, aware of Zeno’s object, said, “ I am 
 no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. 
 I perceive that your design is to creep slyly 
 into my garden, and steal away my fruit. 
 
 As a man Zeno appears deserving of the 
 highest respect. Although sharing the doc- 
 trines of the Cynics, he did not learn their 
 grossness, their insolence, or their affecta- 
 tion. In person he was tall and slender; 
 and although of a weakly constitution, he 
 lived to a great age, being rigidly abstemi- 
 ous, feeding mainly upon figs, bread, and 
 honey. His brow was furrowed with thought ; 
 and this gave a tinge of severity to his as- 
 pect, which accorded with the severity of his 
 doctrines. So honored and respected was he 
 by the Athenians that they intrusted to him 
 the keys of the citadel ; and when he died 
 they erected to his memory a statue of brass. 
 
962 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 Ilis death is thus recorded. In his ninety- 
 eighth year, as he was stepping out of his 
 school, he fell and broke his finger. lie was 
 so affected at the consciousness of his in- 
 firmity, that striking the earth he exclaimed, 
 “ Why am I thus importuned ? Earth, I 
 obey thy summons.” He went home and 
 strangled himself.” 
 
 ZENOBIA was a celebrated princess of 
 Palmyra, who married Odenatus, whom 
 Gallienus acknowledged as his partner on 
 the Roman throne. After the death of her 
 husband, which, according to some authors, 
 she is said to have hastened, Zenobia reigned 
 in the east as regent of her infant children, 
 who were honored with the title of Caesars. 
 She assumed the name of Augusta, appeared 
 in imperial robes, and ordered herself to be 
 styled the queen of the east. The troubles 
 which at that time agitated the western parts 
 of the empire, prevented the effeminate Gal- 
 lienus from checking the insolence and am- 
 bition of this princess, who boasted to be 
 sprung from the Ptolemies of Egypt. Au- 
 relian was no sooner invested with the 
 imperial purple, than he marched into the 
 east, determined to punish the pride of Ze- 
 nobia. He well knew her valor, and he was 
 not ignorant that in her wars against the 
 Persians, she had distinguished herself no 
 less than Odenatus. She was the mistress 
 of the east ; Egypt acknowledged her power, 
 and all the provinces of Asia Minor were 
 subject to her command. When Aurelian 
 approached the plains of Syria, the Palmy- 
 rean queen appeared at the head of seven 
 hundred thousand men. She bore the labors 
 of the field like the meanest of her soldiers, 
 and walked on foot fearless of danger. Two 
 battles were fought ; the courage of the queen 
 might have gained the superiority in the 
 last, but an imprudent evolution of the Pal- 
 myrean cavalry ruined her cause ; and while 
 they pursued with spirit the flying enemy, 
 the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon the 
 main body of Zcnobia’s army, and the defeat 
 was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, 
 determined to support a siege. Aurelian fol- 
 lowed her, and after he had almost exhausted 
 his stores, he proposed honorable terms of 
 capitulation, which were rejected with dis- 
 dain by the warlike princess, in an arrogant 
 letter which incensed Aurelian highly. Her 
 
 hopes of victory, however, soon vanished, 
 and though she harassed the Romans night 
 and day by continual sallies from her walls, 
 and the working of her military engines, she 
 despaired of success when she heard that 
 the armies which were marching to her relief 
 from Armenia, Persia, and the east, had 
 partly been defeated and partly bribed from 
 her allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in 
 the night ; but Aurelian, who was apprised 
 of her escape, pursued her, aifll she was 
 caught as she was crossing the river Euphra- 
 tes. She was brought into the presence of 
 Aurelian, and though the soldiers were clam- 
 orous for her death, she was reserved to 
 adorn the triumph of the conqueror. She 
 was treated with great humanity, and Aure- 
 lian gave her large possessions and a superb 
 villa at Tivoli, where she was permitted to 
 live the rest of her days in peace, with all 
 the grandeur and majesty which became a 
 queen of the east and a warlike princess. 
 Her children were patronized by the emperor, 
 and married to persons of the first distinc- 
 tion at Rome. She fell into the hands of 
 Aurelian about the two hundred and seventy- 
 third year of the Christian era. 
 
 Zenobia was eminently beautiful, with ori- 
 ental eyes and complexion, teeth like pearls, 
 and a voice of uncommon power and sweet- 
 ness. Her courage, prudence, and fortitude 
 were remarkable. The strangest feature in 
 her character, if we consider the manners of 
 her country and age, was her passion for 
 study, and her taste for the Greek and Latin 
 literature. Longinus, one of the most ele- 
 gant writers of antiquity, was lured to her 
 court, and made her secretary and minister. 
 In imitation of Cleopatra, her pretended an- 
 cestress, she affected great splendor in living 
 and attire. In dignity and discretion, as 
 well as beauty, she far surpassed the Egyp- 
 tian queen. There is one black spot in her 
 history. When she fell into Aurclian’s 
 power, his ferocious soldiery clamored for 
 her blood. £he forgot her former vaunts 
 and intrepidity ; terror made her base ; in 
 her panic she threw herself on the mercy of 
 the emperor, accused her ministers as the 
 cause of her determined resistance, and said 
 that Longinus had written in her name that 
 eloq*uent and defiant letter which had so en- 
 raged Aurelian. Longinus, with the rest of 
 
 ZEN 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 963 
 
 her immediate friends and counselors, were 
 at once sacrificed to the fury of the soldiers. 
 
 ZEUXIS, one of the most celebrated paint- 
 ers of antiquity, 490-400 b.c. 
 
 ZIMISCES, John, a noble Armenian, con- 
 tributed to the elevation of Nicephorus II. 
 to the throne of the eastern empire, but in- 
 stead of being rewarded for his services, was 
 sent into disgraceful exile. He afterward 
 conspired with the empress ; she in person 
 opened the chamber-door of Nicephorus to 
 the conspirators, who massacred him without 
 opposition, a.d. 9G9. Zimisces was then pro- 
 claimed emperor of the east, and signalized 
 himself in many engagements and victories, 
 but was at length taken off by poison, a.d. 
 975. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, John George, Chevalier 
 von, an eminent physician and miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Brug, in the canton of Berne, 
 in 1728. Having made choice of the medi- 
 cal profession, he was appointed public phy- 
 sician to his native town, employing his 
 leisure hours in writing many pieces in prose 
 and verse, the most popular of which is his 
 work on Solitude. His professional and lite- 
 rary celebrity gained him the post of royal 
 physician at Hanover and in Prussia. He 
 died deranged in 1795. 
 
 ZINZENDORF, Nicholas Louis, Count 
 von, was born at Dresden in 1700. He was 
 the founder and head of the sect of Moravian 
 Brethren, whose devoted missionaries, under 
 his direction, soon spread, not* only over Eu- 
 rope, but in Greenland and America, in Af- 
 rica, and in China. Zinzendorf came to 
 America in 1741, and preached at German- 
 town, Bethlehem, and Nazareth, in Pennsyl- 
 vania. He returned to Europe in 1748, and 
 died among his people, on the 9th of June, 
 1760. 
 
 ZTSKA. The real name of this renowned 
 leader in the early religious wars of Germany 
 was John Tkocznow. He acquired the name 
 of Ziska (which means ‘one-eyed’) from the 
 loss of an eye in battle. He was born about 
 1380, of a noble Bohemian family, and was 
 bred in the imperial court and camp. When 
 John Huss was martyred at Constance, the 
 Bohemians flew to arms, to avenge his death 
 and resist the bigotry and tyranny of the 
 Emperor Sigismund. Ziska was a follower 
 of Huss, and the Bohemians made him their 
 
 general. The war was ferocious on both sides. 
 Thd fierce Ziska was everywhere successful, 
 even after made wholly blind by the loss of 
 his other eye at the siege of Raab. The em- 
 peror concluded a humiliating treaty, and 
 Ziska soon after died of the plague, Oct. 11th, 
 1425. There is a legend that, by his dying 
 orders, his skin was made into a drum, to 
 animate the Hussites with the remembrance 
 of his valor. 
 
 ZOE. . This extraordinary woman, daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Constantine, married 
 Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to 
 the throne of the Eastern empire, a.d. 1028. 
 Zoe, after prostituting herself to a Paphlago- 
 nian money-lender, caused Romanus to be 
 poisoned, and wedded her paramour, who 
 reigned as Michael IY. On his death, Zoe 
 placed her adopted son in power, as Michael 
 Y. ; the trade of his father (careening vessels) 
 had procured him the surname of Calaphates. 
 Within twelve months, she dethroned him, 
 and his eyes were put out. Zoe and her 
 sister, Theodora, were made sole empresses 
 by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe 
 although she was sixty years of age, took 
 for her third husband Constantine X. She 
 died in 1050. 
 
 ZOLLYEREIN, the name given to the 
 German commercial union, of which Prussia 
 is the head. It was first formed in 1818, and 
 was gradually joined by nearly all the Ger- 
 man states, except Austria. Feb. 19th, 1853, 
 an important treaty of commerce and navi- 
 gation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
 from January, 1854, till December, 1865, wa§ 
 signed, to which the other states of the Zoll- 
 verein gave in their adhesion, April 5th, 1853. 
 The word Zollverein means in English ‘ cus- 
 toms union.’ 
 
 ZOPYRUS, a Persian, son of Megabyzus, 
 who, to show his attachment to Darius, the 
 son of Hystaspes, while he besieged Baby- 
 lon, cut off hjs ears and nose, and fled to the 
 enemy, telling them that he had received 
 such treatment from his royal master be- 
 cause he had advised him to raise the siege, 
 as the city was impregnable. This was cred- 
 ited by the Babylonians, and Zopyrus was 
 appointed commander of all their forces. 
 When he had totally gained their confidence, 
 he betrayed the city into the hands of Darius, 
 for which he was liberally rewarded. The 
 
 ZOP 
 
D64 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 regard of Darius for Zopyrus could never be 
 more strongly expressed than in whiflt he 
 used often to say, “that he had rather have 
 Zopyrus not mutilated than twenty Baby- 
 Ions.” 
 
 ZSCHOKKE, Heinrich, a celebrated au- 
 thor, was born at Magdeburg in 1781. He 
 inherited in childhood a moderate patrimony, 
 which enabled him during his youth and 
 early manhood to gratify his desire for ad- 
 venture and various knowledge. He finally 
 settled down for life near Aargau in Swit- 
 zerland, in 1802, and died in 1848. The best 
 known of his numerous works are his novels, 
 in which he displays much agreeable humor. 
 
 ZOUAV*ES. To give a complete under- 
 standing of the origin of this singular corps, 
 we must go back a little. Algiers was set- 
 tled in 1492 by Moors driven from Spain. 
 They recognized only a nominal allegiance to 
 the Turkish sultan. But in 1509, when hard 
 pushed by the Spaniards, they sent in haste 
 to Turkey for aid. Barbarossa, a noted pirate, 
 sailed to their help, drove off the Christians, 
 and fixed upon the Moors the yoke of Turk- 
 ish sovereignty. In 1516 he declared him- 
 self Dey of Algiers, and his brother succeed- 
 ing him, the Ottoman power was firmly 
 established. Hated by both Moors and 
 Arabs, and frequently attacked by Europeans, 
 to sustain themselves the deys were obliged 
 to form a body of mercenary soldiers drawn 
 entirely from Turkey. Brave these mercen- 
 aries proved themselves in many a fierce fight. 
 Hardy and ready they were, for they were 
 hated and dreaded beyond measure by the 
 Arabs, and theirs was a life of constant ex- 
 ertion. United they must be, for in union 
 was their strength and safety. They were 
 called the Odjaclc, and elected or deposed 
 deys at pleasure ; the dey, nominally their 
 ruler, was in reality their tool. In one pe- 
 riod of twenty years there were six deys, of 
 whom four were decapitated, one abdicated 
 through fear, and one died peacefully. When 
 one dey was strangled or deposed, they chose 
 in his stead the boldest and bravest of their 
 number. Their number was supposed not 
 to exceed 15,000, and they were recruited 
 from the meanest classes in the ports of the 
 Levant. In 1629 they declared the kingdom 
 free from the dominion of Turkey ; soon after 
 they expelled the KouJouglis, or half-breed 
 
 Turks, and enslaved the Moors. Admitting 
 some of the latter to service in the militia, 
 they never allowed them to hope for promo- 
 tion. Only Turks or renegade Christians 
 could lead the soldiers, whom thus no feeling 
 of local patriotism mollified in their course 
 of savage cruelty, grinding the face of the 
 poor natives till spirit and hope were lost, 
 and resistance ceased to be a settled idea in 
 their minds. 
 
 When the French fleet came up to Algiers 
 in 1880, the bond between the soldiery and 
 their master Hussein Pacha, was nearly 
 broken ; he had just slain the ringleaders of a 
 plot against his life, and the surviving con- 
 spirators felt they were not safe with him. 
 Beaten in every skirmish or battle, they con- 
 ceived a high respect for the military gen- 
 ius of the French, and, ere the close of the 
 summer campaign, offered their services in 
 a body to General Clausel; this offer he 
 promptly declined, and they carried their 
 swords to the aid of less scrupulous powers. 
 The news of this offer spread a lively terror 
 among the Arab tribes. Perceiving the fear 
 in which these Algerine praetorians were held 
 by the tribes, Marshal Clausel conceived the 
 plan of replacing them by a corps of light 
 infantry, consisting of two battalions, to per- 
 form the services of household troops, and to 
 receive some name as significant as that of 
 the terrible Odjack. The new corps was 
 therefore called by the name of Zouaves , from 
 the Arabic word Zouaoua. The Zouaoua are 
 a tribe, or rather a confederation of tribes, of 
 the Kabyles, who inhabit the gorges of the 
 Jurjura Mountains, between Algeria and the 
 province of Constantine. They are a brave, 
 fierce, laborious people, whose submission to 
 the Turks was never more than nominal; 
 they had the reputation of being the best 
 soldiers in the regency. They were well 
 known in the city of Algiers, whither they 
 came frequently to exchange the products of 
 their industry for the luxuries of comparative 
 civilization. 
 
 The number of native soldiers received into 
 the ranks of the Zouaves was limited, and all 
 the officers, from the highest to the lowest 
 grade, were required to be native-born 
 Frenchmen. Service in the corps was alto- 
 gether voluntary, none being appointed to the 
 Zouaves who did not seek the place; but 
 
 ZOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 965 
 
 there were found enough young and daring 
 spirits who embraced with enthusiasm this 
 life, so harassing, so full of privation, of 
 rude labor, of constant peril. The first bat- 
 talion was commanded by Major Maumet, 
 the second by Captain Duvivier. 
 
 Scarcely six weeks after their formation the 
 Zouaves took the field under Marshal Clausel, 
 marching against Medeah, an important sta- 
 tion in the heart of western Algeria. On 
 the hill of Mouzaia they fought their first 
 battle, and were completely successful. They 
 remained two months as a garrison in Me- 
 deah, showing great valor and patience. 
 Left alone in a frontier post, constantly in the 
 vicinity of a savage foe, watching and fight- 
 ing night and day, leaving the gun only to 
 take up the spade, compelled to create every- 
 thing they needed, reduced to the last ex- 
 tremities for food, cut off from all communi- 
 cations, — it was a rough trial for this little 
 handful of new soldiers. The place was often 
 attacked ; they were always at their posts ; 
 till in the last days of April they were re- 
 called, and the fortress yielded up to the 
 feeble bey whom the French had decided to 
 establish there. In June, troubles having 
 again risen, General Berthezene conducted 
 some regular troops to Medeah, together with 
 the second battalion of Zouaves, under its 
 gallant captain, Duvivier. On his return the 
 troops were furiously attacked on the hill of 
 Mouzaia, the spot wdicre in February the 
 Zouaves had received the baptism of fire. 
 Weared with the long night-march, borne 
 down by insupportable heat, stretched in a 
 long straggling line through mountain passes, 
 the commander of the van severely, wounded 
 at the first discharge, they themselves sep- 
 arated, without chiefs, and surrounded by ene- 
 mies, the French troops recoiled ; when 
 Duvivier, seeing the peril that menaced the 
 army, advanced with his battalion. Shout- 
 ing their war-cry and the Marseillaise, they 
 rushed upon the Kabyles, turned the pursu- 
 ers into pursued, and covered the retreat of 
 the army till it could ralty. This affair 
 made the Zouaves — before regarded, if not 
 with contempt, at least with dislike — -free of 
 the camp. 
 
 Losses in the two battalions began to be 
 seriously felt, for the growing hostility of the 
 Arabs made it difficult to recruit from native 
 
 sources. In March, 1833, the two were 
 united into one battalion, consisting of ten 
 companies, eight of which were to be exclu- 
 sively European, and in each of the other com- 
 panies it was required there should be at least 
 twelve Frenchmen. Captain Lamoriciere 
 was appointed chief of the battalion. To 
 the training the Zouaves received under this 
 remarkable man much of their after success 
 must be attributed. In his dealings with 
 the Arabs he had shown himself the first who 
 could treat with them by other means than 
 the rifle or the bayonet. As commander of 
 the Zouaves he showed talents of a high order. 
 He Infused into them the spirit, the activity, 
 the boldness and impetuosity which he him- 
 self so remarkably possessed, with a certain 
 independence of character that demanded 
 from those who commanded them a resolute 
 firmness on essential, and a dignified indul- 
 gence on unessential points. To the course 
 of discipline used by him, and still maintained 
 in this arm of the service, are due their tre- 
 mendous working power, their tirelessness, 
 their self-dependence, and all their qualities 
 differing from those of other soldiers ; so that 
 by his means on£ of the most irregular spe- 
 cies of warfare has produced a body of irre- 
 sistible regular soldiers, and border combats 
 have given rise to the most rigid discipline in 
 the world. 
 
 The post of Dely Ibrahim was assigned to 
 the Zouaves. They were obliged to work la- 
 boriously, making for themselves whatever 
 was needed; whether as masons, ditchers, 
 blacksmiths, carpenters, or farmers, — what- 
 ever was to be done, they were, or learned to 
 be, sufficient for it. What time was not de- 
 voted to labor was given to the practice of 
 arms and the acquisition of instruction in all 
 departments of military science ; so that many 
 a soldier was there fitted for the position he 
 afterward acquired of officer, colonel, or gen- 
 eral. To fence with the mounted bayonet, 
 to wrestle, to leap, to climb, to run for miles, 
 to swim, to make and to destroy temporary 
 bridges, to throw up walls of earth, to carry 
 great weights, — these served as the relax- 
 ations of the unwearied Zouaves. To vary 
 the monotony of such a life, there was enough 
 adventure to be found for the seeking, — an 
 incursion into the Sahel, or into the plains of 
 Mitidja, or a wild foray through the northern 
 
 ZOU 
 
966 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 gorges of the Atlas. They learned to march 
 rapidly and long, to sustain the extremes of 
 hunger, thirst, and weather, and to maneuvre 
 with intelligent precision. Their costume 
 and equipment were brought near perfection ; 
 they wore the Turkish dress, slightly modi- 
 fied, — a dress suited to the changes of that 
 climate, and without which their movements 
 would have been cramped and constrained. 
 The cost of a Turkish uniform suitable for an 
 officer would be heavy ; besides, the dress of 
 a Turk of rank is somewhat ridiculous; so 
 the officers retained the hussar uniform, which 
 is rich and easy to wear. Certain officers 
 used on the march, however, to wear thtf fez, 
 or, as the Arabs called it, the cJiechia. La- 
 moriciere was known in Algeria as Bou Che- 
 chia, or Papa with the Cap. The corps was 
 the best practical school for soldiers and offi- 
 cers, and many of the best French generals 
 began their military career in the wild guer- 
 rilla combats or the patient camp-life of that 
 band of heroes. 
 
 There was work enough for the Zouaves 
 in Algiers ; they gained fresh laurels, and 
 they were, raised to a regiment. In the sec- 
 ond expedition into Constantine, in 1837, they 
 formed part of the division headed by the 
 Duke of Nemours. Lamoriciere was still 
 their leader. Fighting by the side of the best 
 soldiers, they proved themselves bravest 
 where all were brave. In the assault, upon 
 Constantine, they were placed at the head of 
 the first column of attack ; Lamoriciere was 
 the first officer on the breach, and carried all 
 before him. The soldiers he had trained sup- 
 ported him nobly ; but when they had won 
 the day, they found that many companies 
 were decimated, some nearly annihilated, and 
 numbers of their officers had fallen. “ Those 
 who are not mortally wounded rejoice at this 
 great success,” said an officer to the duke. 
 
 One anecdote will give some idea of the 
 troops among whom the Zouaves shone brav- 
 est of the brave. The rear-guard at Man- 
 sourah was under the command of Changar- 
 nier ; it was reduced to three hundred men ; 
 he halted this little troop and said, “ Come, 
 my men, look these fellows in the face ; they 
 are six thousand, you are three hundred; 
 surely the match is even.” This speech was 
 sufficient. The Frenchmen awaited the onset 
 till the e'aemy was within pistol-shot, then 
 
 after a murderous volley, they charged on the 
 Arabs, who broke and fled in dismay. Dur- 
 ing the remainder of the day they would not 
 approach this band nearer than long rifle 
 range. 
 
 In 1839 alarming symptoms of mutiny ap- 
 peared among the native Zouaves. Wild 
 San tons of the desert — emissaries, doubtless, 
 of Abd-el-Kader — held secret meetings near 
 the camp ; many soldiers attended them, and 
 were seduced by artful harangues and prophe- 
 cies. In December, 1839, at the raising of the 
 standard of Islam, the natives flocked in vast 
 numbers to rid the land of the French, and 
 most of the native Zouaves deserted to join 
 the fortunes of the prince whom the}' rever- 
 enced as a prophet. Old soldiers, trained in 
 the French service to a thorough acquaintance 
 with European tactics, and gray with battling 
 long for Lamoriciere, suddenly left him, and 
 by their knowledge of the art of war gave 
 great advantage to the Arab force. The Zou- 
 aves not infrequently found that a sharp re- 
 sistance or a masterly retreat on the part of 
 the enemy was executed under the direction 
 of an old comrade. It was a critical moment 
 for the Zouaves ; but volunteers flowed in, 
 young men full of ardor and excitement, and 
 in many instances old soldiers who had al- 
 ready served their time. After a winter of 
 petty skirmishing, and re-establishing in Al- 
 geria the semblance of security, the Duke of 
 Orleans led the army against Abd-el-Kader 
 in the Arabs’ own territory. Whether in 
 charges against the mountaineers, who, with 
 the aid of the Arab regulars, defended each 
 pass; or sustaining the shock of the provin- 
 cial cavalry ; or even standing unmoved be- 
 fore an attack of Abd-el-Kader’s terrible 
 mounted body guard, — the Zouaves maintain- 
 ed their character of rapid, intrepid, success- 
 ful soldiers. What names we find in this 
 regiment! Lamoriciere, Regnault, Renault, 
 Cavaignac, Leflo, St. Arnaud — future gener- 
 als, marshals, dictators. 
 
 A singular instance of the hardiness of the 
 Zouaves occurred during a forced march in 
 this campaign to support a retreat of the sev- 
 enteenth light infantry. Their cartridges 
 were fired away, the regulars of Abd-el-Kader 
 were upon them, and nothing seemed to re- 
 main but a heroic death, when, “ Comrades,” 
 cried one, “ see, here are stones ! ” Not a 
 
 zou 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 967 
 
 word more ; each caught the hint ; and with 
 volleys of stones they drove off' the charging 
 enemy, and broke their way to where the 
 remains of the seventeenth rallied, after a re- 
 treat more properly to be called a continual 
 attack. 
 
 With the arrival of Marshal Bugeaud the 
 war was changed; hitherto it had been a 
 mere war of occupation, — a holding of the 
 ground already French against the attacking 
 Arabs ; Bugeaud’s design was, to follow the 
 Arabs into the desert, to climb the steep 
 mountains, to plunge into their chasms, to 
 storm every hill fort, and to drive, step by 
 step, the swift Abd-el-Kader from the land ; 
 but how ? for swift troops are light-armed, 
 carry no baggage, and but little provision ; 
 and to follow without food the Arabs who 
 concealed food in silos, caches in the ground, 
 seemed hopeless. This w T as work for Lamor- 
 iciere and his Zouaves. They carried only 
 four days’ provisions, and no baggage of any 
 sort. When they drew near any of these 
 silos, which were always, of course, near the 
 deserted villages, he spread out his troops in 
 a long crescent, and they advanced slowly, 
 working up the ground with their bayonets 
 till some one struck on the stone or pebbles 
 covering the prepious deposit. Trained to 
 tireless activity, they could thus follow the 
 Arabs with little delay and fatal effect. 
 
 The native Algerines were gradually be- 
 coming fewer among the Zouaves, and in 1842 
 disappeared finally from their ranks. The best 
 and bravest soldiers in* the African army 
 eagerly sought their places, attracted by the 
 uniform, the manner of life, the constant dan- 
 ger and no less constant excitement, the lib- 
 erty allowed, the glory ever open to all. In 
 1848 the corps received a large accession 
 from Paris; the gamins of the revolution 
 were sent to them in great numbers, and out 
 of these unpromising, rebellious materials, 
 some of the finest Zouaves have been made. 
 In February, 1852, Louis Napoleon, then 
 president of the republic, decreed that three 
 regiments of Zouaves should be formed, one 
 on each of the existing battalions as a nu- 
 cleus. Officers of the infantry were eligible 
 to the new regiments, holding the same grade ; 
 the men were to be drawn from any infantry 
 corps in the army, on their own application, 
 if the minister of war saw proper. None were 
 
 accepted but men physically and morally in 
 excellent condition ; the officers had, for the 
 most part, already served w r ith credit ; the 
 subalterns and privates had been many years 
 in the service ; and even many corporals and 
 not a few ensigns and lieutenants voluntarily 
 relinquished their positions to serve in the 
 rank and file of the Zouaves. 
 
 It was in the winter of 1853-4 that Louis 
 Napoleon said, “If the war break out, we 
 must show our Zouaves to the Russians. 
 They were a body trained in the school of a 
 terrible experience for twenty -four years; 
 they had learned, like the lion-hunter Gerard, 
 to take death by the mane, and look into his 
 fiery eyes without blenching. They went to 
 the Crimea. Russell, the brilliant corres- 
 pondent of the London Times, thus describes 
 the first of them he saw : — “ The Zouave 
 wears a sort of red ffez cap, with a roll of 
 cloth at the base to protect the head ; a jacket 
 of blue cloth, with red facings, decorated with 
 some simple ornaments, and open in front so 
 as to display the throat; and a waistcoat, or 
 under coat, of red comes dowm to the hips. 
 Round his waist a broad silk sash is folded sev- 
 eral times, so a3 to keep up the ample panta- 
 loons and support the back. The pantaloons, 
 of scarlet cloth, fit close over the hips, and then 
 expand to the most Dutchman-like dimen- 
 sions, till they are gathered just below the 
 knee in loose bagging folds, so that they look 
 almost like a kilt. From the knee to the 
 ankle the leg is protected by a kind of greaves, 
 made of stout, yellow, embroidered leather, 
 laced (with black stripes) down the back, and 
 descending over the shoe. The whole cos- 
 tume is graceful, easy, and picturesque. The 
 men (natives of France, and not Arabs, as 
 many suppose) are young smart fellows, 
 about five feet six inches in height, burnt to 
 a deep copper tint by the rays of an African 
 sun, and wearing the most luxuriant beards, 
 moustaches, and whiskers; it is, however, 
 hard to believe these fierce-looking warriors 
 are Europeans.” 
 
 All Europe, at first wondering at these 
 strange troops, with their w ild dress, their 
 half-savage manners, and strange method of 
 warfare, found speedy cause to admire their 
 courage and success. At the battle of the 
 Alma, Marshal St. Arnaud was unable to re- 
 press his admiration, calling them “ the brav- 
 
 ZOU 
 
968 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 est soldiers in the world.” They rushed like 
 tigers to rescue the British at Inkerman. 
 Russell thus describes their capture of the 
 Mamelon : “ The French went up the steep to 
 the Mamelon in most beautiful order, and eve- 
 ry straining eye was upon their movements, 
 which the declining daylight did not throw out 
 into bold relief. Still their figures, like light 
 shadows, flitting across the dun barriers of 
 earthwork, were seen to mount up unfailing- 
 ly — were seen running, climbing, scrambling 
 like skirmishers up the slopes on to the body 
 of the work, amid a plunging fire from the 
 guns which, owing to their loose formation, 
 did them as yet little damage. As an officer, 
 who saw Bosquet wave them on, said at the 
 moment, ‘ they went in like a clever pack of 
 hounds.’ In a moment some of* these dim 
 wraiths shone out against the sky. The Zou- 
 aves were upon the parapet firing down into 
 the place from above ; the next moment a flag 
 was up as a rallying point and defiance, and was 
 seen to sway hither and thither, now up, now 
 down, as the tide of battle raged round it; 
 and now like a swarm they were in the heart 
 of the Mamelon, and a fierce hand-to-hand en- 
 counter, here with the musket, there with the 
 bayonet, was evident. It was seven minutes 
 and a half from the commencement of the 
 enterprise. Then there came a rush through 
 the angle where they had entered, and then a 
 momentary confusion outside. Hardly had 
 the need of support become manifest, and 
 a gun or two again flashed from the em- 
 brasure against them, than there was another 
 run in, another sharp bayonet fight inside, 
 and this time the Russians went out, spiking 
 their guns. Twice the Russians made head 
 against the current, for they had a large 
 mass of troops in reserve, covered by the 
 guns of the round tower. Twice they were 
 forced back by the onsweeping flood of 
 French, who fought as if they had eyes upon 
 them to sketch the swift event in detail. 
 For ten minutes or so the quick flash and roll 
 of small arms had declared that the uncer- 
 tain fight waved and waved inside the enclos- 
 ure. Then the back door, if one may use a 
 humble metaphor, was burst open. The noise 
 of the conflict went away down the descent 
 on the side towards the tower, and the area 
 grew larger. It was apparent by the space 
 over which the battle spread, that the Rus- 
 
 sians had been reinforced. When the higher 
 ground again became the seat of action ; when 
 there came the second rush of the French 
 back upon their supports ; when rocket after 
 rocket went up ominously from the French 
 general’s position, and seemed to emphasize 
 by their repetition some very plain com- 
 mand, — we began to get nervous. It was 
 growing darker and darker, so that with our 
 glasses we could with difficulty distinguish 
 the actual state of affairs. There was even 
 a dispute for some time as to whether our 
 allies were going in or out of the works. At 
 last, through the twilight, we discovered that 
 the French were pouring in. Our ears could 
 gather that the swell and babble of the. 
 fight was once more rolling down the inner 
 face of the hill, and that the Russians were 
 conclusively beaten. The musket flashes 
 were no more to be seen within the work. 
 There was no more lightning of the heavy 
 guns from the embrasures. A shapeless 
 hump upon a hill, the Mamelon was an ex- 
 tinct volcano.” 
 
 In 1855 a fourth regiment of Zouaves was 
 created, consisting of forty picked men from 
 each company, and enrolled in the imperial 
 guard. They are distinguished by wearing a 
 white turban ; that of the Other regiments is 
 green. 
 
 At the end of the Russian war the Zou- 
 aves returned to Africa, where they found 
 employment in war till the final submission 
 of the last tribes, July 15th, 1S57, dissolved 
 the army of Kabylia, and made them per 
 force peaceful till hostilities with Austria in 
 1859 brought them to win fresh laurels on 
 new fields — at Montebello, and Magenta, and 
 Solferino. 
 
 Some reports represent the Zouaves as 
 cruel. War is always cruel, but that Zou- 
 aves are more cruel than other soldiers may 
 be doubted. On one occasion in Africa the 
 Zouaves had in their charge a large bod} 7 of 
 prisoners, wounded, and helpless women, old 
 men, and children, whom they were conduct- 
 ing to restore to their homes. The weather 
 was intensely hot, even for Africa ; the near' 
 est well was eleven leagues distant ; and the 
 sufferings of the poor people were dreadful 
 indeed. Mothers flung down their infants 
 on the burning sand, and pressed madly on 
 to save themselves from the most horrible of 
 
 ZOU 
 
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 969 
 
 deaths ; old men and boys sunk exhausted, 
 declaring they could go no farther. Then it 
 
 even rash, seek to win their epaulettes anew 
 in this hard service, and gain either a glo- 
 rious position or a glorious death, — old offi- 
 
 was, an eye-witness says, that the Zouaves 
 behaved like very sisters of charity rather 
 than rough-bearded soldiers ; they divided 
 their last morsel with these unfortunates, 
 gave them drink from their own scanty stores, 
 and, putting their canteens to the mouths of 
 the dying, revived them with the precious 
 draught. They raised the screaming infants ; 
 overturned and held ewes, that they might 
 suckle the poor creatures abandoned to des- 
 pair by their mothers ; and, in many instan- 
 ces, carried them the whole distance in their 
 arms. At night they ate nothing, giving 
 their food to the helpless prisoners, whose 
 lives they thus saved at the risk of their own. 
 
 In accordance with Arab customs, the Zou- 
 aves, who live in common, compose circles, 
 to which they give the name of tribes. In 
 the tribe each one has his allotted task ; one 
 attends to making the fires and procuring 
 wood; another draws water and does the 
 cooking; another makes the coffee and ar- 
 ranges the camp, &c. The colonel is the man 
 most venerated by them ; they look upon him 
 as the father of the family, and familiarly 
 speak of him as papa. They are now the 
 military notabilities of the world; once it 
 was the grenadiers of England, then the old 
 guard of Napoleon, then the imperial guard 
 of Russia; now it is the Zouaves. They 
 upset all the old rules for behavior in battle. 
 They attack upon a sharp run ; one man 
 after another mounts upon the shoulders of 
 his fellows, forming human pyramids, and 
 scaling windows and portholes; they bound 
 up hill like tigers, swim streams without 
 wetting their arms, and climb cliffs like the 
 chamois. They despise cartridges and be- 
 lieve in cold steel, wielding their bayonet 
 swords with the skill of fencers. The meth- 
 od of recruitment adds to their efficiency: 
 the soldiers are all drawn, not from con- 
 scripts, but from applicants for the service. 
 They are proud of their unique costume ; 
 proud of that name, Zouave ; proud of the 
 splendid actions that enrich the history of the 
 corps ; happy in the liberty they have, both 
 in garrison and on expeditions. In the ranks 
 are officers, who tired of a lazy life, have 
 taken up the musket and the chechia , — under 
 officers, who having already served, brave, 
 
 cers of the garde mobile, — broad-shouldered 
 marines, who have served their time on ship- 
 board, accustomed to cannon and the thun- 
 derings of the tempest, — young men of fam- 
 ily, desirous to replace with the red ribbon 
 of the legion of honor, bought and colored 
 with their blood, the dishonor of a life gaped 
 wearily away on the pavements of Paris. 
 
 The officers are generally chosen from the 
 regiments of the line, — men remarkable for 
 strength, courage, and prudence; full of 
 energy, pushing the love of their colors to 
 its last limit, always ready to confront death 
 and to run up to meet danger, they seek glory 
 rather than promotion. Esprit de corps is 
 carried by the Zouaves to its highest pitch ; 
 the common soldiers would not consent to 
 change their turbans for the epaulettes of an 
 ensign in any other branch of the army. 
 There exists between the officers and the 
 men a military fraternity, which, far from de- 
 stroying discipline, tends rather to draw 
 more closely its bonds. The officer sees in 
 his men rather companions in danger and 
 in glory than inferiors; he willingly attends 
 to their complaints, and strives to spare them 
 all unnecessa^ privations. When they are 
 exposed to difficulties, he does not hesitate 
 to employ all the means in his power to aid 
 them. In return, the soldier professes for 
 his officer an affection, a devotion, a sort 
 of filial respect. Discipline, he knows, must 
 be severe, and he does not grumble at its pen- 
 alties. He doe# not abandon his chief in 
 battle ; he watches over him, will die for his 
 safety, will not let him fall into the hands of 
 the enemy if wounded. At the bivouac he 
 makes the officer’s fire, though his own should 
 die for want of fuel; cares for his horse; 
 arranges his furniture ; if any delicacy in the 
 way of food can be procured, he brings it to 
 the chief. 
 
 Our sketch is in part condensed from an 
 article in the Atlantic Monthly. 
 
 ZUTPHEN, an inland town of the Nether- 
 lands, province of Guelderland. In the wars 
 of Philip II., Zutphen was besieged in 1572 
 by the Spaniards, who refusing the citizens 
 a capitulation, entered the town by storm, 
 and committed frightful ravages. It was 
 
 ZUT 
 
970 
 
 COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OP 
 
 retaken in 1591, and during this s^ege Sir 
 Philip Sidney was killed. 
 
 ZWINGLE, Ulkicii, whose name in the 
 annals of Protestantism ranks second only to 
 that of Luther, was born on New Year’s day, 
 1484, i-n a remote Swiss village, high up in 
 the mountains. From his earliest years he 
 loved and admired his native heights ; in after 
 days his friend Oswald Myconius said of him 
 that “from living so near to heaven he had 
 caught something of a divine influence.” 
 lie was fond of study, was educated at Basle, 
 Berne, and Vienna, and entered the priest- 
 hood. In 1528 he was efected preacher to 
 the cathedral church at Zurich. His theo- 
 logical studies had led him to a sense of the 
 corruptions of the church ; he preached the 
 pure gospel, and cried for reform. He de- 
 claimed against the indulgences, and effected 
 the same separation for Switzerland from the 
 papal dominion, which Luther did for Saxony. 
 He procured two assemblies to be called ; by 
 the first he was authorized to proceed, and 
 by the second the ceremonies of the Romish 
 church were abolished, 1519. Zuinglius, 
 who began as a preacher, died in arms as a 
 soidier. The religious dissensions brought 
 on civil war in Switzerland, and he was slain 
 on the field of Cappel, Oct. 12th, 1531. 
 
 Zwingle’s life was not that of a priest, a 
 churchman, a theologian, but that of a Swiss, 
 a patriot, a man. He did not begin life with 
 a cut-and-dried religious system which he 
 was resolved to impose upon the world ; he 
 did not insist that all truth was contained in 
 certain religious dogmas more or less diffi- 
 cult of comprehension. II# was born among 
 the mountains, and early learnt from Nature’s 
 teaching the love of God and of his country. 
 As he grew up, he perceived in the mer- 
 cenary levies by which, for no cause but 
 money, life was sacrificed and society cor- 
 
 rupted, a grievous sin against God and a 
 heavy blow and scandal to Switzerland. The 
 circumstances of his education, no less than 
 the cast of his own mind, led him to seek 
 for a remedy in a healthier state of morals, 
 and this he believed, could only be brought 
 about by religion. He found religion, as it 
 existed, corrupt, and altogether inadequate 
 for this purpose, and thus he was brought 
 into collision with the established doctrines, 
 not with the furious uncalculating enthu- 
 siasm of a speculative theorist, but with all 
 the calm temperate energy of a practical re- 
 former. This was the object of his life, 
 which he pursued steadily, though perhaps 
 not always wisely. It may be that at tho 
 end of his life he played too deep a stake — 
 that not even the greatness of the evil and 
 the danger, justified the dreadful remedy of 
 war which he sought to apply. If this be so, 
 at least he paid the penalty ; his error, if 
 such it was, may be buried on the field of 
 Cappel ; his virtue, his patriotism, and his 
 courage, softened as these qualities were by 
 his gentle temper and winning manners, his 
 proficiency in humanizing arts, his famil- 
 iarity with what is noblest in letters, — these 
 remain purified and illumined by the fire of 
 posthumous persecution. His character had 
 not the brilliant light nor the deep shade of 
 Luther’s ; he had not that rugged honesty, 
 that tempestuous energy, that deeply stir- 
 ring humor, which secure for the German 
 reformer the first place among European 
 heroes ; but he had an even, well-balanced 
 temperament, which if less attractive is cer- 
 tainly not less rare. There is no passage in 
 his life, except indeed the last, equal in thrill- 
 ing interest to Luther’s journey to and ap- 
 pearance at Worms; but his whole career 
 up to 1523 was one most remarkable for its 
 deliberate progressive success. 
 
 ZWI 
 
AP.PENDIX 
 
 ALASKA, formerly Russian America, was 
 ceded to the U. S. by the emperor of Russia, 
 March 30, 1867, for $7,200,000. Actual pos- 
 session was taken in Oct. It has 577,390 sq. 
 miles, and a population of 75,000. Its capi- 
 tal is Sitka. The coast line is 4,000 miles, 
 and including bays and inlets over 11,000 
 miles. It has several large rivers, one of 
 which is Yukon, the great river of the North, 
 also one of the largest mountains on the con- 
 tinent, Mt. St. Elias. It includes the Aleu- 
 tian Islands, the most remarkable range of 
 volcanic islands on the western continent. 
 The territory is well timbered, and has coal 
 and mineral mines. Its principal value de- 
 pends upon its lumber, fisheries and furs. 
 The north-western boundary of the U. S. 
 now begins nearly in the middle of Behring’s 
 Straits, and reaches thence to shore of Arctic 
 Ocean at lat. 69 deg. 30 min. It stands 
 about 30 deg. farther west than the Sand- 
 wich Islands. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James, was born at Stony- 
 bater, Franklin Co., Pa., April 22, 1791; 
 was admitted to the bar in 1812, was a mem- 
 ber of the Legislature in 1814, member of 
 Congress 1820 to 1832, Minister ^ Russia 
 from 1831 to 1833, U. S. Senator from 1833 
 to 1849, Minister to England from 1850 to 
 1856, President of the U. S. 1857-1861. He 
 died at Wheatland, June 11 , 1868. 
 
 EARTHQUAKE in South America. It 
 ranged from Port Conception, on the coast 
 of Chili, to Quito, capital of Ecuador, just 
 below the equator. It must be classed among 
 the most terrible convulsions of the kind ever 
 known on the American Continent, the only 
 parallel to it being, that in Feb. 1797, (see 
 page 285,) when the whole country between 
 
 I Santa Fe and Panama was destroyed, and 
 40,000 people buried in an instant. The de- 
 struction of Arequipa, a city of 119,000 in- 
 habitants was, save the destruction of Arica 
 and Iquire on the coast, the most appalling 
 disaster. In three minutes the soil shook so 
 that it was impossible to hold one’s feet. In 
 about five minutes the whole city was envel- 
 oped in clouds of dust and darkness. Not one 
 house was left standing in it. Thus the work 
 of 300 years was destroyed in a few moments, 
 and it will take centuries to restore the city.” 
 Aug. 16, an earthquake occurred in Ecua- 
 dor with great destruction. 
 
 On the 12th of Sept., 1866, there was a 
 severe earthquake at the Navigators Islands, 
 and in the spring of 1869 destructive earth- 
 quakes occurred at the Sandwich Islands. 
 
 In the early part of October, 1871, earth- 
 quakes took place in South America by which 
 many lives and much property was destroy- 
 ed. 
 
 FOURTEENTH CONSTITUTIONAL 
 AMENDMENT. — The following is the text 
 of the Fourteenfii Amendment to the Con- 
 stitution, as passed at the first session of the 
 39th Congress, June 16th, 1866 : 
 
 Article 14, Section 1. All persons born or 
 naturalized in the United States, and subject 
 to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
 United States, and of the State wherein they 
 reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
 law which shall abridge the privileges or im- 
 munities of citizens of the United States, 
 nor shall any State deprive any person of 
 life, liberty or property without due process 
 of law, nor deny to any person within its 
 jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appor- 
 
 971 
 
972 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 tioned among the several States according to 
 their respective numbers, counting the whole 
 number of persons in each State, excluding 
 Indians not taxed. But when the right to 
 vote at any election for the choice of electors 
 for President and Vice President of the 
 United States, representatives in Congress, 
 the executive and judicial officers of a State, 
 or the members of the Legislature thereof, is 
 denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
 State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
 citizens of the United States, or in any way 
 abridge, except for participation in rebellion 
 or other crime, the basis of representation 
 therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
 which the number of such male citizens shall 
 bear to the whole number of male citizens 
 twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or 
 Representative in Congress, or elector of 
 President or Vice President, or hold any of- 
 fice, civil or military, under the United States, 
 or under any State, who, having previously 
 taken an oath as a member of Congress, or 
 as an officer of the United States, or as a 
 member of any State Legislature, or as an 
 executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
 support the Constitution of the United States, 
 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebel- 
 lion against the same, or given aid or comfort 
 to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, 
 by a vote of two-thirds of each House, re- 
 move such disability. 
 
 Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt 
 of the United States, autl^rized by law, in- 
 cluding debts incurred for payment of pen- 
 sions and bounties for services in suppressing 
 the insurrection or rebellion, shall not be 
 questioned. But neither the United States 
 nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
 or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection 
 or rebellion against the United States, or any 
 claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
 slave ; but all such debts, obligations and 
 claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power 
 to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the 
 provisions of this article. 
 
 On the 20th of July, 1868, Secretary Sew- 
 ard issued a circular reciting the action which 
 
 had been had by the respestive States, and 
 on the 21st, Congress adopted a resolution 
 declaring the foregoing article to be a part 
 of the Constitution. 
 
 FIFTEENTH CONSTITUTIONAL 
 AMENDMENT. — The following is the text 
 of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Consti- 
 tution which passed the House of Represen- 
 tatives, Feb. 2 5$ 1869, by the following vote : 
 yeas, 144 ; nays. 44 ; not voting, 35 ; and the 
 Senate. Feb 26, 1869, by a vote of 30 yeas to 
 13 nays : 
 
 Article 15, Section 1. The right of citizens 
 of the United States to vote shall not be de- 
 nied or abridged by the United States, or 
 by any State, on account of race, color, or 
 previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Sec. 2. The Congress^shall have power to 
 enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 
 
 GRANT, Ulyssks Simpson, was born on 
 the 27th of April, 1822, in a small one story 
 co.ttage still standing in Clermont, Ohio His 
 father, Jesse R. , was an upright, hard work- 
 ing man, and his mother, Hannah (Simpson), 
 a kind, faithful woman. As a boy, Grant 
 was cool and robust. He was admitted a 
 cadet at West Point in 1839, and graduated 
 in a class of 39, his rank being the 21st. 
 Leaving West Point, he entered the army as 
 brevet Second Lieut, in the 4th Infantry, and 
 began his services on July 1st, 1843. His 
 regiment was stationed at Jefferson, near St. 
 Louis, Mo. The next summer it moved to 
 Natchitoches, La., and in 1845 was sent to 
 Corpus Christi to watch the Mexican army. 
 On the 6th and 7th of May, 1846, he was 
 present in the battles of' Palo Alto and Resa- 
 ca, and also shared in the bloody affray at 
 Monte^u When Gen. Scott began his march 
 to the city of Mexico, Grant was withdrawn 
 from Gen. Taylor’s command to make part of 
 an invading army. On the 1st of April, 1848, 
 he was made regimental quarter-master, and 
 held the position till the end of the war. 
 “ For gallant and meritorious conduct ” there 
 was awarded him the brevet of Captain. 
 
 In 1851-3 he was stationed at Fort Dallas, 
 Oregon, and saw some service against the 
 Indians. Seeing little chanee for promotion, 
 he resigned his commission, and in 1854 be- 
 gan life as a private citizen. During the in- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 973 
 
 terval, till the outbreak of the Rebellion, he 
 was successively a farmer, wool dealer, auc- 
 tioneer, and house agent, and in 1859 a part- 
 ner with his<*father in the leather business in 
 Galena, 111. Though with indifferent success 
 pecuniarily, yet he achieved an enviable rep- 
 utation for industry and probity. Prompt in 
 response to the call of President Lincoln for 
 75,000 men, he was foremost in raising a 
 company, and in May tendered his services 
 to Gov. Yates. His military experience was 
 employed in organizing the State troops, and 
 by his energy succeeded in raising the three 
 months men, and received a commission as 
 Colonel of the twenty-first Illinois Vols. At 
 St. Joseph, though the youngest Col. he was 
 appointed commander of the combined forces, 
 and in Aug. received a commission as Brig. 
 Gen. of Vols., and was ordered to Cairo to 
 take command of the District of South-east 
 Missouri. Learning that the Confederates 
 were concentrating at Belmont, Mo., so as to 
 blockade the Mississippi River, Gen. Grant, 
 on the 7th of Nov., attacked the rebel works, 
 destroyed the camp and took a large number 
 of prisoners. 
 
 He captured Fort Henry on the 3d and 
 Fort Donelson on the 16th of February. His 
 reply to Gen. Buckner — in command of Fort 
 Donelson — who proposed an armistice, has 
 become historical, and is the origin of his 
 soubriquet “ Unconditional Surrender Grant/' 
 There followed upon this success, and as the 
 result of Grant’s aggressive policy, the great 
 victories in the West. The first was the 
 battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, on 
 April 6th and 7th, with a force of 38,000 
 against Gen. / Beauregard. The loss was 
 heavy, not less than 15,000, and the Confed- 
 erate loss was greater. During tl^ engage- 
 ment Gen. Grant was in the thickest of the 
 fire, and on the second day headed a charge 
 himself/ and was slightly wounded in the 
 ankle. It was complained of as gained at 
 too great a sacrfice of life, and Gen. Grant’s 
 personal character was defamed. This vic- 
 tory was, however, of immeasurable value 
 and importance, showing to the country that 
 we were engaged in a contest for manhood, 
 and this “battle proved that Northern valo 
 and pluck were an overmatch for Southern. 
 
 The prestige of such a victory was invalu- 
 able, revealing the fact that final success 
 could be won only by great sacrifice of blood. 
 It so inspired the Union soldiery that there 
 was never from that day any lack of courage 
 and readiness to go into the deadliest fray. 
 
 The siege of Corinth and its evacuation 
 followed close upon the battle of Shiloh. On 
 the 11th of July there was a new arrange- 
 ment of forces, Gen. Halleck having become 
 General-in-chief at Washington. Gen. Grant 
 was assigned to the command of West Tenn. 
 Department, with head-quarters at Corinth. 
 Memphis was surrendered June 6th, the bat- 
 tle of Iuka on the 19th of Sept., the great 
 battle of Corinth on the 3d and 4th of Oct., 
 the movement upon Vicksburg Nov. 4th, fol- 
 lowed by its protracted siege and final cap- 
 ture, when the full control of the operations 
 was placed in the hands of Gen. Grant. This 
 siege forms one of the most thrilling chapters 
 of the war. It evinced on the part of the 
 commander a strategy and comprehension of 
 the situation and a mastery of obstacles which 
 proved the transcendent military power of 
 the General. The surrender of this strong- 
 hold and the breaking of the backbone of the 
 Rebellion was achieved on the 3d of July, 
 1863. No more brilliant victory can be found 
 in military annals. Then followed various 
 smaller successes and movements. 
 
 March 2, 1864, the grade of Lieut. Gen. 
 of the army having peen revived, Congress 
 approved the nomination of Gen. Grant by 
 Pres. Lincoln to this high station, and he 
 went to Washington to receive his commis- 
 sion and take command of the Army of the 
 United States. 
 
 Transferred from the West to the East, 
 having special command of the Army of the 
 Potomac, Gen. Grant’s career may be briefly 
 stated in the memorable events of the cross- 
 ing the Rapidan, the battle of the Wilder- 
 ness, of Spottsylvania Court House, Cold 
 Harbor, siege of Petersburg, evacuation of 
 Richmond, pursuit of Gen. Lee and the Con- 
 federate army, their surrender April 9, 1865, 
 and the end of the Great Rebellion. 
 
 His course as commander of the armies in 
 the matter of reconstruction need not be re- 
 
9T4 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 cited. In July, 1866, the grade of General 
 was created in the army, and Grant was nomi- 
 nated and confirmed on the 25th of July. 
 IliS refusal to be an accomplice with Pres. 
 Johnson in his reactionary policy, and his 
 wisdom, stability, and statesmanship evinced 
 in the affairs of peace, caused the Republican 
 party to turn to him as the one eminently fit- 
 ted to take charge of the Government, and 
 make permanent in legislation and national 
 policy the results to which they were entitled 
 by successful arms. Gen. Grant received the 
 nomination as candidate for President, and 
 having been elected, was inaugurated March 
 4th, 1869. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, Baron Yon, (Karl Wil- 
 helm,) a celebrated German philologist and 
 statesman, born at Potsdam, on the 22d of 
 June, 1767. His early education was under 
 the direction of Joachim Campc, a distin- 
 guished philanthropist. About 1788 he enter- 
 ed the University of Gottingen. In 1789 he 
 visited Paris and became one of the most en- 
 thusiastic followers of the new regime. He af- 
 terwards studied at Jena awhile and formed 
 intimate friendships with Schiller, and Goethe. 
 In 1791 he married Caroline Yon Drachen- 
 roden. In 1799 he published a critical essay 
 on Goethe’s “ Herman and Dorothea,” which 
 established his reputation as a critic. In 1802 
 he was appointed minister to Rome by the 
 King of Prussia. He returned to Prussia in 
 1808, and was appointed minister of public 
 instruction. In 181 C. he was*sent as embassa- 
 dor to Vienna, and while thus publicly em- 
 ployed, devoted all his leisure time to the 
 study of languages. He influenced Austria 
 to join the coalition against Napoleon in Au- 
 gust, 1813, and represented Prussia at the 
 conference ofChatillon, in the Congress of Vi- 
 enna in 1814. In 1816 he was sent as em- 
 bassador to London, and was made minister 
 and privy counsellor at Berlin in 1819. Among 
 his principal works are an “ Essay on the War 
 of the French Constitution” and a metrical 
 translation of the “Agamemnon of Aeschy- 
 lus.” lie died at Tegel, near Berlin, April 
 8th, 1835. 
 
 PEABODY, George, the eminent phi- 
 lanthropist, whose more than princely bene- 
 factions have made his name so illustrious on 
 
 two continents, and endeared his memory to 
 so many millions, was born in Danvers, Mass., 
 Feb. 18, 1795, and died in London, England, 
 Nov. 4, 1869, in his 75th year. Having very 
 few educational advantages in childhood, at 
 the age of eleven he became a clerk in a 
 grocery store in Danvers. Serving three 
 years in this capacity, then living a year with 
 his grandfather in Thetford, Vt., in his six- 
 teenth year, he became the clerk of his broth- 
 er in Newburyport. At the solicitation of an 
 uncle he soon after removed to Georgetown, 
 D. C. This uncle, Mr. John Peabody, being 
 involved in debt, carried on business in his 
 nephew’s name. The war of 1812 com- 
 mencing, Mr. Peabody, though exempt from 
 military duty by reason of youth, gave his 
 services to his country as a volunteer. After 
 the war, being invited to a partnership with 
 Elisha Riggs of Georgetown, who furnished 
 the capital, he engaged in the drapery busi- 
 ness, and was so successful as to remove, in 
 1815, to Baltimore. He soon had branch 
 houses in New York and Philadelphia. In 
 ten years after he was the head of the firm* 
 This business requiring frequent visits to 
 England, to purchase goods, in 1837 he be- 
 came a resident in London. Six years later 
 (1843) he retired from the American firm, 
 and established a banking house in London. 
 His business became very extensive, so that 
 he rapidly added to the handsome fortune 
 which he had acquired in his American 
 house — accumulating an estate of nearly 
 twenty millions. 
 
 In 1851 he assumed the expense of the 
 American Department in the Crystal Palace, 
 and in 1852 gave $10,000 toward Dr. Kane’s 
 second voyage in search of Sir John Frank- 
 lin and #20,000 to his native town of Dan- 
 vers for educational purposes, and afterwards 
 increased the gift to over $200,000. 
 
 In 1857 Mr. Peabody came to this country, 
 and one of the first things he did was to 
 found an educational institution in Baltimore, 
 by the gift of $300,000. To this were added 
 afterward $200,000, and in 1866, $500,000 
 more, and in Sept., 1869, $400,000, all mak- 
 ing an aggregate of $1,400,000. .Returning 
 to England in 1858, he began the execution 
 f apian that had been contemplated several 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 975 
 
 years, viz : in gratitude for liis success in 
 England, to “ make a donation for jthe bene- 
 fit of the poor of London.” Accordingly 
 on March 13 # 1862, he wrote Charles Francis 
 Adams, U. S. Minister to England, Lord 
 Stanley, and others whom he had chosen as 
 trustees, that he had placed £150,000 at 
 tliir disposal “ to ameliorate the condition 
 of the poor of the great metropolis.” He 
 afterward added £200,000, making an aggre- 
 gate of nearly $2,000,000. In acknowledg- 
 ment of this princely gift, Queen Victoria 
 wrote a letter of thanks, most handsomely 
 expressed, accompanied by an elaborate and 
 costly portrait of himself. 
 
 Visiting this country again in 1866, he 
 gave $1,500,000 as a Southern educational 
 fund, and in his last visit in 1869, added an- 
 other million. The following are some of 
 his minor gifts : To Phillip’s Academy An- 
 
 dover, Mass., $25,000 ; to the Newburypcrt 
 Library, $15,000 ; for building a new church 
 in Georgetown, Mass., $100,000 ; to a library 
 in same town, $16,000 ; to the Essex Insti- 
 tute in Salem, $140,000; the library in 
 Thetford, Vt., $5,000 ; to the Mass. Hist. 
 Society in Bdfeton, $20,000 ; to the Peabody 
 Institute of Archeology in Cambridge, $150,- 
 000 ; to establish a Geological branch at 
 Yale College, $150,000; to the Maryland 
 Historical Society, $20,000 ; to Kenyon Col- 
 lege, Ohio, $25,000 ; for a library in George- 
 town, D. C., $15,000, His public benefac- 
 tions make an aggregate of $7,000,000. So 
 wisely and generously distributing his wealth, 
 it may be presumed, that on thousands of 
 smaller and unknown channels, he has sent 
 forth his charities to bless his fellow men. 
 
 In testimony of his high character and 
 lavish benevolence, his statue has been 
 erected at the London Exchange, th^Prince 
 of Wales presiding over the ceremonies. 
 For his gift to Education in the South, the 
 U. S. Congress presented him with a com- 
 memorative gold medal. The funeral cere- 
 monies in honor of Mr. Peabody were in 
 Westminster Abbey, where his remains were 
 deposited to await their removal to this 
 country. The United States Government 
 having sent a ship to England to bring the 
 body of Mr. Peabody to his native land for 
 burial in his native town, the English Gov- 
 
 ernment solicited the privilege of paying 
 their honor to his memory. Her Majesty’s 
 ship Monarch, the largest in the world save 
 the Great Eastern, convoyed by national 
 ships of the American and French navies, 
 was appointed for this service, and arrived 
 in Portland, Me., in Jan., ’70, with her charge, 
 and the burial in Danvers, with appropriate 
 honors to the departed benefactor, occurred. 
 Thus he who went forth a poor boy, returned 
 with the special honor of three great nations. 
 
 PIERCE, Franklin, the fourteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States, was born in Hills- 
 borough, N. H., the 23d of Nov., 1804, and 
 died in Concord, N. H., Oct. 8, 1869, aged 
 65. He was the son of Gen. Benj. Pierce, 
 an officer of the patriot army in the War of 
 Independence. He entered Bowdoin Col- 
 | lege at the age of sixteen, and was grad- 
 uated with honor in 1824. He then entered 
 the office of Levi Woodbury to study law, 
 and in 1827 was admitted to the bar in his 
 native town. 
 
 Mr. Pierce did not succeed well at the bar 
 in early life, his attention being engrossed by 
 politics. In 1829 he was elected to the State 
 Legislature as a democrat, and was reelected 
 each year until 1833, when lie was sent to 
 Congress. After serving two terms in Con- 
 gress, he was chosen United States Senator, 
 and took his seat beside Clay, Webster, Cal- 
 houn, Benton and the other great debaters of. 
 that day, at the early age of thirty-three, and 
 was the youngest man in the Senate. 
 
 Pie returned in 1842 to the practice of his 
 profession, in which he was now very success- 
 ful. Removing to Concord, he gained both 
 reputation and money, as a counsellor and 
 pleader, while he also obtained influence with 
 his party. In 1847 he volunteered for service 
 in the Mexican war, was at once appointed 
 Colonel of the Ninth Regiment of volunteers, 
 and was afterward promoted to the command 
 of a brigade, as Brig. General. 
 
 In June, 1852, after a long struggle between 
 James Buchanan, Lewis Cass and others for 
 the Democratic nomination to the Presidency, 
 the Baltimore Convention surprised the coun- 
 try by suddenly and unanimously choosing 
 Mr. Pierce as their candidate. After a dull 
 
976 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 canvass, the least animated contest since 
 1836, he was elected President by the vote 
 in the Electoral College, of all the States ex- 
 cept four. In his inaugural address in March 
 1853, Mr. Pierce boldly took extreme pro- 
 slavery ground, denouncing all agitation 
 against the institution, and claiming for it 
 the direct protection of the Constitution. 
 His administration was in many respects of 
 signal ability ; it was especially vigorous and 
 creditable in its management of our foreign 
 relations, but the principal measure by which 
 it will be remembered, is the repeal of the 
 Missouri Compromise Act of 1820, by which 
 slavery had been restricted to the region 
 south of 36 deg. 30 min. north latitude. This 
 measure, devised in the interest of the slave 
 power of the country, and forced through 
 Congress by party drill and influence, shocked 
 the conscience of the people, and hastened 
 the crisis of the final conflict between free- 
 dom and slavery. The civil war in Kansas 
 grew directly out of this legislation. Failing 
 of a renomination, he spent the remainder 
 of his life in retirement at Concord. 
 
 STANTON, Edwin M., American jurist 
 and War minister, son of Dr. David and 
 Lucy (Norton) Stanton, was born in Steu- 
 benville, O., in 1815, and died Dec. 24, 1869, 
 aged 54 years. 
 
 When 15 years old he became clerk in a 
 bookstore at Steubenville, and subsequently 
 spent two years at Kenyon (O.) College, re- 
 turning to the bookstore, however, before 
 graduation. At the age of 21 (1836) he was 
 admitted to the bar, practised law in Cadiz, 
 O., 1836-39; and Steubenville, 1839-48; 
 Pittsburg, 1848-57 ; Washington, D. C., 1857, 
 1862, 1868-69. While yet a young lawyer 
 he was elected prosecuting attorney of Har- 
 rison county. In 1842, he was chosen re- 
 porter of the Ohio Supreme Court, and pub- 
 ished three volumes of reports. Removing to 
 Pittsburg in 184 7, he rapidly acquired a large 
 and lucrative practice. In 1857 his business 
 had so expanded that he found it necessary to 
 remove to Washington, to be near the U. S. 
 Supreme Court. His triumph in the great 
 California land cases, against the Mexican 
 grantees, and other successes, made a decided 
 
 impression, and he was soon acknowledged 
 to be one ^»f the ablest advocates before the 
 court of the nation. He was called to fill the 
 office of Attorney General in Resident Bu- 
 chanan's Cabinet, just vacated by Mr. Black, 
 in 1861, and was a selection most fortunate 
 for the country in those critical days. 
 
 On Jan. 11, 1862, nine months after Mr. 
 Lincoln’s inauguration, he chose Mr. Stanton 
 — -though he l^ad been in the Cabinet of the 
 opposing party — as his Secretary of War. 
 Never perhaps was there a more illustrious 
 example of the right man in the right place. 
 It seemed almost as if it were a special Provi- 
 dential interposition to incline the President 
 to go out of his own party and select this 
 man for this most responsible of all trusts 
 save his own. With an unflinching force, an 
 imperial will, a courage never once admitting 
 the possibility of failure, and having no pa- 
 tience with cowards, compromisers, and self- 
 seekers, with the most jealous patriotism, he 
 displaced the incompetent and exacted brave, 
 mighty endeavor of all, yet only like what 
 his strong and unselfish love of country ex- 
 acted of himself. He reorganized the war 
 with herculean toil ; through all the years of 
 this national struggle, he saw, thought of, 
 labored but for one result — Victory. The 
 
 amount of work he did in some of these criti- 
 cal, terrible months, was absolutely amazing, 
 by its comprehension of details, the solution 
 of vexed questions, the mastery of formidable 
 difficulties. It is no wonder that his word 
 sometimes cut with sharp, quick blow like a 
 sword, or that the stroke of his pen was some- 
 times like a thunder bolt. It was not the 
 time for hesitation or doubt, or even argu- 
 ment. • He meant his imperiled country 
 should be saved, and whatever by half-loyalty 
 or self-seeking, seemed to him to stand in her 
 way, only attracted the lightning of his 
 power. 
 
 The nation owes as much to him as to any 
 who, in counsel or in the field, contributed to 
 its salvation. And his real greatness -was 
 never more conspicuous than at the time of 
 Mr. Lincoln’s assassination. His presence 
 of mind, his prompt decision, his unfailing 
 faith and courage, strengthened those around 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 977 
 
 him, and prevented the issue of a frightful 
 panic and disorder following that unexpected 
 assault upon the life of the republic. To 
 have equipped, fed, clothed, and organized a 
 million and a half of soldiery, and when 
 their work was done, in two days to have re- 
 manded them back to the peaceful industries 
 from which they had been taken ; to have 
 had the nation s wealth at his disposal, and 
 yet so incorruptible that hundreds of mil- 
 lions could not tempt him, has secured for 
 him a high and honored place in history. 
 
 Such a man, so true, so intent upon great 
 objects, must many a time have thwarted the 
 greed of the corrupt, been impatient with the 
 hesitation of the imbecile, and fiercely indig- 
 nant against half-heartedness and disloyalty. 
 Whatever faults, therefore, his enemies may 
 allege, these will all fade away in the splen- 
 dor with which coming ages will enoble the 
 greatest of War Ministers in the 19th cen- 
 tury. He will be remembered as one “who 
 never dreamed of surrender, never thought 
 of self, and who held the helm in sunshine 
 and in storm, with the same untiring grip.” 
 
 Nor were his services less valuable to his 
 country when, after the surrender of the con- 
 federate armies, the rebellion was transferred 
 to the White House, and he stood the fearless 
 unflinching patriot against the schemes and 
 usurpations of its accidental occupant. Mr. 
 Stanton entered upon his great trust in the 
 fullest prime of manhood, equal to a toil and 
 strain that would have prostrated a dozen 
 of ordinary public men. He left his depart- 
 ment incurably broken in health. He en- 
 tered upon it in affluence, with a large and 
 remunerative practice. He left it without a 
 stain upon his hands, but with his fortune 
 lessened and insufficient. Yet when it was 
 contemplated by some of his friends, after 
 his retirement, to tender him a handsome gift 
 of money, he resolutely and unhesitatingly 
 forbade it, and the project had to be abandon 
 ed. He was as truly a sacrifice to his country 
 as the brave soldier who laid down his life in 
 the prison pen, or sanctified the field with his 
 blood. 
 
 He received the degree of LL. D. from 
 Yale College in 1867. It was not only a 
 62 
 
 grateful circumstance, but a fitting honor, 
 that the President (in Dec., 1869,) should 
 appoint him to a seat on the Bench of the 
 Supreme Court of the United States. The 
 ready, unhesitating manner in which the 
 Senate confirmed the nomination— without the 
 customary reference to a committee — and the 
 popular response to the appointment, are a 
 striking testimony to the eminent abilities of 
 Mr. Stanton, and the unlimited faith the 
 government and the people had in the man. 
 
 For an unswerving and passionate patriot- 
 ism, for a magnificent courage, for rare un- 
 selfishness, for transcendent abilities, for im- 
 measurable service to his country, the figure 
 of the greatest War Minister in modern 
 times, will tower with as noble grandeur, as 
 undimmed and enviable splendor as that of 
 any in the history of the Republic which, 
 like his friend and co-worker, Mr. Lincoln, 
 he gave his life to save. 
 
 SUEZ SHIP CANAL. With the excep- 
 tion of the great Continental Railway, uniting 
 the Atlantic and the Pacific, no work of 
 modern times is more remarkable than the 
 Ship Canal across the isthmus of Suez, (ly- 
 ing between the Mediterranean and Red 
 seas,) connecting the continents of Asia and 
 Africa. Napoleon conceived such a project, 
 and for many years the subject attracted at- 
 tention in Europe. 
 
 In 1846 a commission was issued to Rob’t 
 Stephenson of England, Talabot, the great 
 French contractor, and Signor Negretti, the 
 scientific engineer of Austria. That year 
 the isthmus was surveyed. Eight years later 
 M. Ferdinand de Lesseps proposed to Mo- 
 hammed Said the scheme of re-opening the 
 ancient canal of Sesostris, and it is mainly to 
 the engineering enterprise and untiring en- 
 ergy of M. Lesseps that the world is indebt- 
 ed for the work. 
 
 In 1858 a company was formed with a 
 capital of $40,000,000, and the services of 
 20,000 serfs were secured from the Viceroy 
 of Egypt. Starting from Port Said on the 
 Mediterranean, the canal runs southward 
 through Lake Menzaleh, (a marshy body of 
 water requiring embankments) about seventy- 
 five miles to the intermediate port of Isma- 
 
978 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 lia ; thence along the shore of Lake Timsah 
 and through the Bitter Lakes ; then debouch- 
 ing about twelve miles further south into the 
 Red Sea, at a point about a mile southeast 
 of Suez. The distance traversed is a little 
 over a hundred miles. The average width 
 on the top is 328 feet, and at the bottom 246 
 feet. The average depth of water through- 
 out the canal is 26 feet. 
 
 The company are entitled to the revenues 
 for 99 years by paying the Viceroy 15 per 
 
 cent, of them. The canal at the end of the 
 century is to go into the possession of the 
 Egyptian government. The cpmpletion of 
 the work was celebrated Nov. 17th and 18th, 
 1869, with imposing religious ceremony and 
 gorgeous festivity. Princes and Emperors 
 from Europe, with the Empress Eugenie of 
 France, were present to pay tribute to the 
 genius of the eminent engineer, and show 
 their appreciation of the vast utility of the 
 work he had accomplished. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 OP 
 
 AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 923. Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders. 
 
 1435. Columbus born at Genoa, in Italy. 
 
 1492. Aug. 3d, Columbus sails from Palos in Spain. 
 
 Oct. 12th, he discovers Guanahani, one of the Bahamas. 
 
 Oct. 27, Cuba discovered. 
 
 Dec. 6th, Hayti or Hispaniola discovered. 
 
 1493. Jan. 16th, Columbus returns to Spain. 
 
 Sept. 25th, he sails from Cadiz on his second voyage. 
 
 Dec. 8th, he founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first European town in the New Woild 
 
 1494. Columbus discovers Jamaica. 
 
 1496. Columbus returns to Spain. 
 
 Tobacco discovered in Hayti. 
 
 1497. Newfoundland and Labrador discovered by the Cabots. 
 
 1498. May 30th, Columbus sails from Spain on his third voyage. 
 
 July 31st, Trinidad discovered. 
 
 Aug. 1st, Columbus discovers the South American continent. 
 
 1499. South America visited by Americus Yespucius. 
 
 1500. The Amazon at its mouth discovered by Pmgon. 
 
 Columbus sent back in chains to Spain by Bovadilla. 
 
 April 23d, Brazil discovered by Cabral. 
 
 1502. May 11th, Columbus sails from Spain on his last voyage. 
 
 Aug. 14th, he discovers the Bay of Honduras. 
 
 1504. Columbus returns to Spain. 
 
 1506. May 20th, he dies at Valladolid, in his fifty ninth year. 
 
 1508, St. Lawrence River first navigated by Aubert. 
 
 1510. First colony planted on the main land, at the Isthmus of Darien, by Balboa. 
 
 1512. April 2d, Florida discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon. 
 
 Baracoa, the first town in Cuba, built by Velasquez. 
 
 1513. Sept. 26th, Pacific Ocean discovered by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. 
 
 1516. Rio de la Plata discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis. 
 
 1517. Patent granted by Charles V. for an annual import of 4,000 negro slaves to Bt; 
 
 paniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. 
 
 Yucatan explored by Francis Hernandez Cordova. 
 
980 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1518. Grijalva discovers the southern part of Mexico. 
 
 1519. March 13th, Cortez lands at Tabasco in Mexico. 
 
 April 22d, he arrives at San Juan de Ulloa. 
 
 Vera Cruz settled by Cortez. 
 
 Nov. 8 th, he enters Mexico. 
 
 1520. Montezuma dies. 
 
 Magellan discovers Patagonia. 
 
 De Ayllon discovers Carolina. 
 
 1521. Death of Guatemozin, and conquest of Mexico by Cortez. 
 
 1522. Bermudas discovered by Juan Bermudez. 
 
 1524. Yerrazani explores the coast of North America. 
 
 1 525. First invasion of Peru by Pizarro and Almagro. 
 
 1526. Sebastian Cabot explores the La Plata. 
 
 1531. Second invasion of Peru by Pizarro. 
 
 1533. Lima founded by Pizarro. 
 
 1535. Chili invaded by Almagro. 
 
 Cartier explores the St. Lawrence. 
 
 1537. California discovered by Cortez. 
 
 1539. Ferdinand de Soto heads an expedition to conquer Florida. 
 
 1540. Orellana explores the Amazon from Peru to the Atlantic. 
 
 1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 
 
 1545. Silver mines of Potosi discovered. 
 
 1548. Platina discovered in the south of Mexico. 
 
 1549. Roberval sails for Canada with a colony. 
 
 1562. Coligny attempts to found a colony of French Protestants iv Florida. 
 
 1563. Slaves first imported into the West Indies by the English. 
 
 1565. St. Augustine founded by the Spaniards. 
 
 1576. Elizabeth’s and Frobisher’s Straits discovered by Martin Frobisher. 
 
 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh dispatches two vessels to Virginia. 
 
 1585. He attempts to found a colony at Roanoke. 
 
 1586. Discovery of Davis’s Straits. 
 
 Tobacco introduced into England by Mr. Lane. 
 
 1587. Aug. 13th, first Indian baptized in Virginia. 
 
 1602. May 15th, Cape Cod discovered and named by Bartholomew Gosnold. 
 
 May 21st, he discovers Martha’s Vineyard. 
 
 1603. Coast of Maine visited by Martin Pring. 
 
 1605. Port Royal, Acadie [Nova Scotia], founded by the French under De Monts. 
 
 1606. James I. grants North Virginia to the Plymouth Company, and South Virginia to 
 
 the London Company. 
 
 1607. The Plymouth Company send George Popham to found the “Sagadahoc Colony,” at 
 
 the mouth of the Kennebec, in North Virginia. 
 
 The London Company send Christopher Newport to found the “Jamestown Colony,” 
 in South Virginia. 
 
 May 13th, Jamestown is founded. 
 
 1608. July 3d, Quebec founded by Champlain. 
 
 Pocahontas saves the life of Captain John Smith of Virginia. 
 
 1609. Hudson River discovered by Henry Hudson. 
 
 1610. Delaware Bay named in honor of Lord de la War, who visited the bay at that time 
 
 and died on his vessel at its mouth. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 981 
 
 1611. Lake Champlain discovered by Champlain. 
 
 1613. Pocahontas weds John Rolfe. 
 
 1614. New York settled by the Dutch on Manhattan Island (now New York) and at Fort 
 
 Orange (Albany). 
 
 1616. Tobacco first cultivated in Virginia. 
 
 Baffin’s Bay discovered by Baffin. 
 
 1617. Pocahontas dies in England. 
 
 1619. June 19th, first colonial assembly in Virginia. 
 
 1620. Slaves first introduced into Virginia by the Dutch. 
 
 Nov. 10th, the Mayflower anchors in Cape Cod harbor; first white child born in 
 New England. 
 
 Dec. 11th, landing of the Puritans at Plymouth. 
 
 1621. May 12th, first marriage at Plymouth. 
 
 1622. Massacre of 347 men, women, and children of the Virginia colony, by the Indians. 
 
 1623. Maine and New Hampshire settled by the English. 
 
 New Jersey settled by the Swedes and Dutch. 
 
 1627. Delaware settled by Swedes and Finns. 
 
 1628. Salem, Mass., founded by John Endicott. 
 
 1629. Charlestown founded by the Massachusetts Bay colony. 
 
 1630. Boston, Cambridge, Roxbury, and Dorchester founded. 
 
 John Winthrop first governor of Massachusetts Bay colony. 
 
 Oct. 19th, first general court holden at Boston. 
 
 1633. First house erected in Connecticut, at Windsor. 
 
 1634. Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore. 
 
 Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts. 
 
 1636. Hartford settled. 
 
 Providence, R. I., founded by Roger Williams. 
 
 1637. First synod convened at Newtown (now Cambridge), Mass. 
 
 Destruction of the Pequots in Connecticut. 
 
 Mrs. Anne Hutchinson banished from Massachusetts. 
 
 1638. New Haven founded by Eaton and Davenport. 
 
 Harvard College founded. 
 
 June 1st, earthquake in New England. 
 
 1639. First printing-press set up at Cambridge, Mass., by Stephen Day. 
 
 1640. Montreal founded. 
 
 1642. Oct. 9th, first commencement at Harvard College. 
 
 1643. May 19th, union of the New England colonies. 
 
 1645. Clayborne’s rebellion in Maryland. 
 
 1646. First act passed by the general court of Massachusetts, for the spread of the gospel 
 
 among the Indians. 
 
 1648. First execution for witchcraft. 
 
 New London settled. 
 
 1 650. Harvard College chartered. 
 
 Constitution of Maryland settled. 
 
 1651. Navigation act passed b}' England, restricting the commerce of the colonies. 
 
 1652. First mint established in New England. 
 
 1654. Yale College first projected by Mr. Davenport. 
 
 1655. Stuyvesant captures the Swedish settlement in Delaware. 
 
 Conquest of Jamaica by the English. 
 
982 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 103(3. First arrival of Quakers in Massachusetts, and persecution. 
 
 1659. Four Quakers executed on Boston Common. 
 
 1660. Restoration of monarchy in England under Charles II. ; the regicides Whalley and 
 
 Goffe seek refuge in New England. 
 
 1663. Carolina granted to Lord Clarendon by Charles II. 
 
 1664. Aug 27th, surrender of New Amsterdam to the English. 
 
 1665. June 12th, New York city incorporated. 
 
 Elizabethtown, N. J., settled. 
 
 1672. Charleston, S. C., founded. 
 
 First copyright granted by Massachusetts. 
 
 1673. New York retaken by the Dutch ; restored in 1674. 
 
 Mississippi River explored by Marquette and Joliet. 
 
 1675. June 24th, commencement of King Philip’s war; attack on Swanzey. 
 
 1676. Aug. 12th, death of King Philip. 
 
 New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. 
 
 Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia. 
 
 1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn. 
 
 1682. Oct. 24th, Penn arrives in America. 
 
 De la Salle takes possession of the country on both sides of the Mississippi River, 
 and calls it Louisiana. 
 
 1683. First legislative assembly in New York. 
 
 Roger Williams dies, in his eighty-fourth year. 
 
 1686. First Episcopal parish formed in Boston. 
 
 Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of New England by James II. 
 Massachusetts deprived of her charter. 
 
 1687. First printing-press established near Philadelphia by William Bradford. 
 
 1688. New York and New Jersey united to New England under Sir Edmund Andros. 
 
 1689. William III. accedes to the English throne. 
 
 Sir Edmund Andros seized and imprisoned in Boston, and sent home to England. 
 War between England and France. 
 
 1690. Feb. 8th, Schenectady burned by the French and Indians. 
 
 First paper money issued in Massachusetts. 
 
 Successful expedition of Sir William Phips against Port Royal, Nova Scotia. 
 
 1691. Trial and execution of Leisler and Milborne at New York, on a charge of treason. 
 
 1692. Massachusetts Bay colony and Plymouth colony united under a new charter. 
 
 The witchcraft delusion rife at Salem. 
 
 William and Mary College, Virginia, chartered. 
 
 1693. Episcopal church established at New York. 
 
 First printing-press established in New York, by William Bradford. 
 
 1695. Rice introduced into Carolina from Africa. 
 
 1696. Indian attack on Haverhill. 
 
 1697. Peace of Ryswick ; close of King William’s war. 
 
 1698. First French colony arrive at the mouth of the Mississippi. 
 
 Earl of Bellamont governor of New York. 
 
 1699. Kidd the pirate apprehended at Boston. 
 
 1701. Yale College founded at Saybrook. 
 
 Commencement of Queen Anne’s war. 
 
 1702. Episcopal church established in New Jersey and Rhode Island. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY, 
 
 983 
 
 1T08. Culture of silk introduced into Carolina. 
 
 Duty of £4 laid on imported negroes in Massachusetts. 
 
 1704. Tonnage duty laid by Rhode Island on foreign vessels. 
 
 Act “ to prevent the growth of popery,” passed by Maryland. 
 
 First newspaper {Boston News Letter ) published at Boston, by Bartholomew Green. 
 French and Indians attack Deerfield, Mass. 
 
 1706. Bills of credit issued by Carolina. 
 
 1709. First printing-press in Connecticut, set up at New London, by Thomas Short. 
 
 1710. First colonial post-office at New York. 
 
 German settlements in North Carolina. 
 
 Nova Scotia permanently annexed to the British crown. 
 
 1711. South Sea Company incorporated. 
 
 1712. Free schools founded in Charlestown, Mass. 
 
 1713. The Tuscaroras join the Five Nations. 
 
 Peace of Utrecht; close of Queen Anne’s war. 
 
 1714. First schooner built at Cape Ann. 
 
 1717. New Orleans founded by the French. 
 
 Yale College removed from Say brook to New Haven. 
 
 1718. Impost duties laid by Massachusetts on English manufactures and English ships. 
 
 1719. First Presbyterian church founded in New York. 
 
 1720. Tea first used in New England. 
 
 1721. Inoculation for small-pox introduced into New England. 
 
 1722. Paper money first issued in Pennsylvania. 
 
 1724. Fort Dummer built in Vermont. 
 
 1725. First newspaper in New York {New York Gazette ) published by William Bradford. 
 
 1726. First printing-presses established in Virginia and Maryland. 
 
 1727. Earthquake in New England. 
 
 1729. North and South Carolina separated. 
 
 1730. First printing-press and newspaper established at Charleston, S. C. 
 
 1731. Fort built at Crown Point. 
 
 1732. Tobacco made a legal tender in Maryland at Id. per pound, and corn at 20d. per 
 
 bushel. 
 
 Feb. 2 2d, George Washington born. 
 
 First printing-press and newspaper established at Newport, R. I. 
 
 1733. Georgia settled by Oglethorpe. 
 
 Freemasons’ lodge first held in Boston. 
 
 1737. Earthquake in New Jersey. 
 
 1738. College founded at Princeton, N. J. 
 
 1741. Jan. 1st, General Magazine and Historical Chronicle, first published by Benjamin 
 
 Franklin. 
 
 1 742. Faneuil Hall erected at Boston by Peter Faneuil. 
 
 1744. King George’s war begins. 
 
 1745. Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, taken by the English. 
 
 1748. Treaty of Aix la Chapelle ; King George’s war closed. 
 
 1750. First theatrical performance in Boston. 
 
 1753. George Washington sent on an embassy to the French commandant on the Ohio. 
 
 1754. Columbia College in New York founded. 
 
 Beginning of the old French war. 
 
984 . 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1754. April 18th, Fort Du Quesne built. 
 
 May 28th, Washington defeats a party of French under Jumonville at the Great 
 Meadows. 
 
 July 4th, Benjamin Franklin proposes a plan of union for the colonies. 
 
 Tennessee first settled. 
 
 1755. June 4th, Col. Monckton destroys the French settlements on the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 July 9th, Braddock’s defeat. 
 
 Sept. 8th, battle of Lake George. 
 
 Expeditions against Niagara and Crown Point. 
 
 First newspaper ( Connecticut Gazette ) published at New Haven. 
 
 1756. May 17th, war declared with France by Great Britain. 
 
 Loudon and Abercrombie command the British forces in America ; Montcalm the 
 French. 
 
 First printing-press and newspaper established at Portsmouth, N. H., by Daniel 
 Fowle. 
 
 1757. Fort William Henry taken by the French. 
 
 1758. July 26th, Louisburg taken by the English. 
 
 Aug. 27th, Fort Frontenac taken by the English. 
 
 Nov. 25th, Fort Du Qu.esne (now Pittsburg) taken by the English. 
 
 1759. Niagara, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point taken by the English, in July. 
 
 Sept. 13th, battle on the Plains of Abraham ; Wolfe and Montcalm slain. 
 
 Sept. 18th, Quebec surrenders to the English. 
 
 1761. March 12th, earthquake in New England. 
 
 1763. Feb. 10th, treaty of Paris ; France surrenders to Great Britain all her possessions in 
 
 North America east of the Mississippi. 
 
 First newspaper printed in Georgia. 
 
 1764. March, right to tax American colonies voted by house of commons. 
 
 April 5th, first act for levying revenue passed by parliament. 
 
 April 21st, Louisiana ordered to be given up to Spain. 
 
 1765. The stamp act passed by parliament; it receives the royal assent March 22d. 
 
 May 29th, Virginia resolutions against the right of taxation. 
 
 June 6th, Massachusetts proposes a congress of deputies from the colonies. 
 
 Oct. 7th, a congress of twenty-seven delegates convenes at New York, and publishes 
 a declaration of rights and resolutions against the stamp act. 
 
 1766. February, Dr. Franklin examined before the house of commons, relative to the repeal 
 
 of the stamp act. 
 
 March 18th, the stamp act repealed. 
 
 1767. June 20th, taxes laid on paper, glass, painters’ colors, and teas. 
 
 Non-importation agreements adopted by the colonial assemblies. 
 
 1768. February, circular issued by the Massachusetts assembly to the other colonies, to 
 
 unite in obtaining a redress of grievances. 
 
 1769. Dartmouth College incorporated. 
 
 American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia. 
 
 1770. March 5th, the Boston massacre ; citizens killed by British troops in State street. 
 April 12th, Lord North’s partial repeal act passed. 
 
 1773. Dec. 16th, destruction of 342 chests of tea in Boston harbor. 
 
 1774. March 31st, Boston port bill passed by parliament ; declaring that no person should 
 
 be allowed to land or discharge, or to ship, any wares or merchandise at the port 
 of Boston. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 985 
 
 1 774. Gen. Gage fortifies Boston Neck. 
 
 The members of the Massachusetts assembly resolve themselves into a provincial 
 congress. 
 
 Sept. 4th, continental congress meets at Philadelphia. 
 
 Dr. Franklin dismissed from the post-office. 
 
 Committees of “safety” and “supplies” appointed by Massachusetts; twelve thou- 
 sand men to be equipped for service. 
 
 1775. Several ships of the line and ten thousand troops ordered to America. 
 
 April 19th, battle of Lexington. 
 
 May 10th, Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken by the provincials under Ethan Allen. 
 Congress votes to raise an army of twenty thousand men. 
 
 June 15th, George Washington appointed commander-in-chief of the American army. 
 June 17th, battle of Bunker’s Hill. 
 
 July 12th, Washington takes command of the army at Cambridge. 
 
 Sir William Howe succeeds Gen. Gage as commander of the royal forces in America. 
 The royal governors take refuge on board the British shipping. 
 
 Dec. 13th, resolution of Congress to fit out a navy of thirteen ships. 
 
 Dec. 31st, assault on Quebec ; Gen. Montgomery falls, and Gen. Arnold is wounded. 
 
 1776. Jan. 1st, Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk, Va. 
 
 March 4th, Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights. 
 
 March 17th, the British evacuate Boston. 
 
 April, Washington removes his army to New York. 
 
 June 28th, repulse of the British at Charleston. 
 
 July 4th, declaration of independence. 
 
 Dr. Franklin sent to Paris, to obtain the favor of the French government. 
 
 Aug. 27th, battle of Long Island ; the British victorious. 
 
 Washington abandons New York city ; the British take possession, Sept. 15th. 
 
 Oct. 28th, battle of White Plains. 
 
 Nov. 16th and 18th, the British take Fort Washington and Fort Lee. 
 
 November and December, Washington retreats through New Jersey. 
 
 Dec. 20th, battle of Trenton ; Washington captures one thousand Hessians. 
 
 1777. Jan. 3d, battle of Princeton ; the British are defeated. 
 
 Washington encamps at Morristown. 
 
 April 26th. Tryon destroys Danbury, Conn. 
 
 Lafayette arrives from France with troops and supplies ; congress gives him a major- 
 general’s commission, July 31st. 
 
 Aug. 16th, battle of Bennington. 
 
 Sept. 11th, battle of Brand}''wine. 
 
 Sept. 19th, battle of Stillwater. 
 
 Sept. 26th, the British occupy Philadelphia. 
 
 Oct. 4th, battle of Germantown. 
 
 Oct. 7th, battle of Saratoga. 
 
 Oct. 17th, surrender of the British army under Burgoyne. 
 
 Nov. 15th, articles of confederation adopted by congress, and finally ratified by the 
 states in March, 1781, Maryland being the last to accept them. 
 
 Nov. 16th and 18th, the British capture Forts Mifflin and Mercer on the Delaware. 
 Dec. 8th, Washington’s army encamps at Valley Forge. 
 
 Conspiracy to supplant Washington. 
 
986 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1778. Feb. 6 th, treaty of alliance with France ; she acknowledges the independence of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 March 11th, Lord North’s conciliatory bills passed by parliament. 
 
 June 18th, the British evacuate Philadelphia. 
 
 June 28th, battle of Monmouth. 
 
 July 11th, arrival of a French fleet under Count d’Estaing. 
 
 July 3d and 4th, massacre of Wyoming. 
 
 Aug. 30th, Gen. Sullivan retreats from Rhode Island. 
 
 Dec. 29th, Savannah taken by the British. 
 
 1779. March 3d, battle of Briar Creek. 
 
 May 14th, Norfolk taken by the British. 
 
 June 16th, war between England and Spain. 
 
 June 20th, battle of Stono Ferry. 
 
 July 5th and 7th, Fairfield and Norwalk, Conn-, burned by the British. 
 
 July 16th, storming of Stony Point by the Americans under Wayne. 
 
 July and August, Sullivan’s expedition against the Indians on the SusqUehannah. 
 Sept. 23d, Paul Jones captures two British frigates off the coast of Scotlandr 
 Oct. 9t,h, repulse of the Americans at Savannah. 
 
 1780. April 14th, battle at Monk’s Corner, S. C. 
 
 May 6th, battle on the Santee River. 
 
 May 12th, surrender of Gen. Lincoln and American army at Charleston. 
 
 July 12th, arrival at Rhode Island of French fleet and army, under Admiral da 
 Ternay and Count de Rochambeau. 
 
 Aug. 16th, battle of Sander’s Creek, near Camden; Gates defeated. 
 
 Sept. 23d, treason of Gen. Arnold, and arrest of Major Andre. 
 
 Oct. 2d, Major Andre hanged. 
 
 Oct. 7th, battle of King’s Mountain. 
 
 Nov. 12th, Battle of Broad River. 
 
 Nov. 20th, battle at Blackstock. 
 
 Dec. 20th, war between England and Holland. 
 
 1781. Jan. 1st, revolt of the Pennsylvania troops at Morristown. 
 
 Bank of North America established. 
 
 Expedition of the British under Arnold to Virginia. 
 
 Gen. Greene appointed to command the Southern army. 
 
 Jan. 17th, battle of the Cowpens. 
 
 January and February, remarkable retreat of Gen. Greene across the Catawba, Yad- 
 kin, and Dan Rivers. 
 
 March 15th, battle of Guilford Court-house. 
 
 April 25th, battle of Hobkirk’s Hill near Camden. 
 
 Aug. 14th, American and French allied army march from the Hudson near New York 
 to Virginia ; Cornwallis is hemmed in at Yorktown. 
 
 Sept. 6th, burning of New London by Arnold. 
 
 Sept. 8th, battle of Eutaw Springs, and close of the campaign in South Carolina. 
 Sept. 30th, siege of Yorktown by the Americans and French. 
 
 Oct. 19th, surrender of Cornwallis and 7,000 troops at Yorktown. 
 
 1782. Feb. 27th, resolutions of the house of commons in favor of peace. 
 
 March 20th, resignation of Lord North, and accession of a whig administration under 
 the Marquis of Rockingham. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 937 
 
 1782, April 1 7 tli, Holland acknowledges our independence. 
 
 June 24th, last battle of the Revolutionary war — a skirmish near Savannah ; some 
 slight skirmishes in South Carolina in August, in one of which Col. John Lau- 
 rens of South Carolina was slain. 
 
 Nov. 30th, preliminaries of peace between the United States and Great Britain signed 
 at Paris. 
 
 1783 Jan. 20th, preliminary treaties between France, Spain, and Great Britain, signed at 
 Versailles. 
 
 Independence of the United States acknowledged by Sweden, Feb. 5th; by Den- 
 mark, Feb. 25th ; by Spain, March 24th ; and by Russia, in July. 
 
 April 11th, peace proclaimed by congress ; April 19th, announced to the army by 
 Washington. 
 
 Sept. 3d, definitive treaties of peace between England and the United States, France, 
 Spain, and Holland. 
 
 Oct. 18th, proclamation for disbanding the army ; Nov. 2d, Washington’s farewell 
 orders. 
 
 Nov. 25th, New York evacuated by the British. 
 
 Dec. 23d, Washington resigns his commission. 
 
 1784. February, first voyage from China to New York. 
 
 1785. Treaty with Prussia. 
 
 June 2d, John Adams, the first ambassador from the United States to Great Britain, 
 has his first interview with George III. 
 
 1786. Shay’s insurrection in Massachusetts. 
 
 1787. May to September, convention to form a federal constitution in session at Phila- 
 
 delphia. 
 
 1788. Federal constitution adopted by eleven states. 
 
 1789. George Washington elected president; inaugurated April 30th. 
 
 1790. District of Columbia ceded by Virginia and Maryland. 
 
 May 29th, federal constitution adopted by Rhode Island. 
 
 1791. March 4th, Vermont admitted into the Union. 
 
 Bank of the United States established. 
 
 1792. June 1st, Kentucky admitted into the Union. 
 
 1793. Washington re-elected president. 
 
 Death of John Hancock. 
 
 1794. Insurrection in Pennsylvania. 
 
 1796. June 1st, Tennessee admitted into the Union. 
 
 Dec. 7th, Washington’s last speech to congress. 
 
 1797. March 4th, John Adams inaugurated president. 
 
 1798. Washington reappointed commander-in-chief; war with France threatened. 
 
 1799. Dec. 14th, death of Washington. 
 
 1800. Seat of government removed to the city of Washington. 
 
 May 13th, disbanding of the provisional army. 
 
 1801. March 4th, Thomas Jefferson inaugurated president. 
 
 1802. July 20th, Louisiana ceded to France by Spain. 
 
 1803. Feb. 19th, Ohio admitted into the Union. 
 
 April 30th, Louisiana purchased by the United States. 
 
 August, Commodore Preble bombards Tripoli. 
 
 1804. Alexander Hamilton killed by Aaron Burr in a duel. 
 
988 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1805. June 3d, treaty of peace with Tripoli. 
 
 1806. Expedition of Lewis and Clarke to the Columbia River. 
 
 1807. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. 
 
 June 22d, attack on the frigate Chesapeake. 
 
 July 2d, interdict to armed British vessels. 
 
 Nov. 11th, British orders in council, prohibiting all neutral nations from trading with 
 France or her allies, excepting upon a payment of tribute to England. 
 
 Dec. 17th, Bonaparte’s Milan decree, confiscating all vessels submitting to search b^ 
 an English ship, or paying the above tribute. 
 
 Dec. 22d, embargo laid by the United States government. 
 
 Steamboat invented by Robert Fulton. 
 
 1808. Jan. 1st, the slave trade abolished. 
 
 April 17th, Bayonne decree. 
 
 1809. March 1st, the embargo repealed. 
 
 March 4th, James Madison inaugurated president. 
 
 1810. March 23d, Rambouillet decree. 
 
 1811. May 16th, engagement between the President and Little Belt. 
 
 Nov. 7th, battle of Tippecanoe. 
 
 1812. April 3d, embargo laid for ninety days. 
 
 April 8th, Louisiana admitted into the Union. 
 
 June 18th, war declared. 
 
 June 23d, British orders in council repealed. 
 
 Aug. 15th, surrender of Gen. Hull at Detroit. 
 
 Aug. 19th, capture of the frigate Guerriere, Capt. Dacres, by the frigate Constitu- 
 tion, Capt. Hull. 
 
 Oct. 13th, defeat of the Americans at Queenstown. 
 
 Oct. 18th, capture of the British brig Frolic by the United States sloop Wasp. 
 
 Oct. 25th, capture of the British frigate Macedonian by the frigate United States, 
 Capt. Decatur. 
 
 Dec. 29th, victory over the British frigate Java by the Constitution, Capt. Bain- 
 bridge. 
 
 1813. Feb. 25th, the Hornet, Capt. Lawrence, captures the British sloop Peacock. 
 
 April 27th, capture of York, Upper Canada. 
 
 May 27th, battle of Fort George. 
 
 June 1st, capture of the frigate Chesapeake, Capt. Lawrence, by the British frigate 
 Shannon. 
 
 Aug. 14th, American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop Pelican. 
 
 Sept. 10th, Commodore Perry’s victory on Lake Erie. 
 
 Oct. 5th, battle of the Thames ; Tecumseh is slain. 
 
 Dec. 13th, Buffalo burnt. 
 
 1814. March 28th, action between the frigates Essex and Phoebe ; the former captured. 
 July 5th, battle of Chippewa. 
 
 July 25th, battle of Bridgewater, or Lundy’s Lane. 
 
 Aug. 9th, 11th, Stonington bombarded. 
 
 Aug. 25th, the British occupy the city of Washington, and burn the capttol. 
 
 Sept. 11th, Macdonough’s victory on Lake Champlain. 
 
 Sept. 12th, battle near Baltimore, and bombardment of Fort McHenry. 
 
 Dec. 24th, treaty of Ghent signed. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 989 
 
 1815. Jan. 8th, battle of New Orleans. 
 
 Feb. 17th, treaty of Ghent ratified by the president. 
 
 March, war declared with Algiers. 
 
 1816. December, Indiana admitted into the Union. 
 
 1817. March 4th, James Monroe inaugurated President. 
 
 Dec. 10th, Mississippi admitted into the Union. 
 
 1818. Dec. 3d, Illinois admitted into the Union. 
 
 1819. Dec. 14th, Alabama admitted into the Union. 
 
 First steamship sailed for Europe. 
 
 1820. March 15th, Maine admitted into the Union. 
 
 Cession of Florida to the United States ratified by Spain. 
 
 1821. Gas first used for lighting streets in the United States, at Baltimore. 
 
 July 1st, Jackson takes possession of Florida. 
 
 Aug. 10th, Missouri admitted into.the Union. 
 
 First settlement of Liberia. 
 
 1824. March 13th, convention with Great Britain for the suppression of the slave trade. 
 April 5th, convention with Russia in relation to the north-west boundary. 
 
 Aug. 13th, arrival of Gen. Lafayette, on a visit to the United States. 
 
 1825. March 4th, John Quincy Adams inaugurated president. 
 
 Sept. 7th, departure of Lafayette. 
 
 1826. July 4th, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson die. 
 
 1829. Feb. 20th, resolutions passed by the Virginia house of delegates, denying the right 
 
 of congress to pass the tariff bill. 
 
 March 4th, Andrew Jackson inaugurated president. 
 
 May 2d, hail falls in Tuscaloosa, Ala., to the depth of twelve inches. 
 
 May 17th, death of John Jay, at Bedford, New York. 
 
 Sept. 15th, slavery abolished in Mexico. 
 
 Nov. 9th, separation of Yucatan from Mexico, and union with the republic of Cen- 
 tral America. 
 
 Dec. 4th, revolution commences in Mexico. 
 
 1830. Jan. 20th, Gen. BoltVar resigns his military and civil commissions. 
 
 Jan. 27th, city of Guatemala nearly destroyed by earthquakes. 
 
 April 4th, Yucatan declares its independence. 
 
 1831. Jan. 12th, remarkable eclipse of the sun. 
 
 July 4th, death of James Monroe. 
 
 Oct. 1st, free-trade convention at Philadelphia. 
 
 Oct. 26th, tariff convention at New York. 
 
 1832. Feb. 6th, attack on Qualla Battoo in Sumatra by the United States frigate Potomac. 
 June 8th, cholera breaks out at Quebec, its first appearance in America. 
 
 Aug. 27th, capture of Black Hawk. 
 
 Sept. 26th, University of New York organized. 
 
 November, union and state-rights convention of South Carolina. 
 
 Dec. 28th, John Caldwell Calhoun resigns the office of vice-president. 
 Electro-magnetic telegraph invented by Professor Morse. 
 
 1833. March 1st, new tariff bill signed by the president. 
 
 March 4th, Andrew Jackson inaugurated president for a second term. 
 
 March 11th, state-rights convention of South Carolina. 
 
 May 16th, Santa Anna inaugurated president of Mexico. 
 
990 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1833. Oct. 1st, public deposits removed from the Bank of the United States, by order 
 of Gen. Jackson. 
 
 Nov. 13th, remarkable meteoric showers in the United States. 
 
 4834. March 28th, vote of censure by the senate against Gen. Jackson, for removing the 
 deposits. (Expunged soon after.) 
 
 1835. April 18th, French indemnity bill passed the chamber of deputies. 
 
 Dec. 16th, great fire in New York. 
 
 Seminole war in Florida begun. 
 
 1836. April 21st, battle of San Jacinto in Texas. 
 
 June 14th, Arkansas admitted into the Union. 
 
 Dec. 15th, burning of the general post-office and patent-office at Washington. 
 
 1837. Jan. 26th, Michigan admitted into the Union. 
 
 March 4th, Martin Van Buren inaugurated president. 
 
 1840. Jan. 19th, Antarctic continent discovered by the United States exploring expedi- 
 
 tion. 
 
 June 30th, sub-treasury bill becomes a law. 
 
 1841. March 4th, William Henry Harrison inaugurated president. 
 
 April 4th, death of Gen. Harrison ; John Tyler succeeds to the executive. 
 
 Aug. 9th, sub-treasury bill repealed. 
 
 Aug. 18th, bankrupt act becomes a law. 
 
 1842. March 3d, bankrupt act repealed. 
 
 Contest for the extension of suffrage in Rhode Island. 
 
 June 17th, Bunker Hill monument celebration. 
 
 Aug. 9th, treaty of Washington negotiated by Daniel Webster and Lord Ashbur- 
 ton, defining our north-eastern boundary, and for suppressing the slave trade 
 and giving up fugitive criminals. 
 
 Oct. 2d, death of Dr. Channing. 
 
 1845. March 1st, Texas annexed to the United States. 
 
 March 3d, Florida admitted into the Union. 
 
 March 4th, James Knox Polk inaugurated president. 
 
 June 8th, death of Andrew Jackson. 
 
 Dec. 24th, Texas admitted into the Union. 
 
 Treaty with China. 
 
 1846. May 8th, battle of Palo Alto, on the Rio Grande. 
 
 May 9th, battle of Resaca de la Palma, on the Rio Grande. 
 
 May 13 th, proclamation of war existing with Mexico. 
 
 June 18th, the senate advise the president to confirm the treaty with Great Britain 
 settling the boundary of Oregon on the forty -ninth parallel. 
 
 July 28th, new tariff bill passed. 
 
 Aug. 3d, President Polk vetoes the river and harbor bill. 
 
 Aug. 6th, revolution in Mexico in favor of Santa Anna. 
 
 Aug. 8th, President Polk vetoes the French spoliation bill. 
 
 Aug. 10th, congress adjourns. 
 
 Aug. 18th, Gen. Kearney takes possession of Santa Fe. 
 
 Aug. 19th, Commodore Stockton blockades the Mexican ports on the Pacific. 
 
 Sept. 20th to 24th, storming of Monterey, and surrender of Gen. Ampudia. 
 
 Sept. 26th, California expedition with Col. Stevenson’s regiment of 780 officers and 
 men sails from New York. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 991 
 
 1846. Oct. 25th, Tabasco in Mexico bombarded by Commodore Perry. 
 
 Nov. 14th, Commodore Conner takes Tampico. 
 
 Dec. 6th, Gen. Kearney defeats the Mexicans at San Pasqual. 
 
 Dec. 25th, Col. Doniphan defeats the Mexicans at Brazito, near El Paso. 
 
 Dec. 28th, Iowa admitted into the Union. 
 
 1847. Jan. 8th, the Mexican congress resolve to raise $15,000,000 on the property of the 
 
 clergy, for the war with the United States. 
 
 Jan. 8th and 9th, battles of San Gabriel and Mesa in California ; Gen. Kearney de- 
 feats the Mexicans. 
 
 Jan. 14th, revolt of the Mexicans in New Mexico against the United States au- 
 thorities. 
 
 Jan. 24th, battle of Canada, in New Mexico ; the Americans under Col. Price are 
 successful. 
 
 Feb. 22d and 23d, battle of Buena Vista. 
 
 Feb. 28th, battle of Sacramento ; Col. Doniphan and 924 Americans defeat 4,000 
 Mexicans. 
 
 March 1st, Gen. Kearney declares California a part of the United States. 
 
 March 29th, city and castle of Vera Cruz taken by the army and fleet under Gen. 
 Scott and Commodore Perry. 
 
 April 2d, Alvarado taken by Lieut. Hunter. 
 
 April 18th, battle of Cerro Gordo. 
 
 April 18th, Tuspan taken by Commodore Perry. 
 
 Aug. 20th, battles of Contreras and Churubusco. 
 
 Sept. 8th, Gen. Worth storms Molina del Rey. 
 
 Sept. 13th, storming of the citadel of Chapultepec. 
 
 Sept. 14th, the American army enters the city of Mexico. 
 
 Sept. 13th to Oct. 12th, siege of Puebla, held by the Americans against the Mexicans ; 
 the latter are repulsed by the former under Col. Childs. 
 
 Oct. 9th, the city of Huamantla taken by the Americans, under Gen. Lane. 
 
 Oct. 20th, port of Guayamas bombarded and captured by the Americans. 
 
 Dec. 31st, the several Mexican states occupied by the American army placed under 
 military contributions. 
 
 1848. Feb. 18th, Gen. Scott relinquishes the command in Mexico to Gen. Butler. 
 
 Feb. 23d, John Quincy Adams expires in the capitol at Washington. 
 
 May 29th, Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 
 
 May 30th, treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico, which had been 
 signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 1848, afterward modified at Washington, 
 and confirmed by the Mexican congress, — ratified at Queretaro by the American 
 commissioners, Sevier and Clifford, and the Mexican minister of foreign relations, 
 Don Luis de la Rosa. It is proclaimed in the United States, July 4th, 1848. 
 
 July 4th, corner-stone of a monument to Gen. Washington laid at Washington; 
 oration by Robert C. Winthrop, speaker of the house of representatives. 
 
 Aug. 13th, Oregon territorial bill, with a prohibition of slavery, passed by congress. 
 
 Dec. 8th, first deposit of California gold in the mint. 
 
 1849. March 5th, inauguration of Zachary Taylor as president. 
 
 May 15th, the cholera breaks out in New York. 
 
 June 15th, death of James Knox Polk, at Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Aug. 11th, President Taylor issues his proclamation against the armed expedition 
 fitting out for Cuba. 
 
992 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1849. Aug. 31st, convention of delegates, called by Gen. Riley of the United States army, 
 
 to frame a state constitution for California, meet at Monterey. 
 
 Oct. 10th, initial point of the boundary line with Mexico settled, and a monument 
 with inscriptions erected. Lat. 32° 31' 59.58." Long. 119° 35' 0.15" west from 
 Greenwich. 
 
 Nov. 19th, the survey of the boundary line between Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
 Maryland, comprising the greater part of Mason and Dixon’s line, is completed. 
 
 1850. Feb. 12th, the original manuscript of Washington’s Farewell Address is sold at auc- 
 
 tion, by the heirs of Mr. Claj'polo, printer, and purchased by James Lenox, of 
 New York, for $2,300. 
 
 Feb. 22d, President Taylor attends the laying of the corner-stone of the Virginia 
 monument to Washington at Richmond. 
 
 March 31st, death of John Caldwell Calhoun at Washington. 
 
 April 27th, the Collins line of steamers goes into operation; the Atlantic sails from 
 New York for Liverpool. 
 
 May 23d, two vessels, the Advance and the Rescue, fitted out by Henry Grinnell. 
 of New York, to search for Sir John Franklin in the Arctic seas, sail from New 
 York. 
 
 July 9th, death of President Taylor at Washington. 
 
 July 10th, Millard Fillmore takes the oath of office as president. 
 
 Sept. 9th, California admitted into the Union, and the territories of Utah and New 
 Mexico organized. 
 
 Sept. 18th, fugitive slave bill passed. 
 
 Sept. 20th, act passed for the suppression of the slave trade in the District of 
 Columbia. 
 
 Sept. 17th, death of James Fenimore Cooper. 
 
 1851. Dec. 24th, principal room of the congressional library destroyed by fire, with loss 
 
 of about 35,000 volumes. 
 
 1852. June 29th, Henry Clay dies at Washington, j 
 Oct. 24th, Daniel Webster dies at Marshfield. 
 
 1853. March 4th, Franklin Pierce inaugurated president. 
 
 July 2d, Koszta affair at Smyrna ; Capt. Ingraham demands Koszta’s release. 
 
 July 14th, crystal palace at New York opened. 
 
 1854. Feb. 28th, the American mail steamer Black Warrior seized at Havana. 
 
 March 23d, commercial treaty concluded between Japan and the United States by 
 Commodore Perry. 
 
 July 13th, American sloop of war Cyane, Capt. Hollins, bombards San Juan de 
 Nicaragua, or Grey town. 
 
 Aug. 2d, reciprocity treaty with Great Britain ratified, respecting the Newfound- 
 land fisheries, international trade, &c. 
 
 1855. Troubles in Kansas. 
 
 July, dispute with the British government concerning the attempt to recruit for 
 the Crimean army in the United States. 
 
 Sept. 7th, the firs Hebrew temple in the Mississippi valley is consecrated in St. Louis. 
 Oct. 17th, barque Maury seized at New York on suspicion of being intended lor 
 the Russian service in the war ; she is discharged Oct. 19th. 
 
 Oct. 24th, snow in Vermont, northern New York, Louisville, Ky., and Nashville. 
 Tenn. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 993 
 
 1855. Dec 23d, British discovery ship Resolute, abandoned in the Arctic seas by her officers 
 
 and crew, is brought into New London by a whaler. 
 
 1856. Jan. 23d, the Collins steamer Pacific, Capt. Asa Eldridge, leaves Liverpool for New 
 
 York, and is never heard from afterward. 
 
 April 11th, the great bridge across the Mississippi at Rock Island completed, and 
 locomotives pass from the Illinois to the Iowa side. 
 
 April 15th, affray at Panama between the passengers of the American Transit 
 Company and the natives, in which thirty passengers are killed and twenty 
 wounded. 
 
 May 18th, the vigilance committee of San Francisco take the murderers Casey and 
 Cora from the jail, try them, and on the 22d hang them. 
 
 May 22d, Charles Sumner, senator from Massachusetts, violently assaulted in the 
 senate chamber at Washington by Preston S. Brooks, representative from South 
 Carolina. 
 
 May 28th, Mr. Crampton, the British envoy at Washington, dismissed by our gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 July, a submarine diver from Buffalo raises the safe of the American Express 
 Company, which was lost with the steamer Atlantic in 1852 ; its contents are 
 in a good state of preservation. 
 
 Aug. 10th, Last Island, a summer resort on the Louisiana coast, is entirely sub- 
 merged during a terrific storm of three days ; 173 persons are lost. 
 
 Aug. 21st, the famous Charter Oak at Hartford blown down. 
 
 Aug. 28th, the Dudley Observatory at Albany inaugurated. 
 
 Nov. 9th, death of John Middleton Clayton, at Dover, Del. 
 
 Dec. 30th, the Arctic discovery ship Resolute, purchased from its finders and refitted 
 by the United States, is surrendered to the British government at Portsmouth, 
 England, by Capt. Hartstein on behalf of the United States. 
 
 1857* Feb. 16th, Elisha Kent Kane dies at Havana. 
 
 March 4th, James Buchanan inaugurated president. 
 
 March 6th, Chief Justice Taney delivers the opinion of the supreme court in the 
 famous Dred Scott case. 
 
 Aug. 5th, the shore end of the Atlantic telegraph cable is received from the United 
 States steam-frigate Niagara, with much ceremony, at Valencia Bay, by the lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland, and is made fast. 
 
 Aug. 7th, the Agamemnon and Niagara, with their attendant vessels, leave Valencia 
 Bay, the Niagara paying out the cable. 
 
 Aug. 11th, the cable breaks, 335 miles having been paid out. 
 
 Sept. 15th, Brigham Young forbids any armed force entering Salt Lake City on any 
 pretense, orders the Mormon troops to hold themselves in readiness, and declare? 
 martial law. 
 
 Sept. 26th, the Philadelphia banks suspend specie payments. 
 
 Oct. 14th, the New York banks suspend specie payments. 
 
 Oct. 15th, the Boston banks suspend specie payments. 
 
 Dec. 12th, the New York banks resume specie payments, and on the 14th the 
 Boston banks. 
 
 Dec. 14th, the Utah army reaches Fort Bridger, and encamps for the winter. 
 
 1858. April 10th, Thomas Hart Benton dies at Washington, aged seventy-six. 
 
 May 11th, Minnesota admitted into the Union. 
 
 63 
 
994 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ETC. 
 
 1858. June 14th, Gov. Cumming of Utah proclaims pardon for all treason and sedition 
 heretofore committed in the territory. 
 
 Aug. 5th, news of the successful laying of the Atlantic telegraph cable is received 
 throughout the country with great demonstrations of joy. The cable was spliced 
 in mid ocean July 29th ; the Agamemnon reached Valencia, Aug. 4th, and the 
 Niagara Trinity Bay, Aug. 5th. 
 
 Aug. 16th, first message sent across the Atlantic telegraph cable, from Queen Victo- 
 ria to President Buchanan. 
 
 Aug. 28th, Bev. Eleazer Williams, who claimed to be the lost dauphin of France, 
 son of Louis XVI., died at Hogansburg, N. Y. 
 
 L859. Oregon admitted into the Union. 
 
 Feb. 10, Treaty with Paraguay. 
 
 May 11, Vicksburg Convention resolves in favor of opening slavetrade. 
 
 July 9, Gen. Harney occupies San Juan Island, AV. T. ; danger of collision with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Oct. 6, John Brown’s seizure of Harper’s Ferry, he is taken, and hung Dec. 2. 
 
 186 D. April 23, Democratic convention meets at Charleston; final nominations, S. A. 
 Douglas, and by a seceding portion, J. C. Breckinridge. 
 
 May 9, Bell and Everett nominated by a “ Constitutional Union Convention,” at 
 Baltimore. 
 
 May 12, Japanese embassy reaches Hampton Roads ; visits Baltimore, Washington, 
 &c. ; sails from New York, May 30.J) 
 
 May 18, Lincoln nominated by Republican convention at Chicago. 
 
 Aug. 5, Walker the “fillibuster” lands in Honduras for the last time; is taken, and 
 shot Sept. 12. 
 
 i Sept. 20, The Prince of Wales enters the United States at Detroit; goes to Chicago, 
 Cincinnati, Washington, Richmond, New York; sails from Portland, Oct. 20. 
 
 Nov. 6, A. Lincoln elected president. 
 
 Dec. 20, South Carolina secedes, followed within six months by the ten other states 
 south of Maryland and Kentucky. 
 
 1861. Feb. 4, Seceders’ convention at Montgomery, Ala. ; they call themselves “ Confed- 
 erate States of America,” and adopt a constitution. 
 
 Feb. 14, Jeff. Davis made president of the confederates ; they raise troops and arm 
 for war. 
 
 April 14, Fort Sumter surrenders after two days’ bombardment by the confederates, 
 who seize all U. S. vessels, forts, mints and other property in their states, except 
 Forts Monroe, Taylor, Jefferson and Pickens. 
 
 April 15, President Lincoln calls out 75,000 volunteers to defend Washington against 
 the confederate forces in Virginia^) 
 
 April 19, a murderous attack on the Massachusetts troops going through Baltimore 
 to Washington. v 
 
 May 24, murder of Col. Ellsworth, during the occupation of Alexandria by U. S. troops. 
 
 June 10, an attack from Fortress Monroe on the confederate battery at Big Bethel, 
 repulsed. 
 
 July 21, the battle of Bull Run lost by the U. S. forces under McDowell. 
 
 Aug. 10, battle of Dug Springs, Mo., won by U. S. troops, but their leader, Gen. 
 Lyon, killed. 
 
 Aug. 29, rebel forts at Hatteras Inlet, and 700 troops, taken by U. S. fleet. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 995 
 
 1861. Aug. 30th, Fort Morgan abandoned by the rebels. 
 
 Aug. 31st, Gen. Fremont issues proclamation freeing slaves in Missouri. 
 
 Sept. 3d, Massacre on Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. ; Platte Bridge burned. 
 
 Sept. 5th, rebels occupy Columbus, Ky. ; union troops next day occupy Paducah. 
 Sep^ 10th, Rosecrans defeats the rebels under Floyd, at Carnifex Ferry, Va. 
 
 Sept. 12th, 13th, rebels twice defeated in attacks on Cheat Mountain, W. Ya. CoL 
 John A. Washington proprietor of Mt. Vernon, killed. 
 
 Sept. 20th, Col. Mulligan surrenders Lexington, Mo., to the rebel Price, after 59 
 hours witho'ut water. Loss, 2,500 prisoners, and a large amount of gold. 
 
 Oct. 3d, Battle of Green Briar, Ya. ; rebels defeated, considerable loss. 
 
 Oct. 5th, rebels attack union troops at Chicomacomico, N. C., but destructively 
 shelled by gunboat Monticello and driven off. 
 
 Oct. 9th, rebel attack on Wilson’s Zouaves at Santa Rosa Island ; severely repulsed. 
 Oct. 11th, rebel steamer Nashville escapes out of Charleston. 
 
 Oct 12tl\ rebel ram and fireships attack union fleet at Southwest Pass ; repulsed. 
 Oct. 12th, steamer Theodora escapes out of Charleston with Slidell and Mason. 
 
 Oct. 16th, Lexington, Mo., recaptured by union troops. 
 
 Oct. 21st, battle of Ball’s Bluff, Va. ; Col. Baker killed, and unionists defeated. 
 
 Oct. 26th, Zagonyi with 162 cavalry, at Springfield, Mo., rout 2,000 rebels. 
 
 Oct. 29th, the Port Royal naval expedition sails from Fortress Monroe, under Dupont, 
 Nov. 1st, Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott placed on retired list with full pay. .Gen. 
 
 McClellan made general-in-chief in his stead. 
 
 Nov. 2d, Fremont removed and Hunter succeeds him in Missouri. 
 
 Nov. 7th, battle of Belmont, Mo. ; Gen. Grant attacks rebels, damaging them much. 
 Nov. 7th, union fleet bombards and carries rebel works at Port Royal. 
 
 Nov. 8th, Capt. Wilkes in the San Jacinto takes Slidell and Mason out of the Trent 
 Nov. 9th, Gen Halleck placed over Department of West, and Gen. Buell in Kentucky. 
 Nov. 19th, Missouri legislature passed an ordinance of secession. 
 
 Nov. 22d, 23d, bombardment between Fort Pickens and rebel batteries ; little result. 
 Nov. 24th, Mason and Slidell placed in Fort Warren. 
 
 Pec. 3d, Gen. Phelps lands on Ship Island with advance of Gen. Butler’s expedition. 
 Dec. 4th, John C. Breckinridge expelled from U. S. Senate by unanimous vote. 
 
 Dec. 12th, great fire at Charleston, S. C. One-third of the city burned. 
 
 Dec. 17th, stone fleet sunk to block up mouth of Savannah River. 
 
 Dec. 18th, Gen. Pope defeats rebels with great loss at Shawnee.Mound, Mo. 
 
 Dec. 20th, battle of Drainesville ; Gen. McCall severely defeats the rebels. 
 
 Dec. 21st, Charleston harbor shut by sinking a stone fleet at its mouth. 
 
 Dec. 30th, Slidell and Mason surrendered, on the justifiable demand of England. 
 Dec. 31st, U. S. forces to-day, 660,971 soldiers, 22,000 sailors, and 246 ships, with 
 1,892 guns. 
 
 1862. Jan. 1st, Fort Pickens breaches Fort Barrancas and burns the navy yard. 
 
 Jan. 8th, battle of Blue Gap, Va.’; rebels defeated after sharp contest. 
 
 Jan. 10th, battle of Middle Creek, Ky , Gen. Garfield severely defeating H. Marshall. 
 Jan. 10th, Waldo P. Johnson and Trusten Polk of Mo., expelled from U. S, Senate. 
 Jan. 11th, Burnside’s expedition leaves Fortress Monroe for North Carolina. 
 
 Jan. 13th, Simon Cameron, Secretary of War, resigned. Edwin M Stanton ap- 
 pointed his successor, 
 
 Jan 19th, battle at Mill Springs ; rebels severely defeated and Gen Zoihcoffer killed. 
 
996 chronological table 
 
 18C2. Jan. 30th, Ericsson’s Monitor launched at Green Point, L. I. 
 
 Feb. 6th, Fort Henry, on Tennessee River, taken by Commodore Foote’s gunboats. 
 Feb. 7, 8th, battle of Roanoke I., Burnside taking 2,500 prisoners and the island. 
 Feb. 16th, Gen. Grant takes Fort Donelson with over 13,000 prisoners, after four 
 days of tremendous fighting. 
 
 Feb. 18th, the first regular rebel Congress assembled at Richmond. 
 
 Feb. 21st, Gordon the slaver hung at New York ; the first execution under TJ. S. 
 slave trade law. 
 
 Feb. 21st, severe but indecisive battle between Canby and rebels near Fort Graig. 
 Feb. 22d, Jeff. Davis inaugurated rebel president for six years. 
 
 Feb. 24th, Gen. Nelson’s troops occupy Nashville, the rebels retreating. 
 
 Feb. 25th, the U. S. government seizes all the telegraph lines. \ 
 
 March 3d, rebel forces evacuate Columbus, Ky., and union troops occupy it. 
 
 March 6th-8th, battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., desperate fight and severe rebel defeat. 
 March 8th, rebel ram Virginia (the Merrimac,) comes out of Norfolk, sinks the Cum- 
 berland and captures and burns the Congress, U. S. ships of war. 
 
 March 9th, the Monitor engages and drives off the Merrimac, saving the Minnesota. 
 March 10th, rebels evacuate position at Manassas Junction, and union forces occupy it. 
 March 13th, Gen. Pope drives rebels from New Madrid, taking vast stores, &c. 
 March 14th, battle of Newbern ; Burnside defeats rebels and occupies the place. 
 March 16th, Gen. Garfield surprises and utterly routs the rebels at Pound Gap. 
 March 23d, battle of Winchester, Va. ; rebels badly defeated, losing over 1,000 
 besides prisoners. 
 
 April 4th, Army of Potomac advances towards Yorktown ; beginning of Peninsular 
 campaign. 
 
 April 6-7th, battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing; rebels gaining first day, but 
 severely defeated on the second, losing 20,000 or more. 
 
 April 7th, Island No. Ten, surrenders to Pope, after 23 days’ siege, the position 
 being flanked by cutting a canal. Rebel loss, 13 steamers, 6,000 men, 70 guns, &c. 
 April 11th, Fort Pulaski surrendered by rebels after 30 hours’ bombardment. 
 
 April 11th, Gen. Mitchel makes a forced march and takes Huntsville, Ala. 
 
 April 16th, bill abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia becomes a law. 
 
 April 18th, bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, below New Orleans, begun. 
 April 19th, battle of Camden or South Mills, N. C., Gen. Reno routs the rebels. 
 April 24th, Farragut’s fleet runs past Forts Jackson and St. Philip, amid a tremen- 
 dous cannonade. 
 
 April 25th, Farragut’s fleet arrives before New Orleans. 
 
 April 25th, Fort Macon, N. C., taken by union forces, after 11 hours firing. 
 
 April 28th, New Orleans formally surrendered, and Gen. Butler enters. Forts Jack- 
 son and St. Philip surrendered the same evening. 
 
 April 29th, Gen. Mitchell defeats the rebels and captures Bridgeport, Ala. 
 
 May 4th, McClellan’s forces enter Yorktown, -the rebels having fled in the night. 
 
 May 5th, battle at Williamsburg; rebels defeated, and they evacuate at night. 
 May 7th, battle of West Point, Va. ; rebels driven over the Chickahominy. 
 
 May 9th, Banks having advanced nearly to Staunton, Va., returns down the Valley. 
 May 10th, union troops enter Norfolk, the rebels evacuating it. 
 
 May 10th, severe naval fight on the Mississippi near Fort Wright ; rebels defeated. 
 May 11th, rebels blow up their ram Virginia or Merrimac, at Craney Island. 
 
OF AMLEICAN HISTORY. 
 
 99T 
 
 1862. May 13th, Robert Smalls, a negro, runs steamer Planter out of Charleston. 
 
 May 17th, union gunboats repulsed by Fort Darling on James River. 
 
 May 20th, McClellan’s advance within eight miles of Richmond. 
 
 May 22d, McClellan advances in force, crossing the Chickahominy in two places. 
 
 May 22d, Col. Kenly badly defeated at Front Royal by tl<* rebel Ewell ; Banks also 
 • attacked at same time at Strasburg in the Valley. 
 
 May 23d, McClellan in position 5 miles from Richmond. 
 
 May 25th, Banks defeated at Winchester and retreats to Potomac River. 
 
 May 30th, Halleck’s troops occupy Corinth, Miss., the rebels evacuating it. 
 
 May 31st, battle of Fair Oaks, McClellan’s advance defeated severely by rebels. 
 
 May 31st, union troops enter Little Rock, Ark., the rebel government running oft' 
 June 1st, second day’s tight at Fair Oaks, resulting in decided union advantages. 
 June 1st, Fremont advancing up the Valley, occupies Strasburg. 
 
 June 6th, great naval battle in the river before Memphis; rebel fleet nearly annihi- 
 lated ; Memphis surrendered on the same day to Commodore Davis. 
 
 June 8th, battle of Cross Keys, Va. ; rebels retire after a severe fight. 
 
 June 9th,. battle of Port Republic, Va. ; Gen. Shields driven back with loss. 
 
 June 14th, union troops repulsed with much loss on James Island, near Charleston. 
 June 17th, Halleck’s forces advance to Holly Springs, Miss. 
 
 June 17th, union gunboats carry rebel works at St. Charles, Ark., but “Mound 
 City” disabled. 
 
 June 20th, bill prohibiting Slavery in the Territories becomes a law. 
 
 June 24th, McClellan begins to “change his base” to James River, 
 
 June 25th, Gen. Pope placed over forces in the Valley, and Gen. Fremont relieved. 
 June 26th, battle of Mechanicsville, both sides losing heavily, and union troops 
 retreating. 
 
 June 27th, battle of Gaines’ Mill, union troops crossing the Chickahominy at night. 
 June 29th, battles of Peach Orchard and Savages’ Station ; both sides losing heavily. 
 June 30th, battles of White Oak Swamp and Charles City Cross Roads, union troops 
 nearing the James, and the gunboats aiding them materially. 
 
 July 1st, battle of Malvern Hill, last of the Seven Days’ Battles ; rebels repulsed 
 with great loss, and the position on the James maintained. Total union losses in 
 seven days, 15,224. 
 
 July 1st, President Lincoln calls for 600,000 volunteers. 
 
 July 7th, battle of Bayou de Cache, Ark., Gen. Curtis severely defeats Albert Pike. 
 July 11th, Gen. Halleck General-in-Chief of all the armies of the U. S. 
 
 July 13th, Murfreesboro’, Tenn., taken by rebels, with 'garrison and Gen. Crittenden. 
 July 14th, Gen. Pope takes command of the Army of Virginia and issues address. 
 July 15th, battle of Fayetteville, Ark., Maj. Miller thoroughly beating Gens. Rains, 
 Coffee and others., 
 
 July 22d, Vicksburg canal completed and found useless ; siege postponed. 
 
 July 27th, Gen. Pope takes the field in northern Virginia. 
 
 Aug. 2d, Gen. Pope’s advance crosses the Rapidan and occooies Orange Court House. 
 Aug. 3d, rebel Gen. Jeff Thompson defeated with great loss near Memphis. 
 
 Aug. 3d, Gen. Halleck orders McClellan to bring his army out of the Peninsula. 
 Aug. 4th, Draft for 300 000 men ordered unless volunteering prevent. 
 
 Aug. 5th, Gen. Breckinridge attacks Baton Rouge, La., and repulsed with heavy los& 
 Aug. 6th, Commander Porter destroys rebel ram Arkansas near Vicksburg. 
 
998 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABU 
 
 1862. Aug. 8th, battle in New Mexico, Gen. Canby routing rebels under Sibley, who is 
 
 killed by his ow r n men. 
 
 Aug. 9th, battle of Cedar Mountain, Ya., Banks defeated with heavy loss. 
 
 Aug. 22d, McClellan’s advance reaches Alexandria, his removal being safely made. 
 Aug. 28th, Sigel and McDowell defeat rebels at Centreville, Ya. 
 
 Aug. 29th and 30th, Gen. Pope defeated at Bull Run after very heavy fighting, 3nd 
 falls back. 
 
 Aug. 30th, Gen. Nelson defeated by rebels under Kirby Smith, at Richmond, Ky. 
 
 » Sept. 1st, battle of Chantilly, Ya. ; rebels defeated, but Gens. Kearney and Stevens 
 killed. 
 
 Sept. 3d, Gen. Pope transferred to department of the northwest. 
 
 Sept. 4th, Lee’s army begins to cross the Potomac at Poolesville, Md. 
 
 Sept. 14th, battle of South Mountain ; rebels pushed back after very heavy fight- 
 ing Post at Harper’s Ferry surrendered by Col. Miles, to rebels. 
 
 Sept. 16th and 17th, battle of Antietam ; rebels defeated, losing 25,000. 
 
 Sept. 17th, Cruiser Alabama takes her first prize, near Azores. 
 
 Sept. 19th, rebels retreat over the Potomac. 
 
 Sept. 20th, Rosecrans wins battle of Iuka over Gen. Price, who loses 1,438 men. 
 Sept. 22d, Emancipation Proclamation announced for Jan. 1st, 1863. 
 
 Sept. 24th, proclamation of suspension of writ of habeas corpus in military cases. 
 Oct. 3d-5th, severe battles at Corinth, Miss., and very damaging defeat of the rebels. 
 Oct. 8-9th, two days battle at Perryville, Ky., Rousseau thoroughly defeats rebels. 
 Oct. 10-12th, Stuart’s rebel cavalry enter Penn., seize and rob Chambersburg. 
 
 Oct. 22d, Gen. Blunt routs the rebels at Maysville, Arkansas. 
 
 Oct 26th, Gen. McClellan after repeated orders advances into Yirginia. 
 
 Nov. 5th, Gen. McClellan relieved, and Gen. Burnside put in his place. 
 
 Nov. 28, Gen. Blunt defeats the rebel Marmaduke, with heavy loss, at Cane Hill, Ark. 
 Dec. 7th, Gens. Blunt and Herron defeat Hindman, at Prairie Grove, Ark 
 Dec. 11th, Burnside’s troops cross the river at Fredericksburg. 
 
 Dec. 13th, battle of Fredericksburg ; entire failure to carry the rebel positions. 
 
 Dec. 16th, Banks supersedes Butler in the department of the Gulf. 
 
 Dec. 23d, Jeff. Davis issues a proclamation outlawing Gen. Butler. 
 
 Dec. 26th, 29th, Attack of Vicksburg by Gen. Sherman, but it fails. 
 
 Dec. 31st, and next four days ; battle of Stone River or Murfreesboro’, Rosecrans 
 defeating Bragg after a terrific and exhausting series of combats. 
 
 Dec. 31st, the Monitor founders at sea, off Cape Hatteras. 
 
 1863. Jan. 1st, the definite Emancipation Proclamation issued. 
 
 Jan. 11th, Arkansas Post surrenders to Gen*. McClernand. 
 
 Jan. 24th, Gen. Hooker succeeds Gen. Burnside over the Army of the Potomac. 
 Jan. 27th, monitors in vain bombard Fort McAllister, on Ogeechee River. 
 
 Feb. 25th, act to provide a national currency becomes a law. 
 
 Feb. 28th, rebel steamer Nashville destroyed by the Montauk in Ogeechee River. 
 March 8th, twenty-three rebel steamers captured up Yazoo River. 
 
 March 14th, severe bombardment of Port Hudson, and attempt by fleet to pass 
 rebel batteries. 
 
 April 1st, Farragut runs batteries at Grand Gulf, and ravages Red River country. 
 April 7th, attack by ironclads on Fort Sumter ; five out of seven vessels disabled, 
 fort unhurt. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 999 
 
 1863. April 16th, Admiral Porter’s fleet of gunboats runs the batteries at Vicksburg. 
 
 April 27th, advanced movements of Gen. Hooker’s Chancellorsville campaign begin. 
 May 1st, battle of Thompson’s Hills or Port Gibson ; beginning of Grant’s move 
 to rear of Vicksburg. 
 
 May l~5th, battle of Chancellorsville ; indecisive, but great losses on both sides. 
 May 2d, Col. Grierson’s force reaches Baton Bouge safe, after his fifteen days ride 
 through Mississippi. 
 
 May 3d, Col. Streight and his command of 1,600 men captured in Ala. 
 
 May 5th, Vallandigham arrested for treason at Dayton, 0. 
 
 May 5th, Hooker’s army retires over the Rappahannock ; Lee does not follow. 
 
 May 10th, death of Stonewall Jackson, from wound at Chancellorsville. 
 
 May 14th, battle of Jackson, Miss., Logan and Crocker defeating the rebels and 
 taking the place. 
 
 May 15th, battle of Edwards’ Station ; Grant defeats the rebels. 
 
 May 16th, battle of Baker’s Creek or Champion Hill ; Grant completely routs Pem- 
 berton, who loses 4,000 men and 29 guns. 
 
 May 17th, battle of Black River Bridge ; Grant takes 2,000 men and 17 guns, and 
 Pemberton retreats to Vicksburg. 
 
 May 18th, Gen. Grant’s troops take position round Vicksburg and the siege begins. 
 May 25th, Admiral Porter has destroyed ten millions’ worth of property up the Yazoo. 
 June 13th, rebels under Lee are moving northward ; Hooker starts to meet them. 
 June 17th, rebel advance at Chambersburg and in Maryland. 
 
 June 17th, rebel ram Atlanta captured by the Weehawken in fifteen minutes. 
 
 June 28th, Gen. Meade supersedes Gen. Hooker in command of Army of Potomac. 
 
 Lee’s forces are within four miles of Harrisburg. 
 
 July l-3d, battle of Gettysburg ; Lee defeated and retreats at once southward. 
 
 July 4th, unconditional surrender of Vicksburg and 31,000 men to Gen. Grant. 
 July 8th, Port Hudson with 7,000 men surrenders to Gen. Banks. The Mississipp' 
 is thus opened. 
 
 July 8-15th, the guerrilla Morgan invades Indiana and Ohio. 
 
 July 10th, Gen. Gillmore begins his attack on Forts Wagner and Gregg, Charleston 
 July 13th, Lee recrosses the Potomac into Virginia. 
 
 July 13-18th, draft riots in New York City, several negroes tortured and hung by 
 mob, and much burning and robbing ; 1,300 rioters killed, and riots put down. 
 July 18th, unsuccessful assault on Fort Wagner. 
 
 July 26th, Morgan and 400 guerrillas captured near New Lisbon, Ohio. 
 
 Aug. 16th, Rosecrans begins his march upon Chattanooga. 
 
 Aug 21st, Quantrell’s guerrillas rob Lawrence, Kansas, murdering several citizens. 
 Aug. 23d, shells thrown nearly six miles into Charleston ; Beauregard protests. 
 Aug. 30th, Rosecrans crosses the Tennessee River near Chattanooga, 
 
 Sept. 1st, Gen. Burnside’s advance occupies Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 Sept. 6th, rebels evacuate Forts Wagner and Gregg, and Gillmore occupies them. 
 Sept. 9th, Rosecrans’ advance occupies Chattanooga. 
 
 Sept. 12th, the Sabine Pass expedition returns to New Orleans a failure. 
 
 Sept. 19th, 20th, battle of Chickamauga ; Rosecrans severely defeated by Bragg 
 losing 15,661. 
 
 Oct. 16th, Gen. Grant placed over the three departments of the Ohio, Cumberland 
 and Tennessee. 
 
1000 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1©63. Oct. 17th, President Lincoln calls for 300,000 more men. 
 
 Oct. 20th, Gen. Thomas succeeds Rosecrans in his command. 
 
 Oct. 28th, Gen. Hooker’s forces take Lookout Mountain. 
 
 Nov. 2-4th, Gen Banks’ forces occupy Brazos Island, and Brownsville, Texas. 
 
 Nov 7th, Gen. Meade crosses the Rappahannock southward ; Lee retiring. 
 
 Nov. 17th, Burnside, falling back before Longstreet, enters the works at Knoxville; 
 the siege begins. 
 
 Nov. 23-5th, battle of Chattanooga ; splendid victory over Bragg, who loses sixty 
 guns and retreats rapidly. 
 
 Nov. 28th, Morgan and six of his officers dig out of Ohio State Prison. 
 
 Nov. 29th, rebels repulsed with great slaughter in attack on Knoxville 
 
 Dec. 1st, Mead recrosses the Rapidan. Grant’s army concentrates at Chattanooga. 
 
 Dec. 4th, Longstreet raises the siege of Knoxville and retreats toward Virginia. 
 
 Dec 6th, monitor Weehauken sinks at her anchors at Charieston, 31 men lost. 
 
 Dec. 8th, President Lincoln issues his amnesty proclamation 
 
 Dec. 16th, Gen. Averill’s raid destroys vast rebel supplies at Saiem in S. W. Virginia. 
 1864. Jan. 1st, Emancipation anniversary celebrated by many colored people. 
 
 Jan. 25th, Cornelius Vanderbilt thanked by Congress lor his gift to the U. S. of the 
 Vanderbilt, worth $800,000. 
 
 Jan 29th, Gen. Palmer occupies Tunnel Hill, Ga., the rebels having left in the night. 
 Jan. 31st, Gen. Hood having succeeded Bragg, falls back from Ringgold and Dalton. 
 Feb. 1st, draft ordered of 500,000 men. 
 
 Feb. 3-5th, Gen. Sherman marches from Vicksburg eastward to Jackson. 
 
 Feb. 7th, Gillmore’s advance lands at Jacksonville, Fla., under Gen. Seymour. 
 
 Feb. 14th, Sherman occupies Meridian, Miss., and destroys immense rebel stores. 
 Feb. 17th, gunboat Housatonic sunk at Charleston by rebel torpedo boat Davis, 
 which sunk too. 
 
 Feb. 20th, Gen. Seymour with Gilmore’s troops very severely defeated at Olustee, Fla. 
 Feb. 21-23d, Gen. Smith has three days running fight with Forrest and others in 
 Miss., and at last defeats them. 
 
 Feb. 23d, Gen. Palmer drives the rebels at Tunnel Hill, Ga. 
 
 Feb. 28th, Kilpatrick and Custar start on raid round Richmond; Kilpatrick goes 
 within 2 miles of the city. On this raid Col. Dahlgren is shot. 
 
 March 2d, Gen. Grant made lieutenant-general. 
 
 March 6th Sherman is marching eastward again from Vicksburg. 
 
 March 10th, Bank’s Red River expedition sets out from Vicksburg. 
 
 March 14th, Gen. Smith and Admiral Porter take Fort DeRussy, La. 
 
 March 15th, President Lincoln calls for 200,000 more men, to be drafted April 15. 
 March 16th, Arkansas votes' to become a free state. 
 
 March 16th, Gen’s Banks and Smith reach Alexandria, La., the rebels retiring. 
 March 17th, Gen. Grant assumes supreme command of all the armies of the U. S. 
 March 28th, battle of Cane River, La. ; Gen. Smith’s forces defeat the rebel Gen. Taylor. 
 April 4th, Gen. Steele defeats the rebel Marmaduke on Little Missouri River, Ark. 
 April 4th, New York Metropolitan Sanitary Commission Fair opened. 
 
 April 8th, Gen. Banks’ army severely defeated at Sabine Cross Roads, by Kirby Smith. 
 April 9th, rebels attacking Banks’ retreating army at Pleasant Hill are repulsed. 
 April 12th, The massacre of surrendered negro soldiers by Forrest at Fort Pillow. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1001 
 
 1864. April 17th, rebel Gen. Hoke with 10,000 men begins the siege of Plymouth, N. C. 
 April 19th, rebel ram Albemarle attacks and drives union ships at Plymouth. 
 
 April 19th, Red River falls, and leaves Porter’s fleet helpless above Grand Ecore. 
 April 20th, Plymouth, N. C., surrenders to Hoke, after stout resistance. 
 
 April 23d, N. Y. Sanitary fair closes; receipts over a million dollars. 
 
 April 24th, rebels following up Banks, severely defeated at Cane River. 
 
 April 28th, Washington, N. C., evacuated by union troops ; the ram Albemarle 
 controls the sounds. 
 
 May 2d, Lt. Col. Bailey begins to dam Red River to let the fleet out. 
 
 May 3d, Gen. Grant breaks camp and the Army of the Potomac moves to the Rapidan. 
 May 4th, Grant’s army crosses the Rapidan. 
 
 May 5-6th, the tremendous battle of the Wilderness ; resulting in Lee’s retiring. 
 
 May 5th, Gen. Butler occupies Bermuda Hundred. 
 
 May 5th, sea fight in Albemarle Sound with the ram Albemarle, which is driven off. 
 May 7th, Sherman advances from Chattanooga, on his Atlantic campaign. 
 
 May 9th, Gen. M’Pherson forces his way through Snake Creek Gap. 
 
 May 9th, Crook defeats the rebel Jenkins and McCausland at Cloyd’s Mountain, Ya. 
 May 10- 18th, Grant fighting and assaulting Lee’s Spotsylvania lines with immense 
 fury ; but stubbornly met. Grant at last flanking by the left, Lee retires. 
 
 May 11th, Sheridan wins a cavalry fight at Yellow Tavern, killing Gen. Stuart. 
 
 May 1 3—1 6th, Butler’s attack on Fort Darling, finally broken up by a sortie. 
 
 May 13th, Admiral Porter’s fleet has passed down Red River by Col. Bailey’s dam. 
 May 15th, battle of Resaca, Ga., Hooker carrying an important rebel position. 
 
 May 15th, battle of New Market, AY. Ya. ; Sigel defeated by Breckenridge, and others. 
 May 15th, Banks’ troops defeat the rebels at Aroyelles Prairie, La. 
 
 May 18th, Sherman to-day occupies Kingston, pursuing Johnston. 
 
 May 19th, J. Howard’s forged proclamation for 400,000 troops appears. 
 
 May 21st, Grant advances from Spotsylvania. 
 
 May 23-24th, Grant crosses the North Anna, Lee still retiring. 
 
 May 28th, battle of Dallas ; Johnston thrice assaults Sherman in vain, losing heavily. 
 June 1st, First day’s battle of Cold Harbor, Grant holding his lines against furious 
 rebel assaults. The fighting on this ground continues for a week. 
 
 June 2d, Sherman’s cavalry occupy Allatoona Pass, the door to the level country. 
 June 5th, battle of Mt. Crawford, Ya., Gen. Hunter severely defeating the rebel Jones. 
 June 7th, Mr. Lincoln renominated at Baltimore. 
 
 June 10th, Gilmore andKautz attack Petersburg. Kautz enters the town, but Gill- 
 more not being up to time, can not hold it and has to retreat. 
 
 June 10th, Gen. Sturgis very badly defeated by the rebels at Tishemingo Creek, Miss. 
 June 11th, Sheridan defeats the rebels in hot cavalry fight at Trevillian Station. 
 
 June 12-15th, Grant moves his army to the south side of James River. 
 
 June 12th, Geft. Burbridge defeats Morgan at Cynthiana, recapturing many prison- 
 ers made the 11th. 
 
 June 13th, Fugitive Slave Law repealed. 
 
 June 15-18th, a series of determined and powerful assaults on Petersburg, but none 
 successful ; that city is from this time forward constantly bombarded and besieged. 
 June 15th, battle of Pine Mountain ; Sherman drives rebels back to their works. 
 June 15th, fifty union officers, prisoners, placed under fire at Charleston by the rebels. 
 
1002 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 1864. June 17th, battle of Quaker Church, which convinces Hunter that he can not reach 
 Lynchburg, and next day he retreats. 
 
 June 19th, The Alabama sunk off Cherbourg by the Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow. 
 
 June 22d, emancipation amendment submitted to the states by Congress. 
 
 June 24th, Maryland constitutional convention adopts emancipation clause. 
 
 June 27th, Sherman vigorously but vainly attacks the rebels at Kenesaw. 
 
 June 28th, Wilson and Kautz attacked and their troops dispersed at Double Ridge 
 on Nottoway River. 
 
 July 8d, Sherman occupies Kenesaw and Marietta, having flanked the rebels out. 
 July 5-13th, rebels under Early enter Maryland, come within five miles of Washington 
 and retreat with great plunder. 
 
 July 10th, Rousseau with 2,700 men moves into Alabama on a raid. 
 
 July 12th, Clay, Holcombe and Sanders write to Mr. Greeley to get them passes to 
 Washington to treat for peace. 
 
 July 13-15th, Gen. Smith defeats Forrest and others in five battles in Mississippi. 
 July 15th, incendiaries burn six steamers, worth $300,000 at St. Louis. 
 
 July 16th, gold about this time at its highest in New York, viz., 284 per cent. 
 
 July 17th, Hood succeeds Johnston in command in Atlanta. 
 
 July 17th, Jaquess and Gilmore in Richmond, try in vain to treat for peace. 
 
 July 18th, Rousseau is destroying an immense value in railroads and provisions in 
 Alabama ; and cuts road between Atlanta and Mobile. 
 
 July 18th, Greeley’s negotiation with the rebels at Niagara comes to nothing. 
 
 July 20th, first attack of Hood on Sherman ; it fails, and rebel loss 6,000. 
 
 July 22d, Hood attacks Sherman furiously but vainly, and loses 14,000. Rousseau 
 joins Sherman. 
 
 July 22d, first publication of statements about the “ Order of American Knights.” 
 July 30th, great mine under rebel works at Petersburg exploded, but by mismanage- 
 ment, the attack results in union repulse with loss of 4,000. 
 
 July 30th, McCausland burns two thirds of Chambersburg, Pa. 
 
 July 30th, Gen. McCook’s raiding force dispersed by rebels in Ga. ; and next day 
 Stoneman’s captured. 
 
 Aug. 5th, Admiral Farragut’s splendid victory, in forcing his way into Mobile Harbor, 
 defeating rebel fleet and capturing ram Tennessee and Admiral Buchanan. 
 
 Aug. 7th, Averill totally defeats McCausland and other rebels at Moorfield, W. Ya. 
 Aug. 7th, Sheridan takes command of the Valley and concentrates at Harper’s Ferry. 
 Aug. 8th, Fort Gaines at Mobile surrenders to Farragut and Granger. 
 
 Aug. 10th, canal at Dutch Gap, below Richmond, begun. 
 
 Aug. 18th, battle at Reams’ Station; Warren holds his position on the railroad; 
 
 fierce rebel attacks made also in vain in the next two days. 
 
 Aug. 23d, Fort Morgan at Mobile surrenders to Granger and Farragut. 
 
 Aug 25th, severe battle at. Reams’ Station, the rebels finally obtaining our works. 
 Aug 26-30th, Sherman moves suddenly round and cuts the railroad south of Atlanta. 
 Aug 31st, Gen. McClellan nominated at Chicago. 
 
 Sept. 1st, Gen. Davis routs Hardee’s corps with great loss, insuring Hood’s retreat. 
 Sept. 2d, Hood evacuates Atlanta, destroying enormous stores, &c. Sherman enters it. 
 Sept 4th, the guerrilla Morgan shot by Gillem’s men at Greenville, E. Tenn. 
 
 Sept. 16th, rebels boldly drive 2,500 cattle safe off from behind Gen. Kautz’s lines. 
 Sept. 19th, battle of Opequan, a brilliant victory by Sheridan over Early. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 10 03 
 
 1864. Sept. 19th, Lake Erie steamers Island Queenand Parsons seized by rebels. 
 
 Sept. 22d, battle of Fisher’s Hill; very thorough defeat by Sheridan of Early. 
 
 Sept. 27th, obstinate defence of fort at Pilot Knob, Mo., deranging Price’s invasion. 
 Sept. 29th, battle at Chapin’s Farm north of James River; rebel works taken. 
 Sept. 29th, Hood moves on the march which ends in his Nashville defeat. 
 
 Oct. 9th, battle of Round Top Mountain ; Torbert chasing Rosser 26 miles. 
 
 Oct. 19th, battle of Cedar Creek ; Sheridan utterly routing and dispersing Early’s army 
 Oct. 19th, rebel refugees from Canada rob banks and citizens at St. Alban’s, Yt. 
 
 Oct. 25th, Pleasanton routs Price at Marais des Cygnes, Ark. 
 
 Oct. 27th, reconnoisance in force along all Grant’s lines, but without much result. 
 Oct. 28th, Lieut. Cushing with torpedo boat sinks ram Albemarle. 
 
 Nov. 8th, Lincoln and Johnson elected. Gen. McClellan resigns his commission. 
 Nov. 14th, Sherman’s great march from Atlanta to the sea begins to-day. 
 
 Nov. 25th, a gang of rebel incendiaries fire several hotels in New York, and Barnum’a 
 Museum, fortunately without success. 
 
 Nov. 30th, battle of Franklin, Tenn., an important victory, decisively checking Hood, 
 Dec. 1st, Hood takes position before Thomas’ works at Nashville, for a siege. 
 
 Dec. 6th, Mr. Chase appointed Chief Justice of the U. S., in place of Roger B. Taney. 
 Dec. 10th, Sherman is before Savannah, and on the 12th communicates with the fleet. 
 Dec. 13th, Hazen’s division of Sherman’s army storms Fort McAllister in half an hour. 
 Dec. 13th, the Canadian Judge Coursol releases the St. Alban’s raiders. 
 
 Dec. 15-1 6th, battle of Nashville ; Gen. Thomas fatally defeats Hood’s army. 
 
 Dec. 17th, passports required on the Canadian frontier, a great damage to Canada. 
 Dec. 18-20th, Gen. Stoneman, raiding in S. W. Va., has a severe 3 days’ fight with 
 Breckinridge, defeating him and breaking up the forts and salt works at Saltville 
 Dec. 19th, President Lincoln orders 300,000 more volunteers, or a draft. 
 
 Dec. 21st, Sherman enters Savannah, Hardee having retreated northward. 
 
 Dec. 22d, Hood is safe beyond Duck River, having lost 20,000 men in Tennessee. 
 Dec. 24-25th, Butler and Porter attack Fort Fisher, N. C., but in vain. 
 
 Dec. 31st, Farragut presented with $50,000 by his admirers in New York. 
 
 1865- Jan. 8th, Blair and Singleton visit Richmond to treat about peace, but in vain. 
 
 Jan. 12-15th, second expedition against FI? Fisher, bombards it and storms it on 15th, 
 Jan. 14th, Sherman moves out of Savannah on his march northward to join Grant. 
 Jan. 16th, Sherman sets apart lands for freedmen, from Charleston southward. 
 
 Jan. 31st, constitutional amendment abolishing slavery submitted to states by Congress. 
 Feb. 3d, President Lincoln’s abortive conference with the rebels Stephens, Hunter 
 and Campbell. 
 
 Feb. 16-17th, Sherman shells and enters Columbia, S. C., Beauregard evacuating. 
 Feb. 18th, union troops occupy Charleston, rebels evacuating; 450 good cannon taken. 
 Feb. 22d, Wilmington occupied by Gen. Terry’s troops, coming from Fort Fisher. 
 Feb. 24th, Beall, the Lake Erie pirate, sentenced on the 14th, hanged to-day. 
 
 March 2d, Sheridan moving to join Grant, defeats Early at Waynesboro’, Va., and 
 captures almost his whole force. 
 
 March 9th, the emancipation amendment thus far adopted by 16 states and rejected 
 by 2, Del. and N. J. 
 
 March 16th, battle of Averysboro ,’ N. C., Hardee withstands Sherman’s attacks, but 
 retires at night. 
 
 Inarch 19th, battle of Bentonsville, N. C., Johnston attacks Sherman in vain. 
 
 
1004 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ETC. 
 
 / ; 
 
 1865. March 25th, rebels take Ft. Steadman before Petersburg, but are quickly expelled, 
 losing 2,500. 
 
 March 25th, Kennedy, the N. Y. hotel burner, hanged at Fort Lafayette. 
 
 March 29th, the Army of the Potomac moves out for the final assault upon Lee. 
 
 April 1st, Sheridan and Warren severely defeat rebels atDinwiddie C. H., 6,000 taken. 
 April 2d, Grant attacks heavily along his whole line ; Lee decisively defeated, Peters- 
 burg and Richmond evacuated at night, and Davis flees. 
 
 April 9th, Lee surrenders remains ot his army; being 26,115 men, 
 
 April 11th, blockade changed by proclamation into a legal closure of ports. 
 
 April 12th, Canby’s troops enter Mobile, the siege having lasted since March 11. 
 April 14th, Gen. Anderson hoists on Fort Sumter the same flag he lowered there. 
 April 14th, Booth assassinates President Lincoln, and his confederate Payne tries to 
 kill Mr. Seward; Mr. Lincoln dies. at 7.22 next morning. 
 
 April 18th, Sherman and Johnston negotiate a peace, which is promptly repudiated 
 at Washington. 
 
 April 25th, Booth discovered in a barn in Va., and refusing to surrender, is shot and 
 dies in four hours. 
 
 April 27th, Johnston surrenders his forces on new and proper terms. 
 
 April 28th, steamer Sultana burned near Memphis; 1,500 souls lost out of 2,106. 
 May 9th, assassins of Mr. Lincoln put on trial at Washington. 
 
 May 10th, President Johnson’s proclamation forbidding neutrals to harbor rebel ships* 
 May 10th, Jeff Davis captured in female disguise at Irwinsville, Ga. 
 
 May 23d, President Johnson reviews 80,000 troops in Washington. 
 
 May 26th, Kirby Smith surrenders to Canby the last rebel forces in the field. 
 
 May 29th, President Johnson proclaims an amnesty with 14 kinds of exceptions. 
 
 June 10th, great fire at Nashville, burning 8 or 10 millions worth of U. S. stores, &c. 
 June 15th, Galveston quietly occupied by Admiral Thatcher; last rebel port yielded. 
 June 17th, Gov’s Johnson of Ga., and Hamilton of Texas, appointed by the President. 
 
 Sharkey of Miss., and Holden of N. C., already appointed. 
 
 June 23d, up to this date the pirate Shenandoah has destroyed 10 whalers. 
 
 June 233, blockade finally ended, and next day trade restrictions removed. 
 
 July 7th, the assassins Harold, P^yne, Atzeroth and Mrs. Surratt, hung at Wash- 
 ington ; Arnold, Mudd, Spangler and McLaughlin imprisoned for life. 
 
 July 13th, Barnum’s Museum, New York, destroyed by fire. 
 
 July 13th, Gov. Marvin of Fla., appointed; Perry of S. C. appointed on the 1st. 
 Aug. 14th, great Ketchum forgery of some $2,000,000 comes out in New York. 
 
 Aug. 15th, Wirz, keeper of rebel Andersonville prison, put on trial. 
 
 Aug. 23d, Mississippi convention adjourns, having nullified secession ordinance and 
 accepted emancipation. 
 
 Sept. 1st, removal of restrictions from Southern ports. 
 
 Sept. 12th, Alabama declared the ordinance of secession “null and void,” abolished 
 slavery, and repudiated the rebel debt. 
 
 Sept. 14th, chiefs of rebel Indians sign treaty of loyalty with U. S. 
 
 Sept. 15th, South Carolina repealed the ordinance of secession. 
 
 Sept. 19th, South Carolina declared slavery abolished. 
 
 Sept. 23d, Alabama convention recognized abolition and passed emancipation clause. 
 Sept. 29th, Gov. Sharkey of Mississippi recognized, by proclamation, the rights of 
 the negro. 
 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 10C5 
 
 1865. Oct. 2d, Government of Cuba surrendered the pirate Stonewall to the U. S. 
 
 Oct. 7th, North Carolina declared the secession ordinance “ null and void ;” prohibited 
 slavery in the state forever, on the 9th. and repudiated the rebel debt on the 19th. 
 Oct. 11th, A. H. Stephens and other prominent rebels released from Fort Warren. 
 Oct. 12th, Proclamation of the President ending Martial Law in Kentucky. 
 
 Oct. 10th, Champ Ferguson the guerilla, was hung in Nashville, and Magruder the 
 guerilla, hung in Louisville. 
 
 Oct. 25 th, Florida annulled the ordinance of secession. 
 
 Nov. 4 th, Georgia declared slavery abolished, and on the 8th declared her war debt 
 “ null and void.” 
 
 Nov. 6th, Florida declared slavery abolished. 
 
 Nov. 10th, Henry Wirz was executed at the Old Capitol Prison. 
 
 Nov. 13th, South Carolina passed the Constitutional Amendment abolishing slavery. 
 Dec. 1st, Writ of habeas corpus restored in the Northern States by the President. 
 Dec. 2d, Alabama ratified the anti-slavery Amendment. 
 
 Dec. 18th, The Sec. of State, Mr. Seward, officially declared slavery abolished through- 
 out the United States, 27 states having ratified the Constitutional Amendment. 
 Dec. 21st, President Lincoln’s remains transferred to their final resting place in Oak 
 Ridge Cemetery, Springfield, 111. 
 
 Dec. 28th, Florida ratified the anti-slavery Amendment. 
 
 Dec. 30th, Hon. Wm. Henry Winter Davis, of Maryland, died. 
 
 1866. Jan. 12th, Order by Gen. Grant for the protection of loyal persons in the South. 
 Jan. 22d, Free School Bill defeated in the Tenn. Senate. 
 
 Jan. 29th, Death of Rev. Eliphalet Nott, D. D., Pres, of Union College, N. Y. 
 
 April 2d, Proclamation of the President declaring the insurrection ended in the late 
 rebellious states. 
 
 April 6 th, Civil Rights bill p<psed the Senate over the President’s veto, by a vote of 
 33 to 15 ; and the House, on the 9th, by a vote of 122 to 41, and became a law. 
 June 8th, the 14th Constitutional Amendment passed the Senate by a vote of 33 to 
 11 ; and the House, on the 13th, by a vote of 120 against 32. 
 
 July 4th, extensive conflagration in Portland, Me.; one third of the city burnt, and 
 property amounting to $10,000,000. 
 
 July 23d, Tennessee having ratified the Constitutional Amendment, a resolution ad- 
 mitting her Representatives and Senators, passed both Plouses of Congress. 
 
 July 27th, laying of the Atlantic Cable successfully completed. 
 
 July 30th, Massacre in New Orleans of leading Unionists and Colored men. 
 
 Aug. 20th, Writ of habeas corpus restored by proclamation of the President. 
 
 1867. Jan. 4th, Congress passed the Confiscation and Amnesty Bill. 
 
 Jan. 12th, the New York Excise Bill went into operation. 
 
 Jan. 18th, Samuel Downing, the last Revolutionary soldier, died at Edinburgh, N. 
 Y., aged 105. 
 
 Jan. 20th, death of N. P. Willis, the eminent writer. 
 
 Feb. 7th, Mr. Peabody gave $2,100,000 for education at the South. 
 
 Feb. 17th, death of Dr. A. D. Bache, long chief of the Coast Survey. 
 
 March 1st, Nebraska was proclaimed a State (the 37th). 
 
 April 26th, Japanese Commissioners arrived at Washington. 
 
 May 13th, Jeff*. Davis bailed for $100,000. 
 
 July 1st, the new “Dominion of Canada” inaugurated at Ottawa. 
 
 Nov. 19th, death of Fitz-Greene Halleck, at Guilford, Ct., aged 77. 
 
 1868. Jan. 6th, Samuel Nicolson, inventor of “ Nicolson pavement,” died at Boston, aged 76. 
 
1006 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ETC. 
 
 1868. Feb. 24th, House of Representatives voted to impeach President Johnson. 
 
 May 22d, nomination of Gen. Grant for President, at Chicago. 
 
 May 26tli, acquittal of President Johnson by 35 yeas to 19 nays, only one vote lack- 
 ing to sustain the impeachment. 
 
 June 11th, James Buchanan, Ex-President of U. S., died at Wheatland, Pa., aged 77. 
 July 4th, the President issued a full Pardon and Amnesty Proclamation. 
 
 July 28th, Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, issued a final proclamation that the 14th 
 Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S. had been adopted. 
 
 Aug. 3d, death of Gen. Charles G. Halpine (Miles O’Reilly), at New York. 
 
 Aug. 11th, death of Thaddeus Stevens, at Washington, aged 76 years. 
 
 Sept. 3d, death of Thomas H. Seymour, at Hartford, Ct. 
 
 Oct. 21st, great earthquake in California. 
 
 Nov. 3d, Gen Grant was elected President, and Schuyler Colfax Vice President. 
 
 1869. March 27th, James Harper, of the publishing house of Harper Bros., died, aged 73 # 
 May 8th, the Pacific Railroad, begun at Sacramento July 1863, was finished, and the 
 
 last rail laid with suitable ceremony. - 
 June 14th, Joseph Dixon, remarkable inventor, died at Jersey City, aged 71. 
 
 June 16th-19th, National Peace Jubilee at the Coliseum in Boston. 
 
 June 18th, Henry J. Raymond, founder and editor of the N. Y. Times, died in N. 
 Y. City, aged 49. 
 
 July 2 2d, John A. Roebling, engineer, died at Brooklyn, N. Y., aged 62. 
 
 July 24th, the French Transatlantic Cable, laid in the Bay of Minon, near Brest, 
 France, June 17th, reached Duxbury, Mass., July 24th. 
 
 Sept. 6th, Gen. John A. Rawlins, Sec. of War, died at Washington, D. C., aged 38. 
 Sept. 8th, William Pitt Fessenden, Secretary of the Treasury under President Lin- 
 coln, died at Portland, Me., aged 63. 
 
 Oct. 8th, Franklin Pierce, Ex-President of U. S., died at Concord, N. H., aged 65. 
 Nov. 4th, George Peabody, the eminent philanthropist, died. 
 
 Nov. 7th, Charles Stewart, Rear Admiral U, S. Navy, died at Bordentown, N. J., 
 aged 91. 
 
 Nov. 11th, Robert James Walker, Statesman and Publicist, died at Washington, 
 D. C., aged 68. 
 
 Dec. 24th, Edwin M. Stanton, Sec. of War during the Rebellion, died. 
 
 1870. Jan. 19th, Death of Robert E. Lee, Major-General of the Confederate forces in the 
 
 rebellion of 1861. 
 
 March 30th, Ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the 
 U. S., securing freedom of suffrage to the colored male population of each State. 
 July 12th, John A. Dahlgren, Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, died. 
 
 Aug. 14th, David Glasco Farragut, Admiral U. S. Navy, died. 
 
 1871. March 22d, Impeachment of Gov. Wm. W. Holden, of North Carolina, for malfeas- 
 
 ance in office. 
 
 June 29th, Expedition under Captain C. F. Hall, sailed from New York on a voyage 
 of discovery to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Oct. 8tli, Commenced and continued for several days, in Chicago, 111., one of the 
 greatest Conflagrations of modern times, in which more than 250 persons lost their 
 lives, and destroyed property to the enormous amount of $196,000,000. 
 
 Oct. 26th, death of General Robert Anderson, Major commanding at Fort Sumpter 
 at the commencement of the rebellion in 1861. 
 
ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 100T 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 A 1. Jesus Christ born in Judea, now called the Holy Land, in the 4004th year of the 
 world. 
 
 26. John the Baptist commences his ministry. 
 
 29. Christ is baptized, by John in the river Jordan. 
 
 33. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, under Pontius Pilate ; six weeks after which event, he 
 ascends to heaven. 
 
 35. The miraculous conversion, and beginning of the apostleship, of St. Paul. 
 
 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 
 
 44. St. Mark pens his gospel. 
 
 52. The Apostles assemble in council at Jerusalem. 
 
 62. St. Paul bound and sent to Rome. 
 
 64. The first persecution of the Christians. Nero, having set fire to Rome, threw the 
 odium of the act upon them. Multitudes were massacred. Some were wrapped in 
 the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and 
 many were burned alive. 
 
 66. The last Jewish war against the Romans commences. 
 
 67. Peter and St. Paul suffer martyrdom at Rome by crucifixion, the former with his head 
 
 downward. 
 
 70. Jerusalem, as foretold by Christ, totally destroyed by the Romans, and the plough- 
 share driven over its ruins. During this terrible siege, upward of 3,000,000 of the 
 Jews perished. 
 
 95. The second persecution against the Christians. 
 
 99. St. John dies, in the 102d year of his age. Prior to this event, he had been cast into 
 a caldron of boiling oil, taken out unharmed, and banished to the isle of Patmos, 
 where he wrote the Revelation. 
 
 102. Pliny, the younger, writes his epistle to the Emperor Trajan at Rome, informing him 
 of the mode of worship practiced by the early Christians. Among other charges, 
 he says, “Solent statu die convenire, et carmina dicere quasi Deo;” i. e., “They 
 were accustomed to assemble on a stated day, and sing hymns to God.” 
 
 107. Third persecution against the Christians. 
 
 118. Fourth persecution against the Christians. 
 
 130. The Emperor Adrian attempts to rebuild Jerusalem and restore the temple, but his 
 workmen are foiled by earthquakes and fiery eruptions. 
 
 202. Fifth persecution against the Christians. 
 
 235. Sixth persecution against the Christians. 
 
 250. Seventh persecution against the Christians. 
 
 257. Eighth persecution against the Christians. 
 
 272. Ninth persecution against the Christians. 
 
 303. Tenth persecution against the Christians ; after which a series of persecutions broke 
 out with the bitterest violence and cruelty. Droves of victims were bound together 
 with ropes, and cast into the sea. 
 
 311. The Emperor Constantine becomes a convert to Christianity, and abolishes heathen- 
 ism from his empire. 
 
1008 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 315. Rise of Arianism. 
 
 325. The first grand council of Nice, in which the Eastern and Western churches were 
 represented. 
 
 343. The Christians are persecuted in Persia. 
 
 496. Clovis, King of France, is baptized, and embraces the Christian religion. 
 
 516. The computation of time from the birth of Christ, introduced by Dionysihs, a 
 monk. 
 
 597. Augustine, the monk, goes to England and teaches the Christian religion. 
 
 606. The Bishop of Rome is ordained the universal head of the church. 
 
 622. Mahomet begins lo promulgate his religion by the sword. 
 
 637. Jerusalem captured by the Saracens. 
 
 698. The Piets in Great Britain are converted to Christianity. 
 
 748. Middle or dark ages, in which science slumbers, or is confined chiefly to the cloisters. 
 756. The popes are constituted civil lords in Italy, and arrogantly claim dominion over the 
 whole world. 
 
 800. The German empire instituted by Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the Germans 
 heretofore having been divided into different tribes or separate kingdoms. 
 
 878. The university at Oxford founded by Alfred the Great, King of England. 
 
 915. The university of Cambridge established. 
 
 1065. Jerusalem captured from the Saracens by the Ottomans or Turks. 
 
 1065. William, Duke cf Normandy, conquers England, and takes possession of the throne. 
 1096. The first crusade to Palestine, or the Holy Land, undertaken by several Christian 
 sovereigns, with the avowed object of recovering Jerusalem and the holy sepul- 
 chre out of the hands of the Turks and Saracens. 
 
 1110. Revival of literature in the university of Cambridge. 
 
 1147. Second crusade to Palestine. 
 
 1177. Saladin defeated before Jerusalem. The crusade attended with immense loss of blood 
 
 and treasure. 
 
 1178. The Albigenses and Waldenses, two Christian sects, take their rise in the south of 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1189. Third crusade against the Holy Land, conducted with great fierceness and bravery, 
 under the kings of England and France. 
 
 1192. Richard Coeur de Lion defeats Saladin at Ascalon. The victory, however, is not decis- 
 ive. The crusades are finally abandoned as not being worth the immense sacrifice 
 of blood and treasure they had already cost. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta signed by King John of England. 
 
 1233. The Dominican friars get the management of the inquisition into their hands. 
 
 1369. John WicklifFe commences preaching in England. 
 
 1414. The council of Constance assemble. 
 
 1415. John IIuss and Jerome of Prague are condemned and burnt for their religious 
 
 opinions. 
 
 1509. John Calvin born. 
 
 1517. Martin Luther writes against indulgences in Germany, which paves the way for the 
 reformation. 
 
 1519. Zuinglius begins the reformation in Switzerland. 
 
 1529. The diet of Spires in Germany meet ; the protesting against which gave rise to the 
 name of Protestants. 
 
ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 1009 
 
 1533. Ilenry VIII., of England, renounces his allegiance to the pope, and styles himself the 
 supreme head of the church of England. 
 
 1540. Foundation of the order of Jesuits. 
 
 1545. The Council of Trent convenes. 
 
 1555. Michael Servetus burnt at the instigation of John Calvin at Geneva, for disbelieving 
 the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 
 15G0. John Knox introduces the Reformation into Scotland, and the monasteries are torn 
 down and burnt. 
 
 1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew in France, when 70,000 Huguenots were slain through- 
 out the kingdom, ify secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his 
 mother, Catherine de Medici. 
 
 1598. Henry IV. of France publishes the edict of Nantes, permitting Protestants the free 
 exercise of their religion. 
 
 1618. The synod of Dort in Holland held. 
 
 1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. 
 
 1686. The duke of Savoy persecutes the Waldenses. 
 
 1689. Toleration act for dissenters passed by the English parliament. 
 
 1712. Great Arian controversey between Clarke and Waterland. 
 
 1722. Count Zinzendorf becomes head of the Moravians, or United Brethren. 
 
 1729. Christianity declared u part of the law of the land,” in England. 
 
 1731. First rise of Methodism, by preaching of Wesley and Whitefield. 
 
 1773. Jesuits suppressed by bull of Clement XIV. 
 
 1778. Voltaire dies, aged 82. 
 
 1781. Raikes opens the first Sunday School, at Gloucester, England. 
 
 1782. Inquisition abolished in Tuscany and Naples. 
 
 1784. Bishop Seabury, first Episcopal bishop in U. S., consecrated. 
 
 1790. Bishop Carroll, first Catholic bishop in U. S. consecrated. 
 
 1791. John Wesley dies, aged 88. 
 
 1803. British and Foreign Bible Society founded. 
 
 1807. Andover Theological Seminary, the first in the United States, founded. 
 
 1810. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions organized. 
 
 1820. Rise of the Unitarian controversy in the United States. 
 
 1829. Catholic Emancipation Bill passed in England. 
 
 1830. Origin of Mormonism, by publication of Book of Mormon by Joseph Smith. 
 
 1841. Dr. Alexander made Protestant bishop of Jerusalem. 
 
 1841. Schism in the Scotch church. 
 
 1841. Puseyite controversy rises on condemnation of Puseyite tracts by Oxford University. 
 
 1844. Ronge’s Catholic religious reform in Germany. 
 
 1845. Pius IX. becomes pope; undertakes many reforms. 
 
 1847. Revolted Catholic cantons of Switzerland subdued, and Jesuits expelled. 
 
 1850. A Catholic hierarchy established in England; Dr. Wiseman archbishop of West' 
 minster. 
 
 1852. The Madiai family persecuted at Florence; liberated by English influence. 
 
 1856. Christians legally equalized with Mohammedans in Turkey. 
 
 1860. Great Epoch in History of Russia ; the beginning of the movement for the emanci- 
 pation of the serfs, and for translating the Scriptures into Modern Russ, the 
 vernacular of 50,000,000 people. 
 
 Manuel Matamoros and others persecuted in Spain for Bible reading. 
 
 64 
 
1010 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 1»61. Aprix 8th; “Patent” granted by Emperor of Austria by which the rights and liber- 
 ties of Protestants were acknowledged and guaranteed. 
 
 18 .2. Victor Emanuel suppressed monasteries in Italy ; devoting them to educational uses. 
 Aug. 24th ; Bi-centenary celebration of the exodus of 2000 faithful ministers from 
 the Church of England, because they would not submit to the “Act of Uniformity.” 
 Sept. 2d ; Triennial celebration of the adoption of the Belgic Confession in Holland. 
 
 1863. First meeting of the General Synod of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, in 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 Jesuits expelled from New Granada, or United States of Columbia, and the great 
 movement for civil and religious liberty brought fo a successful completion by 
 Gen. Mosquera. 
 
 1864. Imperial decree suppressing the smaller convents in Poland. 
 
 Aug. 26th ; Monument to the memory of John Calvin at Geneva, was inaugurated 
 on the bi-centenary anniversary of the death of the Reformer. 
 
 Dec. 21st; Pope Pius’ encyclical letter denouncing religious liberty. 
 
 1865. National Council of the Congregational Churches of the United States, held in Bos- 
 
 ton 10 days, June 14-24. 
 
 1866. Religious toleration guaranteed in Chili. 
 
 Religious toleration declared by both governments in Mexico, Juarez’s and Maxi- 
 milian’s. 
 
 Oct; First Centenary Anniversary of the introduction of Methodism into the U. S. 
 
 1868, June ; Grand Council of the bishops and clergy of the Romish Church on the 18th 
 
 centenary anniversary of the martyrdom of Paul. 
 
 June 22d; Austria having abolished the “ Concordat,” — thus withdrawing from the 
 Roman Catholic Church the sole right to solemnize marriages and control the ed- 
 ucation of the empire — and having provided also a system of public schools, the 
 Pope delivered an allocution against such legislation. 
 
 June 29th ; The Pope issued a bull calling a General Council of the Catholic Church 
 at Rome, on the 8th day of Dec., 1869. 
 
 July 10th; The Irish Reform Bill was passed by the Plouse of Lords in England. 
 Sept. 24th ; The Archbishop of Canterbury, England, having invited all bishops in 
 communion with the Church of England, the Pan Anglican Synod was opened at 
 Lambeth. 
 
 A Bible Society organized at St. Petersburg, with the sanction of Emperor Alex- 
 ander. The 1st Russian Bible Society, with 279 auxiliaries, having been sup- 
 pressed by the Emperor Nicholas. 
 
 1869. May 27tli ; The General Assemblies of the Old and New School Presbyterians, which 
 
 separated in 1837, voted to reunite. Two-thirds of the Presbyteries having ap- 
 proved of the union, it was ratified at Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 12th. 
 
 June 28th; The First Israelitish Synod met at Leipsic, Germany. 
 
 Sept. — ; Pere Ilyacinthe, a Carmelite monk and celebrated preacher, abandoned 
 his convent and ceased to preach in Notre Dame, Paris. This secession caused 
 great excitement in France. 
 
 Dec. 8th ; The Oecumenical Council of the Catholic Church was opened at Rome 
 with imposing ceremonies — 700 prelates and about 2,000 ecclesiastics being present. 
 
THE LATE WAR. 
 
 1011 
 
 THE WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND SARDINIA, AND AUSTRIA. 
 
 The Emperor Louis Napoleon publicly expresses to the Austrian envoy at his court his 
 regret that the two governments are not on better terms — which leads to mutual arma- 
 ments — January 1st, 1859. 
 
 Events growing daily more threatening, it is announced that England has sent Lord 
 lowley on a peace mission to Vienna, February 22d. 
 
 The announcement is made that a Peace Congress will be held, March 19th. 
 
 All hopes of peace are quenched by the news that Austria has insisted upon the disarma- 
 ment of Sardinia alone, as a condition precedent to any peace negotiations, April 8th. 
 
 Austrian and Sardinian forces having assembled in the neighborhood of the Ticino, Count 
 Gyulai forwards a peremptory summons to the King of Sardinia to disarm within three 
 days, on penalty of war, April 22d. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel having returned an indignant refusal, is invested with dictatorial pow- 
 ers, April 23d. 
 
 Lord Malmesbury issues a final proposition for negotiation — which is accepted by Austria, 
 and rejected by France, April 25th. 
 
 French troops begin to land at Genoa, April 25th. 
 
 Tuscany tnrows off its government and declares for Victor Emmanuel, April 25th. 
 
 The Austrian army, in three divisions, crosses the Ticino, April 29th. 
 
 A detachment of Austrians, in attempting to cross the Po at Frassinetto, is repulsed by 
 the Sardinians, May 3d. 
 
 Louis Napoleon issues decrees relating to his departure for the army. 
 
 Louis Napoleon leaves Paris May 10th, reaches Genoa on the 12th, and joins the army 
 on the 14th. 
 
 The battle of Montebello is fought between the outposts of the two armies, the French, 
 under Gen. Forey, compelling the Austrians to withdraw, May 20th. 
 
 Garibaldi, at the head of 6,000 Italian volunteers, crosses the Ticino, May 23d. 
 
 Garibaldi fights his way into the city of Como, May 27th. 
 
 The battle of Palestro is fought by about 12,000 Sardinians, under their king, and 20,000 
 Austrians, under Gen. Zobei, the latter withdrawing, June 1st. 
 
 The battle of Magenta is fought, in which 100,000 allies, under Gen. McMahon, rout 
 
 120.000 Austrians, under Gen. Gyulai, June 4th. 
 
 The Emperor Napoleon and King Victor Emmanuel enter Milan, June 8th. 
 
 The battle of Malegnano is fought, the Austrians, under Benedick, being driven from 
 their position by the allies under D’Hilliers, June 9th. 
 
 The battle of Solferino is fought, under the command of the two Emperors, by nearly 
 
 400.000 troops, the Austrians being compelled to retire, June 24th. 
 
 The Sardinians begin to invest the fortress of Peschiera, June 28th. 
 
 The allies cross the Mincio, June 30th. 
 
 The French Emperor takes up his head-quarters at Vallegio, on the east bank of the 
 Mincio, July 3d. 
 
 The armistice between the belligerents, to last until August 15th, is signed July 8th. 
 
 Peace between the two Emperors agreed upon at Villafranca, July 11th. 
 
1012 
 
 LATE WAR. 
 
 THE WAR OF PRUSSIA AND ITALY WITH AUSTRIA. 
 
 By the treaty of Vienna, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had belonged t ) 
 Denmark for a long time, were fully confirmed to her. But in 1863 the king of Denmark 
 granted independent rights to Holstein and annexed Schleswig to his own kingdom. Aus- 
 tria and Prussia both protested against this, and the German Diet demanded the annul- 
 ment of the decree of annexation, and that both duchies be united with the German Con- 
 federation. The refusal of Denmark led to a war with Prussia, backed by Austria, which 
 resulted in wresting the duchies from Denmark. But Austria and Prussia were soon at 
 variance as to what should be done with the provinces. Prussia, ever anxious to extend 
 her boundaries, proposed to absorb Holstein. Austria, jealous of her neighbor, protested 
 against it. In the German Diet, Austria demanded the mobilization of the Federal army, 
 and though opposed by Prussia, carried the measure June 14th, 1866 by a vote of 9 to 6. 
 The Prussian representative thereupon declared the Diet dissolved and that Prussia would 
 regard any state voting for mobilization, as having committed an act of hostility against 
 herself. From this blunder ol Austria came the war of 1866. The very next day, June 
 15th, Prussia invaded Saxony and Hanover occupying their capitals. Italy allied herself 
 with Prussia, hoping to regain Venetia from Austria, and thus strike a blow for “Italian 
 unity.” Both simultaneously declared war, June 18th, the anniversary of Fehrbelin, Kolin 
 and Waterloo, great Prussian battles. A severe battle at Custozza, near Verona, was 
 fought by Italians against Austria, June 24th, the Austrians being victorious. Occupying 
 Holstein, overrunning Saxony and Hanover, the Prussian army moved into Bohemia, in 
 two columns. The Prussian and Austrian armies first felt each other June 26th, at Lie- 
 beneau, the former being the victors. A larger battle was fought at Podal, and two more 
 at Nachod and Skalitz on the 27th, the Prussians winning the day. The next day at 
 Trauteneau the Prussians, after a severe engagement, remained masters of the field. The 
 other column defeated the Austrians at Munchengratz. On the 29th a great and sanguinary 
 conflict occurred at Gitschin with a Prussian victory. The Austrians in full retreat made 
 a stand at Sadowa July 3d, and were badly routed. This was the decisive battle of the 
 war, and a great Prussian victory — 195,000 Austrians and 225,000 Prussians being engaged, 
 making this one of the greatest battles of history. 
 
 The Austrian Emperor, admonished by such continued defeat, seeing that he could not 
 cope with Prussia and Italy both, ceded Venetia to France and besought Napoleon’s medi- 
 ation to procure an armistice with Italy. Victor Emanuel declined? this, saying he could 
 do nothing without the consent of his ally, Prussia, and immediately renewed military 
 operations. Proposals for an armistice were offered by Austria to Prussia July 12th, but 
 they were rejected. Flushed with victory, Prussia pushed her advantages and moved on to- 
 ward Vienna, the Austrian capital and would have captured it, and was also on the eve of 
 winning a battle that would have cut off Hungary, when an armistice was agreed upon Juty 
 18th. A treaty of peace w^as signed between Austria and Prussia, Aug. 30th, 70 days after 
 the decision of the German Diet. As the results of the war, first, Prussia acquired Han- 
 over, Schleswig, Holstein, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, a portion of Hesse Darmstadt 
 and Bavaria. Second, the Germanic Confederation, 50 years old, was dissolved. 
 
 The cession of Venetia to Italy was concluded Oct. 19th. The joy of the Venetians in 
 deliverance from the despotism of Austria was evinced by the vote for annexation with 
 Italy, viz: 641,758 for, and 68 against. The entrance of Emanuel, King of Italy into 
 Venice Nov. 7th, to take possession, was celebrated by one of the grandest and most jubi- 
 lant demonstrations, and thus “Italian unity” was restored. 
 
 King Emanuel, oi* Dec. 15th, announced to his Parliament the crowning of the national 
 edifice in Italy. 
 
WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 
 
 1018 
 
 THE WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 
 
 It was reported at Madrid, July 3d, 1870, that Marshal Prim had sent a deputation to 
 offer the crown of Spain to a Prince of Hohenzollern who had accepted it. The French 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Duke of Gramont, informed the Spanish Ambassador, Baron 
 Werther, on July 5th, that France would not tolerate the establishment of the Prince of 
 Hohenzollern or any Prussian Prince upon the Spanish throne. 
 
 Prince Antony of Hohenzollern, on July 12th, telegraphed the Spanish Ambassador at 
 Paris, that he had withdrawn his son Leopold’s candidature. Count Bernstoff, Prussian Am- 
 bassador at London, notified Lord Granville, on July 15th, that the King declined to accede 
 to the demand of France, that he should forbid Prince Leopold to alter at any future time 
 his decision relative to accepting the Spanish crown. 
 
 A formal declaration of war was sent to Berlin, July 17th. The King of Prussia opened 
 the North German Parliament with a speech, on July 19th, and threw the responsibility of 
 the war on France. Heavy masses of troops were immediately pushed forward to the fron- 
 tier by both belligerents. On July 23d, the first skirmish of the war took place, and the 
 first blood was drawn at Rahling. The French crossed the frontier and carried the heights 
 above Saarbriick, August 2d. The Crown Prince attacked the French at Wessenburg, and 
 forced them to retire with the loss of the General of Division, Abel Douay, and 500 pris- 
 oners, August 4tli. The battle of Woerth is fought, the Crown Prince defeating the French 
 under Marshal McMahon, and capturing 2 eagles, 6 mittrailleuses, 30 cannon, and 4,000 pris- 
 oners, August 6th. The battle of Forbachis fbught Gen. Steinmetz, defeating the French 
 under Gen. de Frossard, August 6th. The French army retreated, Aug. 6th. Paris in a 
 state of seige, Ang. 7tli. The French army are concentrated before Metz, Aug. 9th. Ger- 
 man armies advance on Metz, Aug. 14th. The battle of Gravelotte takes place, lasting nine 
 hours,* the French being driven back to Metz from which they had advanced, the Germans 
 losing 25,000, the French 24,000, Aug. 18th. The bombardment of Strasburg is begun July 19. 
 The battle of Beaumont is fought, McMahon having 7,000 men taken prisoners, Aug. 31st. 
 The great surrender at Sedan, the whole French army under McMahon, together with the 
 Emperor and vast munitions of war fall into the hands of the Germans, Sept. 2d. Napo- 
 leon arrives as a prisoner of war at Castle Wilhelmshohe, Sept. 6th. Paris is surrounded 
 by the German armies, Sept. 15th. Jules Favre and Count Yon Bismarck endeavor to ef- 
 fect an armistice but fail, near the close of the month. The French endeavor to cut their 
 way out of Metz, Oct. 9th. The capitulation of Metz takes place, 173,000 prisoners being 
 surrendered, Oct. 24th. Negotiations for an armistice fail, Nov. 8th. French victory at 
 Orleans, Nov. 10th. Capitulation of New Breisach, 5,000 French prisoners taken, 
 Nov. 11th. Continued fighting south of Paris, Nov. 27th-29th. Great battles on the east- 
 ern side of Paris, 250,000 men being engaged, Nov. 29th. Dec. 2d, battle of Orleans is 
 fought, the French being defeated, Dec. 5th. Battles along the Loire, the French retreat- 
 ing, Dec. 5th-l 0th. The German Princes invite King William to assume the title of Em- 
 peror of Germany, Dec. 6th— 9th. French seat of government removed to Bordeaux, Dec. 
 11th. Phalsburg surrendered to the Germans, Dec. 13th. Battle near Ameins, both sides 
 claiming the victory, Jan. 3d. Battle near Le Mans, the French losing 40,000 and the Ger- 
 mans 50,000, Jan. 10th. Battle before St. Quentin, the French losing 15,000 men, Jan. 19. 
 Engagement on the Loire, the French being routed, Jan. 19th. Paris°capitulated, Jan. 28th. 
 Armistice till Feb. 19th, agreed upon between Count Bismarck and Jules Favre, Jan. 30th. 
 Napoleon issues a proclamation to the electors of France from his prison at Wilhelmshohe, 
 heb. 8th. Thiers appointed Chief Executive of the French Republic by the National As- 
 sembly, Feb. 17th. Terms of peace accepted by the French, Feb. 26th, 1871. 
 

 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 
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