THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY (o^o-n . ■ Hntlr 3 -- 5’ 3 >■ t i ..t'M , . *t ^ 4< . tUiM BIRQULAIING CHECK FOR unbound CIRCULATING COPY BULLETIN NO. 33. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ...OF... THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF flONTANA, SUGAR BEETS IN MONTANA, THE CROP OF 1901. SUGAR BEET SERIES NO. 2. BOZEn,AN, MONTANA, JANUARY 1902. 1903. The Avant Courier Publishing Co., Bozeman , ' Mo ntana. riontana Agricultural Experirhent Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor James Donovan, Attorney General W. W. Welch, Siipt. of Publie Instruetion J. M. Hamilton J. P. Hendricks N. W. McConnell O. F. Goddard O. P/Chisholm ! J.'G. McKay G. T. Paul ; N. B. Holter |ex-officio Helena .Missoula Butte Helena Billings Bozeman Hamilton Dillon Helena EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary and Treasurer Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman ' STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A Agriculturalist J. W. Blankinship., Ph. D...., Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomolgist Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. The Bulletins ot the Experiment Station are sent free to all residents of this state upon request. Montana Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 33 - - - - - - January, 1902. SUGAR BEETS IN MONTANA. CROP OF 1901. F. W. TRAPHAGEN. The results of sugar beet culture in Montana for the past season have been most gratifying, and we feel renewed confidence in the opinion expressed in Bulletin No. 19, that ‘'Montana conditions are' favorable to the production of sugar beets of high sugar content and standard purity.” Great interest has been taken in the sugar beet work this year, because, for the first time, the question of our ability to meet the commercial conditions of this crop, has been taken up seriously by capitalists. Because of this, our work has been supplemented in two important agricultural valleys by others, and, on account of this additional interest, more attention has been given to careful culture. .This attention is shown in the results, which, in general, are far better than in any preceding year. On the Bitter Root Stock Farm in particular, a series of very careful tests were conducted, and the results, in richness, purity and yield, were such as to full}^ satisfy the most exacting. These tests were conducted by Mr. Thomas Loynd, an experienced sugar beet Culturist, from Utah, and were made on different varieties of soil, including the poorer as well as the richer. ,A perusal of the tables containing the results of these tests will show very striking figures. Sugar beets in the past have received very scant attention at the hands of those who have planted them in this state. Put in as an accommodation to the Experiment Station, they have been at- tended to after every other interest has been considered. When irrigated, if at all, they received water not when they most needed it, but when most convenient to the farmer. The same is true of cultivation, and this crop, which responds so readily to painstaking 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. care, has been left to grow almost unattended. In spite of this, the results have been very pleasing. Montana seems to be the natural habitat of root crops, and the difficulty is to keep down the growth^ and prevent the formation of too large roots. Even at the Experiment Station where the results have been such, that the culture would always have been profitable, both from the standpoint of the producer and of the manufacturer, the sugar beets have been part of a rotation, in which they have been far from being the favored crop. In the valley of Clark’s Eork of the Yellowstone River, the first experimental work was carried on the past year, with an out- come that would indicate this valley as an ideal locality for the establishment of a factory. In the three localities just mentioned,, the experiments have been carried on in a sufficiently large scale^ to demonstrate the question of profitable sugar beet culture to any who make a careful study of the conditions and results. The yield, sugar content, and purity, can be kept far above the standards adopted as the minimum values, by sugar beet experts,, as demonstrated by the past season’s work, which can be improved upon as cultural conditions are bettered. Euel is easily obtainable and cheap, water is pure and abundant, limestone of great purity is available and land sufficient to produce the crop, and at the same time sustain a logical three year’s rotation, is at hand in each of these sections. No doubt many other sections of the state could show just as good figures, but, unfortunately, the experiments have been lacking in magnitude sufficient to satisfy the intending investor. Many results have been obtained by farmers m different portions of the state, which are entirely satisfactory in themselves, but, which, in order to possess their full value, must be supplemented by experi- ments by their neighbors. A factory will not be established anywhere where there is not at least fifteen thousand acres of land within easy reach of the factory, either by rail or country road, which will contribute the beet crop to the factory. This amount of land planted to a three year rotation of clover, grain and beets, would maintain a factorv of fair size, but, a smaller area of available land would hardly be considered. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 It is the custom of the beet sugar companies to pay for the railroad haul, and where the beets are siloed, to await their call, they pay twenty cents additional per ton. The method of siloing in use is very simple, consisting only in making a trench more or less deep, and as wide as necessity demands, and, after filling with beets, covering over with the loose soil previously removed. The consumption of sugar in Montana is sufficient to use up all the product of at least one large factory and the protection afforded by the long freight haul, with attendant high tariffs, together with the excellent crop returns, will certainly prove incentives, sooner or later, to the establishment of factories within our borders. Feeding Beets and Pulp. Until the product of the sugar beet fields is absorbed by beet sogr.r factories, and while the experimental , a work, necessary to prove the claims of various localities, is going on j the roots can be v*ery profitably fed to stock, and prove a very welcome addition to the ordinary dry ration, as well as yielding a distinct gain in flesh, equivalent to a high money return for the beets fed. The striking results obtained at the Montana Experiment Station in swine feeding experiments, conducted by Prof. Shaw, which are described in Bulletin No. 27, to which readers of this Bulletin are referred, will show the value of beets as food. This subject has been previously taken up in Bulletin No. 19, and work subsequent to that publication, shows that as a succulent addition to the usual food, the beet is valuable and acceptable. This is particularly true in our own state, where succulent foods are so scarce, especially in winter. Climate. The old saying “that the proof of the pudding is in the eating’^ applies particularly to the discussion of the Montana climate in reference to sugar beet culture. When ‘we qan get yields of 25.6 tons per acre, of beets of 19.38 per cent sugar content, and 86.4 per cent purity, as was done in one specially favored portion of the Bitter Root Stock Farm, and when almost every valley in the state produces crops of beets above the general commercial average, who 'vill say the Montana climate is not adapted to sugar beets? 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Experiment Station — Variety Tests. . Lab’v No Av. Wt. Oz Sugar in juice... Sugar in beet ... Puritv Coef. Date 1901 1805 Miscellaneous 20.00 !i6.8 I15.96l84.44 Sept. 19 1831 Kleinwanzlebener, 5770 24.8 ] 15-8 ! 15-3 1 81.00 Sept. 28 1832 Utah Seed 254 I16.5 1S-67I85-5 Sept. 28 Zehringen, 3942 16.8 15.6 14.82 88.2 Sept. 28 1834 B ramie, 2885 23.00 16.1 15-19 83-3 Sept. 28 1835 Kleinwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944.. 19.6 16.3 15. 58182.02 Sept. 28 1836 Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943. 234 15.00 14-25 78.00 Sept. 28 1837 Vilmorin 20.2 I1S.8 15.01 79-7 Sept. 28' 1838 Unknown Variety 20.4 16.6 15-77 85-5 Sept. 28 1842 Kleinwanzlebener, 5770 20.5 16.1 15-29 76.3 Oct. 5 1843 Utah Seed 21.00 17.9 17.00 87-5 Oct. 5 1844 Zehringen, 3942 22.00 15-9 15.10 74-6 Oct. 5 1845 Braune, 2885 20.00 16.71 82.3 Oct. 5 1846 Kleinwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944. . 19.00 19-5 18.52 88.6 !Oct. 5 1847 Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943. 18.00 17.6 16.72 186.1 Oct. 5 1848 Vilmorin 26.5 14.00 13-3 i 72.9 Oct. 5 1869 Kleinwanzlebener, 5770 25-5 17.0 16.15! 86.00 Oct. 12. 1870 Utah 17.00 18.5 17-57- 184-9 Oct. 12. 1871 Zehringen, 3942 15-5 ! 18.3 ! 17-38183.3 Oct. 12 1872 Braune, 2885 16.5 18.5 17-57 186.3 Oct. 12 1873 Kleinzwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944. 14.00 19.1 18.14 90-5 Oct. 12 1874 Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943. 14.5 18.6 17-671 !88.5 Oct. 12 187s Vilmorin 17.00 19.2 18.24 87.6 Oct. 12 1882 Kleinwanzlebener, S770 15.00 I18.4 17.48 82.9 Oct. 19 1883 Utah 18.00 19-3 18.33I86.1 Oct. 19 1884 Zehringen, 3942 14.66 20.00 19.00 87.oo|Oct. 19 1885 Braune, 2885 16.66 19.9 18.9 87.6 ! Oct. 19 1886 Kleinzwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944. 18.66I 18.3 17-381 85-9 |Oct. 19 1887 Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943. 14.66 18.2 17.29! 86.6 Oct. 19 1888 V'ilmorin 17.00 17-9 1 17.00! 84.00 Oct. i'>- 1966 Kleinwanzlebener, 5770 20.8 17.901 17.00! 81.8 Oct. 26 1967 Utah ! 174 ! 20.10 19.05! 85.00 Oct. 26 i968!Zehringen, 3942 20.00 19.701 18.76! 85-5 Oct. 26 1969 Braune, 2885 21.00 19.70! 18.741 87.00, Oct. 26 1970 Kleinwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944... 23-00! 19-501 18.46 88.oo| Oct. 26 1971 Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943. 19.00 19-301 18.35I87-5 1 Oct. 26 1972 Vilmorin 22.00! i7-97i 17.07! 86.00 Oct. 2^^ MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7. Averages of all Tests. — Experiment Station. Kleinwanzlebener, 5770 Utah Zehringen, 3942 Braune, 2885 Kleinwanzlebener, Dippe, 3944 . .. Kleinwanzlebener, Russia, 3943 .. Vilmorin General Average 21.32 19.76 17.8 1943 18.85 17.91 20.5 19-37 17.04 18.44 17.91 18.38 i8-53 17-75 17-13 17.88 16.31 17-S1 17.01 17.42 17.61 16.85 16.27 16. 98 84 81.6 85.8 83-7 85-3 87.00 85-3 84.00 9 13-5 11.7 1145 10.5 10.4 9-25 9-5 10.9 4403 4007 3895 3658 3662 3117 3091 3690 Averages for Successive Dates. — Experiment Station. Date 1901 . Av. weight Per cent sugar in juice Per cent sugar in beet Per cent purity September 28 21.7 OZ. 15-96 15.20 82.90 October 5 21.0 oz. 16.96 16.13 81.19 October 12 17.14 OZ. 18.46 17-53 86.73 October 19 16.38 oz. 18.86 17.92 85-73 October 26 20.45 oz. 19.18 18.25 85-83 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. r Clark’s Fork Valley. — Bridger and Gebo. The * indicates that the P. O. address is Gebo ; the address of all others is Bridger. Lab’y No Name. Av. weight in ounces Sugar in juice... Sugar in beet... Purity Coef. Tons beets per acre Lbs. sugar per acre... 1850 P. R. Miller * 8.8 I7.I 16.22 79-9 6.5 2108 1854 C. F. Sexton 29.00 15-9 15.10 80.3 25-00 7552 1881 A. E. Parker 31-5 14.3 13-58 69.4 9.00 2444 1889 William Barclay 14.7 16.2 15-39 78.2 12.00 3695 1891 James Barclay 1943 21.3 20.23 82.88 20.00 8092 1903 C. M. Larkin 10.8 16.88 16.00 80.00 1907 W. H. Bostic 24.9 19-5 18.52 78.3 20.00 7408 1934 C. H. Bostic 94 15-5 14.72 67.1 1935 W. F. Gibson 35-5 18.00 I7.I 74-4 24.00 8208 1936 Lucy H. Smith 28.00 20.1 19.09 83-7 20.00 7636 1937 Hugh Morrow 26.5 19.7 18.71 74-5 15.00 5613 1938 R. B. Teesdale 18.8 17.86 8.5-4 25.00 8930 1939 E. T. Bostic 28.5 21.9 20.8 88.3 1940 J. R. Stevens 55-00 14.81 14.06 77-4 15.00 4218 1941 S. H. Mendenhall 14.8 18.II 17.2 83.8 20.00 6880 1942 Thomas Barnett 20.8 1 16.5 15-67 80.00 12.00 3760 1943 A. G. Duffield 32.00 17.8 16.9 83.00 25.00 8450 1944 L. G. Preno 24.5 17.9 17.00 79.6 20.00 6800 I94.S F. 0. Jennings 31.00 17.6 16.7 75.00 1946 B. F. Bayler 33-00 22.7 21.56 85-3 1947 Richard Barrows 25-5 18.6 17.67 82.00 20.00 7068 1952 1. A. Goff * 1 1.6 134 12.73 74-44 12.00 3055 1953 F. E. Stevens 21.00 16.00 15.20 82.05 25-00 7600 1954 Frank Hiser 9-2 19-3 18.33 84.65 15.00 5499 1955 E, D. Lovegreen.. 14-33 16.3 15.48 77-94 15.00 4644 1956 E. T. Preuitt 18.66 I9.I 18.14 86.80 20.00 725 Vi . 1 = Pi : 1920 1921 1922 1897 1948! I962I L. M. Jones, Myersburg Kleinwanzlebener Vilmorin Utah Gus Nelson, Livingston Andrew Lyall, Livingston .... George J. Allen, Livingston . . . 17-50 18.00 32.00 23.66 12.5 15-5 17.4 16.00 14.5 16.9 174 18.5 16.53 IS.20 13-77 16.05 16.53 17-57 77.6 70.17 69.04 78.00 62.14 81.5 20.00 21.00 47 - * 20.5 6612 6384 12944 6498 * Excluded from average. Flathead County. P C 7 0 Name. Av. weight in ounces 1 Sugar in juice i Sugar in licet 1 Puritv coef 1 Tons beets per aere ... Lbs sugar per aere ... 1896 Theodore Koenig, Kalispell . . . 14.00 21.2 20.14 81.7 ! 1904 Me. C. Winiger, Kalispell 14.00 17-3 16.43 82.38 10.00 3286 1951 iC. E. Pettit, Kalispell 25-5 19.7 18.64 83-4 19.00 7083 1 T. S. Proud, Kalispell 1926, 1 Utah 14.2 17-4 16.53 80.55 10.00 3306 1927I Vilmorin 21.2 17.7 16.8 78.00 14.00 4704 1928 Kleinwanzlebener 9.8 20.2 19.19 87.4 II. 00 4222 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Miscellaneous. r m p D* 5*:^ c c (x; g'w c 2. ^ § tj o' n o> Name. § i p rt- n n (fi 03 0“ •t o> p P z 0 0 ft ^ tfi : 5' : 5' 0 0 n ►*> n 2. p S" 0 9 Q rt i-t i88o|W. N. Aylesworth, Deer Lodge '32.00 16.00 15-2 88.00 1852 James Fullerton, Red Lodge... I29.2 13-9 13.2 66.5 16.00 4224 1890 D. McNeil, Boulder 32.00 14.5 1377 80.1 1898 John Flaherty, Cold Springs. . 14.00 12.6 11.87 85-9 1853 J. S. Crowder, Lewistown . . . . 17.00 154 14.63 71.6 23.00 7552 1923 R. Parkhurst, Victoi; 18.00 14.6 13-97 74-4 1982 Sidney Ward, Hamilton ii5-6 21.00 19-95 90.5 1868 W. M. Wooldridge, Hinsdale. . 14.00 157 14.91 80.5 20.00 5964 1949 W. M. Wooldridge, Hinsdale. . 24.8 147 13.96 84.9 1963 Arthur Millard, Miles City. . . . 16.00 18.4 17.48 78.01 1851 John Bamber, Glendive 18.6 14.00 ^ 3-3 76.5 iM Geo. W. Dana, Deer Lodge. . . . 11.8 15-3 14-53 7S-7 General Variety Tests. (Exclusive of the Experiment Farm, Bitter Root Stock Farm, and Clark’s Fork Valley.) Variety. Av. weight in ounces. Sugar in juice. Per cent of sugar in beets. Per cent of purity. Kleinwanzlebener 18.4 21.4 21.5 17.00 16.85 16.00 16.15 16.00 81.3 79-2 75-99 Vilmorin Utah 15.20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 LOCALITY AVERAGES. Locality. Av, weight in ounces Sugar in in juice Sugar in beet Purity Coef Tons beets per acre . . . Lbs. sugar per ac re... Cascade County (i) . . . . ; 24^5 16.25 15-4 75-4 25.00 8075 Yellowstone County 3.S-66 10.56 10.00 62.6 Flathead Count}^ 16.45 18.9 17-95 82.24 12.8 4520 Valley County (i) 19.40 15-2 114-43 82.7 20.00 5968 Park County (2) 19*5 16.66 15-94 73-07 20.5 6498 Custer County (i) 16.00 18.4 17-5 78.00 Dawson County (i) 18.6 14.00 13-3 76.5 Powell County 21.9 15.6 14.86 81.8 Fergus County 17.00 15-4 14.63 71.6 23.00 7552 Jefferson County 23.00 13-50 12.82 83.00 Carbon County (3) 29.2 13-9 13.2 66.5 16.00 4244 Missoula County 16.7 17-3 1 6.46 1 83. 00 13.00 4288 Ravalli County (4) 16.8 17.8 16.96 I82.45 Gallatin County (5) 22.88 15-46 14.68 78.9 31.00 9332 Bitter Root Stock Farm 13-37 20.60 19.64 87.46 16.5 6771 Experiment Farm Clark’s Fork Valley 19-37 17.88 16.98 84.9 10.9 3690 22.7 1 1 7.84 16.97 180.5 1 1 8.00 6174 (1) . One lot only. (2) . One locality only. (3) . Excluding Clark’s Fork Valley. (4) . 5^xcluding Bitter Root Stock Farm. (5) . Excluding Experiment Farm. 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. \ COMPARISON OF YIELDS IN MONTANA AND ELSE- WHERE. Average Montana Results in igoi. Beets Per cent Lbs. Localit3’-. per acre sugar in sugar Tons the beets per acre Bitter Root Stock Farm 16.5 19.64 6771 Experiment Farm 10.9 16.98 3690 Clark’s Fork Valiev 18.00 16.97 6174 Cascade County fa).' 25.00 1540 8075 Flathead County 12.8 17*95 4520 Valley County (a) 20.00 14*43 5964 Park County 20.5 15.90 6498 Fergus County 23.00 14*63 7552 Carbon County (b) . 16.00 13.20 4244 Missoula County | 13.00 ! 16.46 4288 Gallatin County (c) ! 31-00 14.68 9332 (a) . One lot only. (b) . Excluding Clark’s Eork Valley. (c) . Excluding Experiment Station. Germany. Years. No. of factories. Acreage. Tons beets per acre. Per cent sugar in beets. Lbs. sugar per acre. 1890-1891 406 825,825 13^03“" l’2.09 3150 1891-1892 403 861,583 II.4I 12.06 2752 1892-1893 401 869,829 I 1.29 11.94 2696 1893-1894 405 945.995 II . 12 12.34 2744 1894-1895 405 1,090,801 13*27 12.15 3225 1895-1896 397 930.749 12.55 13*11 3290 1896-1897 399 1,049,881 13*07 12.66 33<'*9 1897-1898 402 1,079,810 8.62 12.79 2205 1898-1899 401 1. 1 54.229 11.52 13*15 3029 1899-1900 399 1. 154.355 11.79 14.4 3395 I9OO-I9OI 395 1.095,790 12.06 14.91 3596 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 COMPARISON OF YIELDS IN MONTANA AND ELSE- WHERE. France. Years. No. of factories. Acreage. Tons beets per acre. Per cent sugar in beets. Lbs sugar per acre. 1890-1891 377 547.574 II -3 10.7 2418 1891-1892 370 550,786 10.16 II.6 2357 1892-1893 368 537,690 9-77 . 10.9 2030 1893-1894 370 543,420 9.27 II -5 2132 1894-1895 367 596,803 12.21 10.15 2478 1895-1896 356 505,851 10.7 12.7 2558 1896-1897 358 608.370 11-37 10.8 2456 1897-1898 344 564,572 II. 21 12.9 2892 1898-1899 344 590,347 10.49 13-34 2807 •1899-1900 399 626,480 11.81 12.45 2941 I9OO-T9OI 342 685,391 10.79 15.01 3239 A careful scrutiny of these tables shows the steady increase in sugar per acre in Germany and France, under constantly improving methods of cultivation. But even with the extreme care in culture and the constant application of fertilizers, the results are far below those obtained in Montana, in every locality in which the experi- mental work has been carried on. Certainly in some of these localities we have good reason to hope for the location of a beet sugar factory soon. For an explanation of terms and a general discussion of the problem, the reader is referred to Bulletin No. 19 of this Station, on Sugar Beets in Montana. .An extended Bulletin at this time has been considered unnecces- sary, for it is believed that the figures given “speak for themselves.'' I . JO V- s'-f UNIVERSITY of ILimO'S BULLETIN No^ 34 .' MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, Agriciilttiral College of Montana. FARMERS’ WEIRS. ONE METHOD OF MEASURINO WATER. ^HIS PUBLICATION IS THE FIRST OF A SERIES OF FARMERS’ BULLETINS ON IRRIGATION TOPICS. Bozeman, Montana, February 1902. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, 1902. MONTANA AORICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOZEMAN, - MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ James Donovan, Attorney-General, V Ex-Officio Helena W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans Missoula. C. D. Leonard Butte. N. W. McConnell Helena O. F. Goddard Billings * O. P. Chisholm Bozeman J. G. McKay Hamilton G. T. Paul Dillon N. B. Holter Helena EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President J. M. Robinson, Vice-President Peter Koch, Secretary Joseph Kountz E. B. Lamme Bozeman. Bozeman. Bozeman, Bozeman. Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma, E F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S. . . . Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A J, W. Blankinship, Ph. D R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Director and Irrigation Engineer Chemist Agriculturist. Botanist. Entomologist PostofRce, Express and Freight Station. Bozeman, All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. NOTICE. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. r.tki. '-t. Libhary OF.THE UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 34 - = . = FEBRUARY 1902. FARMERS’ WEIRS. By S. Fortiee, Director. INTRODUCTION. During the crop growing season the irrigators of Montana divert large volumes of water from the natural channels of the stream. When the natural supply is limited to the flow of a small creek a few farmers may convey the entire amount through small ditches. When the stream is large a score or more of canals, each supplying water to hundreds of farmers, may be in use. In all cases other than exclusive individual ownership the equitable division of irrigation waters is a necessity. For a long period after the first settlement of the fertile valleys of the state, water was abundant and little attention was paid to accurate measurements, or a just division. • In some favored sections these conditions still prevail. So long as water for irrigation is cheap and plentiful western farmers, as a rule, do not trouble their minds about either irrigation laws or suitable 'j;^measuring devices. Until March 12, 1885 Montana had no legal standard for measuring water in motion. In that year the legislature enacted the following: “Sec. 1262. The measurement of water appropriated under this chapter shall be conducted in the following manner: A box or flume shall be constructed with a head gate placed so as to leave an opening of six inches between the bottom of the box or flume and the lower edge of the head gate, with a slide to enter at one side of and of suffi- 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. cient width to close the opening left by the head gate by means of which the dimensions of the opening are to be adjusted. The box or flume shall be placed level, and so arranged that the stream in passing through the aperture is not obstructed by back water, or an eddy below the gate; but before entering the opening to be measured the stream shall be brought to an eddy, and shall 'stand three inches on the head gate and above the opening. The number of square inches contained in the opening shall be the measure of inches of water.” From 1885 to 1898 the miners’ inch box just described was the only legal method of measuring irrigation water and the court decrees o^ that period in relation to all water right suits are exi)resssed in Montana statutory inches. This box which was designed to measure miners’ inches consisted generally of a short flume having a bottom and two sides. At the upper end a board three inches wide was fastened six inches above the top of the floor. The opening formed between the lower edge of the board and the floor was controlled by a slide, or gate, whi:;h moved horizontally. When the box was in place the irrigation stream to be measured was turned on and the slide so adjusted that the surface of the water at the upper end of the box was level with the top of the three inch board. It was an easy way of measuring water under a six inch pressure, for the distance from the top of the three inch board to the center of the opening was intended to be six inches. In measuring a stream if the slide were drawn out 15 inches at the time the water was level with the top of the three inch board the opening thus made would be six inches high and 15 inches long and contain 90 square inches. The amount of water flowing through this opening of 90 square inches under an average head of six inches would represent 90 miner’s inches. This method of measuring water has been severely criticised by the engineers of the state. Their objections may be summarized as as follows: (1) It is not accurate. (2) It can only be used to measure small streams. (3) It is not adapted to continuous measurements. (4) It favors the large consumer. (5) The flow may be considerably increased or diminished by slight changes. FAKMERS’ WEIRS. 5 (6) Miners’ inches vary in quantity in different localities of the West. In 1898 the state legislature established a new standard unit, defined the Montana miners’ inch and repealed all laws in conflict therewith. This enactment is still in force and the standard units with others will be described under the next heading. DEFINITIONS. Cubic Foot pee Second.— The standard unit for flowing water in Montana as well as in most of the western states and territories, is a solid, or cubic foot of water, moving at the rate of a lineal foot in one second of time. Each foot in length of a flume one foot wide and one foot high inside measurement and flowing full of water would contain a solid or cubic foot of water. Now if this flume were placed on such a grade that the average rate of flow of v/ater witlfimit would be just one foot of distance for each second of time it would carry a volume equal to the standard unit. This unit is often abbreviated into the two words SECOND-FOOT. ^ In considering this stand&rd for flowing water,' irrigators • shcmld not conclude that a volume of a certain definite size is necessary. « It will be apparent to all that a flume six inches wide and^ six inches high full of water flowing at the average rate of 4 feet per second would also deliver one cubic .'foot per second. In general, the flow of any stream may be obtained by multiplying the width and depth of :the water channel in feet by the average rate of flowdn feet., A flume, for example, which is six feet wide inside and carries water to a depth of 1-| feet w^ould contain 6x1-^ or 9 square feet of water area. Now, if it is found that the average rate of flow is two feet per second the total volume is 2x9, or 18 subic feet per second. In the case of a ditch in earth with a curved bottom the area is not so readily found but the principle involved is the same. - Montana Miners’ Inch.— Like the bushel measure for grain the term miners’ inch is likely to be continued long after that method of water measurement has been abandoned. I^do not know of a single Montana farmer that now measures his grain by means of a bushel measure and yet the large majority indicate their yields in bushels M^//] MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. WE/R BOX Na/ To Measure from /S fo -^O Mtn€r,s /nc/fe^ FAKMERS’ WEIRS. 7 Bill of Material for Weir Box No. I. No. of Pieces. Actnal Dimensions* B. M. Feet Where Used. Remarks. 4 In. In. Ft. In 2 X 12 X 8 64 Lining Sides. Lumber, Rough. 3 2 X 12 X 8 48 Lining Bottom. ii a 1 2 X 10 X 8 13>^ ii ii ii ii 8 2 X X 4 2 22K Sills and Ties. “ 8 2 X 4 X 2 10 15 Posts. i i i i 2 2 X 12 X 4 2 16% Aprons. a ii 2 2 X 12 X 3 13^ 12% Weir Board. Cl^r Lumber Surface. 4 lx 2x2 IM Cleats, sides. i i a 2 lx 2x3 1 Cleats, bottom. ii i i 7 lbs. 20d wire nails. % lb. 6d wire nails. 8 MONTANA, EXPERIMENT STATION. per acre. Scales of all kinds have now become so common that the old fashioned measure of our grandfather’s time is no longer used. There have been like changes in the devices used to measure water and while we still retain the term miners’ inch we seldom ascertain the flow by the miners’ inch box. For small streams of water such as are applied to orchard and garden tracts the miners’ inch is a conven- ient unit and there are advantages in continuing its use. In adopting a new standard the members of our state legislature foresaw the ex- tended use of the old unit and so deflned it in accurate terms. Forty (40)Montana miners’ inches are the exact equivalent of one cubic foot per second. An irrigation stream containing 80 miners’ inches would be described as two second-feet by the new standard, one containing 120 miners’ inches as three second feet, and so on. !^cee-Foot. — The second-foot and the , miners’ inch can only be used for water in motion. It is often convenient in irrigation to describe a certain volume of water in a state of rest. The cubic foot might have been adopted for this purpose had it not been too small. It would have been but a drop in a bucket when compared with the large quantities used in irrigation. Accordingly the acre-foot has been quite generally adopted. This unit represents the quantity of water which would cover an acre to the depth of one foot. Since there are 43560 square feet in an acre, an acre-foot contains 43560 cubic feet. . Rainfall is measured in depth over the surface and of late years the tendency has been to measure water for irrigation in the same way. One frequently hears it stated by practical irrigators that forty acres of spring wheat will require 40 miners’ inches. But this statement conveys no definite idea as to the actual amount of water applied to the wheat field because the number of days the stream has been allowed to run on the field is not given. When, however, one states that 60 acre- feet were applied in two irrigations it shows that a certain definite volume of water was used during stated periods and that this volume was sufficient to have covered the 40 acre field to a depth of l-J feet. One Irrigation. — How much water does it require for one irriga- tion ? The amount will, of course, vary with a score or more of condi- tions. It may interest the reader to know that of 44 experiments FAKMEKS’ WEIRS. 9 made by this Station in different parts of Montana the average was 10 inches of water over the surface irrigated. This amount included all waste incurred on the field but did not include the losses in conveying the water from the natural channel to the borders of the field. The writer has found that with well made field laterals and skilled irrigators 6 inches of water will suffice to wet the soil to an average depth of one foot. The Standard Unit and the Acre-Foot. — Irrigators frequently wish to convert running w^ater into volumes. It may interest them fo learn that a second-foot, or 40 miners’ inches, flowing on an acre for one hour will cover it to a depth of one inch. If this stream is allowed to flow on an acre for a day it will cover it to a depth of two feet. This rule is not quite exact but may be used in general practice. ^ Irrigatioa Water Should be Measured. Throughout the irrigated portions of Montana, 40 acres of land wdth 20 miners’ inches of water will produce more than 80 acres with- out water. If this be true, and the statement would seem to be extremely conservative, a miners’ inch of water apart from the cost of irrigation is equal in value to two acres of land. Still one finds that land is measured and mapped and when sold the purchaser is careful to see that the deed is valid apd properly recoii^Ied*. Whereas, in the case of irrigation water probably less than five per cent of the total vol- ume used in the state has ever been measured. ; I < The New Standard. ’ lam often asked to explain the new way of measuring water. The Montana legislature has prescribed no new method. It has merely adopted a standard unit in which all volumes of running water are hereafter to be expressed. The same legislative assembly might have adopted the hundred weight as the standard unit for the sale of all grains and defined the bushel as equivalent to 50 pounds. Such a law would not have com- pelled farmers to use a particular make of scale or prevented them from using the bushel measure. The citizens of the state may measure 10 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. f^/an ly c/r' J3oarx7 //? FARMERS’ WEIRS. 11 Bill of Material for Weir Box No. 2* No. of Pieces. Actual DimeDsions. B. M. Feet. Where Used. Remarks. 6 In. In. Ft. In 2 X 12 X 10 120 Lining, Sides Lumber, Rough. 4 2 X 12 X 10 80 Lining, Bottom ( i < ( 1 2 X 6 X lb 10 Lining, Bottom “ 8 2x4x5 26 % Sills and Ties | < 4 8 2x4x34 17 % Posts 4 4 4 4 2 2 X 12 X 5 20 Aprons 4 4 4 4 2 2 X 12 X 4 16 Weir Board Clear Lumber Surface. 1 2 X 10 X 4 6% Weir Board 44 44 44 4 lx 2 X 2 6 1% Cleats, Sides 44 (4 44 2 1x2x4 IK Cleats, Bottom 44 44 44 73 ^ lbs. 20d wire naile. 3^' lb. 6d wire Dai Is. 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. irrigation water by any accurate method providing the results are expressed in cubic feet per second. . ^ CuEEENT Metee Measueemants. — Of late years small insturments called current meters have been manufactured by several firms at prices ranging from $50 to $200 each. These meters indicate the velocity of the water in any open channel and the mean velocity when multiplied by the area of the section gives the discharge. This mode of measuring water has become quite popular owing to the ease and rapidity with which it can be done and also to the fact that fairly accurate results can be obtained without the use of fiumes. boxes, or other devices. Rating Flumes. — For occasional measurements the earthen channel of a ditch, or canal, answers all purposes but when more accurate and continuous measurements are desired rating fiumes are usually constructed. These consist of wooden fiumes as wide as the the water channel and from 8 to 24 feet in length placed to conform with the grade of the canal. The velocity of the water is found by a current meter and the depth of water is ofter recorded on a sheet attached to a self registering machine which needs attention only every seventh day. . :i Weie Boxes. — A weir box usally consists of a fiume with the lower end enclosed. In the middle of the top of the lower end a notch is cut through which the water to be measured flows.- Weirs- require no instruments other then a foot rule, they are easily and cheaply made and measure flowing water within two per cent of accuracy when all the requisite conditions are fulfilled. Weir boxes aS compared with miners’ inch boxes are more accurate can be built for the same if not for less money and can be used to measure much larger volumes. The chief defects of this device are that the box often fills with sediment which must be removed and that the water as it issues from the notch requires a drop of at least double the depth of water flowing through the notch. Where to Place Farmers^ Weirs* For nearly half a century western irrigators have tried to devise a way by which water might be measured as it flows through a headgate. FAEMEK’S WEIKS. 13 They hoped to make one structure answer two purposes. In this they have failed for the reason that water is so much agitated and so irregular in flow^ as it passes through a headgate as to render it impossible to secure an accurate measurement. Of late years, measur- ing boxes have been placed at the most suitable points below the head- gates and the latter con ^rol the stream while the former indicate the volumes. This rule applies to weirs. It is well to have a space of at least 50 ft. between the two structures and if a better site can be se- cured farther down the ditch the intervening distance may be increased to several hundred feet. The weir boxes from No. 1 to No. 4 inclusive sketched in this bulletin are intended to be placed near the head gates of farmers’' laterals which divert water from natural streams or canals. These boxes are designed to measure from 5 to 300 miners’ inches and are intended for individual, and in the case of the larger sizes, for partner- ship use. Weir box No. 5 may be used at the head of a large lateral, or on one of the branches of a canal. It will measure sufficient water to supply the needs of from 5 to 15 farmers. How to Place Weir Boxes* Attention has already been called to the fact that weirs require a fall and with this in mind select for a site a part of the ditch that has a heavy grade. The weir box should be placed on a level in both directions having the floor at the lower end on a level with the bottom of the ditch. The ditch banks above the weir box should be raised in order that the water may flow through the notch in the weir board. When the weir box is in position the apron is inserted in front and moist earth carefully tamped around the side. The ditch for a distance of 50 feet, or more, above the weir box should be regular and equal in depth and width to the inner dimensions of the box. Care must be taken that no water escapes either beneath or at the sides of the box. In the case of the smaller sizes, the box may be built at the most convenient place, hauled to the site and then put in place. It is usually more convenient to build it on the site. The 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION: FARMERS’ WEIRS. 15 Bill of Material for Weir Box No. 3. No. of Pieces. Actual Dimensions. B. M. Feet, Where Used. Remarks. 6 In. In. Ft. In 2 X 12 X 12 144 Lining, Sides Lumber, Rough 2 2 X 10 X 12 40 Lining, Sides a it 3 2x12x12 72 Lining, Bottom ii ii 4 2 X 10 X 12 80 Lining, Bottom i i i i 4 4 X 4 X 6 4 34 Sills. i i < < 4 3 X 4 X 6 4 24 Ties. 6 i 6 6 16 2 X 4 X 4 2 67 Posts. 6 6 6 6 2 2 X 12 X 64 25K Aprons. 6 6 6 6 1 2 X 18 X 5 4>^ 16 Weir Board Clear Lumber surfaced. 2 2 X 12 X 5 434 21>^ Weir Board 66 66 66 4 lx 2 X 3 4 Cleats on Sides 66 66 66 2 lx 2 X 5 434 Cleats, Bottom 66 66 6 J 11 ibs. 20ci wire oails. lb. 6d wire nails. 16 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. FARMERS’ WEIRS. 17 Bill of Material for Weir Box No* 4. No; of Pieces. Actual Dimensions. B. M. Feet, Where Used. Remarks. 6 In. Id. Ft. In 2 X 12 X 16 190 Lining, Sides Lumber, Rougli ^ 2 2 X 10 X 16 53K Lining, Sides i 6 i i 4 2 X 12 X 16 128 Lining, Bottom a it 4 2 X 10 X 16 106% Lining, Bottom < i < i 4 00 X X ^0 8-9 Sills. a i i 4 3 X 4x7 8 30% Ties. ( ( < < 16 2 X 6x4 4 69% Posts. i 6 n 2 2 X 12 X 7 8 30% Aprons. t i a 1 2 x 16 X 6 4 16 8-9 Weir Board Clear Lumber surfaced. 2 2 X 14 X 6 4 39 5.9 Weir Board i < ( ( 4 lx 2x2 6 IK Cleats on Sides ( ( ( ( i i 2 1 X 2x6 4 2 1-9 Cleats, Bottom < ( a (9 12 lbs. 20cl wire nails. 1 lb. 6d wire nails. 18 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION P>arf P/ar> s^ory//?^ PVe/>-Goorz:/ /y’ P/i/me WE/R BOX N^S To Measure from /OO /o/OOO M/ners /ncfes FARMERS’ WEIRS. 19 Bill of Material for Weir Box No* 5* No. of Pieces. Actual Dimensions’ B. M. Peet Where Used. Remarks. 10 lu. In. Pt. In 2 X 12 X 18 360 Lining Sides. Lumber, Rough. 12 2 X 12 X 18 432 Lining Bottom. it i i 8 4 X 6 X 12 193 Sills and Ties. 6 6 H 16 2 X 6x5 8 91 Posts. 6 6 6 6 2 2 X 12 X 12 34 48 Aprons. 6 6 6 i 1 3 X 20 X 10 834 5334 Weir Board. .Clear Lumber Surfaced. 3 3 X 14 X 10 834 112 i i i 6 U 6 6 6 6 4 2 X 4x2 6 6% Cleats, sides. *6 66 66 2 2 X 4x11 14% Cleats, bottom. 66 66 66 10 lbs. 20d wire nails. 1 lb. 6d wire nails. 32 ^ in. X 11 ins. Machine bolts. 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. frame work or yokes are first framed and put into position after which the flooring and sides are nailed on and last of all the weir board is inserted. Weir Gauges* When great accuracy is required the depth of water over the crest of the weir is found by means of an instrument called a Hooke Gauge. The farmer uses simpler if less accurate methods. When the weir box is placed, care should be taken to have the bottom of the notch, or crest, level. An ordinary carxDenter’s spirit level may be used for this purpose. When the crest is horizontal, one end of the spirit level is placed on the center of the crest and when level the other end will mark the point for the zero of the weir gauge. In rough work a nail may be driven part way into the side of the box, the top of the nail being level with the crest of the weir. A thin plate of brass is to be preferred to a nail. In other cases gauges are inserted on the sides of the flume and properly marked in tenths of feet or inches. At other times a post from 1 to 2 inches square is placed in the center of the box and several feet above the weir board. The top of this post is on a level with the crest. . Drawings of Weir Boxes. The first sketch represents a weir box in use and is introduced for the purpose of. conveying some idea of the manner of placing such boxes in a lateral, or ditch. The gauge post referred to in a former paragraph is shown beneath the second tie-beam. Measurements are made from the top of the post. Weie Box No. 1 — is designed to measure from a few miners’ inches up to 40 miners’ inches. The length of the weir notch is 12 inches. Weie Box No. 2 — will measure volumes from 25 to 100 miners’ inches. If extreme accuracy is not required it will also measure from 1 to 25 miners’ inches. The preceding statement applies to all the sketches introduced in this bulletin. Weie Box No. 3 — should be used for all streams that do not ex- ceed 200 miners’ inches. Weie Box No. 4 — has a length of weir of 3 feet and will measure FARMEKS’ WEIRS. • 21 quantities of water ranging from a few miners’ inches to 300 miners’ inches. Weik Box No. 5 — represents the kind of box to insert on main laterals which supply a number of individual shareholders. If it be desired to measure volumes larger then 1000 miners’ inches the length of the weir may be incressed from 7 to 8, 9 or 10 feet. Any increase in the length of the weir should be followed by a like increase in the other parts of the box. On the other hand if the volume to be meas- ured be less than 1000 miners’ inches the length of the weir in No. 5 may be decreased to 5 or 4 , feet decreasing the other parts in proi:)ortion. Weir Tables. Table No 1 — was jDrepared by Mr. J. S. Baker, Instructor in Civil Engineering, assisted by Mr. W. B. Freeman. To accommodate the farmers who use for the most part a cari3enter’s rule or a square, the depths over the crest are given in inches and fractions of an inch. The discharges are given in Montana miners’ inches and were com- puted to the nearest whole number from the formula. Q - 3.3| L. H. I Table No. 2 — is inserted for the benefit of engineers .and canal suj3erintendents who use decimal parts of a foot instead of inches and fractions thereof. The discharges are expressed in cubic feet per second. This table is taken from Bulletin No, 86 of the Irrigation Investigation series of the Department of Agriculture and was com- puted by Mr. C. T. Johnston under the surpervision of .Professor Elwood Mead. How to Measure Water Over Weirs. The method to follow can best be shown by examples. Let us suppose that a farmer has made and placed a box similar to the one shown in drawing No. 1. After turning in the water and allowing it some time to attain a uniform flow he proceeds to the. weir box and with an ordinary rule measures the depth of water flowing through the weir notch. Bear in mind that this measurement is not made at the weir board but at the regular gauge whether it be a nail, brass plate, or post as described under that head. We will assume that the depth 22 MONTANA EXPEKIAIENT STATION. as found by the rule is 3^ inches. Now by referring to Table 1 he follows down the first cobimn until 3^ is reached. The weir used is one foot and under the column marked T-foot weir’ and opposite the figure 3^ already found he finds the number 21 which indicates the number of miner’s inches flowing over a one foot weir when the depth of water is 3^ inches. If the depth had been 4 inches, the flow would have been 26 miners’ inches; if 6 inches, 48 miners’ inches and so on. As a second example, let us suppose that Weir box No. 3 is put in place and the water turned on. The depth as measured is, say 4 inches. N 3w we search for figure 4 in the first column and then find the 'discharge in the column marked ‘2-foot weir’ which is 52 miners’ inches. If the depth had been 8 inches the discharge would have been 147 miners’ inches thus showing that the discharge over weirs is not in proportion to the depth. Acknowledgment . It is fitting that we should express our indebtedness to Cesare Cippoletti, the celebrated Italian Engineer who has given to the world the Cippoletti Weir and to Director L. G. Carpenter of Colorado for introducing this weir into Western America. In the foregoing pages the writer has attempted to describe how Cippoletti weirs may be made and used by Western farmers. I have also to acknowledge the assistance rendered by Professor Elwood Mead of the office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C. Mr. K. C. Schaub, a former student of the writer, prepared the drawings. FAKMERS’ WEIRS. 23 TABLE I. Discharges of Farmers' Weirs of Different lengths, ex- pressed in Montana Miners' Inches. Depth of water 1 foot ]K-ft. 2 foot .3- foot 4-foot 5-foot 6 foot 7-foot [8-foot 9-foot 10-ft. on crest. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. weir. Inches. Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches . Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches . Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches . Miner’s Inches. Miner’s Inches . Miner’s Inches. Vs h 5-16 7- -.6 9-16 11-16 Ya 1 Wa IV 4 1 7-16 K ?8 ra 1 3-16 1 9-16 2 2 5-16 2% Wa 31/2 4 M K IK IK 2K 3 3K 4K 6 6K 7K 34 IK IM 2K 3K 4K 5K 6K 8 9K 10% iiK IK 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 14 16 2 3 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 % 3 4 5 8 11 13 16 19 21 24 27 1 3 5 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29 32 IM 4 6 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 IM 5 7 9 14 18 23 27 .32 36 41 45 IM 5 8 10 16 21 26 31 37 42 47 52 IK 6 9 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 IK 7 10 13 20 27 34 40 47 54 60 67 IK 7 11 15 22 .30 ‘38 45 52 60 67 75 IK 8 12 17 25 33 42 50 58 67 75 83 2 9 14 18 27 37 46 55 64 73 83 92 2K 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 2K 11 16 22 33 44 55 66 77 87 98 109 2% 12 18 24 36 47 59 71 83 95 107 119 2K 13 19 26 38 51 64 77 90 102 115 128 2K 14 21 28 4L 55 69 83 97 110 124 138 2K 15 22 30 44 59 74 ' 89 103 118 133 148 2K 16 24 32 47 63 79 95 111 126 142 158 3 17 25 34 51 68 85 102 119 136 152 169 3K 18 . 26 36 54 72 90 108 125 143 161 179 3K 19 28 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 3K 20 30 40 60 80 100 121 141 161 181 201 3K 21 32 42 64 85 106 127 149 169 191 212 3K 22 34 45 67 89 112 134 157 179 201 224 24 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Table I. Diecharges* of Farmers’ Weirs of Different lens^ths, ex- pressed in Montana Miners’ Inches. — Continued. Depth of water on crest. l-foot weir. IV^-foot weir. 2-fo3t weir. 3-foot weir. I-foot weir. 5-foot weir. 6-foot weir. 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-9oot weir. Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Mil ers’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners^! Miners’ Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 24 35 47 71 94 118 141 165 188 212 235 25 37 49 74 99 124 148 173 198 222 247 4 26 39 52 78 104 130 155 181 207 233 259 27 41 54 81 109 136 163 190 217 244 271 4)4 28 43 57 85 114 142 170 199 227 255 284 4M 30 44 59 89 119 148 178 207 237 267 296 4K 31 46 62 93 124 155 185 216 247 278 309 4M 32 48 64 97 129 161 193 226 258 290 322 4^ 34 50 67 101 134 167 201 235 268 302 335 4)g 35 52 70 105 139 174 209 244 279 .314 349 5 36 54 72 109 145 181 217 254 290 326 362 5% 38 56 75 113 150 188 225 263 301 .338 376 5)4 39 58 78 117 156 195 234 273 312 350 390 5% 40 61 81 121 161 202 242 282 323 362 404 5)4 42 63 84 125 167 209 251 292 334 376 418 5M 43 65 86 130 173 216 259 303 346 389 432 5^ 45 67 89 134 179 223 268 313 357 402 447 5)^ 46 69 92 138 185 231 277 ,323 369 415 461 6 48 71 95 143 190 238 286 333 381 429 476 6)4 49 74 98 147 196 246 295 344 393 442 491 6)4 51 76 101 152 202 253 304 354 405 455 506 6% 52 78 104 156 209 261 313 365 417 469 521 6)4 54 81 107 161 215 269 322 375 429 483 537 6^ 55 83 110 166 221 276 331 387 442 497 552 6M 57 85 114 170 227 284 341 398 454 511 568 eXs 58 88 117 175 234 292 350 409 467 525 584 7 60 90 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 7)4 62 92 123 185 246 308 370 431 493 554 616 7)4 63 95 126 190 253 316 379 443 506 569 632 FARMER’S WEIRS. 25 Table 1. Discharges of Farmers’ Weirs of Different lengths, ex- pressed in Montana Miners’ Inches. — Continued. Depth of water on crest. 1-foot weir. l-i/zfoot weir. 2-foot weir. 3-foot weir. 4-foot weir. 5-foot weir. 6- foot weir. 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-foot weir. Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miness’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Ws 65 97 130 195 260 324 389 454 519 584 649 67 100 133 200 266 333 399 466 532 599 665 68 102 136 205 273 341 409 477 546 614 682 m 70 105 140 210 280 349 419 489 559 629 699 72 107 143 215 286 358 430 501 573 644 716 8 73 110 147 220 293 367 440 513 586 660 733 8% 75 113 150 225 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 8M 77 115 154 230 307 384 461 537 614 691 768 8% 79 118 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785 8^ 80 120 161 241 321 401 482 562 642 722 803 8M 82 123 164 246 328 410 492 574 656 739 821 8M 84 126 168 252 335 419 503 587 671 755 838 8;g 86 128 171 257 343 428 514 599 685 771 856 9 87 131 175 262 350 437 525 612. 700 788 875 134 179 268 357 446 536 625 714 804 893 9M 137 182 273 364 456 547 638 729 820 911 139 186 279 372 465 558 651 744 837 930 142 190 285 379 474 569 664 759 854 949 9M 145 193 290 387 484 580 677 774 861 967 9M 148 197 296 394 493 592 690 789 888 986 9;^ 151 201 302 402 503 603 704 804 905 1005 10 154 205 307 410 512 615 717 820 922 1024 lOK 157 209 313 417 522 626 731 835 939 1044 lOK 159 213 319 425 532 638 744 850 957 1063 10% 162 217 325 433 541 650 758 866 974 1083 10% 165 220 331 441 551 661 771 882 992 1102 10% . . ^ . . . 224 337 449 561 673 785 898 1010 1122 10% 228 342 457 571 685 799 913 1027 1142 10% 2.32 349 465 581 697 813 930 1046 1162 26 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. Table 1. Discharges of Farmers’ Weirs of Different lengths, ex- pressed in Montana Miners’ Inches. — Continued. Depth of water on crest. l-foot weir. 11 / 2 -foot weir. 2-foot weir. 3-foot weir. I-foot weir. 5-foot weir. 6-foot weir. 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-foot weir. Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Miners’ Inches. Inches . Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 11 236 355 473 591 709 827 946 1064 1182 111^ 240 361 481 601 721 841 962 1082 1202 11^ 244 367 489 611 733 856 978 1100 1222 11% 249 373 497 621 746 870 994 1119 1243 11% 253 379 505 632 758 884 1011 1137 1263 11% 257 385 514 642 770 899 1027 1156 1284 11% 261 391 522 652 783 913 1044 1174 1305 11% 265 398 530 663 795 928 1060 1193 1326 12 269 404 539 673 808 943 1077 1212 1347 12% 410 547 684 821 958 1094 1231 1368 12% 417 556 694 833 972 nil 1250 1389 12% 423 564 705 846 987 1128 1269 1410 12% 430 573 716 859 1002 1145 1289 1432 12% 436 582 726 872 1017 1162 1308 1454 12% .... .... 442 590 737 885 1032 1180 1328 1475 12% 449 599 748 898 1048 1197 1348 1497 13 456 607 759 911 1063 1215 1368 1518 13% 462 616 770 924 1078 1232 1389 1541 13% 469 625 781 938 1094 1250 1409 1563 13% 475 634 792 951 1109 1268 1429 1585 13% 482 643 803 964 1125 1286 1449 1607 W\ CO 652 815 978 1140 1.303 1469 1629 13% 661 826 991 1156 1321 1489 1652 13% 670 837 1005 1172 1340 1509 1675 14 679 849 1019 1189 1359 1530 1699 11% 688 860 1032 1204 1376 1550 1721 11% 697 871 1046 1220 1394 1570 1743 11% .... 706 883 1059 1236 1412 1590 1766 11% .... 715 894 1073 1252 1431 1610 1789 FAKMEKS’ WEIRS. 27 Table 1. Discharges of Farmers’ Weirs of different lengths, ex- pressed in Montana Miners’ Inches. — Continued. Depth of water on crest. 1-foot weir. lUz-foot weir. 2-foot weir. 3-foot weir. 4-foot weir. 5-foot weir. 6-foot weir. 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-foot weir. Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches. Miners’ Inches . Miners’ Inches. 725 903 1087 ;268 1449 1631 1812 734 918 1101 1285 1468 1652 1835 743 929 1115 1301 1487 1673 1859 15 753 941 1129 1317 1506 1694 1882 15M 953 1143 1334 1524 1715 1906 15M 965 1158 1351 1543 1736 1929 15% 977 1172 1368 1562 1757 1953 15% 989 1186 1385 1580 1778 1977 15% 1001 1201 1402 1600 1801 2001 15% 1013 1215 1419 1620 1822 2025 15% 1025 1229 1437 1639 1844 2049 16 1037 1244 1455 1659 1866 2073 16% 1049 1259 1472 1678 1888 2098 16% 1061 1273 1489 1698 1910 2122 16% 1073 1288 1506 1717 1932 2147 16% 1086 1303 1523 1737 1954 2171 16% 1098 1318 1539 1757 1976 2196 16% 1110 1333 1556 1777 1999 2221 16% 1123 1348 1572 1797 2021 2246 17 1135 1363 1589 1817 2044 2271 17% 1378 1607 1837 2066 2296 17% 1393 1625 1857 2089 2321 17% 1408 1642 1877 2112 2346 17% 1423 1660 1897 2134 2372 17% 1438 1678 1918 2157 2397 17% 1454 1696 1938 2181 2423 17% 1469 1714 1959 2204 2448 18 1484 1732 1979 2226 2474 28 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Table ii. — Discharges of Cippoletti Weirs of different lengths, com- puted from the formula Q — 3.3| LH? Depth of water on crest . 1-foot weir. li4 foot weir. 2-foot weir. .3-foot weir. 1-foot weir. 5-foot weir. 6-foot weir. 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-foot weir. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Feet per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. 0.01 0.0031 0.0051 0.0067 0.0101 0.01.35 0.0168 0.0202 0.02.36 0.0269 0.0.303 0.0.3,37 .02 .0095 .0113 .0190 .0286 .0381 .0176 .0.571 .0667 .0762 .0857 .09.52 .03 .0175 .0262 .0350 . 0525 .0700 .0875 .10.50 .1225 .1100 .1,571 .1719 .(Jl .0269 .0101 .0539 .0808 .1077 .1.317 .1616 .1885 .21.55 .2121 .2693 .05 .0376 .0565 .07.53 .1129 .1.506 .1882 .22.58 .26.35 .3011 ..3388 .3761 .06 .0195 .0712 .0990 .1181 .1979 .2171 .2969 .3161 .39.58 . 11.53 .1918 .07 .0621 .0935 . 1217 .1871 .2191 .,3118 .3711 .1.365 .1988 ..5612 .62.35 .08 .0762 .1113 .1.521 .2285 .3017 ..3809 .1.571 .. 5 . 3.33 .6095 . 6856 .7618 .09 .0909 .1361 .1818 .2727 .36.36 .1.515 .51.51 .6.363 .7272 .8181 .9090 .10 . 1065 .1.597 .2129 .3191 .12.59 ..532.3 .6388 .71.52 .8.517 .9.582 1.0616 .11 .1228 .1812 .2157 . 3685 .1913 .6111 .7.370 .8.598 .9826 1 . 1051 1.2283 .12 .1399 .2099 .2799 .1198 .,5.598 .6997 .8.397 .9796 1 . 1196 1.2.595 1..3995 .13 .1.578 .2367 .31.56 .17.31 .6.312 .7890 .9168 1.1016 1.2621 1.1202 1..5780 .11 .1761 .2615 .3527 ..5291 .70.51 .8818 1.0.581 1 . 21.55 1.1108 1..5872 1.7.3.36 .15 .19.56 .2931 .3912 ..5868 .7823 .9779 1.1735 1..3691 1..5617 1.7603 1.9.5.59 .16 .21.55 .3232 .1309 .6161 .8619 1.0773 1.2928 1..5083 1.72.37 1.9392 2.1517 .17 .2360 .3.510 .1720 .7079 .91.39 1.1799 1.11.59 1.6519 1.8878 2.12.38 2.-3.598 .18 .2.571 .3857 ..5112 .7713 1.0281 1.28.55 1..5126 1.7997 2.0.568 2.. 31.39 2.. 5710 .19 .2788 .1182 .5576 .8365 1.11.53 1..3911 1.6729 1.9.518 2.2306 2.. 5091 2.7882 .20 .3011 .1517 .6022 .90.31 1.2015 1.. 50.56 1.8068 2.1079 2.1090 2.7101 3.0112 .21 .3210 .1860 .6180 .9720 1.2960 1.6199 1.9139 2.2679 2.5919 2.91.59 3.2.399 22 .3171 .5211 .6918 1.0122 1..3896 1.7.370 2.0811 2.1.318 2.7792 ,3.1266 3.1710 '.23 .8711 .5.570 .7127 1.1111 1.18.51 1.8.568 2.2281 2.. 5995 2. 9701) 3.. 3122 3.71.36 .21 .3958 .5938 .7917 1.1875 l.,5831 1.9792 2.3750 2.7709 3.1667 3.. 5625 3.9.581 .25 .1208 .6312 .8117 1.2625 1.68.33 2.1012 2.. 52.50 2.91.58 3.-3666 3.7875 1.2083 .26 .1163 .6695 .8927 1.3.390 1.78.53 2.2.317 2.6780 3.1213 3.-5707 1.0170 1.16.33 .27 .1723 .7085 .9117 1.1170 1.8893 2.3617 2.8.310 3.. 3063 3.7787 1.2.510 1.72.33 .28 .1988 .7182 .9976 1.1961 1.99.52 2.1911 2.9929 3.1917 3.9905 1.1893 1.9881 .29 ..5258 .7887 1.0515 I ..5773 2.1031 2.6289 3.1.516 3.6801 1.2062 1.7.319 5.2.577 .30 ..5.532 .8298 1 . 1061 1.6.598 2.2128 2.7660 ,3., 31 92 3.8721 1.12.56 1.9788 5.. 5320 .31 ..5811 .8716 1.1622 1.71.33 2.3211 2.90.51 3.1865 1.0676 1.6187 5.2298 5.8109 .32 .6091 .9111 1.2189 1.8283 2.1377 3.0172 3.6.566 1.2660 1.87.51 5.1819 6.0913 .33 .6382 .9573 1.2761 1.9117 2.. 5.529 3.1911 3.8293 1.1675 5.10.58 5.7110 6.3822 .31 .6671 1.0012 1.3319 2.0023 2.6698 3.3.372 1.0017 1.6721 5.. 3396 6.0070 6.6715 .35 .6971 1.0157 1.3912 2.0913 2.7881 3.18.56 1.1827 1.8798 5.-5769 6.2710 6.9711 .36 7972 1.0908 1.1.511 2.1816 2.9088 3.6360 1.36.32 5.0901 5.8176 6.. 5118 7.2720 .37 ^7577 1 . 1366 1.51.51 2.27.31 3.0308 3.7885 1..5163 5.3010 6.0617 6.8191 7.. 57 71 ..38 .7886 1.1830 1..5773 2.36.59 3.1.515 3.9132 1.7318 5.. 5201 6.. 3091 7.0977 7.8863 ..39 .8200 1.2300 1.6399 2.1.599 3.2799 1.0998 1.9198 5.7.398 6.. 5.597 7.3797 8.1997 .10 .8517 1.2776 1.7031 2.. 5.5.51 3.1068 1.2.585 5.1102 5.9619 6.8137 7.66.51 8.. 51 71 .11 .8838 1.32.58 1.7677 2.6.515 3.-53,51 1.1192 5.3031 6.1869 7.0708 .7.9-516 8.8.381 .12 .9161 1.3716 1.8328 2.7191 3.6655 1..5819 5.1983 6.1116 7.3.310 8.2171 9.1638 .13 .9193 1.1239 1.8986 2.8179 3.7972 1.7165 5.69.58 6.61.51 7.. 5911 8.. 51.37 9.19.30 .11 .9826 1.1739 1.96.52 2.9178 3.9.301 1.91.30 5 . 8956 6.8782 7.8608 8.8131 9.8261 .15 1.0163 1..5211 2.0326 3.0189 1.06.52 5.0815 6.0978 7.1111 8.1.303 9.1166 10.1629 .16 1.0.501 1 . 57.55 2.1(X)7 3.1.511 1.2011 5.2.518 6.3021 7.. 3.525 8.1029 9.1.5.32 10.. 50.36 .17 1.0818 1.6272 2.1696 .3.2.511 1.3392 5.1210 6.. 5088 7.-59.36 8.6783 9.76.31 10.8179 .18 1.1196 1.6791 2.2392 3.. 3.588 1.1781 5 . 5980 6.7178 7.8372 8 . 9567 10.0761 11.1960 .19 1 . 1.518 1.7321 2.3095 3.1613 1.6191 5.7738 6.9286 8.0831 9.2,381 10.3929 11.. 5177 ..50 1 . 1903 1.78.51 2.. 3806 3.5709 1.7612 5.9.515 7.1118 8.3321 9.. 5221 10.7127 11.90-30 .51 1.8393 2.1.521 3. )785 1.9017 6.1309 7.. 3.571 8.5833 9.8095 11.03.56 12.2618 ..52 1.8936 2.5218 3.7873 5.0197 6.. 31 21 7 . 5715 8.8370 10.0991 11.3618 12.6212 ..53 1.9185 2.. 5980 3.8970 5.15X51 6.1951 7.7911 9.0931 10.3921 11.6911 12.9901 .51 2.0039 2.6719 1.0079 5.3138 6.6798 8.0157 9.3.517 10.6876 12.0236 13.-3.595 ..55 2.0.598 2.7165 1.1197 5.1929 6.8662 8.2391 9.6126 10.98.59 12.3.591 13.7.323 .56 2.1163 2.8217 1.2326 5.6131 7.0513 8.1651 9.8760 11.2868 12.6977 11.1085 .57 2.1732 2.8976 1.3161 5.7953 7.2111 8.6929 10.1117 11.. 5905 13.0.393 11.1881 .58 2.2307 2.9712 1.1613 5.9181 7.13.55 8.9226 10.1097 11.8969 13.3810 11.8711 ..59 2.2886 3.0515 1..5772 6.1029 7.6287 9.1.511 10.6801 12.20.59 13.7613 15.2.573 .60 2.:il70 3.1291 1.6910 6.2.587 7.8231 9.3881 10.9.527 12.. 51 71 11.0821 15.6168 .61 2.10.59 3.2079 1.8119 6.11.59 8.0198 9.6238 11.2278 12.8317 11.1.3.57 16.0.396 FAKMERS’ WEIRS. 29 Table ii — Discharges of Cippoletti Weirs of difiereiit lengths com- IDutecl from the Formula Q — 3.3f LH| — Continued. Depth of water on crest. 1-foot weir. 1 14 -foot weir . 2-foot weir . 3-foot weir. 1-foot weir. ,5-foot weir. 6-foot weir . 7-foot weir. 8-foot weir. 9-foot weir. 10-foot weir. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft, Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Feet . per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec. per ces. per sec. per sec. 0.62 2.16.51 3.2871 1.9.307 6.. 5713 8.2178 9.8611 11.50.50 13.1186 11.7921 16.13,57 .63 2 .7‘>r>2 3.. 3670 5.0.505 6.7310 8.1175 10.1009 11.7811 13.1679 15.1,511 16.8.319 .61 2., 58.56 3.1175 5.1712 6.8919 8.6187 10., 3121 12.0661 13.7899 15.. 5136 17.2,373 .65 2.6161 3.-5286 5.2929 7.0.572 8.8215 10., 58,57 12.3.500 11.111,3 15.8786 17.6129 .66 2.7077 3.6103 5.1155 7.2206 9.02.58 10.8310 12.6.361 11.1113 16.2J65 18.0.516 .67 2. 7695 3.6927 5.5.390 7.3851 9.2317 11.0781 12.9211 11.7707 16.6171 18.16.31 .68 2.8.317 3.7757 5.66.35 7., 5.513 9.1392 11.. 3270 13.2118 15.1027 16.9905 18.8783 .69 2.8911 3.8.593 5.7889 7.7185 9.6181 11.. 5778 13.. 5071 15.1370 17.3667 19.2963 .70 2.9.576 3.91.35 5.9152 7.8869 9.8.586 11.8301 13.8021 15.7738 17.71.56 19.7173 .71 3.0212 1.0283 6.0121 8 . 0565 10.0706 12.0818 11.0989 16.11,30 18.1272 20.1113 70 3.08.52 1.11.37 6.1705 8.2273 10.2812 12.. 3110 11.3978 16.1.517 18,. 51 15 20.. 5683 .73 3.1197 1.1997 6.2995 8.3993 10.1992 12.5990 11.6988 16.7989 18.8985 20.9983 .71 3.2117 1.2863 6.1291 8., 5725 10.71.56 12.8.588 15.0019 17.11.50 19.2881 21.1.313 7. A 3.2801 1.37.31 6.5601 8.7169 10.9.336 13.1203 15., 3070 17.1937 19.6801 21.8671 .76 1.1612 6.6918 8.9221 11.1.5,30 13.3836 15 6112 17.8117 20.07.53 22.30.59 77 1..519.5 6.8213 9.0991 11.. 3728 13.6186 15.92.33 18. 1981 20.1729 22.7176 .78 1.6381 6.9577 9.2769 11.5961 13.9153 16.2315 18 .. 5.538 20.8730 23.1922 .79 1.7279 7.0919 9.15.59 11.8198 11.1838 16., 5177 1 18.9117 21.2757 23.6.396 .80 1.8180 7.2270 9.6360 12.01.50 11.1.539 16.8629 19.2719 2 '.6809 21.0899 .81 1.9086 7.3629 9.8172 12.2715 11.72.58 17.1801 19.6311 22.0887 21.. 5130- .82 1.9998 7.1997 9.9996 12.1995 11.9993 17.1992 19.9991 22.1990 21.9989 .83 5.0915 7.6.373 10.1830 12.7288 15 2716 17.8202 20.3661 22.9118 25.1.576 .81 5.1838 7.77,57 10.3676 12.9.595 15.. 55 11 18.1133 20.7.352 23.3271 25.9191 .85 5.2767 7.91.50 10., 5.5.33 13.1916 15.8300 18.1683 21.1066 23.7119 26.-38.33 .86 5.3700 8.0,5.51 10.7101 13.1251 16.1101 18.7952 21.1802 21. '652 26.8.502 .87 5.1610 7.1960 10.9280 13.6.599 16.. 391 9 19.1239 21.8,5,59 21., 5879 27.,319& .88 5 . 5585 8.3377 11.1169 13.8961 16.6751 19.1.516 22.2338 2.5.0131 27.7923 .89 5 . 6535 8.1802 11.3069 11.1.337 16.9601 19.7872 22.61,39 25.1106 28.2671 .90 5.7190 8.62.35 11.1980 11.3726 17.2170 20.1216 22.9961 25.8706 28.71.51 .91 5.8151 8.7677 11.6902 11.6128 17.. 5.3,53 20.1.579 23.3801 26.3030 29.2255. .92 5.9117 8.9126 11.8831 11.8.513 17.8251 20.7960 23.7669 26.7377 29.7086 .93 6.0389 9.0,583 12.0777 15.0971 18.1166 21.1360 21.1.5.51 27.1718 30.1913 .91 6.1.365 9.2018 12. 27.30 15.3113 18.1096 21.1778 21., 5161 27.6113 30.6826 .95 6.2.317 9.3520 12.1691 15.5867 18.7011 21 8211 21.9.388 28.0.561 .31.17.3,5 .96 6.3331 9.. 5001 12.6668 ]. 5. 83.35 19.0002 22.1669 25., 3.3,36 28.. 5003 .31.6670 .97 6.1326 9.6189 12. 86.52 16.0815 19.2979 22., 5112 26.7,305 28.9168 32.16,31 .98 6.5323 9.7985 13.0617 16 .. 3.309 19., 5970 22.8632 26.1291 29.39,56 ,32.6617 .99 6.6.326 9.9189 13.2652 16 . 58)5 19.8978 23.2111 26.5.303 29.8167 33.1629 1.00 6.7333 10.1000 13.1667 16.8333 20.2000 23.5667 26.9,3.33 30.3000 33.6667 1 01 20 50.38 2,3.9211 27 3,381 30 75.56 31 1729 1^02 20^8090 21,2772 27hl.51 3U213.5 ,31.6817 1.03 21. i 1.58 21 ! 6,351 28 1 511 31.6737 35 . 19,30 1^01 21.1210 21.9917 28 ! 5651 32^361 35 . 7067 1.05 2 1 . 7,338 25^3561 28^9781 32 ! 6007 36 . 22,30 1.06 22.01,50 25 hi 92 29 ! 393,3 33 ! 0675 36.7117 1.07 22., 3577 26.0810 29^103 ,33., 5,365 ,37.2628 1 08 22 6719 26 1505 30 “^“^Ol 31 0078 ,37 7861 1^09 22.9875 26^187 30 '.6199 31.1812 38., 31 21 1.10 23.3015 27.1886 31 .0727 ,31.9.568 38.8109 1 11 2,3 6230 27 ,5602 31 1971 35 1316 ,39.3717 1.12 23.91.30 27.9.3,35 31.9210 35.9115 .39.90,50 1 13 21.2611 28 . ,3081 ,32 . ,3525 36 3965 10 1106 1 11 21., 5872 28 68.50 32 7829 36.8808 10.9786 1.15 21.9111 29.06,33 33.21,52 ,37.3671 11.5190 1.16 25.2370 29.11,32 ,3,3.6191 37 85,56 12.0617 1.17 25.. 5611 29.8218 31.08.51 38.3161 42.6068 1.18 , 25.8925 ,30.2079 31.. 52.31 38.8388 13.1.512 1.19 26.2221 ,30.. 5928 ,31.9631 39.3,335 13.7039 1.20 26.5536 ,30.9792 35.1018 39.8301 44.2.560 1.21 .3 r. 3672 ,35.8183 10.3293 11.8103 1 22 31.7,569 36 2936 10 8303 45.3670 1>23 ,32.1181 36.7107 11., 33,33 45.9259' BULLETIN NO. 35. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF flONTANA. Report of Feeding Tests. BEEF CATTLE AND SHEEP. I. Comparative Results from Feeding Lambs, 1-year Wethers, 2-year Wethers and Aged Ewes. II. Fattening Steers with Different Quantities of Grain. BOZEMAN, MONTANA, MAY I, 1902. 1902. The Avant Courier Publishing Co., Bozeman, ilontana. Hontana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor 1 James Donovan, Attorney General [ex-officio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnson O. P. Chisholm J. F. McCay... G. T. Paul....! N. B. Holter J. M, Evans '.. C. Leonard Helena Helena ....Billings .Bozeman Hamilton Dillon Helena .Missoula Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A Agriculturist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. ' All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. Notice! — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends Ins name and address to the Station for that purpose. Fattened by the Montana Experiment Station, 1902. IVRyyETHER Fattened by the Montana Experiment Station, 1902. Montana Experiment Station Bulletin No, 35. = = = = flay 1902. BY R. S. SHAW. SHEEP FEEDING. COMPARATIVE TESTS WITH LAMBS, YEARLING WETHERS, TWO-YEAR WETHERS, AND AGED EWES. The primary object of this work during the past season was to secure data concerning the relative profits from feeding sheep of different ages for market. In procuring this data secondary deter- minations were made demonstrating many practical requirements and results in a comparative way along the following lines, viz: (i) Amount of food required, per head, daily. (2) Relation of grain to coarse food for sheep of different ages. (3) Actual and percentage gains in live weight. (4) Air dry food necessary per pound increase. (5) Relative cost of food and increase. (6) Rel- ative profits. (7) Report of slaughter test. (8) Shrinkage in transit. This work was found tp be necessary because of the rapidly in- creasing interest which is 'being manifested throughout the state in fitting sheep for market. Because of climatic conditions peculiar to the arid west and the kind and quality of its product, determinations even of the simplest and most practical character must be made I AIONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. under these local conditions to supply the great demand for infor- mation. There has been a great demand for data relating to the suitability of sheep of different ages for the purpose stated. In the great majority of cases it is a matter of choice as to which class shall be used, for the feeding stocks are nearly all purchased by the farmer from the ranges when the feeding season begins. For the purpose of these experiments, four lots consisting of wether lambs, yearling wethers, two-year wethers, and aged ewes were purchased for the Station, in ( 3 ct., 1902, by J. M. Robin- son. The object in selection was to secure animals presenting uni- formity in blood characters and the average of IMontana range pro- duction. These sheep were purchased by the head, at the following prices: Lambs, $1.62; yearlings, $2.50; two-year-olds, $2.65; and aged ewes, $2.50. The average weights when feeding began were : Lambs, 62.9 lbs. ; yearlings, 94.9 lbs. ; two years, 115.7 lbs. ; and ewes, 91.6 lbs. The sheep had the run of the farm for a few days before being put on feed. The feeding period l)egan Nov. 22d, 1901, and closed February 17th, 1902, thus extending over a period of 88 days. The same kinds 'of food Avere used in each case and under similar conditions. The four lots were fed in yards, side by side, using racks for the hay and troughs for grain. The sheep had constant access to sheds and water which ran tlirough the yards. (Jwing to the peculiar- ly favorable climatic conditions, the sheds were not used by the sheep more than a few days when the protection was badly needed! Though it was the original intention to have fed lots of equal numbers of 55 each, this was not possible, owing to error in cutting the various bunches out from a large band. However, the data here- after given shows the difference was not great and in no way affects the results. Some few average individuals from each lot were slaughtered at home for photographic purposes. The data through- out is based on the number which reached the Chicago market and upon which the slaughter test was reported. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 Total Food Consumed and Cost of Same. Feeding period began Nov. 22d, 1901 and ended Feb. 17, 1902, covering 88 days. 55 lambs consumed 9958 lbs. clover, @ $5.00 ton $24.89 55 lambs consumed 3304 lbs. barley, @ 90c per cwt 29.73 Total $54*62 51 i-yr. wethers consumed 16,960 lbs. clover, @ $5.00 per ton. .$42.40 51 i-yr. wethers consumed 3073 lbs. barley, @ 90c per cwt. . . .$27.65 Total ‘ $70.05 53 2-yr. wethers consumed 1^,905 lbs. clover, @ $5.00 per ton. .$47.26 53 2-yr. wethers consumed 3195 lbs. barley, @ 90c per cwt 28.75 Total $76.01 53 ewes consumed 10,904 lbs. clover, @ $5.00 per ton $47.26 53 ewes consumed 3195 lbs. barley, @ 90c per cwt 28.75 Total $56.01 The figures given above represent the actual amounts of food con- sumed, the percentage of waste having been deducted. While the ideal method is to feed without waste, under conditions such as these it must be taken into account in making accurate determinations. Where such close feeding is practiced that there is absolutely no waste, the gains will be somewhat affected as the ration in part be- comes forced. The coarser and less edible the food the greater will be this loss. Under ordinary conditions, with the quality of foods which can be produced in Montana when properly cured, the loss should not exceed two or three per cent. In this case the coarse food consisted of first and second crop clover hay. In general the 'quality was good, though a small amount had discolored in the stack. It had been cut in the first stages of bloom. The grain food consisted exclusively of Chevalier barley and was fed unground in every case. While some question has arisen as 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. to whether better results would have been obtained had this grain been ground, there was no evidence to show that it was not perfectly masticated and digested. The ewe mouths were examined and found to be in fairly good condition with one exception only. A combination of grains was not used because of the fact that many of our feeders will of necessity be forced to use some one kind. Both wheat and oats have been used separately along with clover in pre- vious tests. Good results have been secured from all three, with a slight gain in favor of oats, with wheat and barley about equal and very close to the oats in gains. The oats have proved to be far the most expensive food of the three, owing to local prices. Food Consumed Per Head Per Day. Lambs. Clover, 2.05 lbs. Barley, .68 lbs. Total, 2.73 lbs. 1- year Wethers. . .Clover, 3.77 lbs. Barley, .68 lbs. Total, 4.45 lbs. 2- year Wethers. . .Clover, 4.05 lbs. Barley, .68 lbs. Total, 4.73 lbs. Aged Ewes Clover, 2.33 lbs. Barley, .68 lbs. Total, 3.01 lbs. The figures given above represent the average daily consumption of hay and grain and also the average amount of total dry matter used per head throughout the 88 days. In the case of the lambs the amount of food actually consumed per head, per day^ is a little less than we had expected. Lbider similar conditions, in previous tests, about three pounds has been required for a daily ration and the feeder should figure on no less than that amount in making esti- mates of the food required by large bands. Relation of Grain to Coarse Food. From the foregoing data we find the following relation to exist between the grain and the coarse food : In Lamb ration 24 per cent consisted of grain. In i-year Wether ration 15 per cent consisted of grain. In 2-year Wether ration 14 per cent consisted of grain. In Aged Ewe ration 22 per cent consisted of grain. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 This relation of grain and coarse food (clover) was planned in order to give the four lots of different ages a uniform finish for the market. In the case of the lambs the largest percentage of grain was given, not as being necessary to produce a large increase in weight, but to give the carcass fatness ; the tendency in the lamb being to an increase of a growthy nature rather than fat. The weth- ers, being practically mature sheep, were supplied a smaller percent- age of grain as the increase in live weight is mostly fat. It is on this basis that we advocate the fattening of lambs only, when some grain can be used, and the selection of wethers where alfalfa or clover only are available. The larger ration of grain was furnished the ewes be- cause of poor condition and vitiated digestive and assimilative powers. Attention is especially called to the results secured in these experi- ments where grain forms less than one quarter of the ration. It is only through the use of legumes such as red clover, alsike and alfalfa, that such results can be secured. Where carbonaceous coarse foods such as native hays, corn fodder, sorghum, etc., are used, then the grain must form one half to two thirds of the ration in order to secure equivalent gains. Weights and Increase in 88 Days from Food Fed. VARIOUS LOTS. Weight Nov. 22d, 1902.... (1 > < S Weight Feb. 17, 1902 c > tt i-j Cc % Total Gain Gain Per Head S. 0 y jpercentage of Increase lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. per ct. 55 Lambs 3459 62.9 4764 86.6 1305 1 23.7 8.08 37-7 51 i-year Wethers. .. 4840 94.9 6040 118.4 1200 23.5 1 8.01 24.7 53 2-yeaf Wethers.. 6133 II 5-7 7420 140. 1287] 24-3 1 8.28 20.9 53 Aged Ewes 4858 91.6 5684 107.2 826 15-6 5-31 17 * 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The weights above given were neither secured from the animals Under full feed nor yet under a shrinkage. The practice followed was to weigh from eight to nine hours after the morning feed. The weights were taken every two weeks but owing to the uniformity in these the final results only are reported. Attention is particularly called to the column above giving the percentage increase in live weight. With the exception of the ewes the gains per head for 88 days, as well as the gains per month, appear to be quite similar, and’ until presented in a way in which comparison is made more clear, the differences are not so manifest. The percentage of in- crease added to the original live weight was as follows: Lambs 37 per cent, i-yr. wethers 24.7 per cent, 2-yr. wethers- 20.9 per cent, and aged ewes 17 per cent. Amount of Air Dry Food Consumed Per Pound Increase Including Maintenance. Lambs Dry food consumed per pound gain, 10.16 lbs. 1- yr. Wethers Dry food consumed per pound gain, 16.6 lbs. 2- yr. Wethers Dry food consumed per pound gain, 17.1 lbs. Aged Ewes Dry food consumed per pound gain, 17.5 lbs. Owing to the small proportion of grain in the ration, viz. : .68 fb per head per day, the total amount of dry food, required to produce a pound of gain is larger than where more grain is used. In previous experiments where about one pound of grain was used in the daily ration for lambs, along with clover, only 8.75 pounds of dry matter was required to produce a pound of increase. In the above, the comparison between the lambs and ewes is made on an equal basis, but in the case of the wethers the propor- tion of hay is greater, consequently, the amounts given for them are a little high in comparison. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 Relative Cost of Production. Lambs Cost per lOO pounds increase in live weight, $4.18 1- yr. Wethers Cost per 100 pounds increase in live weight, 5.83 2- yr. Wethers Cost per 100 pounds increase in live weight, 5.90 Aged Ewes Cost per 100 pounds increase in live weight, 6.78 The cost of production is a matter which of course materially affects the financial results. In the figures given above we find one more striking illustration of the fact that the younger the animal the less will be the cost of increase in live weight produced by it. And then in referring to the sale statement, we find the value thereby given is in about an inverse proportion to the age of the animals. Attention is called here to the fact that an accurate comparison can only be made between the lambs and ewes, as about the same relationship existed in these two cases between the grain and coarse food. The lamb and ewe rations contained 24 and 22 per cent of grain respectively, while the wether rations contained only 14 and 15 per cent of grain. As the grain, however, was worth about i cent per pound and the clover ^ cent per pound, this difference in price would about even things up in the case of the wethers. Per Capita Cost of Food Consumed. Lambs, value of food consumed per head during 88 days, $ .99 1- yr. Wethers, value of food consumed per head during 88 days, 1.37 2- yr. Wethers, value of food consumed per head during 88 days, 1.43 Aged Ewes, .value of food consumed per head during 88 days, 1.05 10 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Financial Statement. LAMBS. Nov. 22, 1901, To 55 lambs at $1.6234 per head, . . . .$ 89.37 Feb. 17, 1902, To cost of feed for 88 days 54-62 Feb. 25, 1902, To cost of shipping 42.96 Feb. 25, 1902, By 55 lambs, 4340 lbs. at $6.50 per cwt. $282.10 Feb. 25, 1902, To net profit 95-15 $282.10 $282.10 1 -YEAR WETHERS. Nov. 22, 1901, To 51 i-yr. wethers at $2.50 per head.. .$127.50 Feb. 17, 1902, To cost of feed for 88 days 70-05 Feb. 25, 1902, To cost of shipping 54-84 Feb. 25, 1902, By 51 wethers, 5540 lbs. at $5.85 cwt. $324.09 Feb. 25, 1902, To net profit 7i-70 $324.09 $324.09 2 -YEAR WETHERS. Nov. 22, 1901, To 53 2-yr. wethers at $2.65 per head. .$140.45 Feb. 17, 1902, To cost of food for 88 days 76.01 Feb. 25, 1902, To cost of shipping 67.30 Feb. 25, 1902, By 53 wethers, 6800 lbs. at $5.40 cwt. $367.20 Feb. 25, 1902, To net profit 83.44 $367.20 $367.20 AGED EWES. Nov. 22, 190T, To 53 ewes at $2.50 per head $132.50 Feb. 17, 1902, To cost of food for 88 days 56.01 Feb. 25, 1902, To cost of shipping 49.89 Feb. 25, 1902, By 53 ewes, 5040 lbs. at $4.75 cwt. $239.40 Feb. 25, 1902, To net profit i.oo $239.40 $239.40 In determining the relative profits from each of the four lots it was necessary to divide the expense of shipping, consisting of frieght charges, feed, commission, etc. This was done on the basis of weights, as the two most important features of expense, freight and feed, are in proportion to weight. Owing to stop-overs for feeding the expenses in this case were considerably above the average, which prevents onr profits from being still larger. AlONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 11 Relative Profits From the Four Lots.* 55 lambs gave a net profit of $95.15 or $1.73 per head. 51 i-year wethers gave a net profit of $71. 70. or $1.40 per head. 53 2-year wethers gave a net profit of $83.44 or $1.57 per head. 53 aged ewes gave a net profit of $1.00, or 1.8 cents per head. The figures given above do not represent the total profits. The hay was charged up at $5 per ton and grain at 90 cents per cwt. Both prices being above cost of production, a secondary profit oc- curs here which is not considered in the data. It is the custom in all feeding experiments to offset the cost of labor by the value of the manue left on the farm to maintain fertility. The greater profit from the two-year wethers as compared with the yearlings is due to the purchase prices. While 94.9 lb. yearlings cost $2.50, 115.7 lb. two year olds were purchased at $2.65. Report of Slaughter Test, by Swift & Co. of Chicago. 55 lambs, average 79 lbs., $6.50, dress 54.2 per cent. 51 i-year wethers, average 108 lbs., $5.85, dress 52.9 per cent. 53 2-year wethers, average 128 lbs., $5.40, dress 53.5 per cent. 53 ewes, average 95 lbs., $4.75, dress 50.6 per cent. “We consider all of these sheep and lambs a useful class of stock, not too fat, and they dress about 2 per cent above the average com- ing to the Chicago market at the present time.” “The percentage of dressed weight is figured on a basis of actual weight immediately after killing, shrunk 3 per cent , which is about what the mutton will shrink after hanging over night.” Shrinkage. This was determined from weights when sheep were taken off feed on February 17th and the weights given in sale bill from Chicago February 24th. / 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Lambs shrunk 7.6 lbs. or 8.7 per cent. 1- year wethers shrunk 10.4 lbs. or 8.7 per cent. 2- year wethers shrunk 12. lbs. or 8.5 per cent. Aged ewes shrunk 12.2 lbs. or 11.3 per cent. For the benefit of those interested in shipping and that the figures relating- to shrinkage may be better understood, we give the follow- ing detailed account of the trip, as provided by Mr. Robinson, who accompanied the shipment. The sheep left Bozeman about noon of the 1 8th of February and arrived at Mandan on the 19th at 3 p. m., where they were fed hay only. Left Mandan at noon bn 20th and arrived in St. Paul at 5:30 a. m. 21st, where the sheep re- ceived a grain ration with the hay. Left St. Paul at noon 23d and reached Chicago at 4 a. m. 24th. The sheep were weighed and sold at 10 a. m. The time actually in transit was three days and four nights. Mr Robinson suggests that it would be of material interest to shippers to stop and feed at a point nearer Chicago. Cost of Marketing. This includes all expense of shipping, such as transportation, yardage, feed, commission, etc. As before stated, these expenses were divided in proportion to the weights of the four lots in determ- ining the relative profits from each, on the basis that freight tariff is the same per pound and that the food consumed while in transit is in proportion to the weight of the animals. On this basis, we get the following relative cost of marketing: 55 lambs, weight 4340 lbs., cost of marketing $42.96, cost per head, $ .78. 51 i-year wethers, weight 5540 lbs., cost of marketing $54.84, cost per head, $1.07. 53 2-year wethers, weight 6800 lbs., cost of marketing $67.30, cost per head, $1.27. 53 ewes, weight 5040 lbs., cost of marketing $49.89, cost per head $ .94. Average cost per head, $i.ot. AIONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 The shipper will be safe in accepting the above, data as regards the cost of marketing, as in this instance, the expenses are a trifle above normal. This is due to the necessity of holding over in St. Paid for two and one-half days in order to complete the trip with a special stock train. In this case the expense of marketing was practically one cent per pound with the various classes. Summary of Facts. (1) . The feeding of lambs for market is more profitable than wethers or ewes, providing the ration is so adjusted as to give their rapid increase a finish. ( 2 ) . Owing to the growthy tendency of the lamb, its ration must possess more fat producing material than the mature sheep. (3) . Where grain is not available, the mature wether, though making a smaller proportionate increase, will fatten more readily than the lamb on clover or alfalfa alone. The use of from one half to three quarters of a pound of grain, along with clover or alfalfa, throughout a period of from 70 to 90 days, is necessary to produce a proper finish for shipping. (4) . For lambs, yearling and two year wethers and aged ewes, the following amounts of food were consumed per head, per day, viz: 2.73 lbs., 4.45 lbs., 4.73 lbs., and 3.01 lbs. Attention is called to the fact that the amount consumed by the lambs is small, due to their light weights. (5) . In order to secure an even finish, the grain fed formed the following percentages of the ration, viz: For lambs 24 per cent., i-year wethers 15 per cent , 2-year wethers 14 per cent., aged ewes 22 per cenf. (6) . The relative increase in live weight is represented in the following percentages: For lambs 37.7 per cent. i-year wethers 24.7 per cent, 2-year wethers 20.9 per cent, ewes 17 per cent. (7) . The following amounts of air dry food were required for maintenance and per pound increase, viz: Lambs 10.16 lbs., i-year wethers 16.6 lbs., 2-year wethers 17 lbs. and ewes 17.5 lbs. As here- 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. tofore explained, this comparison applies properly to lambs and ewes only, owing to difference in the proportionate make up of the wether rations. (8) . Relative costs of production per loo lbs. increase: Lambs ^4.18, i-year wethers $5.83, 2-year wethers $5.90, aged ewes $6.78. (9) . Per capita cost of food consumed during 88 days: Lambs 99c, i-year wethers $1.37, 2-year wethers $1.43, ewes $1.05. ^ (10) . Relative profits per capita from the four lots : Lambs Si. 73, I-year wethers $1.40, 2-yearvwethers $1.57, aged ewes 1.8 cents. (11) . Percentage of dressed carcass after deducting 3 per cent from same: Lambs 54.2 per cent , i-year wethers 52.9 per cent , 2- year wethers 53.6 per cent , ewes 50.6 per cent. (12) . Shrinkage in transit, covering 1400 miles, determined from weights while on full feed and those of sale : Lambs 8.7 per cent., I-year wethers 8.7 per cent , 2-year wethers 8.5 per cent., ewes 11.3 per cent. (13) . The suggestion, resulting from personal experience, is offered to the effect that sheep will withstand shipping better if kept on a limited allowance during transit, rather than on full feed. But that feed and rest are essential toward the close of trip. (14) . The total net profit from the car of mixed sheep was $251.29. (15) . Even though the cost of marketing is a large item, still, this is offset by cheap feeders and an abundance of cheap food of good quality which renders the feeding business a profitable Indus- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 PART II. CATTLE FEEDING. The objects sought in this work were to determine the relative results from feeding light, medium and heavy grain rations in con- junction with legumes for fattening purposes. Though similar work has been done along these same lines in other portions of the country, still, it was thought best to repeat it here owing to the marked difference in the quality of Montana grown food stuffs. Figures were also sought to support previous assertions of the fact that only a minimum amount of grain is necessary along with our legumes to produce a good quality of beef or mutton. For the purpose of this experiment twenty-two 2-year old steers were purchased by Mr. Jos. Kountz. These animals were grades showing Shorthorn blood and were growthy but thin and in a condi- tion to put on flesh rapidly as the figures show. They were about the average of range production. The feeding period was divided into three parts, viz; preliminary test and final. The preliminary period of twenty four days extend- ing from Dec. 9th, 1901 to Jan. 3d, 1902, was necessary in order to get the animals all under full feed after the operation of dehorning. The trial test proper was a short one extending from Jan. 3d to Mar. 28th, a period of eighty five days. In the final the animals were merely kept on feed till April 12th when they were disposed of. ■ The feeding was done in open yards with sheds provided for shelter and with constant access to water. The sheds were used at night almost continually while in the case of the sheep very sel- dom. In general the weather was a little too mild during the test proper. The yards thawed out nearly every day. The best condi- tions seem to be when the thermometer does not rise above 32 ■degrees during the day. 16 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Food Consumed by Three Lots and Cost of Same. LOT I. 7 STEERS. Clover fed Jan. 2d to Mar. 28th, 11,540 lbs. at $5 per ton $28.85 Barley meal fed Jan. 2d to Mar 28th, 2975 lbs. at 90c per cwt. 26.77 Total $55-62 LOT II. 7 STEERS. Clover fed Jan. 2d to Mar. 28th, 11,560 lbs. at $5 per ton v$28.95 Barley meal fed Jan. 2d to Mar. 28th, 4008 lbs. at 90c per cwt. 36.07 Total $65.02 LOT III. 8 STEERS. Clover fed Jan. 2d to Mar. 28th, 13,500 lbs. at $5 per ton $ 33-75 Barley fed Jan. 2d to Mar. 28th, 6057 lbs. at 90c per cwt.. . .$54.51 Total $88.26 The clover hay was fed twice each day in racks so constructed that there was no w^aste. The barley was ground and the meal fed in flat troughs raised about three feet above the ground. Average Amount of Food Consumed per Day. Lot I. Clover consumed per head per day 19.3 lbs. Lot I. Barley meal consumed per head, per day 5. lbs. Total 24.3 lbs. Lot II. Clover consumed per head per day 19.4 lbs. Lot II. Barley meal consumed per head per day 6.73 lbs. Total 26.13 lbs- Lot 111 . Clover consumed per head per day 19.8 lbs. Lot [II. Barley meal consumed per head per day 8.9 lbs. Total 28.7 lbs. Attention is called to the fact that the amounts of clover consum- ed daily are about the same for the three lots, even though the amount of grain increased from lot 1 . up. The fact that more food MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 was required even where more grain was fed is due to the greater weights of lots 11 . and III. The division was made on a basis of quality rather than weight. The aim being to have the steers of the different lots as even in quality as possible. Preliminary Weights and Effect of Dehorning. 22 steers, weight Dec. 9th, 1901, 22185 lbs., average 1008. 22 steers, weight Jan. 2d, 1902, 23170 lbs., average 1053. Average gain during period of twenty four days 45 lbs. Gain per head per day during period of 24 days, 1.87 lbs. Gain per head per day during period of 85 days, 2.27 lbs. The figures relating to weights secured during the preliminary period show that dehorning had little effect on the steers. The average daily gains are some smaller, which is partly due to the fact that less grain was fed than in the next period. These animals fed heartily immediately after the operation. Test Weights, for 85 Day Period. VARIOUS LOTS. Weight Jan. 2d, 1902. Average Weight Mar. 28,1902. Average 1 Total Increase Increase per head Increase per day Per cent increase lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Per ct . Lor i, 7 Steers . . 6850 978.5 1 8240 i ^ ^ 77 1390 198..^ 1 2-33 1 20.2 Lot II, 7 Steers. . . 7240 1034.3 1 8590 1227 1350 192.8 1 2.26 18.6 Lot III, 8 Steers. . 9080 1135- 1 10600 1325 1520 190. 1 2-23 16.7 Food Per Head Per Day per 100 lbs. Live Weight. Pen I. Average 1077 lbs. barley per cwt. .46 lbs. clover 1.79 lbs. Pen II. Average 1130 lbs. barley per cwt. .59 lbs. clover 1.71 lbs. Pen III. Average 1230 lbs. barley per cwt. .72 lbs. clover 1.61 lbs. 18 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The results indicate that where legumes are used as roughage, not more than one-half pound of meal per loo lbs. live weight, per day, is necessary to produce satisfactory gains and at the smallest cost. This is true only, however, of perfectly cured and preserved clover and alfalfa, such as are produced in the arid west. Solid Food per lb. Increase. Lot. I. Food per pound increase, 10.4 lbs. Lot. II. Food per pound increase, 11.5 lbs. Lot. III. Food per pound increase, 12.9 lbs. Attention is called to the fact that these figures include mainten- ance during the time each pound was being produced and that owing to differences in live weight these figures would be affected accord- ingly. Cost Per Pound Increase. Pen No. I. Cost per cwt. increase, $4.00 Pen No. 11 . Cost per cwt. increase, $4.81 Pen No. III. Cost per cwt. increase, $5.80 Financial Statement. Jan. 2d, 1902 — By clover, first period, 14,295 lbs. at $5 per ton..$ 35.73 Jan. 2d, 1902 — By barley, first period, 1141 lbs. at 90c cwt.. . . 10.26 Mar. 28, 1902 — By clover, test period, 36,600 lbs. at $5 per ton . 91.50 Alar. 28, 1902 — By barley, test period, 13,040 lbs. at 90c cwt. . . 117.35 Apr. 12, 1902 — By clover, third period, 6435 lbs. at $5 per ton .. 16.08 Apr. 12, 1902 — By barley, third period, 2267 lbs. at 90c cwt. . . 20.4c Dec. 9, 1901 — By 20 steers, at $33.00 per head 660.OG Dec. 9, 1901 — By 2 steers, at $34.00 per head 68.00 Apr. 15, 1902 — By net profit on 22 steers 168.68 $1188.00 Apr. 15, 1902, To 22 steers at $54.00 per head $1188.00 Net profit per head $7.66 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 19 This sum does not represent the complete profit from each animal as the food is charged up at local market prices and is much above cost. The carload of steers was purchased by Mr. Jno. Kiefer of Boze- man, by whom the carcasses shown in the illustrations were prepar- ed for photographing. Conclusions. (1) . Because of the quality of Montana grown food products and the favorable climatic conditions during the winter feeding period, maximum returns can be secured from a minimum amount of food. (2) . That in fattening steers, when alfalfa and clover are used, not more than one-half pound of grain to the hundred weight of live weight is necessary to produce the most satisfactory results. (3) . Contrary to local impressions, some grain must be used throughout a period not less than one hundred and twenty days in order to get a good finish. Acknowledgments. The report of slaughter test so kindly furnished by the Messrs. Swift & Co. of Chicago has been of great service, not only because of the information furnished by it, but also from additional data which could only be secured through its aid. Much of the success of this work is due Mr. G. M. Fuller under whose supervision the experiments were conducted. ^ ^ library OF THE UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS BULLETIN NO. 36, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, ■w OF THE ^ Ag(ric\ilt\iral Colleg»e of Montana. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. Bozeman, Montana, June, 1902. REPUBLICAN. Bozeman, Montana, 1902. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOZEMAN, = MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, \ James Donovan, Attorney- General, ^Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula. C. D. Leonard Butte. N. W. McConnell Helena. O. F. Goddard Billings. O. P. Chisholm Bozeman. J. G. McKay Hamilton. G. T. Paul Dillon. N. B. Holter Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman. J. M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman. Joseph Kountz Bozeman. E. B. Lamme Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma, E Director and Irrigation Engineer. F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist. Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A Agriculturist. J. W. Blank] NSHiP, Ph. D Botanist. R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist. PostofRce, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Bozeman, Montana. NOTICE. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 36. = = = JUNE, 1902. 8. FOKTIER, Director Montana Agricnltnral Experiment Station. Dear Sir: The accompanying paper on the “Forage Conditions of Central Montana” is the result of investigations made for the Station by Mr. Frank A. Spragg during 1900 and 1901, under the direction of the Dotanical department of the Montana College of Agriculture and lore- sented as his thesis on graduation from the Agricultural Course. The field-work was done in Fergus county and the region immedi- ately adjacent, during which nearly a thousand specimens were col- lected for the Station and many interesting facts regarding existing forage conditions in this region have been noted. These studies cover a portion of the state not readily accessible from the railway and hence little studied by botanists, although one of the most important sections from its stockgrowing interests. Already the ranges in many ]Darts of the state are showing signs of exhaustion and the number of stock supported upon a given acreage is steadily diminishing, while the recent tendency of the stockmen to pur- chase or lease these ranges for private use, tends to make questions as to their improvement and rendering them more productive of increasing importance. But before any systematic attempjt can be made, it is necessary to determine the results of close-pasturage upon the ranges, the conditions formerly existing and those now^ found, as well as the various species of grasses, which form the component parts of these ranges, those found most hardy under pasturage and the most drouth resisting in dry seasons with their relative value for hay and pasturage. It is with these preliminary studies of the region in question that Mr. Spragg deals and his paper appears to be of suffi- cient importants to warrant its publication as a bulletin of this Station. Mr. Spragg has also added a synopsis of all the genera of grasses found in the state by which beginners in this difficult order will be able 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. to work with more certainty in the determination of the different gToni)s than with any of the schemes now available. It may be well to state that the collections upon which these notes are based have been com- pared by Mr. Spragg with specimens in onr Station Herbarum, named by Dr. F. L. Scribner, while the more difficult species have been sent to the Division of Agrostology at Washington for determination. R. S. Shaw, Agricnltnrist. J. W. Blankinship, Botanist. Bozeman, Montana, June 14, 1902. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. BY FRANK A. SPRAGG. Geology and Physiography of the Region. The portion of the country lyin^ between the Missouri, Smith and Musselshell rivers is traversed by the Little Belt, Big Snowy, Judith, and Highwood mountains. It includes a great variety of conditions and fosters many industries, of which stock-raising is the i^rincipal, and large numbers of fat cattle and sheep are yearly shipped to eastern markets. Large quantities of wool are sold in the markets of Billings and Great Falls, or shipped east, and lately there has been a good demand for horses. The mountains are celebrated for mines of gold, silver and sapphires, and at their base arefonnd limestone, gypsum and coal. Montana also has a belt of artesian water, due to the following conditions: running across the country, we have the outcrop of the coal seam of the Cascade geologic formation; this line of exposure crosses Sun river near the foot of the Rocky Mountains, and, swinging eastward, follows near the north edge of the Little Belt mountains, several miles south of Great Falls. At Sand Coulee and at Belt it presents vast workable seams of coal; continuing eastward, it follows Otter creek some fifteen miles, and crosses Arrow creek near its head; it then crosses Wolf creek four miles above Stanford, and the Judith river at Utica ; running thence north of the Snowy mountains, it passes above Lewistown and around the west, north and east foot of the Judith mountains.. Along this line of exposure are numerous coal mines furnishing the country with its total supply. This outcrop is 6 . MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. but the edge of one of many layers lapping against the mountains. Some of these layers are composed of clay and will not allow water to passthrough; others are so loose and porous that large quantities of water disappear yearly along the foot of the mountains above the coal seam. A remarkable example of this is Dry Wolf creek, southwest of Stanford. Up in the mountains there is a swift stream about a rod in width in a bed of clay and gravel; at the mouth of the canyon this- stream reaches the edge of a mass of loose, broken limestone; within two miles the entire stream has disappeared, and from there to its mouth, except in time of melting snow, the stream bed is but a mass of loose, dry gravel. Along the Snowies, and particularly around the Judith mountains, the larger portion of the water falling as rain and snow sinks in this way. Where does all this water go? Again, what are the Giant sx^rings at Great Falls, and Big and Warm Springs in the east side of the Judith basin, if they do not have artesian sources? It is very noticeable, as one examines these springs, that the rocks around appear to have been shaken apart. One will notice a dark opening here and there with long strings of vegetation floating over, and a short distance Jown stream a big roll in the water may be noticed, showing that large quantities of water are flowing out. Within a year previous to September I, 1901, some half dozen artesian wells had been bored in the west side of the Judith basin and just below the outcrop of the coal. At Utica the water is spouting about eighteen inches above the opening of a three-inch pipe. Another company was boring a six-inch hole at Mr. B. E. Stack’s ranch on Willow creek Sept. 1; they were then down 165 feet; they struck about ten barrels an hour at 257 feet, and bored to 317 feet. A good flow is expected at 500 feet, where they expect to finish the well. It is said that water wns struck atUtica at 200 feet, though the w’ell is now 800 feet deep, and on Sage creek at 80 feet, though the w’ell is 893 feet deep. There is no reason wdiy artesian water could not be found anywAiere in the ojaen country below the line of coal; there is but one difficulty presented. The amount of material piled on the top of the coal increases rapidly as one goes away from the mountains; on the Benton stage road atArrow creek, this mass is probably 1,500 feet thick, and at the mouth of the Judith at least FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 7. 2,500 feet. The greatest depth the machine could bore, which was at Mr. B. E. Stack’s Sept 4, was 800 feet. The soil in the mountain parks is usually deep, mellow and rich, belonging to the Cambrian formation. Around the foot of the moun- tains, as has been seen, we have a belt of loose limestone. The soil is stony and useful mainly for pasture. Further out we have stretches of nearly level bench lands. Portions are covered with gravel, sand, and alluvium, and only clay enough to convert the whole into product- ive soils. This mass has been left in passing ages by streams as they drifted from place to place over this comparatively level country. The benches of the northern portion of this district are covered with clay, sand, polished pebbles, and some boulders. This glacial drift was left when the northern transcontinental ice sheet melted away. As a rule this drift contains less plant food than the bench gravels. Along the Missouri river, we find sharp gorges which have been cut in recent times through the bench gravels or glacial drift, exposing the clays of the Cretaceous below. These steep hillsides, sandy points, and stretches of worthless clays make up the badlands. These badband soils are low in plant food, rich in alkali, and next to worthless for cul- tivation. However, in the larger bottoms along the Missouri, crops of hay, grain and vegetables are often raised. The Natural Plant Formations. The grasses of Central Alontana may be grouped, depending upon soil, moisture and situation, into six different, though intergrading, plant formations. These ere: The Badlands, Alkali Flats, Prairie Benches, Wet Meadows, Foot-hills and Mountain Parks. In the Badlands where the hills are rounded or flat-topped, we are apt to find the regular bench flora; but on the true side hill of this region, we find a scattering flora of salt- grass (distichlis spicata), June-grass (Kceleria cristata), feather-grass (Stipa viridula), and here and there a bunch of blue-joint, (Agropyron occidentale), on the better soil. On sandy points, putting down from the main hill, we find sand rush-grass (Sporobolus cryptandrus), prairie rush-grass (Sporobolus brevifolius), and Indian millet (Ericoma cuspidata) 8 . MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. usually. In little bottoms and ridges between the main hill and the fiats below, made up principally of sandy drift from the hillside, out of which most of the alkali has been washed, may be found a rich sod of blue grama (Bouteloua oligostachya). The two little pests, slender fescue (Festuca octofloea), and little barley (Hoedeum pusil- lum), are often found here in clusters mixed with the blue grama. The Alkali Flats, though often occurring in the Badlands, are commonly found in the open country. They are places where alkali water collects and evaporates. Portions of the great sag south of Ben- ton are two hundred feet below the surrounding country. It contains six large lakes and several small ones; the larger ones are surrounded by bare alkali coated flats. White, dry patclres are to be found in little sags quite generally over the country. As we recede from the barren patch, we first find salt-grass (Distichlis spicata), and then by degrees J une grass (Kceleeia ceistata), and smooth bunch grass (Poa laevigata). Depending upon conditions, we may also find rough- leaved salt-grass (Spoeobolus aspeeifolius), alkali meadow grass (PuccTNELLiA AiEOiDES.), and squirrel-tail grass (Hoedeum jubatum). In the non-alkaline soil on the edge of alkali places blue joint and blue grama are apt to be found, but these grasses can withstand but small quantities of alkali. The Prairie Benches stretch from the Badlands and alkali flats to the foothills of the mountains. They are the drier upland i^ortion of the country, crossed by creek bottoms and dotted by wet meadows, the grasses of which belong to a distinct flora, and are ‘usecl iDrinci- i:)ally for i^asture.- The principal grasses of the benches are blue grama (Bouteloua oligostachya), and blue joint (Ageopyeox occt- UEXTALE). Prairie June grass (Koeleeia ceistata), needle grass (Stipa comata), bunch wheat grass (Ageopyeox diveegexs), and two or three meadow grasses (Poas) are also found more or less scattered. Around intermittent pond holes are found hair grasses (Ageostis hie- MALis) and squirrel-tail grass, and floating foxtail mixed with two or three sedges in the bottom. It has been mentioneil that the meadow grasses grow very scatter- ed on tliese benches to-day, ^ind belong in large part to what was once FOKAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 9 . PoAvTENUiFOLiA. Prof. F. L. Scribner, who saw the country in the summer of 1883 says, “Poa tenuifolia may be regarded as the grass of the country. No species withstands the long summer drought so well, and it constitutes the chief forage upon the dry bench lands.” As this grass is almost exterminated to-day, it is evident that it cannot •endure over-stocking. A rancher who came to the country shortly after 1880 , describes the grasses of these benches then as a thick mass of leaves shading the ground and growing to a hight of six to eight inches. He says further that this mass of leaves was inclined toward the southeast by the northwest winds. He did not know the name of the grass, but his description would lead me to call it blue- joint. To-day the blue grama (Bouteloua) is the most abundant as a mass of curl}; leaves cov^ering the ground but two or three inches at the best. It is probable that in former times, before the ranges were •over-stocked, that the meadow grasses (Poas), blue joint and other wheat grasses, and the prairie June grass, formed the greater part of the forage, and that the blue grama grew much ranker than it does now. In those favored times, some old timers say they could ride across the country with their feet dragging in the grass. The grass then fell to the ground each fall, and was in time transformed into a mulch, which thickened .year by }ear and i3rotected the ground from the hot sun. Large quantities of moisture thus retained enabled the grass to grow exceedingly rank. Perhaps none of the above named grasses have been exterminated for the lack of moisture, but on account of too close feeding, and the tramping of stock they have been so reduced in qu-antity as to .be almost absent in some places. The blue grama, being the last of the grasses to succumb to the over-stocking process, has taken possession of the soil as the other grasses have disaiipeared. The 'difference, then, between the over-stocked range of today, and the luxuriant growths of former times is to be found simply in the relative abundance of the blue grama. These prairie benches have proven themselves to be among the richest soils of the country. They are similar to those along the north base of the mountains, which will be considered under the head of foothills. The principal distinction is a slight difference in moisture Depending upon the amount of moisture present, the foliage of these 10 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. benches today, ranges from a thick mass of blue-joint leaves on down through all the gradations of the grama sod to where even this valu- able grass has succumbed to a “moss” (Selaginella nipestris, Spring.) and desert conditions prevail. The Wet Meadows, though characterized by almost totally dif- ferent flora, grades into the surrounding formations. The grasses pres- ent vary somewhat with conditions of soil and moisture, and depend largely upon the presence or absence of alkali. Whgn whaler stands on the surface, we usually And rushes and sedges, or slough grass (Beckmannia ekucaefoemis,), and reed meadow grass (Paniculaeia AMEEICANA, ), ill small quantity. If the soil is wet, but not covered with water, prairie rush grass (Spoeobolus beevifolius), alkali meadow grass (Puccinellici airoides), early bunch grass (Eatonia obtusata), tussock grass (Deschampsia cmspitosa), cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides ), foul meadow grass (Panicularia nervata), and pale bunch grass grow in varying proportions. Or, in addition to the above if alkali is absent, reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), along the banks of running streams. If alkali is present in small quantity and the soil is not very wet, rough-leaved salt-grass (Sporobolus asperifol- ius), and especially prairie rush grass (Sporobolus brevifolius), are apt to be found in large quantity. If the alkali is very strong all the^ above named grasses may be killed out and only salt-grass remain. The region considered as Foothills here is not necessarily a strip- extending out in all directions from the base of the mountains. We are considering the character of a certain group of grasses that may be regarded as belonging to the foothill flora. The prairie bench formation seems to extend to the foot of the mountains on the south side of the smaller mountain ranges of the plains, while on the north side of the same ranges are semi-circular areas, the flora of which does not resemble that of either ' the prairie-bench or the mountain- imrk formations. The soil, as has been said, is similar to that of 'the- dry benches but receives more moisture. The strip north of the Little Belt mountains is wide to connect them with the High woods along the divide between the Arrow Creek and Belt Creek basins. These hills are today dotted by thrifty crops and meadows. A few years ago this foothill country was used only for pasture, as the dryer FOKAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 11 benches are today. On the upland benches the sheep-fescue (Festuca ovdna,) and red fescue (Festuca rubra) take the place of the blue grama of the prairie. In nooks partly sheltered by the mountains, snow-grass (Festuca campestris) is the principal forage. A large num- ber of grasses are to be found here. The hays are mainly the culti- vated and mountain timothy; Bromus inermis is only just coming into cultivation. There are several native grasses that no doubt would do well under cultivation, among which are the wheat and brome grasses, or for wet land the reed canary grass. Grasses are also coming in on the mountain side where the timber has been burned otf and the soil is not too stony. The principal of these are the western brome (Bromns Pumpellianus), pale bnnch grass (Poa lucida) wood meadow grass (Poa nemoralis), downy oa,t-grass (Trisetum subspicatum) timothy (Phleum pratensis), and four wheat grasses (Agropyron). About forty different varieties of grasses are found in the Mountain Parks of Central Montana between the altitudes of e5000 and 7000 feet. The loose deep rich soil is literally hilled with the roots of plants that probably bloom each and every month during the sum- mer. The quantity of native forage is usually no greater than in the foothills and many of the grasses are similar. The hay grown here is mainly timothy or oat- hay. Under native conditions the land is often too rough to cut wild hay. It is said that clover and alfalfa will not do well. There are some of the native grasses that are certainly worthy of trial and some of these may be found superior to any of the tame varieties for cultivation at high altitudes and in mountain parks. Among them are mountain timothy (Phleum alpinum), mountain fox- tail (Alopecurus occidentalis), mountain rye grass (Elymus glaucus), slender wheat grass (Agropyron tenerum), western brome grass (Bromus Pumpellianus), and snow^-grass (Festuca campestris). Economic Considerations. There are still many problems to be considered that relate either directly or indirectly to the forage conditions of this region. Notably among these are the water supply, and its most economic use as well as 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. the improvement of the ranges. Large quantities of water go to waste one way and another. A few snowbanks remain in the mountains to supply water for irrigation, but most of the water runs off during the spring break-up to deluge the people along the lower Mississippi. Why should not a portion of this be saved in reservoirs for irrigation and to water stock later in the summer? The government has surveyed over thirty reservoir sites, mainly in Central Montana. It may be that the artesian supply will also become imx^ortant. The amount of water needed to benefit a given meadow should be more carefully studied. Blue joint is universally regarded as the richest hay of the country, and by careful irrigation our native iq^lands will yield good stands; yet when water stands on the surface this grass disappears and is replaced by rushes, sedges and the less valuable grasses of the wet meadow flora . It must be borne in mind that our most valuable grasses do not grow in swami^s. Most of them are easily drowned out and replaced by others less valuable. “Under the present conditions one may frequently see a man injuring his meadows and fields by using too much water, while those of his neighbor some miles down the val- ley are suffering, i^erhai^s totally, ruined, for lack of the water.” When the pioneer came west he found the ranges covered with vast forage resources. The question then was, how can we get stock enough to use this wealth? Now conditions have changed. There is more stock on our ranges than they can supi^ort. Each rancher “knows that if his stock does not eat the grass, that of somebody else will, and naturally he thinks he might as well l>enefit by it as anyone. In his effort to get his ‘share' he cantributes to the general destruction instead of trying to avert it.” As conditions are di if ting now, it is only a matter of time when all the public domain will be cvrned or leased by the ranchers. If the rent can l)e made reasonable so as not to exteiminate tbe smaller owners, they will l)e given an incentive to adopt measures for the betterment of their holdings, and knowing that they and not someone else will get the benefit of their endeavors, they will make the subject a study and year by year their ranges will be enabled to support more and more stock. It has been asserted that all the ranges need is rest, but it has been pointed out, in speaking of the blue grama, that conditions liaA^e come where the most valuable of our range grasses have been nearly externiinated. The reseeding of the ranges is a problem that each rancher must study for himself. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 13 Generic Key to the Grasses and Grass-like Plants of Montana* Note. — In the following scheme the word “glume” signifies the outer empty scales; “pale” denotes the inner scale enclosing the flower; and “spike” is used to indicate any dense cylindrical inflores- cence. Number before name indicates paragraph. Perianth of six glumaceous segments; capsule .3-valved A. Perianth of bristles, minute or none: Flowers in the axil of single glumes; stems solid; sheaths closed B. Flowers enclosed in a pair of glumes; stems hollow; sheaths split C. A. Jvmcaceae (RUSH FAMILY). Leaf-sheaths open; capsule 1-3 celled, many seeded; placenta parietal or axial. Plants never hairy; on moist ground JUNCUS. Leaf-sheaths closed; capsule 1-celled, 3-seeded; placenta basal. Plants usually hairy; often on dry ground JUNCOIDES. B. Cyperaceae (SEDGE FAMILY). 1. Flowers perfect; spikelets all similar 2; 1. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, usually borne in separate spikelets. . CAREX. 2. Spikes in single or umbelled terminal heads; .spikelets 2-rowed CYPERUS. 2. Glumes spirally imbricate all around ,3. 3. Base of style swollen, persistent as a tubercle on the achene; spikes solitary ELEOC HARIS. 3. Base of style narrow, deciduous 4 4. Spikes one to many; bristles 1-6 included, rarely none SCIRPUS. 4. Spikes few; bristles 6-many, soft, very long, slender, and much exserted. ERIOPHORUM. C. Oramineae (GRASS FAMILY). Inflorescence spicate 2: Inflorescence, a raceme of unilateral spikes; spikelets 2-rowed.. 20 Inflorescence, a compound raceme of panicled spikelets 21 Inflorescence, of paniculate unilateral spikes 10 Inflorescence, an open panicle 2.3’ 2. Spikes equilateral, cylindrical to capitate 3 2. Spikes unilateral 4 3. A strictly cylindrical spike; spikelets one-flowered, close, and equally dis- tributed on axis 5 3. Spikes short, ovate to capitate 6' 4. Unilateral spikes, paniculate, often loose 10 4. Unilateral spikes racemose 20 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 5. Glumes united at base, awnless; pale one, awned 12-13, ALOPECURUS, 5. Glumes distinct, mucronate; pales two, awnless 5S, 59, PHLEUM 6. Spikelets unisexular and dissimilar; staminate and pistillate on the same or separate plants BULBILIS 6. Spikelets with one perfect flower and often another imperfect 7 6. Spikelets with two to many perfect flowers 12 7. Three spikelets at each joint of articulate rachis 48-50, HORDEUM. 7. Spikelets not all alike, usually in twos; axis of spikes or racemes hairy; fer- tile glumes awned 14, ANDROPOGON. 7. A large, short spike or a panicle of these; spikelets but one at a place, not clustered, awnless 57, PHALARIS 7. Flowers perfect, single 8 8. Pale awned or sharp pointed 9 8. Pale awnless, shorter and broader than the glumes 10 9. Pale awn terminal or absent; pales firmer than glumes and closely envelop- ing the grain 11 ■9. Pale awn dorsal; grain loose or not at all enclosed 10 10. Tuft of long silky hairs at base of pale 24-29, CALAMAGROSTIS. 10. Pale not hairy 9-11, AGROSTIS. 11. Pale sharp pointed to long slender awned 54, MUHLENBERGIA 11. Pale with long, stout, twisted awn 72-75, STIPA. 12. More or less paniculate, spikelets not sessile 13 12. Spikelets sessile on alternate notches of the rachis 15 13. Pale obtuse or with short terminal awn 14 13. Pale awn dorsal, twisted and bent: (a) Spikelets 9-16 mm. long 32-34, DANTHONIA. (b) Spikelets 4-7 mm. long 76, TRISETUM. 14. Pale sharp pointed; spikelets in very short clusters mixed with leaves .‘ MUNROA. 14. Pale obtuse or acutish; first glume narrowly linear, second glume broadly obovate 37, EATON I A, 14. Pale and glume both acute and about the same length 52, KCELERIA. 14. Pale usually awned at tip; flowers distinct 44-47, FESTUCA. 15. Spikelets solitary at each joint of the rachis ; 16 15. Spikelets two, rarely as high as six, at each joint of rachis 18 16. Cultivated grasses (wheat and rye); pale sometimes keeled 17 16. Native grasses; pale round on back 1-8, AGROPYRON. 17. Nerves of pale convergent at tip; glumes 1-nerved SECALE. 17. Pale nerves parallel; glumes 3-many nerved. (Wheat) TRITICUM. 18. Rachis not articulate; glumes entire 38-42, ELYMUS. 18. Rachis articulate; glumes two or more parted 67, SITANION. 19. Spikelets one to two flowered, subsessile on two sides of a subtriangular rachis in a long narrow panicle 17, BECKMANNIA. 19. Spikelets many-flow^ered, much flattened, subsessile, and densely crowded in thick one-sided clustered DACTYLIS. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 15 20. Spikelets crowded in two rows on one side of rachis. Prolongation of rachilla triaristate 18, BOUTELOUA. 20. Spikelets flattened, subsessile and strongly compressed on two sides of a triangular rachis 68, SPARTINA. 20. Spikelets obtuse, often short-pedicelled, and scattered; first glume usually shorter than the second . . PANICUM. 21. One perfect sessile flower alternating on two sides of a slender three-.sided rachis 66, SCHEDONNARDUS. 21. Two to many perfect-flowered, pedicelled spikelets 22 22. Glumes one to two nerved; pales 3-nerved ERAGROSTIS. 22. Glumes 3-9 nerved; pales 5-many nerved 53, MELICA. 23. Spikelets with one perfect flower and often another imperfect 24 23. Spikelets with two to many perfect flowers 31 24. Spikelets usually in twos, not all alike; axis of spikes or raceme hairy; fertile glumes awned 14, ANDROPOGON. 24. Spikelets not more than one in a place: (a) Containing no abortive flowers 25 (b) With abortive flowers; first glume shorter, awnless PANICUM. 25. Pale firmer than glume and closely enveloping the grain 26 25. Pale usually thin, not as firm as glume; grain loose or not at all enclosed . 28 26. Pale entire bearing a terminal three-branched awn 15, ARISTIDA. 26. Pale awn terminal or between two teeth, simple 27 27. Pale sharp pointed to long slender awned 54, MUHLENBERGIA, 27. Pale tipped with a long, stout, twisted awn 72-75, STIPA. 27. Floret globular, clothed with long, silky hairs 43, ERIOCOMA. 28. Rachilla usually bearing a tuft of long silky hairs produced beyond it; pale membranous 24-29, CALAMAGROSTIS. 28. Rachilla usually bearing a tuft of long silky hairs at base of pale. Tough sand-binding grasses 30, CALAMOVILPA. 28. Base of pale naked or thinly barbed 29 29. Pale sessile in glumes 30 29. Pale stalked in glumes, awned on back CINNA. 30. Pale acute, awnless; glumes two, shorter than pales; spikelets sometimes two-flowered 69-71, SPOROBOLUS. 30. Pale obtuse, often awned on back; glumes two, longer than pales. . . .-. 9-11, AGROSTIS. 30. Pale obtuse, keel often extending into a short awn; glumes four, longer than or as long as pales SAVASTANA. 31. Pale-awn dorsal or between two lobes at apex, more or less twisted and bent 32 31. Pale awnless or with a terminal straight awn; glumes shorter than pales. . 35 32. Pale-awn between two teeth or lobes, twisted and bent; spikelets 9-16 mm. long 32-34, DANTHONIA 2. Pale-awn dorsal or basal 33. 16 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 33. Spikelets less than 10 mm, long 34 33. Spikelets more than 10 mm. long 16, AVENA. 31. Pale obtuse; awn taper-pointed, not articulate 35, DESCHAMPSIA. 34. Pale 2-toothed; one or two of uppermost florets awned 76. TRISETUM. 35. Tall reed-like grasses; long hairs on rachilla PHRAGMITES .35. Not reed-like; pale naked or with hairs shorter than glumes 36 36. Pale 1-3 nerved 37 36. Pale 3-many nerved; spikelets 2-8 flowered, 5-2) mm. long; first glume 3-5 nerved, second 5-7 nerved 53, MELICA. 36. Pale 5-many nerved 39 37. Glumes nearly equal in length but very unlike, the first narrowly linear, the second broadly obovate, obtuse , 37, E ATONI A. .37. Glumes unequal in length but similar in shape 38 .38. Spikelets 2 rarely 3-4 flowered; 2-4 mm. long CATABROSA. 38. Spikelets many flowered 2-18 mm. long ERAGROSTIS. 39. Spik^^lets 6-8 mm. long, densely crowded in thick one-sided clusters. (Cul- tivated) DACTYLIS. .39, Rays in whorls of 1-5 or more; glumes awnless 40 40. Lateral nerves of pale nearly parallel, not converging; glumes shorter than pales. Moist meadows usually . 41 40. Lateral nerves of pale arched and converging above 42 41. Glumes nerveless or 3-5 nerved; pales with ,3-9 conspicuous nerves; spike lets 2 mm. broad, and 3-15 mm. long 55-56, PANICULARIA. 41. Glumes 1-3 nerved; pale obscurely 5-nerved; spikelets 2 mm. wide and 3-7 mm. long 65, PUCCINELLIA. 42. Rachilla fringed with downy, cobweb-like hairs around the pale; pale usually obtuse awnless; spikelets 3-10 mm. long 60-64, POA. 42. Spikelets 5-13 mm. long and not crowded on the naked rachilla; pale round on back, sometimes keeled and often awned 44-47, FESTUCA. 42. Spikelets 10-40 mm. long; rachilla naked; pale often awned. , 19-21, BROMUS. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 17 Annotated List of thie Orasses of Central Montana. /. .Ag]'()jjyrnn occideiitale , Scribn, Blue-Joint or Blue Stem. [Fig 1|. This L^rass, popularly known as blue-joint, ,^tows on niixetl soils of clay, sand anrl gravel and is found widely scattered from the edges of heavil}; rdkaline soils throug’h the upland prairie benches and foot- 1. Agropyron occidentale, Scribn. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) • hills to the mountain parks. Grow- ing alone, it often forms a thick rank mass of foliage on rich black loam meadows which are overflowed by waiter jDeriodically. Lender these conditions it forms the very rich- est and best hay of the country. Where water stands on the surface in summer, it kills out easily and in its place come rushes, sedges and the grasses of the wet niedow" flora. Where over-irrigated, alkali, too, is apt to come in, and grasses, like salt grass, which can better endure alkali, take the iflace of the blue joint. Its scattered growdh seldom heads out on the prairie benches today. It is easily killed out by the close grazing and tramp- ing of stock. 2. Agroyyroji occiclentaJeiuoUe, Scribn. Colorado Blue-stem. 3. Agvojjyron divergens, Nees. Bunch Wheat Grass. On the prairie benches this forms bunches^often a foot^in diameter and one to two feet high. Clustered near the edge of steep slopes, they are often, at a distance, mistaken for sheep by strang- ers. In the foothills it blends with other grasses to form valuable upland meadows. Growing alone, it often covers south exposures. When cut yearly, it makes good hay for horses and cattle, but is rather coarse for sheep. 18 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 4 . Agropyrou GnieUidi, S. & S. Short-ieaved wheat g-rass. d. Agrnpyroii pseud orepens, S. & S. False quack grass. These resemble blue-joint in many of its habits and are popularly eonfused with it, but are rather rare. 6'. Agr()])yTon liiAiardsoui, Schrad. Bearded wheat grass. This grass grows in moist meadows, in the foothills and in moun- tain canyons and i3arks. It appears to intergrade with Elyiuiis glaucus. 7. Agro])yroii teiiermn, Vasey. Slender wheat grass. In the prairie portion of the country, it is sometimes found in ravines and meadows, but often in thickets of rose and buck brush. It makes as gocd or better hay than timothy, and is sometimes found alone or mixed with a few other rank grasses in creek bends of the foothills. H. Agropyron violaceum, Lange. Mountain wheat grass. This grass is found high on mountain sides, in mountain parks, and in the upper edge of the foot- hills. It seldom grows alone, but adds its value to the general grass flora. 0. Agrostis aZia.L.Red Top.[FiG 2]. This tame grass is to be found to-day in many parts of the coun- try. A few years ago large quanti- ties of the seed were shipped in and sold out to the ranchers of two or three localities. They were looking for a, drought-resisting grass, and as this received high commendation by the store- keej^er, 2. .Agrostis alba, L. (U. S. Div. of Af?r()S.) 19 FORAGE CONDITIONS OF_^ CENTRAL MONTANA. they sowed it on land where other grasses had failed to give a good crop. The resulting failure caused ^many people to condemn it; yet it has been fouml to in die rank growth of hay on land that is too wet for most other grasses— land usually covered by rushes and sedges. However, the land .must not be submerged. If those who have drowned out their blue-joint meadows would sow red-top before the rushes and sedges come in, they may still exxiect good hay. If the rushes and sedges have taken possession, it may be necessary to plow the land before the red- top will catch. 10. Agivstis as])erifalia, Trin. Rough-leaved bent-grass. This grass, though resembling red-top in many ways, grows on much dryer land and to greater altitudes, but will not furni^di as large a quantity of hay. With other grasses, it sometimes forms a large portion of the vegetation in certain mountain meadows. ' 11. Agrostis hievialis, B- S. P. Hair grass, or tickle grass. Widely scattered from the alkaline Hats of the Badlands almost to the mountain tops, this grass grows around the edge of intermittent pond holes mixed with what is popularly known as foxtail (Hordeum JUBATUM). In some respects it resembles red-top and is often found mixed with it, but is almost worthlessHor hay. 12. Alopeourus geniciilatiis, H- Floating foxtail. Mixed with two or three small sedges, this grass covers , the bot- tom of intermittent pond holes and portions of river flood-plains, as the low bank of the Missouri above Great Falls. It sometimes grows to a height of a" foot or more, but falls easily. 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13. Alopeciirus occi(le]%talis, Scribn. Mountain Foxtail. [Fig 3.] Though this grass was found by the writer only in the ux3per end of Belt Park under the shade of small clum^is of white pine, it is re- XDorted at high altitudes throughout the Rocky Mountain region. In ali^ine meadows it often makes a remarkably luxuriant growth, fre- quently reaching a height of three or four feet. Its foilage is soft, but it is probably one of the most promising of the na- tive grasses for cultivation in meadows at the higher altitudes and in moist partly shaded mountain parks. 14 - Andropogon scoparius, Mx. Little Blue-Stem. Grows in clumps a foot or two high on steei3 gravely side- hills and in the bottoms of rocky ravines of the drier por- tion of the country. It heads out late in August and is tough and woody, not usually eaten by stock. 15. vlristida longiseta robiis- ta, Merrill. Dogtown grass. Its habits are very similar to those of Andropogon scoparius. 3. Alopecurus occidentalis, Scribn. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) FOEAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 21 16. Avena Americana, Scribn. American oat-grass [Fig. 4], This is found principally on the upland benches of the foothills and' the dryer portions of the mountain parks, but it is also seen in mountain canyons and in sheltered ravines of the plains. It grows from a few inches to a foot high. Mixed with other grasses, it adds greatly to the value of the forage, but will never form a meadow by itself. 4. Avena Americana, Scribn. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) Beckmannia erucmformis. Host. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) 22 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The name slough grass is popularly confused with a collection of broad- leaved sedges, not grasses at all. This grass grows in shallow water with rushes and sedges. IH. BouteJoJia oligostacliya, Blue grama [Fig. 6]. This is today the most abundant grass of the dry plains region and is undoubtedly the richest. It grows on dry, porous non-alkaline soil usually, and is not found in buffalo wallows or wet places or on stiff clays. On the dry benches the foliage is a mass of curly leaves covering the ground but two or three inches high at best. In some places, where new soil is washed down from the hillside above by every heavy rain, the brown fruited stems of the blue grama are often ten inches high and thick enough to remind one of waves of water when the wind blows. “ This grass improves very rapidly under cultivation. For several years it has grown luxuriantly in the ex- perimental grounds of the Depart- ment at Wa.sbington. D. C., start- ing to green out about the middle of April and growing from 18 to 80 inches high, varying with the seasons."’ IV. ' Br 01 HUS inenuis, L. Smooth brome grass. This extremely valuable imported grass is slowly but surely mak- ing its way into the confidence of the people. It is very hardy, and when once established it is green earliest in the spring and the latest in the fall. When not too dry it yields a stand of rich hay that all kinds of stock eat with relish. 6. Bouteloua oligostachya, Torr. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 2H 20. Broimis ituu'ginatiLS, Nees. [Pig. 7J. This native brome ^rass is widely distributed from the edge of the badlfinds almost to the moinitain to[)s. In th'^ prairie portion it grows ni'iinly in the he’ids of little draws [)iittiiig down into ravines. 21 . B ■ }iri ’/y P) \ ei‘i, Nasii. Has about rht‘ same distribution as the preceding, only in the prairie rc'gion it grows in clumps of small brush, like Aoropyron TENERPM. 22 . Bvoimis Pn r,t ])elU((nus, Scrib:-^. West- ern brome arass. This native brome grass rt'sembles Bro- MUS iNERMUb in many of its habits. Occurs on mountain Ades loriacipally and, vdnere the timber has been killed by fire, it gives prom- ise of forming good f.n igta It was cultivated at the Ottawa experiment station ami consid- ered a very valuable gT,.n3. 22 . Brciiius lUcliruP f^nii , Link. Found in similar Atiiations with B. PoR- TERI. 24- CdJniihagrosfis Cffmrden.sis (Kjnnii;- dld., Vasey. . 7. Bromus marginatiis, Necs. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) ■ In the timber on mountain sides, its broad-leave 1, tender foliage may nearly cover the ground and is probably mixed with two other members of this genus. In semi-moist, partly shaded x^ortions of mountain jrarks, it often furnishes large quantities of summer forage. 2d. CdjlainffgTosti s hypeiPorcd rlmeri( (uuf , Kearn. Found only in mountain parks, it grows slightly more in the open than the last. 24 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION ^0. Calaiihagrostis hy]jerhrea stenocles, Kearn. ^7. CalaDiagrostis inontauensis, Scribn. Seldom found in the mountains; these grasses grow on stiff elays, on upland alkaline lands, or even on the dry open benches. Tliey are commonly mixed with prairie June grass (Koeleria crista- TA) and popularly confused with it. C(daj}b((grostis ])ur]m,vasteibs, R- Br. Found in bunches on the tops of mountains, on mountain ridges and among broken rocks on rugged mountain sides. i20. C((l(uriagrostis SiiJcsdovfii, Scribn. Found under about the same conditions and often with C. hyper- BOREA Americana. SO. CdlciDVOvilfci lojigifolia, Hack. Big Sand Grass, This tough, broad-leaved grass is valuable to bind loose drifting sands. Commonly found in circular patches in dry sandy swales and on sandy hillsides, where it grows almost to the exclusion of all other grasses. It often covers sandy bends of the Missouri river, and is used for pasture and sometimes even for hay. 31. Cyperaceae. Sedges, or slough-grass. These broad -leaved plants resemble the true grasses. They grow mostly in moist ravines and w^et meadows, but one (Carex filieolia, Nutt.) is also found on the dryest benches with the blue grama (Bopu TELOUA oligostachya). Several more grow on mountain sides and in mountain parks. Meadows of rushes and sedges are valued highly by some on account of the fact that they furnish large quantities of hay yearly and will continue to do so indefinitely. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 25 S2. Danthonia Californica, Bol. California Oat Grass. 33. Dciiithoriia intermedia, Vasey. Rocky Mountain Oat Grass. [Pig 8]. 33- Danthonia unispicata^ Munro. Tumble Grass. These three grasses, though quite different, are also much alike, The first two are usually eighteen inches high and grow scattered. The last is four to eight inches high and found in mats on the edges of little sags. All grow in the foothills, and the first two also in moun- tain parks, at times well uj) on mountain sides. In the i3rairie region the first occurs only in nar- row strips down the bottom of dry ravines. 35. Deschai)ipsia caespitosa, Beauv. Tussock grass. This grass requires about the same conditions as red-top (Ageos- Tis alba), and is usually found in wet meadows and swamps where there is plenty of sun. “ While neither the yield nor the quality of forage is equal to that obtained from timothy or red-toj), there can be no doubt that this grass fills an important place among the native meadow and pasture grasses of this region.” In places where many better grasses can not grow, it of- ten converts bogs into useful meadow lands by means of its dense tufts and tough, fibrous roots. Continued mowing and pastur- ing have the effect of reducing its tufts to a fairly even sod, esj^ecially when a few other grasses act as fillers. Dantlionia intermedia, Vasey. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) 30. Distiehlis spieata, Greene. Salt grass. Alkali grass. Wherever this grass is found, one can say with fair certainty that there is considerable alkali in the soil. (See alkali fiats.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 26 37. Eafonia ohtiisafa, Early Bunch Grass. [Fig9\ This grass is found in moist meadows, mainly those overflowed by water in the spring and nearly free from alkali. It makes excehent hay. 33. Elynuts Cdnadetisis, L, Wild Rye. Canadian Rye-Grass. This grass is found in clumps of small brush and in moist shady nooks of the prairie. Mixed with other grasses in bends of creeks, it sometimes enters largely with the hay of lowlands. It is probably the most generally distrilmted and of the greatest valne in meadows of all the rye grasses here. 9. Eatouia obtusata, Gray. (U. S. Div. of .Af?ros.) 10. Elymus condeasatU', Presl . (U.S. Div. of Af?ros.) 3!). El ijnuts cojideiisfidus, Presl. Giant rye grass. [Fig. 10]. This coarse, tongh grass is found in bunches a foot or two in diameter and from four to ten feet high. It grows in nooks of hills, FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 27 high bends of creeks, and at times on open bottom lands. When young, it makes hay of fair quality, but becomes tough and hard un- less cut annually. JfO. Elyimis glaucits, Buckl. Mountain rye-grass. This grass thrives in mountain canyons and parks and on moun- tain sides almost to the tops. It is seldom if ever found alone, but appears to increase in quantity in the parks as the altitude increases. It is certainly a valuable pasture and meadow grass for high altitudes. Jfl. ElyiuiLS Macounii , Vasey. Macoun’s rye-grass. 42 . Elyinus triticoicles, Buckl. Wild rye. . The above are two other rye grasses found in the foothills of Cen- tral Montana, but it is doubtful whether either of them is as import- ant as the Canadian or Mountain rye- grasses. Eriocoinci ciispidata, Nutt. Indian millet. In Central Montana this grass is mainly found in scattered bunches on sandy soil or hillsides in the edge of the badlands, but is also found more rarely on clayey soil and in the foothills. The foliage is tough and wiry. 44‘ Eeshica camyestris, Ryd. Snow grass. In portions of the foothills partly sheltered by mountains and in sections of mountain parks, this grat-s grows nearly alone. In such places, it is found on mounds similar to the tussocks on which certain swamxD grasses grow. From the toj) of these its long leaves lop over on all sides. It makes good pasturage, as it starts as soon as the snow is olf in the spring, but it is extremely difficult to mow for hay. It is also found scattered in mountain parks, where it does not grow in mounds and forms only a small portion of the ^orage, but when mixed with other grasses may form valuable meadows. Eestuca octo flora, Walt. Slender fescue. This strange little annual is found widely scattered over the plains portion of the country. Stock leave it, even when the blue grama is gnawed to the ground. 28 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 4G. Festuca ovina,^- Sheep Fescue, [Fig 11], 4'7 . Festuca vjihra, L- Red Fescue. On the ni^lancl lienches of the foothills, on mountain ridges and in the drier portion of mountain parks, these two valnable grasses form the greater part of the forage and are together* know as bunch grass. More or less scattered they are found on down to the edge of wet meadows. In their habit they resemble the blue grama, which is al- most absent here. 11. Festuca oviiia. L. (U. S. Div. of x\«ros.) 12. Hoi^dei'm .iubatuji, L. (U. S. Div. of A^?ros.) FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 29 They grow in little circular bunches two or three inches over and include many varieties. Jf8. Hordeinn ccmpitosuTw, Scribn. 49 . Hordeiun jitbatuin, L. Squirrel Tail Grass. [Fig T2j. These two grasses, commonly known as “foxtail” through the country, are ai3t to be bad weeds on moist semi-alkaline soil. They are found around the edge of intermittent jjond holes mixed with hair- grass (Agrostis hiemalis) and in strongly alkaline meadows mixed with salt-grass (Distichlis spicata). 50. Hordeimi ]msillin)h, Nutt. Little barley. 13. Koeleria cristata, Pers. (U. S. Div. of Agios.) This little pest grows similar to slen- der fescue (Festuca octoflora), crowding out the blue grama, and is not eaten by stock. It is mainly found in the edge of the badlands. 51. Juncacae. Rushes, or wire gra.ss. Small iDlants resembling the grasses growing in clumps along the bottom of dry ravines, and in moist meadows mixed with sedges. Their hay is low in food value, but is often cut in large quantity. 52. Koeleria cristata, Pers. Prairie June Grass. [Pig 13.] This early grass rarely grows alone but adds greatly to the forage conditions. It is found on the top of the dryest hills and well down into the wet meadows. On alkaline land, if any grass except salt- grass will grow, it is apt to be found. Found throughout the badlands, prairie benches, foothills, mountain parks and is apt to be seen on the mountain sides as high as the grass will grow. It is the MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. :io most widely distributed grass of the region. It matures early, dries ui) and furidshes a large quantity of seed. It is one of the first to afford pasturage in the spring and is much relishetl by stock. U. Mulilenbergia racemosa, R. S, P. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 56. Paiiicularia AviericaJia, MacM. Reed Meadow Grass. [Fig 15], 56. l\onicularia nervata, Kuntze. Foul Meadow Grass. ' 57 . Plialaris arundinacea, R- Reed canary grass. [Fig. IG]. These are usually found along stream margins and in low ground. The first two grow two feet, and the last four feet high. Under fav- oradle conditions, they produce fair hay. The last is by far the most valuable. Some think it can be cultivated to advantage on land that now produces only rushes and sedges. It will not endure alkali. 1."). Panicularia Americana, MacM. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) 32 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 58. Fhleinn alpiiiinn, L. Mountain timothy. [Pig. 17]. 59. Fhleuni pratense. L- Timothy. The first is a native at high altitudes in mountain regions, while the last is one of the best known and most widely cultivated of the im- ported grasses. In mountain regions the latter has spread so rapidly of late years that it is difficult to say which is now in the greater abundance. lii mountain meadows they form at times very large i^or- li. Phleum alpinum, L. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) 18 . Poa lucida, Vasey. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. tioiis of the vegetation. The writer found patches where the common timothy had crowded out the native grasses so comjjletely that it was difficult to believe that it had not been sowed on jdowed ground. 60. Foa laevigata, Scribn. Smooth Bunch Grass. 6 1. , Foa lucida, Vasey. Pale Bunch Grass. [Pig 18.] These grasses are found widely scattered over the prairie benches, but do not fill anywhere near as important a place as formerly. In meadows overflowed by spring runs or irrigated moderately they make fine hay. 62. Foa nenboralis, L. Wood Meadow Grass. 63. Foa Ji'evadensis, Vasey. Nevada Blue-Grass. 6Jf’ Foa rivpicola, Nash. This was found in a few places on the prairie and on the tops of two mountains. It resembles the other meadow grasses in appearance and habits of growth. 65. Fuccinellia airoides, W. & C. Alkali Meadow Grass. [Pig 19.] This grass is principally found as one of the constituents of wet meadows. “ It is not as well liked by stock as many other grasses. It possesses, however, alkali resist- ant qualities, which enables it to grow in soils which better grasses can not endure.” 66. Scliedo7ina.vdus poaiicula- tus, Trel. Crab Grass. This annual was found in old ruts in Sand Coulee, east of Great Falls. 67. Sitanion rigulum, J- G. S. II 19. Paccinellia airoides, Wats. & Coult. (U. S. Div. of Agros.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. U This stiff, long-bearded grass grows on rocky mountain tops, as at Square Butte, and among broken igneous rocks and limestone on rugged mountain sides. For stock, it is far worse than the squirrel- tail grass (Hokdeum jubatum). (J8. S parti Jia eynosaroides, Willd. Big Cord Grass. [Fig 20]. This grass grows in or near shallow water, and adds to the forage of wet meadows. It is tough and generally avoided by stock. 20. Spartina cynosuroides, Willd. (U. S. Div. Agros). 21. Sporobolus brevifolius, Scribn. (U. S. Div. .\gros). (it), Spoj'oi/olns as])ei'if()lias^ Thurb. Rough-Leaved Salt-Grass. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL AIONTANA. 35 Grows well on strongly alkaline soil and has little more value than salt-grass (Distichlis spicata). 70. Sporoholus hrevifolius, Scribn. Prairie Rush Grass. [Pig 21]. Scattered from the edge of the mountain region to well down into the badlands; thrives under all conditions except on the dry bench lands. It grows in patches thick on the ground and from four inches to two feet high, depending upon the amount of moisture. On the ranges, however, sheep leave it until the blue grama is gone. This grass'gives promise of great value, as it withstands alkali well and in moist meadow^s furnishes a surprising amount of hay. 71. Sporoholus cryptcmdriis, Gray. Sand Rush Grass. Grows in scattered bunches in sandy places, mainly in the badlands. 72. Stipa comxita. F. & R. Needle Grass. [Fig 22]. This grass is widely scattered over the benches of the open country and its foilage is rich in food for stock. Its needles, how- ever, are very sharp, and getting into wool, often penetrate the skin. 73. Stipa liichaj'dsonii, Gray. Richardson’s Feather Grass. Found in the edge of the mountain re- gion only. It appears to be inferior to Stipa viRiDULA in value, 74 . Stipa spartea, Trin. Porcupine Grass. Devil’s Needles. 22. Stipa comata, Trin. & Rupr. (U. S. Div. Agros). Resembles Stipa comata, but is taller and more erect, growing in the foothills mainly. Its needles are also sharper, longer and stif- fer, and are more injurious to stock. m mojntana experiment station. 75. SUpa viridula, Vasey. Feather Bunch-Grass. Usually grows in small bunches, but sometimes scattered, on stiff plastic clays of the badlands, and in nearly every semi-moist nook and corner of a hilly country, yet never in great quantity anywhere. In the foothills and mountain parks, it grows more in the open and often adds to the general value of the forage; does well under irri- gation. 7(7 Trisetiun suhspicdtu Di, Beauv. Downy Oat-Grass. [Fig 23 ]. Growing mainly on mountain sides and ridges and in mountain parks. This grass flourishes in a variety of soils, but is most com- monly found in moist open wood- lands or in the edge of thickets. 23. Trisetum subspicatum, Beauv, (U, S. Div. of Agros). FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. :I7 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Anderson, F. W. Pastoral Resources of Montana. Report. of Com. of Agri. (1888.) Beal, W. J. Grasses of North America. Vol. I (1886.) Vol. II (1896). Britton & Brown. Illustrated Flora of Northern States and Canada (1896). Coulter, John M. Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany (1885). Gray, Asa. Manual of the Botany of Northern United States (1889). Kearny, Thos. H. A Revision of the Genus Calamagrostis (1898). Kennedy, P. B. Structure of the Caryopsis of Grasses (1900). Co-operative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants (1900). Rydberg, P. A. Grasses and Forage Plants of the Rocky Mountains (1897). Catalogue of the Plants of Montana and the Y. N. P. (1896). Scribner, F. L. American Grasses. Vols. I, II and III (1900). Agricultural Grasses of Central Montana (1883). Description of New or Little Known Grasses (1898). Economic Grasses (1900). Native and Introduced Species of Genera Hordeum and Agrop- yron (1897). Shear, C. L. A Revision of the Genus Bromus (1900). Field Work in the Division of Agrostology (1901). Grasses -and Forage Plants of the Rocky Mountain Region (1897). Information on the Genera Hordeum, Elymus and Sitanion (1901). Smith, J. G. A Synopsis of the Genus Sitanion (1899). Native and Introduced Species of the Genera Hordeum and Agropyron (1897 ). Williams, Thos. A. Grasses and Forage Plants of the Eastern Rocky Mountain Region (1898). Grasses and Forage Plants of the Dakotas (1897). 88 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. INDEX. Page I Agropyron divergens 8, 17 “ Gmelinii 18 “ occidentale 7, 8, 17 “ “ molle 17 “ pseudorepens 18 “ Richardsoni 18 “ tenerum 11, 18 “ violaceum 18 Agrostis alba 18, 25 “ asperifolia 19 “ hiemalis 8, 19, 29 Alkali flats 8 Alkali meadow grass 8. 10,'^25, 33 Alopecurus geniculatus 19 occidentalis 11, 20 Andropogon scoparius 20 Aristida longiseta robusta 20 Artesian water . . , 5, 6 Avena Americana 21 Badlands 7 Beckmannia erucaeformis 10,21 Benches, prairie 8 “ upland 11 Bibliography 37 Blue grama 8, 9. 11, 22, 24, 28, 29 “ “ Nevada 33 joint 7, 8, 10, 12, 17 “ stem, Colorado 17 “ little 20 Bouteloua oligostachya 8, 9, 22, 24 Brome grass, smooth 11, 22 western 11, 23 Bromus inermis 11, 22 “ marginatus 23 “ Porteri 23 “ Pumijellianus 11,23 “ Richardsoni ... . 23 Buffalo grass 22 Page Bunch grass 28 *• early 26 “ “ feather .36 “ “ pale 11, 33 ^ “ smooth 8, .33 wheat grass 8,17 Calamagrostis Canadensis accumin- ata 2.3 Calamagrostis hyperborea Americana 23 “ “ stenodes . 24 “ montanensis 24 “ purpurascens 24 “ Suksdorfii 24 Calamovilfa longifolia 24 Canary grass, reed ,31 Carex 13, 24 Clay 6, 7 Cord grass 10, 34 Crab grass .33 Cyperaceae 13, 24 Danthonia Californica 2h “ intermedia 25 unispicata 25 Deschampsia caespitosa 10, 25 Distichlis spicata 7, 8, 25, 29 Dogtown grass 20 Early bunch grass 10, 26 Eatonia obtusata 10,26 Economic considerations 11, 12 Elymus Canadensis. 26 “ condensates 26 glaucus 11, 18, 27 “ Macounii 27 " triticoides 27 Eriocoma cuspidata 7. 27 False (juack gra.ss 18 Feather grass 7, .35, 36 FORAGE CONDITIONS OF CENTRAL MONTANA. 39 Page Fescue, red 28 “ sheep 11,28 “ slender .... 8, 27, 29 Festuca campestris 11,27 '• octofiora 8,27,29 ovina 11,28 “ rubra 28 Foothills 10 Foxtail 29 floating 8,19 “ mountain 11,20 Geology 5, 7 Gravel '. . 6,7 Grazing and tramping 9 Hair grass 8,19,29 Hordeum caespitosum .... 29 jubatum 8,29,34 “ pusillum 8,29 Indian millet 7,27 Irrigation 12 Juncaceae 1.3, 29 Juncus 13 Juncoides 13 June grass 7,8 Rev to the grasses 13-16 Koeleria cristata 7,8,29 Little barley 8,29 Meadows 10 Meadow grasses 8,9,33 “ grass, alkali . . 7, 8, 25, 29 “ “ foul 10,31 “ “ reed .31 wood Melica cepacea 30 Mountain foxtail 20 Xjarks 11 “ timothy 11 “ rye grass 27 Muhlenbergia racemosa. . . Page Needle grass 8,35 Needles, Devil’s 35 Oat grass, American 21 “ Californian 25 “ downy 11, 36 “ wild 25 Pale -bunch grass 10 Panicularia Americana 10,31 nervata 10, 31 Parks 11 Phalaris arundinacea 10,31 Phleum alpinum 11, 32 “ pratense 11,32 Physiography 5-7 Plant formations 7, 11 Poa laevigata 8, 33 “ lucida 11, 33 “ nemoralis 11, 33 “ Nevadensis 33 “ rupicola 33 Porcupine grass 35 Prairie benches 8 “ June grass 8,9,29 “ rush grass 10,35 Puccinellia airoides 8, 10, 33 Quack grass, false 18 Red top 18, 25 Reed canary grass 10,11,31 “ meadow grass 10, 30 Rough-leaved bent-grass 19 “ . .salt-grass 10 Rushes 10,12,24,29 Rush-grass, prairie 7, 35 “ sand 35 Rye grass, Canadian 26 “ giant 26 “ mountain 11, 27 “ Macoun’s 27 Salt -grass : . . . 7.8,25,29. “ rough-leaved 8, 34 40 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. j Page Sand grass, big 24 “ rush grass 35 Satin grass 30 Schedonardus paniculatus 33 Sedges 8,10,12,24 Sitanion 33 Slough grass 10, 21, 24 Snow grass 11,27 Spartina cynosuroides 10,34 Sporobolus asperifolius 8,10,34 “ brevifolius 10,35 “ cyptandrus 35 Squirrel-tail grass 8, 29, 34 Stipa comata..- ' 8,35 “ Richardson! 35 “ spartea • 35'' Stipa viridula 7, 36 Page Tickle grass. (See hair grass) Timothy 11, 25, 32. 33 mountain 11,32 “ wild .30 Triple awn 36 Trisetum subspicatum 11, 36 ^ Tumbling grass 2r Tussock grass . . 10, 2;' Wheat-grass, bearded IS “ bunch 8,17 “ short-leaved . . ' 18 “ slender II, 18 ; “ mountain 1.. “ western. (See blue-jointj Wild rye 27 Wire grass 29 BULLETIN NO. 37 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION THE — AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF MONTANA. PORK PRODUCTION IN MONTANA.- BOZEMAN, MONTANA, SEPTEMBER, 1902. BOZEMAN CHRONICLE, Bozeman, Montana, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, James Donovan, Attorney-General, W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J. M. Evans C. D. Leonard N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnston O. P. Chisholm J. G. McCay G. T. Paul N. B. Holter Ex-Officio Helena Missoula Butte Helena Billings Bozeman Hamilton *. Dillon Helena EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice-President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. S. Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A Agriculturist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont. NOTICE — The bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his ,name and address to the Station for that purpose. IRE SOW. prolific: type. (litter 9 PIGS. OF THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. POLAND CHINA SOW. LARD TYPE. UNPROLIFIC. (LITTER 3 PIGS.) PROPERTY OF THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Montana Experiment Station Bulletin No. 37. = = September, 1902. PORK PRODUCTION IN MONTANA. BY R. S. Shaw. The industry of pork production is in great need of encourage- ment throughout the arid west, which supplies but a small per- centage of the pork recjuired for home consumption. Western towns and cities are in large measure supplied with cured pork from the great packing houses of the east, with a product from the corn producing regions. There is a great demand for large quantities of cured pork in Montana. The occupations and condi- tions surrounding the people are such that large quantities of cured meat must be used of which pork is the chief. Ranchmen, stockmen, railroad and canal builders, miners, prospectors and campers living in places remote from the large centers can neither obtain nor handle fresh meats to good advantage. In many in- stances our farmers still continue to purchase cured bacon and ham, bearing packing house brands, from local merchants instead of producing them on the farm. Because of these practices our western farmers are failing to obtain a large revenue which they could so easily secure. Pork cannot be produced more cheaply or of better quality than in the irrigated regions of the arid west. Hog raising has been made possible by the opening up of agricul- tural lands which are made to produce enormous quantities of cereals and legumes by means of irrigation. SUITABILITY OF CLIMATE. The climate of the arid west is characterized by a light, dry air, prevailing sunshine and moderate temperature. No better combi- nation of conditions exists for the healthy and rapid development of the pig. The cultivated regions are in general found between the altitudes of 2000 and 5500 feet, where little or no damp, cloudy weather. occurs. These atmospheric conditions combined with an almost continued sunshine throughout the winter season 4 THE MONTANA EXPERIA/IENT STATION. lessens, in fact almost entirel 3 " prevents, the occurrence of the many pig troubles so disastrous in the more humid regions. Throughout these regions extremes of temperature are not preva- lent during long periods of time, and being short lived are easily endured because of the lack of humidity. In general the climatic conditions are such that the pig can run out of doors throughout almost the entire 3 "ear, the snow fall being very light. These con- ditions tend toward vigor and healthfulness and permit of eco- nomic methods of feeding. Everywhere it is possible to provide abundant supplies of clear sparkling water from the mountain streams. A number of instances have been noticed in-which breed- ing hogs imported from the corn belt have brought hog cholera among our western bred stocks. In one case 60 per cent, of the imported hogs died while only one mature hog out of twenty Montana grown ones succumbed, although all were effected. In this we have strong evidences of the constitutional vigor produced b\" the climatic and food conditions. SUITABILITY OF FOOD PRODUCTS. The pork producing foods grown. in the arable regions of Mon- tana consists of cereals, legumes and root crops, the marvelous productiveness of which has been heretofore described. The cereal grains include brewing and white and black hulless barley, spring club wheat, rye and oats. One legume, viz. peas, can be universal- ly grown in great profusion. Forage crops, alfalfa, red, alsike and white clovers, peas, winter and spring rye and various grain mixtures produce an abundant variet}^ of pasture throughout M\j eight months of the year. Of the root crops best suited, sugar beets, mangolds and carrots can all be raised. While the great variety enumerated cannot all be grown in each cultivated section, still, there is no farm territor 3 ^ in Montana where a suitable com- bination of these cannot be grown. It is true that winter rye can be universally grown, and no section need be without some one or more of the legumes, cereals and root crops. It therefore follows that excellenth" balanced rations can be secured generally which will produce a good cpialit 3 ^ of pork, rapidly, cheaph" and economi- cally. It ma 3 " appear to those from the corn belt that the inabilit 3 " to grow corn in most parts of Montana is a strong argument against the business. In peas, however, we have an excellent sub- stitute for corn. Bulletins 34 of the Utah Station by Mills, and 38 PORK PRODUCTION. Bulletin 37. o of the South Dakota Station by Chilcott, both report peas super- ior to eorn for fattening swine. Barley is reported by the famous Danish pork producers to be the best single grain for the produc- tion of high grade bacon. Director Henry of the Wisconsin Sta- tion gives the following comparison between corn and barley as pork producers, viz.: 471 pounds of barley meal produced 100 pounds of gain. 435 pounds of corn meal produced 100 pounds of gain. Wheat — The results of several stations show wheat and corn to be nearly equal in pork producing value with a very slight ad- vantage in favor of corn. Oats — According to Henr 3 ^’s “Feeds and Feeding,” the Massa- chusetts Station reports that 20 per cent, more oat feed than corn meal was required to produce 100 pounds of gain. Oats are more valuable as an adjunct to lighten heavier rations than when used alone. R\'e — The results of comparative work shows rye and barley to have about equal feeding values. These facts tend to prove that our grain foods are exceptionally well adapted to pork making, and at the same time the use of these is greatl^^ facilitated b^^ the possibility of a continuous suppW of nitrogenous forage crops dur- ing a long growing season, and by root crops in the winter. PREPARING FEEDING FOODS. The most satisfactory results have been secured from grinding the grain feeds and soaking a short time before feeding. Under the arid conditions the cereal grains become so hard and flinty that they cannot be fed whole with good results. Local facilities are now such that grains can be ground at little expense. Where it be- comes a necessity to feed whole grain this can be accomplished 133 ^ scattering it on hard dry ground or a feeding floor, it will then be picked up little by little and is more likely to be masticated, where- as, if fed in troughs targe quantities are swallowed, passing the di- gestive tract whole. Prices of labor are so high as to render the cooking of either grains or roots too expensive. Root crops can be fed to good advantage raw except where turnips or rutabagas are used. FORAGE CROPS. The climatic conditions and capabilities of crop production are such that pigs, old, young, breeders and fatteners, can forage dur- G THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. in^ fully two-thirds of the year. The secret of economy in pork production in Montana, consists in keeping the pigs foraging. Even though some expert investigations reveal the fact that a pig enclosed in a pen will make a greater gain from a given number of pounds of food than the pig running at large, still, it will pay bet- ter because of the cost of labor to let the pig go to the food than to bring the food to the pig. A succession of forage crops must be provided for, which means that from three to four lots should be fenced off near the hog houses. If alfalfa alone is relied on this should be divided into two parts to permit of recuperation and ir- rigation. Forage crops may be relied on for use in the following order, winter rye in April, alfalfa in May, the clovers in June, grain mixtures in July, and peas from August to the setting in of winter. These are the periods at which each of the crops named come into use. Of these crops alfalfa is one of the most important because of its permanency; where it cannot be grown some one ofthe clovers is sure to answer. Alsike clover is well adapted to moist situa- tions and withstands very severe grazing. White clover will grow in a still wetter soil. Through the use of a lil^eral amount of wa- ter not more than four or five acres of forage is necessary to pro- vide green food for a herd of from 40 to 50 pigs of all ages, from the opening up of spring till the pea crop and grain stubbles become accessible. Young growing pigs should not be required to forage for a living; a one-third grain ration should be supplied in order to secure a proper growth and development. Foraging alone will only provide maintenance and a small gain in live weight. The light grain ration advocated will materially assist in producing renumerative gains and prepare the 3 ^oung pig for fattening on the stubbles or peas in the autumn. METHODS OF FEEDING. THE BROOD SOW. The brood sow can forage the greater ])art of the ^^ear. During the later stages of pregnancy a little grain food should be supplied, the amount depending upon her condition of flesh; this, however, will not be necessar}^ during the time she is gleaning from the grain fields. The forage in general being leguminous an 3 " one of the cer- •eal grains may be used as supplemcntar 3 " food. While nursing the litter access should always be given to the forage grounds when possible, and a liberal grain ration fed. Immediately after farrow- Bulletin 37. PORK PRODUCTION. 7 ing a light ration of sloppy feed consisting of skim milk, shorts, bran and oats is most satisfactory: the heavier grain foods can be gradually added. During the period of rest or earl 3 ^ pregnancy in the winter months the brood sow can be maintained on sugar beets, carrots or mangolds with a one-third grain ration added. Spring farrowing has hitherto been favored, but the climatic and food conditions are such that fall litters can be handled almost equally well. YOUNG AND STORE PIGS. These should have constant access to forage grounds in the summer season, and sheltered yards in the winter. When four weeks old they will take a little sweet skim milk to which some shorts or middlings may be gradually added, and later some ground wheat. A light grain ration should be supplied the young growing pig in addition to the forage throughout the forage seas- on but may be entirely cut off as soon as the pigs reach the pea or grain stubble fields. During the winter season the shotes should have access to stacked alfalfa, clover, or peas, from which the 3 ^ will secure a large amount of food. Sugar beets should also be supplied. THE FATTENING HOGS. This process is most economically accomplished b 3 ^ finishing in the pea lots or grain stubble. The pigs should be turned on the peas as soon as the ]3ods are filled and the peas begin to hard- en. If sufficient pigs are used, say '10 per acre, not a pea will be wasted and even a portion of the vines consumed. One acre of peas, producing at the rate of 35 bushels per acre, which is an aver- age for Montana, will provide a fattening ration for ten 150 to 200 pound hogs for from 40 to 45 days. Climatic conditions per- mit of pea harvesting by pigs even as late as December 1. This is one of the easiest ffittening methods now practiced in Montana. The area over which peas can be grown is verv large and the time of foraging so extended by favorable weatlier that the product need not all be marketed at one time. In order, however, to make the best use of forage conditions, winter litters must be raised. Pigs from spring litters do not reach a large consuming capacity soon enough to take advantage of the early forage. Both late fall and early spring litters should be raised in order to get the most out of the foods and the market conditions. RESULTS FROM GLEANING GRAIN FIELDS. Enormous quantities of pork could be rftade annually from the grains wasted on stubble fields, large quantities of which are lost by “shattering” under the arid conditions. 8 THP: MOxNTANA experiaient station. During a period of 42 days extending from Oet. 4 to Nov. 15, 1901, the following test was made with pigs gleaning from grain stubble from which crops of oats, wheat, barley and peas had been removed. At the beginning of the test the 24 pigs weighed 2731, and at the close 3608 pounds. Thus in 42 days 24 pigs made an increase in live weight of 874 pounds, which amount valued at 514 cents, the prevailing price at the time, gave a return of $46.04. From this amount $3.28 is deducted for feed during a few days when the ground was covered with snow, there was then left a clear profit of $42.76. The percentage increase in live weight was 32.1 per cent, as compared with 19.2 per cent, from lambs and 5.19 per cent, from steers under the same conditions. One hundred and twelve acres of the station farm, consisting of meadow 57 acres, and the balance of stubble, formed the run for the 24 pigs, 230 lambs and 11 steers. There are enormous areas in Montana which could be put to a similiar use. RESULTS SECURED FROfl FEEDING GRAIN VS. GRAIN AND SUGAR BEETS. In the spring of 1902, two lots of four pigs each were fed for 50 days, one on exclusive grain ration, the other receiving both grain and sugar beets, with the following residts. The four hogs receiving grain made an increase of 316 pounds or 79 pounds each, making an average daily gain of 1.58 pounds. The cost of pro- duction per pound increase with this lot was 4.6 cents. The four hogs receiving grain and sugar beets made an increase of 328 pounds or 82 pounds each, making an average daih^ gain of 1.64 pounds. The cost of production in this case was 3.8 cents per pound. The former lot received a heavy grain ration of 9.11 pounds ea^h per day. The latter consumed 6.65 pounds of grain and 4.58 pounds of sugar beets per head per day. The financial outcome of this test resulted in a net profit of $14.12 or 33 per cent, on the investment in 50 days. Previous tests conducted in 1900 gave the following results: Cost of pork per pouud increase from grain only ^^3.33 Cost of pork per pound increase from grain and sugar beet^ 2.85 k'ood required per pouud increase from grain only 5.32 lbs. Grain required per pound increase from grain and sugar beets, 4.26 lbs. Net profit per head from feeding grain only $3.80 Net profit per head from feeding grain and sugar beets 2.28 One acre can be made to produce from 15 to 20 tons of sugar beets at a cost not exceeding $30 per acre. If for any reason these Bulletin 37. PORK PRODUCTION. 9 cannot be grown carrots or mangolds can be made to take their plaee. Some insect pests whieh prey upon the young sugar beets and mangold plants will not harm the carrots. These roots can be fed whole and raw, at least expense, with satisfactory results. The sugar beet is the best keeper of the three. THE KIND OF HOGS TO BREED. Our conditions are well able to support large framed hogs whieh will mature moderately early. Strength of bone is desirable but not so necessary as in some other regions. The brood sow should be long bodied and rangy with good length and depth of coupling; such a one is more sure to be prolific, a good mother, and a good nurse, than the chunky, compact, fine boned, strictly lard type. These desirable features are found par excellence in the im- proved English Berkshire and good results can be secured from the large, rangy, strong types of Poland Chinas. Many of our breeders are making serious mistakes by breeding immature animals and also by inbreeding. Let the young sow reach ten or twelve months of age before producing her first litter, and then do not de- stroy her as long as she continues to produce good ones. Inbreed- ing has arisen beeause of the difficulty and cost of importingboars; injudiciously practiced, rapid deterioration of form, constitutional vigor and feeding qualities is sure to ensue. ‘ HOG HOUSES. Various improvised and inexpensive shelters are being used, from the dugout in the hillside to the pole shelter covered with straw and the building made of logs. While any of these may pro- vide shelter during the milder portion of the year, their use can in no wise prove satisfactory throughout. They are too apt to be dark, damp, filthy and draughty. The pole structure with a straw covering may be used as a temporary shelter or for sleeping quarters for feeding hogs during the milder season, but for breeding quarters their use cannot be recommended. The log building is in most common use.^ Its greatest fault is its inability to retain the chink- ing. As a result the structure soon beeomes open and draughty. A properly planned and well construeted frame building gives the best results; its use is almost absolutely necessain^ where win- ter breeding is practiced. The building site should be high and dry so that surface water will drain away at all times. If poSvsible the location should be in close proximity to the small fields whieh are 10 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. to produce the forage crop. If a natural water supply can be di- verted so as to pass through the yards so mueh the better. It is desirable that the hog house should face the south, and that each pen should open into a small enclosure fenced off, prefer- ably with wire netting. By this means when a number of sows are eonfined with young pigs during the winter season they ean have aceess to protected, sunny yards. The size of the building will be determined by the number of brood sows and boars to be kept. As regards shape a long nar- row building is preferable, of such proportions, for instance, as 16 x 48. In such a structure a 31/^ foot passage way should run from end to end along the north side of the building, thus leaving all the pens on the south side. Pens 8 x 12V2 will furnish room for a brood sow and litter or several fattening pigs, according to size. One pen of twice the capacity should be constructed to furnish sleeping quarters for a larger number of animals, although an ex- tra shed could be construeted cheaply to protect the animals dur- ing the pasture season. Each pen should be provided with a small hinged door on the south, and directly above it a window. Not more than two windows will be required on the north side. The troughs should be placed direetly under the partition adjoining the passage way, and this partition so constructed as to swing from the top. In this way the pigs can be excluded from the trough while the feed is being supplied. The swinging partition is held in place by means of a slide in the center which works up and down thus resting on either side of the trough as desired. Less food is wasted when the flat bottomed troughs are used. Because of its splintery nature hemlock makes a durable trough, the pigs not caring to chew it. Concrete overlaid with cement furnishes a good flooring, its only fault being that it is cold. This may be overcome by over- laying a small portion with plank for a bedding place. Plank floors give good satisfaction but should be made water tight, or else much filth will work through and produce unsanitary conditions. One or two ventilators should extend from within a few feet of the floor up through the roof; in many cases these do not extend below the ceiling and as a result remove only the upper warm air, leaving the foul, heavier air below. If necessary to secure warmth the inside may be lined and the spaces between the studs filled with sawdust or chaft*. The chief essentials of a good hog house are warmth, sunlight, dryness and good ventilation without cold draughts. BULLETIN NO. 38. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL \ Experiment Station CTF THE^ .... i i AGRICIILTIRAL COLIEGE OF MONTANA. FOOD ADULTERATION. BOZEMAN, MONTANA, OCTOBER 1, 1903. 1902 . The Avant Courier PubliAhin^ Go. Bozeman, Montana. riontana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor 1 James Donovan, Attorney General >ex-officio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J N. W. McConnell M. Johnson O. P. Chisholm J. G. McCay G. T. Paul N. B. Holter J. M, Evans C. Leonard Helena Helena ....Billings .Bozeman Hamilton Dillon Helena .Missoula Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer ■ F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F, C. S Chemist ; Robt. S. Shaw, B. S. A Agriculturist , J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist •: R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to 4 any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. 1 Montana Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 38 - - - - October, i902 FOOD ADULTERATION. F. W. TRAPHAGEN. As a class the Montana Farmers should be more deeply interested |in the subject of the adulteration of food and in the remedies for ex- isting conditions, than any other group of citizens of our common- wealth. The reasons for the existence of this interest are twofold, namely, because as producers they suffer greatly by having their food products come into competition with the cheaper spurious products which so completely flood the markets today, and because as consumers they are constantly buying foods which are not true to name, but are either partly or entirely made up by the substitution of cheaper materials. Fortunately the stress of the competition of low grade imitations with our own farm crops has not yet been felt to any great extent. That our farmers have this competition to meet in the future unless remedies are enacted for their relief, is shown by the fact that al- read3y on a very small scale, the manufacture of preserves and jellies has been undertaken near Missoula, and the sale of these high grade goods hss been scriousl}^ affected b}" the presence of so much of the cheaper “compounds” which are so plentiful in all our markets. Nature of Food Adulteration. For our purpose it wdll be sufificient to divide the adulteration of foods into two groups, first those which affect the pocket-book, and second those which affect the health. In the first group we would place all cases of the substitution, in whole or in part, of cheaper, though wholesome, articles for the one which is presumably bought. Examples are the use of glucose for ma])le syrup, or for New Orleans molasses, or its substitution for the more expensive and sweeter sugar which is used in the higher grade jams, preserves and jellies. Corn meal is frecjuentlv used to adulterate wheat flour; cotton seed oil, peanut oil and sesame oil often masquerade as olive oil, ground spices are composed largely of ground cocoanut shells, and similar substitutions are made for other food materials. Under the head of unwholesome adulterations would be placed substances which cause derangements of the digestive or other func~ 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. tions of the human economy. Examples of these are the ground rock which was sold by the York Manufacturing Co., of Greenville, N. C., in carload lots for the adulteration of wheat flour. It is at once apparent that this material can have no nutritive value and that it further must tax the digestive organs greatly to effect its elimina- tion. WT have been called a “nation of dyspeptics,’' that this name is justly applied is due to the fact that the use of food preservatives, which is prohibited in several foreign countries, is not restricted in this country except in the few states having effective food laws. The case against these food preservatives is not as complete as it might be, but in the event of a reasonable doubt it is best to be on the safe side. Tlie food preservatives in use at the present day are powerful antiseptics and for that reason have a decided restraining effect upon digestion. The question of the physiological effect of the extremely small quantities of any of these preservatives that would be taken with food when the minimum amount necessary for its pres- ervation is used, is very important. It is probable that in such cases the vast majority of consumers would not be harmed. On the other hand, in the case of children or invalids much harm might result •even with the smallest amounts of antiseptics. Where the use of such drugs as these preservatives is contra-indicated, it should be at least possible to avoid their presence in the foods consumed. The arguments against the use of chemical preservatives apply with almost equal force to the artificial colors which are used so large- ly to improve the appearance of inferior goods. The testimony of 'experts on physiological chemistry given before the Committee on Manufactures of the United States Senate in its investigation of this matter, shows the prevailing opinion of those best qualified to testify on this subject. A portion of this testimony is given in the Seventh Annual Report of the Montana Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Industry, pages 499 — 507, and our readers are referred to this report. The Remedy After a futile attempt to secure the passage of a measure by our legislature for the protection of the citizens of our commonwealth we have reached the conclusion that the best way to secure relief is through the enactment of a measure by Congress. The reason for this change of base on our part is primarily because such a measure, as was considered by our legislature, can only be- come effective by holding our own dealers responsible for the charac- ter of the foods they offer for sale. In the nature of things we can- not successfully legislate against ])roducers or jobbers who reside in another state than our own. At the same time there is little s'^ ^ g: o g 0) .rH ^ t. 0) O i- OP^ GOO 03 CL ^ ^ 03 ?! PP'gM.^-D -G o3 ^ H rj ■« G o a: r: ^ CO :: m c» G d) CL ^ C-t p £ g 2| _o S 05 l O T-l C o5 o3 o3 o3 s- > > > > ' 1 £ 0)

_ ^ 'O OT O CO 00 Cl O tH LO LO ID o o o o a >1 ^ CO CP d) o " 'o ^ CANNED TOMATOES FOUND ADULTERATED. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 a o oJ 03 >3 >>3 o o o3 d cc m o 33 03 o3 dj o O d3 O bJO c3 eg a o ^ o3 ^ § 8 7: be §.s u u fc o 13 d d cj q d d 73 73 O O be be d d o B, S 00 d 0^ -ui .d q o Lai). No. S qO 52 ^ d d -t-J ill a d'S M m rn 2 O 03 o oe 3 3 d d ® .s d o o CC 3 — I L_| d 2 ^ O O C : d . q , . 5 . d . N M : 5- 2 i*ost^ ■ShI^p S“ . ® d *=’ 2 S ^ ^ 03 o z’ ^ S d m ^ o P O H -M d^ 1^ C -d 2 S g d o a d q ui o d ■SS 11 -d d -33 d d rl d PQ 5 ^ m fez 5 O . ^ 'jO ^ lO o CO CO S- dl d o3 O ;i3 d ai d q S o « 2 S a§^ o ^ ^ ^ « d r-, B ^ d 2 be^ M 5i_| dJ r— d d o b 10 CD oc ers LO UC C^ 00 CXD Cl 35 Oi l _0 C 'IT 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ANALYSIS OF TOMATO CATSUPS. p : 2 : o Name of Brand. Name of Manufacturer. 12571 Snider’s Home-made Catsup. Caltsup, Standard 1269 Priscilla 1363 Blue Label . 1365 Tart Tomato Brand 1366 Favorite Brand Tomato Catsup. . 1367 Shrewsbury Puree of Tomatoes. . 1368|Eagle Brand Tomato Ketchup.. 15591 Sunny Side Ketchup 1507! Extra Tomato Catsup Monarch I Brand 1558! Standard Tomato Catsup 1508 Bayle’s Tomato Catsup 1494 Sweet Spiced 1746 Old Virginia Ketchup 1977!Nail City Catsup 1979, Heinz Tomato Ketchup T. A. Snider Preserve Co Franklin MacVeagh & Co .... Curtice Brothers Co P. J. Ritter Conserve Co P. J. Ritter Conserve Co E. C. Hazard & Co Kuner Pickle Co The. Tip Top Ketchup Co Reid, Murdoch & Co Standard Packing Co Geo. A. Bayle Gordon & Dilworth Geo. K. McMechen & Son Co. The West Vir. Preserving Co H. J. Heinz Co MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 ANALYSIS OF TOMATO CATSUPS. Where Manufactured. Cincinnati, O Chicago, 111 Rochester, N Y Philadelphia, Pa Philadelphia, Pa Shrewsbury, N. J Denver, Col Chicago, 111 Cincinnati, O St Louis, Mo St Louis, Mo New York, N.Y Wheeling , W. Va Pittsburg, Pa Preservative. Coloring Matter Benzoic acid Coal Tar Dye . . - Salicylic acid Coal Tar Dye . . . Salicylic acid... Coal Tar Dye . . . Benzoic acid Salicylic acid Coal Tar Dye... Salicylic Acid Coal Tar Dye .. Salicylic acid Coal Tar Dye . . Benzoic acid Coal Tar Dye .. Acid Sulphite Coal Tar Dye Salicylic acid Coal Tar Dye .. Acid Sulphite Benzoic acid Coal Tar Dye .. Sulphite : Coal Tar Dye .. Sal’c acid and Sulphite Coal Tar Dye .. Benzoic acid i6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. .JAMS, JELLIES, AND PRESERVES, ALL ADULTERATED. Name of Brand. 1482jQueen 1483Queen 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1495 1496 1497 Queen Queen Queen Queen Queen Queen Queen Queen Queen 1265|Eagle Jam, Grape Compound.... 1266lEagle Jam, Pineapple Compound. 1268|Eagle Jam, Raspberry Compound 1481 [Queen Black Raspberry Jam. . . . Blackberry Jam Strawberry Jam Red Raspberry Jam Apricot Jam Green Gage Jam Currant Jam Cherry Jam Peach Jam Pineapple Jam Gooseberry Jam Pear Jam . 1522!Extra Grated Pineapple ■1552|Pure Fruit Jam, Blackberry 1553|Genesee Fresh Fruit Jam, Currant 1585'Gopher Brand Preserved Straw- I berries 161 5T. & B. Brand, Extra Quality, Raspberry Preserves 1616ID. & B. Brand Strawberry Pre- i serves 1617 *Red Currant Jelly 1618 [Extra Quality Blackberry Jelly. . 1619'Extra Quality Currant Jelly 1620 [Favorite Brand Compound Cur- i rant Jelly 1621 [Favorite Brand Compound Straw- ' berry Jelly Flavor 2274 Peacock Brand Peach Jam 2275 Peacock Brand Blackberry Jam. I 2276 Peacock Brand Cherry Jam 2277iPeacock Brand Pineapple Jam.. 2278:Peacock Brand Quince Jam.... 2279 j Peacock Brand Black Raspberry Jam 22801 Peacock Brand Red Raspberry J am 2281!Peacoclc Brand Apricot Brand.. I Name of Manufacturer. Anderson Preserving Co. . . Anderson Preserving Co... Anderson Preserving Co . . . Franklin MacVeagh & Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh <6: Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Franklin MacVeagh & Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.. Reid, Murdoch & Go Reid, Murdoch & Co Batavia Preserving Co Foley Bros. & Kelly Mer. Co. Dodson-Brown Mfg. Co Dodson-Brown Mfg. Co Gordon & Dil worth Philip J. Ritter Conserve Co. Philip J. Ritter Conserve Co. Philip J. Ritter Conserve Co. Philip J. Ritter Conserve Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co.... franklin MacVeagh & Co.... Franklin MacVeagh & Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co, Franklin MacVeagh & Co, Franklin MacVeagh & Co, Franklin MacVeagh & Co. Franklin MacVeagh & Co. ^Contains only a small quantity of Salicylic acid which subsequent inves- tigations have shown was probably normally luesent in the fresh fruit used and which could not be considered an adulterant. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 JAMS, JELLIES, AND PRESERVES, ALL ADULTERATED. Where Manufactured. Camden, N. J Camden, N. J Camden, N. J Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 ..... . Genesee Co. N. li St. Paul, Minn . . St. Louis, Mo... St. Louis, Mo... New York Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Chicago, 111 Preservative. 1 Coloring Matter. Other Adulterants Salicylic acid Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid . . Coal Tar Dye.... Coal Tar Dye. . . Starch Paste and Glucose Starch Paste and Glucose. Starch Paste and Glucose, Olnr’osft Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Coal Tar Dye. . . Coal Tar Dye Coal Tar Dye... Glucose Starch Paste and Glucose, Starch Paste and Glucose. C3-1 n nncicw Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid . Salicylic acid Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid Salicylic acid Salicylic acid Salicylic acid Salicylic acid Salicylic acid., Glucose Starch Paste and Glucose. Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose Coal Tar Dye. . . Starch Paste and Glucose. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid.. Salicylic acid. . Salicylic acid. Sulphite \ Pa.stft Salicylic acid and Sulphite. . Staroh Pa.ste Sulphite Sulphite Coal Tar Dye. . . Starch Paste Starch Paste Sulphite Starch Paste Sulphite and . . Salicylic acid.. Sulphite.,. . . . Sulphite Coal Tar Dye. . . Coal Tar Dye... Starch Paste Starch' Paste Starch Paste ANALYSIS OF CEREAL BREAKFAST FOODS. 18 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 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H b b ,-5° b O b ^ b ^ 02 b m.O U 2 o tsi o o 00 b o o P 60 d -b b ■ ' ^ ^.a -g >> 2 ci) 'm b 2 C •- B.? a § CO ^ CO '^b p- o' o O ^ S o d b o ® ^ o rH H b 'b a biz a b d ffl d d b 2 b d b CO CO P b : a . d :q ; b 60 .a b CO CO d> “■ .^P gQS 5'S'O b b b b b b ^ b -M b SS CO CO 3 ® -a b 2 o co ''0 0 -S22 M b 60 >> d d O^P OC' CO CD -Tfi Oi CO CO TTt^ o . b b ^ -I b W b S '-i b b CO b as b S 'S o o"‘o O tH CO LO ID) 10 • b 2co a -r-f CO O) o" ^ s d a CO -M , ><3 d PS X bP a? P5 b p CO b b !L, a 0^ s-g s o 'Tt< C5 CO 00 ID) ID) b CO b CO o >, PO b2 b b b BULLETIN No. 39. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, -OF THE- A^rictilitiral College of Montana. SHeep Feeding' in Montana. Bozeman, Montana, November, 1902. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, 1902. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOZenAN, ■ MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ') James Donovan, Attorney-General. t Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula. C. D. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President,.. Bozeman J. M. Robinson, Vice-President, Bozeman* Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman' Joseph Kountz, Bozeman E. B. Lamme, Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samueu Fortier, Ma. E., F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S. Robt. S. Shaw, , J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., Director and Irrigation Engineer Chemist* Agriculturist- Botanist Entomologist- Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. Notice.— The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO, 39- = = NOVEHEER, 1902. SHeep Feeding in Montana. By R, S. SHAW, The agricultural conditions in Montana have now reached that stage of development whereby the state can rival the greatest feeding states of. the Union, for within our own borders are to be found the sheep, hay, grain, water, climatic conditions, and men of enter- prise to develop the industry. Montana now leads the states of the Union in numbers of sheep, the census of 1900 reporting 6,170,483 within her borders. Valleys, which ten years ago produced little or no hay, except some timothy or wild hay, are to-day furnishing thousands upon thousands of tons of legumes, especially suited to the- fattening of sheep. The climatic conditions are such as to render the fattening process rapid and economical. Sufficient grain can be produced to give the meat products a good finish. The feasibility of shipi^ing these finished products to the great markets has been successfully demonstrated 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Suitability of Range Types of Sheep for Fattening. The range sheep was bred primarily for wool production, though during later years an attempt has been made to improve their mutton qualities These attempts at improvement along the latter line will no doubt result in the establishment of a dual purpose sheep, probably through the use of Rambouillet or Delaine rams on the native stocks. Experience has already taught many of our sheepmen that the heavy mutton breeds, such as the Downs, will not answer on the range. Because, therefore, of the peculiar range conditions our feeders will have to be content with a dual type of sheep rather than a special mutton type for feeding. Tests have shown that there is little differ- ence in the returns secured from the two types. Recent experiments at this Station showed that where the mutton type lambs produced 100 pounds increase in live weight at a cost of $4.89, requiring 8.74 pounds of food to produce a pound of gain, those of the dual purpose or range type produced 100 pounds increase at a cost of $4.62, requiring 9.07 pounds of food per pound gain. These figures show the range sheep to be not far behind ’the special type in mutton production, while they excel them in wool production under range conditions. Profits from Sheep Feeding. In Station tests of 1900, 11.8 pounds of clover were required to maintain a sheep and produce one pound of gain. At this rate one ton of clover produced 169.5 pounds of mutton worth $4.68 per cwt. This gave a return of $7.98 per ton of the clover fed, while the local price was only $5.00 per ton in the stack. In 1900 the net profits per head from the Station fed lambs was 81 cents, when clover was valued at $6.00 per ton, oats at 90 cents per cwt. and damaged wheat at 40 cents per cwt. In 1901 a carload of Station lambs fed in five divisions on differ- ent rations, hence lacking in uniformity, netted a profit of 80 cents per head in Chicago when placed on the extremely poor market of March, 1901. In this case clover was valued at $5.00 per ton, grain 85 cents per cwt., and screenings at 55 cents per cwt. In 1902 Station fattened sheep gave the following profits on the Chicago market : MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. o 55 lambs, net profit of $95.15, or $1.73 per head. 51 one-year wethers, net profit of $71.70, or $1.40 per head. 52 two-year wethers, net profit of $88.44, or $1.57 per head. 53 aged ewes, net profit of $1.00, or 1.8 cts. per head. Clover was valued at $5.00 per ton and grain at 90 cents per cwt. Cost of Producing Mutton in Montana, Where legumes are used phenomenal results have been secured as regards amount of food required to produce a pound of mutton and the cost of the same. In Station tests of 1900, 6.38 pounds of clover and 2.8 pounds of wheat produced a pound of mutton at 3.22 cents, with clover worth $6.00 per ton and damaged wheat 40 cents per cwt. At the same time 11.8 pounds of clover produced a ijound gain, costing 3.54 cents, and 6.10 pounds of clover and 2.65 pounds of oats produced a pound of gain, costing 4.39 cents, oats being worth 90 cents per cwt. Station tests of 1901 gave the following results: Cost per 100 pounds increase from clover, barley and oats, $4.34. Cost per 100 pounds increase from clover and screenings, $3.34. Cost per 100 pounds increase from clover alone, $3.53. In Station tests, 1902, one pound increase was produced at the following cost with sheej) of different ages, viz.: Lambs 4.18 cents, one-year wethers 5.83 cents, two-year wethers 5.90 cents, and aged ewes 6.78 cents; clover was worth $5.00 per ton and grain 90 cents per cwt. As the prices charged for foods are far above the cost price, a sec- ondary profit is secured from all the foods fed. These prices are far in excess of those charged for feed in eastern trials, where cheap grains are secured. Shipping vs. Local Markets. The individual feeder should never rely on local markets. Their consuming capacity is so small that much difficulty is experienced in disposing of even less than a carload lot. In March, 1900, when lambs were worth $6.50 to $7.00 per cwt. in Chicago, a portion of a carload of ►Station lambs had to be disposed of at $4.68 xJt3r cwt. on a local 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. market. The profits of 1901 and 1902 given above were secured, the former on the poorest and the latter on the best market for some years. The feeder should always select sheep in even carload lots with a view of shipping. Cost of Shipping. Fat sheep and cattle have both been shipped from the Grallatin Valley to eastern and western markets, the cost being about the same in both cases. In 1901 the cost of marketing lambs shipped from Bozeman to Chicago, a distance of about 1,400 miles, including all expenses, was 83 cents per head. In 1902 the following expenses were incurred in marketing sheep of different ages, viz: lambs 78 cents, one-year wethers $1.07, two- year wethers $1.27 and aged ewes 94 cents,, the whole lot averaging $1.01 per head. In this latter case the cost is a little high owing to a prolonged stop-over. Shrinkage in Marketing. In 1901 the shrinkage of Station lambs between Bozeman and Chicago was eight pounds each. Over the same route in 1902 lambs shrunk 7.6 j3ounds, or 8.7 per cent. One-year wethers shrunk 10.4 pounds, or 8.7 per cent^ two-year wethers shrunk 12 X30unds, or 8.5 per cent, and aged ewes shrunk 12.2 pounds, or 11.3 per cent. In both cases the sheep were fed in the morning with access to water and weighed between 2 and 3 o’clock p. m. before shipping in the evening. Method of Feeding and Equipment. The beginner should start with not more than one or two carloads until every feature of the business becomes familiar. Except in care- ful hands the large enterprise undertaken suddenly, without proper equipment, is likely to result in failure. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 Equipment. Small yards or enclosures are very essential. Sheep will not fatten well when allowed too much liberty to roam at will. The size of feed- ing yards will have to be determined by the extent of the feeding. In general the fewer sheep that are run together the better the results. The average farmer, who probably will not attempt to feed to exceed 2,000 per year, should figure on dividing these up in three or four lots, grading them according to size, condition and strength. The rations can then be so adjusted as to turn out the whole band in uni- form condition of fatness. It is very essential to select high, dry feed yards, through which running water passes near one end if possible. Some kind of wire netting makes good fencing, with a few strands of barbed wire encircling the top of the outer enclosure to prevent the access of dogs or wild animals. Some form of shelter should be pro- vided, though the same may not be used more than a few days through- out the entire season. On the Station farm a shed 16x64 feet was found to be sufficient to provide shelter for 220 sheep, giving each about five square feet of ground space. The shed is eight feet high on one side and six on the other; it is enclosed with rough lumber and covered with an under layer of brush and an upper one of straw. Such a structure provides suitable protection except in time of rain in the late spring. A suitable form of hay rack is very essential. Those used at the Station in the past few years have given excellent results. They are 16 feet long, 8^ feet high and 8 feet wide. The bottom board is 12 inches and the feeding space above is 8 inches in width. Above the feeding space three 1x6 inch boards are used. A rack of this style will furnish feeding space for thirty lambs. Feeding. Hay should not be suioplied more than twice each day, and once may be preferable, furnishing only that amount which will be well cleaned up. In case of very coarse fodder the rough leavings should be removed; if forced to consume them the gains of the sheep will be reduced. Feeding on the ground is wasteful and unsatisfactory. 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Grain. Only a light grain ration is necessary to produce a good finish with the legumes available; from one-half to three-quarters of a pound of grain per head per day, along with alfalfa or clover, will be sufficient to give the desired finish, if fed throughout a period extending from seventy to ninety days The grain ration should be extended throughout the whole feeding period rather than the latter half, as has been practiced in some localities. The grain may be sup- plied in troughs fastened to the posts enclosing each feed lot. V- shaped troughs are desirable to prevent sheep from jumping up and standing in them. Unground grain will answer well for sheex) with sound teeth. Salt. Should be in constant supply so that the sheep can secure it at will. Gleaning Grain Fields. The cheapest and most rapid gains are secured from sheep while running on grain and clover stubble after harvest and before the feed- ing season begins. In 1901 225 lambs which pastured on 112 acres of the Station farm for thirty days before going on feed, made an average increase in live weight of 9.78 pounds. The most profitable way to fatten aged ewes is by running them on clover and grain stubble dur- ing the entire autumn season. Comparative Feeding Value of Alfalfa, Red and Alsike Clover. Montana Station Bulletin No. 21 . The sheei) feeding industry of Montana is based on the produc- tion of legumes. Almost without excexition every valley in the state, possessed of water supplies for irrigation, can be made to grow one or mor(‘ of the legumes mentioned, depending upon the peculiarity of the soil, and soil moisture conditions. Some portions of the state, as the Yellowstone valley, are i^re-eniinentiy suited to the growth of alfalfa; while in others, such as the Gallatin, cotulitions well suited to all three legnmes are found in various sections. Because of the fact that these thre(‘ crops are coming into common use a test was made to de- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 termine their relative values, with the following result, as reported in Bulletin No. 21. Composition of the legumes used, furnished from analyses by Dr' F. W. Traphagen, Station Chemist. Alsike Red Clover Alfalfa PER CENT. PER CENT. PER CENT Water 6.05 5.16 5.09 Crude Protein 13 12.37 12.37 Ether Extract 3.07 5,29 4.07 N. Free Extract 38.71 45.84 , 39.82 Crude Fibre 29.45 22.65 * 31.10 Ash 9.72 7.55 8.79 The comparative data secured were as follows: 16 lambs receiving alsike gained 405 pounds in 84 days. 16 lambs receiving red clover gained 402 pounds in 84 days 16 lambs receiving alfalfa gained 377 pounds in 84 days. Alsike clover consumed i)er pound increase, 6.32 lbs. Red clover consumed per pound increase 6,43 lbs. Alfalfa consumed per pound increase 6.58 lbs. In this test both grain and root rations were fed along with the legumes, in like manner and amount. The results are in keeping with the protein content of the food stuffs, alsike being the highest by .63 of one per cent. In those cases where similar tests have been made in other states alfalfa has been reported al)out 2 per cent higher in protein contents than the clover. We conclude from this test that the feeding values of the three legumes are little different because of the greater yields obtained from the alfalfa, as comi)ared with the clovers. The percentage of waste resulting from coarse inedible stems was least from the alsike and greatest from the alfalfa. Fattening Lambs on Clover with and without Grain. Montana Station Bulletin No. 27. Three lots of twenty lambs each were fed for ninety days, one on 10 MOJSTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. clover only, the second on clover and wheat, and the third on clover and oats. Clover was worth $6.00 per ton, damaged wheat 40c. per cwt. and oats 90c. per cwd.. She damaged wheat was used in order to compare the financial result from expensive and inexpensive grain rations. The results were as follows: Gain per head per month from feeding clover and wheat, 10 pounds. Gain “ “ “ “ “ “ “ only, 8.1 iDound& Gain ‘‘ “ “ - “ “ “ “ and oats, 10.58 pounds.. Food required per pound gain with clover and wheat, clover 6.88 lbs.. wheat 2.8 Ibs.^ Food required per iDound gain with clover only, clover 11.8 lbs.. Food required per pound gain with clover and oats, clover 6.10 lbs. oats 2.65 lbs. Cost per 100 pounds increase from feeding clover and damaged wheat, $8.22. Cost per 100 pounds increase from feeding clover only, 18.54 Cost i3er 100 pounds increase from feeding clover and oats, |4.89 The conclusions drawn were: (1) That unmarketable wheat fed to sheep along with clover produces good gains at low cost. (2) That while fairly good gains can be secured from feeding lambs on clover alone, some grain is required to impart a good finish for ship- ping. (8) High priced marketable grains render the cost of produc- tion too great without increasing the live weight sufficiently to justify their use. (4) Light grain rations are sufficient where legumes are fed. In both instances quoted above only .98 lbs. grain was fed per head i^er day throughout ninety days Grain Versus Screenings For Fattening Lambs. Montana Station Bulletin No. 31. Two lots of lambs of 58 each were fed for eighty-eight days, one MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. II on clover and marketable oats and barley, the other on clover and second mill screenings. The clover was valued at $5.00 per ton, the mixture of oats and barley at 85 cents per cwt. and the screenings at 55 cents per cwt. The following results were secured: Gain per head per month from feeding clover, barley and oats, 8.5 lbs Gain “ “ “ “ clover and screenings, 9.5 lbs Food required per pound gain with clover, and grain, clover, 5.5 lbs . grain, 1.07 lbs* Food required i^er pound gain with clover and screenings, clover, 5 lbs. screenings, .94 lbs. Cost per 100 pounds increase from feeding clover and grain, $4.34 Cost per 100 pounds increase from feeding clover and screenings, $3.34 The results from feeding clover and screenings indicate both greater gain in live weight and much greater economy in production than where grains were used. This is no doubt due to the variety afforded by the screenings which are relished by the fattening sheep » Clover Versus Grain Hay for Fattening Lambs, Montana Station Bulletin No. .31. Two' lots of lambs of 53 each were fed for 60 days, one on clover only, the other on grain hay. The grain hay was made from a mixed sowing of spring wheat, oats, barley and peas in equal amounts, cut while in the dough stage. Both foods were valued at $5.00 per ton. The gain per head i3er month from the clover was 7 pounds. The gain per head X3er month from ihe grain hay was 5.34 pounds. The clover required to produce a pound of gain was 14 pounds. The grain hay required to produce a xiound of gain was 18 pounds. 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Cost per 100 pounds increase from feeding clover, $8.63. Cost per 100 pounds increase for feeding grain hay, $4.60. There was a large waste from feeding grain hay consisting of coarse cereal stems. We concluded that it was better suited to cattle than sheep. Effect of Water Supply on Fattening Lambs. Montana Station Bulletin No. .31. Seventeen lambs were selected and fed clover and screenings in the same manner as the pen of 53 heretofore described except that the former were turned to water but once a day while the latter had con- stant access to it. The gain per head per month from the lambs with access to water was 9.5 x^onnds. The gain per head per month from the lambs watered once a day was 7.15 x^onnds. Cost of 100 pounds increase from lambs with access to water, $3.34* Cost of 100 pounds increase from lambs with restricted water sux)- ply, $4.51. While range stock may lie able to subsist for long x^^^riods without water, these facts emxihasize strongly the urgent necessity for a con- stant sux^xdy of good x^ure water for the fattening lamb. Comparative Results from Feeding Lambs, 1-year Wethers, 2- year Wethers and Aged Ewes. Montana Station Bulletin No. : 3. Four lots of tyxiical r,-,nge ilu ex) were x^rocured and fed 88 days The foods, water, surroundings and methods of feeding were the same in all cases. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 Prices Paid and Weights when Test Began. 55 lambs, $1.62 per head, average weight 62.9 pounds. 51 one-year wethers, $2.50 per head, average weight 94.9 pounds. 53 two-year wethers, $2.65 per hea l, average weight 115.7 pounds. 53 ewes, $2.50 per head, average weight 91.6 pounds. Average Amount of Food Consumed per Head per Day. Lambs, clover 2.05 pounds, barley .68 pounds, total 2.73 pounds. One-year wethers, clover 3.77 pounds, barley .68 pounds, total 4.45 pounds. Two-year wethers, clover 4.05 pounds, barley .68 pounds, total 4.73 pounds. Aged ewes, clover 2.33 pounds, barley .68 pounds, total 3.01 pounds. The total amount of food consumed by the lambs is rather small, but their ration contained a greater percentage of grain than those of the older sheep. Relation of Gi^ain to Coarse Food. % The lamb ration consisted of 24 per cent grain. The one-year wether ration consisted of 15 per cent grain. The two-year wether ration consisted of 14 jjer cent grain. The ewe ration consisted of 22 per cent grain. These differences in the percentage of grain were necessary to give the various lots uniform finish when slaughtered. The heaviest grain ration was furnished the lambs to give their growthy increase fatness; this was not considered so necessary in the case of the more mature wethers, whose increase in weight is largely fat. Increase in Live Weight during Eighty-Eight Days. Lambs, 23.7 pounds, percentage increase 37.7 per cent. 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. One-year wethers, 28.5 pounds, percentage increase 24.7 per cent. Two-year wethers, 24.8 pounds, percentage increase 20.9 per cent. Aged ewes, 15.6 pounds, percentage increase 17.0 per cent. The comparative gains are strikingly brought out in the percent- age increase. Relative Cost of Production. Lambs, cost per 100 pounds increase, $4.18. One-year wethers, cost per 100 pounds increase, $5.88. Two-year wethers, cost per 100 pounds increase, $5.90. Aged ewes, cost per 100 pounds increase, $6.78. While the lamb and ewe rations contained the same foods in about the same proportions, the wether rations contained milch less grain. Food Required[for Maintenance and per Pound Increase. Lambs,' dry food consumed per iiound increase, 10.16 pounds. One-year wethers, dry food consumed per pound increase, 16.6 pounds. Two-year wethers, dry food consumed per pound increase, 17.1 pounds. Aged ewes, dry food consumed per pound increase, 17.5 pounds. These amounts are larger than they would have been had more grain been used in the ration as heretofore indicated. Slaughter Test Report (By Swift & Co.). 55 lambs, average 79 pounds, price $6.80, dress 54.2 per cent. 51 one-year wethers, average 108 pounds, price $5.85, dress 52.9 per cent. 58 two-year wethers, average 128 i^ounds price $5.40, dress 58.5 per cent. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 58 ewes, average 95 pounds, price $4.75, dress 50.6 per cent. “We consider all of these sheep a useful class of stock, not too ifat, and they are dressed about 2 per cent above the average, coming io the Chicago market at the present time.” The percentage of dressed weight is figured on a basis of actual weight immediately after killing, shrunk 8 per cent, which is about what mutton will shrink after hanging over night. BULLHTIN No. 40 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, OF THE A.^ric\iltural College of Montana. ROOT CROPS IN MONTANA. Bozeman, Montana, November, 1902. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, 1902. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL iment Stati BOZEHAN, = MONTANA; STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ . James Donovan, Attorney-General, v Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula. C. R.. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm, Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President, Bozeman. J. M. Robinson, Vice-President, Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman. Joseph Kountz, Bozeman. E. B. Lamme, Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samuel, Fortier, Ma. E., Director and Irrigation Engineer; F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S., Chemist. F. B. Linfield, B. S. a, Agriculturist. J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., Botanist. R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., Entomologist. R. W. Fisher, B. S., Assistant Horticulturist. Edmund Burke Assistant Chemist. Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will ^be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station. JULLETIN NO. 40 , NOVEMBER, 1902. ROOT CROPS IN MONTANA By R. S. SHAW W hile root crops have hitherto been grown in small quantities ily in Montana, there is nevertheless a useful place for them. The d grazing system and the more recent work of production of grains e rapidly giving way to a diversified farming as the cultivated areas >e being extended and tilled in a more progressive manner. Field :ots will hereafter play an important part in the stock feeding opera- bns of the farmer, for even though it has been clearly demonstrated fat beets can be successfully produced for sugar making, there are no anufacturing plants in the state to use them for this purpose and fell may not be made accessible to the majority of farmers in the 'te for some time to come. Our plan, therefore, is to discuss the '"stion from the stock-growers’ standpoint. 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. We take the ground that farmers that are so situated should raise small areas of roots each season for winter feeding; for such work can be conducted on every farm in Montana where grain, legumes and roots can be grown. The growth of large areas of root crops is at present not recommended and in fact should be discouraged for the reasons, that in general we are not prepared to handle, house and dis- pose of large 'crops It is a good plan to start with from one-half to one acre and this area can be enlarged to suit the demand. Already some objections have been raised against the growing of roots in Mon- tana, such as, high price of labor and amount of work involved and lack of storage facilities. The cost of production and many difficulties pertaining thereto can be easily overcome by making use of the proper methods of culture and harvesting for our conditions; it is these we propose discussing more fully. Value and Use of Root Crops* Proof has already been secured which demonstrates clearly the usefulness of mangolds, carrots, sugar beets, turnips and rutabagas under our farm conditions. There is no class of stock kept on the ranch during the winter which can not be made to use some one, two or more of these to good advantage. In most cases it may not be well to grow all live kinds, as some are better suited for certain purposes. The kind or kinds grown must be governed somewhat by the soil and climatic conditions and the class of live stock to which they are to bt fed. For the horse, carrots are pre-eminently suitable; for the dair} cow, mangolds, carrots and sugar beets; for the beef steer and th( sheep all are suitable; for the pig, mangolds, carrots and sugar beets for the chicken, mangolds only. This classification of general utiiit) is based upon the use of roots in the raw condition. The advantages derived from the use of field roots in feeding hv(. stock is due rather to a secondary action than to the actual amount c i nutriment supplied by them. During the winter season when dr foods only are available they furnish a succulent adjunct which act; ^ as a tonic, stimulating digestion, increasing the flow of milk and caus ' ing a great saving in the more expensive grain foods. Station test MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 here as well as elsewhere have proved that roots and grain form a more economical ration for pigs than grain only; that the increase in live weight is relatively greater, the cost of production less and the quality of the meat of a higher grade. The comparative feeding values will be discussed in another publication. Conditions in Montana are Suited to Root Crops, Though the soil and climatic conditions are extremely variable, there is scarcely a single cultivated portion of the state under irriga- tion where one or more varieties of field roots cannot be grown, from the lowest point up to an altitude of several thousand feet. Abundant proof of this assertion has been secured by the Experiment Station in regard to the sugar beet which has been almost universally produced in the state with satisfactory results from a sugar making standpoint; of the several classes of roots it is probably the most difficult to pro- duce. The mangold cannot be produced with best results at high altitudes where the growing season is short; the greater i^art of its growth being above ground with a sparse covering of leaves the flesh, which is covered with a thin skin, is easily damaged by early frosts. If frozen the roots do not keep well during the winter. The other four classes are not so readily injured by frost and all grow late in the season. In some sections particularly where the soil is clayey or where the growth is retarded by lack of moisture, both turnips and rutabagas are seriously damaged by the green aphis, the ravages of which are much worse some se’asons than others. Of the whole num- ber carrots have been less liable to the ravages of insect pests, though mangolds and sugar beets are seldom attacked. As yet plant diseases of a fungoid nature are entirely unknown among root crops in Mon- tana. Soils Suitable for Root Crops. While these differ slightly for the several classes and will be dis- cussed more specifically later, in general, the heavier loams are best suited. Heavy clays are not suitable in any case and humus or muck soils are productive of quantity rather than (piality. While the best 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. results will be secured from clay and sandy loams containing some humus the yields will decrease as the soils become sandy or gravelly both through lack of plant food and the inability of these soils to retain moisture. The land chosen should be so located that water can be applied just when needed; it should also be as nearly level as pos- sible with just sufficient fall for irrigation. Where the fall is too great with the system of furrow irrigation used, there is much washing of the soil and resulting injury to the crop. Preparation of SoiL III this there will be some slight differences according to the cli- matic conditions, soil, and the crop to be grown. In all cases deep plowing must precede the crop and in some cases this must be in the spring and in others in the fall. In those portions of the state where the soil is somewhat heavy, where there is a large amount of snowfall followed by copious spring rains and where as a result the ground is impacted, then spring plowing will be necessary in certain seasons but under these conditions light porous soils should be fall plowed. Hard, dry, imiDenetrable soils produce prongy roots which are particularly objectionable in the case of the sugar beet. Throughout the more arid sections with scant snowfall and spring rain the ground should he plowed deep in the fall and in^xy also be cultiuated some at that time. In preparing the seetl bed some form of cultivator should be used which will cut deep and leave an even surface, this should be followed by a smoothing harrow to level the ground and bring the lumps to the surfac(\ If the ground is too loose or lumpy it should be rolled before seeding. After this the ground is ready for marking and sowing. Where only a small area is sown it will be better to mark off the drills in order to have them straight and a uniform distance a|)art which not only adds to the appearance but renders cultivation and irrigation more easy and less liable to injure the cro^xs. A marker may be con- structed as follows: Cut several wooden runners about eighteen inches long out of one by eight-inch boards and round them off at one end in about the same shape as a sleigh runner; this rounded edge should also be brought to a wedge shape. These runners are then fastened together, side by side, the distance apart which the rows are required MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 by nailing two 1x6 inch strips across the tops. A light strip is then attached to the centre of the marker by which k can be drawn. With a marker of this kind five or six feet in width an acre of ground can be marked off in an hour or two. The runners can be changed so as to suit the requirements as to distance in marking for any of the root crops or potatoes. This method is suggested for small areas only, larger areas should be marked and planted by a seeder for the purpose. Seeding. Where large areas are to be grown year after year, a regular root drill should be secured. In the case of mangoLIs or sugar beets, the seeds of which are large, the sowing may be performed with an ordi- nary grain drill by stopping up some tubes to give the rows a proper distance apart. But where only small areas are phinted the work can be well done with a good hand seeder of which the Planet Junior is a fair type. Using one of these a man can sow one acre of sugar beets, with rows two feet apart, in from three to four hours. These i)lanters can be adjusted to sow all kinds of field roots and garden seeds as well. Every farmer who i^lants a garden should use one. The methods of cultivation and irrigation required by the various root crops will be left till these are discussed individually. Harvesting. The labor required and the cost of this oi)eration are among the strongest arguments urged against the })roduction of root crops. If the jDractice of hcind f)ulling' is followed much hard work and expendi- ture are required. The plan followed at the Exx^eriment Station has been the following . The first ojjeration in harvesting consists in re- moving the top. This can be rapidly and easily accomplished with a sharp hoe, the work being done nearly as fast as a man can walk. It is most easily accomplished in the case of the rutabaga, the toip of which is supported on a neck. With practice and the exercise of l^roj^er care all classes of roots can be topped in this manner. Excex)- tion may be urged in the case of the mangold, as it has been consider- ed necessary to twist the tops off in i3reference to cutting the root. 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. which renders them more liable to decompose. While this is true in humid climates, it does not hold good under our arid conditions, In the case of sugar beets to be used for manufacture it is desirable that a portion of the crown be removed with the top. The next operation in harvesting consists in plowing the roots out. The deep rooted crops, such as mangolds, sugar beets and car- rots, can not be overturned in many cases, owing to the depth which the plow would need to go. In such cases our practice is to plow a deep furrow away from the roots and so close up to the row that the roots are left exposed. They can then be thrown into piles or gathered in a wagon. In doing this work only one row at a time can be re- moved, or two when working from both sides of the patch. If a number of rows were plowed before removing the outer ones these may be partially covered when the rows are close together. Both mangolds and rutabagas can be plowed out. The draught should be so arranged as to cause the plow to cut a V shaped furrow directly under the roots. As these two crops grow on the surface so little earth is moved by the plow that a whole field can be plowed out at once. If care is taken not to plow too deep the roots will be left exposed. In all cases a plow cutting not wider than ten inches will give the best results. Some form of garden plow will answer well. For large crops a sugar beet harvester should be used. Storing The most satisfactor}^ and permanent results in storing are to be secured from a root cellar built in an excavation, the object being to get below ground for security against frost. Storage houses for roots and potatoes are not as satisfactory and are expensive. The walls surrounding an excavated cellar, where there is little exposure to the atmosphere and its weathering infiuences, can be made of concrete, which is a cheap form of wall, as cobble stones for the structure can be found on nearly every farm and aside from the amount of lime and cement required there is little exi:)ense except for the labor, which in most cases can be performed by the farmer during seasons when work is least prcjssing. One of the main objects to be considered in a case MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 of this kind is ventilation; the climatic conditions are such that the protective qualities of a root house are not, put to the extreme test except during a few- cold spells of short duration. Throughout the balance of the time the necessary ventilation should be available so- that the temperature may be kept as near 32 degrees without freezing, which will give the best results. Owing to the dryness of the air it has been found that our root crops will keep much better in storage where some dirt is carried in along with them, such as may adhere in harvesting. This is particularly true of sugar beets. The earth should not, however, be allowed to become packed as might occur underneath a window or the drop where roots are shoveled in, for in this case they would heat and rot. In storing root crops high temperatures must be avoided. Pitting may also be resorted to, but is not so satisfactory as a cellar. Under such conditions the continuous use of roots for feeding is interfered with during the extremely cold spells as some days the pit would have to remain closed to prevent the access of frost. In constructing a pit, a high, well drained piece of ground should be chosen. The roots should be piled in long piles, the bottom of the pile about four feet wide, with the sides sloping uj3ward, to meet at a point 3^ feet above the center of the pile; the length of the pit can be governed by the conditions. As soon as roots are piled cover them with a layer of about three inches of straw, free from chalf; then cover the straw with earth taken up from near the edges of the pit in such a way as to form a ditch around the same for drainage. Early in the season not more than an inch or two of earth should be placed on the straw, but later, as cold weather approaches, double the amount of earth, and prevent freezing in future by coverings of manure, used in such quantity as the severity of the weather may require. Where the conditions are extreme, or for potatoes, a double covering may be used as follows: First cover with straw and then with a thin layer of earth,, which is allowed to freeze, then follow with another layer of straw and more earth. In this method a dead air space is maintained and the roots or potatoes enclosed are not effected by fluctuations in tempera- ture from without. In extreme weather a manure covering would be needed as in the first case. 10 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Sugar Beets. Practical demonstrations prove that beets can be produced in Montana for sugar production quite as successfully as anywhere in the world; this is true both as regards quality and yield. As there are no factories for the production of beet sugar in the state at present, and as this publication is being prepared more especially for the stockman and farmer who may be interested in feeding problems, the following data relating to culture will apply more specifically to the production of these roots for feeding purposes. (1) NATURE OF GROWTH. The sugar beet is particularly characterized as a deep grower, pro- ducing a long conical tap root extending on the average from twelve to fifteen inches deep. When x^roperly planted and cultivated, this growth should be almost entirely beneath the surface of the ground; because of this and the additional fact that the top consists of spread- ing short stemmed leaves, these plants are not injured by the earlier frosts. (2) SOILS BEST SUITED. On suitable soils with proper conditions sugar beets can be grown from sea level up to an altitude of 5,000 feet, but a short season is a disadvantage. Stiff clay soils should be avoided, and humus and muck soils, while not suited to the growth of the best quality of beets for sugar making, can be use 1 where stock food is being produced. Sandy loams are preferable, but any rich loam will answer. The soil should be deep, as the presence of hardpan too near the surface causes x3rongy roots. Under semi-arid conditions, when poor soils are used, requiring farmyard manure, this should always be applied with the preceding croii. (5) PREPARATION OF SEED BED. In general, the plowing should be deep and done in the fall except under those local conditions where heavy snows or siting rains solidify the ground, then it should be replowed in the spring and thoroughly cultivated to reduce it to fineness and render it retentive of moisture. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 11 Spring plowing should be done early and followed by cultivation at intervals till sowing time and preparation completed as heretofore described. (4) PLANTING. In this the time will depend on local conditions, of which we have an endless variety ; but in general the planting should be done as early as the working of the soil and the climatic conditions will permit. The rows should not be more than two feet apart; a less distance is recommended ingrowing beets for sugar making but for the purpose given two feet will answer well, providing more room for cultivation. The rows should be laid out in such a manner that a fall of not more than three-fourths of an inch to the rod will be given; if the fall is greater the tendency will be to wash the soil from between the rows, leaving the minute roots exposed and injuring the plants. Large areas should be sown with a regular drill but smaller ones with a garden seeder. Not less than twelve pounds of seed should be used per acre, in order to insure a perfect stand. If the soil is moist plant the seed three-quarters of an inch deei^; if dry, one and one-quarter inches or even a little more. (5) CULTIVATION. If a heavy loam should bake as the result of a dashing rain, the plants may be prevented from coming through. In extreme cases only, where the crop is thus endangered, a very light harrowing- may save it, if done as soon as the ground is dry and before the plants reach the surface; this should only be attempted in extreme cases. For small areas of an acre or so, cultivation by means of a hand wheel hoe should be given as soon as the plants are all nicely through the ground ; adjust the wheel hoe with the two-knife attach- ment made to run one on each side and close up against the row. This prompt cultivation will prevent evaporation and save much future labor by destroying the young weeds. The remaining por- tions of the spaces between the rows may be left for horse cultiva- tion later. The wheel hoe can be used before such time as a horse could follow the row and also avoids the danger of covering the small plants with a horse cultivator. Subsequent cultivation should be fre- 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. quent, deep at first and shallower as the season advances. Thin the- plants to eight inches apart in the row when the second pair of leaves, appear and when about two inches" high, without drawing the earth away from the plant; later thinning is both more injurious and diflfi- cult. In the thinning the interspaces can be cleared by means of a hoe and the remaining bnnches thinned by hand. Where the- plants are not too thick the work can all be done by a hoe in the hands of an expert. The more the hands are used in thinning the more it becomes a necessity. If the beets are properly thinned and the weeds- all removed from the row at the same time subsequent use of the hoe- will be very little required. Do the work well the first time. lERIGATION. Preparations for this are made at the same time cultivation is be- ing given. By attaching a v-shaped point to the centre of the rear shank of the cultivator a small scratch or furrow is left to lead the water, and the smaller this is the better providing it answers the pur- pose without overfiowing. Flooding should ahvays be avoided with care. The amount of irrigation will depend on the local precipitation,, some localities requiring one, others two and still others three ax3plica- tions. The indications of need of water are the turning dark green of the top leaves and the wilting of the lower ones. The water should be allowed to run till the earth between the furrows all turns dark from saturation when it should be promptly turned off. Cultivate lightly as soon as ground is dry enough after irrigation to prevent evaporation. Sugar beets may be irrigated ux3 to within six weeks of harvest- ing. They should not be harvested while frozen. Though humus or muck soils and those containing some alkali produce beets of a poor quality for sugar making, this need not deter the farmer producing them for stock food. Mangolds. These are admirably adapted to all classes of live stock but are especially valued for milch cows as they can be freely used without danger of tainting the milk. As a winter food for fowls none other MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 18 •can replace them when fed raw. Mangolds are of several varieties differing in color as red, orange and yellow: and also in shape, as ob- long or globular. The long varieties usually give much larger yields. (!) NATURE OF GROWTH. The mangold is particularly characterized by an upward tendency of growth so that when mature a large portion of the root is exposed. The leaves are more sensitive to frost than the sugar beet and the same is also true of the root which is covered by a very thin skin. (2) SOILS BEST SUITED. These are all deep soils rich in organic matter. Clay loams, strong sandy loams, and dark prairie soils are especially adapted, while stiff ■clays and light sands are less suitable. (8) PREPARATION OF SEED BED. In general the same as for sugar beets. (4) PLANTING. Those methods described for the sugar beet will apply in general to the mangold also. From six to eight pounds of seed is required per acre, but the amount should be governed by suitability of the soil and ■conditions. The distance between the rows and also the plants in the row will vary with the variety chosen, the conditions of the soil, the earliness or lateness of sowing and the length of the growing season. The larger the variety, the richer the land, the earlier the date of seed- ing and the longer the season, the wider apart should be both rows and plants in the row and vice versa. Twenty-seven inches is an average distance for the rows and twelve inches for the plants in the row. (5) CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION. In general the same as for sugar beets. Carrots. This crop can be grown with more certainty throughout the state than any other and is less liable to attacks of disease and insect pests than any other. They are equally useful for all classes of live stock 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. and especially for horses at that season of the year when they are de- prived of succulent food, as they are greatly relished by them in the raw state. (1) NATURE OF GROWTH. It is such that the carrot crop is not injured by the early frosts of spring or autumn and has great power to resist drouth so that when started in the early spring a crop can be looked for with al- most unfailing certainty. Crops can be produced without irrigation in those sections where there is some sub-irrigation or a fair amount of rainfall. The carrot is a deep grower, developing entirely within the ground. The varieties are classified as long, medium and short; and also by their color, as red, orange and white. The long varieties are losing favor owing to the difficulty in harvesting them. (2) SOILS BEST SUITED Almost any soil with a fair amount of plant food will give a good crop of carrots. The favorite soils are those of a deep loamy character, capable of retaining moisture. Some varieties are better adapted than others to shallower or heavier soils. (3) P.REPARATION OF SEED BED. In this the work should be much the same as for sugar beets and mangolds but most of the work should be done in the autumn. The preparatory cultivation should be performed with a view to cleaning the ground from weeds. The spring cultivation should consist in preparing a fine mellow seed bed. (4) PLANTING. As there is little danger of injury from frost, plant as early as possible. Small areas will produce enormous yields if properly handled and these are most satisfactorily sown with a hand seeder. Eighteen inches between the rows will suffice for the crop, but twenty-four is more frequently given to facilitate the ease of horse cultivation. From two to four pounds of seed are required per acre according to the suitability of the conditions. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 (5) CULTIVATION. This should begin as soon as the young plants mark the line of the row, using the method heretofore described for mangolds and sugar beets. Prompt cultivation is more necessary in the case of the carrot as it is slow to germinate and come up, thus giving all weeds a good start. From a consideration of both quantity and quality the best results will be secured from thinning the plants to four inches apart in the row. This is the tedious and expensive operation of carrot culture as the thinning must be done entirely by hand. Where, ow- ing to adverse conditions or poor seed the stand may be somewhat thin and irregular, a good crop may result without any thinning. (6) lEKIGATION. This should be performed by the method described and less water will suffice than for most other root crops. The harvesting which has been generally regarded as a laborious and expensive operation can be quickly and easily performed by the method heretofore described and need not be done before the ap- proach of winter. Turnips. These are of two varieties, viz., those of JSwedish origin com- monly called Swedes or rutabagas; the other class being known as Fall Turnips. The Swede turnips have the firmer fiesh and are the better keepers; they are known by the purple, green or purplish green color of the top of the bulb and by the leaves which are a darker color than the fall varieties. Fall turnips vary greatly in the comparative strength of the tops and in the size, color, shape and texture of the bulbs. Turnips form an excellent food for many classes of live stock, but can not be satisfactorily fed to swine if raw, or to milch cows without ilanger of tainting the milk. (1) NATURE OF GROWTH. This is such as to especially adapt them to moist, cool climates, but they give remarkable results in Montana wherever grown under 16 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. irrigation. The greater portion of their growth is made with great rapidity in the autumn months. {2) SOILS BEST SUITED. Those of a free working, loamy nature are best for turnips, es- pecially where containing some sand but not sufficient to render them poor. Rich muck soils tend to stimulate too great a growth of tops with a corresponding deficiency in root. Our valley soils, however, are well suited to the growth of the turnip. (8) The preparation of the land should be somewhat similar to that heretofore described as being deep and thorough. (4) PLANTING. This may be delayed to as late as June 10th in those localities where there are late spring rains to germinate the seeds; in drier sections sowing should take place earlier. Twenty-seven inches is a suitable distance between rows and from two to four pounds of seed are required per acre. The seed may be sown with hand seeder or by means of a field drill providing the turnip seed is mixed with some kind of meal or sawdust or dry earth to give it bulk. (5.) Cultivation. Should begin early and be frequently repeated. The plants should be thinned to twelve inches apart as soon as two or three inches high. The work can all be preformed by means of a hoe, as the plants are not so liable to injury as sugar beets or mangolds. (6). Irrigation should be practiced sufficiently often to keep the turnip ifiants growing vigorously. This is the most successful method of counteracting the attack of plant lice. The slow growing plants are the first to be attacked and the first to succumb. Harvesting need not take place till late in autumn owing to the late continued growth and ability of the turnip to withstand the frost. The crop can be topped by means of a hoe and plowed out .as described. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 Potatoes* The culture of potatoes must necessarily be greatly ditferent be- cause of the almost unlimited variety of conditions under which they are grown throughout the state. The methods considered must there- fore be general rather than specific. Potatoes can be successfully grown in Montana, both with and without irrigation; in the latter case, however, only in such sections w’here the ground is moist from sub-ir- rigation or where there is more than the average precipitation. Selection of Varieties. These may be classed as early, medium and late, and such a schedule may be obtained from the Experiment Station at any time as all new varieties are collected for testing. In most sections above an altitude of 6000 feet, early varieties only should be grown; medium sorts between 4000 and 6000 feet; and the later kinds below 4000 feet. The yields per acre are least from the early varieties, increasing as the time for maturity extends. Suitable Soil. The best results, considering both quality and quantity, are to be secured from rich loams containing some sand and much humus; stiff clays, mucks and light sands are undesirable. SELECTING SEED. Too often the variety chosen is selected because of a large total yield with too little regard for quality. The value of a variety depends upon the percentage of marketable potatoes produced rather than from the total yield. This is ascertained by deducting the small and rough potatoes from the product of a given area. Then in addition to this the potatoes should possess good shape, viz. : an oval neither tending to flatness nor long points at either end, with the eyes set well out on the surface. From a potato possessing this shape there is less loss in prejiaring for cooking. Much difference of opinion exists re- garding the selection of tubers for seed. The best practice, however, is to select medium sized, smooth and uniform potatoes, notwithstand- 18 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. in^ the evidence which may be iDrodnced to show that equal results, in some cases, have been secured from small sets. Treatment for Scab and Preparation for Seed. Potatoes selected for seed should always be treated for scab whether apparently affected or not, as the loarasitic spores may be present even though not visible. The preventative measures are neither laborious or ex]oensive, and a badly infected crop is practically unmarketable. Either of the two following methods may be used: (1) Soak the uncut seed from one and a half to two hours in a solution consisting of one i^ound or pint of formalin to thirty gallons of water; or (2) Immerse the tubers for the same length of time in a solution consisting of corrosive sublimate in the proportion of one ounce to seven and one-half gallons of water. The former treatment is x>ref erred as it does not jjreseiit the deadly ijoison ijroperties of the latter, nor corrode metallic vessels. These methods of treatment will not be effective in rei3lanting badly infected ground; in such cases the Xdace of planting should be changed. The conditions seemingly fav- orable to the develox^ment of scab are soils possessing an abundance of decaying organic matter with an excess of moisture accompanied by Xjroper temperature. Past exx^erience seems to indicate that heavy manuring or x^lowing in green croxjs accomx)anied by excess of moist- ure or coxjious irrigation, tends to increase scablhng. The cutting process should always follow treatment. Though a number of devices have been invented for this work, none answer so well as a knife in the hands of a skilful operator. When the tubers are large with a moderate number of eyes, cut one eye to a piece sx^lit- ting the seed end. With a variety having many eyes it may be neces- sary to cut two to each x^iece. After cutting, if storm x^revents x^hmt- ing for a number of days, sx^read the sets out thin on a board floor and sx^rinkle with dry earth or ashes to hasten the callousing of the cuts and x^i’event decoinx^osition, which will soon follow if the sets are left X)iled or sacked. Under local conditions where spells of cold, wet weather are likely to follow early xflanting, uncut seed about the size* of a hen’s egg is safer to plant, being much more resistent to decay. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 19 Attention should also be given to the selection of perfectly matnred seed. In some localities early frosts may destroy the vines before ma- turity. While the immature tubers will grow quite well they are much longer in starting and making an appearance above ground. Potatoes also which have been exposed to any possibility of even slight freezing should not be used for seed. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL Deep plowing and thorough cultivation are essential to render the soil loose and mellow. Eall jalowed land, which has settled and be- come hard, should always be replowed shortly before planting time. PLANTING. The labor involved in planting large areas will justify the pur- chase and use of a potato planter; any one of the several kinds on the market will do excellent work. In general the drills should be from thirty-six to forty-two inches apart with the sets twelve inches apart in the row. For small areas drill rows may be opened with a small plow and refilled with the same implement after planting. The drills should not remain open long to allow them to dry out. After covering with the plow cross harrow to level the ground; this is jjarticularly necessary where the crop is to be irrigated. A covering of four inches with the heavier and more retentive soils is sufficient, but six inches may be needed in the lighter and drier ones. CULTIVATION. Harrow lightly at once as soon as the young plants begin to appear nbove ground to destroy weeds and retain moisture. Frequent culti- vation should follow according to the conditions ; the drier the season the more frequent the cultivation. More cultivation and less irriga- tion will produce crops of better quality. IRRIGATION. In this the time and amount is greatly varied by the local climatic and soil conditions. In general one irrigation can be made to suffice if proper cultivation is given and the water applied about the time the 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ants come into bloom. Earlier irrigation is liable to start too many sets; delayed too long a second growth i^roducing rough potatoes is likely to occur. Under the most extreme conditions two irrigations may be necessary. After irrigating, the ground should be cultivated lightly to prevent evaporation. The same method of irrigation as that described for sugar beets will also apply to potatoes. HARVESTING AND STORING. Large areas are readily harvested with a potato digger such as the Hoover. In storing, the secret of success lies in keeping the potatoes in a dark storeroom or cellar with the temperature as low as possible without permitting freezing. i BULLETIN N0.4i: MONTANA AGRICULTLBAL Experimsnt Station OF THE AGRiClLriRAl COLLEGE OF MONIANA. SEOAR BEETS. THE CROP OF 1902. BOZEMAN, nONTANA, DECEMBER, 1902. 1902 . The Avant GouFier Publishing Co. Bozeman, Montana. riontana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor 1 James Donovan, Attorney General ’ Jex-officio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnson O. P. Chisholm J. G. McKay G. T. Paul N. B. Holter J. M. Ea^ans \ Chas. R. Leonard Helena .....Helena ....Billings .Bozeman Hamilton Dillon Helena .Missoula Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary .'...Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist F. B. Linfield, B. S. A Agriculturist R. W. Fisher, B. S Assistant Horticulturist Edmund Burke Assistant Chemist H. C. Gardiner Manager Poultry Department Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, ... Montana Experiment Station, i Bozeman, Montana. Notice! — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed frefir to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station Bulletin No. 41 - - - - December, i902 SUGAR BEETS. The Crop of 1902, F. W. TRAPHAGEN. Except for the fact that very few of the cooperating farmers responded to the request to send to the Station samples of sugar beets for analysis, the results of the year’s work are very satis- factory. No general conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of such a small number of samples for the various localities, though these results, so far as they go, support the conclusions of former years. The season has been very generally reported as having been very unfavorable to the growth of beets, yet the yields, both in quantity and quality, have been very good. The richest lot of beets that has yet come into the laboratory was grown by W. M. Wooldridge, Valley count^^ Six beets raised by Mr. Wooldridge averaged 22.8 per cent sugar in the beets, equivalent to 24 per cent sugar in the juice. Results, this year and in past years, show that the manufac- uring campaign might begin as early as the middle of September, thus making a campaign of great length possible. Excellent yields of fine beets have been obtained this year with very little water, in some cases none in fact, reaching the crop fro. planting until harvesting. This would indicate the possibil- ity of its use as a dry land crop, in places where water is not available. 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, TABLES OF COMPOSITION, YIELD AND VALUE. Laboratory No.... Co-operating Farmer. Locality. Date Analyzed Vi rietj^ 2250 J. R. Stevens Bridget’, Carbon County September 26 Dippe 2251 P. E. Wedge Columbia Falls, Flafhead County September 26 Hoerning 2252 Ebenezer Johnson Fulton, Lewis & 'Clarke County September 26 Vilmorin 2255 Theo. Koenig Kalispeil, Flathead County October 17 Hoerning 2256 J. H. Green Manhattan, Gallatin County McLeod, Sweet Grass ('onnty Forsyth, Rosebud County October 17 Strandes 2257 2258 rt. 0. (b Andrews J. J. Quinlan October 1 7 October 17 Strandes J259 ^260 Fred Edelman Sheridan, Madison County October 26 Hoeriiing A. B. Leckenby Union, Union County, Oregon October 26 Dii)pe 2261 J. P. .Jones Whitehall, .Jefferson County October 26 •■^trandes 2262 G. Hollenbeck Pioneer. Powell County Octolier 26 Vilmorin 2263 J. .J. Quinlan Forsyth, Rosebud County 0(*tober 26 Vilmorin 2264 J. R. Stevens Bridget’, Carbon ('onnty October 26 Dippe 2265 W. M. Wooldridge Hinsd.ale, Valley County October 27 .strandes 2266 Isaac Eddy Lothrop, Missoula ( ounty October 27 Vilmorin 2267 H. R. Ballinger Red I.iodge. < arbon County October 27 Dip])e 2268 Mrs. B. Hauck Garrison, Powell County October 29 I’innorin 2269 A. L. Halliday Choteaii, Teton County October 29 Vilmorin 2270 A. C. Gifford Fallon, Custer County October 29 Strandes 2274 C. M. Jjarkin* Bridger, Carbon county November 5 Di])i)e 2275 W. E. Milnor Troy, Flathead County * November 5 Vilmorin 2276 2277 2282 M. M. Fergueon Jjewis Krueger Experiment Farm Bozeman, Gallatin ( ounty Bozeman, Gallatin County Bozeman, Gallatin County November 5 Nov^ember 7 November 7 Hoerning 2288 .J. B. Dnggins Ekalaka, f'nster County November 7 Dipj)e 2284 T. S. Proud Kalispeil, Flathead Countj^ November 29 Strandes 2285 T. 8. Proud Kalispeil, “ “ November 29 Dippe 2286 T. S. Proud Kalispeil, ‘ “ November 29 Vilmorin 2287 F. E. Wedge Columbia Falls, Flathead County November 29 Hoerning 2288 E. H. Ellinger Melville, Sweet Grass County November 29 Vilmorin MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, 5 TABLES OP COMPOSITION, YIELD AND VALUE— Continued. Average Weight Per cent sugar in juice Per cent sugar in Beets Per cent purity Yield tons per acre Pounds sugar per acre Return to Farmer per acre Ohio Standard 2 pounds 1 on ice 18.9 17.95 81.4 14 5020 $ 90. ^^2 2 [louiids 8 ounces 1(5.4 15.(5 81.5 14 44(58 79.80 1 pound 9.5 ounces 13.9 13.2 78.4 2 iiounds 11.5 ounces 1(5.7 15.9 ,80 19.5 0201 113.10 14 ounces 15.9 15.1 82.8 20 0040 110.(50 1 pound 10 ounces 10 15.2 83.3 • 27 8208 150.12 1 iionnd 10 ounces 20.4 19.4 81.2 17.5 (5790 121.80 1 iiound 3 ounces 17 • 10.2 82.9 21 (5802 123.90 1 pound 7 ounces 14.2 13.5 80.0 18.3 4954 91.75 13 ounces 13.5 12.8 75.4 10 25(50 47.(50 1 2 ounces 13,8 13.1 80.2 11 2882 53.40 1 iionnd 7 ounces 14.4 ■ 13.7 57.(5 17.5 4790 88.55 1 pound 4 ounces 18 17.1 78.0 14 4788 8(5.80 10.3 ounces 24 22.8 77.4. 20 9120 101.80 1 iionnd . 1(5.3 15.5 87.2 17.5 5425 90.05 1 pound 9 ounces 15.7 14.9 85.3 1 ])Ound 15 ounces 14.(5 13.9 81.(5 1 pound 15 14.25 8(5.2 1 iiound 4 ounces 17 10.15 87 31.75 10255 180.09 9 ounces 18.8 17.80 89.1 12 4280 77.40 7.5 ounces 1(5.9 10 • 83.(5 2 iiound 1 ounce 1(5 15.2 84.2 22 0088 122.32 14 ounces 18 17.1 80 1 pound 17.9 17 91.3 1 pound 7 ounces 18.(5 17.7 80.1 1 iiound 7 ounces 17.7 1(5.8 81.2 14 4704 85.40 1 Iiound 1 ounce 19.0 18.0 83 11 4092 73.70 1 iiound 5 ounces 17.0 1(5.7 82.2 10 5344 90.6(5 1 iiound 19 18 81.2 14 5040 91.00 2 pounds 8 ounces « 15.5 14.7 72.4 24.0 7232 132.84 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION TABLES OF CULTURE NOTES. p cr o E o p C o - () per ati 11 g F ar nier. Soil 1 Bate planted Bate Harvested Width between rows 2250 J. R. Ste''"eiis Clay, gumbo April 14 September 15 16 inches 2251 F. E. Wedge Sandy loam May 24 September 22 18 2252 Ebenezer Johnson Black loam . May 18 September 2.8 22 2255 Theo. Koenig Black sandy loam May 21 October 8 18 2250 J. H. Green Black garden loam May (> October 9 16 2257 H. 0. C. Andrews Black soil May 5 September 26 20 J 225« J. J. Quinlan Sandy loam May 10 September 29 24 i t 2250 Fred Edelman Sandy loam M*ay 12 October 14 12 (1 2200 A. B. Leckenby Clay loam April 28 October 15 20 << 2201 J. P. Jones Sandy loam May 20 October 16 20 , 2202 G. Hollenbeck Black loam May 20 October 12 18 H 2208 2204 J. J. Quinlan J. R. Stevens Black soil Clay, gumbo Mav 5 April 15 October 15 16 (( n 2205 W. M. Wooldridge Sandy loam May 1 Septembei 20 18 n 2200 Isaac Eddy Black loam May 6 ^ October 21 18 2207 H. R. Ballinger Sandy .Tune 20 October 24 28 < ( 2208 Mrs. B. Hauck Sandy loam .Tune 29 October 22 24 < 1 2209 A. E. Halladay Sandy loam May 16 October 25 24 (< 2270 A. C. Gifford Sandy loam May 18 October 25 20 (( 2274 r. M. Larkin Sandy loam May 12 November 2 16 (( 2275 W. .E. Milnor Sandy loam May 20 October 31 24 (( 2270 1 M. M. Ferguson Black loam .Tune 2 October 28 36 2277 2282 2288 Lewis Kruger Experiment Farm J, B. Dnggins Sandy loam Sandy loam May 29 November 8 18 ( ft ii t i 2284 T. S, Proud Sandy loam, very deep May 18 November 16 18 n 2285 T. S. Proud Sandy loam, very deep Mav 1 8 Novetnber 15 18 n 2280 T. S. Proud Sandy loam, very deep May 18 November 16 18 2287 F. E. Wedge Sandy loam May 2;4 November 17 18 2288 E. H. Ellinger Sandy loam May 5 November 1 9 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 TABLES OF CULTURE NOTES— CONTINUED. Irrigation. Frequent and plentitul. None. None, no water from June very dry None, very little rain. Three times, June 15, July A^igust 12. Twice, June 10 and July 15. No irrigation and no rain. Twice, in June and in July None. Every 10 days after July 10. Only during July. Cultivation. Plowed 10 inches deep, no subsoiling. Thinned June 28. 23, Thinned June 11. Plowed 7 inches deep. 20, Plowed 7 & 6 in. deep, cultivated with garden plow; thinned June 20. Thinned June 16. Thinned June 15. Plowed 8 inches deep, not su’ soiled; thinneu June 15. Plowed 9 inches, subsoiled 4 inches, stand excellent, thinned June 2. Thinned July 10. Thinned June 30, hoed twice 4 inches deep; stand excellent. Remarks. Season unfavorable. Season unfavorable. Season unfavorable. Season favorable. Season unfavorable. Season very unfavorable. Season favorable. Season favorable. *Season very unfavorable. Season very unfavorable. One-half in. water to row every 10 days fr’m Jul. 5 to Aug. 25. Once, June 20. Four irrigations and several rain and hail storms Irrigated twice. Thinned July 11. Thinned June 20. Thinned June 20, plowed 7 inches, subsoiled 7 in,; frequent cultivation. Thinned .July 6 to 15. Three times. Water from well when watering garden. Twice, in July and in August. None, spring wet. Once, August 6. Thinned June 20. Early in July; plowed about 6 inches; good stand. Thinned July 1. Plowed 8 inches deep; thinned July 1; stand medium. Thinned July 7, July 28 and Aug. 11. Season favorable. Season unfavorable. Season cold, v’ry unf’v’ble Season unfavorable. Season unfavorable. Fair season. Frost in June. Season very unfavorable. Season very unfavorable. Season favorable. None. None. None. None. None. Thinned in June. Thinned July 12, plowed 8 inches; stand excellent. Thinned July 10. Thinned July 11. Thinned June 28. Thinned June 20, plowed in May 10 inches deep. Season unfavorable. Season unfavorable. Very cold and backward. Cold and backward. Season unfavorable. Season very unfavorable. ♦Seed did not come up till July 1, then not more than one-quarter of a stand. 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Where beets have been allowed to remain in the ground after' they have ripened they have shown a marked deterioration. This' is shown in the case of samples 2250 and 2264, grown by J. R. ; Stevens, of Bridger, and in 2258 and 2273, grown by J. J. Quinlan, while on the other hand samples 2251 and 2287 show the opposite results, but in the latter case the ground was very dry towards the end of the season, and soon after became covered • with snow. While occasional frosts are experienced after the crop is in, the sugar beet seems to be well adapted to withstand the severity of<^ such frosts as occur during the growing season in Montana. The Continental Sugar Company, at Fremont, Ohio, pays $4.50 a ton for beets testing 12 per cent sugar and of a purity of 80 degrees. For each per cent of sugar above 12 in the beet an additional 3313 cents is paid. I have calculated, on this basis, the^ return our Montana farmers would receive from each acre of sugar ■ beets planted, provided that the results obtained experimentally were also obtained on a larger scale. These figures are given in " the tables. . Some of the* beets have a purity of less than 80 per cent, and the farmer would not receive for these as much as the table shows. . I do not know just how much is deducted for low purity, so have been unable to substract in the cases mentioned. No averages are attempted this year because of the small 'c number of samples analyzed. BULLETIN NO. 42. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION - OF " THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE MONTANA. THE CODLING MOTH. BOZEMAN, MONTANA, DECEMBER, 1902. BOZEMAN CHRONICLE--1903 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, | James Donovan, Attorney-General, } Ex-Offieio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, J J. M. Evans C. R. Leonard N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnston i. O. P. Chisholm J. G. McKay G. T. Paul N. B. Holter Helena Missoula Butte Helena ....Billings .Bozeman Hamilton Dillon Helena EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President... Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice-President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B, Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. S. Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist F. B. Linfield, B. S. A Agriculturist R. W. Fisher, B. S Assistant Horticulturist Edmund Burke Assistant Chemist Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont. NOTICE — The bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station Bulletin No. 42. = = = = December, 1902. THE CODLING MOTH. Carpocapsa ponionelJa Linn. R. A. COOLEY. Montana now has not far from 900,000 apple trees growing within her borders. Only about one-third of these have yet come into bearing and few, if any, have produced a maximum crop of fruit. Notwithstanding the newness of the industry", the produc- tion of fruit is already looked upon as one of our main branches of agriculture. There exists complete confidence in its future, and its development is being pushed forward with enthusiasm. The fruit growers have wisely been looking into the future, and have recognized in the codling moth a serious menace to their or- chards. Other insects also have been recognized as dangerous, and as a means of protection against all, a State Board ofHorticulture has been created, the duty of the members of which is to prescribe regulations for inspection and disinfection of fruits and nursery stock, and otherwise afford protection. Montana’s problem with this insect is, in some particulars, a peculiar one. It has not yet gained a footing in our commercial orchards, and is present in destructive numbers in only a very few places, the most important of which is Missoula which lies at the lower end of the Bitter Root valley. So far as the commercial orchards are concerned, the codling moth is not in Montana. The problem, then, is the one of taking the greatest possible advantage of the fortunate conditions. We 4 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. believe that vigilanee we can prevent the insect from getting in- to full possession of the orchards, as it has done in many parts of the country where it is necessary to use every means possible in order to get a remunerative crop of fruit. It is hoped that instead of allowing the moth to firmly establish itself and then trying to repress it, we ma^^ be able to prevent it from gaining a foothold. The present paper aims only to discuss the moth from Mon- tana’s standpoint. We believe that every 'person interested in the production of Alontana’s principal fruit, the apple, should have an intimate knowledge of this insect which is the worst pest of the apple. Many are not familiar enough with the insect to know how serious a pest it is, and what it means to allow it to get into the orchard. It is hoped in a future publication to give a more elaborate ac- count of this important pest. THE STATUS IN HONTANA. The only cases of infestation by the codling moth in Alontana, known to the writer, are here discussed. As is now well known in the state, the moth was found to be doing considerable damage at Missoula in the summer of 1901. The situation was indeed quite serious, but since the season’s work of the Experiment Station and Board of Horticulture, in co-opera- tion, the cause for alarm has been ver^^ largely removed. Mr. Brandegee and the writer took a buggy drive up the Bitter Root valley from Alissoula to Hamilton and return, for the express pur- pose of satisfying ourselves as to whether or not the moth is in the valley. It is very gratifying to report that we were unable to find a single example of the moth outside of Missoula. Mr. H. C. B. Colville, while acting as inspector in the summer of 1899, located the insect at Thompson Falls. The writer is not informed as to the condition of this colony at the present time. Mr. Brandegee reports that the pest is well established in the home yards in some parts of the city of Helena. It h^is been there a number of 3'ears to his knowledge, and is very destructive. He states that fullv 95 per cent of the fruit in entire orchards in the residential districts was taken in 1902, but that there was onh' about one-half a full crop. Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. 5 In August, 1900, Mr. Fred Whiteside of Kalispell sent wormy apples to the Station asking to be informed whether or not they were affected by this insect. Upon being informed that he actually had the moth in his orchard, he at once picked and de- stroyed all the fruit from the single tree known to be infected, and all those near by. Since that time no more moths have been seen in his orchard. During the summer of 1902, Mr. O. C. Estey, of Bigfork, in- spector for the district, found it in several localities in and near Kalispell. On August 26th he found about one-hundred wormy apples in one orchard. In two other orchards he found one and three trees respectively that were affected. We are inclined to be- lieve the situation at Kalispell to be serious. Left to itself, the moth would sooner or later spead to the surrounding country, ARE ANY PARTS OF MONTANA IMMUNE? Many individuals have believed that the climatic conditions of Montana would prevent this insect from ever becoming a serious pest. Others have felt that the isolation of their orchards would make them immune. We believe that the moth is capable of be- coming more or less destructive in an 3 ^ climate that will permit the profitable production of apples. This opinion is amply borne out by the experience of other states. Moreover, the fact that the moth has maintained itself so well in Missotila and Helena con- futes any theory of immunity for places of similar climate. It is true that widely isolated orchards may be kept free for a considerable time, perhaps indefinitely, if precautions are taken against bringing fruit boxes or other suspected material to the orchard. THE POSSIBLE DESTRUCTIVENESS OF THE HOTH. It is a well established fact that an insect pest is more abund- ant and destructive under climatic conditions favorable to its life and development, than outside of the climatic conditions to which it is adapted. The codling moth is no exception. The United States has commonly been divided into five life zones as follows: boreal, transitional, upper sonoran, lower son- oran, and tropical. These zones are of irregular and broken out- line, and extend across the continent from ocean to ocean. Three G THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. of them cross Montana; the boreal, which includes the mountain tops; the transitional, which roughly speaking includes the agri- cultural valleys of the state, except those in the southeast corner, the latter being included in the upper sonoran; and the upper son- oran, which embraces the southeast corner as far north as the valley of the Yellowstone river, and west to an indefinite line in the vicinity of Big Timber. No apples are grown in the boreal zone in Montana, and the moth is not found there. It follows, then, that all the apples grown in the state, except in the southern part, which at present are few, are in the transitional zone. Without going into the details we may sum up the results ob- tained by various investigators in other states as follows: While the insect is able to maintain itself, its injuries vary in different 3 ^ears, and it is always less destructive than in the next warmer zone, the upper austral. Professor Aldrich in Idaho and Professor Piper in Washing- ton, after careful and comprehensive investigations, report that the amount of destruction varies from about 5 i)er cent, up to about 25 per cent.; on the other hand Professor Gillette of Colorado reports that at Fort Collins, which is in the same zone, from 35 per cent, to 70 per cent, is taken, and Professor Cordley has found that in a narrow strip of the transitional zone, near the coast in Oregon, the moth is also more injurious. Under conditions existing in Montana it has been impossible to gather data of much value as bearing on the percentage of de- struction by the moth. In the first place we were unable to go into large orchards and count the affected and clean apples as the^^ were picked from the trees, since the onh' infested trees were in the home orchards of Missoula and vicinity. In the second place, such records, even if carefully kept, do not tell the whole story, since the effect of the first brood of larvae on some winter varieties, and of course on summer varieties, is to cause the apple to drop. They wither and disaj3pear before the harvest and are therefore not taken into reckoning if the comparison be made alone on the wormy and clean fruit at the time of harvesting. We undertook to keep an accurate record of the wormy and clean fruit in the cage at Missoula, (described later in this paper) and reached the following results : Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. r When the first brood of larvae was eoming out of the fruit we eounted 323 apples on the tree and on the ground, and of these 50 were wormy. It is very probable that a few more were worm^' that did not appear so at that time. On Oetober 5th, we again eounted the fruit on the tree and on the ground, and found 144 clean and 115 wormy. All the fruit affected by the first brood of larvae dropped to the ground and disappeard. If only 50 were taken by the first brood, 273 were left. There were 259 sound and wormy apples on and under the tree on October 5th. This number subtracted from 273 leaves 14 apples which were either taken by the first brood or dropped on ac- count of failure to mature. Because of the failure to know what be- came of the 14, we are defeated in our attempt to get an accurate record of the percentage of destruction. It would perhaps have been possible if we could have put in an immense amount of time and been in the cage every day. It is obvious that no one could have prepared an accurate statement the percentage of loss by a count at the time of harvest alone, as the apples destrot^d by the first brood had disappeared and only 259 apples were to be found as against 323. If we premise that the 14 apples were sound we can figure that 51 per cent, was taken by the moth. The least percentage of destruction that we can calculate therefore is 51. There are other facts that tend to lessen the value of estimates of loss. Unless the best of judgment is used in selecting from an orchard, representative trees from which to count the fruit, the deductions made from the counts of a few trees are misleading. The actual number of apples taken by the insects in years of full crop and in years of short crop, probably does not vary much, yet in years of scarcity the loss is felt much more keenly. The crop in Missoula this season was probably a full one. With some misgivings we venture to state that the loss to whole orchards in the worst infested districts has been not far from 45 per cent. This is based on many extended examinations in the open as well as on the cage experiment. It must be remembered that the insects in the cage were protected against birds, and to some extent against insect enemies. In response to a request for information of Mr. James O. Read and Mr. C. M. Allen, as to the amount of loss at Missoula in the 8 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. summer of 1901, we were informed that 60 per cent, was destroyed, but this probabH applies to a few of the worst infested or- chards. Enough is known to convince us that the situation is serious. We consider birds to be great destroyers of these insects, since we have found ver\' many cocoons from which they have removed the larvae or pupae. Tlierefore in the open orchards of the state where birds would be less disturbed, and where, also, there could be fewer places in which the larvae might construct their cocoons, than in the city Amrds where fences and other material furnish suitable protection, the loss would be much less, probably seldom, if ever, above 35 per cent, for whole orchards. Along the valley of the Yellowstone river from Big Timber to the eastern boundary of the state, and south of this line, the moth could be very injurious. In the same zone, the upper sonoran, in the states to the west of Montana, under normal conditions, as high as 100 per cent of the apples are damaged where no protect- ive measures are employed. Mr. C. B. Simpson has recorded* hav- ing found ten holes in a single apple, and the remains of twenty- three eggs on one apple and seventeen .on another from orchards with but a little fruit. We ma}' take these statements as indicat- ing the possibilities of injury in the same zone in our state. HOW THE CODLING MOTH SPREADS. Undoubtedly the most co.mmon means of spread of the moth over long distances is in fruit packages. It is not strange that the insect has extended Itself to almost eveiw fruit growing region of the world, for when we analize horticultural and commercial practices, we find a chain of conditions almost perfectW adapted to its spread. Along with the development of a new agricultural country, apple growing naturally follows. Young trees are brought in, planted, and cared for until they begin to produce fruit. In the meantime the public demands apples, and the merchant supplies them, making use of the surplus crops of other regions. With the imported apples are brought the insects which were in fruit as larvae when it was picked from the trees. These larvae on reach- *Hulletin 1,0, New Series, Div. of Eutomolosy, E. S, Department of .Agriculture, 1902. Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. 9 ing full growth crawl out of the fruit, and go in quest of a place to their liking in which to spin the cocoons which they occupy dur- ing the helpless pupa stage. The desired plaee is often found in an angle of the box or barrel, or under a cleat or beneath a board that has sprung in the freight car. From these points they may get to the orehard in various ways. The paekages may be stored in the cellar for the winter, or until they are distributed, and the moths developing in the spring fly out of the open windows and doors and seek the fruit trees. Empty fruit packages are often thrown out behind back buildings, sometimes elose by fruit trees. The writer onee found an^apple box in a back yard in Bozeman, and on pieking it up found a number of cocoons of the codling moth in the corners. Within thirty feet was a small orehard of apple trees. The chanees were favorable for the moths to colonize in the orchard. On leaving the fruit the larva often forms its cocoon in some material entirely separate from the fruit package. The writer has found the cocOons by the hundreds in freight cars recently unload- ed of fruit. We are informed by Mr. Estey of Bigfork, that the heart of the main colony of the moth in Kalispell is within 100 yards of the side track of the Great Northern railroad. It is very probable that this colony was started from a car on the traek. This car might have been unloaded of its fruit in almost any state in the country and yet have been the source of infection at Kalispell for the moths would leave the car wherever it might be when warm weather had completed their development, and meantime the car may have been transferred hundreds of miles. In the commission houses of our eities, as well as in the warehouses of our grocer^" stores, apple boxes are often stacked up parallel with many other kinds of produce sueh as boxed canned goods, packages of vege- tables, melons, etc. The larvae may, and doubtless do, go to these other paekages to pupate. The practice of buying empty fruit boxes of the merchants in town and taking them to the orchards to lie refilled is a partieu- larly dangerous one, since the insects if present, are taken direct to the spot where they are most to be feared. The codling moth is not distributed on nursery stock unless it be through mere accident. 10 THE AIOXTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. From the foregoing it naturally follows that the centers of population are the first places to contract this pest. These towns then become centers of distribution for the surround- ing country. Being provided with wings the moths can spread by flight, but it is probable that by this means the 3 " do not travel far. One moth of either sex is incapable of starting a colony, but those in one fruit box may be sufficient since a box often con- tains a score or more cocoons. WHAT BESIDES THE APPLE DOES THE ITOTH ATTACK? It is well known that the apple is the principal fruit injured by the codling moth. Pears are affected, but to less extent. Crab- apples, quinces, wild haws, stone fruits, rose hips, and the screw bean, {StroinbocarpR monocca) have also been reported b 3 " various authors, but Air. Simpson in his paper, previous^ mentioned, states that upon investigation it was found that in every case of reported attack upon stone fruits, the work had been found to be that of the peach twig borer. Air. Simpson also examined a large number of quinces and roses without finding a single case of infestation. Notwithstanding these facts it seems possible that the codling moth might lay its eggs on some other of the rosa- ceoiis fruits if unable to find any of its favorites and might possi- bh" develop to maturity". The writer hopes to be able to give some definite information on this point in a future paper. ANOTHER INSECT DOING SIMILAR WORK. On August 28th, while on the trip up the valley of the Bitter Root, in company with Air. Brandegee, as previously mentioned, the writer found a single apple in a poorly kept orchard about one mile north of Lo Lo, which upon first examination seemed to be, be\"ond question, affected b}" the codling moth. The apple Avas a yellow transparent and showed on its side the characteristic ap- pearance of the entrance opening of the codling moth. Though the apple was examined closeH when picked, there was not the slightest doubt in the mind of the writer that the work was that of the “apple worm.” On cutting open the apple later, the ap- pearance was entireh^ different from that expected. The larva had Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. 11 left but had made a fine caliber burrow which was very long and tortuous and did not reach the core. It can be said with almost certainty that the work was not that of the codling moth. DISCRIPTIONS AND LIFE=HISTORY. The larva having completed its growth in the fall of the year, leaves the fruit and goes in search of a place in which to spin a cocoon about itself. By searching in infested orchards about the trunks of trees that bore fruit the previous season, in the crotches and under scales of bark, the cocoons may be found. To some ex- tent, they conform to the shape of the crack or crevice in which they are placed, being often much flattened. With their mandibles the larvae digs off pieces of bark, thereby hollowing out the cavity and using in the cocoon the bits of bark together with the threads they spin from the body. Thus the co- coon is made to conform in color to its surroundings which is doubtless some protection against natural enemies. Many co- coons are made in objects entirely foreign to the fruit trees, as in fences, old rubbish, or any other material near at hand suit- able for their purpose. They have been known also to enter the soil to pupate. Some of the men employed to scrape the trees at Missoula in the spring of 1902, reported that they had found cocoons on the trunks of poplar trees near the apple trees. While there is chance for mistaken identity of the insect in this case, there is no reason why the report may not be true. In the cocoon the insect passes the winter as a larva, changing to a pupa with the warm weather of the following spring. THE PUPA. The pupa is brownish in color, is five-sixteenths of an inch in length and has no appendages. After two or three weeks, when the insect is ready to emerge as a moth, it wriggles part way out of the cocoon and splits on the back. The moth crawls out leaving the empty pupa skin still protruding from the cocoon. THE MOTH. The moth is a beautiful little insect with the fore wings mark- ed with many gray and brown cross lines. Dark brown spots and streaks of orange or gold occur on the posterior end of the wings. The hind legs are grayish brown. Man^^ of the moths caught in 12 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. the orchard are very badly rubbed and do not have the markings here mentioned. There are other species, that, to one unfamiliar with insects, might be mistaken for it. THE EGG. The egg is not far from hemispherical in general shape but has the edges flattened out. When examined from above or obliquely it seems much flattened, and appears hemispherical only when .seen in profile. It is milk white in color. EGG LAYING. The moths from the winter cocoons deposit the eggs which produce the first brood of larvae. The writer’s observations agree with those of other persons who state that the eggs are laid both on the leaves and on the fruit. Throughout the season more eggs were found on the fruit than on the leaves. While in Missoula, on October 4th, the writer was fortunate enough to see a moth deposit an egg on an apple. This occurred at 5:40 p. m., the sun being slighth^ above the horizon and shining brightly on the town. Within fifteen minutes after seeing the egg- deposited, a thermometer was found and read at 68 degrees F. The writer was approaching close to the outer and lower branches of an apple tree and saw a codling moth fl^dng about the leaves and fruit in a very purposeful manner. An apple was selected and apparently without any regard for position on the fruit she stopped and arched the abdomen down, bringing the ovi- positor against the skin. These steps were distinctW seen, but at this point the moth took fright and flew away, going one-third the way around the tree, settling down and secreting herself in a slightly curved leaf. In about one minute she started out again, of her own accord, resuming her purposeful search. She lit upon an apple and at once arose again, fl^dng higher in the tree, still searching. As she approached an apple with the calyx end turned toward her, she lit upon it, immediateh^ turned one-quarter way round, and backed down into the depression around the calyx till the extremities of the wings touched the opposite side. She re- mained motionless for about thirt^^ seconds, and flew away to an- other part of the tree and continued the search. The writer climbed into the tree, picked the apple and found the freshly laid Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. 13 egg in precisely the spot expected. It was about one-fourth of an inch from the calyx. The apple bearing this egg was brought to Bozeman, and lay on the writer’s desk until the morning of the 16th of October, when the egg had hatched and the young larva was found crawling over the surface of the apple. Many observers have stated that the eggs are laid at night time. We have made no observations on the point except the one above recorded. In view of what had been written we were sur- prised to find the moth laying so early in the evening. The sun had just left the top branches of the tree. One egg or many may be laid on an apple. As we have alreadt" stated Mr. Simpson has found as high as 23 ’eggs on one fruit. DURATION OF EGG STAGE. Direct observations of various writers have brought out the fact that the duration of the egg stage varies with the temperature and is on an average about seven or eight days. They have been known to hatch as quickly as three days. The single egg discussed by the writer, hatched in practicality eleven days; but the con- ditions were not normal since the egg was kept in doors. THE LARVA. The newly hatched larva is about one-sixteenth of an inch long, whitish in color, with the head, a shield just behind it and a shield at the posterior end of the bod 3 L black. Later in its life, the parts that were first black, become brownish. The young larva after a short period on the surface of the apple, begins to bore into the flesh. The greater part go in at the calyx end, but many enter at the point where two apples touch or where a leaf is in contact with an apple. Others go in at the stem end, or on the exposed surface. Judging from observations in the states to the west of Mon- tana, the larval stage in Montana would be about 24 da\ys. The writer has made no complete observations on this point, but can state definitely that it is less than four weeks. The last published records of Mr. Simpson showed that an average of 83 per cent, of the first brood go into the fruit from the calyx end. From one counting at Missoula in 1902, the writer found 90 per cent, to enter at this point. 14 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The course of the larva in the fruit is more or less lamiliar ta all. It bores direct to the core and feeds there on the seeds and flesh, making an irregular cavity which sometimes extends some distance from the core. The filthy frass is cast out of the opening on the surface, and remains there, matted together by the silken threads, until the larva piishes it off in leaving the fruit. The larvae of the first brood, as well as those of the second, spin cocoons in which to pupate. The cocoons constructed by the first brood larvae are said to be thinner and less substantial than those in which the larvae pass the winter. The moths produced from the first brood larvae deposit the eggs for the second brood. THE OUT=OF=DOOR CAGE AT M1S50ULA. Realizing that a knowledge of the life-history and habits of this insect is basic to all rational measures against it, whether remedial or preventive, an attempt was made to gather all the in- formation possible along these lines. The information gained thus far, while of considerable value, is in nowise complete. We hope to continue the studies as long as results of economic value are pro- duced. For the purpose of affording an opportunity for study of the habits of the moth under normal conditions in Alissoula a cage was made enclosing an entire tree. This cage is twelve feet square and twelve feet high, and is constructed of medium quality of lumber and wire mosquito netting. Along the square from corner to corner a wide board was settled into the earth with the top edge exposed above the surface, to which is fastened the netting. The door shuts against packing and is held close b\" buttons. Out- side the cage is a thirteen stranded barbed-wire fence which is angled at the top making it fairly proof against boys. The door and gate through the wire fence are kept locked. Repeated comparison of the temperature inside and outside the cage failed to show any constant difference. The details of the experiment and the results are mingled with the discussions that follow. DISCUSSION ON THE NUMBER OF BROODS, ETC. On May 31st, eighteen cocoons and two moths were placed in the cage at Missoula. The cocoons for this purpose were secured Bulletin 42. THE CODJJNG MOTH. 15 from Professor A. B. Cordle}^ who kindly arranged to have his students collect them for us. We are aware that there is a possi- bility that the results might be considered less reliable than if the insects had been secured locally. However, it was planned to con- tinue the experiment for a number of years and we believe that in the future the results will be reliable. Moreover the closest examination failed to reveal any differ- ence in forwardness of development inside and outside the cage. In all probabilities the insects placed in the cage lay dormant un- til those outside began to develop, and developed parallel with them. Missoula is 222 miles west of Bozeman on the line of the Northern Pacific railroad, and on account of the distance, trips to the cage were not ver^^ frequent, but by carefully timing the visits and by use of local assistance much information was obtained. On June 18th one egg was found in the cage and a number more on various trees outside. Many of the moths had come out, but not all. On July 10th, the occasion of the third visit, all the moths had emerged and three young larvae were found just beneath the skins of the apples. Eggs were fairly common. A few very badly rubbed moths were found, which, though of the correct size for the codling moth, may have been some other species. The insects were also found plentifully outside of the cage, either in the egg stage or having been in the fruit a few days. On August 8th, 9th, and 10th, the larvae were coming out of the fruit. Some had evidently coriie out a few days earlier and some of what appeared to be the first brood were still in the ap- ples. These ranged all the wa3" from half grown to full sized larvae. On August 11th many cocoons were found in the open orch- ards and about one-half of the larvae had pupated. Two empty pupa cases were found protruding from cocoons, and fresh looking adult moths. A few newly hatched larvae were seen. We believe that about August 10th marked the beginning of the second brood of larvae. On August 27th, insects were found in all stages, but it was noticeable that there were fewer moths and inhabited cocoons than on August 10th. As later developments show there were 16 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. many larvae in the fruit at this date but there were few outward indications. One might almost have thought that the trees were practically free from moth. On October 5th, the appearance was very different. Many wormy apples vacated by the larvae were in evidence. The second brood of larvae had plainly left the fruit, though a few were to be found still feeding. It was on this date, as previously stated, that the moth was seen to deposit the egg. Six other eggs were found in the same orchard this date without difficultj^, and a number of moths were seen. We are inclined to consider these late moths as stragglers of the second brood. To summarize, we may say that at Missoula in the summer of 1902 there were two broods of the codling moth and probably no more. The first brood began to go into the fruit about the 18tb of June, and the second brood about August 10th. RECOMMENDATIONS. It would be out of place in the present paper to enter a lengthy discussion of the most approved means of combating the codling moth, for the general public is not yet called upon to emplo^^ such means. Such protective measures as may be employed to enable us to retain our present advantage over the moth may well be con- sidered. It is desirable to continue the work at Missoula in order to keep at a minimum the chances of infection of the surrounding- country and the valleys of the Bitter Root river and Rattlesnake creek. The situation at Kalispell should also be thoroughly looked into and as energetic means employed there as at Missoula. We believe that since we know when the different broods begin to enter the fruit at Missoula, we can make good use of insecti- cides. Much advantage could be gained by again banding the trees. Aluch good was accomplished with bands during the past season. In this wa^^ many of the insects that escaped the poison were captured. We recommend the use of Paris green as an insecticide with the usual addition of lime. Bulletin 42. THE CODLING MOTH. 17 On August 23rd, an apple tree was selected from the Experi- ment Station orchard at Bozeman, and sprayed with a Bowker preparation of arsenate of lead at the rate of three pounds to fifty gallons of water, which is the strength recommended by the Bow- ker Insecticide Company. The application was made personally by the writer and care was taken to spray thoroughly and yet not over spray. At the time of fall harvesting, the apples were picked and part of them handed over to the Station chemist. Dr. F. W. Traphagen, to be tested for arsenic. Before harvesting considerable rain fell. Below is the report that Dr. Traphagen made: Prof. R. A. Cooley, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont. Dear Sir: Following are the results obtained in the analysis of the apples you submitted to me some time ago: Number of apples 14 Total weight 41.5 oz. Average weight 3.0 oz. (scant) Total lead arsenate obtained from apples.. .166 grains Equivalent to metallic lead 115 grains Equivalent to arsenic oxide 031 grains While the amounts of poisonous substances found on these ap- ples is not great, they are probably dangerous, from the fact that lead is a cumulative poison and that the presence in food or water of relatively smaller qualities than that present in these apples, is looked upon with grave suspicions b 3 ^ those who have given these (questions careful consideration. The arsenic, occurring in smaller quantities, adds also to the element of danger which would be introduced into our daily lives b}" using arsenate of lead for spraying apple trees under the con- dition of your experiment. It seems to me that the amount remaining upon the apples could be very greatly reduced bA" spraying at an earlier period, when the apples were small or even when in the bud. Experiments on spraying at different periods would seem to be indicated by results obtained in these tests. Yours truly, F. W. TRAPHAGEN. 18 THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The writer was somewhat surprised to get this report of pos- sible danger from the use of arsenate of lead and we intend to make more extended investigations. One of the advantages of arsenate of lead over Paris green, as an insecticide, is that it forms a film of the poison over the fruit and foliage that is not easil^^ removed by rains. It has been felt that this would be particularly useful against the codling moth since the eggs hatch and the larvae evter the fruit over such a long- period of time. Uniform success has attended its use in some of the eastern states. We still feel that early spraying with arsenate of lead would be more desirable than with Paris green. We are indebted to Professor M. J. Elrod of Missoula and Air. H. B. Dick of Kalispell for weather records that have been of much value to us in our work. bulletin No. 43, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, OF THE- Agrictilttiral Colleg^e of Montana* DUTY OF WATER IN MONTANA. THIS PUBLICATION IS THE SECOND OE A SERIES OF FARMERS’ BULLETINS ON IRRIGATION TOPICS. Bozeman, Montana, January, 1903. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, 1903. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station. BOZEnAN, = MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ James Donovan, Attorney-General, J. Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula. C. R. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm, Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President, Bozeman. J. M. Robinson, Vice-President, Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman. Joseph Kountz, Bozeman. E. B. Lamme, *. Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samuel, Fortier, Ma. E., F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S., . J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., F. B. Linfield, B. S. a, R. W. Fisher, B. S., Edmund Burke H. C. Gardiner Director and Irrigation Engineer. Chemist. Botanist. Entomologist. Agriculturist. Assistant Horticulturist. Assistant Chemist. Student in Charge of Poultry. Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station. BULLETIN NO. 43. = = JANUARY, 1903. DUTY OF WATER IN MONTANA. BY S. FOKTIER. INTRODUCTION. This is the second of a series of farmers’ bulletins on irrigation topics. The results herein summarized, together with additional informa- tion which will appear in subsequent publications, represent the joint efPorts of the Office of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture and this Station. The funds required to carry on the work have been obtained from the State of Montana, the Department of Agriculture and this Experiment Station. The general features of all the irrigation investigations conducted by this Station during the past four years have been ably planned and supervised by Professor Elwood Mead. During the past season Mr. Arthur P. Stover, an assistant under Professor Mead, was in direct charge of much of the field work. The writer desires also to acknowl- edge the valuable assistance rendered in both field and office by the senior students in civil engineering of the Montana Agricultural College. DUTY OF WATER. The w'ord “duty” is used in a variety of ways. In irrigation it shows the relation between the amount of water used and the area of land on which it is applied. This relation may be expressed in sev- eral ways. The units most frequently used are a miner’s inch of water and an acre of land. The duty of water may be high or low, depending on the quantity used on a given area. In Southern Cali- fornia, where water is costly, one miner’s inch irrigates on an average 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. five acres of land. This is considered a hiajh duty, and is rendered possible by preventing waste and in skillful use. In certain sections of Montana rfnd the Rocky Mountain States the duty of water is only one inch per acre. This large amount of water is frequently required for new land with a dry subsoil. When, however, this amount is used on the same fields for fifteen or twenty seasons in succession, it shows that a large percentage is wasted. The duty of water may also be expressed in cubic feet per second and acres. In 1890 the legislative assembly of Wyoming rixed the maximum amount of water that could be legally applied in irrigation in that state by providing “That no allotment shall exceed one cubic foot per second for each seventy acres of land.” From 1890 to 1900 the duty of water under the Bear River Canal system in Northern Utah was one cubic foot per second for each eighty -acre tract. This duty corresponds to one Montana miner’s inch for two acres. In the opinion of the writer, there is a better way to express duty of water than by either the miner’s inch or the cubic foot per second. By both of these methods one is left in doubt as to the volume actually applied. In both, the flow of the irrigation stream is assumed to be continuous, and the amount of water used will depend quite as much on the length of the irrigation season as on the size of the stream. Fifty miner’s inches flowing for eighty days is equivalent in volume to one hundred miner’s inches flowing for forty days. It is thus obvious that the length of the irrigation season must be fixed before the duty can be ascertained. It seldom happens that water is used for the same number of days in any two counties, or even precincts; hence the difficulty in ascertaining the duty when it is expressed in acres, per miner’s inch or cubic foot. The better way, it seems to the writer, is to determine the quantity of water applied to a particular field, farm or district. Rainfall is measured in depth over the surface on which it falls, and since irrigation is intended to supplement the natural rainfall there is no good reason why it should not be measured in a similar manner. Rain and snow are usually measured in inches, but in expressing duty of water the foot and fractions of a foot are uscxl MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 instead. When the quantity of water used is stated, it is expressed either in feet over the surface or in acre-feet. An acre-foot is that amount of water which will cover an acre to the depth of one foot. In Montana the average rainfall during the crop growing season is over six inches. We will assume that twenty-four inches is added by human effort, making a total of thirty inches, or two and one-half acre-feet. This is considerably greater than the natural supply of the humid East during the summer seasou. ASCERTAINING THE DUTY OF WATER. At first thought, it seems easy to ascertain the duty of water. Only two things are necessary — the area of land irrigated and the amount of water applied. In actual practice it is not so easy. The flow of the irrigation stream, ditch or canal fluctuates — it is seldom the same for any two consecutive hours of the day. This necessitates constant observations at the place of measurement or the introduction of scientific apparatus which will record every change in volume. Then again, much depends on where the water used in irrigation is measured. If it were conveyed in a tight pipe, there would be no loss, and the amount entering the intake would correspond with that delivered at the lower end. Usually the water is conveyed in an earthen channel, and for every hundred miner’s inches diverted from the natural stream, only sixty may be delivered, the remaining forty inches being lost along the route by seepage, evaporation und leakage. In the results herein given, the duty of water under the canals was found by measuring the amount of water which passed through the headgates. On each of the field tests, the water was measured as it entered the highest part of the field. The latter averaged about eighteen inches in depth over the surface, while the former averaged nearly forty-seven inches. CONDITIONS AFFECTING DUTY OF WATER. It is well known that the amount of water used in irrigation dif- fers. One-half of a quarter section of Jand may require much more water than the other half. No two irrigated valleys within the borders 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. of a state have similar physical conditions^ and each arid state, or territory, has its own peculiar characteristics as regards water for irrigation. In a practical publication of this kind it may not be out of place to outline briefly the chief conditions which affect the duty of water: (1) Losses in conveyance. — The quantity of water delivered to the farmers is frequently only one-half that taken from the stream. The various losses due to seepage, evaporation and leakage in the main canal and laterals cause this large reduction. The attention of the farmers of Montana is earnestly called to this fact on account of the large financial loss entailed. The writer does not wish to imply that all of this loss can be prevented, but he is convinced that a large per- centage might be saved at comparatively small cost. (2) Climatic conditions. — Of these, rainfall is perhaps the most important. The average annual precipitation for Montana is between fourteen and fifteen inches. The months of greatest precipitation are April, May and June, the period when moisture is needed to mature crops. In the following tables it will be noticed that the rainfall varies from to inches and averages 5f inches. This amount of moisture in the case of the field tests forms on an average 30 per cent of the total amount of water applied to the crops. In the colder arid states the season is shorter and irrigation is practiced only a short period in summer; while farther south, as for example in Arizona, water for irrigation may be used throughout three-fourths of the year. Then, too. evaporation is affected by tem- perature, wind, etc., and in a region of high temperatures, or hot, dry winds, or both, the consequent loss of water by evaporation is great. (3) Diversified farming. — A farmer whose cultivated crops are confined to such cereals as oats, wheat and barley cannot make the most of his water supply. Such crops may require a large amount of water from the time the plants cover the ground until the grain is well headed out, but this period is limited to from thirty to fifty days. The man who raises grain only has no further use for irrigation water during that season. When diversified crops, such as alfalfa, clover, grain, roots and fruit are grown it is possible to increase the area MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION 7 without increasing the amount of water used, and so obtain a higher duty. (4) Time rotation. — The prevailing custom in several states and territories of the arid West is to apportion water by the time method instead of in continuous streams. In the case of small holdings in particular, water can be more economically used in a proper system of time rotation. The work can be better done and at less cost than where a small stream is used continuously. (5) Manner of paying for water. — A canal corporation, which conveys water to distribute to farmers for a fixed rental usually sells a water right for a certain tract of land. The purchaser, by the terms of his contract is compelled to use his allotted share of water on the tract for which a water right has been purchased and not elsewhere. If the user were granted permission to buy water by volume from the canal company and to use it wherever he pleased a much greater econ- omy in its use would result. (6) Judicial decrees for excessive amounts. — For the most part the volumes of water used in irrigation are unknown. As a rule few ditches or canals are measured until after the owners are threat- ened with litigation. Then there is great inducement for all parties concerned to try to magnify both the amount diverted and the extent of the land irrigated. When a witness does not know the capacity of a ditch, and it is to his interests to make it appear to be large, his testi- mony has usually a decided bias in that direction. When no reliable measurements of ditches have been made, water right cases can only be decided on the testimony submitted and this accounts for the many recorded cases in which excessive amounts have been decreed. (7) Cultivation and grading. — The proper cultivation of the soil is necessary, in both humid and arid climates. Cultivated plants require a finely pulverized soil. In regions deficient in rainfall, thorough cul- tivation serves to retain the moisture, by lessening the amount of evap- oration. Grading is even more important. To irrigate land that has a rough, uneven surface, not leveled to a uniform grade, is frequently the cause of much waste of water, extra labor, small crops and eventually damaged land. 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. (8) Kind of crop. — The proper percentage of moisture in the soil does not differ much for the common cultivated plants. Some crops require more water than others but this difference is due chiefly to a longer period of growth or to the time when water is needed. Barley, for instance will mature in three and one-half months, while •sugar beets require a month longer. Again it is often difficult to obtain sufficient water to irrigate root crops, vegetables and occasion- ally orchards. This does not arise from the fact that a larger supply is required but it is due to the time of irrigation, the last irrigation be- ing usually applied late in the season, when the flow of natural streams is low. (9) Manner of Irrigating— The duty of water depends to a great extent on the skill and attention of the irrigator as well as on the way it is distributed over the field. Where flooding is practiced, much depends on the location and grade of the field laterals as well as the direction of the seed drills. In Montana a large percentage of the water conveyed to the irrigated fields is wasted in the midnight hours when there is no one to look after it. (10) Character of the soil and subsoil. — A coarse sandy or gravelly soil requires much more water than a heavy, clay soil. When the upper layer is porous and the subsoil impervious, the conditions are favorable for sub-irrigation in which case a small amount of water may irrigate a large area. On the other hand the top layer of soil may be underlaid by gravel wash. Such formations require an abundant supply of water. (11) The ground water level. — In some localities the water in | wells will rise near the surface during the latter part of the irrigation | season. This indicates that the subsoil is completely saturated and i that the minimum amount of water should be applied in irrigation, i To over-irrigate such tracts would result in damage to both crops and i soil. (12) The configuration of the surface. — An even uniform r slope, neither too steep nor too flat, is one of the most favorable con- j ditions for the economic use of water. Tracts that are traversed by j ravines or other irregular formations, are not only difficult to irrigate- [ but the waste of water is usually considerable. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 9 THE IMPORTANCE OF A KNOWLEDGE OF THE DUTY OF WATER. A knowledge of the service or duty of water is necessary in all irrigated regions. It has always been regarded as one of the essentials in irrigation. As rural communities increase in population the extent of the cultivated area is also increased, new ditches are excavated and the capacities of old channels are enlarged until a time comes when the natural streams are overtaxed and disputes arise as to the rights of each claimant. Such controversies can only be settled on the amount of water required to mature crops. The farmer knows how much seed to sow for each kind of crop. He should also know how much water to apply. Without this know- ledge farming operations cannot be economically planned or carried on. The farmer who buys 100 miners’ inches from a canal company, but is ignorant of how many acres this supply will irrigate is handicapped. When farmers unite in co-operative undertakings, the location, extent and character of the* land to be reclaimed are usually familiar to all. The puzzling questions to such parties are the amount of water required and the size of the ditch to convey it. The same problem confronts the officers of the large capitalistic canal. The expenditures may be large and an error in the estimate of the amount of water re- quired may entail heavy losses. In the near future the Federal Government will expend in all probability, several million dollars in this state on irrigation canals and storage reservoirs. In such large enterprises the area of land which a standarl unit of flowing water will irrigate is one of great importance. And Anally, without a knowledge of the duty of water, it is im- possible to determine equitably rights to its use. 'When a court, owing to a wrong conception of the quantity of water required, grants to an individual or corporation, three or four times more than he can use, it not only deprives other settlers of a much needed supply but the appli- cation of so much water tends to convert good land into bogs and marshes. AMOUNT OF WATER USED In all of the experiments made to ascertain the duty of water, the 10 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION results of which ^re herein briefly recorded, no attempt was made to control or limit the amount used. The proprietor of the held or farm, or his employe, was free to turn on as much water as he considered necessary. A part of the supply usually flowed off the field, or was otherwise wasted, but no deduction was made for this waste. The total amount entering the highest part of the field was measured by means of a trapezoidal weir or other devise and the area under crop in- cluding the space occupied by the feed ditches and laterals was sur- veyed in the ordinary manner. From this information the depth of water over the surface irrigated was ascertained. This depth over the surface in the 46 field tests varied from a trifle more than four inches (.35 feet) to over seventy-two inches (6.06 feet) and averaged eighteen inches or one and one-half acre-feet per acre irrigated. . In Table No. 1, the duty is expressed in acres per miner’s inch, the lowest duty was at the rate of one miner’s inch per acre and the highest duty was one miner’s inch for 13 acres. The average of all the 46 experiments conducted on fields was at the rate of one miner’s inch; for 3.7 acres. In another column of the same table the duty is ex- pressed in acres per cubic foot per second. The average number of acres irrigated per cubic foot per second was 142. There is much more water used per acre under the canals. In seven canals, the results of which are given in this publication, the combined area is 41466 acres and the average depth of water applied over this surface was 3.9 feet, or nearly 47 inches: Under this duty one cubic foot per second would irrigate about 80 acres and one Mon- tana miner’s inch, 2 acres. TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Space would not permit a description of each experiment. It was necessary to state the facts in the briefest possible manner. The chief results have accordingly been presented in the form of tabulated statements. And since the main purpose of the bulletin is to show the amount of water used in irrigation it was deemed advisable to represent this quantity by diagram as well as by figures. In each of the 46 experiments conducted on fields there is inserted a small illus- tration to the left of the statement. This is drawn on a scale of one MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 11 inch to the foot and shows graphically the quantity of water applied in irrigation as well as the rainfall. The dark portion represents the amount received in irrigation, the light portion, the amount received in rainfall. In experiment No. 1, for instance, the reader who glances at the diagram observes that more than two-thirds of the total amount of water received is from irrigation. If he wishes the exact figures, the statement shows that 1.02 feet, or 12 J inches, was spread over the entire surface of a 31-acre clover field and that the amount of rain which fell on the same surface during the period of growth was .44 feet, or SJ inches. The duty of water under the canals for 1902 is illustrated by the plates, which are modeled after those in Bulletin No. 86, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The dark portion of the main illustration shows when the water began to be used, the daily amount and the end of the irrigation season. The smaller cut to the right shows the duty of water for each month as well as the rainfall for the same period. 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. £.xperiniei\t Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Average head of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. . C^xperiment Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Average head of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. . No. 1. Gallatin Valley. Clover. 3 tons. Clay loam. 31 acres. June 17-22. July 26-Aug. 2. 1.54 cu. ft. per sec. 1.02 ft. .44 ft. . 1.46 ft. # ) No. 2. Gallatin Valley. 31.25’ bushels. Clay loam. 4.23 acres. June 28. July 11-12. 1.28 cu. ft. per sec. 1.10 ft. .41 ft. 1.51 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 Experiment No. 3. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Grain, Yield per acre 57.89 bushels. Nature of soil Loam, Area 11.27 acres. Date of first irrigation June 23-27. Date of second irrigation July 12-14. Average head of water^used 1.81 cu. ft, per sec. Depth of water applied 1.98 ft. Rainfall 0.42 ft. Total depth of water received . . 2.40 ft. Experiment No. Location ' Gallatin Valley, Crop Barley. Yield per acre 73 bushels. Nature of soil Loam. Area 66.39 acres. Date of first irrigation July 5-1.3. Average head of water used 4.04 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 0.98 ft. Rainfall 0.41 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.39 ft. 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Experiment No. 5* Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of Soil Area Date of first irrigation Average feed of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. . Gallatin Valley. Oats. 51 bushels. Clay loam. 23.41 acres. July 13-18 3.54 cu. ft. per sec. 1.53 ft. .38 ft. 1.91 ft. Experiment No. 6. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Yield per acre 72.75 bushels. Nature of Soil Clay loam. Area 7.26 acres. Date of first irrigation July 6-7. Date of second irrigation July 22-24. Average head of water used 1.58 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.34 ft. Rainfall 36 ft. Total depth of water received, , 1.70 ft. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 15 K^xperiment No. 7. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Yield per acre 72.75 bushels. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 2.48 acres. Date of first irrigation July 7-8. Date of second irrigation July 25. Average head of water used 1.96 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 2.16 ft. Rainfall 36 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.52 ft. B -ft. Experiment No. 8. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Nature of soil Dark loam. Area 25.09 acres Date of first irrigation July 20-26. Average head of water used .... 3.13 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied ; . 1.28 ft. Rainfall 44 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.72 ft. 16 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. £ -ft. / -ft Experiment No. Q. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 66.39 acres. Date of first irrigation June 14-22. Date of second irrigation July 28- Aug. 17. Average head of water used 2.54 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.98 ft. Rainfall 41 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.42 ft, Experiment No. lO. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Barley. Yield per acre 46.5 bushels. Nature of soil Dark loam. Area 4.14 acres. Date of first irrigation June 12-13. Date of second irrigation June 29 July 1. Average head of water used 1.24 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.50 ft. Rainfall 28 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.78 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 £.xperiineffit No. 11. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 25.09 acres. Date of first irrigation June 18-21. Date of second irrigation July 2.3-29. Average head of water used . , . , 1.40 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 64 ft. Rainfall 39 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.03 ft. £ C.xperiii\e]iit No. 12. Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Average head of water used . . Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received . , Gallatin Valley. Wheat and Clover, 38.33 bu.3,170 Ib.clover Garden loam. 2 acres. Juno 18. July 11-12. 1.40 cu. ft. per sec. .77 ft. .30 ft. 1.07 ft. 18 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. Kxpeiriment No. 13. Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Average head of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received . . Gallatin Valley. Oats and Peas. 75.58 bu. O. 1330 lb. P Loam. 2 acres. June 18r July 11. 1.37 cu. ft. per sec. .56 ft. .39 ft. .95 ft. Experiment No. 14'* Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Barley. ^ Yield per acre 87.29 bushels. Nature of soil Loam. Area 1 acre. Date of first irrigation June 19. Date of second irrigation July 12. Average head of water used. . 1.38 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.17 ft. Rainfall 28 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.45 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 19 Experiment No. 15* Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats, Yield per acre 74.67 bushels. Nature of soil*. Loam. Area 8.51 acres. Date of first irrigation June 15-17. Date of second I irrigation July 6-7. Average head of water used .... 1.86 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.39 ft. Rainfall 0.40 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.79 ft. Experiment No. lO. n Location > Gallatin Valley. Crop Barley. Yield per acre 68.59 bushels. Nature of soil Loam. Area 4.52 acres. Date of first irrigation June 13 14. Date of second irrigation July 1-2. Average head of water used 1.99 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.96 ft. Rainfall 0.42 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.38 ft. 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. E^xperin\ei\t Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation ! Date of third irrigation Date of fourth irrigation Average head of water used .... Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received . . Experiment Location Crop Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Date of third irrigation A verage head of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. . No. 17. Gallatin Valley. Clover. 5 tons. Clay loam. 7.26 acres. June 4-5. July 3-5. July 19-21. Aug. 1-4. 1.57 cu. ft. per sec^ 2.70 ft. .44 ft. 3.14 ft. No. 18. Gallatin Valley. Clover; Clay loam. 35.9 acres. June 5-7. July 13-16: July 26-28. 2.22 cu. ft. per sec. 1.79 ft. .44‘ft. 2.23 ft. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 21 f^xperixnent No. IQ. Location Yellowstone County. Crop Alfalfa. Yield per acre 5.17 tons. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area irrigated 5.3.4 acres. Date of first irrigation July 17-27. Average head of water used 3.52 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1..30 ft. Rainfall 44 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.74 ft. Experiment No. 20. Location Bitter Root Valley. Crop Orchard. Nature of soil Vegetable loam. Area 40 acres. Date of first irrigation April 28-30. Date of second irrigation June 7-13. Date of third irrigation July 9-14. Date of fourth irrigation Aug. 12-14. Average head of water used 2.36 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.46 ft. Rainfall 13 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1..59 ft. 22 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Experiment No. 21. Location Bitter Root Valley. Crop Oats. Yield per acre 34.03 bushels. Nature of soil Gravelly. Area 102.2 acres. Date of first irrigation May 23- June 19. Date of second irrigation July 19- Aug. 8 Average head of water used. . . . 7.05 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 6.06 ft. Rainfall 13 ft. Total depth of water received. . 6.19 ft. MOJNTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 23 2 Experiment No. 22. Location Bitter Root Valley. Crop Oats. Yield per acre 33.37 bushels. Nature of soil Vegetable Loam. Area .....; i 161.7 acres. Date of first irrigation May 22, June 11. Date of Second irrigation July 21-30. Average head of water used 3.75 cu. ft, per sec. Depth of water applied 1.30 ft. Rainfall 13 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.43 ft. Experiment No. 23. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Yield per acre 3.36 tons. Nature of soil Loam. Area 20.86 acres. Date of first irrigation June 5-7. Date of second Irrigation July 20-22, Aug. 2-7, Date of second irrigation Aug. 11-16. Average head of water used 1.52 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 92 ft. Rainfall 65 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.57 ft. 24 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. Experiment No. 24* Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Yield per acre 3.36 tons. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 5.58 acres Date of first irrigation June 8^ Date of second irrigation July 9-10 Date of third irrigation July 25-29 Average head of water used 1.38 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.81 ft. Rainfall 67 ft. Total depth of water received , . 2.48 ft. 2 -ft. Experiment No. 25. Location Gallatin VaDey. Crop Clover. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 7.13 acres. Date of first irrigation June 17-18. Date'of second irrigation July 14-15. Average head of f water used. . 1.65 cu. ft.'per sec. Depth of water applied 1.24 ft. Rainfall 62 ft. Total depth of water^ received . . 1.86 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 25 £xperiiTiei\t No. 20. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Nature of soil Loam. Area 6.85 acres. Date of first irrigation June 18-19. Date of second irrigation July 12-13. Date of third irrigation July 29- Aug. 6. Average head of water used 1.40 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.54 ft. Rainfall 62 ft. Total depth of water received . . 2.16 ft. C.xperiment No. 27. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Wheat. Yield per acre 43.2 bushels. Nature of soil Loam. Area 5.24 acres. Date of first irrigation June 27-28. Date of second irrigation July 13-14. Average head of water used 1.47 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.19 ft. Rainfall 45 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1,64 ft. 26 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Experiment No. 28. Location Crop Yield per acre Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Date of second irrigation Average head of water used Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. , Gallatin Valley. Wheat, Barley, Clover. 42.9bu61.5bu 1.59 tons Clay loam. 3 acres June 28-29 July 15-16 1.23 cu. ft. per sec. .76 ft. .43 ft. 1.19 ft. Experiment No. 29. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Sugar Beets. Yield per acre 10 ton. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 3 acres. Date of first irrigation July 13-14. Date of second irrigation J uly 29-30. Date of third irrigation Aug. 16-17. Average head of water used.. .44 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.46 ft. Rainfall 59 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.05 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 27 C>xperinienit No, 30. Location Gallatin Valley Crop Oats Yield per acre 73 bushels. Nature of soil Clay loam Area 15.35 acres Date of first irrigation June 28-July 2 ~ Date of second irrigation July 16-17, July 22-25 Average head of water used 1.63 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.62 ft. Rainfall 43 ft. Total depth of water received . . 2.05 ft. Experiment No. 31, Location Gallatin Valley Crop Clover. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 27.84 acres Date of first irrigation June 21-25 Average head of water used. . 3.33 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 95 ft. Rainfall 62 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.57 ft. 28 mojntana experiment station. Experinr^ent No. 32. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Barley. Yield per acre 59 bushels. Nature of soil Loam. Area 12.5 acres. Date of first irrigation July 2-3, July 5-6. Average head of water used 2.L8 cu. R, per sec. Depth of water applied 34 ft. Rainfall 46 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.30 ft. Experiment No. 33. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Peas. Yield per acre 37.5 bushels. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 8.40 acres. Date of first irrigation July 8-9. Average head of water used 1.67 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 35 ft. Rainfall 77 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.12 ft. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 29 Experiment No, 34» Location Gallatin Valley Crop Oats Nature of soil Loam Area 37.3 acres Date of first irrigation July 9-23 Average head of water used. . . . 1.66 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.26 ft. Rainfall 45 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.71 ft. Experiment No. 35» Location Gallatin Valley Crop Orchard. Nature of soil Gravelly loam. Area 40 acres Date of first irrigation April 15-18 Date of second irrigation June 27-30 Date of third irrigation Aug. 13-18 Date of fourth irrigation Sept. 1-2 Average head of water used. . 2.43 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.56 ft. Rainfall 49 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.05 ft. 30 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 1 I £ -ft C>xperiment No. 30. Location Bitter Root Valley » Crop Clover, Yield per acre 1.06 tons. Nature of soil Gravelly loam. / Area irrigated 161.7 acres. ' Date of first irrigation May 11-28. Date of second irrigation June 23- July 2. “ Date of third irrigation Aug. 29-Sept. 8. Average head of water used 3.40 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.50 ft. Rainfall 49 ft. - Total depth of water received. . 1.99 ft. Experiment No. 37. Location Bitter Root Valley. Crop Clover. Yield per acre 1 ton. Nature of soil Gravelly. Area 102. acres. Date of first irrigation Apr. 20-May 2 Date of second irrigation May 4-16, 21-30. Date of third irrigation June 11-July 3. Date of fourth irrigation July 29-Aug. 13 Average head of water used 4.01 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 2.22 ft. Rainfall 45 ft. Total depth of water received. . 2.67 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. £xperimei\t No. 38. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 5.38 acres. Date of first irrigation '. June 24-26. Date of second irrigation July 17-18. Average head of water used 1.30 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.27 ft. Rainfall 54 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.81 ft. £>xperimeiit No. 3Q. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Wheat. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 5.62 acres. Date of first irrigation June 22-23, Date of second irrigation July 25-31. Average head of water used 2.43 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 2.43 ft. Rainfall 72 ft. Total depth of water received . . 3.15 ft. 31 82 • MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 1 E^xperiment No. 40. Locatiou Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 9.72 acres. Date of first irrigation . June 3-6. Date of second irrigation July 13-17. Average head of water used 1.79 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1,65 ft. Rainfall 78 ft. Total depth of water received . . 2.43 ft. E^xperiment No. 41* Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Oats. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 8.93 acres. Date of first irrigation June 11-14, Date of second irrigation July 19-22. Average head of water used 1.49 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.76 ft. Rainfall 54 ft. Total depth of water received . . 2.30 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 33 2 . -ff. £.3cpei*iniea:\t No. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Alfalfa. Nature of soil ( lay loam. Area 4.02 acres. Date of first irrigation June 10-11. Date of second irrigation July 17-18. Average head of water used 1.56 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.01 ft. Rainfall 78 ft. Total depth of water received . . 1.79 ft. Experimefit No. ^ 3 . Location Gallatin Valley. Crop !. Barley. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 19.8 acres. Date of first irrigation June 14-17. Date of second irrigation July 25-30. Average head of water used 2.17 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 97 ft. Rainfall 64 ft. Total depth of water received. . 1.61 ft. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. M Kjcperimei^t No. 4 ’^* Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Rotation Plats. Nature of soil Clay loam. Area 8 acres. Date of first irrigation June 26-27. Date of second irrigation July 18-19. Average head of water used 1.92 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 1.07 ft. Rainfall 64 ft. Total depth of water received, . 1.71 ft. NOTE: Rainfall as given in cut is incorrect and should be .64 ft. Experiment No. 4'5* Location Crop Nature of soil Area Date of first irrigation Depth of water applied Rainfall Total depth of water received. . Gallatin Valley. Clover. Loam. 27.84 acres. June 17-24. 1.00 ft. .78 ft. 1.78 ft. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. i Experiment No. 46. Location Gallatin Valley. Crop Clover. Nature of soil /. Loam. 81..3 acres Date of first irrigation June 6-30 Average head of water used 0.83 cu. ft. per sec. Depth of water applied 3.13 ft. Rainfall 78 ft. Total depth of water received . . 3.91 ft. Table No* I* In the following table, the length of the irrigation season for each of the valleys in which experiments were made has been fixed. Knowing approximately the number of days in which water is used, it is possible to determine the duty of water in acres per cubic foot per second and also per miner’s inch. This has been done in columns 8 and 9 of table. 1899 . 36 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, W * ACRES FT. PE ai«5iM«DOiCD-^fO C-CDO50O1— ICOOO*^ IN CU. W !>■ H O g s < f-i FEET. 1.02 1.10 1.98 .98 1.53 1.31 2.16 1.28 w ^ fi ® g o o ON le:ngth of IRRIGATION SEASON. CO ...... 3 *“5 Ph 3 tons. 31.25 bu.| 51.46 “ 51,00 bu. 72.75 bu. 72.75 bu. AREA IRRIGATED IN ACRES. 27.44 4.23 11.27 66.39 23.41 7.26 2.48 25.00 * s P cd O P O o . Ph ^ o >> S CO.Jh, 2 03 «3 CC to OOmOCQOOOO AMOUNT OF WATER APPLIED. IN ACRES PER miner’s inch. i 1 1 cOi-H,-i CO oaoicococ-ioi-icoocc j Ol M 1.0 GO CO CO OJ 01 lO -41 -i ! IN ACRES PER CU. FT. PER SEC. C- CO cc t- .... 174 6960 345.1 277 11080 549.3 236 9440 468.1 i .... 174 6960 345.1 267 10680 529.5 236 9440 468.1 174 6960 345.1 277 11080 549.3 236 9440 468.1 174 6960 345.1 288 11520 571.2 225 9000 446.2 174 6960 345.1 288 11520 571.2 225 9000 446.2 )i :::: 174 6960 345.1 288 11520 571.2 225 9000 446.2 1 174 6960 345.1 299 11960 593.0 225 9000 446.2 >: 174 6960 345.1 299 11960 593.0 215 8600 426.4 ;! 184 7360 364.9 299 11960 593.0 215 8600 426.4 174 6960 345 .'i 184 7360 364.9 299 1196) 593.0 257 10280 509.7 •i 174 6960 345.1 164 656) 325.3 288 11520 571.2 257 10280 509.7 ;l 174 6960 345.1 164 6560 325.3 267 10680 529.5 246 9840 487.9 ■ 174 6960 345.1 164 6560 325.3 267 10680 529.5 246 9840 487.9 1 174 6960 345.1 164 6560 325.3 . 257 10280 509.7 246 9840 487.9 » 174 6960 345. 1 143 5720 283.6 252 10C80 499.8 236 9440 468.1 1 174 6960 345.1 143 5720 283.6 242 9680 480.0 236 9440 468.1 174 6960 345.1 143 5720 283.6 232 9280 460.1 236 9440 468.1 1 174 6960 345.1 112 4480 222.1 236 9440 438.1 236 9440 468.1 : 174 6960 345.1 112 4480 222.1 242 9680 480.0 267 10680 529.5 174 6960 345.1 112 4480 222.1 246 9840 487.9 257 10280 509.7 • 174 6960 345.1 91 3640 180.5 246 9840 487.9 ! 236 9440 468.1 1 174 6960 345.1 91 3640 180.5 246 9840 487.9 I 236 9440 468.1 174 6960 345.1 225 9000 446.3 257 10280 509.7 1 194 7760 384.7 174 6960 345.1 225 9000 446.3 267 10680 529.5 184 7360 364.9 ' 174 6960 845.1 246 9840 487.9 267 10680 529.5 174 6960 345.1 ' 174 6990 345.1 277 11080 549.4 255 10200 505.7 164 6560 325.3 174 6960 345.1 242 9680 480.0 164 6560 325.3 Totals 6211.8 9980.5 16243.9 14070.6 Summary .showing the amount of water applied to irrigated lands under The g Ditch for the season of 1901: Duration of irrigation season (May 14 to Aug. 31) 110 days. Area irrigated 18.144 acres. Water diverted , 46,507 acre feet. Average depth of water applied 2.56 feet. Drag ram shotyin^ the f/me of irr/gaf/on one/ tAe. c/e/o^/f ofryaZ-cr usee/ f/'om t/>e 9/ff D/^eh, T/7den‘s f^artc/f. uoi^vBiJji s-^uassjc/d J V 3JV pi(09 'f/vyufvJs^ua^auc/dJ Va>JVj>9LfO^.'Vi^ y^uocu (^ova p a i {dd v ua^vM jo i^^c/dp Su/mol^? uyyjSv/Q PTjATPi MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 41 ’ABLE SHOWING DISCHARGE OF THE BIG DITCH AT TILDEN’S RANCH, YELLOW- STONE COUNTY, MONTANA, FOR THE SEASON OF 1902. May. June. July. August. September. • 6 ^ • P • • d ^ • P • • 6 jn . © . • 6 't-l ^ ^ . © . .S c;) s.a Aci feet 0 ^ l-S S.2 Ac] feet P is 0 ^ s.a Aci feet a '1 0 ^ © 2 .a 0 s.a Aci feet P ir' 0 ^ s.a Aci feet 1 338.1 13524 670.6 272.3 10892 540.1 293.9 11756 582.9 269.9 10796 535.3 9 254.4 10176 504.6 260.4 10416 516.5 290.3 11612 575.8 ‘269.9 10796 535 . 3 3 278.3 11132 552.0 260.4 10416 516.5 293.9 11756 582.9 258.0 10320 511.7 4 104.9 4196 208.0 ^8.3 11132 552.0 286.7 11468 568.6 248.4 9938 492.7 5 284.3 11372 544.0 293.9 11756 582.9 236.4 9456 468.9 6 278.3 11132 552.0 293.9 11756 582.9 234.1 9364 464.3 7 278.3 11132 552.0 286.7 11468 568.6 234.1 9364 464.3 8 266.3 10652 528.2 266.3 10652 528.1 293.9 11756 582.9 226.9 9076 450.0 9 293.9 11756 582.9 284.3 11372 544.0 290.3 11652 575.8 222 1 8884 540.5 0 302.2 12088 599.4 320.2 12808 635.1 293.9 11756 582.9 214 ; 9 8596 426.2 1 310.6 12424 616.0 346.5 13860 687.2 286.7 11468 568.6 210.1 8404 416.7 2 320.2 12808 635.1 332.1 13284 658.7 284.3 11322 544.0 200.6 8024 397.8 3 314.2 1‘2568 623.2 310.6 12424 616.0 293.9 11756 582.9 197.6 7904 391.9 4 ieiie ‘64^ 320.5 314.2 12568 623.2 317.8 1‘2712 630.3 293.9 11756 582.9 191.6 7664 380.0 |3 254.4 10176 504.6 320.2 12808 635.1 314.2 12568 623.2 293.9 11756 582.9 167.7 6708 332.6 6 ‘’42 2 9696 480.8 314.2 12568 623.2 338.1 13524 670.6 293.9 11756 582.9 179.6 7184 356.2 7 • 2:35 ^0 9220 467.2 308.2 12328 611.3 338.1 13524 670.6 286.7 11468 568.6 167.7 6708 332.6 8 263.9 10556 523.4 308.2 12328 - 611.3 358.4 14336 710.8 272.3 10892 540.1 179.6 7184 356.2 9 255.6 10224 506.9 314.2 12568 623.2 350.1 14004 694.4 281.9 11276 559.1 167.7 6708 332.6 0 250.8 10032 497.4 314.2 12568 623.2 338.1 135‘24 670.6 272 3 10892 540.1 176.6 7064 350.2 1 278.3 11132 552.0 314.2 12568 623.2 344.1 13764 682.5 28L9 11296 559.1 191.6 7664 380.0 9 272.3 10892 540.1 310.6 12424 616.0 358.4 14336 710.8 281.9 11296 559 . 1 167.7 6708 332.6 3 ‘255.6 10224 506.9 309.4 12376 613.6 362.0 14480 717.9 281.9 11‘296 559.1 164.7 6588 326.6 4 ‘262.4 10496 520.4 317.8 12712 630.3 358.4 14336 710.8 226.9 9076 451.0 143.8 5752 ‘285.2 5 244.8 9792 485 . 5 320.2 12808 635.1 353.6 14144 601.3 226.9 9076 451.0 140.8 5632 ‘279.2 6 271.1 10844 537.7 290.3 11612 575.8 358.4 14336 710.8 286.7 11468 568.6 131.2 5248 260.2 7 290.3 11612 575.8 314.2 12568 623.2 358.4 14336 710.8 286.7 11468 568.6 137.8 5512 273.3 8 ‘286.7 11468 568.6 317.8 12712 630.3 200.6 8024 397.8 ‘293.9 11756 582.9 1‘28.2 5128 254.2 9 290.3 11612 575.8 278.3 11132 552.0 326.1 13044 646.8 298.7 11948 592.4 131.2 5248 260.2 0 314.2 12568 723.2 256.8 10272 509.3 293.9 11756 582.9 298.7 11948 592.4 128.2 5128 254.2 1 328,5 13140 651 . 5 284.3 11372 544.0 274.7 10988 544.8 Total 10197.7 15580.1 19134.5 17468.9 11442.9 Summary showing the amount of water applied to irrigated lands under The i\g Ditch for the season of 1902: i\g Ditch for the season of 1902: Duration of irrigation season (May 14 to Sept. 30) 140 days. Area irrigated 20,038 acres. Water diverted 73,165 acre-feet. Average depth of water applied 3.65 feet. Duty of Water in tKe Bitter Root Valley. j For three years investigations have been conducted in the Bitter Root Valley 0 determine the quantity of water used in irrigation and the various losses in its '■onreyance. The greater part of the work was performed on the Bitter Root stock arm, the property of the late Hon. Marcus Daly. The conditions on this farm are avorable for such investigations. Through the co-operation of the Superinten- dent, Mr. P, J. Shannon, and the irrigation engineer, Mr. \!, D. Kippen, accurate lata have been secured in regard to the area of land irrigated and the kinds of >Tops raised. The results obtained in 1900 were published in Bulletin No. 29 of his station. Bulletin No. 119 of the office of Experiment St ations contains the r esults of the investigations made in 1901 while the following tables give a sum- nary of the data obtained in 1902. 42 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. DUTY OP WATER UNDER THE REPUBLICAN CANAL, • RAVALLI COUNTY, MONTANA. The costly headRatos and diversion dam of the Republican Canal are located on the Bitter Root river near the junction of the tributary known as Sleeping Child. This canal for the first 5 miles has a bottom width of about 12 feet and an average depth oP about 3 feet on a grade of 5 feet per mile. For the next 3 miles it has nearly the same slope as that of the river, or over 40 feet per mile. The canal decreases in width and volume as its distance from the head increases, and is quite narrow from the eight to the twentieth mile. The lower portion is locat- ed on a gradt* of eight feet per mile. In 1901 the flow of this canal varied from 2.000 to 3,200 miner's inches. In 1902 the highest flow was 3,927 miners’ inches and the average for the .season was nearly 2.200 miners’ inches. Daily discharge of the Republican Canal measured near the headgates, April 11 to September .30. 1902, DAY APRIL. Acre Feet. MAY Acre Feet. JUNE. Acre Feet. JULY. Acre Feet. AUGUST. Acre Feet. SEPTEMBER Acre Feet. 1 127 1 139.7 190.2 190.2 2 133.4 120.8 190.2 190.2 3 1,39.7 120.8 190.2 190.2 4 1.39 7 190.2 190.2 5 139.7 127.1 183 8 158.6 6 1,39 . 7 127.1 177.5 158 6 7 145.7 127.1 18,3.8 158.6 8 158.6 1,33.5 18,3.8 150.9 9 170.9 133.5 177.5 150.9 10 164.8 1,33 5 177.5 164.8 11 177.5 150.9 1,33.5 190.2 164.8 12 177.5 164.8 L33.5 190.2 164.8 13 177.5 1.39.7 ia3.5 190.2 164.8 14 177.5 1,33.4 1,33.5 190.2 164.8 15 150.9 1,33.4 1,33.5 190.2 164.8 16 150.9 1.33.4 ia3.5 190.2 164.8 17 150.9 1.39.7 ia3.5 190.2 164.8 18 150.9 1.39.7 127.1 196.3 139.7 19 190.2 150.9 127.1 190.2 139.7 20 190.2 150.9 127.1 190.2 139.7 21 177.5 150.9 127.1 190.2 1,39.7 22 170 9 1.50.9 114.6 190.2 102.1 23 177.5 150.9 108.4 190.2 102.1 24 170.9 150.9 108.4 190.2 102.1 25 170.9 1.50.9 120.8 190.2 102.1 26 170.9 150.9 l,a3.4 190.2 102.1 27 164.8 1 150.9 150.9 18,3.8 102.1 28 1.50.9 1,39.7 158.6 183.8 102.1 29 1.39.7 j 139.7 164.8 190.2 00.5 .30 127.1 1,39.7 164.8 190.2 60.5 31 127 . 1 i 164.8 18,3.8 DUTY OF WATER UNDRR REPUBLICAN CANAL. Area irrigated Water used Average depth of water applied Duty of water in acres per miner’s inch 1901. 1902. acres 4,105 4,850 aCre-feet 1.3,758 17,856 .feet ,3.35 ,3.68 . acres 2.02 2.22 I I ^UOl^Vj.9 t^^aoiU Ljovd pi/09 '//v/uivj 9^u39djc/3j vdJV pacfo^vu p9l/(/e ^/ne of //'r/^a/yp/r o/7c/ f//e cfepf// of^ ^er/’er usbc/ from /^e 'Micf Table No. 1, (duty of water) 36-37. Duty of water under canals 38. Big Ditch 39. Duty of water io the Bitter Root Talley 41. Republican Canal 42. Hedge Canal 44 . Ward Canal 46. Skalkaho Canal 48 . Gird Canal 50. Duly of water in Gallatin Valley 52. Middle Creek Canal 52. BULLETIN NO. 44 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station OF THE AGRICllTURAL COLLEGE OF MONTANA APPLE GROWING IN MONTANA BOZEMAN, nONTANA, FEBRUARY, 1903 1902 The Avant Courier Publishing Go. Bozeman* Montana riontana . Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor ] James Donovan, Attorney General Jex-officio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Publie Instruetion J N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnson ' O. P. Chisholm J. G. McKay G. T. Paul N. B. Holter J. M. Evans Chas. R. Leonard Helena Helena ....Billings .Bozeman Hamilton ...\.. Dillon Helena .Missoula Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Viee President ; Bozeman Peter Koch, Seeretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF.. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer E. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist F. B. Linfield, B. S. A Agriculturist R. W. Fisher, B. S Assistant Horticulturist Edmund Burke Assistant Chemist H. C. Gardiner ! Manager Poultry Department Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, • Montana Experuvient Station, Bozeman, Montana. Notice.— The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station. Bulletin No- 44 - - - - February, 1903 APPLE GROWING IN MONTANA. R. W. FISHER. • Introduction. The people outside the natural fruit districts are fast realizing the fact that apples can be successfully grown in the higher altitudes of this state, and in many places where was once a barren waste, or cattle range, are now to be found young orchards, which are surely destined to produce fruit, and become a source of revenue to the farm. d'lie failures of the past in growing apple trees have been due to one or several of the following reasons : 1. Tender or worthless varieties . 2. , Uncongenial soils. 3. Poor planting. 4. Insufficient or indifferent care after planting, or many causes that result in failure, in even more favored localities than ours. However these attempts, although a failure was the immediate result, have been of very great value to the interests of horticulture, in that they have shown the varieties that can be successfully grown, and the methods best to pursue in the growing of these varieties. With the exception of the Bitter Root valley, and possibly the Flathead .and Yellowstone valleys, the question is, and has been, 60 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. what varieties can be grown, and not; what are the best varieties to grow? From the experience of the horticulturists throughout the State, and the results obtained from the Experiment Station orchard and nursery, we are able to name the varieties best adapted to the differ- ent parts of the State, and also the methods of planting, cultivation, irrigation, et cetera, best to pursue. And with the present knowl- edge, every farmer in the State below an altitude of 5,000 feet, can, and should, grow at least enough fruit to supply his own table. Soils and Slopes. Any soil that produces a good farm crop, will also grow good ap- ples, if the proper precautions are taken to keep it in good condition. Strong gumbo or alkaline soils should not be planted to orchard trees, nor soils underlai.d near the surface with hard-pan. While there is a preference for a northern slope, yet, the fact that one is not procurable should not deter one from planting trees, if' he has a good soil and other favorable conditions. In very exposed and windy places wind-breaks are undoubtedly of value, especially after the trees come into bearing, as they break the force of the wind and prevent the fruit from falling before it is mature. .Preparation of the Ground. The orchard site should be in perfect condition for planting before, any trees are set out, as it is a very hard matter to correct evils in grading and plowing after the trees are in their places. Some grain or forage crop, or preferably a crop that requires deep and contin- uous cultivation is desirable to grow for a year or two previous to, planting the trees. It is of first importance that the ground is properly graded so that irrigation water can be easily applied, for: it is almost impossible to do this after the trees have been set out. If the trees are to be planted in a heavy soil, some precautions: should be taken to break up the subsoil thoroughly. Placing dyna- mite in the holes where the trees are to stand has been tried with: 1 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 61 success; but a liberal application of barn-yard manure, to give the necessary humus, and deep subsoiling for a year or two previous to planting, would probably give better results. In localities where the water-level comes within eight or ten feet of the surface, and remains for any length of time, especially in the summer and fall, drainage is necessary, and unless this can be eas- ily accomplished, it would probably be a loss of time and money to attempt to grow an orchard on such land. Planting the Tree. The ground being in good condition, the next consideration is the planting of the tree, and on this depends much of the future useful- ! ness of the orchard. ! In all parts of the state, with the possible exception of the Bitter : Root valley, spring planting will give the best results, and the earlier in the spring after the frost is out of the ground the better. Have the holes large enough to receive the roots without in any way cramping them, and deep enough so that the tree will stand a trifle deeper than it was in the nursery. It is also a good plan, if the ground is not very loose, to dig up four or five inches of loose soil in the bottom of the hole. When the tree is in place, fill in around the roots with fine soil, being careful that there are no air spaces left near the roots. Fill the hole nearly full, and then tamp down firmly, and if the soil is inclined to be dry, water should be added and allowed to soak away into the ground before the top soil is filled in, which should be left in a loose condition, to act as a mulch, thus preventing undue evapor- ation and retaining the soil moisture. Trim off all broken or lacerated roots, as a smooth cut heals over more re'adily and induces new roots to form. And since a good part of the root system has been lost in the operation of digging, the top will have to be pruned back to regain the balance of top and root. In three year old trees that have already been “headed” or formed m the nursery, all the twigs or limbs should be cut back to 4 or 5 buds, and allowed to develope to their full capacity until the follow- ing year. With a one year old tree, ie., with a top of one year’s growth 62 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. on a two year old root, (which is the best size tree to plant, all things I considered), it should be cut back to a prominent bud, at the distance from the ground it is desired to have the tree branch. From twenty- four to forty-two inches is the best height to head the trees, depend- ing on the variety, location, and one’s ideal of what a tree should be. Laying off the Ground. The land should be laid off in straight rows, from eighteen to twenty-five feet apart, and the exact location of each tree deter- mined before the holes are dug, as straight rows of trees add much to the beauty of an orchard, and also facilitates harvesting and spraying. Where a large number of trees are to be planted, Mr. O. S. Chil- cott, of Rockvale, has a very good method of laying off the ground and digging the holes. He says : “Instead of digging the holes, I plow them. First, I lay off the field with light furrows running crossways, for guides to plant by, then these are crossed by furrows running the way we irrigate, made with a heavy team and plow. Wdien the furrow is run I take out of the bottom another one by straddling it with the team and having the driver stand on the end of the plow beam and double-trees. This will enable one to take a full furrow out of the bottom of the first one, making it so deep that the tree holes are practically dug, and the cross furrows indicate exactly where the trees are to stand. Now the planter can go ahead without measuring or sighting. He simply puts a tree at the intersection of the furrows, and if the furrows have been properly made, the trees will be in perfectly straight rows.” Irrigation and Cultivation. In most sections of the State, irrigation is essential to the best re- sults, and in many places absolutely necessary in order to get a crop; and where irrigation is practiced, the trees should be given plenty of water during the spring and early summer, and by the first or fif- teenth of July the water should be witheld. By doing this the trees will make a normal growth, and will have time to thoroughly ripen MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 63 their wood before freezing weather, thus being better able to stand the cold and fluctuations in temperature throughout the winter and early spring. When water is applied it should be given in sufflcient quantity so that the ground is moistened deep enough to reach all the roots, otherwise it does but little good. Where “clean cultivation’’ is practiced, (and this is undoubtedly the best method to pursue for at least the first four or five years), the orchard should be cultivated about every ten days throughout the growing season, and especially as soon after an application of water as is possible. Until the orchard is several years old it should be plowed each spring, being careful not to disturb the roots ; and then cultivated with a disc or spring tooth harrow during the early part of the summer. After August ist shallow cultivation once in ten days or two weeks is all that is necessary to keep down the weeds and retain the moisture in the soil. Pruning. The tree that was cut back at transplanting, will have formed the following year a large number of small shoots. From these select three to five of the strongest and best shaped limbs (cutting out all the rest), and at the same time taking care that they are evenly dis- tributed around the tree, and form no crotches. After having decided upon the limbs intended to form the framework of the tree, shorten them back to within a foot of the main stem, always cutting to a strong bud. As a rule the weaker the growth the harder it ought to be cut back, as this will encourage wood-growth the following season. The next years pruning is done along the same line, choosing the limbs that are to make the upward growth of the tree, and shorten- ing the season’s growth back some, observing always that there are no crotches or cross limbs left. The necessary pruning during the following years does not materially differ from that described for the second and. third years. The object should be to get a symmetrical low-headed tree, with no crotches or cross limbs, and without too much wood. The best time to do pruning in Montana, where wood growth is the first con- sideration, is in the winter or early spring. But of more importance 64 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. than the time is the way in which the pruning is done. Always make a smooth cut, and do not leave stubs sticking out from the side of a tree, expecting them to heal* over. Make the cut as near the main limb as possible, and if large (from one to one and one-half inches and above), it is a good plan to cover the wound with white lead and linseed oil paint. Varieties. Practically all the varieties commonly grown in the United States have been tried in Montana, and from these have been selected those best suited to our conditions. Yet even in the same locality there is much difference of opinion as to the best apples to grow, either for home or market purposes, and it is not the object of this bulletin to attempt to determine those varieties, but rather to name the varities that have been grown successfully, and to give the comparative val- ues of these apples for home or market uses. For this purpose the following table, taken from the United States Department of Agriculture and used by the American Poniological Society in the description of fruits, is insericd m part: MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 65 \ Section i. — APPLES. (Pyrus.) Subsection 1.— CRABS. (P. BACCATA.)* [Key— Size, scale 1 to 10: 1, very small; 10, very large. Form; c, conical; i, irregular; o, oblate; b, oblong; ov, ovate; r, round. Color: g, green; r, red; ru, russet; s, striped; w, white; y, yellow, 'lavor; a, acid; m, mild; s, sweet. Quality, scale, 1 to 10: 1, very poor; 10, best. Season: e, irly; m, medium; 1, late; vl, very late. Use: c, cider; d, dessert; k, kitchen; m, market. Abbrevi- tions of names of places of origin; Am., America; Eng., England; Eur., Europe; Fr., France; Ger,; ermany; Holl., Holland; Out., Ontario; Rus., Russia; Scot., Scotland.] Name. Description. Size Form. Color. Flavor. Quality. Season Use. 1 Origin. Gibb 6 o yr a 9 e k Wis. Hyslop 6 r r a 3 em km Am?. Martha 5 o yr a 5-0 e k Minn. Orange 5 r y a 3-4 1 k Am. Transcendent ) .5 r yi* a 5-6 e kra Am. Whitney No. 20 8 rc r m 8-9 em dkm 111. Subsection 2.— APPLES. (P. MALES). Alexander 10 oc yrs ma 5 em km Rus. Vntonovka 0 OVC y ma 7 m km Rus. Arkansas (Mam. Blk. Twig).... 9 ro yr m 9 1 km Ark. Bailey Sweet 8-9 r r s 7-8 ml dm N Y. Baldwin 7-8 roc yi m 5-6 vl km Mass. Ben Davis 6-9 rov yrs m 4 1 m Ky.? Bethlehemite 5-6 oc yrs m 5-6 vl dkm Ohio.? Bietigheimer 10 oc wyr m 4 em m Ger. Blue Pearmain 9 rc rs m 6 1 dm Am.? Bough, Sweet Bullock (American Golden Rus- 8 ov 1 y 8 8 e d Am. ^set) 4 rov yru m 8-9 1 d N. J.? Earlv Harvest 5-6 ro ywr ma 9 ve dk Am. Early Strawberry 4 rc yrs m 6-7 e dm N. Y. Esopus ; 8 obc r ni 10 1 d N. Y. Fallawater 10 rc ygr m 4 1 ' m Pa. Pall Pippin 10 roc yr m 10 m dk Am. ♦Includes such possible hybrids as strongly manifest Crab parentage. 66 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Section i. — APPLES (Pyrus) — Continued. Subdivision 2.— APPLES. (P. MALES,)— Continued. Description. Name. O N qq o Pm o o o p Pm =S o a; cs 0) CO a3 i-J H Fall Wine 7-8 5 0 yrs yrs yrs yrs T e pi Am.? I Fr.? Ga. Mo. Minn. Eng. Am. 1 Ger. Rns. Mo. Rns. Mass. Pa. N. Y. N. Y. Mo. N. C. Rns. Out. Conn. 1 AVis. Farnense rn TCI 1 “O Q O in Cl Family 5- C> 7- 8 .5-() 4-() 6- 8 8- 9 8 ni o-*J cc rt in dm -1 Gano . m o-O pr cm (1 in Gideon m O 1111 Golden Rns.set (N. Y.) Golding (Ainerican Golden Pip- pin) ro y yru yi’ rs M in o 5-6 ft K dm Gravenstein m 0-0 ft m CIK Graven stein, Russian 0*0 9 d-6 5 >s 0 Gin 0 dkm dm km km Haas (Fall Queen) Hibernal 5-7 5-7 7-8 5-6 5-6 5- 6 7-8 6- 7 . 5-6 6-7 5-7 oc obc gyi’ rs yrs yrs yr m em 111 1 Hubbardston Jefferis m O-y W O 1 dm a Jonathan m O-O « O G 1 tl Late Strawberry m m 111 m m m O-O j Cl kin Lawyer (Deleware Red AVinter) Limber Twig Longfield Mcdiitosh McLellan ro roc i-c ro wrs r gyi- y wyr 0-0 5-6 3-4 5-6 5-6 in vl yl e ml cl dm m k dm McMahon 7 JS roc yrs m 0-6 i in d dm km Alaiden Blush f — o lO yw' 111 ♦ >-4: 111 ]\Iin Icier . o— u ft yr m d-O 6-8 i G 1 1 1 ml 1 N. J. Pa. AIo. N. Y. N. Y. AA'is. Rns. Wis. AA'is.? l\Ii.ssouri Pip])m O— 1) 6-8 5-6 8-9 Q Cl ro gyi‘ yrs yrs yrs m m Newtown Spitzenburg Nortliern Spy. N o rt west er n G ree n i n g OC roc m 111 m *>■ ct 10 8-9 in d dkm km km km dm m km ' dm d dkm ,1 Oldenburg, Duchess of Pewankee Plumb Cider o — >7 5-6 7-8 i> — () o ro rc gy yrs yrs yi;s iR a m 6 4- 5 5- 6 5- 6 6- 7 5-6 8-9 5-6 7 1 G 1 m vl e 1 ve 1 Ralls Genet 7-8 oc rc oc ovc ro Red Astra(*han Red Canada a. Red June Rhode Island Greening 7- 8 5-6 8- 4 8-9 yrs i-gy yi' r gy yi* yrs m a 111 m -T 1 . Rns. ; Am. N. G.? R. I.? Am.? r 1 E 1 Romanite South 2-3 8-9 rc rc rc 1 ^ 6-7 5-6 7 1 Rome Beauty m ml 1 Cl dkm Scott Winter 5 __ l./lllO Shiawassee 5-6 7-8 wrs yr m i 7-8 } 5-6 10 10 5-6 K in V t. Mich. . T>n Smith Cider o 1 roc T Clklll Summer Pearmain 5-6 7-8 oc ro m kin ir ci. Swaar rru gy m 1 <1 /i Am. 5-6 roc ^a < i A . X . Wild Tompkins King •• Twenty Ounce • Vandevere Virginia Greening 8-9 10 5-6 8-9 roc r o o yrs yrs yrs yrs m m m 111 8-9 6-7 5-6 5-6 *1 ml ml 1 dem km 1 km i in XI US, N. J. Conn. Del. Am. . N. Y. III. Minn, c Am.? , Ya.? \ .T Wagener - • Walbridge (Edgar Red Streak) Wealthy 6-7 5-6 .5-6 ro oc ro gy c yrs yrs 111 m m 8-9 5-6 (5 1 1 111 1 • dm m dkm dm White Pearmain 7-8 robe y IS yr m 5-6 Willow Twig .5-6 roc m a 111 5-6 7-8 vl m dkm km dkm dkm km Winesap 5-6 rob 1 Wolf River 9-10 ro 5-6 7-8 10 7 111 1 Wis.’ N J. v Yellow Bellflower 8-9 obc wr yr yr y yrs Yellow Newtown (Albemarle).. Yellow Transparent 8-9 6-7 ro rc a a vl e N.’ A*'. ; Rns. ■' York Imiierial 8-9 o 111 5-6 1 dm Pa. ; > I MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 6T In order to learn the varieties that are best adapted, and most com- monly grown in the State, letters were sent out inquiring of the prominent fruit-growers in the several fruit districts, the varieties best adapted to their paricular locality, and from these answers, the prospective apple grower may learn the varieties best to plant. VARIETIES. Yellowstone Valley. From the Yellowstone valley, the varieties recommended by Mr. Olney Taylor of Park City, are in the order given : Yellow Transparent Wealthy, N. W. Greening, McIntosh Red, Duchess de Oldenburg, Ben Davis \V albridge, Alexander. Crabs. Transcendent, Martha. - j\Ir. O. S. Chilcott, of Rockvale, says : ‘'A great many varieties of apples have been planted here within the last few years, and prac- tically all the trees seem to do well. I will not attempt to give a list of the varieties planted, but rather of those that have borne fruit. Those that have been most thoroughly tested and are recommended for general planting are marked.”'*' * Yellow Transparent, 'AVealthy, October, Gideon, Okabena, Thompson’s Seedling Fameuse, or Snow, Wine Sap, Walbridge, Wagener, Alexander, ^Transcendent, *Martha, White Arctic, Hyslop. Crabs. *Duchess, August, Peter, Hibernal, Tetofsky, 'N. W. Greening, '''W)en Davis, *Gano, W olf River, Malinda, Jonathan. '^Florence, Whitney, No. 20, General Grant, 68 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Northern Montana. Mr. Peter Denny at Chinook, and Mr. W. M. Wooldridge at Hins- dale, have given the varieties grown in the northern part of the State, and while most all the orchards are as yet too young to bear fruit, yet the trees have been out long enough to test their hardiness, and since their altitude and growing season does not differ materially from other sections of the State where the same varieties have borne fruit, it might reasonably be expected that they also will mature their fruit. Mr. Denny recommends the Wealthy, Duchess, and Gibb, and Transcendent crab. Mr. Wooldridge says: '‘Apple culture is meet- ing with success in the Milk River valley; the varieties which seem best adapted to the valley are. Duchess, Wealthy, Gano, Alexander, McIntosh Red, Bethel, and crabs.” Flathead Valley, For the Flathead valley, O. C. Estey and Mr. J. C. Wood of Big Fork have given the varieties commonly grown in that district. Mr. Wood says : “There are one hundred or more varieties grown here, out of which not more than a dozen or fifteen are satisfactory, and some of these only in favored localities. For general planting these are in the order named: Yellow Transparent, McIntosh Red, Duchess, W. W. Pearmain, Alexander, McMahon, Wealthy, Aiken, Red June, ' Rome Beauty, Red Astrachon, -Fameuse, Walbridge, Gano. ’Of the above named varieties, the Alexander is undoubtedly the best for extensive planting throughout the valley; while in the Lake region, the McIntosh Red leads all other varieties, with the Wealthy a close second.” Mr. O. C. Estey says : “The following list includes the varieties grown between Big Fork and the Reservation line, on the east side of Flathead Lake.” MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 69 Aiken, Alexander, Babbit, Duchess, Esopus, Gano, Hubbardston, Imperial, McIntosh, Minkler, Family Favorite, Newton, Pewaukee, \ W. W. Pearmain, Fameuse, Spencer, Sweet Bough, Autumn Strawberry, Shackleford, Northern Spy, Ben Davis, McMahon, Red June, Wine Sap, Rome Beauty, N. W. Greening, Thompson’s Seedling, Wolf River, Yellow Transparent, Okabena, Wealthy, Crabs. Delaware Red, Transcendent, Whitney, No. 20, Martha, Florence. Among these he names as the best for general planting: Aiken, Alexander, Duchess, Esopus, Gano, McIntosh Red, Fameuse, Northern Spy, Ben Davis, Red June, Rome Beauty, Yellow Transparent. Crabs. W ealthy. Transcendent, Whitney, No. 20. Martha, Those that have been tried and discarded. are the Minkler, Pew- aukee, Shackleford, N. W. Greening, and Florence crab. Bitter Root and Plains Country. Practically all the known varieties can be grown here with more or less success, and the question of best varieties is a very hard one to determine, the orchardists, who have been growing apples there for many years, not being settled upon this point. 70 MONTANA EXPERIMEl^T STATION. Such varieties as King of Thompkins Co., Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, McIntosh Red, Bethel, Delaware Red, Alexander, Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, and many other common market apples are grown to perfection. , Gallatin Valley. ' Over 175 varieties of apples have been tested in the Experiment Station orchard and nursery, and from this number, not more than S or 10 varieties are recommended, at present, for general planting. However, it should be understood that the Station orchard is in a very exposed location, and 4875 feet above sea level. Therefore it may be taken for granted that the varieties that are hardy here will grow in any other section of the state, with similar altitude, if planted in a good soil and given proper care. The varieties found best suited to our’conditions are; W ealthy. Duchess, Yellow Transparent, Okabena, Longfield, . Hibernal, Tetofsky, Alexander, N. W. Greening. Crabs. Transcendent, Greenw^ood, IMartha, Hyslop, Orange, Whitney No. 20. Conclusions. With the foregoing list of varieties one is able to choose intellB gently the varieties that are likely to grow in any district of the state. The same varieties that grow in the Bitter Root valley, for instance, are quite likely to do equally well in IMissoula county, - and locations with similar climatic conditions; and likewise, the^ varieties grown at the Station would be expected to grow in otherj MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 71 )arts of the state, similarly located, with reference to the altitude, dimatic conditions, etc. The success in growing apples depends upon the following con- litions : Select three or four good varieties. Plant properly. Cultivate and irrigate thoroughly. Prune systematically. And if all these things are attended to, there is no 'good reason vhy apples of some variety cannot be grown in the coldest portions 3f Montana. CONTENTS. Introduction Soils and Slopes Preparation of the Ground. Planting the Trees Laying off the Ground Irrigation and Cultivation Pruning Table Showing Size, Form, Color, etc 65- Varieties 67- Conclusions BULLETIN NO. 45 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF MONTANA THE LOCO AND SOME OTHER POISONOUS PLANTS IN MONTANA. BOZEMAN, nONTANA, JUNE, 1903 1903 Tbe Avant Courier Publialiin^ Go. Bozeman. Montana riontana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor ] James Donovan, Attorney General >ex-officio Helena W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J N. W. McConnell Helena W. M. Johnson Billings O. P. Chisholm Bozeman J. G. McKay Missoula G. T. Paul Dillon N- B. Holter Helena J. M. Evans Missoula Chas. R. Leonard ..Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John M. Robinson, Vice President Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. Samuel Fortier, Ma. E F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D R. A. Cooley, B. Sc F. B. Linfield, B. S. A R. W. Fisher, B. S Edmund Burke H. C. Gardiner Director and Irrigation Engineer Chemist Botanist Entomologist Agriculturist Assistant Horticulturist ,.... Assistant Chemist ... Manager Poultry Department Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. Notice! — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 45 June 1903 THE LOCO AND 50/VlE OTHER P0I50N= 0U5 PLANTS IN HONTANA. J. W. BLANKINSHIP. INTRODUCTION. Many plants, like animals, have some particular means of defense. Some are guarded by thorns and prickles, some have stinging or grandular hairs, or possess a bitter or unpalatable herbage ; some are tough or woody, while still others secrete deadly poison^ for protec* tion and wreak swift vengeance upon such animals as have the hardi- hood to eat them. In many cases their indigestible nature simply causes bloat, in some others the poisons secreted are virulent and deadly. Loco is a narcotic and affects primarily the nervous system ; larkspur and death camas paralyze the voluntary muscles, while water hemlock and lupine appear to aff'ect both the brain and muscu- lar system, and water hemlock at least also seems to have a corrosive action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive organs. The annual losses in Montana resulting from stock eating these poisonous plants can not be far short of $100,000 and may even ex- ceed that amount. Yet, when the total number and value of the stock of the state are taken into consideration, even this estimate will appear relatively small, being only about three tenths of one per cent of the whole or some two per cent of the increase. * This subject of poisonous plants is becoming of more and more importance, because by the overstocking of the ranges, stock are compelled to resort to the more unusual and more unpalatable plants for food and consequently these cases of poisoning are becom- Assessed valuation for 1902: Horses, 188,621, value, S.5,873.8.31. Cattle, 751,040, value, .^17, 218,884. Sheep. 4,718,610. value, .$10,869, 886. Total, 5,658,271, value, $48,456,601. 76 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ing more numerous, and because of the present tendency of stockmen to purchase and fence the ranges for their' exclusive use, so that, while formerly there was no disposition to do more than avoid the “poison localities,’’ the increased value of these ranges and private ownership now demand methods for the destruction of these injur- ious plants, so as to prevent unnecessary losses. A glance at the literature of the subject will show that consid- erable work has already been done by the various Experiment Sta- tions of the Northwest and more recently the work has been taken up by the Division of Botany of the Department of Agriculture, under the direction of Mr. V. K. Chesnut and several important papers have been published. The history of the work at this Sta- tion begins in 1895 when Dr. F. W. Traphagen took up the subject from the chemical standpoint, being joined the following year by Dr. E. V. Wilcox, the Zoologist and Veterinarian of the Station, co- operating with Dr. Bird, then State Veterinarian. The work was continued by Dr. Wilcox till 1899, when he went to Washington and the investigations have since been mainly under direction of the Botanist. The results of these studies have been presented in bulle- tins 15 and 22 by Dr. Wilcox and in the present issue. From the investigation of a large number of cases of stock poisoning it appears that some 95 per cent of such losses in this state is due to five or six species of plants, or more strictly, groups of related species ; namely, the loco, lupine, water hemlock, death camas, larkspur and wild parsnip, and that while cases of poisoning by other plants may, and doubtless do occur, these cases are rela- tively few and need not here be considered. The not infrequently fatal effects of alkali on the eastern ranges have been largely attribut- ed to plant poisons and have served to swell the total and complicate the symptoms. The object of this bulletin is to present a brief summary of our present knowledge of these poisonous plants — conclusions reached l3y the field-work of three seasons and from a study of the various bulletins and papers already published on the subject, in order that these plants may be recognized and the conditions under which the poisoning occurs be known, as well as the symptoms of such poison- ing and the usual remedies. It must be remembered that as yet the exact symptoms of the different poisons in many cases have not been clearly determined, nor have efficient remedies been found, the sub- ject being yet in the experimental stage, while for the successful solution of the various problems involved, the co-operation in experi- mental work of a veterinarian and a botanist with the aid of a chemist or pharmacist is necessary to secure the best results by the experi- mental feeding of these suspected plants in their various stages directly to the animals themselves, noting the quantity fed, the resulting symptoms and effects, as shown by examination after death, while later the work of seeking antidotes for these various poisons can MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 77 3 be undertaken. Work of this nature is expensive and can be per- formed only in localities where these plants grow, while as yet the desired co-operation of men and means has not been secured. An attempt iias been made to bring together at the end a brief synopsis of the symptoms of these poisons and the usual conditions when losses occur, in order that the stockman may be able to determine the cause of any case of poisoning that may arise. There is also added a bibliography of the literature of the plants poisonous to stock in America, exclusive of the Fungi, as far as our library facilities here permit, and this may be of service to other investigators and stockmen who care to pursue the subject further. For the more exhaustive treatment of several phases of the subject, the stockmen of Montana are referred to the bulletin of Chesnut and Wilcox on the “Stock-Poisoning Plants of Mon- tana” issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, to which we are indebted for figures 2, 3 and 6. Fig. i is from Vasey in the Report of [the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture for 1884, while the remain- ing' figures are by students in this institution, figures 3 and 4 by [Jacob Vogel and 6 by Amy M. Cooke. I Valuable assistance has also been rendered by Dr. M. E. I Knowles, State Veterinarian, in the prosecution of this investigation, [and I wish also to thank the many stockmen in the various parts of [the state, who have aided me in this work, while without the efficient [co-operation of the railways of the state, such work could hardly have [been attempted. I CONDITIONS OF POISONING. ! The investigations here undertaken seem to show that stock- poisoning by plants is more frequent in certain sections of the state, in certain seasons of the year and during* certain weather conditions and a knowledge of these zones, seasons and conditions may aid p materially reducing the losses from this cause. The chief poison zones of the state are nearly confined to the 'oothills of the various mountain ranges east of the Continental Di\ ide and to the high bench lands of the plains eastward. There las been little complaint from the extreme eastern or western parts of he state. These poison zones are characterized by the abundance of I he larkspurs, lupines, death camas and wild parsnip, which are far ess frequent or entirely absent further east or west. The loco zone s a well defined section near the central part of the state, while the vater hemlock is frequent along streams from the foothills westward, )eing rare or entirely absent in the eastern plains. It is not the pres- nce, but the abundance of these various plants, that determines hese poison zones. The death camas is found in nearly every part >f the state, but is abundant only in certain localities ; the loco weed i 78 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. occurs throughout the plains region of the United States and Canada, | but is abundant only in certain parts of this region, where the poison- j’ ing mainly occurs. ' The chief period of danger is in early spring from April 15 to| June 15, more commonly from May i to May 15. It is during thisj' period that the death camas, the larkspur the water hemlock and the; wild parsnip are most apt to be eaten, as their herbage is then youngi! and tender and there is much evidence to indicate that they are farll more poisonous before they come into bloom; the first two fruit andij die earlyin July while the others become coarse and unpalatable. Thisi is also during the rainy season, when the ground is soft, and the more poisonous roots of these various plants may occasionally be pulled , up, particularly by cattle. Periods of continous rain cause stock to seek shelter, from which they come forth hungry and use less selec- tion in their choice of forage, while they are apt to overeat the wet, rank vegetation and in consequence suffer from bloat and occasional poison. Late snows also cover the more edible grasses and force stock 1 to eat the taller and often poisonous plants, like the large larkspur, the; lupine and the water hemlock. Poisoning from loco is also niore _com-| mon during this same period when its conspicuous flowers point it outi to lambs and the “loco eaters” and its green, fresh condition makesj it more palatable. The lupine on the contrary, is most deadly in July; and August, as it m.atures its seeds and its green herbage renders ifi conspicuous among the dry vegetation, while it is at this period that] sheep are apt to be moved to the mountain and foothill pastures where the lupines are abundant. There are also hot infrequent cases, of poisoning in the winter by lupine hay or slough hay containingi much water hemlock, occasionally even by the dry stalks and seedsji of the lupine found on the ranges. ^ 1 It must also be remembered that stock on their usual pastures! and under normal conditions are not apt to be poisoned by these!- plants, even if abundant, but after times of rain or snow they shouldi be looked after and stock of any kind driven to a new range or when hot and hungry, are apt to eat to excess unpalatable and poisonousji plants. Hence in changing ranges or in trailing stock from one lo| cality to another, it is necessary that more care than usual be exer-ji cised to prevent them from eating these poisonous plants until thev become accustomed to their new conditions. | MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 79 LOCO. Oxytropis Lamberti Pursh, or Aragallus spicatus (Hook.) Rydb. The White Loco Weed is a small pea-like plant, six inches to a foot high, with conspicuous white or cream-colored flowers from a thick woody persistent root, and is fairly well represented in Fig. i. The “ White Loco’* is distributed over nearly the whole plains region of the United States from Alberta and Assiniboia south into Mexico, and from Minnesota and Kansas westward to the Rockies. Extensive losses of stock attributed to this species are reported in New Mexico, Colorado and Montana and to a less extent in most of the other states embraced in the region mentioned. In southern Cali- fornia and some other states the loco is attributed to other plants and in particular to two species of Astragalus (A. mollissimus Torr. and A. Hornii Gray) neither of which are native here. In Montana the white loco is found throughout all the eastern plains and is not infrequent in the “mountain meadows” up to 8000 feet altitude. It has not been found west of the Continental Divide, although it occurs on this Divide in the vicinity of Feeley some ten miles south of Butte. To this species (O. Lamberti) must be attributed all or nearly all the cases of loco in this state, as the poisoning occurs only in sections where it is abundant and the other species suspected are too few or too scattered to do much damage. The white loco weed is very unevenly distributed over the section named and appears not to be found in sufficient abundance to be dangerous except in the central “loco zone” extending from Livingston to Billings and from the mountains on the south, northward to the Musselshell, and around the Little Belt and Highwood Mountains. Reports of loco have come from a few other localities in the state, but nowhere else have losses from this cause been heavy and constant. Indeed, in some parts of this “loco zone” theTosses sometimes average as high as 50 per cent of the lambs produced and in several localities the sheepmen have been compelled to dispose of their sheep and stock up with cattle. Yet it must not be supposed that the loco is equally and abundantly distributed over all this section. It is found mainly along dry rocky ridges or gravel plains, but exhibits great capacity for growing in nearly every kind of soil. Over much of this area the traveler will look in vain for a single specimen, while in other localities of similar soil, perhaps immediately adjacent, the plains will be white with its conspicuous flowers. This irregularity of distribu- tion may be due in part to the difference in soil, but must be mainly attributed to the fact that it is a relatively recent introduction into the state and that it is spreading from the infected centers. There is considerable evidence to show that the buffalo were the original agents of its introduction, either through having eaten the mature seeds and then scattered them in their offal or from their habit of wai- Fig. 1. LOCO WEED. Oxytropis Lambsrti Natural Size. (l^. S. Dept. Agriculture.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 81 lowing in the dust and thus carrying the seeds in their hair for con- siderable distances through their well known migratory habits. The usual presence of the loco weed in the vicinity of the “buffalo wal- lows” and its not infrequently abundant distribution in the higher mountain meadows along with abundant signs of the buffalo and in situations, such as the Tobacco Root Range, where sheep or other stock are not tansf erred from a loco section, tend to support this theory. The evidence also seems to show that the loco is slowly spread- ing from the “loco zone” northward and eastward and that the sheep are now the main instruments of its dispersion and more abundant growth, both by spreading the seeds in their offal and in particu- lar through their -tramping in those seeds where already distributed when the ground is soft in the spring. It will also be observed that this “loco zone” is just that part of the state which has longest been given over to the pasturage of sheep. It has been the' general experience of the stockmen in this state that sheep are the chief sufferers from this poison, horses frequently and cattle are rarely affected. It is also a matter of common observa- tion that it is the 5-oung sheep and colts that are affected, more fre- quently yearlings, while the older sheep and horses, grazing along with the others are rarely known to acquire the loco habit. It is also asserted by the stockmen that the animals teach the habit to each other and there is nothing improbable in the statement when we consider their imitative nature, particularly in the matter of graz- ing. The loco is a slow poison and appears to affect primarily the nervous system, so that animals addicted to the habit become stupid, wander from the herd, step high, their eyes are glassy, their front teeth grow long and become loose, their coat becomes shaggy and they seek the loco weed and will eat nothing else if it can be obtained. They not only eat the plant itself, but dig for the roots with their hoofs. They appear to have false ideas of form, size and distance and horses in particular when they get hot or exhausted are apt to become frantic, whence the term “loco” or crazy has been applied to the dis- ease. Moreover, the effects are usually lasting and no remedy has yet been found. Horses are permanently injured, as their “crazy” spells disqualifies them for hard work and but few cases of recovery from the effects of the poison have been noted. Sheep left on the ranges where the loco is found become worse and worse, their teeth become black and loose, they eat nothing but loco and they finally die from sheer inability to obtain sufficient food and water to sustain life. Once the habit is fixed, if left on the range they never recover, although they may linger along for several years before death, so that many of the stockmen kill all the animals affected on the ap- proach of winter, rather than to attempt to care for such hopeless cases. 82 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. HOW TO PREVENT STOCK FROM BECOMING LOCOED. A careful study of the subject seems to show that it is the lambs and yearlings that are chiefly affected— old sheep but rarely and then on ranges where the loco is abundant and other forage scant. Also^ it is usually colts that acquire the loco habit and the adult horses are much less apt to become addicted to it. This is due to the fact that the loco plant is in full bloom during May and June when the lambs and colts are just learning to graze and the conspicuous white flowers and their sweetish taste serve to attract them, while the in- toxicating effects of the poison are more easily fixed in their system. They soon learn to recognize the plant and to seek it for the effects produced, until the desire for the intoxicating poison becomes a fixed habit, in much the same way that the opium or alcohol habit is fixed in man, and the effects are only more rapid because animals know no restraint and the supply of the drug is often unlimited. The loco poison is a true narcotic in its effects and appears to afford cer- tain pleasurable sensations to the animals eating it, so that the desire for the drug finally becomes a passion, and once the taste for the plant is acquired, they will continue to seek it for the effects produc- ed until they are removed from the loco ranges or die from its use. Several instances have occurred in this “loco zone” where sheepmen have become discouraged on account of the losses from loco, and have sold out their ranches to others, who stocked them again with sheep and suffered little or no loss from loco. In some cases this immunity seems to have been due to the fact that only old sheep were grazed on these loco ranges, in others liberal salting was claimed to have prevented them from acquiring the abnormal taste for the loco weed, but such cases of apparent im- munity are exceptional and need more careful study to determine the efficient cause in each instance. If this theory, that the loco habit is contracted mainly when stock are learning to graze, be correct, then the disease may easily be prevent- ed by grazing lamb-bands on ranges free from loco, at least till after the first of July, when they will have- learned their proper forage and the loco will be out of bloom except in the mountain pastures, where no cases of loco poisoning have been reported, and the same is true of the young colts. It is probable that the yearlings affected have acquired the habit during the preceding spring, but in less degree and that it developed mainly during the second season. It will hence be necessary to look after the lambs and colts during the first two of three months after birth, and future care will not be needed. Sheep taken in the early stages of the disease and placed on good pasturage free from loco, or on alfalfa, frequently take on flesh and are shipped East to be finished for the market, as the quality of the flesh itself is in no wise injured by the loco diet, but animals in ad- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 83 vanced stages of the disease will never recover and may as well be killed for their pelts, as it appears to be the general experience of sheepmen that locoed sheep never produce offspring. CAN 'LOCO BE EXTERMINATED? This question has often been asked and the subject is coming to be of importance, from the fact that many of the stockmen, particu- larly in the loco zone, are purchasing large holdings and fencing them for their exclusive use, while a number of them have been induced to sell because of the losses from the loco, or have sold their sheep and restocked with cattle, when such changes were entirely unnecessary. Burning the ranges can do no good, except possibly to destroy some of the seed, as the plant has a deep enduring root from which new plants will arise next spring. Close pasturage in some cases appears to have destroyed the loco in small pastures and on some of the more closely grazed ranges, but there is always some risk that the animals will thus acquire the habit. At least one state has made a serious attempt to aid the stock- man to exterminate the loco. The legislature of Colorado passed a law in i88i offering a bounty of $21.00 a ton, dry, for “any loco or poison weed dug up not less than three inches below the surface of the ground during the months of May, June and July.” This law was repealed in 1885, but cost the state about $40,000 a year during the time it was in force, without any benefits at all commensurate to the expense, as there was no specification as to just what species were included under “loco or poison-weed” and no system employed in eradicating the objectionable plants. Yet, this law seems to have fairly well demonstrated, and indeed was based upon the fact, that loco can be exterminated by digging during the months specified. This seems to be the nearly unanimous opinion of a large number of Colorado stockmen, who have been consulted by this Station. Now, while it is probably inadvisable for the state to attempt the extermination of loco on the public ranges, it is yet possible and profitable for the stockmen to eradicate it from his own private en- closures and this at relatively small expense, as a recent experiment in Sweet Grass county has demonstrated. A practical test of the matter in this state was made by Dr. W. A. Tudor of Bozeman on his ranch on the Big Coulee, thirty miles northeast of Big Timber. During the season of 1901 Dr. Tudor lost from poisoning by loco about 300 out of a herd of 2000 lambs. Acting on advice from this station, the next spring (1902) he employed two men for about a month in May and June to dig up the loco plants over an area of about four miles square. The plants were cut off just below the crown — the point where the leaves arise from the root, two or three inches below the surface, a narrow 84 MONTANA EXPERIAIENT STATION. heavy hoe being- used, and wherever this was properly done the plants never sprouted again, nor have new plants come up the pres- ent season (1903). No further losses from loco have occurred on his ranch. From this it appears that the extermination of the loco plant, (Oxytropis Lamberti) is perfectly feasible, even over extensive areas, and the expense of such extermination will hardly exceed 10 per cent of the losses which would otherwise occur during a single year. A^et it is hardly possible to completely exterminate the plant in an affected district with one year’s digging, as some plants will be unavoidably missed, while others may spring from seed previously scattered, so that several diggings may be necessary. Loco should always be dug during May and June when in bloom, as its conspicu- ous flowers serve to point it out and, being dug at this time, prevents it from setting seed. LUPINE. There can be no doubt of the poisonous nature of the lupine, although it is certainly one of the best forage plants in the state, if not eaten in its dangerous condition. At least four of the native species have been found poisonous, Lupinus cyaneus Rydb., L. leucophyllus Dough (Fig. 2), L. sericeus Pursh and L. pseudoparvi- florus Rydb., and it is probable that all are more or less so. These lupines all have blue, pea-like flowers and bean-like pods, whence the name “prairie pea,” “prairie bean,” “blue bean,” etc. The roots are perennial and often somewhat creeping beneath the ground ; the stems are two or three feet high with six or eight narrow leaflets arising from a single point on the leaf-stalk. The more dangeroue spec- ies of the Upper Yellowstone, (L. cyaneus) grows in dense clumps from a single thick root, often thickly scattered over considerable areas, and appears to be spreading rapidly. L. Cyaneus is found in valleys and along streams and its distribution is almost identical with the so-called “loco zone,” fruiting about July i. The lupines are more abundant in the foothills east of the Divide, bi\t are said to have caused losses in the Deer Lodge valley and in the vicinity of Elliston and the species occur throughout the whole mountain- ous ' section of the state. The principal species mentioned Lloom early in June and are in fruit some three weeks later. Sheep are the main sufferers although horses appear to be occasionally affected. In the case of the lupine the conditions of poisoning are peculiar, and most cases of such poisoning seem to be due to transferring Fig. 2. LUPINE. V 2 Natural size. Lupinus leucophylhis Dougl. (U. S. Dept. Agriculture.) 86 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. sheep to new and unfamiliar ranges where lupine is abundant or to turning them into lupine fields when very hot or hungry or to allow- ing them to fill up on the wet plants after rains. Sheep on familiar ranges and under ordinary conditions can graze on the lupine with impunity, but in case of long continued rains or late snows, they are apt to eat the lupine to excess and suffer from bloat or poison. There is a general impression that they become immune to the poison by becoming gradually accustomed to it and there is considerable evi- dence to support this view. Mr. Burke, of Great Falls, reports that sheep fed regularly on hay nearly half lupine were unaffected, wiiile others eating the same hay for the first time .died m considerable numbers, and several similar cases have been reported. Several in- stances have occurred of imported sheep being turned into lupine pastures with fatal results while the native sheep in the same fields were not affected. Enormous losses, more than a thousand in a number of cases, have. been sustained by unloading sheep from the cars in transit up- on these lupine ranges when the plants were in fruit. Sheep are often poisoned too by eating lupine hay or hay containing as much as 50 per cent lupine, which has been cut while in seed ; yet the same hay fed to cattle has caused no bad effects. There is no doubt of the poison being derived from the fruit, though the wet plants frequently cause fatal bloat. Most if not all cases of poisoning of stock in winter by plants on the ranges are due to lupine. Stock poisoned by lupine a'ppear to become blind and frenzied ; they move off staggering in straight or curved lines and meeting with any obstruction will butt against it with spasmodic leaps, sheep thus frequently pile up against fences or banks and lie till death. There is often more or less frothing and the head is sometimes drawn sideways ; they are apt to fall over on their sides and kick aimlessly, but some drop dead without exhibiting previous symptoms. There is Ifftle bloat necessarily, although bloat sometimes results from eating the plants, particularly when wet, or eaten to excess, and may accompany the poison or may result fatally without any effects of the poison being shown. The “craz}" loco” about Ft. Benton ap- pears to be a form of lupine poisoning. In the case of the Lupines, as in most other kinds of plant poison, prevention is better than cure and a knowledge of the usual condi- tions of poisoning will enable the sheepmen and herders to escape most of the losses due to these species. As a general rule don’t turn sheep in on lupine when they are not accustomed to it, or when it is wet or when they are very hungry, for if they fill up on lupine MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 87 alone it is apt to prove indigestible and cause fermentation and bloat, particularly when wet, just as, indeed, will alfalfa or clover, in like condition, while the seeds or beans of the lupine contain an active poison of which it takes much less to fatally affect sheep unaccustom- ed to them than those that have been eating the seeds regularly. Also in feeding hay containing lupine, at first mix with other hay free from it, afterwards the amount of lupine contained can be gradually in- creased without any ill effects, but in any case such hay found poisonous to sheep can be fed to cattle without any danger. It is probable that nearh' all poisoning from hay in this state arises from the lupine found in it, but several cases have been noted where the water-hemlock was so abundant in hay cut in low ground, as to ser- iously affect horses fed from it. Herders and others charged with the care of sheep should not^turn hungry sheep upon a lupine range at any time, especially when it is in fruit, and should keep sheep off such ranges when the lupine is wet and should graze them there with care in times of early snows, while in moving sheep from a range free from lupine to another containing it, they should be allowed to graze on the lupine at first but sparingly, but after they become accustomed to it no special care will be necessary even after it is in seed. Knowing thus the conditions of poisoning, it is quite possible to avoid nearly all the losses occasioned by it. Fig. 3. WATER HEMLOCK. Vs Natural size Cicuta occidentalis Greene. (U. S. Dept. Agriculture.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 89 — f WATER HEMLOCK OR WATER PARSNIP. Gicuta occidentalis Greene. This plant is allied to the cultivated parsnip and resembles it to some extent. It is often three or four feet high and has a smooth, green, ribbed, hollow stem spreading above and each branch termi- nating in an umbrella-like expansion of small white flowers (Fig. 3). It arises from a bunch of thick tuber-like roots which contain a yellow gummy secretion and are the chief seat of the poison, al- though the seeds have been reported to be more or less poisonous as well as the foliage in less degree. This species is frequent throughout the Rocky Mountain region, but other and equally pois- onous species replace it in other parts of the United States. In Mon- tana it is found in wet or swampy places along streams and ditches in the mountainous sections of the state, occurring but rarely in the plains eastward. It is often found in considerable patches in open marshy places, but usually occurs scattered sparingly along streams and ditches, by whose waters its seeds are disseminated. The roots of this plant have long been known to be a deadly poison and have been used by the Indians for suicide. The ropts and foliage are also thought to be more poisonous in early spring than at other seasons and the semi-persistent basal leaves then attract stock seeking every- thing green and the roots are frequently pulled up or dug up from the soft ground and eaten with fatal results. It is said too that these roots on being tramped and crushed by sheep and other stock seeking water, exude a yellowish gummy liquid, which floats on tlie water and, being drunk with it, may affect stock fatally. The mature plant is far less poisonous, particularly when dry, yet a number of cases have been reported where stock have been poisoned in winter from eating “slough hay” of which this water hemlock was one of the chief constituents. Cattle and horses are the most frequent sufferers, but sheep also appear to be poisoned occasionally, though some authors report them as immune. This root is not in- frequently mistaken for that of the edible “squaw root” .(Carum Gairdneri Gray) w:th often fatal results to whites and Indians alike. The poison contained in the root is rapid and deadly, death often resulting within a few hours after it is eaten, but where less of the root is taken the animal may linger along for several days or even eventually recover. The principal symptoms are violent convul- sions, frothing at the mouth and nose, excessive urination, shallow breathing, coma and death. An examination of the body after death will usually show the lungs congested with blood and the lining membranes of the stomach and intestines more or less decomposed. It is usually easy to determine this water hemlock poison by Fig."4. DEATH CAM AS. Zygadeniis venenosus Wats. Half natural size. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 91 the fact that few animals get poisoned at a time and then always in low wet places, the victim not being apt to get far from the locality of poisoning. It is not at all difficult to dig up and remove all the plants of this species in pastures and enclosed ranges. The roots are relatively shallow, being rarely over six inches beneath the sur- face, and can readily be removed with a spade or hoe and then should be carried away, piled in heaps and burned when dry, as to leave them scattered along the streams only makes them more available to stock. A few years ago the water hemlock was thus dug up and removed from the Daly ranch in the Bitter Root valley and since then there seems to have been no trouble from this cause. The usual remedy employed and the one most available and effec- tive seems to be to drench the animals affected with melted lard or bacon grease. DEATH CAMAS. I Zygadenus venenosus Wats. I The Death Camas, also called Wild Onion, Wild Leek (Alber- ta), and Crowfoot, is an onion-like plant, arising from a bulb and having narrow leaves and a single stem a foot or so high, with a narrow spike of yellowish white flowers blooming about June i- I (Fig 4). No part of the plant has the smell or taste of the onion and the plants appear singly scattered over the upland swales or ! valley slopes, where it is often found in the greatest profusion oyer extensive areas, which are white with its flowers during the period of blooming. It matures its fruit soon after blooming and early in July dies down to the ground again. This plant is native from Assiniboia and Nebraska westward to the Pacific Coast and is found throughout the entire state of Mon- tana, but is not sufficiently abundant to be dangerous to stock except in the foothills east of the divide and on the high upland benches of the plains. West of the Divide it is scattered sparingly through- out most of the region below 5,000 feet, but I am not aware that it has caused any trouble in this section. The chief period of danger in the case of death camas is in May and June, when its great abundance over certain ‘'poison zones” and its rank, dark-green leaves frequently cause it to be eaten to excess by the bands of sheep grazed in such sections. The bulb is the most poisonous part of the plant, but the sheep appear to be poisoned mainly by eating an excess of the stems and leaves, as it is difficult to pufl up the bulbs even when the ground is soft from rain or melt- ing snow and it is usually the case that several hundred get poisoned at the same time. Sheep after having been grazed several hours on grass are often then grazed over these fields of death camas with impunity. The poisoning usually occurs when the sheep are turned hungry upon these poison belts and allowed to fill up on the death camas before reaching grounds where grass is more abundant. Fi^r. 5. vSMALL LARKSPUR. Delphinium Menziesii DC. Half natural size. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 93 Apparently sheep alone are apt to be poisoned by this species. They first become stiff in the legs and have trouble in walking, later exhibit difificulty in breathing, stagger, foam at the mouth and nos- trils with a jerking of the head and limbs in intermittent spasms, resulting finally in complete muscular paralysis and death. The poison seems to affect chiefly the voluntary muscles, causing paral- ysis which finally affects the organs of respiration, causing conges- tion of the blood in the lungs and death. Lambs are said to be affect- ed by milk of a ewe suffering from the poison. The popular remedy for poisoning by death camas is bleeding in the extremities, usually the mouth or^ail and this has often been found effective in the early stages of the poison, but later it is difficult to make the blood flow. The philosophy of this treatment has not been explain- ed by veterinarians, but the remedy seems to be in general use for death camas and larkspur. To prevent poisoning by death camas it is only necessary that care be taken by the herder not to graze his sheep in the swales and flats where this plant is abundant, particularly during May and early June. The presence of the plant can easily be detected by the darker green foliage of the onion-like leaves, which come up before the grass and its identity can be determined by digging to the bulb, while the prominent white flowers easily distinguish it after it coincs into bloom. There is little danger of poisoning by death camas after the middle of June, as the plant dies down to the ground soon after. The localities on the ranges where the plants are found in abundance should be noted and avoided during these two months. LARKSPUR. Under the name Larkspur, or Aconite several related plants are designated in Montana. They all have blue or bluish flowers and rounded divided leaves and the poison, the same in all, is located mainly in the root — in fruit and foliage in less degree. The Little Larkspur, Delphinium Menziesii DC. (Fig. 5), and D. bicolor Nutt., is about a foot high and has bright blue spurred flowers. It comes up in early spring as soon as the snow is off the ground and is found in the foothill uplands in the greatest profusion and along the breaks and hillsides of the plains eastward and over most of the mountainous parts of the state up to 8,000 feet. In many cases it is found in similar situations with the death camas, and blooms and dies about the same time, while its symptoms are so similar that it is often difficult to discriminate between the two. The roots of the first species are tuberous clustered and only a few inches beneath the surface, so that cattle appear to pull them up occasional- h' .'uker rains when +he ground is soft, or, like the shc'.p, where tin re is a greac abundance of the plants, they appear to eat iliem to excess » ' " "" " ‘*'1 Fig. 6. LARGE LARKSPUR. Delphinium glaucum Wats. Parts V 2 natural size. (U. S. Dept. Agriculture.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 95 and suffer from poison or bloat in consequence. Yet it seems proba- ble that the larkspur frequently suffers for the sins of its companions and that from the similarity of situation and symptoms much of the poisoning attributed to it may be due to the death capias and the wild parsnip. The Large Larkspur (Delphinium glaucum Wats.) is much less abundant and is distributed over a much narrower range of territory in this state, apparently being found along mountain streams and- in mountain meadows from. 4, 500 to 8,000 feet in the region east of the Divide, where in some places it is relatively frequent and its tall juicy stems and foliage serve to attract stock when driven to these ranges, particularly in times of late snows. This is a tall species three or four feet high, growing along streams and in shady hillside thickets and has light blue or nearly white flowers (Fig. 6), coming -into bloom in June, after which there is not much danger of poison from this source. This appears to frequently cause bloat as well as to be a source of poison to cattle, other animals being rarely affected. Along with these species of larkspur and usually confused with them is the true Aconite (Aconitum Columbianum Nutt.), which is rare in Montana, but is found along streams high up (6,500 to 8,000 feet) in the mountains on the south and west boundary of the state, where stock occasionally get it in passing across the range. This resembles the tall larkspur in size and leaf, but has blue spurless flowers and the foliage is said to be very poisonous. Larkspur, particularly the large larkspur, is frequently the cause of bloat, and the animals affected may or may not also exhibit symp- toms of poison. When the roots are eaten, or even considerable of the stems and foliage, animals exhibit stiffness in their legs and show difficult}^ in walking; they lag behind and lie down. There is a spasmodic twitching of the muscles of the sides and legs with convulsions in the final stages. As in the case of the death camas, the poison affects mainly the heart and organs of respiration, giving reduced pulse and shallow breathing, ending in convulsions and death. Cattle are mainly affected, sheep more rarely. The popu- lar remedies are bleeding at the extremities, in the mouth or tail, and drenching with melted lard, or when this is not convenient, strips of fat bacon are forced down their throat. It will usually be found possible to keep stock away from ranges where the small larkspur is so abundant, at least during the early spring when it is dangerous, while in mountain pastures it is feasible to dig up the large larkspur over limited areas, as it nowhere is found in any great abundance lik^ the small species, but stock of all kinds should be looked after during periods of rain or after late snows, when they are more apt to get poisoned. Fig. 7. WILD PARSNIP. Pteryxia thapsoides Nutt. Half natural size. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 97 WILD PARSNIP OR WILD PARSLEY. In the spring of the year complaints constantly reach the Station of stock being poisoned on the high ridges and dry upland breaks of the foothill region east of the mountains and to some extent east- ward. Investigation has been made of a number of localities of such poisoning and stockmen have been consulted as to the plants sus- pected and it appears that at least tAvo species of the parsnip family must be held responsible, Leptotaenia multinda Nutt, and Pteryxia thapsoides Nutt., the latter figured in Fig. 7, which may also very well represent the early stages of Leptotaenia. These are found here on dry, rocky ridges and dry hillsides in loose soil. Both species have thick, deeply penetrating roots and send up a cluster of finely divided leaves in early spring before the other plants have come up, so that cattle in particular, are tempted by their green attractive appearance. Yet, it is probable that their chief poison lies in the root, which often projects more or less above the surface so that it can be bitten ofi:*. The Leptotaenia usually be- gins blooming when less than six inches high, but is two or three feet high when in mature fruit. The Pterixia also begins blooming when only a few inches high and grows finally to a foot or more. Both have small yellow flowers and can not be distinguished in their early stages except by the botanist. The evidence of the poisonous nature of these two species, while not conclusive, is so strong that care should be taken to prevent stock from access in early spring to pastures where these plants are found in abundance. The symptoms of this poison are much the same as those of the water hemlock. There is stiffness of the legs in walking, froth at the mouth, convulsions followed by death, often accompanied with bloat. The exact nature of this poison and accompanying symptoms need further study. These plants can be easily dug up in pastures, and enclosed ranges. Milk is said to be useful as an antidote. POISONING BY ALKALI. It is necessary to distinguish this kind of poison from that caus- ed by plants, with which it is often confused. There can hardly be any doubt as to the fatal effects of concentrated alkali water or of alkali salts when taken in excess, particularly by animals coming in from ranges where such salts are not abundant. Stockmen are practically agreed as to the danger from this source and certain “pois- on ponds” in the eastern part of the state seem to have no other characteristic except that of being surcharged with alkali, but the subject has been but little studied as yet and it is not always possible to distinguish between this and the various plant poisons. In general the excess of alkali will result in bloat, often follow^ed 98 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. by scours and there is usually a well marked froth and a deposit of an alkali-like substance about the mouth and nostrils. Sometimes the effect of such alkali water seems to be to hasten the action of the poison of the death camas in the stomach and the symptoms are then those of the latter, but are not developed before drinking the water and appear to result from it. This poisoning by alkali is limited to certain localitites in the eastern part of the state, where there is much alkali in the soil and Avater and the poisoning occurs in the later summer or during winter thaws, when the water collects in the alkali flats and may then be drunk to excess by stock in need of salt. Salting stock regularl)^ is thought to prevent this trouble and animals when first turned on alkali ranges, should be kept from the more stagnant pools, till they become accustomed to the dilute form of the salts. The remedy is simply to keep them away from such ponds and give them pure water till they recover, or in case of bloat, to treat them for such. REMEDIES. As yet, practical methods for treating these different plants pois- ons have not come into general use and most of the remedies recom- mended are in their experimental stage. All that will here be at- tempted will be to enumerate the various remedies proposed or found effective in the given cases. For bloat in its more dangerous form ‘'sticking” is the usual remedy for sheep and cattle. This is accomplished by plunging a wide-bladed knife directly into the stomach and thus allowing the ac- cumulated gas to escape. The point where the incision is made is on the left side about half way between the hip bone and the ribs and is usually designated by being the point of greatest projection. There is little danger of making any serious mistake and animals thus treat- ed usually recover without further attention. Horses can not be treated by this method. The regular instrument designed for this operation of rumenotomy is the trdchar and canula which can be ordered by any druggist and will be found useful in the case of cattle, but slme]) are frequently affected in such numbers that the knife is the only resource. For the various kinds of actual plant poison the remedy general- ly recommended is permanganate of potassium, which can be pur- chased at drugstores in the form of reddish-purple crystals which are readily soluble in water and should be thus given. A teaspoonful of the crystals dissolved in water is enough for about 12 sheep or 4 cows. Wilcox recommends giving this with an equal amount of sulphate of aluminum (alum) in order to secure the best results. This is put up by Dr. Emil Starz, Helena, Mont., in conven- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 99 lent lo-grain tablets under the name of “Ozonine” popularly called “Starz’ Tablets,” which are highly recommended by those who have used them. Some even report giving them dry to sheep for death camas poison with good results. Dr. Starz also recommends similar tablets composed of potassium permangan- ate, ammonium chloride and sodium carbonate, which when dissolved in the stomach give off ammonia as a cardiac stimu- lant. Some stockmen in Meagher county report having used a di- lute (125 to i) form of the sheep-dip “Zenoleum” (Zen- ner Disinfectant Co., Detroit, Mich.) for bloat and lupine pois- oning with fair success, but neither of the remedies have been tried by this Station. Of the more common 'remedies employed, melted lard, bacon grease or the bacon itself have been found effective in many cases of larkspur, water hemlock and other poisons, and is worthy of trial for all such poisons except loco. Milk appears to be sometimes used in a similar way. Decoction of tobacco and a solution of alum have been used successfully for lupine and Dr. M. E. Knowles recom- mends raw linseed oil for lupine and larkspur. Bleeding is practiced extensively for poisoning by death camas or larkspur, and is higlfly recommended by those that have tried it, but this is of doubtful benefit for water hemlock, wild parsnip or lupine. Just what action the bleeding has, or whether it is of any real benefit, the veterinarians appear doubtful, yet it seems possible that Avhere death results from congestion of the blood about any organ, this congestion may possi- bly be relieved or prevented from proving fatal by such bleeding. Certain it is that this remedy is frequently practiced in the cases mentioned and with apparently beneficial results. The experimental study of the effects of these plant poisons and their remedies by a competent veterinarian is now imperitatively demanded by the stock interests of the state and, indeed, of the whole West. The following provisional scheme is offered to determine the plants usually causing any given case of poison. SYNOPSIS OF POISONS. CATTLE. Poisoned in low ground: ■ Convulsions, frothing, excessive urination ; occurring mainly in early spring. Water Hemlock. lUcr.t. scours, alkali froth; occuring in late summer or during v.-niv; zr thaws (Alkali.) , Poisoned on uplands or along mountain streams: Fdnat or stihness in legs, twitching of muscles in sides and legs, shallow breathing, convulsions ; in April, May or June, Larkspur. Poisoned on dry rocky ledges, on high ridges or on dry hillsides: Bloat, stiffness of legs, convulsions, frothing; in April end May Wild Parsnip. HORSES. Poison slow, rendering them stupid, sight affected, crazy when tired or hot Loco, v Poison rapid in action : Blind and frenzied, spasmodic convulsions; July and ^ August or from lupine hay in winter Lupine. Convulsions, frothing, excessive urination, coma ; in low ground; April and May Water Hemlock. Bloat, scours, alkali-like froth ; in late summer or dur- ing winter thaws (Alkali.) SHEEP. Poison slow, rendering stupid, front teeth long , inclined to wander from herd; lambs and yearlings mainly Loco. Poison rapid in action : Bloat, or blind and frenzied, pile up against obstacles, spasmodic convulsions; in July and August or from lupine hay in winter, or after snow or rain Lupine. Poisoned along streams: In early spring, or from ‘^slough hay” in winter; con- vulsions, frothing, excessive urination, coma Water Hemlock. In late summer or during winter thaws ; bloat, scours, alkali-like froth (Alkali.) Poisoned in swales, on high benches or in foothill valleys : Stiffness in legs, convulsions, final paralysis ; many affected at once ; May and June Death Camas. Poisoned in foothills or along breaks, and mountain streams: Twitching of muscles in sides and legs, stiffness of gait, occasionally bloat, final convulsions ; few poisoned at once ; in May and June Larkspur. Poisoned on high rocky ledges or high dry ridges in early spring. Bloat, stiffness of legs, convulsions, frothing; few pois- oned at once Wild Parsnip. MONTANA EXERIMENT STATION. 101 SUMMARY. 1. More than 90 per cent of all cases of stock-poisoning by plants in Montana can be traced to some six groups of plants — the loco, lupine, water hemlock, death camas, larkspur and wild parsnip, and most of the losses resulting may be avoided by a knowledge of these plants and of the conditions under which such poisoning occurs. 2. The loco habit is usually, acquired by lambs and colts in May and June, when the plant is in bloom and they are first learn- ing to graze. Old sheep and horses rarely become locoed, unless range is short and the loco abundant. 3. The loco plant can be exterminated by digging the plants with a hoe while they are in bloom in May and June, cutting the main root below the crown and some two or three inches beneath the surface. 4. Lupine is dangerous if eaten in excess when wet, or when sheep are hot and hungry or when they are not accustomed to it, and it is particularly poisonous when the seeds are mature, if eaten in quantity or by sheep not accustomed to this diet. Cattle appear not to be affected and horses but rarely. Under normal conditions the lupine is an excellent forage plant. 5. Water Hemlock poisons horses and cattle chiefly and may be easily destroyed by digging it up along the streams and ditches. It is most dangerous in early spring. 6. Death Camas causes extensive losses among sheep in the spring in certain “poison zones” in the foothills and on the high benches east of the Divide. Herders should keep their bands away from localities where the plants are abundant, particularly when they are hungry. After July i there is little danger as the plants then fruit and die. 7. The Larkspur is found in much the same situations as the death camas and the same rules will apply as for the latter. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Some American works relating to poisonous plants, exclusive of the Fungi. Anderson, F. W. Poisonous plants and the symptoms they pro- duce. Botanical Gazette, 14:180. July, 1889. Bessey C. E. Larkspur poisoning of stock. Neb. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1898, p. XXVHI. Blankinship, J. W. Poisonous plants of Montana. Proc. 5th An. Sess. Pacific N. W. Woolgrowers’ Assoc, pp. 49-54. 1902. Brewer & Watson. Botany of California, 1 1155; 11:183. Brodie, D. A. A preliminary report of poison parsnip in western Washington. Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 45, pp. 5-12. 1901. Chesnut, V. K. Some common poisonous plants. Yearbook U. S. 102 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Dept. Agric. 1896, pp. 137-146. Chesnut, V. K. Thirty poisonous plants of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bull. No 86, pp. 3-32. 1898. Chesnut, V. K. Principal poisonous plants of the United States. U. ^ S. Dept. Agric,, Div. Bot. Bull. No. 20, pp. 1-60. 1898. Chesnut, V. K. Pieliminary catalogue of plants poisonous to stock. 15th An. Rep. EUireau Animal Ind. 1898, pp. 387-420. Chesnut, V. K. Some poisonous plants of the northern stock ranges. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agric. 1900, pp. 305-324. Chesnut, V. K. and E. V. Wilcox. The stock-poisoning plants of ^Montana. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot. Bull. No. 26, pp. 1-150. 1901. Collier, Peter. (Note on Loco) Rep. U. S. Dept. Agric. 1878, p. 134. Cook, W. W. Pasturing sheep on alfalfa. Col. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. ? 52, pp- 3-23- 1899- Eastwood, Alice. The loco weeds. Zoe, III 153-58. 1892. Faville, Dr. In Rep. Colo. Agr. College, \^eter. Dept. Jan. 1885. Halsted, B. D. Poisonous plants of New Jersey. — A preliminary report. N. J. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1894, pp. 401-419. >; Halsted, B. D. Notes upon poisonous plants. Garden & Eorest, - 8:172. 1895. Halsted. B. D. Poisonous plants of New Jersey. N. J. Exp. Sta. .; Rep. 1895, pp. 351-355- Halsted, B. D. The poisonous plants of New Jersey. N. J. Exp. . Sta. Bull. No. 135, pp. 3-28. 1899. Hedrick, U. P. A plant that poisons cattle, Cicuta. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 46, pp. 3-12. 1897. '4 Hillman, F. H.. .A dangerous range plant (Zygadenus). Nev. Exp. Sta. Newspaper Bull. No. 5. (1893.) No. 21, (1897). ^ Irish, P. H. Some investigations on plants poisonous to stock. Ore. . Exp. Sta. Bull. No 3, pp. 25 and 26. 1889. ' ^ Jones, L. R. In Proc. Soc. Prom. Agric. Science, 1901. Kennedy, James. Astragalus mollissimus. Druggist^; Circular and ;^j Chemical Gazette, Oct. 1888. Ladd, S. F. A case of poisoning — water hemlock. N. D. Exp. Sta. •/ Bull. No. 35, pp. 307-310. 1899. Ladd, S. F. Water hemlock poisoning. Ibid. No. 44, pp. 563-569. 1900. McEachran, W. The loco disease. Colo. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1889, pp. 78,79- Macoun, John. Report on the “poison-weed” of the Rocky Moun- tain foothils. Dept. Agric., N. W. Ter. Bull. i. pp. 17,18. 1898. Mayo, N. S. Some observations upon loco. Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 35, pp. 113-119. 1892. Morse, F. W. and C. D. Howard. Poisonous properties of wild cherry leaves N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 56, pp. 1 12-123. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 103 Nelson, S. B. Feeding wild plants to sheep. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Animal Ind. 15th An. Rep., pp. 421-425. 1898. Ibid. Bnll. No. 22, pp. 10-14. 1^98. O’Brine, D. Loco poisoning of colts. Colo. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1891, pp. 25-28. O’Brine, D. Progress bnlletin on the loco and larkspur. Colo. Exp. Sta. Bnll. No. 25, pp. 3-26. 1893. O’Brine, D. Loco studies. Colo. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1900, pp. 26, 27. Ott, Isaac. In New Remedies, Ang. 1882 (p. 226). Pammel, L. H. Poisoning from cowbane (Cicnta macnlata, L.) Iowa Exp. Sta. Bnll. No. 28, pp. 215-228. 1895. Phares, D. L. Bitter Weed (Heleninm antumnale). Miss Exp. Sta. Bnll. No. 9, pp. 11-14. 1889. Power, F. B.. .In Rocky Mountain Druggist, July 1889, p. 81. Power, F. B. & J. Gambier. Chemical examination of some loco weeds. Astragalus mollissimns, Torr. and Crotalaria sagittalls, L. Rocky Mountain Druggist, Jan. 1891, pp. 5-9, and Pharmaceu- tische Rundschau, Jan. 1891, p. 8. Rich, F. A. & L. R. Jones. A poisonous plant — the common horse- tail (Eqnisetnm arvense). Vt. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 95, p-. 187- 192. 1902. Rothrock, J. T. Notes on economic botany. Wheeler Sur\ev, VI: 43. 1878. Ruedi, Carl. Loco weed (Astragalus mollissimns) : a toxico-chemi- cal study. xAnn. Trans. Colo. State Medical Society, 25th An. Convention. (Reprint). 1895. Rusby, H. H. The poisonous plants in the vicinity of New York city. 5 ayre, L. E. Loco weed. Druggists’ Bulletin, May, 1889, P- I 45 - ■ (Reprint). iayre, L. E. xAstragalus mollissimns. Druggists’ Circular and : Chemical Gazette, Feb, 1903, pp. 27, 28. jlade, H. B. Some conditions of stock poisoning in Idaho. Idaho I Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 37, pp. 159-190. 1903. /asey, George. Plants poisonous to cattle in California. Rep. U. S. Dept. Agric. 1874, pp. 159-160. /asey, George. Loco weeds. Ibid. 1884, pp. 123, 124. /asey, George. (Notes). Ibid. 1886, p. 75. A/'atson, Miss C. M. In Amer. Jour. Pharmacy, Dec. 1878. A/'ilcox, E. V. Larkspur poisoning of sheep. Mont. Exp. .Sta. Bull. . 15, pp- 37-5 J- 1897. Wilcox, E. V. Lupines as plants poisonous to stock, etc. Montana Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 22, pp. 37-53. 1899. Williams, T. A. some plants injurious to stock. S. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 33, pp. 21-44. 1893. A^illing, T. N. Poisonous plants. Dept. Agric., N. W. Ter. (Reg- ina). Bull. No. 2 (1900) and No. 3 (1901), pp. 27, 28. jVooton, E. O. Astragalus mollissimns, Torr. N. Mex. Exp. Sta. j Bull. No. 13, pp. 29-32. 1894. 104 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. INDEX. Aconite, 95: see “Larkspur.” Aconitum, 95. Alkali poisoning, 97, 98, 100. Alum as a remedy, 98, 99. Ammonium chloride, 99. Aragallus, 79-84. Astragalus, 79. Bacon as a remedy, 9 5. Bibliograp.by, 77, 101-103. Bleeding as a remedy, 93, 95,99. Bloat, 75, 86, 87, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, Blue bean, 84. Buffalo, introduction by, 80, 81. Carum, 89. Cicuta, 88-91. Colorado loco law, 83. Conditions of poisoning, 77, 78. Crazy loco, 86. Crowfoot: see “Death camas.” Danger period, 78. Death camas, 75-78, 91-93, 95, 98, 99 100, 101. (Fig. 4). Delphinium, 92-95. Extermination of larkspur, 95. Extermination of loco, 83, 84, 101. Extermination of water hemlock, 91. Extermination of wild parsnip, 97. Grease as a remedy, 91-99. Hay, poisoning by, 78, 86, 87, 89. Investigations, 76. Lard as a remedy, 91, 95, 99. Larkspur, 75-78, 92-95, 99, 100, 10 (Figs. 5 and 6). Leptotaenia, 97. Linseed oil as a remedy, 99. Loco, 75, 84, 99, 100, 101. (Fig. 1). Loco zone, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84. Losses from poisonous plants, 75. Lupine, 75-78, 84-87, 99, 100, 101. (Fig. : Lupinus: see “Lupine.” Milk, as a remedy, 97. Oxytropis, 79-84. ' Ozonine, 99. Permanganate of potassium, 98, 99. Poison zones, 76, 77, 91. Prairie bean, 84. Prevention of loco, 82. Pterixia, 96, 97. Remedies, 98, 99: see also under each plant. Salt as a preventative, 82, 93. ►Jiough hay, 78, 87, 89. Sodium carbonate, 99. Squaw-root, 89. Starz’ tablets as a remedy, 99. Sticking for bloat, 98. Summary, 101. Symptoms of alkali poisoning, 97, 98; 100 . , Symptom of death camas, 93, 100. Symptoms of larkspur, 95, 100. Symptoms of loco, 81, 100. Symptoms of lupine, 85, 100. Symptoms of water hemlock, 89, 100, Symptoms of wild parsnip, 97, 100. Synopsis of poisons, 100. Tobacco as a remedy, 99. Water hemlock, 75-78, 88-91, 97, 99, 100,'101.' (Fig. 3). White loco: see “Loco:” . Wild leek: see “Death camas.” Wild onion: see “Death camas.” Wild parsley, 76-78, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100. (Fig. 7). Wild parsnip: see “Wild parsley.” Winter poisoning, 78, 86, 100. Zenoleum as a remedy, 99. ) Zygadenus, 90-93. ERRATA: — p. 77, line 18, “3 and 4” should read “4 and 5.” p. 77, line 19, “6” should be “7.” BULLETIN No. 46, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, OF THE Ag(rictilttiral College of Montana. TWO INSECT PESTS. Bozeman, Montana, June, 1903. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, 1003. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Kxperiment Staition. BOZEHAN, = MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUOATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ) James Donovan, Attorney-General, [■ Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula, C. R. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm, Bozeman . J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman. J. M. Robinson, Vice-President, — Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman. Joseph Kountz, Bozeman. E. B. Lamme, Bozeman. STATION STAFF. Samuel, Fortier, Ma. E., F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S., . J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., F. B. Linfield, B. S. a, R. W. Fisher, B. S., Edmund Burke H. C. Gardiner Director and Irrigation Engineer. . . . Chemist. Botanist. Entomologist. Agriculturist. Assistant Horticulturist. Assistant Chemist. Student in Charge of Poultry. Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 46. = = JUNE, 1903. TWO INSECT PESTS. R. A. COOLEY THE RO.SEBUD CURCULIO Rhyiichites hicolor Fab. The rosebud curculio occurs very commonly on wild and culti- vated roses in Montana. The beetles are rather shy when discovered, and though their movements are not quick, they soon disappear under a leaf or stem when a person approaches. In common with many other insects, they have the habit of drawing in their legs when in danger and allowing themselves to drop to the earth, where they remain motionless for a short time, or until the danger has passed. This is doubtless an effective means of protection against natural enemies. 108 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, The colors found on the beetle are red and black. The wing covers, which make up the greater part of the upper surface of the body, and the thorax (pro thorax) are red, while the head, including the beak or snout, the antennae, the legs, and the entire under surface of the body are black. Mr. F. H. Chittenden, an Assistant Entomologist in the United States Department of Agriculture, reports* that in Colorado specimens are found in which the greater part of the head, legs and antennae are red like the upper surface of the body. The beak or snout is long and slender, as indicated in the accom- panying iignre (Fig. 1. a. and d.). The antennae are club-shaped and are attached near the middle of the snout, one oh each side. The mouth parts are situated on the extreme end of the beak, and are made up of a number of pieces, the most formidable of which are the mandibles, which are toothed on both the inner and outer edge. The mouth parts viewed from beneath are illustrated in Figure 1, g Exclusive of the beak the beetle measures a little less than one-fourth of an inch in length. The injuries for which the species is responsible are done by the adult or beetle, and so far as is known by the writer, the larva, though it feeds in the fruit of the rose, does no harm to the bushes in any way. The principal injury accomplished by the beetle is done by bor- ing small, deep holes into the buds. Many holes are often bored into a single bud. Though such a bud may open, the resulting rose is of no value. Other buds cease to develoj) when eaten into and soon wither, and dry up. The beetles also bore holes into the stems of the roses at right angles to the axis. Buds affected in this way wilt, and hang from the stems, and later dry. We have not been able to see any particular significance in the boring of holes into the stems, though when we began the studies it was thought possible that the buds were caused to wilt and dry for the purpose of preparing a suitable food for the young. Though very p. 99, Bulletin Division of Entomology, New Series, No. 27, 1901. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 109 many such buds have been broken oijen and examined, we have never found a larva feeding in one. Complaints of the injuries caused by this beetle have reached the Experiment Station from various parts of the State, particularly from Kalispeil, Missoula and Bozeman. The injuries are scarcely less serious and extensive than those of the rose chafer, ( Macrodactylits Fig. 1, ROSEBUD CURCULIO— a., adult beetle; b., larva; c., egg; d., sideview of head of beetle; e., b^^d injured by the beetle; f., mouthparts of the larva; g.. mouthparts of the beetle. (Drawings by the writer.) ' siib spinosus ) in the Eastern States, and a number of cases have come under the writer’s attention in which persons have given up an attempt to grow roses on account of the injuries of this insect. We have received no reports of injury by this insect on green-house roses. The species is a native one and has been found by the writer on wild roses far into the mountains in Montana. Various writers have 110 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. reported it as a troublesome pest ou roses in widely separated parts of the United States. It occnrs in the northern tier of States from ocean to ocean and as far south as Mexico. Mr. Alexander Craw, Quarantine Officer and Entomologist of the California State Board of Horticulture, has mentioned this species as being frequently found eating into rii>e blackberries and rasxDberries which it causes to decay. The beetles appear on the bushes early in June and con- tinue until the latter part of August. The eggs are deposited in vari- ous places. Most of those found by the writer were in the buds, either in the unexpanded petals or in the young fruit. One egg was found in the tender extremity of a new cane and one in a Cynipid gall. In all cases the eggs were found in the holes made with the beak, and were placed well down in the holes, below the surface. The form of the eggs is shown at c. Fig. 1. They are semi-transimrent and almost colorless. The eggs hatch in a few days, jjrobably about a week or ten days. We have never been able to find larvm except in the rose hip or fruit, and this is doubtless the normal pla3e for their development. They feed upon the seeds which fill the greater part of the cavity of the fruit. The fleshy coating of the fruit is not eaten so far as we have observed. Examination of a fruit containing a nearly full grown larva shows a j^art or all of the seeds excavated to mere shells and the bo Kind of Feed and Prices (> Weighing the Sheei:) 7 Discussion of Results 10 Weights of Wethers 10 xViuouut of Food Eaten by Wethers 10 Food Eaten for Each Pound of Gain by W’ethers 11 Cost of Food Eaten by Wethers 11 Weights of Lambs 14 Amount of Food Eaten by Lambs ■ 14 Food Eaten for Each Pound of Gain by Lambs 14 Cost of Food Eaten bv Lambs 15 Comparison of Lambs and Wethers; The Gain and Cost of Gain 15 Gain Made for the Various Periods 1(1 Value of Grain Rations. Lambs vs. Wethers 1(> The Clover Waste 17 The Financial Results with Lambs 18^ The Shipping Experience 11) The Financial Results with Wethers 20 The Shipping Experience 22 Comments on the Quality of tlie Stock .• 22 Per Cent of Dressed Meat to Live \Yeight 24 Shrinkage from 12 Hours Fast 25 Shriukaee from Shipping to Chicago 2(> Cost of Shipping to Chicago 2(> The Net Prices Received at Bozeman; Chicago Prices 27 The Experiences of Some Other Feeders 28 Summary and Conclusion iVZ SHEEP FEEDING INTRODUCTION. Montana is the banner sheep state of the Union with 5,000,- 000 sheep owned within her border. The numl^er of sheep have increased rapidl 3 " in the past ten ^^ears, dne to the excellent grass on the range and the substantial profit in the business. From observation and information gathered, the limit of increase, as far as the range is concerned, is veiw nearh^ reached. Thus a much larger number of the increase of the flocks will have to l:)e marketed yearly. This condition will probably call for some change of method in the handling and management of the range flocks. If care- fully entered upon, it also means the establishment of large and profitable feeding operations in the stcite. Because of the excel- lent herding qualities and closeness of wool, the Merinos Avill alwaA^s predominate in the range flocks. The.market, however, demands a mutton type. It is believed that both these demands may be met b 3 " the range herder. In those districts that cater to the feeding de- mand, the range flocks should be largely a ewe flock, strong, vig- orous ewes, of the type that would result from using a Ramboul- let or Delaine ram. All ewes added to the flock should be of this style and breeding. Such a flock of ewes bred to a good, pure- bred mutton t 3 "pe of ram, would give an excellent feeding lamb. The plan of breeding outlined mav' not be whollv feasible to the small range holder, but would be entireh'so for the larger holder. It ma\^ even be profitable to produce the kind of ewe needed b\" the man who is catering to the feeding trade. SHEEP FEEDING. 5 The feeding of sheep for the market has increased rapidly the past few years. This is as it should be, as with a large number of sheep being produced and going into the market and with abundant and cheap fodders, there is every reason why the people of Montana should retain in the state the profits of the feeder as well as those of the grower. Looked at in this light, it will be seen that the interests of the range producer and farm feeder are mutual and reciprocal and not antagonistic as many have thought in the past. Recognizing the trend of affairs, the Experiment Station some four years ago started experiments to test the value of local feeds in fattening sheep and to learn something of the effect of the local conditions, climate and market facilities upon the financial results of the feeding operation. The results of previous tests are recorded in bulletins No. 21, 27, 31 and 35 and summarized in bulletin No. 39. The past winter another series of tests were made to gather additional information on this subject, and a report of this work is here given. During the latter part of the month of October, 1902, a bunch of 110 lambs and 112 two-year-old wethers were pur- chased from JohnRobinson of Bozeman. They were selected from a flock of 2,000 purchased by Mr. Robinson for his own feeding. An even lot was selected, but from weights furnished by Mr. Robinson it is believed they were a very close average of the flock. We are indebted to Mr. Robinson for the privilege of making this selection. The sheep arrived at the College farm on Oct. 22d. This was before the writer arrived to take charge of the work of the department, and, unfortunately, the sheep were not weighed at this time. From this date until November 18, the sheep were allowed the run of the Station farm to gather what they could from the stubble and hay fields. They made substantial gains during this period, but not being weighed when they arrived, the exact gain cannot be determined. From the fields the sheep came into the feeding lot in excellent condition, a very desirable point in successful feeding. The lambs .showed strong evidence of “Down” blood, many of them with dark faces and legs. The wethers were also close 6 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. fleeced, but there was not as large a proportion of dark faces. They were selected from a range flock that had evidently been graded up strongly with Shropshire blood. The lambs cost at the Station farm $1.80 each, the wethers $2.80 each. THE PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. In connection with the main thought, the feeding and finish- ing of sheep for market, some comparisons were made as to the relative food value of different kinds of grain. The lambs and Avethers, therefore, were diAuded into fiA^e lots each, 22 lambs in each lot of lambs and 22 AA^ethers in three lots and 23 intAA'olots. The lots AA^ere as follows : Lambs. Lot 1, fed cloA^er and Avheat screenings. “ Lot 2, fed clover and Avheat. “ Lot 3, fed cloA’er and oats. “ Lot 4, fed cloA^er and barley. “ Lot 5, fed clover and AAdieat, oats and barley mixed in equal quantities by AA^eight. The AA^ethers AA^ere also diAuded into five lots and fed the same kind of rations as the lambs. The clover AAms fed ad libitum and AAdiat Avaste Avas left OA^er, Avas AA^eighed back tAAUce a AA^eek. The grain AAms started at 5 pounds per day for each lot some ten days after the feeding test Avas started. The grain ration AAms gradualh^ increased, one month being taken to get up to a full grain ration of 1 pound of grain per day perjamb or AA'ether. Both grain and haA’ AA^ere fed twice in the daA\ morning and evening. KIND OF FEED AND PRICES. The hay AAms a mixture of medium and alsike clover of med- ium quality. Some of it AA^as stacked a little green and Avas slightly musty. It AAms eaten readily bA^ the sheep. shep:p feedinc;. The wheat screeningvS consisted of small and broken wheat together with other grain and the small seeds usually associated with it ; in other words the best grade of screenings. The wheat, oats and barley fed was good, marketable grain. All the grain was fed whole. The grain and hay were weighed for each lot at each time fed. The prices on the feed were as follows* being market prices at the beginning of the experiment. Prices, of course, vary from year to year, but they are given to afford a comparison on tliis basis. Clover hay $5.00 per ton Wheat screenings 75e per 100 lbs. Wheat 88c per 100 lbs. Oats 85c per 100 lbs. Barley 9v5c per 100 lbs. The sheep had access to the water from a small stream which ran through the lower part of the yards. The yards in which the sheep were fed were about 8 feet wide by 100 feet long and a straw-covered shed at one end provided shelter. It was noticed, however, that they seldom used this shelter except in very stormy weather. WEIGHING SHEEP. The sheep were weighed on two days at the beginning of the test, and the average of this weight taken as the beginnnig weight. They were weighed every two \veeks after this date, the weighings being made with one day intervening and these two weights averaged. . The sheep were weighed right after noon, or mid-way between the morning and evening feed. TABLE I.— Weights and Gains of Wethers. MONTANA EXPERIMP:NT STATION. ! c.-:: .- - c r - O-C ’/j Cl l'- ^ l O o 1 - Cl CO d o d ic Cl )0 OC ^ lO 1 rl .-( O CO L’ LO CO 05 ; O d 50 1 - CO lO to t-H C.| -M J Cl 1 '- CO CO lO Cl l'<- d C 5 -H d O 00 Cl o d d ll-l c d O 05 o o o -t( tO Cl d X (05 d to T-t CO CO 1 - 00 Cl Cl Cl d ^ Cl Cl |£^l S'- ^.5 c C Cl rH rl ^ O CO CO CO CO CO Cl CO '<*1 L^ UO O O 1 — ( ^ l-l Cl rH CO Cl 00 LO CO L- to 00 LO <— t Cl d Cl rH „ fO ^ d Cl -ti lO GO C 5 Cl d Cl Cl 30 CO Cl ■J. 05 CO O CO 'o 5 O 05 Cl 05 O lO L' CO r-i ^ L' lO CO 1 ft ^ C *5 w 30 CC CO O LC 1 r< Cl d X CC lO d CO tH L- -0 Jp 0 Cl, 1 - CO 1 ' t'- L- CO CO CO O' Cl 1 1 CO to d O CO -r L*. L't '-di d Cl Gain in Live Weight. X 3 O lO lO 1 ' o Cl >—1 Cl -rh Cl Cl Cl Cl d Cl LO d ^ Cl X’X’ :^::^ L- Cl to t- 1 — CO <35 O CO Cl 1 — < Cl Cl — Cl r- to r- tc d d Cl Cl rH -Cl LO lO d -rM 1 (X c^ LO ICI Weiglit at End of Period. 72 3 d L- O O d Cl CO Cl 05 1 C <05 05 O 05 -o Cl d CO Cl CO o lo to o ! ^ 1 — i CO Cl , O O 1 — 1 — •— ' ! CO CO CO CO CO ’ i o Cl o Cl t- CX) CO d 1 '- tM ^ d CO CO Cl CO CO CO CO CO X’ 2 \X d Cl d Cl l'- 00 CO Cl -'ti t-H d CO CO d CO CO CO CO CO X Cl LO CO d rH d tH rH ■ ; |-li 5 ? 03 ^ d: 0 ■J, 'H 5 0 d \N L' 1(0 LO lO Cl rH d 05 -^CO 1 - t- L’ 1 ^ CO d d Cl Cl Cl 1 ' O O Cl Cl CO rt< Cl <05 lO (05 (05 O 05 O Cl Cl CO Cl CO Cl O to LO o ^ o 22 CO X CO CO CO X X — d C 5 ^ CO 1 - 1 - t~ 00 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl x' tH 1 X CO . d rH No. of Wetli- ers. 1 Cl Cl d CO CO d d Cl Cl Cl ■ d Cl Cl CO CO 1 ; Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl 1 Cl Cl Cl CO CO Cl Cl d Cl Cl Cl Cl d CO CO Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl !I 3 ' ^ 1 : >> ; . . ctf ^ c 6 :■= fe rt ' "" ... Q O) . o .>u> . o 'p o o • I >. • OoOg CO 3 i-n d jd d tie ® ® 2 cq CO lo o o di . l; S ^ Q ^ ^gcogH 1'^ • ^ ■0 fl . c6 • d ci ;-4 d cc be : ^ 3 t. . ^ .7“ O) 0 C/! d O) O cO fl c /3 ^ CO -(J . cO d cO CD 2 0 ) d 3 gdJ O o o o'^ a fn ^ cO CO 11^ OfflS : t >5 . >1 . • cO ^ cO . •.d Ch ^ ■ > u d :.2 >.S ^ S -'o O fl ^ * ■ '■^ S So fl ^ d "2 d3 cO ^ cO tc ^ 1 d d t>; t 3 S ' CC • ;_ tiC I (I) d • > ’d !.S S •'o £ ^ =5 -d co . - 1-3 c3 r" cO 03 2 O) ^ ^ ^ CO cO ^ rd O ^ ^ O^OCQ^ - CC (T) -C 5-1 ir ^ >1 ® O O O o “■§■3 ■gSa co -kJ X cO cO^ cm!^ Cl CO -t< o -d 'i g.-= Oh g'JlS ■ 0 ° j 3 d QO ® ,d o oi ^ d O) c» d .2 o d^(M . Q • rd 9 ® ?H d i ^ S\a d ° a|o co i; d 35 tiC be !S CO 03 0) , > > l*< TABLE II.— Food Eaten and Cost of Food for Wethers. SHEEP FEEDING 9 ^ . ^ c c c ji • 0 ; I-- rH -H 0 1 CO -H C: rH 01 — ' rH -H L'- Cl X T 1 0 L' 10 0 ■’xa^ 5 c 6 § 1 " Ci 00 lO X) OI lO r-i CO rH CO 00 03 GO rH -H d X Cp' . X ' C^Ph^ 0. ri^ rT' r.t 0 00 tH QC tC tH tH CO X LO Lo' d ■CO CO d lO'f- X C X — ' - 4 " 10 00 Ci 1— 1 ^ rH CO CO 03 X H- rH rH to 1 0 01 01 01 01 rH to CO l - L - CO to 0 CO CO CO -H to lO to di I to D- ■ ll 0 ^ rH tH ^ 1—1 r—y H tH rH rH I-H 1 — 1 1 — ( ^ 1 — t r-H T— I r — 1 rH rH 1 1 — 1 j I S ad cb t— CO 00 'O rH CO r- 1 - 03 »0 rH fH C:) X i C J 2 01 CO Ol -— 1 (CQ 00 — rH 00 to L- rH CO rH rH CO X Cl L- Cl X ' w “.S 0 0 1 1 tH 1 1 T — 1 T—\ to CO CO rH Oi lO rH CO CO CO X* X X ci rH X- 1 - i CO 00 0 -rri CO 0 03 01 CO rH 03 to rH X Cl 0 10 03 i . 00^ s (M Ol 0 00 0 rH — i CO C- C 3 to 03 rH Cl lO 03 CD X 03-10 i L. > 0 -C rH 1 — 1 — 00 0 03 0 OT rH 1 ’ trr (Cl Cl OX rH X X rH tfi d i! ca U r— ^ rH rH 104 Ol rH Cl rH 1 — 1 rH rH rH rH rH — ( rr rH M T— 1 .— I T— 1 I— 1 1— 1 00000 00000 tH y—\ tH 0 0 X S.£>’ - :C 1 -HH -HH 'H' ■H^ rH 00000 00000 GO 00 QO X 00 0 X ^•"c Sm 1 1 tH tH rH rH 1 — 1 rH rH 1 — 1 rH X 1 ^ C did- . — Ol iO OC T — 1 t-H rH CD to rH 00 to rH lO rH lO rH rH 0 X X Cl :L 0 ;> X CO 0 'X) rH rH CO Cl rH 0 00 0 rH rH 0 X X X rH rH 03 Cl 1 0 0 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Cl X X X Cl Cl X X X X ci x' 1 _ rH 1 — 1 !-l CC CO CO CO CO rH rH Cl Cl Cl X X 03 03 03 X to t- 00 00 00 CO 00 rH rH — rH rH 03 03 03 Cl Cl X X X to tC tr 01 Ol (M 01 Ol CO CO CO CO CD tr X X XXXl-t— to 0 M t-H rH rH rH T-t X 0 ) fl X 1 0 lO lO lO 10 0 0 to 0 to X X 0 to 0 to 0 0 0 0 ■to 1 s > 0 ) L’ G "C X rH rH rH rH rH CO CO to to rH rH rH rH rH rH CI d rH rH O 0 , c rO CC CO CO CO CO rH rH rH rH rH rr rH rH rH rH d d d d Cl 0 r3l 01 OJ CQ (M 01 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl X X X X X X X X X 00 rH. rH 1 01 0-1 (M CO CO Cl Cl Cl CO CO Cl Cl d X X 1 Cl Cl Cl X X d 1 (M OT Ol 01 5 a _ S OD 5 33 ^ be S aS =« £'■'5 Cl rc lO o ^ > tu . • Co (-, Co ^ f-' ^ C O - . _ cd 2 -ns oTS-a 'b) ^ 3 Td S ^ cc a 03 y CO 53 £ tot 1/ 5 CD CCr^H 2 g >r51^ S —I . • f >5 a : ;-i ■ S^Ma 6 J, . g" gna •a 'Ills g ; O o O 53 O ^ grrt 3 ^ 03 a CO^ CO tX) ^ ^ CO OiTd g-S 3~ ^ ^oeq^ • u . >1 . cO •ad Mrai ' co , o . t-i rl ^ . -(D ^ O ' > 5 r 1 ^ ■ffJ' :.2 o O o ^ d §-§ a ^ Sa ■§*£•« 3= O CO CC lO (M CO ^ 10 Ol CO ^ 10 0 — CO ^ 01 ^ S^]oA OQrH CO o - O ^ a ^ ^ o (M . ^ o ■ a Q © a OD Q Ol (M >s 2 "gQ hs ^ a 10 MONTAKA EXPERIMENT STATION. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. ; - ^ WEIGHT OF WETHERS. Xable No. 1 gives the weights and gains of eaeh lot of weth- hrs for each of three periods and for the vrhole time of the test, 95 days. The table shows that the most rapid gains were made during the earlier and later periods of the test, the first month of the feeding test and the last month. ; ‘ , Comparing the different rations, the barley seemed to give the most rapid gains throughout all the periods. For the whole Time' of feeding each wether in this lot gained 27.29 pounds each. The lot fed oats and clover gained 23.86 pounds for each wether. The lot fed wheat and clover gained 23.07 pounds each or about three-quart res of a pound less than Tbe iot ted oats. Wheat .screenings gave a gain of 21.02 pounds and the mixed grain ra- tion' a: gain of 18.04 pounds for each wether for the 95 days. ; The average of the whole flock of 112 head shows that the ’ -tvethers weighed 1231^ pounds at the beginning of the test, they weighed 146 ]:)ounds at its close, this gaining on the average 22^{ .rpQuiids each. The table shows the daih' gain for each lot, and for each 'wether, and also the weekh^ gain for each wether, both by periods and for the wdiole time of the experiment. i;: i AMOUNT OF FOOD EATEN BY WETHERS. ' Table No. 2 gives the amount of food eaten by the wethers and also the cost of the food. The results in this table are also given by periods and for the whole time of the feeding test. ' . The amount of food eaten per day shows that for the first period a larger proportion of clover was eaten than for the next two ])eriods, but this was to be expected from the smaller grain ration. For the second and third periods, about three pounds of .hay ]jer da^' on the average were eaten. The average for the 95 •t^ays '.shows about 314 pounds of ha}' eaten per day and about eight -tenths pounds of grain. Comparing the difi'erent rations. SHEEP FEEDING. 11 the wethers fed oats ate slightly the most and those fed the mix- tnre of grain the least clover per day. FOOD EATEN FOR EACH POUND OF GAIN BY WETHERS. The pounds of food recpiired for each pound of gain in live weight, is the most valuable test of the efhcieney of a ratio. On the average of all the lots it required close to 13V2 pounds of clover and Sis pounds of grain to produce 1 pound of gain in live weight. The lot fed on barley required the least food for each pound of gain, viz. : 10.9 pounds of clover and 2.79 pounds of grain. Oats, wheat, screenings and the mixed grain rations fol- low in the order named. It will be noted that less food was required for 1 pound of gain during the first period than at any later time, though the grain ration was smallest at that period. This may be explained by the general experience that less food is required in the earlier than in the late periods of fattening. COST OF FOOD EATEN BY WETHERS. The cost of a ration is not always a safebasisof comparison, as prices vary from year to year and in different localities. The amount of food for each pound of gain is always a safe basis, and thus each person can calculate for himself the cost of feeding- in his x^articular localiffv. On the basis given in this bulletin, it cost on the average 6.3c for each pound of gain made by the Avethers. The cheapest gains were those made on the ration of barley, viz.: 5.37c jjer pound. Next came oats, costing 6.1c, wheat 6.22c, screenings 6.48c and the mixed grain 7.65c for each pound of gain. It will be noted that the arrangement of the ’lots on the basis of th.t amount of food for each pound of gain was the same as given for the cost of the feeding. TABLE III.— Weight and Gains of Lambs. 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Table IV. — Food Eaten and Cost of Food for Lambs. SHEEP FEEDING 13 X o or One Pound Gain Cents Cb Cl CO CO L^ O 00 t-H o Cl Cl Cl CO H Cl lO H 00 t-- Cl CO 0 00 lO lO 0 lO 0 Cl Cl GO H LO 0 CO H 0 H »0 LO 0 0 CO 'H 0 0 LO -- 0 LO lO 0 X j rH rH LO lO rH 0 j rH rH J2 X r- LO lO CO Cl t- 0 0 0 Cl H H Cl 00 rH Cl rH 0 d 1 rH X 00 05 Cb O Oi H CO CO H lO C< CO CO H CO rH d Cl Cl d 1 t-H tH rH rH H 1 — 1 tH rH rH rH ^ rH rH rH rH T • ■c Cl 1- 'Cl CO 0 t- CO l O IC 00 H 00 rH 0 Cl Cl 0 0 1- IrH c 3 'S CO CO Cl CO CO 0 0 Cl 00 0 »0 0 0 CM 0 X 0 0 rH X rH ^-5^ - 0 P rH rH rH rH rH H CO L-- CO > 0 H H H H Cl C 1 CO X CO Cl X H 3 S -r' 3 33 t- t- CO 05 CO rH lO lO 0 ' 0 H X to Cl X rH 0 0 d X J Cl 'Cl O re CO 00 CO QO 0 H t 0 0 0 1' 0 lO tH 0 0 c p P t- 1- L’ L'- L- 00 1- H t" 0 i X X X; lO 1 - 0 X L-- X rH S 1 T-i. T— 1 ,— 1 rH rH 0 3 0 0^ 0 0 0 0 0 rH rH tH rH i— ^ i ^ cC i S rC 'H HI -C HI ’ 0 0 0 0 0 ! X X GO GC GO X '*Z ; c >; k3 0 P T— ( I-H T— 1 r-^ rH fH tH rH 1 — ( P -op 1 1 ^p7 ^ 1 i GO Cl — CO 1' ! 0 0 LO L- 00 H 0 X — 1 X Cl -H F-^ (C5 rH lO C J rt Si 1 ? Cl CO HI CO Cl 0 0 0 0 GO 0X000 0 0 rH 0 0 ! 0 ppp 2 1 ^ . Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl rH tH Cl Cl — ' rH rH rH ^ tH 1 Cl ci Cl Cl d I Cl 3 j j tH T— 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 rH o CO TO CO ' lO Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl 0 0 0 0 X 1 1 j CO QO 00 GO 00 r— i rH 1 — ( tH L’ 0 0 0 0 l'- X X X X d Cl Cl C- 1 Cl Cl 0 0 0 0 0! L- L- 1- l- L- 0 0> CO 0 0 rH P ! hP 1 tH rH rH rH rH X 0^ 3 iC 33 ro o O 0 lO lO lO lO 1 0 0 0 lO 0 ic lO 0 0 lO lO > s ^ ' IC QO rtl Cb 1.0 Cl 0 r- lo 1 H 1- rH 0 0 1- X X o ^ i lO »0 b3> ‘O lO rH Cl Cl Cl H 1 H H lO LO LO rH d rH X C-l lO r^ p r— , — 1 1 — 1 r H , — 1 H rH rH H H rH rH rH rH rH rH -rH -rH rH HI Cl lO O lO 0 lO ’ 0 LO LO LO LO ! lO 0 0 »0 0 ’ 0 LO 0 0 0 LO X 0 HI t' CO O ' Cl 0 0-1 — CO 1 lO 0 0 H X j rH 0 0 0 X lO C 7Z 7 i Cl Cl H C 1 d lO H H H lO 1 0 0 LO 0 0 rH X rH Cl rH • • 0 tSH c P ! 1 rH rH tH rH rH 0 s . 1 . 1 O O O 0 lO I O O O O' o O 0 0 0 0 1 lO 0 0 0 LO 0 > 1 s 1 Cl Cl Cl d H ‘ O 05 C5r O 0 X X 5C X 1 0 rH rH rH X 0 e 1 1 00 CO OO 00 00 i CO CO CO CO CO 0 rH 1 — 1 rH rH 0 0 0 0 0 rH p2-i i ‘-^ i rH I-H rH iP I— 1 j 1-H tH I— 1 1— ! 1-H Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl iO lO lO lO lO X 1 1 1 Cl • « 55 ^ • 0) |cO P t 3 O 'd =« «« be b> i5 ^ S ^Qcq^ . cO fn t> p O o 'o O ^ ■ ■§“ p t>; ce ” 5? . 0| C'l P 1^ O Q di .P?^ ^ fo Cl c.: lO Cl CO -Cl Cl CO ^ »c 03 c "C p 0; O X ^ ^ c. Oi . Cd ^ P co,^ ^ w ?Q 03 .2 O Ch '*^ lO X o , C l E>^ Q, Pi .CO 03 P .31 a . H CO O Q O lC 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. WEIGHT OF LAMBS. Table 3 shows the weights and gains of lambs, by periods and for eaeh lot. The lambs averaged 70 ponnds at the begin- ning of the test and 95 pounds at its close, thus gaining 25 pounds in 95 dav'S. Lot 1, ted on screenings, made the largest gain, viz. : 27.24 pounds, followed by the lot fed on mixed grain, 27.14 pounds, the wheat fed lot gained 251/3 pounds, the barley fed lot gained 241^ pounds and the oats fed lot gained 20.9 pounds. The lowest r/a/Vp gain w^as made by the lot fed oats, each lamb gaining but .22 of a pound. The highest daily gain was by the lot fed screen- ings, vdz : .287 pounds per day. The lambs fed screenings gained 2714 pounds for the 95 days while those fed oats gained only 20.9 pounds. The average for all lots was .263 pounds per day. Considering the results by periods it will be noted that the fastest gain on the average was made during the first perod and the slowest during the second period. AMOUNT OF FOOD EATEN BY LAMBS. Table No. 4 gives the food eaten and the cojt of the food for eaeh period and for the whole 95 days, by lots. On the average each lamb ate 2.05 pounds of clover and .81 pounds of grain per day. There was not a very great difference between the amounts eaten by the different lots. Those fed oats ate the most clover and those fed the mixed grain ration the least. FOOD EATEN FOR EACH POUND OF GAIN BY LAMBS. The food eaten for each pound of gain on the average was 8.03 pounds clover and 3.11 pounds of grain. The lot fed screenings required the least food for each pound of gain, viz. : 7.73 pounds of clover and 2.82 pounds of grain. The mixed grain ration, wheat, barley and oats follow in the order named. Oats would appear to be the least efficient ration in fattening- SHEEP FEEDING. 15 lambs, while screenings and the mixed grain rations appear to be the most efficient. COST OF FOOD EATEN BY FAMES. As stated above, while the money cost of a ration does not alwa^^s afford n safe comparison, yet it is an interesing one, at least to the local people, when prices are similar to those given in the experiment. On the average it cost about 4 V 2 cents per pound for each pound of gain made b^' those lambs during the 95 days of the test. The lowest cost was with the lahdis fed on screenings, viz. : 4.04 cents per pound. The highest cost was with oats, viz. : 5V^ cents, or nearly cents per pound more than for the screenings ration. This is explained by the fact that the screenings wms not alone the most efficient but also the cheapest. grain ration. The wheat ration at the price given pro- duced gain at I /2 cent per pound less than did the barley ration, or 4.5c per pound for wheat ration and 5e for the barle}' ration. The mixed grain ration produced 1 pound of gain at a cost of 4.5 cents per pound, thus costing about }4 of a cent more per pound than for the screenings. COMPARISON OF LAMBS AND WETHERS, THE GAIN AND COST OF GAIN. A comparison of the results in feeding the lambs and wethers, brings out some interesting facts as the table shows. 1 Food Eat('n Per Day. Gain Per Total 1 (\).st of ( 'ost of Total Cost I Day Per Gain Per Food Per One Lb. of Gain - 1 Clover, 1 Grain. , Sheep. Slies. 1.21c 4 . 49c $1.13 Wethers.. 3.22 tt)s. i 1 .806 lbs. .238 lbs, 25.6 tt)s 1.5c 6.. 30c SI. 43 16 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The wethers ate practieally the same amount of grain as did the lambs, but they ate 1.17 pounds more elover hay per da3^ The lambs gained 21^ pounds more for the 95 da^'S, even though they ate less food. The cost of each pound of gain for the wethers was 6.3 cents while for the lambs it was about 4.5 cents or 1.8 cents less for the lambs. For the 95 da\^s the feed of the wethers cost $1.42 each, while that of the lambs cost $1.13 or 29c less. ’ Considering the gains onh^, the lambs were much the more economic feeders, it costing with 100 lambs $29.00 less to pro- duce 2,500 pounds of gain than for 100 wethers to produce 2,266 pounds of gain in live weight. However, because of their size and the cheaper rate at which the}' were purchased, the wethers proved to be the most profitable to feed as will be noted later. GAINS MADE BY LAMBS AND WETHERS FOR THE VARIOUS PERIODS. Another interesting comparison is in the gains made for the A'arious periods by the lambs and wethers. For the first period of 31 da^'s the wethers on the average made faster gains than did the lambs. For the 2nd and 3rd periods the lambs on the average gained the more rapid!}'. The young and growing animal maintained the rate of gain better than did the more mature animal. COMPARATIVE VALUES OF GRAIN RATIONS FOR LAMBS AND WETHERS. It is noticeable that the best grain ration for the lambs did not prove the best ration for the wethers. With the lambs the wheat screenings proved to be the best grain ration, recjuiring the least grain I’or each pound of gain and making the fastest gains. The mixed grain is a very close second. Not alone is the ration FK;. 1. SHEEP-FEEDING YARDS AND SHED. LAMBS ON THE RIGHT WETHERS ON THE l.EFT FIG. ‘.F I'll I', 'l'\ PI', Ol' WI-'.'I'HI.P FED SHEEP FEEDING. 17 of screenings efficient but it is also a cheap ration, producing a pound of gain for 4.04 eents while the mixed grain ration cost 4.3 cents. These results accord with pervious tests at this Station as reported in bulletins No. 31 and 39. Experiments conducted by the writer at the Utah Station show the same results ; the screen- ings proved the most effieient ration for lambs. The results from feeding the w^ethers, however, have another story to tell. Neither the screenings, nor the mixed grain proved as efficient or as eheap rations as the various grains, in faet they were the least effieient rations fed. With the wethers, the barle\^ ration gave the best returns, but with the lambs it was, next to the oats, the least efficient ration fed. With the lambs the oats ration gave much the poorest returns, but with the wethers was next to the barley in effieiency and cheapness; wheat oceupies an intermediate point with both lambs and wethers. I will not attempt to reconcile these apparent contradictions. They seem to teach that a ration capable of giving the best results with lambs may not be the best for wethers and mature stock. There is room here for further investigation. THE CLOVER WASTE. It will be noticed from tables 2 and 4 that there is consider- able waste from feeding the elover. To get the sheep to eat as much as possible, they can not be forced to eat the clover too elosely, otherwise they will not eat as mueh nor do as well. Again, much of this clover was from the first eutting after seed- ing and thus there w^as considerable old stubble in the hay. The Avaste from the w^ethers was 6,830 pounds, or nearly 3V2 tons, this was 161/2 per cent of the hay fed. The waste from the lambs was 6,655 pounds, a little less than from the wethers, but a larger per eent of the amount fed, namely, 23.6 per cent. As this waste was fed to cattle and horses and praetically all eaten, the sheep are not charged with it. 18 MOXTAXA EXPERIMENT STATION. TABLE V. — Lamb Feeding. Summary and Financial Results 1902=3. Fed 95 Days. Lot 1 Fed Clo- ver aud Wheat Screen- ings. Lot 2. Fed Clover and Wheat. Lot 3. F(‘d Clover and Oats Lot 4. Fed Clover and Barley. Lot 7), Fed ("lover and Grain Mixture. Total. NimibpT of lambs 21 22 22 22 22 109 Wpipbf, at bpt»iTniinir 1105 tbs 1555 Tt)S 1555 ttjs 1597 tt)S 1525 tbs 7635 tbs *Cost of iamb at *2.57c per It)., (vost of food aud cost of feed- ing eacli lamb S36.12 822. J 5 839.96 825 . 50 839.96 825.29 839.96 82(5 . 96 839.20 825.50 1 8196.20 8125.40 '^Potnl post of Innibs 865.4(5 21.12 tbs 8(55 . 25 2015 tt)s 866.92 2132 tT)S 864.70 1 2122 tt)S 8321 . 60 Weight at close of test 1977 tbs 10360 tt)s Net gain 572 ttjs 557 tt)S 460 tT)s 535 tbs 597 tt)S 2722 tbs Ctain per lamb 27 tt)s 25 tt)s 21 tt)S 24 tT)S 27 tt)s 25 tbs t Received for lambs if sold at 4yCc per pound 888 90 895 . 04- 890 . 67 895.94 829. (J2 895 49 8456 . 10 Proht on feeding '830.(59 829 . 58 825.42 830.79 8144,50 Profit on feeding one lamb . . . 81.55 81.34 81.15 81.32 81.40" 81.32 Weight of lambs in Chicago. . 9569 tbs Loss in shipping 792 tbs Per cent loss in shipping 7.6 PrCt Received for lambs at per Tt) . . . . 8693.70 :j;Total cost of shipping with commission 881.52 Cost of shipping one lamb.. . . . 75 Value of five lambs lost 835 . 08 Net returns for lambs 8577 . 10 Cost of lambs and feed 8321.60 Profit on feeding $255.50 Profit on feeding one lamb. . . 82.34 *At .1?1.80 ('uch or a?; calculated 2.57 cents per pound. tTlie price at which many lambs were sold in the valley last winter. jThis is calculated on the basis that the cost of ship})inf>' Svould be in proportion to weii^lit of lamb>. THE FINANCIAL RESULTS WITH LAMBS. AVe helve next to consider the hnaneial results and the record of the experiences from shipping the car of lambs and wethers to Chicago. Table 5 gives the exj^erience with the landDs. This table will repa\' careful study. The table is arranged to show, first, the returns if the lambs had been sold to dealers at Boze- man, as many of the feeders in the valley did. The profit per 19 shp:ep feeding. lamb ranged from $1.15 for the lot fed on oats to $1.55 for the lot fed on screenings. Considering the 109 lambs, the purchas- ing price was |1 96.20. The cost of the feed was $125.40, mak- ing a total cost for lambs and feed of $321.60. The returns for the lambs if sold at 4V2C per pound live weight, would have been $456.10. This would mean a return of $144.50 as profit and pay for labor and care in looking after the lambs, or $1.32 for each lamb fed. The cost of feeding is not considered in these results, as in a feeding experiment the labor cost is necessar- ily excessive. Figuring from the facts given by Mr Broox Martin as quoted in a later part of this bulletin, the labor cost, including every item of expense, is not over 25c for each lamb or sheep fed. This would leave a net profit of $1.07 for each lamb. THE SHIPPING EXPERIENCE. The next part of the table shows the results obtained from shipping the lambs to Chicago. The lambs were weighed two days before being shipped and this was taken as the shipping weight. They were loaded on the car in the morning, being driven about two miles to the loading chute. It will be noticed that they lost 792 pounds on their journey, or 7.6 per cent of their home weight. In Chicago the lambs sold for 714 cents per pound, and after deducting the vmlue of the five lambs lost, returned $658.62. The cost of shipping, with com- mission and all expenses figured on the basis stated, was $81.52, or 75c for each lamb. The net returns, therefore, were $577.10. The cost of the lambs and the feed was $321.60, thus the profit on the feeding, when selling at Chicago prices, was $255.50, or $2.34 for each lamb. As will be noted this was $1.00 more per lamb than would have been obtained by selling in Bozeman at the average price being paid. It should be mentioned, perhaps, as will be noted later, that as these lambs were fed grain nearly all through the test and were thus in extra good condition, the^^ commanded a premium on the Chicago market. 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. TABLE VI.— Feeding Wethers. Summary and Financial Results 1902=3. Fed Days. Lot 1. Fed Clo- ver and Wheat Screen- ings. Lot 2. Fed Clover and Wheat. Lot 3. Fed Clover and Oats Lot 4. Fed Clover ann Barley. Lot .5. Fed Clover and Grain Mixture. Total. Number of Wethers Weight at beginning of test.. . *Cost of wethers at 2.256c per lb Cost of food Total cost of fatted wethers . . Weight at close of test N et gain Average gain per wether fReceived for wethers if sold for 4c per R). live weight. . . Profit on feeding 22 2717 lt)s $61.30 $19.88 $81 . 18 3180 lbs 463 R)s 21 Rjs $127.20 $46.02 99 2725^ lbs $61.45 $32.18 $93.63 3232 lbs 507 lbs 23 lbs $129.28 $35 . 65 22 2795 lbs $63.04 $32.18 $95.22 3320 lbs 525 lbs 24 ms $132.80 $37.58 23 2745 lbs $61 . 95 $32.18 $94.13 3372 lbs 627 ms 27 Tbs $134.88 $40.75 23 2832 lt)s $63.85 $30.30 $94.15 3247 lbs 415 lbs 18 Tbs $129.78 $35.63 112 13814 Rjs $311.60 $156.72 $468.32 16352 lbs 2538 lt)s 2266 1T)S $654.08 $185.76 Profit on one wether $2.09 $1.62 $1.71 $1.77 $1.55 $1.66 Weight of wethers in Chicago Loss of weight in shipping. . . 15190 Tbs 1162 Rjs 7.1PrCt $911.40 $128.86 $1.16 $782.54 $468.32 $314.22 $2.80 Per cent loss in shipping Received for wethers at 6c per lb JTotal cost of shipping with commission Cost of shipping one wether. . Net returns for wethers Cost of wethers and feed 1 Profit on feeding Profit on feeding one wether. i *Each wether cost $2.80. This by calculation makes 21^^ cents per pound live weight. tThe price at which many wethers were sold in the valley last winter. iThis is calculated on the basis that the cost of shipping would be in proportion to the weight of the wethers. THE FINANCIAL RESULTS WITH WETHERS. Table 6 shows the finaneial results with the wethers. Selling' at local prices, 4c per pound, the lot fed screenings returned the largest profit, viz. : v$2.09 per wether, next comes the barle^^ ration, followed by oats, Avheatand the mixed grain ration in the order named. The price paid for the wethers was $2.80 each, but, to put all the lots on an equal basis, the price is figured at SHEEP FEEDING. 21 2 V 4 C per pound, which was the actual price paid per pound. The cost of the 112 wethers was $311.60. The cost of the feed was $156.72, making the total cost of the wethers $468.32. Had they been sold at 4c per pound, the price offered by dealers in Bozeman, they would have brought $654.08, giving a profit (which would include pay for labor), of $185.76, or $1.66 profit on each wether. This shows a larger profit on the wethers than for the lambs by 34c each, and this in spite of the fact that the lambs made much the more economic gain in feeding, as is noted in another place. The explanation of this is given in the following table, and as will be noted, it is due to the increase in the selling price of the original weight of the sheep and also to the difference in the original weight of the lambs and wethers. To illustrate: A 123 lb. wether costs at 2.256c a lb $2.80 And the 22.6 lb. gain costs at 6.3c per lb 1.42 Thus the total cost of the wether was $4.22 But the 123 lb. wether sold for 4.785c a lb. or 5.88 And the 22.6 lb. gain sold for 4.785c a lb. or 1.10 Thus the net price received for the wether was ...$6.98 This represents a loss of 32c on the increase made during the fattening period, but a gain of $3.08 on the original weight of the wether, or a net gain of $2.76. The profit arose from the increased value given to the original 123 pounds of the wether by adding 23 pounds in finishing the animal for market. For the lambs the results are as follows : A 70 lb. lamb costs at 2.57c per lb $1.80 And the 25 lbs. gain cost at 4.49c per lb 1.13 Or a total cost per lamb of $2.93 But the 70 lb. lamb sold for 5.573c per lb. or 3.90 And the 25 lbs. gain sold for 5.573c per lb. or 1.39 Or a net return per lamb of $5.29 22 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. This represents a profit of 26e on the gain made on each lamb dnring the fattening period and a profit of $2.10 on the original weight of the lamli. This is 98c less than on the orig- inal weight of the wether although the lambs increased in value 8c per lb. and the wethers only 2 V 2 cents per pound. Thus the net gain in value on the lambs was $2.36 but on the wethers $2.76 or 40c more. THE SHIPPING EXPERIENCE. ' Consider next the experience and results from shipping the wethers to Chicago. They were handled exactly the same as the lambs and shipped in the same car. The loss of weight in shipping was 1162 pounds or 7.1 per cent; about V 2 per cent less than for the lambs. The wethers sold at 6c per pound, a total of $911.40. The cost of shipping on the basis figured was $128.86 for the 112 head or $1.16 each. This left a net return of $782.54. The cost of the wethers and the feed was $468.32. Thus the profit on the feeding was $314.22 or $2.80 each. This was $1.14 greater profit than if the wethers had been sold at the prices prevailing in the valley. COMMENTS ON THE QUALITY OF THE STOCK. The quality' of the stock, due first to Mr. John Robinson’s careful selection, who purchased the sheep for us, and next to the excellent finish given them, is best illustrated by quotations from the Chicago live-stock papers which are appended. SHEEP FEEDING. 23 WEEKLY LIVE STOCK REPORT, CHICAGO. RECORD PRICES FOR MONTANAS. ‘'On F'rid ay, March 6, the Montana State Experiment Station marketed at Chicago 96 head of lambs averaging 88 lbs. at $7.25, and 112 wethers averaging 136 lbs. at $6.00. These prices are the highest ever paid on any market for stock raised and fed in Alontana. The price paid lor the lambs was ecpial to the best sale of the season tip to that date, and the wethers also brought the highest price of the season and the highest paid at Chicago since June last year, when the same figure as reached. The wethers were purchased by Armour & Co., and the lambs by the Schwarzschild & Sulzberger Packing Co. “The Schwarzschild & Sulzberger Co. report that five head of lambs, of which close record was kept for test, dressed out 54.8 per cent. As 50 to 52 per cent is considered a good average showing, it will be seen that these lambs did veiw well. Armour & Co. report that five head of wethers dressed 51 per cent.” CHICAGO L1VE=ST0CK WORLD. LAMBS $7.25; WETHERS $6.00. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION MARKETS TWO SPLENDID LOTS. “Conspieuous in the somewhat inferior run of sheep and lambs today were two bands eonsigned by the Alontana Experi- ment Station at Bozeman, Alont., that furnished a valuable object lesson to feeders on the advantage of finishing stock lie- fore marketing. ^ “On a bad market the lambs were bought by the ‘S. & S.’ at $7.25, and the wethers by Armour & Co. at $6.00, the latter being the highest price this year. Both bands will be subjected to a dressing test. As no representative of the Experiment Station accompanied the shipment, details of feeding could not 24 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. be obtained. The floek was greatly admired b^' sheep division talent. * * * This is the highest price ever paid for native Montana lambs finished in the”state, the previous high spot being $6.85 last year. It is the highest price ever paid for Montana wethers by a dollar. “The lambs brought the top price here this season and the wethers 25 cents higher than the previous top. “Part of the wethers will be sent to Bermuda to furnish the grade of mutton suited to the epicurean taste of the officers of the British garrison there. They were fed experimentally on hay and grain.” CHICAGO DROVERS’ JOURNAL. MONTANA SHOWS GREAT RESULTS. “A deck of fancy 136-lb. Montana wethers sold at $6.00 this morning, and a deck of fancy 88-lb. Montana lambs at $7.25, the lambs reaching the previous top price of the season and the Avethers showing the highest price of the season and the highest price paid here since J une last year, when the same figure was reached . ” To the Montana feeder the encouraging feature of these com- ments is that with the right kind of stock, the grains and fod- ders of Montana will give to the live-stock fattened here the finish that will enable them to compete successfully" with the corn fed stock of the middle west. Another thought suggested, perhaps, is that it pays to put the finish on the animals. PER CENT OF DRESSED MEAT TO LIVE WEIGHT. A few points brought out incidentally by this test should not be passed over and others should be compared with the experience of ])reAdous years. SHEEP FEEDING. 25 Lambs Wethers, 1 year Wethers, 2 year Old Ewes Dressed Weights, Per Cent. 1902 1903 54.2 Per Cent. 54.8 Per Cent, 52.9 Per Cent ' 53.5 Per Cent. 51.1 Per Cent. 50.6 Per Cent Five lambs and five wethers were marked before leaving the Station farm and then killed in Chicago, and from these the dressed weights were obtained. The lambs fed the past winter dressed a little better than did those of the year before bnt the wethers dressed 2 V 2 per cent less. We are under obligations to Armour & Co., and Schwarzschild & Sulzberger Co., of Chicago, for the facts in regard to this report. SHRINKAGE FROH TWELVE HOURS FAST. .Live-stock is frequently bought on full weights with 4 per cent deducted as shrinkage, or they are left without food and water for 12 hours and then weighed, this weight being taken as the shrink weight. An attempt was made to find what was the shrinkage by holding the sheep without food and water for 12 hours. The table gives the results : Full Weight. Shrunk Wt. Shrinkage. Shrinkage. Lambs 10300 lt)s. 10175 tT)S. 185 lbs. 1,79 Per Cent. Wethers 16352 lbs. 258o0 lt)s. 502 lt)s. 3 07 Per Cent. The results show that the lambs shrank a little less than 2 per cent and the wethers a fraction over 3 per cent in live weight by being deprived of food and water for 12 hours. 26 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. SHRINKAGE FROM SHIPPING TO CHICAGO. The next question is the shrinkage in marketing. The weight taken as the shipping weight was the average of weights taken on February 23d and 25th. The sheep were shipped the morning of the 27th. The sheep were weighed, as during the winter, between two and four o’eloek in the afternoon, after hav- ing had their morning feed of elover and grain. They had aeeess to water at all times. To the table is added the results from previous \^ears. Weight Per Lamb in Bozeman. Weight in Chicago. 1 Shrinkage. Shrinkage Per Cent. Year. Lambs 88 ttjs. 80 lt)S. 8 tbs. 8.7 1901 U 86. G Rjs. 79 lbs. 7.6 lbs. 8.7 1902 “ 95 Itjs. 87.8 ttjs. 7. -5 lt)S. 7.6 1903 Wethers 129 lt)s. 118 Tbs. 11.2 Tbs. 8.6 1902 a 116 Rjs. 135.6 Itjs. 10.5 lt3S. 7,1 1903 Old Ewes 107.2 lbs. 95 ITjs. 12.2 lbs. 11.3 i 1902 The loss in shipping is very simliar for the several years, though slightly lower for the past season. The data should give fairly aceurate results eonsidering the three years. The shrinkage ranges between 7 per eent and 9 per cent. COST OF SHIPPING TO CHICAGO. An import^lnt point to be always considered by the local feeder is whether to sell the lambs locally or ship to some central market. To enable the Montana feeder to, in a measure, answer this question, the sheep fed the past three years have been shipped to Chicago and sold on that market. The table shows the cost of shipping for each of the three years. SHEEP FEEDING 27 Cost of Shipping for Three Years, One DoubIe=deck Car. Year, j i ' No. of Sheep. Average Weight j of Sheep. ' 1 Total Cost of 1 Shipping, Average Cost Per Sheep, 1901 216 lambs 88 lbs. j 8181.39 8 .8,3 1902 55 lambs 86.7 42.96 .7S 1902 101 wethers 129 “ 122.14 1 1.17 1802 53 ewes 107 49.89 i .94 1903 109 lambs 95 “ 81.52 .75 1903 112 wethers 146 “ 128.86 1.16 The average for the three years shows that it eost 78% cents to ship the lambs, $1.16 to ship each wether and 94 cents to ship the old ewes. It should be remembered, of course, that these results are from shipping two or more cars. We shipped with other feeders in the vallcAG THE NET PRICE PER POUND RECEIVED AT BOZEMAN== CHICAGO PRICES. In connection with the cost of shipping, an interesting ques- tion is as to the net price per pound, or 100 pounds received for the sheep at the college farm. The net price received for each lamb after deducting the cost - of shipping, etc., was $5.29. Figuring on their weight at Boze- man, viz. ; 95 pounds each, this gives a return of $5.57 per hundred pounds at Bozeman. For the wethers the net price received for each after deduct- ing shipping expenses was $6.98. Again considering the weights at Bozeman, viz. : 146 pounds each, the returns were $4.78 per 100 pounds at Bozeman. As will be noted, this is considerable above the prices paid in the valley the past winter. There is, however, always a certain amount of risk in shipping, due to the fluctuations in the market, and again these prices were for an extra lot of stock. 28 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. THE EXPERIENCES OF SOME OTHER FEEDERS. In closing the description of the sheep feeding work of the past winter, we wish to place on record the results obtained b^^ a few of the feeders in the state as reported in three of the papers. The following extracts are taken from those reports : FROM THE GALLATIN FARMER AND STOCKflAN. PROFIT ON LAMB FEEDING. “We publish the following statement kindly furnished us by Air. E. Broox Martin, who has for a number of wears past been feeding lambs for the market. A careful record has been kept of all expenses incurred, as shown in the tables which go a long way to proye just what can be done by careful management and keeping correct data : SHEEP FEEDING STATEMENT. Bought 1,793 lambs Oct. 4, paid $3,070.25 Run them on pasture to Noy. 27 ; pasture cost 93.28 Paid herder 36.00 Noy. 27, put lambs on hay feed, and fed 3 lbs. per day for 83 days, 438,987 pounds a $5.00 per ton 1,097.00 Began feeding grain Dec. 29 and fed 4,000 lbs. of sceen- ings at 75 cents per hundred 30.00 Also 40,451 lbs. of oats at 85 cents per hundred 420.33 Salt 2.50 Labor to feed lambs 190.00 Board for men while feeding 59.10 Board for teams while feeding 52.12 Shoeing horses 15.00 Interest on capital inyested 71.61 Incidentals, proyisons for herders, liyery etc 20.05 $5,178.14 SHEEP FEEDING. 29 CONTRA ACCOUNT. Feb. 20 sol'd 1,763 lambs at 4V2 cents for $6,773.34 By 25 per cent of ha\^ cleaned from racks and fed to stock cattle 274.25 By pelts from lambs lost 5.00 $7,062.59 5,178.14 $1,884.45 “The lambs weighed on November 27, when the feeding com- menced, an average of 69 pounds. They weighed on February' 20, when sold an average of 86V3 pounds, a gain since feeding commenced, of 17M? pounds.” FROM THE DILLON TRIBUNE. “The finest shipment of sheep that has ever gone out of Beaverhead county, if not the state of Montana, left the Dillon stock yards last Friday. There were almost 1,600 of them. The sheep were an example of what alfalfa feeding will do in this county. The wethers were bred and raised by .J E. Morse and E. O. Selway, of this city, and were Hampshire and Shropshire crosses. They were purchased by Mr. Hample, of Butte, last December and were fed exclusively on alfalfa hay for the last sev- enty-four days, during which time they consumed about six pounds of alfalfa each per day. The sheep were weighed when placed on feed and averaged 108 pounds and cost three cents per pound. They were sold at four and a quarter cents per pound, and averaged when weighed last Friday, 137 pounds. The feeding may be summed up as follows : Cost of 1,600 sheep at $3.24 $5,840.00 Cost of 363 tons hay at $5.00 1,815.00 Cost of labor, salt etc 197.00 Sundries and death losses 66.20 Total cost $7,262.20 Total proceeds 9,289.29 Net gain 2,027.09 ITofit per sheep 1.27 30 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. FROM THE GALLATIN COUNTY REPUBLICAN. “The following are some of the facts and figures gathered from a few of the farmers who fed sheep the past season and who have recently disposed of their lambs and wethers : “John M. Robinson fed about 2,400 head of lambs and wethers, the lambs being in the majority. He paid 1.75 for the iambs but wlien delivered on his ranch they represented a cost of $1.80. The wethers cost delivered $2.80 per head. “The buneh was fed 90 days on hay. Close figuring showing that the actual cost for hay at 6.00 per ton , during the entire ]3eriod of feeding was 75 cents. Grain was fed for 47 da^^s and represented an outlay" of 21 cents per head for the total period, reckoning the grain at prevailing market prices. The prices re- ceived by Mr. Robinson were $4.50 per cwt. for the lambs and $3.60 for the wethers on the home ranch. The lambs weighed on an average a fraction over 85 lbs. and the wethers 146% lbs. each. The loss during the entire feeding season was about 1 per cent. One animal was lost from bloat, a couple got on their backs and were too fat to right themselves and several died from unknown causes. “Charles Miller fed 1,400 lambs and paid $1.80 per head for them, and fed for two months, in addition to pasturing during November, the feed being clover and oats. Mr. Miller raised for the ptirpose of feeding his sheep 150 tons of clover hay from 40 0 |Ci COC CO 07 GO ’-H CO CO ^ CO — ' tH ICO ro CO L- '07 CO 07 07 CO) C07 I [ I I-+i GO >C0 CO CO 07 I- 07 'GO -cH CO CO LO 07 O 07 T-l GO il- L- CO CO ; — ' r-.' O CO t-I CO CO Ci CO CO CO 07 O .i H o CO -I J CO CO 07 CO ' 07 07 07 07 CO O O O' 'LO O O O lO GO 00 CO CO LO LO »0 kH 'O lO I O CO CO CO lO lO lO LO Oi T— I >— I rH CO '-n -ti rtl lO LO LO LO 'i— f — ' rH T— I -tH -rn -tH -H 107 07 07 07 07 C7 07 07 07 07 07 07 0000107 00 C: co^'^^locococo GOGOOO'GO 'rtICOCDCC O O 'O o CO ^ ^ & l ^ O O O ^ p] ■O LO 07 07 1 GO CO CD o jco CO CO CO ;0 CO lO ^ lO ^ I GO GO 00 CO ICO CO CD o ' O' O' o o I ~ I- I-- a- G CO CO CO 07 07 07 071 07 07 07 07 07 07 j CO 07 07 07 07 o o o o 07 07 CO 07 L- 1'' ■ ^ O 2^^ > > o O b O ^ rr 03 tH O' f - 03 > O ^ iTTi o«Sg O o'o a 2 “"S'S i'2 S ^ te =« ^ o3 o3 TO . TO ^ I ^ c 5 ^ > _o > 0^0 'o ^ "c 05 13 ^ S^rH H 03^ 03 -^5 Se to 03 om ! TO . WU If S-f’ !o ^ o § !l 3 o ri a o3 d I !fl cat' 05 a lie ! o CC si? Is !S0 > r— I 03 o o o 05 13 ^ d ^ d k d 73 ® ^ -H ;-i X! ce ce 3d 07 CO H3 iH 07 CO HH H LO S C 07 O H> H> CC CC f>5 ' H S qS- Average for 1 steer. i 30314 i 149 158 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Tables 1 and 2 give the facts gleaned during the feeding test. The whole time of the feeding test is divided into periods so as to note any change in the weight or gain during the time of feeding. The first period of 37 days was really preliminar3^ Forten da^’s of this time the steers received ha^^ onh^, and the rest of the peried was taken in getting the steers up to a full grain ration. None of the steers apparenthy had ever seen grain before and it took a lit- tle coaxing to get some of them to eat it. We first started b^' mixing a little salt with bran, and later cut down the ha\’ ration for a da\^ or two. Finalh^ all started to eat the grain except one steer in lot 3. This animal never ate an^' grain during the time of the test. His ration was eaten b\" the others. The test period proper was for the next 4-9 da^^'s, but this is also divided into two periods, as it was noted that in the latter part of the period the steers seemed to be getting tired of the grain. Because of this fact the test proper was concluded after the steers were on feed 86 daj^s, but the steers not being read3^ for market, all the lots were fed for 25 da^^s longer, on a mixed grain ration with bran. The tables afford opportuniH" for several comparisons during the feeding season. THE GAINS MADE. For the first period of 37 days, lot 4 gained the most, \\z.: 2.7 lbs. per da3^ per steer, with lot 3 in second place, gaining 2.4 pounds per da3N Lots 1 and 2 gained nearW 1 pound less per da3" per steer. For the first part of the test period, viz.: 28 da3^s, lot 4 gained 3.33 pounds per steer per da3N This lot averaged 3 pounds per da3" for the 65 da3"s feeding to this date. Lot 1 fed wheat jumps to second place with a gain of 2.98 or nearly 3 pounds per steer per da3N Lot 3 fed barle3", is a close third with the lot fed oats ver3^ much behind. FIG. 1. A POOR TYPE OF FEEDING STEER A COARSE, ROUGH S'I'EER FIG. 3. THE BEST STEER IN THE CAR LOAD FIG. 4. THE STEERS, THE SHEDS AND THE FEEDING CORRAL STEER FEEDING. 159 All of the lots fell off during the third period, or second part of the test period. The lots that made the best average gain dur- ing the first 65 days of feeding made the poorest gains for this period. Considering the test period proper of 49 days; the steers fed on the mixed grain ration made the fastest gain, viz. 2.2 pounds per day per steer. The lot fed wheat is a very close second, gain- ing 2.19 pounds per day per steer, while those fed barley gained 1.86 pounds per day per steer, and those fed the oat ration only 1.41 po^unds per steer per day, or thepoorest returns of any ration. Considering next the whole time of feeding of 86 days, the mixed grain ration produced the fastest gain with barley second, fol- lowed by wheat, while the oats ration produced the slowest gain. For the fourth period of 25 days, after the change of the grain ration, the most rapid gains of the test were made. J,ot 4 gained 3.5 pounds per steer per day, lot 3 gained 2.7 pounds per steer per da 3 ^, and lots 1 and 2, 2.6 pounds per steer per day. For the 111 da 3 ^s of the feeding season, lot 4 gained 2.5 pounds per steer per day, a very satisfactory gain considering the length of the feeding period, lot 3 gained 2.3 pounds per steer per day, lot 1 gained 2-1 pounds and lot 2 gained 1.7 pounds per steer per da^G On the average each steer gained 239 pounds in live weight, increasing from 1097 pounds to 1336 pounds each or 2;15‘ pounds per day. FOOD EATEN PER DAY AND PER ONE POUND GAIN. Table 2 gives the amount of food eaten, the food eaten per day, the food eaten for each pound of gain and the cost of the food. As with the weights, this table is divided into periods to show the results at different stages of the feeding. The clover eaten per day for the first, or preliminary^ period, Avas 24.5 pounds per day per steer. For the first period on full feed the amount of clover eaten per day was 22 pounds, for the next period about 29 pounds per day. Evidently the slower gains for this period were not due to any decsease in the ha\' eaten. Dur- 160 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ing the fourth period 30.3 pounds of clover were eaten per da}^ per t steer and for the whole feeding test the average was 27.5 j30unds | of clover per da}'. As the total amount of feed eaten by the various lots is practi- i cally the same, the amount of food for each pound of gain is in in- ; verse' relation to the gains made throughout all the periods. : For the test period of 49 days, lot 1 fed on wheat and clover j and lot 4 fed on mixed grain and clover required practically the | same amount of food for each pound of gain, viz: 15 06 pounds. ^ The lot fed barley' required 17.78 pounds of food for one pound of gain and the lot fed oats required 23.74 pounds, the least efficient I ration. Considering the whole time of the experiment, or 111 days, lot : 4 required the least food for each period of gain, viz:12.5 pounds. Fot 3 required 14.13 pounds. Lot 1 required 14.95 pounds and lot 2 required 18.72 pounds of food for each pound of gain in live i weight. COST OF THE FOOD EATEN. Considering next the cost of the rations: For the first period the daily cost was about 8c per day. For the test period of 49 days the cost was l^etween 11c and 12c per day. The barley ration being the most expensive, followed by mixed grain, oats and wheat in the order named. For the whole time of feeding the average cost was 10.5c per day. In this connection the cost of one pound of gain is the im- portant factor. For the preliminary period the cost ranged from 3 to 5V2 cents for each pound of gain. For the test period of 49 days; the cost of 1 pound of gain ranged from 5c to 8c. Lot 1, fed wheat, made the cheapest gain, viz: 5c per pound. The gain on lot 4, fed mixed grain, cost 5.22 cents per pound. For lot 3, fed barley, the cost was 6.32 cents per pound, and for lot 2, fed oats, the cost was 8 cents for each pound of gain. Considering the whole time of feeding, or 111 days, each 130und of gain cost on the average, 5.2 cents. The range was from 4.2 cents for lot 4, to 6.1 cents for lot 2. STEER FEEDING. 161 THE FINANCIAL RESULTS. The steers were purchased for us by Mr. Joseph Kouiitz of Bozemau. Twenty-one of them cost $40.00 each or $840.00 and three cost $41.00 each or $123.00, a total for the 24 of $963.00. The following table gives the hnancial results of the feeding: TABLE III.— Financial Statement. LOT 1. Fed clover and Wheat. LOT 2. Fed clover and Oats LOT Fed Clevel- and Barley. LOT 4. Fed Clevel- and Mixed Grain. Average and Totals N amber of steers 6 6 6 6 24 Weight at beginniog 6675 His 6507 lbs 6470 as 6702 as 26354 as (a) Cost of steers at 3.652c per It) . . . $ 243.77 $ 237.64' $ 236.28 $ 244.85 $ 963.00 Cost of food per lot 68.82 69.13 71.72 70.00 279.67 Cost of food per steer 11.47 ! 11.52 11.95 11.66 11.65 Total cost of steers 312.59 ; .306.77 308.00 314.85 1242.67 Weight at close of experiment 8075 Tbs 1 7635 lt)S 7960 as 8387 as 320.57 as Net gain in pounds 1400 lbs i 1128 lt)s I 1490 as 1685 as 5703 as Shrunk weight of steers 7800 lbs j 7.370 lbs 7685 as 80.50 lt)s .30907 as Per cent shrink on full weight Received for steers % 4c a pound 3.4 3.47 3.45 4.25 3.58 shrunk weight $ 312.00$ 294.80 $ .307.40 $ 322.00 $1236.28 Received per head for each steer. . . 50.33 49.13 51.23 53.66 51.09 Profit or loss on feed *0.57 *11.97 *0.60 t7.15 *6.. 39 Profit or loss on each steer *0.10 ‘ *1.99 *0 . 10 tl.19 *0.26 (a) Note : The steers cost as stated above .$40 and .$41 each, but to place each lot on an eqtial basis, the lots are fii?ured on the calculated price per pound. ■' Loss. T Profit. 162 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The steers eost on the average $3.65 per 100 pounds live weight. The cost of the food for each lot ranged from $68.82 for lot 1 to $71.72 for lot 3. The difference in this item is but slight for all the lots. The cost of the food for each steer for 111 days ranged from $11.47 to $11.95. Lot 1 cost the least and lot 3 the most. The average cost for the 24 head was $11.65 each. After being kept without food or water for 12 hours, the steers shrank from 3.4 per cent to 4.25 per cent of their full weight. The average for the 24 head was 3.58 per cent. This is slighth^ less than the shrink usually estimated in buying, viz: 4 per cent. The returns per head for the steers ranged from $49.13 each for the steers in lot 2 to $53.66 for the steers in lot 4. Lot 4, the steers fed the mixed grain ration, returned a profit of $1.19 per steer after paying for the feed; the only lot that re- turned an\^ profit. On lot 2, fed the ration of oats with clover, the loss was about $2.00 on each steer, on lots 1 and 3 the loss was 10c for each steer. From a financial point of view this looks like rather a poor showing, 3 ^et the experiment is none the less val- uable because of that fact. It will perhaps, better enforce the les- son that, as a rule, in finishing steers for market there has to be a wider margin of profit between the bu 3 dng and selling price than was the case in this instance with Montana prices for fodders. These steers were bought, on a shrunk weight, at about 3.8 cents per pound and sold for 4 cents per pound, shrunk live weight. For profit the margin between the buying and selling price should be from %c to Ic per pound. There is yet another compensating point to consider. The re- sults came ver^^ close to pacing market prices for the ha^" and grain fed, and if through his stock the farmer can get market prices for his crop on his farm, both the farm and the farmer are better off for having them so sold. At market prices he has the profits on his summer’s harvest, while the manure adds much to the fertility' of the land. STEER FEEDING. 163 WHERE THE PROFITS COME FROM. Briefly put, the profit in the fattening of this class of steers is in the difference in the buying and selling price of the original weight of the steer and not in any profit on the increase in live weight made during the feeding period. This is illustrated in the following figures, giving the cost of the gains made for the past three years in feeding experiments at this station. Cost of 100 Pounds of Gain. 1901 1902 1 1 1903 Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4 $1.85 $5.16 $5.31 $1.00 11 81 $5.80 $5.90 $6.13 $1.81 $1.17 Average $5.11 $1.87 $5.26 These Agues are comparable only in a general way, as the steers differed in weight and quality. The^^ show in every case, however, that each 100 pounds of increase in live weight cost close to $5.00 on the average, a little above or below that figure. At average prices, therefore, there can be no profit on this increase in live weight; it must come from the increase in value of the original weight of the animal. 164 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ILLUSTRATIONS. Figure 1 represents a type of undesirable steer, long legged, slab-sided, wild and restless. Only on the range could there be any profit in growing such an animal. The profit in fattening him would depend on the price at which he was purchased. Figure 2 shows a coarse rough steer that might gain in live weight rapidly enough, but, however well fatted, would never sell at, or near, the top of the market. Figure 3 represents the best feeding type of steer among the car load; a two year old with some width and depth of body, a good back and loin and good feeding qualit 3 ^.* Pfigure 4 shows the steers, and the sheds and yards in which the^' were fed. The sheds and \mrds were kept well bedded and it was noticed that the steers sought the shelter of the sheds nearh^ eveiw night. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. (1) No one feeding experiment can definiteh" rnswer the ques- tions it aims to solve. The work must be repeated for some 3 ^ears and under a variety" of conditions. The results here given are tentative and must wait future confirmation. (2) According to this test a mixed grain ration proved super- ior to any one variet}- of grain. If the feeding efficiency' as to rate of gain for mixed grain was placed at 100, then wheat equals 99.5 oats 84 and barley equals 84.5. (3) From the standpoint of the food eaten for 100 pounds of gain in live weight, the wheat ration is very' slightly' better than the mixed grain, with oats andbarley' the same as on the basis of rate of gain. (4) For the test period the wheat was also the cheapest ra- tion, one pound of gain costing 5 cents on this ration, while the cost on the mixed grain ration was 5.2 cents, on the barley ration the cost was 6.3 cents and on the oats ration 8 cents per pound of gain. STEER FEEDIN(;. 165 (5) It was noticed that the cattle tired of the wheat after a couple of months feeding and a change was necessary to get the cattle to continue to eat-grain. This was true of all the grains fed but not to the same extent as with the wheat. (6) After a gradual change of the rations to mixed grain with bran the cattle ate the mixture with relish and made the most rapid gains of the winter. (7) The experiments made at the Station for the past three years seem to show that on the average the profit to be made in fattening two to three ^^ear old steers, with Alontana prices for feeding stuffs, must come from an increase in the value of the pur- chased weight of the steer. (8) This fact, however, does not make less important the stitdy of the relative values of feeding rations. In this test the difference in returns between the best and the poorest ration was $3.52 per steer, by no means an unimportant item in feeding a bunch of steers. For instance, lot 4 gained in live weight 281 pounds worth at 4 cents per pound, $11.24, while lot 2 gained only 188 pounds worth at 4 cents per pound $7.52, or a difference of $3.72: but lot 2 cost 20 cents less to feed so that the net differ- ence was $3.52. On a hundred steeys this would mean $352.00 as the difference in returns from feeding the two rations. BULLETIN No. 49, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL ' Experiment Station, OF THE- A^rictilttiral College of Montaiia. Contag^ious Abortion in Montana Bozeman, Montana, October, 1903. BOZEMAN REPUBUCAN-1903 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Kxperiment Station. BOZEnAN, = MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ James Donovan, Attorney-General, t Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans Missoula. C. R. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President, Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman. Joseph Kountz, Bozeman. E. B. Lamme, Bozeman. John Maxey Bozeman STATION STAFF. *SAMUEr. Fortier, Ma. E., P. B. LiNfield, B. S. a, F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S. J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D. R. A. Cooley, B . Sc., R. W. Fisher, B. S., Edmund Burke W. J. Elliott, *Absent on leave. . Director and Irrigation Engineer. . .Vice-Director and Agriculturist. Chemist. Botanist. Entomologist. Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist. Assistant Dairyman Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Conta^iotis Abortioxi in Montana, BY H. C. GARDINER. CONTENTS. Page Introduction 168 Definition and Kinds of Abortion 170 Symptoms 171 \ Immunity .' 171 Means of Transmission 172 Treatment 173 So-called Remedies 175 Disinfectants 175 Conclusion 176 Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 49. OCTOBER, 1903. Contagious Abortion in Montana. BY H. C. GARDINER. Introduction. Contagious abortion as a disease is considered of significance almost equal to tuberculosis, and is prevalent both in Europe and America. As a resnlt of its widespread distribution and serious na^re it has been carefully investigated on both continents, and particularly in Scotland, Denmark and France, where very serious losses have been experienced. In affected districts in- Europe the losses run from twenty to sixty per cent and the average for all herds is five per cent. In an epidemic in the Mississippi valley in 1889 the losses reached seventy-five per cent. Under such conditions breeding has to be entirely abandoned. The work of the Scottish Abortion Committee, and particularly the work of Professor Bang, the Danish veterinarian, and of Professor Nocard, of France, has been of the greatest importance. Professor Bang succeeded in isolating the germ which causes contagious abor- tion and it is upon the treatment recommended by him that the dis- ease has been successfully combated. The attention of the writer was called to the existence of contag- ious abortion in Montana by an inquiry made at the Experiment Sta- tion by Mr. James White, of Bozehaan, who was having trouble from this cause. On investigating this case it was found that for several years losses had occurred in the immediate neighborhood of Mr. White’s ranch, ranging as high as seventy per cent. The disease in this instance had been gradually spreading in that locality from herd to herd and this spring the first season it affected Mr. White’s herd MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 169 his loss was about thirty per cent. In order to determine to what extent this disease prevailed in the surrounding country about one hundred letters were sent to stockmen in Gallatin and Madison valleys briefly describing the disease and requesting replies to the following questions : 1. How" many of your cows aborted this year? 2. How many of your cows aborted last year? fl. How many cows have you in your herd? 4. Have you heard of anyone in your locality having trouble? Please give name and address. 5. What was the extent of their losses? From one hundred and flve letters of inquiry seventy-seven replies were received, and of the seventy-seven, thirty-eight were from parties having trouble; the losses ranging from ten to eighty per cent. In getting these figures losses which were small and in all probability due to accident were not included, only those beiug considered which gave evidence of being the result of contagious abortion. In one instance a case came to our notice in which there had been a total loss extend- over a period of three years. We have also found that abortion is causing loss in various parts of the state. In Teton county the disease, as one stockman expressed it in writing us, “is giving serious trouble.” Losses are also reported from Chouteau, Valley, Cascade, Fergus and Powell counties and along the Yellowstone. From the apparent general distribution of the disease, its wide- spread prevalence in the locality investigated and its contagious nature, it certainly demands the prompt attention of the stockmen of Montana if further serious losses are to be avoided. So serious has it become in portions of Gallatin Valley that we have heard on reliable authority that some stockmen have contemplated abandoning cattle raising for a time until they were satisfied they could avoid the disease; and for the present, at least, contemplate reducing their herds. A disease which menaces the stock raising industry of the state is a danger which men- aces the welfare of the whole community and we feel that every effort should be made on the part of the stock associations, the agricultural 170 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. press, and the stockmen individually to stamp out this disease. That such efforts are successful are shown by the fact that in some eastern states where the disease was very prevalent ten to fifteen years a^o it has been entirely eradicated and sections which had a yearly loss of from twenty-five to forty per cent are now free from the disease. DeAnitiofi and Kinds of A.l>ortion. Synonyms: Contagious abortion, 'infectious abortion, enzootic abortion, epizootic abortion. Abortion, or as it is popularly called, “slinking, slipping, casting, or losing” the calf implies premature birth of the foetus (unborn calf); a separation of the foetus from the uterus (womb) and membranes be- fore full term. Strictly speaking, a parturition in which the offspring is mature enough to live is called a premature parturition or prema- ture delivery and one in which the offspring is not developed enough to live a separate existence is called an abortion. We will term all premature births abortions in this Bulletin. There are two forms of abortion dependent upon the cause. The one accidental or sporadic abortion and the other contagious or enzoo- tic abortion caused by a germ. Under some circumstances both causes may bring about abortion. The causes of accidental or sporadic abortion may be enumerated briefly as: mechanical injuries, such as slipping, falling, being hooked, jammed, kicked, etc.; the diseased condition of the dam, insufficient or innutritions forage, early breeding, in and in breeding, purging as the result of the administration of drugs or the ingestion of poisonous plants, from musty or easily fermentable fodder, from ergotized grasses or grain,* from shock resulting from storms and exposure, from prema- ture death of the foetus owing to twisting of the umbilical cord, and * While visiting in Beaverhead county recently, the writer observed a very large amount of native rye grass that was very badly affected with ergot, the heads of rye in many cases being almost black with the long spikes of ergot protruding from the chaff on the head. W’hile, with the other feed available, the stock would probably not eat these dry stalks of rye grass, yet if feed was scarce, they might eat considerable of it. Upon inquiry it was found that in some seasons the stock running in this field were troubled more or less with abortion, but the owner had not recognized or thought of the ergot as a cause. Later, ergotized rye was noticed in other parts of the state and it was thought, therefore, not amiss to call attention to this danger. F. B. Linfield, Dir. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 171 from the odor of decomposed animal matter or any other source whi3h greatly excites or irritates. The primary cause of contagious abortion is a germ which Profes- sor Bang isolated in 1896 and with which he experimentally inoculated cattle and in nearly every case produced an abortion. In these exper- iments he chose animals from herds which were known to be free from the disease, and he found the germ in those aborting animals he inoc- ulated and in the foetuses. The germs which produce abortion are found between the attach- ments of the afterbirth and the womb, and here they develop and bring about a catarrh of the uterus and also an inflammation of the after- birth, at the same time depositing a secretion between these tissues which gradually forces thenv apart and as a result destroys the circu- lation in the membranes surrounding the calf and cuts off its supply of nourishment. In the experimental inoculation a period of ten weeks was found necessary before abortion was produced. Sy’mptoms. Owing to the diseased conditions of the mucous membrane con- tagious abortion sometimes takes the form of temporary sterility, the animal coming in “heat” but failing to conceive. If conception takes place the abortion usually occurs after the foetus has attained a con- siderable development, usually occurring from the third to the seventh month. Occasionally the early symptoms pass unnoticed, but in most instances there will be some heat and an enlargement of the udder and a discharge from the vulva of a white or yellow mucous which is very unlike the normal transparent mucous which discharges during heat. After abortion the membranes are usually retained and in some cases a putrid discharge continues for some time. The afterbirths in such cases should be carefully removed, the animal disinfected and not bred again until in a healthy condition. Immunity. Abortion, like many other germ diseases, confers immunity after attack, and in this case cattle usually acquire an immunity after from one to five attacks. In general it is probable that the average cow 172 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION, becomes immune after from one to three attacks. This immunity,^ however, loes not prevent the animal from transmitting the disease to the remainder of the herd and she may still be a source of danger to the bull and to the cows she may come in contact with, Herds too, occasionally become free from the disease after a comparatively severe attack and cases are recorded where after a severe attack the disease has wholly disappeared. In some instances it breaks out again and unless proper means are taken to prevent re-infection and to stamp it out there is always the uncertainty of a future attack and in most in- stances a more or less severe continuation of the trouble as new ani- mals are added and as the heifers are bred. In some years the disease is much more severe than others depending probably upon climatic conditions or other conditions favorable to the development or preser- vation of the germs. Means of Transmission. Any means which will transfer the germs from the genital parts of one animal to another is a method of transmission. The primary source of infection it is generally conceded by all investigators and veterinarians is from the bull. Bred to an infected animal the bull be- comes infected and in a most perfect manner infects the* remainder of the animals to which he is bred, We have noted three cases in parti- cular in which the bull has been responsible for the infection of a herd. In two instances the bull was purchased from a herd which was infected and taken to a herd which bad previously been entirely free from the disease, the result was that the next season both herds, i^reviously uninfected, were aborting badly. Another instance in which a neighbor’s bull from an aborting herd broke through a fence into a pasture with a herd that had previously been uninfected and the result was that fifty per cent of the previously uninfected herd aborted that year. Many similar cases are recorded by investigators in Europe. Another source and probably one of minor importance in Mon- tana is the infection which comes from animals coming in contact with walls, litter, etc. in stables, which have previously been infected by coming in contact with the mucous or catarrhal discharge from in- MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 178 fected animals. Still another source of infection and probably the one second in importance comes from the habit which cattle have of smelling and rubbing their noses on each other and transferring the the bacteria by this means and further by cattle jumping each other when in “heat.” Treatment. The treatment advised for contagious abortion is wholly one of disinfection, and since the ge'^ms causing this disease is localized on the genital organs it is a comparatively easy matter to fight them. Where cattle are stabled and are aborting the stables must be thor- oughly disinfected and the aborting ones separated from the healthlj; stock. This condition, however, will apply to few herds in Montana, but it is worthy of mention since the chances of infection are greater with stabled stock and the disease resultingly harder to fight. In treating an aborting herd the first precaution to observe is to imme- diately burn or bury deeply the aborted calf and afterbirth and isolate the cow to prevent the spread of infection from these sources. It is a good plan also to remove a cow from the herd which shows symptoms of abortion until it is seen whether she is infected or not. As a pre- caution to prevent the spread of infection all the cattle in an aborting herd should receive at least one disinfection, and to do this properly the part of the herd which has been exposed should be disinfected first. As many of these cattle will be carrying calves the disinfection will consist simply in cleansing the outside parts thoroughly with a one in one-thousand corrosive sublimate solution or a three per cent creolin or lysol solution and flushing out the vagina with from one to two quarts of a one and one-half per cent of lysol or Creolin-Pearson solution. Four men with convenient chute and corrals can handle one hundred head in a day in this manner, with but little more trouble than dehorning. This disinfection will not destroy any germs in the uterus but will destroy any which are working their way in through the vagina from recent infection. The bull should next be treated first by clipping the hair from around the sheath then disinfecting externally as before advised, and running a rubber tube or douche up the sheath and closing the open- ing of the sheath the fluid can be worked around by external mani- 174 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. pulation and a thorough disinfection accomplished. During the breeding season this should be done frequently particularly if there is possibility of the bull’s becoming infected. Five minutes time will do all the w^ork necessary, the ugly animals even standing very quietly. The work is most easily done in the chute taking the next to the bot- tom board off the side to work through, and tying one of the animals hind legs back to prevent injury to the operator. The method of treatment of aborting animals varies with the size of the herd. With small herds where only a few animals abort it is best to take an animal when it aborts and flush out at once, repeating about six times in ten days. With larger herds it is doubtless best to isolate the aborting animals in a pasture by themselves and wdien calving time is over disinfect all the aborting animals at one time. They should be disinfected at least six times and the womb thoroughly flushed out. In order to do this properly the right arm must be care- fully introduced into the vagina and the tube or douche passed through the neck of the uterus into the womb. In disinfecting the uterus we use a weaker solution, one per cent, owing to the greater sensitiveness of the membrane. From one to two gallons is necessary for this flushing which should De thorough, the amount of fluid depending upon how recently the animal aborted; the uterus being more dilated if the abortion be recent. The same precautions ar-e to be observed in disinfecting the external parts. In handling the animals a chute such as is used in dehorning is very satisfactory. A platform can be erected over it and a barrel or tub containing the disinfecting solutions placed on top of that at an elevation of about ten feet above the cows back. The solution may be siphoned out and about fifteen feet of rubber tubing 5-16 inch in diameter is necessary. A uterine douche is a great convenience for this work such as is shown in cut. These instruments can be secured from Sharp & Smith, 92 Wabash ave., Chicago, or Haussmann & Dunn Co., 107 S. Clark st., Chicago, or from any veterinary instrument dealer at a cost of about $3. Special care should be exercised in the disinfection not to, infect the healthy animals and hands and utensils of the operator should be thoroughly disinfected by w^ashing with a three per cent solution of lysol or creolin. MONTANA EXPEEIMENT STATION. 175 In April and May the writer directed the disinfection of two herds near Bozeman. The owner of one herd of 125 head of range cattle said he considered the disinfection but little more work than de- horning and I was satisfied that four men with proper facilities could disinfect 100 of the animals which had been exposed or about 60 in- fected animals in a day. The owner of the other herd said he consid- ered the disinfection so simple that he would in future disinfect his bull weekly during the breeding season. In the disinfection of these herds the conditions were met which will apply in general to all herds. The methods followed were exactly as advised in this bulletin and in actual use were found to be quite practical. So-called Remedies and Treatment. Owing to the peculiar character of this disease particularly with reference to affected animals becoming immune many have been mis- led in prescribing remedies which apparently had a beneficial effect but which happened to be administered just when the disease is on the decline. Manufacturers of quack remedies knowing the peculiar- ities of this disease following the wake of almost every attack of abor- tion and undertake to cure the aborting animals; as a result they reap a rich harvest for they give their medicine just when the trouble is over. Fluid extract of Black Haw and carbolic acid have been recom- mended as valuable medicinal treatment for this disease but their re- putation has been gained chiefly from the fact that they have been ad- ministered in a number of instances just when the disease was on the decline and as a result got undeserved credit. With' reference to car- bolic acid were it used in sufficient strength to kill the bacteria it would kill the animal and further carbolic acid is converted as soon as it enters the intestinal tract into a form called sulphophenic acid which is inert and has no effect upon bacteria. Carbolic acid can have but one beneficial influence and that is as an intestinal antiseptic, and considering the nature of the disease there is in all probability little opportunity for infection from the intestinal tract. Disinfectants. Corrosive sublimate or bi-chloride of mercury is put up in tablets 176 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. whijh can be obtained at any drug store with directions for making- one in one-thousand solution. Usually one tablet to a quart or pint is the strength required. Creolin-Pearson and lysol are used in preference to carbolic acid as disinfectants because they mix much more readily and thoroughly with water than does carbolic acid and in the proportions recommended, one and two parts to the hundred parts of water, make very complete mix- tures either with cold or warm water. Warm water is to be preferred. Both are coal tar products and can be obtained from any drug store Creolin-Pearson is specially recommended because of the fact that it is a definite chemical compound and does not contain many of the im- purities which are found in the cruder and cheaper products. Lysol may be considered equally good and has the advantage of being a trifle cheaper. Conclusion. The treatment recommended may be modified in grade herds in which the cattle are worth as much for beef as for breeding. In this case the aborting animals had best be isolated and then fattened and beefed. Precautionary measures should then be taken with the re- mainder of the herd by treating as before advised. Particular care being taken to thoroughly and frequently disinfect the bulls. In this way the disease can be readily and cheaply stamped out by the second or third year. With better graded stock it will pay to disinfect both aborting and exposed animals and eradicate the disease as before de- scribed. In general the disease may be avoided by disinfection of newly purchased stock; by care to avoid purchasing breeding stock or bulls from aborting herds; by as far as possible keeping stock from aborting herds and by frequent disinfection of breeding bulls. BULLETIN No., 50, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, OF THE Ag(ric\ilttiral College of Montana. I Poultry Management. II Poultry Diseases Bozeman, Montana, October, 1903. BOZEMAN REPUBLICAN-1903 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Kxperiment Station. BOZEHAN, = MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ James Donovan, Attorney-General, i Ex-Officio Helena. W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J. M. Evans, Missoula. C. R. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm, Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President, Bozeman. Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman. Joseph Kountz, Bozeman. E. B. Lamme, Bozeman. John Maxey Bozeman STATION STAFF. *Samuel, Fortier, Mla. E., F. B. Linfield, B. S. a, F. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., F. C. S., . J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., R. A. Cooley, B. Sc R. W. Fisher, B. S., Edmund Burke W. J. Elliott, ^Absent on leave. Director and Irrigation Engineer. .Vice-Director and Agriculturist. Chemist. Botanist. Entomologist. Assistant Horticulturist . . Assistant Chemist. Assistant Dairyman Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. I Poultry Management 11 Poultry Diseases CONTENTS Poultry Management Introduction 180 Poultry House 182 Ventilation 184 Dimensions 185 Nest Box 186 Storm Door 187 Size of House and Pens T 187 The Stock to Select 187 Comfortable Quarters 188 Feeding Poultry 189 Poultry Diseases Introduction 191 Roupe 191 Symptoms 192 Treatment 193 Catarrh 193 Gapes 194 Symptoms 194 Treatment 195 Lice 195 Montana Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 50. - ■= OCTOBER, 1903. Poultry Management. F. B. Linfield Inirodtictioxi Poultry and poultry products because of the smallness of the in- dividual producer, and also of the product, is thought by many to be an insignificant business, yet, because of the wide and universal de- mand, is one of the large industries of the country. The yearly value of the product of the American hen is close to $300,000,000, larger than any other one industry except the cow. There is yet much room for the growth of the poultry industry in Montana, according to the statistics gathered by Mr. C. H. Edwards during the year of 1891. It would appear that about $1,500,000 worth of poultry and poultry products from outside the state found a market in Montana — about $5.00 for each person in the state. To those not initiated, and to the person who handles a few fowls, no business seems so simple as that of handling poultry and yet few businesses have so many failures to record when started on a com- mercial scale. Much more knowledge, skill and careful management is needed, if success is to be attained, than many suppose. A person must know his flock and with patience watch them from day to day, and by proper methods of care and feeding maintain the birds in the best condition of health and vigor. To attain success with poultry a man must in a measure be a poultryman, he must have a liking for the business, and the patience that looks after every detail in the care of the birds, however small it may be. My observation would lead me to the generalization that the organs concerned with maternity in animals are more economic pro- ducers of concentrated food products, possessing greater elasticity of MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 181 production and are capable of greater extention and development than any other construction forces in the body of the animal. This is il- lustrated in several directions. An old animal will not fatten as eco- mically as a young one, but the old animal will grow a foetus as eco- nomically. The old animal again, will produce milk as economically as the young animal. The young animal retains much of the produc- tive qualities of the maternal organs of the mother, and considering its weight, gains in live weight much faster and more economically than later in life. Poultry also illustrate this same general principle. In the production of eggs the maternal organs of the animals are con- cerned. A six pound hen of the laying strain will produce from 2 to 4 times her own weight in eg^s in a year, and this she will do with about sixty pounds of dry matter in feed. A six pound hen on feed costing not to exceed 75c to 80c will produce from $2.50 to $3.00 worth of eggs at Montana prices— 25c per dozen on the average. It is within comparatively recent times that attention has been paid to selecting poultry on the basis of egg records, but the result has shown that there is just as great room for increased production in this line as with milk production in the cow. Poultry, therefore, are among our most economic food producing animals. Again the prices offered in the state are such as should assure a very profitable market for the home producer. Those who assay to obtain proficiency in the handling of poultry, however, should be students of poultry books and poultry papers. These record the experience of other men, their successes and their failures, experiences which will be of very great value to the beginner and not invaluable to the most experienced. Success with poultry comes from so handling them as to avoid disease, rather than the ability to fight the disease when it appears important as this latter may be. It is for this reason that a few brief thoughts are added on the general treatment of fowls. Profits come from healthy fowls not from sick ones. It is very important, however, to recognize the disease when it does come, as come it may in the best managed flock, so that the loss may be reduced to a minimum and to enable us to treat the birds successfully and thus save a valuable flock for future usefulness. 182 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. TKe Poultry House In the Montana climate, probably the first consideration should Building on Montana State Farm. be a good house. It need not be expensive, but it should be warm, MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 183 sunny and dry. Cheap lumber and building paper with plenty of window lights will give these requirements. In this connection I probably could not do better than describe the construction of the house used on the Station farm and also a house of a smaller size recommended by the Experiment Station of Utah. Fig. 1. illustrates a model form of poultry building, and is with the exception of some slight details of the same construction as our main building. This house is 14 feet wide, pens 12 feet long with walls, roof, floor and windows constructed as previously described by the wall double boarded inside and out with tar paper between. The floor also double, and on the roof tar paper beneath the shingles. A four foot passage way runs throughout the rear. Access to the pens is through doors two feet wide, which open inward against a partition between the pens. This partition is matched stuff for 2 feet and then wire netting up to the ceiling. The arrangements of the roosts (K), the drop boards (D. B.), the nest boxes (N. B.) and the feed board are very simple. The fowls are fed their soft feed through the slatted front of the pen upon the hinged feed door, which when not in use, is hooked in a perpendicular position. These slats are three inches apart and fourteen inches high. Immediately above upon a platform 20 inches wide, the nest boxes are placed facing the passageway. Eggs are gathered from them by opening the hinged door in the pass- ageway which extends in front of the platform. Nests are best made of ^ inch lumber, boxes 12x12x14 inches dimension. Above the nest boxes is another platform 22 inches wide vdiich catches tha droppings from the roosts. This drop board (D. B.) extends about 1^ inches into the passageway so that in cleaning the edge a pail may catch under it. The roosts are placed 6 inches above the drop boards and are 2x3^ inches with corners rounded off and the flat side up. (V) Ventilator is placed in the corner of the pen close to the passageway, and the dam- per is operated therefrom. The exit through the floor is surrounded by a box as shown. This is to prevent litter from falling through. The front wall is inclined inward two feet at the top in order to take greater advan- tage of the sunlight, and the building is sealed with matched flooring upon the lower side of the collar beam. Where it is intended to keep only 40 or 50 birds, a saving of space may be affected by running the 184 MONTANA EXPEEIMENT STATION passageway through the center of the building from front to rear, mak ing two pens and arranging nest boxes, etc., on either side of the pass- age way, with the door on the no]:th side and the ventilators on either side Ventilation. Proper ventilation is an important factor in the management of the poultry house, and the object should be to remove the foul air and retain the warmer and puller air without causing a draft. Our method of securing this result is simple. An ordinary stove-iDipe with damper extends from a hood on the roof to within six inches of the floor. The The lighter and warmer air near the roof of the building warms the metal pipe which is a good conductor, which in turn warms the air in- side causing it to rise slowly. As a result, the air flows into the xhpe from the opening near the floor, this gradually removes the air in the immediate vicinity of the fowl. We have found this method an ad- mirable one in our practice, performing the work excellently. ±0' iO' -Y- io' iO’ t....-, i : ^ ^ House on Utah Station Farm “I give here a sketch of 'a poultry house that will answer most X^urposes. It will be suitable for ' the farm and also for the town lot. It can be extended to any length desired, or it may be cut in two where only a small number of fowls are to be kept. The dimensions given are for a house that will accomodate about fifty of the smaller breeds of fowls and about forty of the larger. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 185 Dimensions. “It is forty feet long and 10 feet wide, divided into two pens, each ten by twenty feet, ten feet of the closed part being for the roost- ing and laying apartment and ten feet open scratching shed. It is eight feet high at the front and four feet at the back. The outside yards should be about 20x100 feet each. There is no hallway, but there is a door entering from the open shed into the closed part. The partition between the two outside pens may be of wire netting but there should be about two feet of boards at the bottom to prevent the fowls lighting through the wire. Materials “The sills should be about 4x6. For framework and rafters use 2x4 stuff. On outside of studs nail good common lumber close to- gether. On top of this tarred paper; then on top of this put on tongued and grooved lumber up and down. For the roof use common sheeting laid close together. On top of this place tarred paper, then shingles. Instead of shingles Neponsit Red Rope paper may be used. The door opening into the scratching shed should fit tightl}^' and if necessary a storm door should be put on in winter to shut out cold and draught. The window should open into each of the closed pens. This should be about 24x24 inches, and it should be double in winter. It should be low enough down so that the sun in winter entering the the window will fall on the floor. The end walls of the scratching shed need not be double boarded and papered, but should be airtight. “In the colder portions of the state it may be necessary to use another thickness of boards and paper in the closed pens. In that case another layer of paper can be put on the studs and tongued and grooved boards on top of that. But probably a better arrangement would be to nail sheeting on the studs and put Neponset Red Rope roofing on top of that. That makes a good lining. All lumber in the inside of the building should be planed. This makes it easier to keep the house free from vermin. Instead of lumber the walls of the closed pen may be made of brick with adobe lining. Some claim that this will be warmer and drier. 186 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. Nest Box “One of the important things in the poultry house is the nest. To prevent egg-eating the box should be dark and shallow. The cut shows a good plan. It shows a roosting platform with a row of nests underneath. This plan is recommended by the Reliable Poultry Jour- nal. If intended for Leghorns, or medium sized hens, nests 12x12 inches and 7 or 8 inches high will be about right. If for Brahamas or Cochins they should be about 15x15 and 10 inches high. Have some chaff or other good material in the bottom of the box so that there will be less danger of the eggs breaking, as a broken egg in the nest is al- most a sure way of teaching the hens to eat eggs. The bottom board of the nest shown in the illustration should be hinged to the wall of the poultry house so as to open upward. The upright which holds the bottom board in position is also on a hinge so it can be kicked from under the board to allow cleaning. The top board or roosting platform should be built on an incline and also hinged to the wall so it can be MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 187 raised to get at the eggs. The roosting pole should be about six inches above the platform and may be 1x3 inches, the hens sitting on the wide surface. Storm Door “For stormy weather there should be provided a storm door for the open shed. This may be made of oiled-canvass tacked on to a light frame and should be hinged at the top so that it can be hooked up to the ceiling when not needed.” Size of lionise and Pens The size of poultry house usually recommended is one that will give about 6 to 8 square feet of floor space to each bird. Thus, a pen 10x12 feet will accomodate 15 to 20 birds. The modern practice is not to allow the fowls the run of the farm ^ except perhaps for a month or two in the fall after the crop is off, but to confine them in yards near the house. These yards or runs should afford 50 to 100 square feet of space for each bird. Part of the run should be planted to clover and grass. In part sunflowers may be planted for summer shade and fall feed, and part may be cultivated for a succession of green crops during the summer. THe Stock to Select For satisfactory results, good birds are needed, and here as with other classes of livestock, pure breds and not cross-breds or scrubs are to be preferred, particularly on the side of the male. Again, get a good strain of the breed selected, a strain noted as large egg producers. Poultrymen are now gathering such data and breeding for a record. The profit with poultry will in a large measure be influenced by the time the eggs are produced. During the late fall and winter months, fresh eggs command a fancy price. Young stock, the early hatched pullet, is the bird that under proper care will produce eggs at this season. Not alone is the young bird an early layer, but they also produce the largest number of eggs per year. As a rule the first two years are the profitable egg-producing years of the fowl’s life. These birds should not be kept over the third winter except perhaps for the 188 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. purpose of producing eggs for hatching, if an extra fowl. This larger return from the young fowl many people seem to forget, yet it is a very important fact in poultry profits. Comfortable Quarters In the proper feeding and proper care of fowls is where perhaps most people fail. Fowls as a rule will not produce eggs if subjected to the continuous cold weather of winter. They must therefore be comfortably housed. There is danger here, however. During the day with the sun shining on the building, the house warms up and the warm air takes up much moisture. During the night, on the other hand the house cools off very much and may chill the birds. The cold air, moreover, not being able to hold as much moisture as the warm air, the moisture may condense in the house, making it damp. These ex- tremes in temperature and also the consequent dampness frequently give rise to colds and may develop into roup of some form. These extremes of temperature and the dampness may in a meas- ure be avoided by thoroughly ventilating the house during the day, being careful, however, to avoid draughts, and then closing up the house at nights. If in addition to this a little heat is used in the house at night the result will be still better. It will not need much heat, just enough to prevent the house getting very cold, thus avoiding extremes. This of course is artificial treatment but so is the production of eggs during the . cold winter weather. To get the winter egg we must keep the fowls comfortable and healthy. The easiest and safest method to attain this may be by a little artificial heat during the winter. In a small house a small stove is the only practical method of heating and some form of the hot blast stove in which the draught can be thoroughly controlled and a small fire kept going for several hours. For a large poultry house, some form of small water heater is preferable as the heat may be more easily distributed over the build- ing and more easily regulated. The central thoughts are (1) that to produce eggs in winter a comfortable temperature for the fowls must be maintained and too great cold avoided; (2) that a fairly uniform temperature must be MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 189 maintained; (8) dampness must be avoided. There are probably other ways than those suggested to attain those objects. Feeding Potiltry The matter of feeding while important is perhaps not as diffi- cult to properly provide for as the matter of comfort and health. The weight of experience seems to show that a proper combination of hard feed, soft feed, green feed, meat scraps and grit give most satisfactory results. In the morning give a warm mash, composed of bran and shorts and some ground grain. This should be mixed with water and sea- soned slightly with salt and pepper. This mash may with advantage be wet and mixed with w^arm skim milk instead of water. The skim milk is valuable as a poultry food and can in a measure take the place of meat scraps or other animal food. Do not give a full feed of this but after it is eaten up clean, scatter some grain in the litter on the floor, for the hens to scratch around and gather up. The grain should vary from wheat and oats to peas or corn, if available, to give variety. About the middle of the afternoon or a little later give a feed of wheat also scattered in the latter on the floor, all that the birds will eat up before roosting time. This method of feeding forces the fowls to keep busy and gives them exercise which is needed for healthfulness when confined in pens. Give cut bones and meat scraps three times a week. In the winter keep a little green feed available for the fowls all the time, a head of cabbage hung up in the pen and at other times a man- gle or sugar beet and again a little lucern or clover leaves will add variety. In the summer if the runs are large, part of them may be seeded to clover or alfalfa, or a little rye may be sown as a variety. Fowls need grit to grind their food. Having no teeth the food must be ground in a special organ, the gizzard. Again, grit is needed to give material for the egg shell. Bones provide a certain amount of animal food and also grit for shell material. Bones and meat scraps are usually inexpensive, but take some work and trouble to prepare as they have to be ground. Their place may be taken by oyster shells, ground bone and dried blood. The first cost of these is greater but they require little or no prepar- 190 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ation before feeding. In the summer when the fowls have the use of a large run and especially if part of it is cultivated, less grit and animal food have to be provided, and if later in the season, for a month or so^ they have the run of the fields they will be able to gather sufficient of both. Fresh water should also be available for the fowls at all times. Cleanliness and freedom from vermin are essential points in poultry profits. The poultry house should be whitewashed, using freely slaked lime, at least twice a year, the roosts should be frequently cleaned off and the litter cleaned out and replaced once a month or often er. The birds will keep their bodies free of vermin if they have ready access to a dust bath. The roosts and nests should have an occasional wash of coal-oil to keep those pests in check. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, 191 Poultry Diseases Common in Montana. By H. C. Gakdinek. Introduction Diseases in poultry are in general not effectively treated in the diseased individual, because of the fact that the trouble and time necessary for treatment more than equal the value of the individual bird. On the other hand an understanding of the different diseases with their predisposing causes is very essential in order to avoid loss and keep the flock free from disease. In general it may be said that fowls properly fed, properly housed , and intelligently handled will keep in a vigorours healthy condition. In our experience at the Station the slight occasional loss of probably seven or eight birds in four years has been directly due to some error or oversight in care or feeding. Diseases may be said in general to result from two conditions, one in which unfavorable surroundings, feed, etc., produce the conditions and on the other hand direct infection from some infectious or con- tagious disease. It is probably wise to point out at this time that the second source is most active when the fowls are in low condition as a result of improper feed and care. R,oup Roup is undoubtedly the cause of more fatalities in the mature flocks of the North-western states than any other disease. It is gen- erally prevalent in Montana and in certain localities is causing severe loss during the winter months. During the past four years a thorough investigation of this disease has been carried out by the Bacteriological department at the Ontario 192 MOJSTAJNA EXPERIMENT STATION. Agricultural College and the results of these investigations published in Bulletin 125 of that Station. The following notes on the disease are taken from ihat source. r ' - ■ ' ' The disease is infectious and due to a bacillus (B. cacosmus). It is prevalent in fowls kept in filthy, damp, draughty and poorly venti- lated quarters. Vigorous sto 2 k in good surroundings prove quite re- sistant to the disease. Young fowls and those of the more delicate breeds are much predisposed to the disease. Symptoms The earliest symptorns is a putrid catarrh of the nostrils, followed by a dumpish condition during the earlier stages; and in the less severe forms of the disease the fowl retains its appetite. In some in- stances the face becomes swollen, birds manifest loss of appetite, be- coming emaciated, and lie down and die in a few days. During the latter stages of this disease, diarrhoea wdth -offensive yellow or green discharges hasten the fatal termination of this disease. To quote Bulletin No. 125, Ontario Agricultural College. “In the first stages of roup the birds often cough or sneeze and the breathing is noisy, caused by the partial closing of the air-passages which become blocked with the discharge from the nostrils. When the air passages become entirely closed by the discharged products, the fowl has to open its beak in order to breath. Sometimes a yellowish cheese-like mass forms in the nostrils, if this mass is removed, an uneven bleeding sur- face is left, which form a new cheesy mass in from 24 to 48 hours.” These cheesy masses sometimes grow in the eyes and in the ducts between the eye and nostril and sometimes form in small tumors under the skin of the face. “The secretion from the eyes is similiar to that described as coming from the nostrils, i.e., at first a clear liquid, then changing to a putrid grey and offensive discharge. If the secretion is retained in the eye socket, it undergoes a change, becoming a yellowish, solid, cheesy mass of the same appearance as the nasal tumor. This cheesy mass either forces the eye out of its socket or the inflamation entirely destroys it. Combined with the symptoms of roup above described, there are often patches of a greyish, yellow exudation firmly adherent to MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 193 the mouth, throat, etc. These patches are called false membranes. At one or several places in the mouth and throat, these yellowish, smooth or uneven membranes appear, and either remain small and disappear after a few days, or grow thicker, spread, and become firmly attached to the mucous membrane, and if they (the false mem- branes) are removed, an uneven, bleeding surface is exposed. When the throat is blocked by these false membranes, the ani- mal’s breathing becomes abnormal, and the air passing through the throat produces loud noises. Gradually the visible mucous membrane and the comb turn blue, and the fowl generally dies from suffocation. Treatment Care taken to avoid infection as outlined in the causes, which pre- dispose toward this disease, isolati6n of infected birds and disinfection of poultry houses and runs immediately adjacent, with a 3 per cent, creolin solution constitute the treatment, under average circumstances. If particularly desired to save some valuable individual, immersing the head in a 1 to 2 per cent, permanganate of potash solution is a method of treatment giving valuable results. “Fowls are treated in the fol- lowing manner: The nostrils are pressed together between thumb and forefinger in the direction of the beak several times. Pressure should also be applied between the nostrils and eyes in an upward direction. This massage helps to loosen the discharge in the nostrils and eyes. The bird’s head is then plunged in a potassium permangnate solution for 20 or 30 seconds, in fact the head may be kept under the solution as long as the bird can tolerate it. The treatment should be given twice a day until all symptoms have disappeared.” In conclusion our authority says: “The most effective preventa- tive for roup is to keep fowls in good, sanitary condition in dry, roomy yards, and dry, clean, airy houses which are free from draughts and can easily be cleaned and disinfected.” CatarrH Catarrh in poultry closely resembles the common “cold in the head” of man. It is accompanied by sneezing, difficult breathing, 194 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. watery discharge of nostrils, in later stages becoming thick and glutinous. The causes producing this disease are lack of ventilation of houses^ draughts, dampness, cold winds, exposure, improper care and feeding The prevention consists in the removal of such conditions, and when birds become affected, Douglas mixture in the drinking water acts as a splendid tonic. In addition the following powder may be given in the food: Gentian, 1 ounce; ginger, 1 ounce; capsicum, ^ ounce; iron suli^hate, ^ ounce ; hyposulpate of soda, J ounce; a teaspoonfull to 15 fowls being about the right proportion. Douglas mixture is a splendid tonic to give during the fall, winter and spring months and we have found with its occasional use, sickness is a very rare occurrence. Douglas mixture consists of : Sulphuric Acid, 1 ounce; iron sul- l^hate, 3 ounce; water, 2 gallons; a teaspoonful to a pint of drinking water is sufficient. We have made it a practice to give it once a week in the drinking water, and where there were any signs of disease used it in drinking water daily. Gapes The gape worm is causing loss among flocks in some sections of Montana and with the growth of poultry raising will give serious trouble in the future unless steps are taken to suppress this parasite It is a small reddish colored worm which infests the trachea (wind- pipe) of young chickens and gets its nourishment by sucking blood from the wall of the windpipe, where it causes much irritation, and may occasion infiamation and suffocation. The male worm is about l-5th of an inch in length and the female ^ inch. They are usually found attached in pairs to the windpipe. This infection occurs as a result of swallowing embryo worms or eggs in drinking water or in the food. A single infection is however all that is necessary as the worms reproduce in the body of their host. This practice secures most of its victims among the smaller and weaker chickens as they most easily become exhausted and suffocated. Symptoms The disease chiefly affects chicks from 1 to 4 weeks old and may be detected by the dumpish condition of the birds, by gaping frequent- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 195 ly with the head extended. Later a cough is noticed and a wheezing sound accompanies the breath, with gaping at frequent intervals. While coughing the chicks frequently dispel the parasites, which may be detected in the mucous which accompanies the coughing. As the disease advances the chicks become emaciated and week, wings hang down, gaping and shaking of head are frequent, and at last death from suffocation and exhaustion intervenes. The stronger birds and those infested with a few worms, only evidence a slight inconvenience and soon shake off the effects of the disease. Treatment Individual cases may be relieved by removing the worms from the windpipe with the end of a feather or a loop of horse hair, and excell- ent results may be obtained by dropping one or two drops of salicylate of soda in the wind pipe. General treatment consists in the prevention of the spread of in- fection. by isolating the affected birds, frequent disinfection of their yards with 5 per cent solution of crube carbolic acid, disinfection of drinking and feeding troughs with boib'ng water, and exerting every percaution to prevent the contaminating of their food or drink. The bodies of dead birds should be burned and where possible healthy birds should be changed to new runs until the old runs were thoroughly disinfected. Lice The large grey louse (Liperiris caponis), the red mite (Dermaceys- ses gallinae), the bird flea, and the mite (Sarcoptes muteces) causing scaly legs, are the external pests causing the bulk of the trouble aris- ing from the insect pests. Cleanliness is the starting point of success in combatting these pests, and houses and fixtures of simple construction, affording few cracks aid materially in preventing attacks, as they do not afford the protection necessary for the lice. In keeping buildings free from lice, kerosene must be used freely on roosts, nest boxes and other fixtures, accumulations of filth are to be avoided in every direction, and all surfaces on the inside of the build- ing should receive a coating of white-wash containing carbolic acid at 196 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION, least twice a year. The efficiency of this white-wash is greatly in- creased if applied with spray. Litter on the floor of pens and in the nest boxes shonld be renewed frequently and insect powder scattered in the nests. Kerosene emulsion is valuable particularly for the flees and mites and is best applied with a spray pump and made as follows: Kerosene, 1 gallons; water, 1 gallon, soap, pound. Dissolve the soap in the water by boiling, and while hot turn in the kerosene and churn briskly for 5 minutes. This solution is sufficient for about 15 gallons of spray solution. Six ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon of water (hot) also makes a very good solution to use as a wash for roosts, nest boxes or floors, when cleaning ont. The largest number of deaths from these pests occurs from the large grey louse whieh attacks young chicks. These lice are found on almost all chicks which have been hatched under hens and annually kill thousands of yonng chicks. It is a good practice to grease lightly the back of the head and under the wings on all young chicks which are hen hatched, the lice conflning themselves almost entirely to those parts. Common lard series the purpose but we have used carbolated vaseline and find it preferable. The red mite is combated more efPectually with kerosene applied to the hiding places, by the use of insect powder on the fowls and by providing opportunities for dusting The mite causing scaly leg is a particularly annoying pest and very prevalent. It barrows under the scales on the legs and by its irritation causes an exudation of which the enlarged scaly portion is formed. The heavier breeds of fowl are most affected by this pest, the Mediterranean classes apparently resisting its attack to a marked extent. In order to avoid the spread of this disease it is well to isolate affected birds when treating them in order to prevent the infection of the rest of the flock. In order to reach the parasite it is necessary to soak off the scaly crust with warm soapy water and then carelully re- move to avoid bleeding. The legs should then be moistened daily for three or four days with balsam of Peru or 10 per cent, creolin ointment. BULLETIN NO. 51. nONTANA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION — OF— THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF HONTANA. First Annual Report of the State Entomologist of Montana. BOZEriAN, nONTANA, DECEflBER, 1903. Bozeman, Mont. The A vant Courier Publishing Co. 1904. 1 ilontana Agricultural Experiment Station^ Bozeman, Montana. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Tooee, Governor ’ 'j James Donovan, Attorney General i>Ex-oFFicio W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction J N. W. McConnell W. M. Johnson O. P. Chisholm J. G. McKay G. T. Paul N- B. Holter J. M. Evans Chas. R. Leonard ....Helena ....Helena ...Billings Bozeman Missoula Dillon ....Helena Missoula Butte EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Bozeman John Maxey, Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary Bozeman^ Joseph Kountz Bozeman E. B. Lamme Bozeman STATION STAFF. *Samuel Fortier, F. B. Linfield, B. F. W. Traphagen, Ma. E Director and Irrigation Engineer S. A Vice-Director and Agriculturist Ph. D., F. C. S Chemist J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D ] Botanist R. A. Cooley, B. Sc Entomologist R. W. Fisher, B. S Assistant Horticulturist Edmund Burke Assistant Chemist W. J. Elliott Assistant Dairyman *Absent on leave. Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to the Director, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. Noticee — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed iree to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to (ne Station for that purpose. THE COMMON TOAD (See Article in this Bulletin) Montana Experiment Station. BULLETIN 31. DECEMBER, 1903. INTRODUCTION. This first Report of the State Entomologist of Montana contains m accoimt of a few of the most important insect pests of Montana iiid in addition, a fairly complete, though condensed, manual of nsect pests. This manual is intended to put in easily accessible brm the most important information regarding a large number of nsects now in the state or liable to be introduced. Considering the great importance of the codling moth, the reader will perhaps expect- to find an account of it in this report. .However, such an account is omitted for two reasons, first, a report iDii this pest was issued from the Experiment Station a few months ago, copies of which are still available for distribution, and, second, ■it is intended to conduct further investigations on this pest during the coming glimmer (1904) and we shall desire to publish those results one year from now. In view of the fact that the codling moth will for years to come be the most important insect pest with which Montana apple growers will have to contend, it is our inten- don to make the next report upon the subject the most complete and practical that has yet been issued from this Station. In view of the great economic importance of grasshoppers and because of the unusual demand for information concerning them, we have given them prominence in this report. We renew our statement of willingness to answer inquiry re- garding insect pests. Such requests for information should always be accompanied by specimens of the insects that are doing the damage and a statement of the facts necessary for our information in making recommendations. Every vegetable product of the soil is subject to the attack in insect life and every crop that is grown by men is more or less in- 200 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. jured by insect pests. These injuries may be so conspicuous as toj force themselves upon our notice or they may be so hidden and in-i sidious as to escape detection except by th^ most observant. The| farmer may suffer heavy financial loss, or because of the higher] price which comes as a result of a shortness in the crop, he mav bcj only slightly affected. In the latter case the general public become the suffers, but in all cases, losses through depredations of insect^ come out of the coffers of man, if not out of his daily bread. Considering the great agricultural possibilities of this statej together with the fact that, incidental to commercial practices, in-’ jurious insects new to this region are constantly liable to introduc-! tion, it is very important that every possible means be imployed td prevent the introduction and spread of pests of all horticultural and agricultural plants. All rational means of defense against injuries from animals of this class are based on a more or less intimate knowledge of the life history and habits of the insects. It is apparent, therefore, that as a defensive measure the acquiring of a knowledge of life histories of the insect destroyers of our crops is of great practical value and must always precede quarantine and medical work. Again, in order that investigations may be safeguarded against] danger of becoming narrow and losing their practical setting, it is obviously necessary that they be conducted not only in the entomolo- gist’s office or in one locality, but in the field and throughout the: state. Realizing the truth of these statements the Entomological De- partment of the Experiment Station is centralizing its efforts on the accumulation of information regarding species of insects that arei now or may become injurious and, obedient to the Act of the Eighth Legislative Assembly, whereby the office of State Entomologist was' created, is making its observations and conducting its experimentsi in all parts of the state. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 201 THE BUD nOTH. Tmetocera ocellana Schrif. The bud moth was first discovered in this country in 1841 in Idassachusetts and was at that time doing considerable damage. In 869 it was pronounced the most injurious enemy of the apple jree, next to the canker-worm, in the state of Massachusetts. Since that time it has been spreading westward and has at times »een very destructive, notably in 1891 throughout Massachusetts, slew York and Canada and again in Michigan in 1892. It now (ccurs throughout Northern United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean but is much more thoroughly distributed in the east han in the west. It has been found as far south as Washington, D. C. For fully fifty years previous to the time the insect was first de- ected in Massachusetts it was a well known and destructive species 11 Europe. There can be little doubt that it was introduced into America from Europe on young trees, intended for planting. OCCURRENCE IN MONTANA. While engaged in certain investigations concerning the codling noth in Missoula in the spring of 1902 the writer’s attention was •ailed to trees in the home orchards on Front street, Missoula, the oliage of which showed distinct signs of injury by insects. On Examination it was found that the injury was caused by the bud noth. The vernal form of the larva was doing rather serious lamage on many trees. The buds, both leaf and flower, were severe- y injured and a large proportion of the expanding clusters of leaves vere tied together, each containing one of more nearly full-grown arvae which were feeding voraciously. Beside occurring through- mt Missoula and in the orchards just outside of the city, the insect s also gaining a foothold for a considerable distance up the valley )f the Bitter Root river. IMPORTANCE OF THE PEST. To just what extent this insect will be destructive in Montana’s flimate, if it becomes generally distributed, cannot be foretold. Ex- 202 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. perience of other localities has distinctly shown that its injuries willl be more severe some years than others. For the present, at least. Montana fruitgrowers should look upon it as a pest of first-class) importance. They should inform themselves concerning the! habits and appearance of the insect in all its stages and should! be on the lookout for it in the orchard. Spraying does not appear to be effective in killing the larvae! Should the moth be admitted to the nurseries of the state it would, be very unfortunate not only for the nursery men but also for the; persons who purchase trees from them. NATURAL HISTORY AND HABITS. The larva or so-called worm spends the winter in a temporary cocoon or hibernaculum on the trees. These hibernacula are re- markable objects in that they so closely resemble the bark and the' felty surface of the young twigs as to be very difficult of detection even by a trained eye. They are closely secreted in crevices around the buds or in the depressed scars that mark the spots where leaves were attached. They are about one-sixteenth of an inch across and though made principally of the silken secretion that is produced from the silk organs of the mouth of the caterpillar, they contain enough of the surface parts of the surroundii^g bark to make them very in- conspicuous. Besides occurring on the twigs as has been described by various! authors, the writer has found them also under the scales of bark in association with the hibernating larvae of the codling moth. In the spring of the year at about the time the buds are swelling, i the larvae, which are dark brown with black heads, emerge from their winter quarters and crawl to the buds. Observation is lacking in Montana as to the precise time, compared to the opening of the buds, that they arrive. It is probable, however, that in this respect the habits would not vary much between here and other climates, for Ihe same conditions of weather revive both insect and plant life. Without much doubt, while a few larvae arrive early enough to make it necessary for them to bore into unexpanded buds in order to get food, the majority of them reach the buds after they have begun to open. In both cases, alike, the larvae, which at this time MONTANA EXI^ERIMENT STATION. 203 ar€ less than a quarter oi an inch in length, go at once to the tender, inner part of the bud, where they teed on the tender parts and do great injury, often destroying the terminal growing portion of the twig. If the bud be a fruit bud it likewise is destroyed, thereby preventing the possibility of the production of fruit. The destruction of the terminal bud prevents the further elonga- tion of the twig and at the same time causes some lateral bud to grow into a principal stem. While in some cases such an unatural growth is not a disadvantage, in many cases the result is a very undesirable shape of tree. This is particularly true of young trees in the nursery row. The larva soon makes use of one of the more advanced leaves in the construction of a tubular retreat, which constitutes its home and from which it emerges from time to time to feed. In feeding, it draws in other leaves and fastens them together into a sort of nest which is very characteristic of the species. Some of the leaves become detached, but being bound to the other leaves fail to drop to the ground, thereby making the nest all the more conspicu- ous, because of the brown leaves among the green. A badly infest- ed tree therefore has a decidedly unnatural appearance. The larvae continue to feed in these nests until they reach full growth, when they construct cocoons in which the remarkable change from the larva to the pupa and from the pupa to the moth is to take place. The full grown larva is a half inch in length, nearly naked and of a brown color with glossy black head and shield just behind the head. See plate I, (figure 7). The cocoon is constructed, in many cases, in the tubular re- treat occupied by the larva. The walls are thickened and the ends closed up, thereby preventing the entrance of parasites, while the moth lies in the defenseless pupa stage. Other cocoons are made at any convenient place. Sometimes they occur in a fold of an otherwise uninjured leaf. In due time, 01 about two weeks from the time the larva changed to a pupa, the moth appears. The pupa works its way out of the end of the cocoon, aided by the hook on its back, and the anterior end splits, thus setting free the moth, which crawls out, expands and dries its wings and flies away. In Missoula the moths 204 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. appear from about the first to the twenty-fifth of July. The moths are most active during the night, remaining quiet during the day on the bark of the tree, which they closely mimic. They are also found to some extent during the day in the foliage The cage erected in Missoula in the spring of 1902 for the purpose of facilitating the study of the habits of the codling moth, has afforded us also an opportunity for the close study of the bud moth. The bud moth was very abundant in this cage in 1903 and destroyed practically all the fruit buds, interfering seriously with our investigations of the codling moth. When disturbed or frightened the moths often flew directly away from the tree and com- ing in contact with wire netting clung quietly to it for a few mo- ments. In a few moments, however, they flew back to the tree. It is plain that they did not feel safe on the netting and they would not have been safe were it not for the fact that no birds could reach them on the inside of the cage. In flying at such times the moth pursues an irregular zig-zag course and comes immediately at rest on light- ing. It is worthy of special notice that there is a close resemblance be- tween adults of the bud moth and of the codling moth. An experi- enced person need have no difficulty in distinguishing between the two if he has before him fresh specimens, but when the scales of the wings are rubbed off as they often are in specimens captured in the orchard, separating the two at sight is not so easily done. When once placed on his guard, however, a trained observer is not liable to make a mistake. On the other hand there are many less important small moths in the orchard which the untrained observer or the per- son who has paid little attention to insect life may mistake for both of these orchard pests. In a few days after emerging the moth begins to deposit eggs. We had no difficulty in finding quantities of them in the cage at Missoula and they were invariably on the smooth upper surface of the leaves. Other writers have stated that the eggs are laid singly or in clusters and on page 61 of Prof. Slingerland’s bulletin on this insect (No. 107, Corn. Univ. Agric. Ii'xp. Sta. 1896), is given a figure of a group of these eggs numbering about six, but our observation shows plainly that in Montana the eggs are laid singly. We have never found MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 205 more than two together. A single egg is shown at plate I (figure i). They are usually oval in outline, some being circular or nearly so, and they measure slightly over one mm. in length, including the flat outer rim by which they are attached to the leaf. They are trans- lucent and almost colorless at first, but as the embryo develops the black head and thoracic shield of the larva show through and the outline of the curled larva may be distinctly seen. The egg shell reflects the prismatic colors, both before and after the larva emerges. We have above called attention to the close resemblance between the adult of the bud moth and that of the codling moth. It is even more difficult to distinguish between the eggs of the two species. In size, shape and general appearance, they are very similar. They are laid in precisely the same position on the foliage and are deposited at the same time. They both reflect light and show irridescence alike, and both are translucent. I know of no way to distinguish between the two except by the difference in the character of the surface of the shell of the egg. The hatching of the egg takes place in from six to ten days after being laid, and, issuing from the egg, the larva makes a hole through the edge of the central portion and crawls forth. This cater- pillar is greenish in color, very small and delicate and it at once sets about making a place of retreat and protection. Passing to the un- der side of the leaf it constructs a very small silken tube near the mid rib and usually towards the base of the leaf. The larva feeds from the epidermis and middle layers of cells leaving the opposite epidermis unbroken. The castings of the larva are built into the tube giving it a black color. The portion of the leaf from which the larva feeds is covered with silken threads laid down by the larva and whenever possible a near-by leaf is drawn up and fastened to the first leaf by the silken threads. Thus one often finds two leaves stuck together, and, in pulling them apart, finds the little black tube of this insect. The larva will not be seen unless forced to crawl out. In selecting a place in which to construct a home the larva searches for two leaves that are near enough together to be easily brought in contact. In the manner here indicated the larvae continues to feed until some time in September, when, apparently prompted by instinct they 206 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. crawl to the twigs, spin the temporary cocoons whicli, they occupy during the winter months, and from which they issue in the spring and pass to the buds as previously stated. THE KINDS OF TREES THE BUD MOTH ATTACKS. While this insejct is best known as an apple pest, it feeds also on pear, plum, quince, peach and cherry trees and on blackberry bushes, in all cases feeding on the buds. MEANS OF DISTRIBUTION. The manner of hibernation of the insect makes it very easy for it to be distributed on nursery stock, and this is doubtless the way in which it has become so widely distributed. It may be readily dis- tributed on scions. The moths are capable of flying and doubtless go from tree to tree and from orchard to orchard but they can only spread slowly in this way. NATURAL ENEMIES. It is very probable that many of these insects fall a prey to the birds that frequent the orchards. In fact it is reported that birds sometimes eat the moths. There can be little doubt that the Ore-- gon chickadee, that is so common in the orchards searching on the trees^for food, does much good in destroying these insects. Various other birds probably eat them in Montana. It was very noticeable that the tree which had been inclosed in the cage in Missoula for one year was much more seriously affected by this insect. Birds had, of course, been excluded. A number of parasites have been taken from the bud moth in the United States and in Europe but just how much good they do can- not be stated. I have reared an undetermined species from speci- mens of this pest brought from Missoula to Bozeman for study. METHOD OF PREVENTING ITS RAVAGES. In the East this insect is said to be a very difficult one to control. Just why this is so has never been fully e?:plained, and as yet we lack a sufficient knowledge of the habits to enable us MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 207 to state definitely the cause of the failure of remedial treatment, but there is some reason to believe that in Montana a large majority of the larvae arrive after the buds have opened enough to allow them to crawl into the narrow cracks between the expanding leaves. It is instinctive with these larvae to get out of sight as soon as pos- sible, and once inside the opening buds with a few leaves tied to- gether into a nest, sufficient food for the remainder of the larval life is protected in such a way as to make it difficult, if not impossible, to get the poison in contact with the food. If on arriving at the bud, the larvae finds its sufficiently open to allow it to crawl in, in all probability very little food is taken from the surface parts. If, on the other hand the bud is still closed, more or less of the surface is eaten in boring to the center. If the part of the bud through which the larvai eats its way is coated with a pois- on, a fatal dose may be taken but at this season of the year the buds are very rapidly swelling and a bud that is well coated one day may two days later, on account of the expansion of the surface parts, be so insufficiently covered as to be harmless to the larva that enters it. As is well known to all fruit growers, some trees expand their leaves earlier than others, and again peach buds open before most apple buds. Again, after the bud may be said to be fully expanded the inner terminal growing shoot continues to put forth new leaves. These leaves are the ones that form the food of the larvae and they expand within the nest where they are not easily reached with a spray. Considering how admirably the insect is protected by nature and its own habits, its control when in its spring nest is at least un- certain. The problem is less perplexing when only nursery trees or trees in a young orchard are concerned. Under such circumstances hand picking of the nests should be very satisfactory. In picking the nests, however, care should be taken not to allow the larvae to es- cape to the ground for they would probably return to the trees. A pail, not a basket, shold be used in gathering the nests, which should be burned or thoroughly saturated with kereosene oil. If left in a pile at the side of the field, the chances are that some of the larvae would complete their development to the moth and fly to the trees. 208 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. There seems to be some promise of good results from the use of summer sprrys applied at the time the eggs are hatching.- As is indicated cn a previous page, the very young larva on hatching from the egg passes to the under side of some leaf where it spins a delicate tube from the end of which it issues for getting its food which it takes from the surface parts of the leaf. If this part of the leaf be coated with a poison, the treatment should be successful. It would be necessary to get the coating on before the larva spins its web on the surface. The spray should be directed against the under side of the leaves. For this purpose we recommend the use of arsenate of lead in pre- ference to Paris gieen on account of the much greater adhesive quality of the former insecticide. Arsenate of lead sticks to the foli- age through severe rain storms and when applied in the spring may be found still adhering in the fall giving a whitish color to the leaves. For this reason it has a particular advantage in the treatment of the newly hatched larvae of the bud moth. In controlling the insect we recommend the following: (1) . Pick by hand and destroy the nests on nursery and young orchard trees. ’ * (2) . Spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead in the spring of the year just as the buds are expanding. 3). Spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead about June 15.. Give particular attention to coating the under surface of the foliage. CONCLUSION. This is a serious insect pest and one that the fruit grower would do well to become familiar with and suppress before it takes pos- session of his orchard. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 209 THE OYSTER=SHELL BARK=LOUSE. Lepidosaphes ulmi (Linn.) This widely known injurious species is the only scale insect of im- portance to the fruitgrower that, so far as is known to the writer, has been recognized in Montana. It appears to be generally distributed in the state, particularly west of the main divide, where in some cases it has proved to be a serious enemy to apple frees. One orchard of 800 trees in the. Bitter Root valley is so badly infested as to show its sickly condition at a considerable distance. Nearly every smaller limb and twig on the greater number of the trees is thickly incrusted. There can be little doubt that this scale insect, which was known jn Europe upward of a century ago, was imported into Anierica on nursery stock by the early settlers and later transferred to Mon- tana from other parts of the United States in the same way. FOOD PLANTS. The oyster-shell bark-louse has been recorded on a large number of food plants, the total number for America being about forty. The list included, beside apple and pear, various other fruits and prac- tically all the more important shade trees of northern United States. Dr. Howard has suggested that eventually two species instead of one may be found in the series in the list of food plants. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS. If during the winter one of the female scales be turned over it will be found to contain a mass of very minute yellowish-white eggs, and in the pointed anterior end of the scale, the shrivelled body of the female. Dr. Howard has found the eggs under each scale to vary in number from 42 to 86. In the New England states these eggs hatch about the first of June, varying in different years according to the forwardness of the season.. We have had but little opportunity to make observation on this point in Montana, and have but one record. On June 5, 1903, none of the eggs had hatched at Lo Lo. -The young (Fig 3, c.) are able to walk immediately after hatching, and working their way out 210 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. from under the protecting cover of the parent scale they crawl to other parts of the twigs, principally to the young shoots which at that time of year are tender and succulent. In rare cases they settle on the fruit of the apple and pear. c After settling down and inserting into the bark the long thread- like hairs through which the juices of the plant are extracted, the Figure 2. — Oyster-shell Bark-louse- a, female scale from below showing eggs; b, same from above, greatly enlarged; c, female scales; d, male scales enlarged; e, male scales natural size. (Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Deyt. of Agr.) insect goes through remarkable changes. From pores in the back, principally at the hinder part of the body, a glandular secretion ap- pears, and from it the scale is formed. The female molts or casts the outer skin twice and the male once. The cast skins are incorporated in the scales (See Fig. 2, b). After molting both sexes continue to grow, the female attaining a much larger size than the male; com- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 211 pare b. and d. of Fig. 2 The scales indicate approximately the com- parative sizes of the insects under them. The mature male and fe- male are very dissimilar in appearance. The male has long anter- nae, a pair of eyes, three pairs of legs, one pair of wings and at the end of the abdomen a long sharp-pointed organ. The female has no antennae, eyes, legs or wings, these parts all being lost in the first molt. When mature, the body of the female reaches to the posterior end of the scale, but as tlr®gs are laid the body shrinks and be- oomes shortened and when the full number of eggs has been laid it may be found lifeless, at the anterior end, the cavity under the scale now being occupied with the eggs. As previously stated, in this con- dition the insect passes the winter. The adult male and female are* shown at Fig. 3. In the northern part of the United States there is only one annual generation but in the South there are two. REMEDY. Insects of this character, covered as they are by a scale that fits closely to the bark, are not easily killed by contact insecticides. The most vulnerable point in their life appears to be just at the time the young are hatching and settling on the bark. We have previously recommended the use of kerosene emulsion as a remedy for this insect, in the strength of one part to nine of water. Various reports to the effect that this treatment has not been effective in Montana, have come to this office, but inquiry has shown that in all these cases there is no certainty that the ap- plication was made at the correct time. We can do no better than to repeat our previous recommendation to watch closely for the hatching of the eggs about the first of June and spray with with kerosene to the strength above mentioned, after the young have hatched. If, after a few days, more living lice are found the treat- ment may be repeated. EXPERIMENTS WITH LIME, SULPHUR AND SALT WASH AS A REMEDY. We take this opportunity to present the results of experiments conducted at Lo Lo, Montana, in the early spring of 1903, for the 212 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. puropse of determining the value or non-value of the lime, sulphur and salt wash, and certain modifications of the wash, as a means of destroying the eggs of this scale insect. The experiments were conducted in the apple orchard of Mr. Delaney. At the time, pear buds were swollen almost to the point of expanding their first leaves and apple buds were slightly swollen. j Figure 3. Oyster-shell Bark-louse; a. adult male; b, foot of same; c, young larve; d, antenna of same; e, adult female taken from scale; a, c, e, greatly enlarged; b. d, more enlarged. (Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dept, of Agr.) The trees are large and were badly infested with this insect. Seven to nine trees were used in each experiment, each lot being sprayed with a different mixture, but the total number of trees used consti- tuted but a small proportion of the orchard. The spraying was done April 21 and 22. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 213 One lot was sprayed with the wash as follows: Lime . . Sulphur Salt . . . Water . I pound. . I pound. . I pound. 4 gallons. Lot two was sprayed with the following : Lime i pound. Sulphur I pound. Water 4 gallons. Lot three was sprayed with : Lime pound Sulphur I pound Water 4 gallons. In the fourth lot lime only was used as follows : Lime i pound. Water 8 gallons. Two subsequent visits were made to the orchard, one before the hatching of the eggs and one after, but I could not find the least evidence of any good having been accomplished by any of the four treatments. 214 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. APPLE LEAF=APHIS. Aphis pomi DeG. 'A few years ago practically all the accounts of plant lice on the foliage of apple trees were written of one species, which was known under the scientific name, Aphis mali Linn. Dr. John B. Smith, of Rutgers College, New Jersey, and others, had noticed that accounts of the insects in other localities did not agree with their own observ- ations, but not until Prof. E. Dwight Sanderson* published the results of his investigations, v/as it made clear that, instead of having one apple aphis in the United States we have several. We have at least two species in Montana, but one of these, the Apple Leaf-aphis, is far more common than the other and is respon- sible for practically all the injuries. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF INJURY. No fruit pest has been more frequently inquired about in the let- ters to this Station than has this aphis. These letters, as well as the writer’s experience in various parts of the state, show conclusively that the species are very troublesome and at times a very injurious pest. It is universally felt that as a rule young trees are much more susceptible to attack than trees in bearing. The writer’s field notes re- cord one notable exception to this in the case of a large orchard in Flathead county, composed of trees which had been in bearing for many years, which were so badly infested as to have the foliage with- ered, and the fruit undersized and poor. A prominent characteristic of the work of the aphis is the curling of the leaves. In this respect there is a marked difference between the effect on the tree of the work of this species and of “Fitche’s apple aphis,” which, on the whole, is more common in the United States. In curling, the deformed leave usually takes a characteristic shape. The surface becomes irregularly raised and the whole leaf curls bringing the under surface inside and the upper surface exposed. The tip of the leaf rests upon its base, not in the middle, but to one side ♦Thirteenth Annual Report of the Deleware College Agricultural Experiment Station. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 215 Figure 4. Wingless viviparous female on left; oviparous female on right — greatly enlarged. (Sanderson, 13 Ann. Kept. N. J. Exp. Station). Dr the other of the mid-rib. The lice live inside of the curled leaf, a fact which has much to do with the difficulty in controlling them with insecticidal spiays. There is some reason to believe that the presence of the lice in I arge numbers on a tree has the effect of keeping the sap in the f:ree late in the fall, thereby making it more liable to injury by j:old weather. It -’s certain that badly infested leaves on the ends of ;;he new growth often fail to mature and remain on the tree through- DUt the winter. This is often noticeable on trees in the nursery row. The general injurious effect of the lice is to check the normal growth of the tree. This office has many records of this effect in a serious degree. We have never found this louse occurring in great numbers on the rioting buds in the spring as is often the case with ‘‘Fitche’s apple iphis.” As a rule, only a few scattering lice are to be found arly in the season, and our exeprience has shown that frequently mly here and there a tree will be found infested in the spring of the ,'ear, though as the season progresses the lice will gradually spread hroughout the orchard. 216 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY. Like many other plant lice, the apple-aphis passes the winter in . the egg state. In the spring the eggs hatch, producing very minute, ' dark greenish lice which may be found crawling about over the sur- ; face of the bark or closely nestled on the young buds and expanding leaves. The spring of 1902 was looked upon as being very cold and back-j ward in the Gallatin valley, and the writer was much surprised in ■ going into the Station orchard on April i6th to find an abundance of newly hatched lice. The buds had not started and were no more swollen than they were the fall before. There had been a few days i of hot weather which had caused the lice to hatch, but had not been : of long enough duration to start the buds. Part of the lice had been : feeding and had distinctly increased in size. ! On April 19 a cold storm came and on the 20th there were aboutq three inches of snow. For the next few days the writer was out of ; town, but on May i the trees were examined and the lice were found i to have been nearly all killed. Only two living ones could be found 1 and many dead bodies were still attached to the twigs. Since that \ Figure 5. Winged viviparous female greatly enlarged. (Sanderson, 13th Ann. Kept. N. J I Exp, Station. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 217 time, we have observed a similar, though less extensive, early hatch- ing and killing of the lice. If not destroyed by natural enemies or climatic conditions, the young lice in due time become mature and begin to produce young. Dr. Smith of New Jersey* found that about fifteen days were requir- ed for the first genet ation to reach maturity after hatching. The lice are known as the “Stem mothers,” (See Fig. 4, b). They are wing- less and are greenish in color. No males are produced from the eggs and the stem mothers are able to produce young without them. The young of the second generation (ofispring of the stem moth- ers) are produced alive — not hatched from eggs — and are able to begin feeding almost immediately. They settle down near the moth- er and one may often find a stem mother with her large family close by her. Our office notes show that the stem mother gives birth to young at the rate of from one to fourteen per day, and that she con- tinues day after day for fully eighteen days, producing an average Figure 6, Male of the oviparous generation greatly enlarged. (Sander- son 14th Ann. Kept. N. J. Exp. Station. number of about six or seven. Thus each stem mother produces lully loo young. *Bulletin 143 of the N. J. Experiment Station. 218 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Dr. Smith found that the second generation matures in nine or ten,’ days and that of chis series about three-fourths are winged; that the- third series matures in about two weeks, less than one-half being' winged and that thereafter no more winged forms appear but that.i seven series of parthenogenetic females in all appear before the end... of the season. The 8th and last series is made up of males and females.,') Late in October, after the mating of the sexes, the females deposit!- the eggs which remain on the trees during the winter. Figure 4,,i right hand figure, shows an oviparous female. Figure 6, a male of- the oviparous generation. A part or all of the winged individuals of the early generations fly . to other trees. A winged parthenogenetic female is shown at Fig. 5. , The eggs are minute, glossy black objects, oval in shape. Thty^' may be found on any part of the tree from the base of the trunk to the; ' tips of the twigs, and are usually more abundant in the crevices of . the bark and around the buds than on the exposed, smooth surfaces. A very large proportion of the eggs, probably upward of 90 per, cent, failed to hatch during the three years that we had the' species under special study. NATURAL ENEMIES. Of the various natural enemies that feed upon the plant lousei ■ none is of greater value than the Fire-marked Lady-bug {Hyperas- pis 5 -signata) . Next in importance are certain species of syrphujr flies. Besides these we have observed a Braconid parasite, a smal fly that has not yet been named and the “Aphis Lion.” After two years of close observation of the babits of this lady bug we are prepared to say that it is a very prominent factor in tlitj* prevention of the aphis from becoming exceedingly abundant an(| destructive. During the latter part of May and in June the beetlef were found in great numbers in the Experiment Station orchard, an( in various other orchards, running rapidly over the limbs and twig in search for the young aphids. The number they eat when in con finements is astonishing. In a previous paragraph we have called attention to the fact tha; only a comparatively small number of stem mothers are to be founo : 1 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 219 early in the season and that the large numbers to be found later in the season is the result of the rapid multiplication. It. is apparent, therefore, that the comparatively small number of lice that the bee- tles eat early in the season must have a great effect in the abundance of the lice later in the season. Though the larvae of this lady-bug eat large numbers of the lice later in the season when they have become very abundant, we look upon the work that they do as being of much less value than that of the adults. 220 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION The Surphus fly larvae are probably of greater usefulness than the larvae of the lady-bug since they are usually more abundant, but like the beetle larvae, they do not appear on the scene until the lice have become abundant and are multiplying with such rapidity that it would require a large number of destroyers to dispose of the increase alone. Figure 8 illustrates a common species of lady-bug of the East, while at Figure 2, plate i, is shown an adult of the species here discussed. Figures 3 and 4 of the same plate show the eggs of the same species and at Figure 5 is shown a full grown larva. Figure 8, The Two Spotted Lady Bug; a. larva; b, mouth parts of same; c, claw of same; d, pupa; e, adult; f, antenna — all enlarged. (Marlott Circular 7, Sec. Series, Division of Ento- mology U, S. Dept. Agr.) REMEDIES FOR APPLE LEAF-APHIS. In spraying for this aphis we would emphasize the importance of watching for the individual infested trees here and there in the orch- ard and treating them before the lice spread to the other trees. In Ofdier words, the spraying for the apple leaf-aphis should be done and out of the way early in the season, for under ordinary circumstances, when vigorously fought early in the summer, though some lice es- cape, there will be so few left that the natural enemies will be able to keep them from overrunning the orchard. The value of prompt treatment is apparent when ! we ^•ealize the enormous power of multiplication with which nature has endowed these insects. In a previous para- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 221 graph we have shown that the stem mother’s maxi- mum power of production is upward of lOO young, and is probable that later generations can give birth to a similar number. Acting on the basis that all of the young of each generation come to maturity and produce the full number of young, we find that the progeny of one stem mother during one summer is something enor- mous. 1st generation i aphis. 2nd generation loo aphids. 3rd generation 10,000 aphids. 4th generation 1,000,000 aphids. 5th generation 100,000,000 aphids. 6th generation 10,000,000,000 aphids. 7th generation 1,000,000,000,000 aphids. Thus starting with one aphis in the spring we would have in the seventh generation one trillion aphids, a number which the human mind cannot appreciate. Under natural conditions, however, the in- sects are decreased in number from one cause and another, all thro’ the season, so that, while they increase very rapidly, they never do so to the extent above indicated. At the same time, however, it is easily seen that the destruction of a large proportion of the first and second generations will very markedly affect the numbers through- out the season: There seems to be little doubt that the killing of the first generation, by inclement weather in some seasons and the absence of storms in other seasons account for the great variation in abundance and destructiveness of this louse in different seasons. Because of the great difficulty in controlling the insect after the leaves of the trees have become curled, the writer has undertaken to learn if it is feasible to destroy it in other ways. An extensive seriv's of experiments in fumigation with the deadly hydro- cyanic acid gas was conducted. In these experiments we used a large canvas tent, a large paper box and a small air-tight wooden box constructed for such work. We will not at this time give the detailed results of these ex- periments but will indicate the lessons they taught. Detailed instruc- tions for the use c>i this substance will be found on another page of this report. (See index.) 222 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. We found that every aphis could be killed without the least injury to the foliage. Even though the experiments were conducted in both cloudy and bright, hot weather, not a leaf was injured in the whole series of tests. We used the cyanide in strengths varying from o.io grams per cubic foot of inclosed space up to 0.30 grams and while o.io gram killed practically all the lice, and, on the other hand, 0.30 did not ii'jure we decided upon 0.20 gram per cubic foot as being the suit- able amount to use in practical work. The time of exposure was 20 minutes. Considering the fact that by a timely and persistent use of sprays and washes the aphis may be brought under control, I very much doubt if this treatment should be considered as a suitable remedy except in the case of very large owners or in company orchards where the expense of providing a complete fumigation outfit would be juslified. Having the equipment already at hand it would cost about 4^ cents per tree to treat a large orchard. Information rgarding fumigation boxes suitable for such work as this may be obtained from Professor Johnson’s work on fumigation published by the Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York. We also undertook a series of experiments with the use of the lime-sulphur and salt wash as means of destroying the egg during the winter. We sprayed a series of trees with this wash and modifications of it in the Experiment Station orchard and at Lo ]^o. .Subsequent examinations of the trees at Bozeman showed that while none of the eggs hatched on the trees that were sprayed they also failed to hatch on all the other trees in the same part of the orchard that had not been sprayed. We therefore felt that the experiment had taught us nothing. The Lo Lo experiment also failed to be of value for the same reason. During the past few days a bulletin from the Idaho Experiment Station, written by Proffessor Aldrich (Buletin No. 40) entitled “Winter Spraying for Aphis Eggs” has come to my desk. The bulletin gives in detail Prof. Aldrich’s experience in the use of seven different sprays used in the winter treatment of eggs of this aphis. The seven sprays are the following: I. Pure kerosene. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 223 2. Kerosene emulsion, one-third kerosene. 3. Kerosene emulsion, one-fifth kerosene. 4. Sulphur and lime wash, 1-1-2. (One pound sulphur, one pound lime, two gallons water.) 5. Sulphur and lime, 1-1-4. 6. Sulphur and lime, 1-1-8. 7. Crude petroleum emulsion, 10 per cent, strength. From the results of his experiments Prof. Aldrich drew the fol- lowing conclusions : “Crude petroleum could not be uniformly applied. The emulsion was very unstable, and the oil is much too thick to apply pure. No damage resulted to the trees, but in many cases the eggs of lice were not destroyed. Pure kerosene seriously injured the trees to which it was applied, but killed all the eggs. Kerosene emulsion of one-third strength injured the foliage to some extent, though not very seriously ; it did not kill the eggs with any uniformity. Tn one-fifth strength it did not injure the foliage, but was not at all effective in killing the eggs. Sulphur and lime did not injure the foliage in the least, however strong. In the 1-1-2 and 1-1-4 proportions it killed almost all the eggs; it is a question whether the very few that hatched had not been missed by the spray. Of the seven kinds of spray used, the choice for commercial pur- poses would undoubtedly be No. 5, sulphur and lime in the 1-1-4 pro- portion, or what is called the “Piper formula.” 1-1-4 proportion is probably a successful winter treatment, it will be applicable only on small trees that can be closely examined and thor- oughly sprayed. In conclusion, we recommend that Montana apple growers make careful, conclusive tests of the 1-1-4 lime-sulphur wash as a winter treatment, and mean while place their main dependence on the use of kerosene emulsion and whale-oil soap or quassia-whale oil soap solution, spraying trees that are generally infested and dipping the lie further concluded that while the lime-sulphur wash in the extremeties of limbs that are infested only at the ends of the branches. Formulae for these washes are given on a later page. (See index.) 224 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. THE FLAT=HEADED APPLE=TREE BORER. Chrysobothris femorata Fab. One of the most troublesome insect pests with which the Mon- tana fruit-grower has to contend, is an apple-tree borer, which in the larval stage is expanded and flattened near the anterior end, as shown ii] figure 9, a, an appearance which has led to its being called “the flat-headed borer.” Besides attacking the apple, the borer has been recorded also on various other deciduous trees, among which are pear, peach, oak, maple, mountain ash, box-elder, hickory, chestnut, sycamore, horse chestnut, redbud and currant. Mr. F. H. Chittenden of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, from whose circular, (Circ. 32, Division of Entomology) many of the facts in this paper are taken, states that cherry, beach and white birch are probably food plants, while an unknown authority has stated that elm, tulip, and cotton- wood are also host-plants. Although not considered to be a pest of first class importance this species has been doing a great deal of damage in this state, par- ticularly in the Bitter Root valley, and there is an increasing demand for information concerning its habits and the means of controlling it. It has been particularly destructive on young orchard trees, gird- ling the trunk near the ground and killing the trees. The accompany- ing photograph (see Plate III, Figure 7) shows the manner in which many trees have been affected and killed in Montana. The only ex- planation the writer has to offer as to the cause for. the rather unus- ual numbers of this insect, is that under the climatic conditions in Montana trees seem to be affected to a considerable extent with sun- scald, an affection which leaves the trees in an inviting and favorable condition for this insect. It has long been known that this insect prefers for a breeding place trees that have been previously weakened by some other cause. Observation has shown that trees which have been injured on' the side exposed to the winter’s sun are often selected by the adult in depositing their eggs. Young trees are affected principally on the main stem close to the ground, but on old trees the borers work on any part of the tree except the smaller limbs and branches. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 225 Like other members of the same family of beetles (Biiprestidae) the adults are diurnal in habits and are most active during the heat of the day. By a close search in an infested orchard during the sea- son of the year when the adults are out, one may find them basking in the sun on the trunks of the trees and on prostrate logs. DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE IN MONTANA The flat-headed apple-tree borer is a native of North America insect. In spite of this fact, however, we believe that it is an in- troduced species in Montana. None of its principal food plants, so far as known, are native to the state, or if present, occur only spar- ingly, and moreover, its presence has been detected only in restrict- ed localities. We think it much more probable that the insect was brought into the state on some of the earliest shipments of trees from the older apple growing regions. It is a widely distributed pest throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and in southern Canada. Figure 9. Flat-beaded Apple-tree Borer, a, larva; b, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa — twice natural size. (Chittenden, Circular 82, Sec, Series, Div, of Entomology U. S. Dept, of Agr.) LIEE HISTORY. The eggs, which are pale brown and about one-eighth of an inch long, are laid on the trees during the hot summer months. One ob- server, Dr. Riley, found them being laid from June to September, but our observations in Montana indicate that while a few beetles may be found on the trees later in the season the majority are out and 226 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. depositing their eggs late in June, and early in July. In about three weeks the eggs hatch and the young larvae bore under the bark, where they feed for three years, first just under the bark and later in the woody parts of the stem. On young trees they most common- ly occur at about the surface of the ground as shown in the photo- graph above referred to. The location of the burrow may often be detected from the outside by the discoloration or slightly sunken condition of the bark. At the end of three years from the time the egg was deposited the beetle bores out from the pupal chamber which it constructed at the end of its larval life. The sexes mate and the eggs are de- posited for the new generation. NATURAL ENEMIES. The downy wood-pecker which is so common in Montana and which is so often seen in our orchards, is the fruit-grower’s friend. Besides picking up miscellaneous pests it locates burrows of this borer and extracts them in considerable numbers. In the older orchards of Montana scarcely a tree can be found that does not bear the marks of wood-peckers, a large proportion of which are made by this species. METHODS OF CONTROL. Borers as a class of pests are difficult to control. When once in a tree they cannot be reached with an insecticide. They may in many cases be removed by means of a sharp knife and a wire but their presence is not usually detected until a large part of the dam- age has been accomplished, and the injury done to the tree in re- moving the larvae may be greater than would be done if they were left to do their worst. It has been found, therefore, that clean, strong, cultural methods and the use of deterrent application on the trees, both of which are preventatives, constitute the best means of control. In the first place, in planting out a young orchard the trees should not be allowed to become weakened and so rendered liable to attack. ATung trees in an exposed position should be protected against the strong rays of the winter’s sun. The alternate thawing and freezing on the exposed side of the trunk produces the condition MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 known to all as sun-scald, and makes typical conditions for the bor- ers. Dead or worthless trees should not be allowed to stand and become a menace to the healthy ones. It is a bad practice to have a brush pile made up of dead trees and primings at the side of the field. Such piles should be burnt very frequently, for they soon become nurseries of pests. In a locality known to be infested with this borer it is often de- sirable to use deterrent applications on the trunks and larger limbs of both .weakened 2nd healthy trees. For this purpose, a number of substances have been recommended. Some use old newspapers as mechanical barriers placed about the base of the tree. Mr. Chittenden recommends that these papers be put on the trunk for about two feet from the ground up, and that above the pa- per a carbolated or akaline wash be applied. Wire netting is some- times used. The paper and netting not only prevent the deposition of eggs but also prevent the escape of the beetles that emerge underneath them. Among the substances that may be used as washes to make the surface of the trees objectionable to the adult beetles and so prevent them from depositing their eggs are the following: 1. A thick solution of whale-oil soap. 2. Soft soap rendered thick by the addition of caustic soda or potash in solution. 3. Either of the above washes would probably be made more effective by the addition of crude carbolic acid at the rate of one pint to ten gallons of the wash. James Good, 939 and 941 North Front Sstreet, Philadelphia, Pa., offers for sale a product known as Caustic Potash Whale-oil Soap, which of itself would be a good substance for this purpose. It should be diluted with sufficient water to make a thick fluent mass, and applied to the trunk and limbs of the trees to be protected. Such washes when not of a quality that makes them injurious to the hands, are sometimes applied by a man wearing old mittens or socks that are saturated with the wash. 228 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. THE PEAR=LEAF BUSTER MITE. {Phytoptus pyri Scheuten.) Though probably of European origin the pear-leaf blister-mite is now widely disseminated throughout the world, having been dis- tributed by the agency of traffic in nursery stock. It is sparingly dis- tributed in Montana, but where well established is a troublesome pest. NATURE OE INJURY. As the leaf-buds of affected trees unfold in the spring there may be seen red blister-like spots and blotches which in severe cases may involve practically all the surface of the leaf. At first the galls are more distinctly seen on the upper surface of the leaves but later in the season the spots turn brown, owing to the death of the tissues com- prising the blisters, when the affected spots become more apparent on the under side of the leaves. The blotches often take the shape of elongated patches one on each side of the midrib. In each blister, on the under side of the leaf, may be seen one or more minute holes that lead to the cavity of the blister and usu- ally visible only under a lense or microscope. Within these blisters composed of abnormal plant tissues, the mites live, feeding on the juices of the plant. Under the shelter of these galls they are very well protected, not only from wind and rain which might easily sweep them off, but also against insecticidal treatment. The tissues on the inside of the galls also furnish better facility for the mites to acquire nourishment than would the thicker layers of cells on the surface. The freshly formed galls are thick and succulent, but as they die and turn brown they shrivel and dry. Badly affected trees lose their foliage long before the normal time which must be an injury to the health of the tree. THE MITE. The mites that produce these galls are very minute, being scarcely visible to the naked eye. Under a high power microscope, the body is seen to be elongated in form, about four times as long as wide, and has the appearance on the surface of being made up of r MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 229 a large number of fine rings. There are four legs, all of which are placed at the anterior end of the body and though small they enable the mite to move rapidly. The head is made up chiefly of a conical snout within which are two lance-like jaws. To cover a linear inch about 150 mites placed end to end would be required. LIFE HISTORY. From the eggs which are laid in the galls by the parent mites the young hatch, and, crawling out of the hole, go in search of an uninjured spot in the leaf. Then, boring through the surface they start new galls. The mites remain in the galls until the end of the season when they crawl to the buds and seek shelter for the winter under the scales. Some mites remain on the leaves too long and are borne to the ground when the leaves fall. MEANS OE DISTRIBUTION. Of itself the mite cannot travel far. Eor distant dissemination it is dependent upon outside agencies and has doubtless been spread from country to country on nursery stock. From tree to tree in the same vicinity they may be carried on the feet of the birds, or blown by the wind on the leaves in the fall of the year. REMEDIES. The only vulnerable point in the life cycle of this mite is when it is secreted under the bud scales after the leaves have fallen. Prof. M. V. Slingerland found that the mite “can be nearly exterminated 'in a badly infested orchard by a single thorough spraying of the trees in winter with kerosene emulsion diluted with five to seven parts of water.” In all cases of treatment with a spray or winter wash, we recommend that no twigs or branches that have been pruned ofif be left on the ground. We recommend that the leaves from infested trees be gathered and burned and not allowed to blow about. Having learned from various fruit-growers of the state that they had not found the kerosene emulsion treatment to be satisfactory, 1 230 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ^ the writer undertook a series of tests the lime-sulphur-salt wash as a remedy. The experiments were conducted in the orchard of Mr. C. M. Allen of Lo Lo. I would here express my gratitude to this gentleman for many courtesies extended to me, both in connec- tion with these experiments and at other times. In the experiments Mr. Allen’s entire orchard of 190 trees was used and we feel entire confidence in the results we obtained. The spraying was done on April 21 and 22, the pear buds being swollen almost to the point of opening. In the various tests we used the following: Spray No. i.’ Lime i pound. Sulphur I pound. Salt I pound. Water 4 gallons. Spray No. 2. Lime i pound. Sulphur I pound. Water 4 gallons. Spray No. 3. Lime Sulphur Water Yz pound. I pound. 4 gallons. Spray No. 4. Lime i pound. Water 8 gallons. Ten trees were used in experiment No. 4 (lime and water only) i and ten trees were left unsprayed. The remaining trees were about: evenly divided in experiments Nos. i, 2, and 3. The results of the tests were very satisfactory and seemed con- clusive. The mites Avere practically exterminated on all trees treat- 1 ed with sprays i, 2, and 3. The mites on the ten trees sprayed with No. 4 were, so far as we could determine, wholly uninjured. These trees and the ten left unsprayed were badly affected with the mites after the foliage expanded. Directly the other side of a barbed wire fence are more pear trees badly affected with the mite. The two pear orchards are really; MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 231 but one, since Mr. Allen’s orchard was purchased and fenced off from the other larger one, the fence, in fact, passing diagonally through one row. The trees on the other side of the fence were badly infested the following summer, thus- giving us greater con- fidence in the efficiency of our treatment. It appears that all of the first three sprays were equally effective Spray No. 3 ^-1-4 contains only enough lime to cause the sul- phur to go into solution, thereby making the caustic ingredient of the mixture. The spray when ready to apply is clear and transparent instead of milky as is No. 2, which has an excess of lime. In spray No. I, the excess of lime goes onto the tree merely as a whitewash. We are not prepared to say that there is not some benefit in having this excess of lime, and for the present we recommend the use of spray No. 2. We do not feel that the addition of salt in spray No. i renders the wash of any more value. In conclusion, we recommend, as a means of holding this mite in control, a thorough spraying with lime-sulphur-salt wash in the 1-1-4 proportion, in the spring of the year before the buds open. Directions for the pieparation of this wash will be found on another page of this report. (See index.) 232 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. GRASSHOPPERS. During the past three years a considerable amount of damage was done by grasshoppers in eastern Montana. An extensive territory was more or less affected, in some localities the grasshoppers being, so abundant that there was no vegetation left. From this extreme there was every gradation down to no injury. During these three years the grasshoppers steadily increased and the seriously aft'ected territory was extended. The injuries have been principally confined to the fenced and open ranges used by the stockmen in grazing cattle, sheep and horses, but some damage was done to grains, cultivated grasses and alfalfa. We received reports also of damage to fruit trees and to garden crops. Coincidental with the appearance of the grasshoppers has been a series of years in which the rain and snowfall has been much below the average. Aside from any direct or indirect influence which this scarcity of moisture may have had on the unusual increase of grass- hoppers, it certainly very much shortened the crop of grass. While the amount of grass that the grasshoppers ate would have beeni missed even if there had been a full growth, it is certain that what| they took was more seriously missed on account of the scarcity of| grass. ^ I Roughly speaking, the territory injured through the combined effects of dry weathei and grasshoppers may be said to be embraced in that part of Montana drained by the Yellowstone river east of the town of Big Timber. Not only were the valleys of the tributaries of the Yellowstone affected but the cross country as well. W e also received reports of injury in other scattering localities. One report came through Townsend from the country northeast of that towni and we were notified of injury on the range in the eastern part ofj Madison county. One species, the yellow-winged locust, was very abundant in re-i stricted localities in and about the Gallatin valley. We also noted the big-headed grasshopper to be more abundant than in previous years and in two instances the yellow-striped locust was found in great numbers in the edges of this valley. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 233 INJURY NOT CAUSED BY THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. Many persons have supposed the ‘"old-fashioned” or Rocky I Mountain Migratory Locust to be responsible for the losses in Mon- tana. Our investigations of the subject, however, show that no one 1 species is alone the cause of the loss and the above species {Melan- oplus spretus Uhler) if present in the state at all is very rare. Dur- ing the five summers that I have been collecting in all parts of Mon- tana I have not captured a single example of this interesting species. Moreover, I learn by letter from Prof. Gillette of Colorado that he has had a similar experience, having been unable to find any speci- mens during a longei period in his state. In our various trips into the worst affected regions we found a fairly Uniform state of affairs throughout. On the range two or three species, taken together, constitute a large proportion of the total number, though in restricted localities one or another species besides these was more abundant. The three most common species on the range were the Big-headed locust, (Aulocara elliotti), the Lesser Migratory locust (Melanoplus atlanis) and the Yellow- winged locust (Camnala pellucida). In point of abundance the Big- headed grasshopper was the leading species of the three. The Less- er Migratory Locust was second in importance. It prefers the dryer uplands to the irrigated valleys, but in many cases it was found in great abundance in grain fields, particularly on the benches and in ;non-irrigated fields. The Yellow-winged Locust is more local in its distribution, Dften occurring in immense numbers in restricted localities and at times becoming very injurious to grasses and grains. We found the two-striped locusts to be common in practically all the cultivated fields that were injured by grasshoppers. This species was particularly injurious to alfalfa, the succulent stems and leaves of this plant apparently suiting its taste. LILE HISTORY. All our particularly injurious species are alike in the main fea- tures of their life history. The winter is passed in the egg stage in 234 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. the ground. The eggs are about one-fifth of an inch in length and! are deposited in compact masses or “pods” which are arranged ver- |] tically, or slightly inclined, just below the surface of the ground. In making the hole in the ground to receive the eggs, the female ;; makes use of special organs at the extremety of the abdomen. Plac-.4 ing the point of the abdomen against the ground the pointed organs;] work rapidly back and forth and as the hole is made the abdomen |i settles into the earth. When the hole is completed it is filled with if the mass of eggs and a viscid frothy substance. Prof. C. V. Riley’s classic illustration of the process of egg- . laying of the Rocky Mountain Locust, together with his description ii of the process, show that in that species the eggs are laid in four re- gularly parallel rows and that the number of eggs varies between : 20 and 35. He also found that two or three such egg-masses were 1 deposited by each female insect. The two-striped locust lays a larger number of eggs than this '* for we have counted as high as 62, in a mass, and two or three masses . are deposited. The Big-headed Locust {Aulocara elliotti) probably] I deposits only two masses. . In general the places most chosen by the females for the pur- ' poses of egg-laying are those at which the soil is fairly free from:< grass-roots, or other roots that would interfere with boring the; holes. Such places are found on the sides of roads, in abandoned, | roads, among tall weeds, etc. When the mating season comes thei] adults of a species gather into colonies where they stay for the re-ij mainder of their life. As a result, the young are often found in theij spring'of the year in more or less restricted localities. j In our investigations of the outbreak of grasshoppers in Mon-i tana in 1903 we found that the Big-headed grasshopper paid littleil attention to where the eggs were laid ; for miles and miles over the!' denuded ranges the females could be found performing this act. In the spring of the year, in some species earlier than in others, jj the eggs hatch into very small nymphs which on close examinationd are seen to resemble adult grasshoppers, but there are no indicationsii| of wings. As they increase in size and molt from time to time, rudi-; mentary wings appear which increase in prominence with each molt;- until the last when with fully developed wings the insect is maturel MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 235 and ready to lay eggs. While a few species of grasshoppers pass the winter as adults and a much larger number as nymphs, thereby making it possible to find some grasshoppers in the early part of the summer, it is a matter of common knowledge that they are much more commonly seen in August and September. This is not because there are more grasshoppers in the latter part of the season but be- cause when winged they are much more conspicuous than in the younger stages. MONTANA’S MOST COMMON AND DESTRUCTIVE SPECIES. In the following paragraphs we present a few of the leading facts regarding the most common species of grasshoppers that we have taken in middle and eastern Montana. They are not arranged in the order of their importance except the first five or six. Not all the species discussed are of great economic importance' but all are com- mon and liable to be observed by anyone. Since some of the species are not yet known by vernacular names, we have used the scientific name of all, but have given also the popular name when one is known. I am indebted to Prof. Lawrence Bruner of the University of Nebraska for valuable information concerning our species and for the determination of a large number of species including a part of those discussed in this paper. Dr. L. O. Howard of the Division of Entomology at Washington has also very kindly identified a num- ber of species for me. Aulocara elliotti Thomas. THE BIG-HEADED GRASSHOPPER. This grasshopper, in point of numbers, stands first in the series here discussed. While it has been mentioned as being injurious in various parts of the United States, it has never before been consider- ed a prime cause of devastation. It occurs throughout western United States and is a true grass-eating species. When viewed from above or from the side the head is large (see figure) and the tibiae 236 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. are bright blue ; the antennae of the male are long. It occurs prin- cipally on the range, in Montana, having seldom been found in ir- rigated valleys. Melanoplus atlanis Riley. THE LESSER MIGRATORY LOCUST This species is distributed throughout most of the United States and Canada and often becomes so abundant as to be injurious. In Montana we have found it in cultivated fields where it has occasion- ed considerable loss, and on the range where in association with A. elliotti it has been injurious. The tibae are usually red. The size and general appearance of the species are shown on the accompanying plate (Plate IV, figures i and 2). Camnula pellucida Scud. THE YELLOW-WINGED LOCUST. It may be safely said that not a year passes in which this spe- cies does not become injurious in either one part or another of the United States, usually in the northwest. It feeds particularly oil grasses and grain. In Montana it has been found to be local in its distribution and has been destructive on the range in only a few re- stricted areas. The under wings are yellow, the upper wings and general surface of the body are variable in color, between yellow and brown. Melanoplus hivittatus Say. THE* TWO-STRIPED LOCUST. This is among the larger grasshoppers of Montana. It occurs throughout the greater part of the United States. It is especially in- jurious in cultivated fields and so far as our experience goes is practically the only species that has caused injury to alfalfa. The femora have longitudinal stripes and there are two yellowislT stripes on the back. Hlppiscus neglectus Thomas. We found this grasshopper to be fairly common over the larger part of the affected territory. Its appearance is well shown in the accompanying figure. (Plate VI, figure 2.) MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 237 Spharagemon sequale Say. This grasshopper is often met with in the heat of the day, is a strong flyer and a difficult one to catch. In some places it was so common as to be somewhat injurious. Arphia tenebrosa Scudder. This grasshopper fies with a clattering sound, often poises it- self in the air in the heat of the day, remaining in one spot with the wings rapidly vibrating. Chortophaga viridifasciata DeG. THE GOAT-HEADED GRASS- HOPPER. This exceedingly variable species, found in the early part of the season, often assembles in colonies. It varies between bright green and dull brown. Dissosteira Carolina Linn. THE CAROLINA LOCUST. This grasshopper is the species known to most people as the one that poises in the air making a peculiar rattling or rustling sound, settling to the earth as the sound dies out. It occurs commonly along dusty roads and hot, gravelly places as along railroad tracks. The writer has often observed it to be abundant in various parts of Montana. Cordillacris occipitalis Thomas. This species occurs on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains. We have found it very abundant in eastern Montana. Melanoplus dawsoni Scudder. This species when mature has rudimentary wings which reach only about half-way to the end of the abdomen. The under side is yellow, with prominent black bands on the abdomen. It has been common in lowlands in the Gallatin valley and in the Yellowstone valley. 238 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Encoptolophus sordidus Burn. THE CLOUDED GRASSHOPPER Often met with in the field and somewhat resembles C. pelliicida. Acrolophitus hirtipes Say. This grasshopper of striking appearance, is uniformly green throughout. It occurs in restricted localities, often in considerable abundance, where in contrast to other sombre-colored grasshoppers, it is quite conspicuous. INSECT ENEMIES OF GRASSHOPPERS. . Grasshoppers have a large number of parasitic enemies and when the grasshoppers as hosts become abundant, their parasites, because of a plentiful supply of food, become numerous also and soon gain the mastery over the hosts. This balancing process is continually active. While we cannot say positively what is the cause of the ap- pearance in Montana of*grasslioppers in unusual numbers it is prob- able that parasites as a direct or indirect cause have had a great influence. Various correspondents have called our attention to the pre- sence of minute red spots on the bodies of grasshoppers. These red spots are the bodies of a red mite which occurs commonly through- out the state, and which doubtless does some good in preventing the undue increase of grasshoppers. They have often been mistaken for eggs of parasites but there is no reason for confusing the two, since the eggs of parasitic flies are white. In every part of the grasshopper aflected sections of the state that we visited in the summer of 1903 we found dead bodies of grass- hoppers which contained maggots or larvae of a fly. Some of these were reared in the laboratory to the adult stage and the flies were sent to Dr. L. O. Howard for determination. He reported the fly to be Sarcophaga cimhicis Townsend. We are unable to state whether this fly killed the grasshopper or whether the larvae were merely feeding as scavengers on the dead bodies of grasshoppers that had died from other causes. It was noticeable that a blister beetle or Spanish fly whose scientific name has not yet been determined was very abundant throughout the Yelowstone valley from Columbus eastward. We MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 239 received a few letters notifying us that these beetles had been in- jurious to garden phints and other plants of value. This species and various other of the same family (Melodidfie) are well known to be very beneficial in the larval stage as destroyers of the eggs of lo- custs. In brief their life history is the following: In the latter part of the summer they deposit their yellowish colored eggs in the ground, each female producing four or five hundred eggs. The eggs hatch in about ten days into long-legged larvae. These larvae are very active and they run about over the ground search- ing for eggs of locusts, finding an egg pod they enter it and begin devouring the eggs. It is said that if two larvae come upon the same egg-pod a deadly combat oc- curs, resulting in the death of one or the other, leaving the successful contestant sole owner of the store of food. As the larva feeds and grows it molts from time to time producing remark- able changes, until in place of the' long-legged larva there is one with short legs and rudiamentary mouth parts. The mature beetle appears again the next spring. Besides the enemies we have mentioned, which are among the most important, are many others which, taken together, doubtless do much to reduce the number of grasshoppers. REMEDIES. The remedies that have been devised in the various parts of the country are not adapted to the conditions we find on the grasshop- per-ridden ranges of Montana. They apply much better to the agri- cultural fields of the middle west states, but some of them may be used effectively in the agricultural valleys of this state. We give below a few remarks regarding the most important remedies that are known, leaving the farmer to select for himself the one most suitable for his conditions. Ploughing. — Late fall or early spring ploughing is the best of all artificial remedies. It is practiced for the purpose of destroying the eggs and it follows that the eggs must first be located. In our re- marks regarding the habits of grasshoppers we have called atten- tion to the fact that in the breeding season the grasshoppers accumu- late in more or less restricted areas and that the eggs are laid in 240 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. these areas. The observant farmer will locate these patches and by ploug^hing deeply will place the eggs so far under the soil that when the young hatch they will be unable to reach the surface. Even the young hoppers, when very small, may be turned under in the same manner. Where ploughing cannot be resorted to, a thorough harrowing, especially with a disc harrow, will result in the destruction of a large number of the eggs by crushing some and exposing others to their numerous enemies and to frosts. Burning. — When the grasshoppers are young and travel slowly they may be killed on or near the locality where they hatch by covering them with a thin layer of straw and then burning it. In some sections of the west where crude petroleum can be ob- tained at small cost it is sometimes employed in the form of a spray as' a remedy against young hoppers. This oil kills by contact but additional effectiveness can be secured by setting fire to the oil on the ground. Bandages. — Some property owners in IMontana have suffered injury to their fruit trees by grasshoppers. The young may be pre- A’ented from climbing the trees by bandaging the trunks with cot- ton batting, axel giease or some other adhecive substance. As the grasshoppers acquire wings they may fly into the trees and in such cases relief may be secured by the use of poisonous sprays. Hopper-dozers. — Hopper-dozers are metallic pans of any con- A^enient dimensions which are partly filled with kerosene oil and ffrawn about over the field for the purpose of catching the partly grbwn grasshoppers. Many of the insects after hopping into the Fig; 10 Hopper-dozer, after Riley. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 241 pans and getting covered with oil jump out again but these are in- variably killed. The back of the pan is extended vertically by means of a strip of cloth or canvas supported by upright stakes. See Figure 10. In large fields several hopper-dozers are sometimes attached in series by means of a long pole and drawn by two horses, one at each end of the pole. I'wo horses attached in this way are much better than one in the middle of the pole because they tend to gather in the grasshoppers rather than drive them away. The Artificial Use of Diseases. — Under such conditions as occur on the Montana ranges, where the greater part of the injury b}^ grass- hoppers has been done, the artificial use of deadly diseases is an at- tractive subject. If we were able to propagate and distribute a disease which would be communicated from one insect to another and so extended over large areas, the solution of the grasshopper problem would be reached. Various experimenters in the United States have made careful tests of such diseases but thus far very few encouraging results have been secured. Realizing that the artificial use of diseases, though offering small hope of success, constituted the only hope, the Experiment Station through this department made a careful test of what has been called the South African grasshopper fungus disease. A sin- gle tube of this disease from Africa was very kindly given me by Prof. C. P. Gillette of Fort Collins, Colorado. Cultures on potato were made and distributed to about 300 applicants in the state. We also made careful laboratory tests on caged grasshoppers of various species, but so far as we are informed not one grasshopper was kill- ed either in the field or laboratory test. The various other entomolo- gists also failed to get results of decided value. We feel, therefore, that until something entirely new in the form of a disease is known, we will still have to wait for Nature to take her course, except where it is possible, in restricted areas, to use some of the other remedies. CRIDDEL MIXTURE. The substance known by this name has lately come into favor as a grasshopper remedy in some parts of the United States. It was first brought to public attention by Dr. James Eletcher, govern- ment entomologist of Canada, who, at the meeting of official entomo- 242 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. legists at Washingten, D. C., 1903, stated that it had entirely re- placed the cumbersome and inadequate hopper-dozer. It is made as folloAvs : Take one part of Paris green, two parts of salt and 40 parts of horse manure by measure. Add sufficient water to make the mass soft without being fluid. Distribute through the field to be protected in quantity proportioned by the number of hoppers. The material may be scattered from a wagon and because of its cheapness may be used sparingly over fairly extensive areas. We recommend that it be given a very thorough test around* the edges of grain fields and other crops that may be threatened. We know of no remedy to recommend for use on the the ranges. THE COMMON TOAD* It is the purpose of this paper to call attention to the value of the toad to the fruit-grower, the gardener and farmer, to outline its habits and life history and to urge that it be protected against de- struction by thoughtless boys. At first thought an account of Ijie toad may seem out of place in a report of insect life. It is entered, however, on account of my firm belief in its great economic value as a destroyer of terrestrial insects, a large number of which are injurious to. the interests of man. As will be noted, I have freely consulted and often quoted Mr. A. H. Kirkland’s paper that treats of this animal, published as a bulletin of the Massachusetts Experiment Station. His paper is the most valuable that has been published on this subject. FALSE IDEAS CONCERNING THE TOAD. Since before the beginning of the Christian area students have observed toads and written of their habits. Too frequently, hoAvever, actual facts and superstitions have been confounded, wdth the re- sult that the early literature on this interesting and valuable batrach- ian is a queer medley of fact and fiction. For the sake of brevity we will pass over this topic very briefly and omitting an account of the venomous character and medicinal ^Bufo horeas MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 243 virtue, as well as many other equally ludicrous qualities attributed by the ancients of Europe to this harmless and humble animal, will touch upon certain beliefs that are now current in this country. Perhaps the creation of the imaginr* ciciu tlcit is given more cred- ulity than any other, is, that to touch a toad will cause warts on the hand. Other beliefs that have been lield m this countr}^ (\ve hesitate to say that any of them are ucav lield) arc, that to kill a toad will produce bloody milk in cows; that a toad’s breath will cause convulsions in children ; that a toad in a newly dug well will insure a good and unfailing supply : however, it would be difficult to keep a fungicide on the trees. 2, Crown Gall. Various plants, including apple, almond, apricot, blackberry, cherry, chesnut, English walnut, grape, peach, pear, plum, raspberry, and poplar are affected with abnormal growths on the roots which have been called crown-gall. These galls vary from a size as big as a fist or larger down to very small excrescences on the fine roots. Whether or not all of these trees are affected with the same organ- ism is not clear. A serious trouble on apple in Montana. Irrigation seems to favor its development. Remedy.— Do not plant affected trees. Examine the roots of all new stock and discard any that shows even the slightest sign of this disease. 3, Apple Scab. Attacks leaves and fruit and sometimes also the twigs. Circu- lar smoky spots on the fruit which interfere with its development. Spots begin to appear when the fruit is about half grown. They 260 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. may be as large as a dime, but are usually smaller. On the leaves the fungus appears as dark olive green spots which do not have a distinct border line and occur mostly on the upper side fo the leaf. Remedy. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture three times and ammon- iacal copper carbonate (cupram) twice. First spraying of Bordeaux should be applied just before the blossom open, the second just after the petals fall, the third about ten or twelve days later. The two sprayings of cupram should follow the Bordeaux at intervals of two weeks. Bordeaux is not used in the last two sprayings since it causes the fruit to russet. 4, Pear Scab. So similar to apple scab that no separate account is necessary. Remedy. — Treat as for apple scab. 5, Pear Blight or Fire Blight. Attacking individual limbs of pear, and occasionally apple and quince also. Rapidly spreading until the whole tree may be in- volved. The foliage turns suddenly brown as if by fire and an ex- amination under the bark shows a fermented condition. This dis- ease is believed to be distributed by insects that visit the flowers, as well as by other means. Remedy. — Cut out the disease as soon as it appears and prune again whenever necessary. Always cutting below the point where the disease is reached. It is usually best to cut at least a foot below the point where the disease appears to end. 6 . Gooseberry Mildew. This troublesome disease usually appears in the spring upon the developing buds and leaves, first showing as a sparse cob-webby coating, which later develops into a denser white, powdery coating. The young berries are also attacked. A serious disease which very much interferes with the growdng of choice foreign varieties. Remedy. — Spray with potassium sulphite at the rate of one- half ounce to one gallon of water, making the first application as soon as the leaves begin to unfold, repeating the operation at enter- vals of one to three weeks. The ammoniacal solution of copper car- bonate would probably be equally effective. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 261 INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. Arsenate of Lead. This valuable insecticide is rapidly coming to the front as a safe and reliable arsenical poison. It can be applied to the foliage in any desired strength without injury, and when applied remains through rain storms. Its white color may be detected on the leaves thereby serving as a guide in its application. It is made by the union of acetate of lead and arsenate of soda, both being soluble in water. It is no longer necessary for the user to make his own arsen- ate of lead for it is now being sold at reasonable prices by the Bow- ker Insecticide Co , Boston, Mass., and Wm. H. Swift, Boston, Mass. Paris Green. Paris, green is an old, well-known arsenical insecticide. It was first brought to prominence in connection with the war that was waged against the Colorado potato-beetle in the western states be- tween i860 and 1870 In spraying with this substance a hot day should be avoided if possible, especially i: it is desired to apply nearly to the limit of what the foliage will stand without injury. The water on the foliage soon becomes warmed and when warm dissolves the Paris green more rapidly, thereby resulting in injury to the leaves. Arsenite of Lime. The desire for a reliable and cheaper arsenical insecticide has led to the employment of a product resulting from the union of freshly slacked lime and commercial white arsenic. The propor- tions are : Commeicial white arsenic i pound. Unslacked lime 2 pounds. Water 2 gallons. Boil together for twenty minutes to half an hour. As soon as the arsenic is dissolved it is precipitated by the lime as insoluble arsenite of lime. There is danger however that not all the arsenic will be precipitated out as it is difficult to tell when all has been MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 262 dissolved. For this reason the following formula is considered much more reliable : White arsenic 2 pounds. Sal soda 4 pounds. Water 2 gallons. Boil for about fifteen minutes or until all is dissolved, leaving a clear liquid. Add water enough to replace what has boiled away to prevent chrystalization of the arsenite of soda. A large quantity may be prepared at one time and kept as a stock solution to be used when desired. It should be covered to prevent evaporation and plainly labeled for it is a deadly poison. One pint of this stock is approximately equivalent to four ounces of Paris green. It should be used only in a solution in which lime is present for, as seen above,, it is soluble in water. With lime it forms arsenate of lime which is the resulting product of the previous formula. It may also be used in connection with Bordeaux mixture, in which case Bordeaux mix- ture is used as a diluent in place of water. Counting the cost of the preparation of arsenite of lime it is not probable it will be fctund cheaper unless large quantities are to be used. In using this substance in preference to Paris green, however,, one avoids the danger of purchasing adulterated goods. Hellebore. Hellebore has a narrow range of usefulness and is effective chiefly against saw-fly larvae. It kills by coming in contact with soft-bodied insects or by being eaten. It is usually dusted on the foliage either pure or mixed with twice its amount of lime, plaster or cheap flour. The foliage should be moist when it is applied in a dry form, otherwise it will not adhere. In Montana where the foli- age is almost perpetually dry, it would be better to apply it as a spray at the rate of one ounce to 2-4 quarts of water. Hellebore is Jiot poisonous to man. Kerosene Emulsion. Pure kerosene is fatal to almost all insects. It is extremely pen- etrating and enters the breathing pores of the inserts and interfering with their breathing causes their death. Pure kerosene, however, is more or less injurious to plant life and for this reason has to be diluted in some way. Since it will not mix with water it is necessary to form an emulsion, and soap is usually used for this purpose. A good formula is : Ordinary bar soap 3^ pound. Soft water i gallon. Kerosene 2 gallons. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 263 The water is placed over a stove to heat and the soap shaved into it. When the soap is dissolved and the water has reachedd the boiling point the solution is poured into the kerosene and vigouous- ly churned for four or five minutes with a force pump the nozzle of which is directed back into the vessel. The mixture takes on a milky appearance and on cooling becomes jelly-like. This is the stock emulsion and if properly prepared will keep for a considerable .length of time, but should be diluted when used. Whale-oil Soap. Whale-oil soap, more correctly known as fish-oil soap, is of great value as an insecticide against certain classes of insects par- ticularly scale insects. Some species of plant lice which fail to suc- cumb to an application of very strong kerosene emulsion are readi- ly killed with a solution of whale-oil soap. An example is the louse so commonly attacking spruce trees in Montana causing cone-like galls on the twigs. Ordinary foliage will not safely stand a stronger solution than one pound in four gallons of water. Most plant lice are readily kill- ed by I pound in 6 gallons of water. If a good whale-oil soap can- not be obtained a substitute may be made by the following formula: Concentrated lie 3^ pounds. Water 8 gallons. Fish-oil I gallon. Dissolve the lie in boiling water and add the oil to the solution still boiling. Continue to boil for two and a half hours and then allow it to cool. The fish-oil can be obtained in eastern markets and beyond doubt it would be cheaper for the fruit-grower to make his own soap provided he intends to use a considerable quantity. Lime-Sulphur-Salt Solution. This insecticide is used chiefly as a means of destroying the San Jose scale, but is of great value also as a remedy for many other pests. Though various formulae have been given for the preparation of this wash, the active caustic principle is the same in all. The caustic ingredient is produced by the union if the sulphur and lime. In part two of Bulletin 56 of the Washington Experiment Station by Prof. C. V. Piper and R. W. Thatcher it is shown by accurate chem- ical processes that, practically speaking, one part of lime causes two parts of sulphur to go into solution and that the presence of salt in the solution does not influence the action of the sulphur and lime upon each other. It follows then, that if a greater proportion of lime is used, the excess goes onto the tree merely in the form of a white- wash, and if the salt has any value it is purely a mechanical otie, for salt in such a small proportion is valueless as an insecticide. We 264 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. are not prepared ro say that there is not some benefit to be derived from the presence of the salt and the excess of lime- and for the pre- sent we recommend the formulae given below. We suggest, how- ever, that fruit-growers make more careful tests of the wash with the salt omitted and with the sulphur and lime in the proportion of I to I. It will, of course, be understood that a variation in the amount of water used in the formulae will result in making the wash more or less concentrated according as more or less water is used. The ingredients may be used in the following proportion : ' Lime i pound. Sulphur I pound. Salt to I pound. ' Water 4 gallons. While we recommend the addition of salt under ordinary cir- cumstances, this substance is unnecessary in the treatment of pear- leaf blister mite, moreover. Prof. Piper found it to be unnecessary in treating for the San Jose scale. Slake the lime thoroughly in a vessel, which is to be used in boiling the mixture, then add the sulphur; boil at least for one hour using enough water to completely cover the sulphur and lime. Add the remainder of the water of the formula. Hyhrocyanic Acid Gas. This very deadly gas is coming into common use as a means of destroying many forms of insect life that cannot be controlled with poisons or contact insecticides. The gas is a deadly poison to all animal life and in its use great care must be taken not to inhale it. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid and potassium cyanide. The potassium cyanide, again, is a deadly poison and a small quantity taken into the stom- ach will result in death. Potassium cyanide may be obtained from Roesler Hasslacher & Co. of New York City. The gas is used in different strengths for different purposes. The desired strength being obtained by taking a given quantity of the potassium cyanide and adding to it the required amount of sul- phuric acid. For fumigation of nursery stock the proprtions used, per each cubic foot of space inclosed are : Potassium cyanide, 0.25 grams. Sulphuric acid, 98 per cent. One-half more acid, liquid measure than cyanide, i Water, one-half more water liquid measure than acid. The following is taken from Johnson’s Fumigation methods: “The amount of cyanide necessary for any inclosure is determin- ed in terms of grams per cubic foot of space inclosed To deter- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 265 mine the exact anioinit of cyanide necessar}^ to ft ‘.ri’.c^-ate a roojn, car, ship or building of any kind the cubic contents must be accurately computed. As an example : a room 20 x 30 x 10 feet contains 6,000 cubic feet of air space. To estimate the amount of cyanide ncessary for this in closure multiply 6,000 by 0.25 ; thus : 6,000 times 0.25 equals 1500 grams. To reduce this to ounces divide by 28.35 ^-S there are 28.35 grams in an ounce; thus: 1500 divided by 28.35 eqt-tals 53 ounces, the exact amount necessary for the inclosure. It is now easy to determine the amount of acid and water, as a half more acid, liquid measure, than cyanide, and a half more water than cyanide are used ; thus ; 53 divided by 2 equals 26.5, which added to 53 equals 79.5 ounces of acid or practically 5 pounds liquid measure. Again 79.5 or practically 80, as we usually discard fractions, equals 40, which added to 80 makes 120 ounces of water.” In liberating the acid the gas is first measured and poured into an earthenware dish, then the ^^:ater is measured and poured into the acid". The potassium cyanide which has been previously weighed is then added to the acid and water after every precautionary arange- ment has been made. If a room is to be fumigated, a bag contain- ing the potassium cyanide should be suspended directly above the jar with the string suspending it passing through a pulley. Then the operator from the door may release the string and allow the bag to settle into the jar. If the space to be fumigated is under a tent the cyanide may be dropped in from the hand. Close the door tight- ly or drop the tent quickly and leave the desired length of time. The room or the tent should be air-tight. The exposure usually employ- ed is thirty to forty minutes. Some horticulturists fumigate their green-houses a few times a year and are able hy this means to keep down all injurious insects except the red spider. In fumigating mills, hotels, etc., it is neces- sary to have an arrangement for ventilating the rooms from the out- side. This may be done by attaching cords to the window sashes. After fumigation, such buildings must be allowed to ventilate thor- oughly before entering them. In fumigating buildings give an ex- posure of I hour to 24 hours. Bordeaux Mixture. We quote the following from Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 38, U. S. Department of Agriculture, prepared by Dr. Galloway : “All things considered, it is believed that the best results will be obtained from the use of what is known as the 50-gallon formula of this preparation. This contains : Water 50 gallons. Copper sulphate 6 pounds. Unslacked lime 4 pounds. 266 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. It has been found that the method of combining the ingredients has an important bearing on both the chemical composition and the physical structure of the mixture. The best results have been obtained from the use of the Bordeaux mixture made in accordance with the following directions : In a barrel or other suitable vessel, place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out 6 pounds of copper sulphate, then tie the same in a piece of coarse gunny-sack and suspend it just beneath the surface of the water. By tying the bag to a stick across the top of the barrel no further attention will be required. In another yessel slack 4 pounds of lime, using care in order to obtain a smooth paste, free from grit and small lumps. To accomplish this it is best to place the lime in an ordinary waterpail and add only a small quantity of water at first, say a quart or a quart and a half. When the lime begins to crack and crumble and the water to disappear add another quart or more, exercising care that the lime at no time gets too dry. Toward the last considerable water will be required, but if added carefully and slowly a perfectly smooth paste will be obtained, provided, of course, the lime is of good quality. When the lime is slacked, add sufficient water to the paste to bring the whole up to 25 gallons. When the copper sulphate is entirely dissolved and the lime is cool, pour the lime milk and copper sulphate solution together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring. The method described insures good mixing, but to complete this work the barrel of liquid should receive a final stirring, for at least three minutes, with a broad wooden paddle. It is now necessary to determine whether the mixture is per- fect — that is, if it will be safe to apply it to tender foliage. To ac- complish this, two simple tests may be used. First insert the blade of a pen-knife in the mixture, allowing it to remain there for at least one minute. If metallic copper forms on the blade, or, in other words, if the polished surface of the steel assumes the color of cop- per plate, the mixture is unsafe and more lime must be added. If, on the other hand, the blade of the knife remains unchanged, it is safe to conclude that the mixture is as safe as it can be made. As an additional test, however, some of the mixture may be poured into an old plate or saucer, and while held between the eyes and the light the breath should be gently blown upon the liquid for at least half a minute. If the mixture is properly made, a thin pellicle, look- ing like oil on water, will begin to form on the surface of the liquid. If no pellicle forms, more lime should be added. If spraying is to be done upon a large scale, it will be found more convenient and economical in every way to prepare what are known as stock solutions of both copper and lime. To prepare a MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 267 r- stock solution of copper sulphate, procure a barrel holding fifty gal- lons. Weigh out 100 pounds of copper sulphate and after tying it in a sack suspend it so that it will hang as near the top of the barrel as possible. Fill the barrel with water and in two or three days the copper will be dissolved. Now remove the sack and add enough water to bring the solution up again to the 50-gallon mark, previ- ously made on the barrel. It will be understood, of course, that this second adding of water is merely to replace the space previously oc- cupied by the sack and the crystals of copper sulphate. Each gallon of the solution thus made will contain two pounds of copper sul- phate, and, under all ordinary conditions of temperature, there will be no material recrystalization, so that the stock preparation may be kept indefinitely. Stock lime may be prepared in the same way as the copper sul- phate solution. Prepare a barrel holding 50 gallons, making a mark to indicate the 50-gallon point. Weigh out 100 pounds of lime, place it in a barrel and slack it. When slacked, add sufficient water to bring the whole mass up to 50 gallons. Each gallon of this pre- paration contains, after thoroughly stirring, two pounds of lime. When it is desired to make Bordeaux mixture of the 50-gallon formula it is only necessary to measure out three gallons of the stock copper solution, and, after thoroughly stirring, 2 gallons of stock lime; dilute each to 25 gallons, mix, stir, and test as already described. One test will be sufficient in this case. In other words, it will not be necessary to test each lot of Bordeaux made from the stock preparations, provided the first lot is perfect and no change is made in the quantity of the materials used. Special care should be taken to see that the lime milk is stirred thoroughly each time be- fore applying. As a final precaution it will be well to keep both the stock copper sulphate and the stock lime tightly covered.” For trees in foliage use only 4 pounds of the blue stone to 50 gallons of water. For tender foliage like plum, cherry, and peach use 3 pounds of blue stone to 50 gallons of water (Bui. 75, Oregon Exp. Station). / Ammoniacal Solution of Copper Carbonate. We also take this description from Farmers’ Bulletin No. 38. '‘This preparation as now generally used, contains: Water 45 gallons. Strong Aqua ammonia 3 pints. Copper carbonate 5 ounces. The copper carbonate is first made into a thin paste by adding a pint and a half of wate’r. The ammonia water is then slowly add- ed, and if of the proper strength, i. e., 26 degrees, a clear, deep-blue 268 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. solution is obtained, which does not become cloudy when diluted to 45 gallons. The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate being a clear li- quid its presence on the leaves, fruit, and other parts of the treated plant is not so noticeable as where preparations containing lime are used. In case it is desired to keep the strong solution as a stock pre- paration, the bottle or jug in which it is placed should be tightly corked.” Copper Sulphate. Copper sulphate (blue vitrol or blue stone) solution is some- times used in place of Bordeaux mixture. It is also used as a means of 'destroying the spores of grain smut on seed grain, but for this purpose formalin is considered to be better. For trees in a dormant state, use copper sulphate, i pound in 25 gallons of water. For trees in foliage use copper sulphate, i pound in 250 gallons of water. Potassium Sulphide. This substance, also known as liver of sulphur, may be obtain- ed from almost any druggist. It is used in the proportion of one- half to one ounce in one gallon of water. A stock solution may be made as follows: Potash 32 pounds. Sulphur 37 pounds. Salt 2 pounds. Water 50 gallons. The potash, sulphur and salt are put into a large, metallic tub with a part of the water; the chemical action will make the mixture boil. Add the remainder of the water and set it away as a stock solution, covering it to prevent evaporation. Dilute with 99 parts of water before spraying. R. A. COOLEY. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 269 EXPLANATION OF PLATES (Photographed from Nature by R. A, Cooley except top figure of plate II, which was loaned by Prof. Slingerland from his bulletin on the bud moth, 147, Corn. Uniy. Experiment Station.) PLATE 1 . Fig. I, Egg of the bud moth, greatly enlarged. ^ “ 2, The 5-spotted lady-bug, enlarged. i “ 3, Cluster of eggs of the 5-spotted lady-bug. ' “ 4, Same. “ 5, Larva of the 5-spotted lady-bug, about four time en- larged. Fig. 6, Base of apple leaf from below showing work of bud moth larva. The web and tubular retreat are indistinctly shown. Fig. 7, Full grown larva of the bud moth, about three times enlarged. PLATE II. Fig. at top, Apple twig showing work aone by bud moth larvae early in the season. Fig. I, Apple-leaf aphis on the under side of a leaf. 2, Terminal apple shoots showing leaves deformed by ap- ple leaf-aphis. PLATE III. Fig. I, Top view of Sarcophaga cimbicis Townsend, about twice natural size. Fig. 2, Same from side. “ 3, Larva or maggot of same. “ 4, Pupa of same. “ 5, Apple leaf-aphis, enlarged. “ 6, Eggs of apple leaf-aphis, about twice natural size. “ 7,* Root and base of trunk of young apple tree showing in- jury done by Flat-headed apple-tree borer. 270 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. PLATE IV. Lines indicate the length of the body from front of head to tip of wings or abdomen, whichever extends farther. Fig. I, Lesser Migratory Locust, Melanoplus atlanis Riley, female. Fig. 2, Same, male. ► ' “ 3, Big-headed Grasshopper, Aulocara elliotti Thomas, female. Fig. 4, Same, male. PLATE V. Lines indicate the length of the body from front of head to tip of wings or abdomen whichever extends farther. Fig. I, Yellow-winged Locust, Cam/iu7a pe77ncfc/a Scud, female ‘‘ 2, Same, male. ‘‘ 3, Two-striped locust, Melanoplus bivittatus Say, female. “ 4, Same, male. PLATE VI. Lines indicate the length of the body from front of head to tip of wing or abdomen whichever extends farther. Fig. I, Melanoplus dawsoni Scudder, female. 2, Hippiscus neglectus Thomas, temale. “ 3, Chortophaga viridifasciata DeG., female. ' 4, Encoptolophus sordidus Burm, female. PLATE VII. Lines indicate the length of the body from front of head to tip of wings or abdomen whichever extends farther. Fig. I, Spharagemon aequale Say, female. i 2, Melanoplus spretus LTler, fe^male. i “ 3, Arphia tenebrosa Scudder, female. 4, Acrolophitus hirtipes Say, female. , PLATE VIII. Lines indicate the length of the body from front of head to tip! of abdomen or wings whichever extends farther.* | Fig. I Dissosteira Carolina Linn., female. j ** 2 , Cordillacris occipitalis Thomas, female. I 3, Egg mass of M. bivittatus^ about three and one-half times natural size . ^ Fig. 4, Same with the surface removed. i PLATE I PLATE II PLATE III PLATE IV PLATE V PLATE VI PLATE VII PLATE VIM INDEX \ ACROLOPHITUS HIRTIPES AMMONIACAL SOLUTION OF COPPER CARBONATE ANTS AS FRUIT PESTS APHIS, APPLE^LEAF APHIS, CHERRY APHIS, CURRANT APHIS LION APHIS WOOLLY, OF APPLE - APHIS, PLUM APHIS POMI APPLE CANKER OR BLACK SPOT APPLE LEAF-APHIS Character and Extent of Injury Description and Life History Natural Enemies Remedies APPLE SCAB APPLE TWIG-BORER. ARPHIA TENEBROSA ARSENATE OF LEAD ARSENITE OF LIME ARSENITE OF SODA BIG-HEADED GRASSHOPPER BLACK SPOT, OR YPPLE CANKER BLUE STONE ^ BLUE VITROL BORDEAUX MIXTURE BOWKER INSECTICIDE COMPANY BOX-ELDER PLANT BUG BUD MOTH, THE Occurrence in Montana Importance of the Pest Natural History and Habits Kinus of Trees the Bud Moths Attacks Means of Distribution Natural Enemies Method of Preventing Its Ravages Page. . . 238 . . 267 . . 253 214-252 . . 255 . . 258 . . 218 . . 252 . .. 256 . . 214 . . 259 214-252 . . 214 . . 216 . . 218 . . 220 . . . 251 . . . 237 ... 261 .., 261 ... 262 . . . 235 . . . 259 . . . 268 . . . 268 . 262-265 . . . 261 . . . 256 6201-250 . . . 201 . . . 201 . . . 202 . . . 206 . . . 206 . . . 206 . . . 206 272 INDEX. BUFFALO TREE-HOPPER BUFO BOREAS CAMNULA PELLUCID A CANKER WORMS CAROLINA LOCUST CHERPfY APHIS CHORTOPHAGA VIRIDIFASCIATA CHRYSOBOTHRIS FEMORATA CLOVER MITE COMMON TOAD, THE False Ideas Concerning the Toad t Life History and Habits Length of life of the Toad I Feeding Habits Amount of Food the Toad Eats The Toad Should Be Protected and Favored CODLING MOTH, THE COPPER CARBONATE, AMMONIACAL SOLUTION OF COPPER SULPHATE CORDILLACRIS OCCIPITALIS GRIDDLE MIXTURE CROWN GALL CRUDE PETROLEUM CURRANT APHIS, THE CURRANT COTTONY SCALE CURRANT FLIES , CURRANT LEAF-HOPPER CURRANT SAW-FLY, NATIVE CURRANT STEM-BORER, THE CURRANT THRIPS DISEASES, ARTIFICIAL USE OF DISSOSTEIRA CAROLINA ECCENTRIC SCALE OR PUTNAM’S SCALE EMULSION, KEROSENE ENCHOPTOLOPHUS SORDIDUS FLAT-HEADED APPLE TREE-BORER Distribution and Occurrence in Montana Life History Natural Enemies * Methods of Control FUNGICIDES GOAT-HEADED GRASSHOPPER GOOSEBERRY FRUIT-WORM Page. . . 252 . . 242 233-236 250 237 255 237 224 254 242 242 243 245 245 247 248 250 267 268 237 241 259 223 258 258 257 258 257 258 258 241 237 253 262 , 223 238 251 225 225 226 226 261 237 259 ’INDEX. 273 Page. GOOSEBERRY MILDEW 260 GRASSHOPPER EGGS 234 GRASSHOPPERS 232, 254 Injury Not Caused by the Rocky Mountain Locust 233 Life History 233 Montana’s Most Common and Destructive Species 235 Insect Enemies of Grain 238 Remedies 239 Criddel Mixture 241 HELLEBORE 262 HIPPISCUS NEGLECTUS 236 HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS 264 HYPERASPIS 5-SIGNATA 218 INSECTICIDES 261 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE 249 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY 255 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH 255 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLUMS AND PRUNES 255 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 256 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 256 KEROSENE 222 KEROSENE EMULSION 262 LEAF-HOPPERS 251 LEPIDOSAPHES ULMI 209 LESSER MIGRATORY LOCUST 236 LIME, SULPHUR, SALT SOLUTION 263, 211, 230 LIVER OF SULPHUR 268 MEALY BUG ON APPLE AND PEAR 253 MELANOPLUS, SPRETUS 233 MELANOPLUS BIVITTATUS 236 MELANOPLUS ATLANIS ’ ’ 233, 236 MELANOPLUS DAWSONI 337 MELOIDAE 339 NATIVE CURRANT SAW-FLY 257 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE, THE 209, 252 Food Plants * 209 Life History and Habits. 209 Remedy 211 Experiment with Lime, Sulphur and Salt Wash, as a Remedy 211 PARIS GREEN .’ 261 PEACH TREE BORER, THE 255 PEACH TWIG-BORER 255 PEAR BLIGHT OR FIRE BLIGHT 260 274 INDEX. Page. PEAR-LEAF BLISTER-MITE, THE 228, 254 Nature of Injury 228 Life History 229 Means of Distribution 229 Remedies 229 PEAR SCAB 260 PEAR SLUG, THE 254 PHYTOPTUS PYRI 228 PLOWING 239 PLUM APHIS 256 PLUM CURCULIO 256 PLUM GOUGER 255 POTASSIUM SULPHIDE 268 PUTNAM’S SCALE INSECT 253 RED-HUMPED APPLE TREE CATERPILLAR 249 ROUND-HEADED APPLE TREE-BORER 251 SAN JOSE SCALE 252 SARCOPHAGA CIMBICIS 238 SCURFY BARK LOUSE 253 SOAP 262 SPHARAGEMON AEQUALE 237 STRAWBERRY CROWN-BORER 257 STRAWBERRY LEAF-ROLLER 256 STRAWBERRR ROOT WEEVIL 257 SULPHATE OF COPPER 268 SULPHIDE OF POTASSIUM 268 SULPHUR-SALT-LIME SOLUTIONS 263 SWIFT, WM. H., 261 TARNISHED PLANT BUG, THE 256^ TENT, CATERPILLAR 249 TMETOCERA OCELLANA 201 TOAD, THE COMMON 242 Amount of Food the Toad Eats 247 False Ideas Concerning 242 Feeding Habits 245 Length of Life 245 Life, History and Habits 243 TWO-SPOTTED LADY BUG 220 TWO-STRIPED LOCUST 236 WEB-WORM 251s WHALE-OIL SOAP 263 WOOLLY APHIS OF THE APPLE 252 YELLOW-WINGED LOCUST 236 BULLETIN No. 5a, MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, OF THE Agricultural College of Montana. SUGAR BEETS Bozeman, Montana, April, 1904. REPUBLICAN, Bozeman, Montana, • 003. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL Kxperiment Station. BOZEnAN,=MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, ^ James Donovan, Attorney-General, v Ex-Officio Helena W. W. Welch, Supt. of Public Instruction, ) J, M. Evans, Missoula. C. R. Leonard, Butte. N. W. McConnell, Helena. W. M. Johnston Billings. O. P. Chisholm Bozeman. J. G. McKay, Hamilton. G. T. Paul, Dillon. N. B. Holter, Helena. EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President Peter Koch, Secretary, E. B. Lamme, John Maxey John Robinson, Bozeman. Bozeman. Bozeman. . Bozeman Bozeman. STATION STAFF. *Samuei^ Fortier, Ma. E., Director and Irrigation Engineer. P. B. Linfield, B. S. a, Vice-Director and Agriculturist. IF. W. Traphagen, Ph. D., P. C. S., Chemist. *J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., Botanist. R. A. Cooley. B . Sc Entomologist. V. K. Chesnut Chemist. R. W. Fisher, B. S., Assistant Horticulturist Edmund Burke .Assistant Chemist. W. J. Elliott, B. S. A Assistant Dairyman *Absent on leave. •{•Resigned, September, 1903. Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications for the Experiment Station should be addressed to THE DIRECTOR, MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. Notice. — The Bulletins of the Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana who sends his name and address to the Station for that purpose. Montana Experiment Station. BULLETIN NO. 52. = = APRIL, 1904. Sugar Beets THe Crop of 1903 F. W. TRAPHAGEN In presenting the results of the investigation of the past year, but few comments are necessary. It has repeatedly been shown that all the conditions for the estab- lishment of a successful beet sugar factory could be found in several localities in the state; yet for some reason Montana, abundantly able to produce all the sugar consumed' by her citizens, and much more, still obtains her supply from other sources. Other states similarly located are increasing the number of their factories annually, and all who have embarked in the enterprise, both farmers and manufacturers, are greatly pleased with the results. In the face of the passage of the Cuban Reciprocity Act, which has been the bugbear ol the beet sugar men, the price agreed upon in Colorado for the crop of 1904 is five dollars a ton, a marked advance over the price of former years. Montana producers could count with absolute certainty upon yields at least as great as those of other states, and the richness and 4 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. purity of the product could be maintained above the usual standard with no difficulty; while, with intelligent care in culture, these ligures could be inuch improved. This is no mere idle spe3ulation, but is the conclusion forced upon all who study the reports of the experiments carried on under the supervision of the Chemical department of the , Montana Experiment Station during the last half dozen years. Of our neighboiing states, Utah has four factories, with a capacity for handling 2,300 tons of beets per day; Colorado, nine factories, with a capacity of 6,250 tons daily; Washington, one factory, >vith a capacity of 350 tons; and Idaho, one factory, capacity, 600 tons. The world’s production of sugar in 1902 amounted in round num- bers to 8,500,000 long tons, of which about 5,800,000 tons, approxi- mately 60 per cent., was beet sugar. The consumption of sugar in the United States amounts to approximately 2,250,000 long tons, about 26 per cent, of the world’s entire production. These 2,250,000 long tons of 2,240 pounds are equal to 2,520,000 tons of 2,000 pounds each, as figured in all American calculations. Assuming that the average product of each beet sugar factory erected in the United States is 5,000 tons, it would require 500 such factories to meet this home demand. Assuming that the present established beet sugar factories and the cane mills of the South now produce 500,000 tons — too high an estimate — it would still require 400 more factories to provide for our home consumption. The average annual increase of consumption is 6 per cent., or 151,000 tons. To meet this increase alone there would be required to be erected each yeae 30 factories of this capacity, say 500-600 tons of beets per day. To PAY FOR THIS SUGAR NOW IMPORTED WE ARE SENDING ABROAD ANNUALLY NEARLY $125,000,000. The American farmer is to-day raising wheat yielding an average gross return of $10 per acre, which is being sent abroad to pay for sugar which he consumes, while the same lands on which the wheat is grown would produce the sugar and yield from $65 to $100 per acre. This is neither economy nor common sense. MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 5 It will be seen, therefore, that, in addition to the 54 beet su^ar factories which will be producing sugar during the coming season of 1903-4, nearly 400 new factories of 600 tons capacity are still to be constructed before the actual home consumption of sugar and next year’s increase is supplied from beets grown on American farms, man- ufactured by American labor, by the investment of American capital. No industry, agricultural or mechanical, yet established or contem- plated, confers a tithe of the benefits and prosperity upon the local community which has been the invariable accompaniment of the estab- lishment of the beet sugar factory. None even approach it in character, unless it be the canning or creamery plants, consuming the prodncts of local farmers; and tliese are insignificant in comparison. Trade associations of booming towns, labor assiduously to secure the location of a new manufacturing industry whose sole value to the community is the pay roll disbursement of a* few thousands per year. To accomplish this they i3ay liberal bonuses and grant exemption from taxation. In contrast with all such enterprises, the beet sugar factory is unique and unequaled as a producer of unexampled prosperity. The location, in any community, of a beet sugar factory of a capacity of 600 tons — the most approved and economical unit — means the purchase of 60,000 tons of beets from the farmers of the immediate neighborhood, at an average of |5 per ton, and a pay roll disbursement of $60,000 per annum — a total of $360,000 paid in cash to such com- munity during the fall and winter months. The effect of the distribution of this enormous sum, in addition to the ordinary disbursements, ^may easily be conceived. This amount distributed among the farmers, flows into every ave- nue of trade, leaving its profits behind, finding its way to the banks to be again forwarded on its beneficent mission, enlivening and enriching all branches of trade and assisting the establishment of new indus- tries. Population materially increases; town lots command a double price; farmii:g lands are in increased, demand at greatly increased prices; 6 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION bank deposits are sometimes tripled and quadrupled; debts and mort- gages are paid off, and new carriages, farming implements and pianos take their places, and abundant prosperity abounds everywhere, and civilization is advanced. This is the simple history of the industry wherever it has been established in a proper location for the growth of beets. There are but few exceptions, and should have been none had not the zeal and ambition of the projectors overrun their judgment in the establishment of a few plants in locations partially unfit. Recixiizites for Locsitioii The following are the essential requirements of location for a suc- cessful factory: , First: BEETS, in sufficient quantity and of the required sugar content and purity. It is unprofitable to work beets containing less than 12 per cent, of sugar, and they should rather average 14 per cent. Anything above this average is so much the better. The purity of the beet is of equal, if not greater, importance, and should be at least 80 per cent, or better. Beets of a high purity and comparatively low sugar content yield more sugar than those of higher sugar content and low purity. By purity, or the co-efficient of purity, as it is technically called, is meant the ratio of the sugar to the solid contents of the juice. If in 100 pounds of juice there are 15 pounds of solid matter, of which 12 pounds are sugar, the co-efficient of purity is 80 per cent., or the sugar, 12 pounds, divided by the solid matters, 15 pounds. These beets are then said to contain 12 per cent, of sugar, with a co-efficient of purity of 80 per cent. The remaining three pounds contain all the other mineral salts taken up from the soil, and are injurious to the extraction of the sugar, as they are chiefly molasses-forming, or melassiginic, as it is termed. One pound of these salts will prevent the crystallization, or invert, one pound of sugar. To determine the availability of the location, soil and general conditions, extended experimental cultivation should be made, using MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 the best seed and following the most approved methods, having the results carefully analyzed by the State Experiment Station. Careful analysis of the varying soils is also an advantage. On general principles, the acreage required for a plant of any capacity should be ten times the daily tonnage capacity; for a 600-ton plant, 6,000 acres. A trifle smaller acreage in irrigated sections might suffice, as the tonnage product is apt to be, with the proper care, neariy 50 per cent, greater. Second: WATER. The water supply should be at all times ade- quate and not Subject to fluctuations or failure, and as free as possible from mineral matter, for the same reason as above explained in refer- ence to the purity of the beets. If there be any doubt upon this point, a careful analysis should be made. At least 3,000,000 gallons daily are required for the operation of a 600-ton factory; and the source of supply should always be reasonably near the factory site, to avoid excessive pumping apparatus and oper- ating expenses. Third: DRAINAGE. As the above quantity of water must be discharged from the factory heavily contaminated with soil washed from beets, with the waste lime and impurities removed from the beets and juice in the process of refining, it should not be allowed to flow into any natural water course used below for domestic purposes. It should be impounded, if possible, in some old depression slough, or settling basin, where the water can be allowed to drain off, when the solid matter can be used as a fertilizer for which it is espec- ially valuable, as it contains, in a concentratel form, precisely the salts taken from the soil. These three requirements assured, there is the most important one to mention. This is — Fourth: MONEY. Without this all the others are valueless so far as the establishment of this industry is concerned. To construct and properly equip a modern beet sugar factory, the cost will be approximately |1,000 per ton of daily capacity; that is, a 600-ton plant will cost about $600,000. 8 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. This first cost, however, is variable, being subject to the prevailing market rates for material and labor; the freight rates to the sele:ited site; the character of the land in respect to drainage, water supply and railroad connections, as well as to the quality and proportions of the machinery equipment and the size and general character of the build- ings provided. The above figures will apply to a perfect plant of liberal design and ample proportions of both buildings and machinery, in which all buildings shall be of the most approved fire-proof constrnction. Upon certain specifications this figure might be low, while upon others the price might be too high. It is purely a question of what is furnished for the price charged. This does not include the cost of railw^ay switches, purchase of seed, or agricultural expenses, for which and for a small working cap- ital, a further sum should be raised, varying with the conditions. This amount of money must be fully assured from some reliable source before it is at all safe to enter into any contract for construc- tion. Factory Site To the above requirements might be added the desirable qualifi- cations for a site for the erection of a factory, viz: A practically level t'^act, not less than fifteen acres in extent. A larger tract would be preferable, to proxide ample space for drainage basins, pulp pits, etc. The situation should be as near as possible to the center of the beet-growing territory, and preferably near some town, to provide res- idences for operatives. To be on or near a railroad, preferably two, to assure the delivery of coal and limestone at reasonable rates; in such a location that a right-of-way for a siding may be obtained. There will be required about one mile of track for switches, sid- ings, and yard service. Procedure to Secure a Factory On account of the necessity for locating factories in the midst of MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. 9 the sugar beet fields, usually in farming communities, local capital is either lacking or not to be had in sufficient amount to carry through the enterprise. Outside capital must gene’^ally be secured for the purpose. To interest and obtain such assistance, any community must first demonstrate, by indisputable proofs, that the location proposed fully answers all the requirements above enumerated; but first and fore- most, that it has the necessary acreage contracted for, or that it can certainly obtain such contracts when the other preliminaries are arranged . Having conclusively demonstrated the adai^tability of the section for the production of beets rich in sugar and of high purity; having interested the farmers to a willingness to contract for the necessary supply of beets; determined upon an advantageous and suitable site,, the next business is the procurement of the capital. Some considerable local capital must be invested to inspire in others confidence in the local interest, management and support. Let the most influential men in the community start a preliminary subscription to the capital stock of the proposed sugar company. In the preparation of this work, take the advice of the best attor- ney in the community. The capitalization of the company should be sufficiently large to ■ cover the cost of the plant and at least $50,000 additional for working capital. This may be entirely in capital stock, or part stock and part bonds. In such communities there is frequently a prejudice against the mortgaging of the property as security for a bond issue, which is but a, representation of such mortgage divided into smaller parts. This is a mistaken notion and contrary to the practice of the best financiers whenever any enterprise will earn a larger amount in divi- dend than is necessary to be paid in interest on money hired. The farmer himself recognizes this principle when he hires money at 5 or b per cent, on a mortgage of his original farm in order to increase his earning power far above the interest charge. 10 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION To illustrate the difference, let us suppose a sugar company cap- italized at $d00,000 in stock alone, and the net earnings to be 20 per cent., making $120,000. If, on the contrary, the capital sto3k were $300,000, and the other $300,000 of capital was realized on a bond issue of 5 per cent., the interest charge on the bonds would be $15,000, leaving $105,000 of the earnings as a dividend on $300,000 of stock, amounting to 35 per cent, instead of 20 per cent., as in the other case. As every merchant, trader, banker, land owner or farmer in the community cannot fail to derive direct benefit from the sugar factory enterprise, all should assist it by liberal subscription to the stock, aside from the handsome dividends to be anticipated from such an investment. When $100,000 to $150,000 has bsen assured by local subscription or through local influence, the company should be legally incorporated and correspondence opened with some reliable construction company or builder for further advice or assistance, which most of them are able to give. Cost o/ Operation The cost of the operation of a beet sugar factory is dependent in a great measure upon the character, capacity and arrangement of the machinery and apparatus. Compactness and convenience of arrange- ment are conducive to a saving of labor. The same feature, with straight piping and shortest possible lines curtails friction and saves fuel. Ample capacity, in proper proportions, with scientific by-pass arrangements, avoids delays and difficulties. Proper arrangement and connections, and proper utilization of live and exhaust steam, hot water and wash waters, save labor, fuel, sugar and money. A well designed and arranged factory can be easily operated by 175 to 180 men, in day and night shifts of not over 90 men each, exclusive of the superintendent. For the purpose of a conservative estimate, however, it is set at :200 men. The following may be considered a safely reliable estimate of MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION 11 the cost of operating a factory, and the probable returns, in Michigan or in the Eastern rainfall district: COST OF OPERATION OF A 600-TON FACTORY, FOR A 100 DAYS’ CAMPAIGN, CUTTING 60,000 TONS OF BEETS. Total cost Beets, 60,000 tons (14 per cent), at $5.16 $309,600 Coal, 20 per cent of beets, 12,000 tons, at $2.50 . . 30,000 Limestone, 8 per cent of beets, 4,800 tons, at $1.50 7,200 Coke, 12 per cent of limestone, 5.36 tons, at $5. . . 2,680 Per ton of Beets $5.16 .m $349,480 .12 .044 SUPPLIES $450 1,360 500 2,000 1,000 5, .360 .089 LABOR 200 men, average $2.25, 100 days Superintendent Engineer and assistants Agriculturalist Assistants Office help General manager PACKING 44,000 barrels, at 36c $15,840 15,840 .264 (Note — In the West this item would be 1.32,- 000 bags at 8c, $10,560.) INCIDENTALS Interest, $.300,000 bonds, at 5 per cent $15,000 Insurance 2,000 Taxes (?) 2,000 Repairs 10,000 Dead season help 5,000 Miscellaneous 10,000 44,500 .74 The generally accepted average extraction of ^sugar in factories without a molasses process is 71 per cent, of the sugar content of the beets. . $45,000 . .3,600 . 2,000 . 2,400 . 2,000 . 3,000 . 2,500 60,500 1.008 Sulphur, 20,000 lbs,, at .0234c Filter cloths, 8,000 yards at 17c . . . , Oils, 2,000 gallons, at 25c Chemicals (average of all factories) Miscellaneous 12 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Assuming the Michigan beets to contain an average of 14 per cent, of sugar, the returns in such case would be 71 per cent, of 14 x^er cent., or 9.94 per cent., equivalent to 198.8 jDounds of sugar, say 200 pounds. RECAPITULATION Returns, 13,200,000 pounds, sold at cents . Expenses, as per list above Anticipated profit Per ton Total Beets . 8595,000 89.90 . 475,680 7.925 .8118,320 81.975 It must be understood that these figures are based on the cutting of 60,000 tons of beeis during the canijiaign of 100 days. A reduction of the supply of beets would cause an increase in the prox^ortionate expense of operation. . These figures might be somewhat varied in either direction, according to the varying conditions of quality and quantity of beets and by the varying circurnstaces of competition in securing acreage by factories covering closely adjacent territory. In the irrigated sections of the West, the result is much more satisfactory. The tonnage per acre being nearly or quite 50 per cent, greater, the farmers actually receive more money per acre on a flat price per ton, and by reason of the higher sugar content of the beets, the extraction of sugar is practically 2 x^er cent, greater and the x^rofit X^er ton of beets handled is quite $2.50 greater than in the East, which fact will certainly lead to a very large development of the industrj^ in those sections. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 13 Beet Ctilture Oei\er£il Directions for Seeding stnd Cultivating' There is no agricultural product from which the industrious farmer may derive so many advantages as from the sugar beet. Sugar beet raising gives the farmer many times the profit that could be derived from any other crop, while it does not interfere with other crops; but, on the contrary, by improving the condition and capacity of the soil, owing to continued and superior cultivation, produces better grain crops, besides permitting the growing of other high-cul- ture plants and vegetables which could not be grown profitably here- tofore. MetHod of Growing' Beets It is difficult to lay dowm general directions and rules for growing sugar beets applicable to all localities and conditions. Often expert sugar beet growers, at public meetings and through the agricultural press, give minute directions covering all the details of this intricate process. Others, each well versed in the process of growing sugar beets, get into arguments and disputes as to the right method. In such cases each may be correct in a measure. The occasion for such dis- agreements lies in the fact that each person has in mind the right method for a particular locality or set of conditions. A careful study of the different sections of the United !S tales where sugar beets are grown will lead to the conclusion that there is no single road to suc- cess in growing sugar beets. Every locality has settled conditions which will materially modify any set of methods that might apply to some other one. There are some settled rules, of course, but to a great extent the various agricultural districts of this country will have to work out each for itself the right method. The person who argues that the ground must be i^lowed in the fall, in order to receive the benefit of the winter frost, is not offering any argument to the Pacfic coast, for instance, where many beets are grown. « And he who insists that the ground should be rolled in all instances after planting, will hazard the crop if his directions are followed in many parts of Nebraska and other sections where the soil is sandy and there are 14 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION strong winds. In such cases a smooth surface offers an excellent opportunity for the wind to carry along the sharp grains of sand, cut- ting off the plants and destroying the crop. There can be no general fixed rules regarding the kinds and appli- cation of fertilizers. General principles are all right when accom- panied by the reasons underlying, but must always be modified to meet local conditions. With the development of the industry in all sections which have the necessary conditions, and the acquirement of ample experience both by the farmers in the production of beets, and by the manufac- turers in the making of sugar, there will come many improvements and eventually a cheapening of production, a result of great import- ance to all concerned in the success of the industry, because eventually the beet-sugar industry of the United States will have to meet a sharper competition with foreign producers. There are some things settled, however, about growing sugar beets. It will be generally conceded that the ground should be plowed deep, and in most instances sub-soiled. Before the seed is planted the ground must be thoroughly pulverized by harrowing and by roll- ing, even if the surface has to be afterwards roughened. Advantage must be taken of the general and prevalent rain conditions. The ground must be moist enough to germinate the seed, either by rain- fall or irrigation. In some localities either is used, according to cir- cumstances. Seeds are planted at depths of from one-half to two inches, according to the prevailing conditions in the X3articular local- ity. The beets must be planted near enough together to produce a beet of certain size. This spacing depends again upon the locality and the nature and fertility of the soil. The size and quality of the beets depend materially on the right kind of spacing. The beets must be thoroughly cultivated, hoed, and hand weeded, because cultivation tends to conserve the moisture of the soil, and clean fields permit fav- orable action of sun and air. The sooner the beet is harvested after it is ripe the better, because further rainfall may start a new growth, producing new lateral roots, and new leaves, thus greatly reducing the sugar content and lourity of the beets. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 15 Preparing tHe Seed Bed Having selected the land, give it a deejD plowing in the fall, if possible, and follow by a sub-soiling, and allow it to lay exjjosed to the action of the elements during the winter. In the sx^ring, the land should be again x^lowed about eight inches deei:), after which it should be thoroughly x^ulverized by disking, har- rowing and rolling or x^lanking. It is not necessary that all these aiethods be used at once, but enough of them must be used to accom- X)lish the end in view% which is to thoroughly x^ulverize the soil. Sx^ecial imx3lements are being constantly devised to accomx^lish tlds, and all the ox^erations in beet cultivation, harvesting, and tox3- pmg. Seed So far, almost the entire quantity of seed used in this country comes from Eurox^e, that from Grermany axDX^earing to be best adax^ted to our conditions and to x^roduce the best results. There is some choice to be exercised in this regard. The sugar companies usually furnish their farmers with seed, taking x^ay in beets. Not less than 15 x^o^nds of seed to the acre should be used to insure a full, even, and regular stand. Unless the stand be good, there will be many bare sxoaces, greatly reducing the yield. A disposition to economize seed or to make the amount furnished cover a larger acreage will be found to be false economy and should not be attemx^ted. Pleinting' The seed should be sown with a drill made for the x^^H^ose, in rows eighteen inches apart, or of sufficient width to allow of the x^as- sage of a horse when cultivating. When irrigation is x^racticed, seed is preferably sown in ridges about twenty inches ax^art to allow for irrigation between the rows so as not to burn the leaves. The seed should be planted from one-half to one and one-half inches deex3, depending ux)on the moisture in the soil; the shallower the planting, the more vigorous will be the plant. The fear that the 16 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION plant may die for lack of moisture is unfounded, as the sprouted seed sends down a long root to the depth of several inches, and later even to two or more feet, from which the beet derives moisture and suste- nance. It should always be borne in mind that the sugar in the beet is derived entirely from the air and sunshine, consequently the tops should have ample space in which to secure all the benefit from these sources. The increase in sugar content will more than make good the decreased tonnage, although growing and breathing space will nof necessarily tend to decrease tonnage. Planting should not be done until the ground becomes warm witk a probability of settled weather conditions, say in May in the rainfall districts. In the irrigated districts this must depend upon the gen- eral conditions; in some places planting may be done from December to June. In Montana, in May or early June. Germination The seed will germinate in about a week after planting if the weather and soil conditions are favorable. Care should be taken during this period that the ground does not become baked; if this occurs, the farmer should know how to over- come the difficulty with a harrow. / BtincHing and TKinning When the plant has three or four leaves the bunching must be done. This is done by passing down the row and, with a stroke of the hoe, cutting out a part of the plants the width of the hoe, leaving bunches from 6 to 10 inches apart. After bunching, or when it is fairly under way, the thinning should be begun. This, U13 to this time, has been, and probably always will be, done by hand, laborers crawling along the rows and removing from each bunch all except the most thrifty plants. These plants should be left about six inches apart in good, rich soil, or up to ten or twelve inches in poor or thinner soil. This is quite the most important operation connected with beet MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 17 growing, as its iDroper performance has a great influence upon yield, both in tonnage and sugar. The vigor of the plant depends upon its being done at the right time, governing the size of the beets, while spacing to the proper distances apart has an important influence upon the sugar percentage. The aim of the farmer should not be to grow large beets, which run to fibre and are low in sugar, while small beets are more expensive to handle. Beets weighing from one to two pounds are by far the best for the farmer and the factory. Cultivating The first cultivation is performed in the bunching and thinning, when the laborer jDresses the dirt firmly around the beet i^lant and removes whatever grass or weeds may be present. After this the weeds should be hejA down and the ground kept loose and pulverized, w’hich can be done by hoeing or horse cultiva- tion, using any of the implements made for such purpose. This should be done as often as needed, three times generally being suffi- cient, or until the plants are large enough to shade the ground, when work among them with plow and horse would break off the leaves. Irrigation Where irrigation is practiced the farmer has an opportunity to control the growth of the beet and the development of its sugar to a much greater degree than is possible in the humid sections. In general, the rules of irrigation as applied to other crops, may be successfully used with sugar beets. It would be well, however, in order to secure a greater downward growth of the beets, to withhold the application of water in each case until the leaves begin to turn yellow. In this way the disproportion of tops to the rest of the root may be reduced and the proportion of sugar corresi^ondingly increased. It is also advisable to avoid very late irrigations. Harvesting When one is accustomed to sugar beet fields, it is easy to deter- mine when they are ripe. This point is usually determined, however, by analysis to ascertain the sugar content and purity of the beets. IS MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION After the growth of the top and root and cultivation ceases, the beets begin to store up sugar through the leaves, and the sugar and the purity increases as they approach maturity. When a field of beets is ripe, the leaves tend to droop and the whole field takes on a yellow appearance, which cannot be mistaken by one accustomed to deciding the period of ripeness. There are several kinds of harvesting plows, beet pullers and toppers, many of which have lately been patented, from which a satis- factory implement may be chosen. Having been loosened by either of the ordinary machines, labor- ers follow, throwing the beets in piles. Topping This is done by laborers with a sharp knife, made esioecially for the purpose, striking a quick, sharp blow, cutting off the top square across as low as the lowest leaf stem. The beets are thrown into large piles and the tops plowed under or used for fodder. The topping is a very particular and important operation. The sloping crown of the beet bearing the leaf-stems contains much the larger proportion of the mineral salts in the vegetable, which are very objectionable in the manufacture of sugar, every j^ound of such salts preventing a pound of sugar from crystallizing. Beets not topi3ed properly are re-topped by the agricultural department of the factory and the difference in percentage of weight, calculated on the samj^les, is deducted as tare. In climates where there is no danger of wet or freezing weather, the roots may be left on the ground unharvested for a long time. Siloing While beets should be harvested as soon as they are ripe, to avoid the deteriorating effects of frost or rain, yet not all beets can be deliv- ered to the factory at the same time. The [beet sheds have not suffi- cient capacity. Many companies require that a certain portion of the beets shall be siloed in the fields where they are grown. This is accomplished by placing them in single piles containing a good load, or in long ricks. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 19 Plows are run up and down alongside of these ricks or piles, and the soft dirt is thrown over the beets to the depth of several inches. Then hay, straw and beet leaves are thrown on top of that. Holes are left for ventilation. Beets can be kept for some time in this manner. Freezing of the beets does them no particular injury, and does not appreciably diminish the sugar content, provided they can arrive and be worked at the factory before thawing out. Thawing after freezing reduces the amount of sugar and the pur- ity, and must be guarded against. The delivery of beets as well as the specific instructions for grow- ing are regulated by the -agricultural department of the various fac- tories, and the whole progress of the work is usually supervised by the skilled members of that department emjDloyed by the factory. It is decidedly to the farmers’ interest as well as to that of the factory that such instructions should be graciously received and care- fully followed. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of farmers that the interests of both farmer and factory are identical and mutual; what benefits the one adding to the success of the other, and no spirit of antagonism or differences should be permitted to arise. 20 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION General Data Condensed The amount of fuel required per ton of beets varies from 15 per per cent, to 21 per cent. The latter was the average of Michigan fac- tories for the campaign of 1901-2. Proj^er connections, careful atten- tion to details and skillful utilization of heat units and the hot water supply should keep the amount ai3proximately at the lower figure. The quantity of lime rock used is about 8 per cent, of the weight of the beets when using the ordinary milk of lime for carbonatation. Where the Saccharate of Lime process is used for treating the molas- ses, the proportion will be from 16 to 20 per cent. The quantity of Coke is about 10 to 12 per cent, of the weight of the Lime Rock. The amount of Sulphur used is about 200 pounds per day; other supplies about |50 per day. The number of men employed, outside the office force, in some of the factories is 170 to 180. In some others, of the same capacity, 250 are required. The annual disbursement for labor, including office, will be about $60,000. In raising and harvesting the croj) of beets for the Michigan fac- tories for the campaign of 1901-2, there were engaged 26,966 men, 1,844 single horses, and 4,834 double teams emi^loyed during the season. The actual number of contractors raising beets for the same fac- tories for that season was 16,848. This represents the same number of farmer’s families and, on a basis of five members to the family, rep- resents 84,240 persons actually interested in the agricultural opera- tions of the Beet Sugar Industry of Michigan in that year. Last year these figures were presumably 25 per cent, greater. Beet seed is purchased by the factories in the month of Decern- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 21 ber, distributed to the farmers in the month of April and paid for by the farmers from the sale of beets in the fall. The Beet Sugar Industry is the agricultural industry in which the farmer is able to sell his crop, on a reliable contract, at a fixed price, before the seed is planted. He is thus independent of the action of the law of supply and demand, or of the many contingencies of the market on other crops at time of harvesting. He is not subjected to delays in payment nor compelled to hold his crop for a better market. Sugar beets will withstand a longer drought and also a more excessive rainfall than any other known staple crop. The danger of loss from bad weather conditions is thus minimized. Calculations In making the various calculations in the Beet Sugar Industry, it will be apparent that they are approximately correct when expressed in decimal proportion; that is, the relation of each to the other is expressed in some multiple of ten. In the Eastern section the average tonnage per acre is set at 10 tons. The acreage of beets to be contracted for should be 10 times the daily capacity. The tonnage of beets worked is practically 10 times the amount of sugar which should be extracted. The campaign is 100 days. The approximate cost of the completed plant is about $1,000 for each ton of daily capacity. These estimates are sufficiently near for all practical purposes. Refineries vs. Hoxne = Grown Sugar Eastern refiners buy brown (raw) sugar, produced from cane in the tropics or from beets in Europe. This sugar has had expended upon its production fully 90 j^er cent, of all the labor and other cost. The cost of refining is from 30 to 40 cents per 100 pounds, of 22 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION which not exceeding 15 cents is for American labor. This sugar is melted, reboiled and clarified by x^assing through bone black (animal charcoal) and the refined sugar separated from the molasses precisely as in the Beet Sugar jmocess. In fact, the machin- ery is identical with that in the sugar end of the beet sugar factories, except for the addition of the char-filters for the necessary clarifica- tion. The xmesent price, Ajiril 1, 1903, of raw sugar, 96 degrees Cen- trifugal, landed in New York, cost and freight, is 2 1-16 cents, and this all goes to the foreign x^roducer. The American beet farmer receives for one ton of beets contain- ing 11 x^6^ cent, of sugar, in Michigan, $5.16. Ux^on the assumxhion that the factory is able to extract from this 200 x^o^nhs, the farmer receives 2.58 cents x^er for the sugar still in the beets, in the shed, upon which all labor and factory expense must be expended. The duty on raw sugar x^olarising 96 degrees is $1.68^ per 100 xiounds. The cost, duty paid, is about 3f cents x^ei* THe Ftittire It is estimated that in 1910, the amount of sugar required for consuinx^tion in the United States, above that x^i*oduced from home- grown cane, will be 3,000,000 tons. Eurox^e, with much less available beet area, x^roduced in 1900, 5,950,000 tons of beet sugar. To x^roduce 3,000,000 tons of beet 'sugar annually would require 500 plants, each having a daily cax^acity of 600 tons. These plants would rex3resent the following investment and annual business: Invested in plants 8300, OCX), 000 Working capital 50,000,000 Acres of beets 3,000,(X)0 Valuation of land growing this crop 150,000,000 Tons of beets 27,000,000 Tons of sugar 3,000,000 Value of beets 135,000,000 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION 23 Annual pay roll for labor in factories 42,000,000 Tons of coal used 5,500,000 Tons of lime rock 1,890,000 Tons coke 208,000 Freight paid railroads 27,000,000 Annual payments, bags and barrels 6,000,000 Number of farmers raising beets 750,000 Men employed in factories 125,000 Men employed raising beets during season 1,200,000 24 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Statistical Presei^t Sources of World’s Sugar Supply BEET 1901 1900 1999 1898 Germany .2,270,000 1,979,098 1,798,631 1,721,718-^ Austria .1,250,000 1,094,013 1,108,007 1,051,290' Prance ,1,200,000 1,170,332 977,850 830,132 Russia . . 1,050,000 920,000 905,737 776,066 Belgium . 350,000 340,000 302,865 244,017 Holland . 190,000 178,081 171,029 140,763 Other European Countries . 400,000 387,440 253,929 209,115 Total foreign , .6,710,000 6,068,994 5,518,048 4,982,101 United States . 150,000 76,859 72,944 32,471 Total beet .6,860,000 6,145,853 5,590,990 5,590.572: CANE Cuba 875,000 635,856 308,540 345,260 Java . 765.000 710,120 721.993 689,281 Brazil . 215,000 190,000 192,700 154.495 Mauritius . 145,000 175,267 157,025 186,487 Australia . 117,000 111.554 123,289 192,247 Argentine Republic . 115,000 114,252 91,507 72,000 Peru . 105,000 105,000 100,381 61,910 Other Foreign Countries.. . 753,000 731,880 681,219 748,926 Total Foreign Cane .3,090,000 2,773,929 2,376,654 2,450,606 United States: Louisiana . 290,000 275,000 132,000 245,511 Porto Rico . 100,000 80,000 35,000 53,826 Hawaiian Islands . 300,000 321,461 258,520 252,507 Philippine Islands . 70.000 52,000 62,875 93,000 Total, U. S. and posses- sions . 760,000 728,461 488,305 644,844 Total cane .3,850,000 3,502,390 2,864,959 3.095,450 Total Cane and Beet 10,710,000 9,648.243 8,455,951 8,110,022 To illustrate the comparative growth of the beet sugar industry in the United States and Europe, the following table will be interesting: MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 25 Beet iSugar Production United States. Europe. United States. Europe. (Tons.) (Tons.) (Tons.) (Tons.) 1870 400 899,600 1892 12,018 3,442,198 1872 ' 500 1,018,500 1893 19.550 3,889,845 1878 200 1,418,800 1894 20,092 4,790,532 1880 500 1,747,500 1895 29,220 4,285,429 1883 535 2,146,470 1896 37,536 4,916,498 1884 953 2,574,047 1897 40,399 4,831,774 1886 800 2,732,200 1898 32,471 4,982,101 1888 1,010 2,724,000 1899 72,944 5,518,048 1890 2,800 3,707,200 1900 76,859 6,068,994 1891 5,359 3,501,920 1901 150,000 6,710,000 Detailed Su.ppl:>^ of tHe United States, IQOl DOMESTIC Cane Beet Molasses Sugar Maple 12.4 per cent. 5.2 per cent. .7 per cent. .2 per cent. 439,986 tons. 18.5 per cent. FROM INSULAR POSSESSIONS, CANE Hawaii Porto Rico Philippine Islands 309,070 tons. 13.2 per cent. 2.7 per cent. .2 per cent. Total from Insular possessions 380,449 tons. 16.1 per cent. Total, Domestic and sions Insular posses- 34.6 per cent. FOREIGN Cane Beet Refined 1,292,080 tons. 217,286 tons. 54.6 per cent. 9.6 per cent. 1.7 per cent. Total Foreign 1,551,881 tons. 65.4 per cent. Grand Total 2,372,316 tons. 100.0 per cent. A.verage Increase in Total Consumption Per Year for Twenty Years France 6.18 per cent. England 3.50 per cent. Germany 6.91 per cent. United States 6. 94 per cent. Austria 4.65 per cent. 26 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Sugar Consumption, Dominion of Canada, IQOO, WitK Sources of Supply Raw United Kingdom and British pos- sessions, Tons. 11,020 Imported from United States Possessions and Dependencies, Tons. 2,689 Other Cane Tons. 3 other Beet Tons. 112,613 Total Tons. 126,325 Refined . . 1,238 12,265 1,684 1,247 16,434 12,258 14,954 1,687 113,860 142,795 It will be seen that more than 75 per cent, of the total supply in Canada was from su^^ar beets. The customs duties in Canada are 7IJ cents per 100 pounds on raw sugar, (96 degrees, Centrifugal) and $1.20 on refined sugar, against $1.68^ and $1.95 respectively in the United States. This duty should be materially increased before the production of beet sugar can attain any considerable development. Having had an opportunity during the last few months to become acquainted with the conditions in Colorado, I will give some data showing what the establishment of a factory means to a community. Covelstnd, Colo. The Loveland factory is said to employ 400 men and boys during th© sugar making season, the payroll being about $25,000 per month, or for the 120 days, or four months, of the factory campaign, about $100,000. About 35 of the skilled factory employes, the office force, the agricultural superintendent and his corps of assistants, are employed the year round, representing a payroll for the eight months during which the factory is idle, of about $4,000 per month, or about $82,000, making the annual pay roll about $132,000. The local beet growing industry, following the erection of the Loveland factory, has resulted in the immigration into the district of about 1,500 laborers, old and young, who came to Colorado from Nebraska, The wages x^aid in the beet fields for ordinary common labor, doing hand-work,' range^fronC$1.50^to $2.50 x^er day, if reckoned that way, but the field laborers generally contract to do the necessary hand-w’ork, MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 27 Tiz., the thinning and hoeing, second and third hoeings, pnlling and topping, for $20 per acre; father, mother and children working on the family contract. Aronnd Loveland beets are regarded as not merely a more i3rofit- able crop than wheat or other grain, or alfalfa, or i3otatoes, but as a safer crop, as much less liable to serions damage from hailstones .7^ The beet pnlp produced by this factory is sold to local stock feed- ers at 35 cents per ton, being mainly used for sheep. It has necessarily given cpiite an impetus to local stock feeding. The beet tops, left in the fields after the beets are harvested, are valuable either as feed for cattle and sheep, or as a fertilizer when ploughed under. It is difficnlt to overestimate the benefit of this factory to the Loveland district. It has already materially enhanced the market value of all farm lands within its sphere of influence; promoted diver- sified farming; rotation of crops and more intensive agriculture. The $1,472,000 i^aid to local growers for beets during the three seasons the factory has been in operation, has necessarily gone^into^general circu- lation and benefitted not merely the Loveland district in xjarticnlar, but Colorado in general, in a variety of ways, insomuch that the con- tinued success of the enterx^rise is, or should be, a matter of interest to every citizen of Colorado. Sugar City, Colo. The beet sugar factory of the National Sugar Manufacturing com- pany at Sugar City x^resents somewhat different circumstances to the other beet sugar factories in Colorado. Sugar City is situated fifty-six miles east of Pueblo on the line^of the Missouri Pacific railway, or about 160 miles by railroad from Denver. In the sx3ring of 1899 the site of the x^resent Sugar City was merely “an exx3anse of x^hiin and sky,” a “round-ux^” x^oint for the ox^en range cattle industry, and tenanted by x^rairie dogs and occasional coy- otes. Sugar City was pncorx^orated in June, 1900, and to-day has a X^opulation of about 1,500, with hotels, business houses, a bank, a fire 28 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION department, a $10,000 school house and a $20,000 water works plant’ the bonds of which were sold at x^ar. All this has followed the erection in 1899 of a beet sugar factory at Sngar City by the National Sugar Mannfactnring company. It naturally took some little time to get the beet growing industry started. The first year the factory was erected remarkable progress was made, considering the difficulties which had to be overcome. The industry was entirely new to that section. The farmers were nnfa- iniliar with the method of raising the beets, laborers had to be brought from distant x)laces and were compelled to live in tents for the greater X^art of that year, and the land was but a vast area of new and unbroken Xjrairie. Nevertheless, 12,000 tons of beets were raised the first year- A Large Territory The area tributary to the factory extends along the line of the Missouri Pacific railroad, x^ractically as far as Pneblo, taking in the fionrishing agricultural communities of Ordway, Olney, Fowler, Baxter, Vineland, etc., and rex3resenting at least 50,000 acres of irrigable land. The main crox^s of this tributary area, until the advent of the factory, were alfalfa, grain, etc. There is not much live stock, excex^t on the open ranges north and south. There is little dairying or x^oultry rais- ing, but there are numerous orchards, and honey is shix^x^ed out by the carload. In the vicinity of Ordway, about six miles west of Sugar City and the factory, the farms are of good size, the farmhouses and out- buildings substantial and well x^ainted. The farmsteadings are invar- iably surrounded by orchards, shade trees, hay and grain ricks, and usually also have a cluster of white tents, occuxjied by the laborers for the beet fields. The National Sugar Manufacturing comx^any owns 12,000 acres of land surrounding Sugar City and the factory, the Missouri Pacific railway x^assing diagonally through the center of the tract. This body of land, which lies in comx^act form, is an excellent alluvial dex^osit of light loam, mixed with fine gravel, yielding readily to the x^low and easy of cultivation. Just north of this area runs the Colorado canal, owned by the Twin Lakes Land and Reservoir coinx^any, from which the whole of the 12,000 acres of the National Sugar Manufacturing company is irri- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 29 gable. The Meredith lakes sonth of the town, have a circumference of thirteen miles, the volume of water in which, though varying with the seasons, never fails. THe Water Suppl:>^ The National Sugar Manufacturing company owns extensive water rights, Lake Henry, fed by means of a priority right from the Arkan- sas river through the Colorado canal being the base of siix^i^ly. In other words, from Twin Lakes, 2,000 acres in extent, with average depth of eighty-five feet, in Lake county, at an altitude of 9,200 feet, the water is carried in a natural canal to the Arkansas river, a distance of nine miles. Then down the Arkansas river for a distance of 150 miles to Boone, east of Pueblo, at Boone taken into the Colorado canal and conveyed a distance of thirty-five miles to Lake Henry and from there, through a wooden stave pipe to Sugar City and the adjoining land of the National Sugar Manufacturing coinx^any. When the Arkansas river supply becomes short, as it usually does during the middle of the summer, the headgate at Twin Lakes is opened and the necessary amount of water liberated, which in about two days, via the Arkansas river, the Colorado canal and Lake Henry, is delivered for irrigation use around Sugar City. In addition to this, the great storage reservoir of Lake Henry, four miles northwest of Sugar City, holds a vast volume of water ready for any emergency of threatened drought. It is said that the before-mentioned facilities jDreclude shortage of water around Sugar City. L’and Under Cultivation The company is cultivating a considerable portion of its 12,000 acres of land, 4,000 acres oeing devoted to beets. A quantity of the comx)any’s land is leased to other beet growers and the remainder is grown by the comx^any to alfalfa and grain croj^s as a x3recursor to beets. The total cost to the company of handling its x^ortion of the 12,- 000 acres this season will be about $250,000, by far the greater part of the exx^ense being on the 4,000 acres of beets. In addition, about 140 beet growers, owning or leasing land along 30 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION the line of the Missouri Pacific railroad, with an average of eleven acres of beets each, have contracted to furnish the factory this season with the beets from about 1,500 acres. Taking the average yield per acre at the low estimate of ten tons, the factory should slice from all sources between 40,000 and 50,000 tons of beets this season. For beets which contain 14 per cent, sugar, the company pays $4 ton, allowing 25 cents extra per ton for each 1 per cent, of sugar. The average sugar contents are 17^ per cent, and in some exceptional cases the beets test as high as 21 and 22 per cent. The average price the growers receive is about $4.87 per ton. Many of the beet growers raise an average of twelve tons to the acre, while some raise as high as fifteen and twenty tons per acre. Some Statistics One grower near Ordway received from the company for beets de- livered from two and three-quarters acres, $365.39 or $132.84 per acre. He did a large part of the work himself, but assuming that the value of his own labor and whatever other labor he had to pay for was $32 per acre, it still left a profit of $100 per acre. Another company received from the company about $2,500 for the beets from forty acres. Another grower, who leased forty acres of the company’s land, raised an average of sixteen tons per acre of high quality and received from the factory therefor about $3,000. The cost of production of an acre of beets at Sugar City is conser- vatively stated as follows: Plowing - Irrigating, winter (once) Irrigating, summer, (three times) Harrowing, (three times) Seed - - . - Seeding . . - - Cultivating (5 times) Bunching and thinning, by contract labor Hoeing, by contract labor $3.50 .75 1.00 .90 3.00 .50 2.00 6.00 6.00 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 31 Pulling and topping, by contract labor - 6.00 Plowing np beets - - - 2.00 Hauling (ten tons) - - - 5.00 Per acre _ . _ . $86.65 It is said that the above figures can be somewhat reduced by less cultivating and by the grower doing his bunching and thinning, hoeing, pulling and topping by the month. Even on the above showing, a I)roduction of fifteen tons per acre means over $73 per acre, or a net profit of nearly $30 per acre, while at ten tons per acre there is still a fair profit to the grower Heavy Pay Roll In addition to the amount paid this season by the factory to in- dependent growers for beets, the company has an annual payroll of be- tween $150,000 and $200,000, covering the 190 factory emx3loyes dur- ing the sugar making season of about 120 days, commencing October 1, the maintenance of the administration crops, about forty in number, during^the other eight months of the year, and the force required to run that part of the company’s 12,000 acres of land,jiot^n beets, oper- ated by the company. Further large sums are expended in Colorado in the purchase of coal, lime rock, etc., and in railroad freight. The factory treats 500 tons of beets per day during the season and produces 120,000 pounds or sixty tons per day of pure white granulat- ed sugar therefrom. Its modus operand! of manufacturing resembles that at other Colorado factories sufficiently to call for no repeated descrqDtion here. As it stands to-day, the factory has cost api3roximately $500,000. During the agricultural season the coinx^any employs about 1,000 persons old and young, on the acreage of beets grown by itself, while the independent growers einj^loy outside helj) to the number of at least 500 persons. The usual price for hand work is about $18 per acre; man and two horse team get $3 per day, and irrigators $1.75 x^er day. One beet worker received one check for $900 for his personal contract labor from May 1 to November 1. Many others received amounts equal to this for similar contracts. 32 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Foreign Labor The bulk of this labor is performed by people commonly known as Russians, bnt really people of German race and language born in Russia. It is said that these German laborers around Sugar City, while coming here from Nebraska, came originally from the jirovinces of Saratov and Samara in the valley of the Volga and are descendants of German emigrants who settled in that part of Russia in the middle ? of the Eighteenth century. They are said to speak the German which r prevailed over a century ago, like the Canadians of Lower Canada largely speak the French which prevailed in France at the time when \ their ancestors emigrated from France to Lower Canada. These Ger- ; man-Rnssian laborers have built a Lutheran church and have their : own resident pastor. They are phenomenally industrious, father, i mother, and children working in the fields side by side early and late. ; A number of the men who came first have purchased, with their sav- ' ings, serviceable teams and wagons and do most of the beet team work ^ at so much per ton. Some of the older comers have ceased to dwell in tents, having acquired small tracts of land and erected their own i houses. Many Phases « There are also about 100 Mexicans, chiefiy engaged in loading or | unloading beets rather than field work, but they are transients, only j staying around Sugar City for the sugar making season. The residum j)ulp from the factory has given an impetus to the local feeding of cattle and sheep, one packing comi^any of Pueblo feeding 3,000 head of steers and 500 sheep at Sugar City this season. The National Sugar Manufactory company has reclaimed and i3ut into profitable production a large tract of Colorado land. It has annually, for five consecutive years, disbursed large sums of money in the emi^loyment of labor in Colorado and for beets produced by independent growers. It has added another i^ros- perons community to the state. It obviously merits full ax3preciation and sui3i3ort from the citizens of the state, no matter where resident of the state. The Greeley District. The Greeley district was the pioneer in Colorado of agriculture on monta:(;^a experiment statioi<, 33 any considerable scale, by means of irrigation, and its snccess in the ’70s gave the impetus which resnlted in siinilar enterprises and re- clamation of dry land at many other points in the state. Had the Greeley colonists been less indomitable in the early ’70s and allowed themselves to fail in their efforts, the development of agricnltnre, as it exists in Colorado to-day, might have been postponed possibly twenty years. The whole state, therefore, is infinitely indebted to the Greeley colony for its i3ioneer work of converting semi -arid lands into fertile fields by artificial irrigation from the streams fed from the melting snows and eternal springs in the mountains. Of the seventy-five square miles of irrigated, cultivated land snr. rounding Greeley the respective acreages of various crops for the sea- son of 1903 are estimated in the folloAving order; (1) alfalfa, (' 2 ) pota- toes, (3) wheat, (4) sugar beets, (5) oats, (6) barley. That portion of the land which has been in continuous cultivation since the early ’70s is more productive now than ever before for var- ious reasons, viz: (1) more intelligent and economic nse of water, (2) more thorough cultivation, (3) the utilization of alfalfa, plowed under as a fertilizer, (4) rotation of crops, (5) increased use of barnyard and sheep pen manure, (6) imi)rovement in agricultural implements and appliances and in grade of farm horses. HigK 'WKeat Average, Years ago the average local wheat crop ranged from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, while to-day, it is said to range from thirty to as high as sixty bushels per acre, the minimum average being forty bushels. Potatoes formerly used to range from seventy to eighty sacks (of 100 pounds each) to the acre, while for the season of 1903 they are said to average at least 100 sacks per acre. With the increased average yield of wheat and potatoes, the cost of production i)er bushel and per sack has decreased. The estimated cost of raising wheat around Greeley is said to be about $10 per acre. An average yield of forty bushels per acre, at present price of 90 cents per bushel, means $36 per acre, or a profit to the grower of, say, $25 i^er acre. 34 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. The estimated cost of raising potatoes around Greeley is said to be from $30 to $35 per acre, including seed. An average yield of 100 sacks per acre, at present price of 70 cents per sack, means $70 per acre, or a profit to the grower of, say, $35 per acre. It is estimated that Weld county this season has raised and will ship 8,000 cars of potatoes, averaging at least fifteen tons per car, of which at least 4,000 cars, or 60,000 tons, were raised in the ten square miles immediately surrounding Greeley, where the “dugout” for potato storage is an adjunct on practically every farm. These Greeley potatoes, on account of their superior quality, have been for years shi^Dped throughout the Southern and Middle states, and even as far east as New York and Boston, 2,000 miles by railroad. Beet Stigar Factory In 1902 the Greeley Sugar company built and completed a beet sugar factory at Greeley with a daily capacity of 600 tons of beets. The officers of the company are: C. S. Morey, president; C. A. Granger, vice president; M. D. Thatcher, treasurer, and W. A. Dixon, secretary. The factory as it stands to-day, including first cost and subsequent additions and improvements, represent a cash investment of $750,000. The factory premises cover sixty-five acres, and the site is ideal. While there is a sufficient resemblance between the various fac- tories of the state to render unnecessary a special description of the Greeley factory, it may be said of this factory, that it was evidently designed and built by experienced men with a view to maximum effic- iency at minimum first cost and subsequent cost of oi^eration. The factory has a well, through the gravel down to bed rock, from which 1,000,000 gallons per day of pure water is pumped and used exclusively in the manufacture of sugar. Wide Territory Covered. In 1902, its first season, the factory sliced 40,000 tons of beets, paying the farmers $180,000 and making 8,000,000 j)ounds of sugar. For the season of 1903 it is estimated that the factory will slice 55,000 tons of beets, paying the growers therefore $247,000 and mak- ing therefrom 12,000,000 pounds of sugar. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 85 In the season of 1903, 4,H00 acres of beets were contracted for the factory, the territory being far reaching at points along the Union Pacific railroad, on the Denver line as far as Fort Lnpton, twenty-six miles from Greeley, and along the Jnlesburg line as far as Denel, forty miles from Greeley. The factory has fonr dumping stations on the line of the Union Pacific, viz., at Goodrich, Kersey, LaSalle and Fort Lnpton. About three-fifths of the factory’s supply of beets this sea- son came in by railroad from various points along the Union Pacific and the remaining two-fifths were delivered by wagon from growers within a radius of about five miles from the factory. There were 550 individual growers who averaged about nine acres each, the average yield being about twelve tons per acre. One man with twenty-two acres raised twenty-six tons per acre. Other growers with smaller tracts raised as high as thirty and even thirty-two tons per acre, showing what can be done. Cost of Production The cost of production of the beets is said to range from $30 to $40 per acre, depending on what the grower has to hire. It is said that a man can rent land, pay for water, hire a foreman and pay for all necessary work and still raise beets at a total cost of not to exceed $40 per acre. In 1902 the payroll of the factory during the sugar making season, commencing October 10 and finishing January 17, is expected to be about $70,000, and during the fiscal year $19,000. The beet pulp from this factory amounting to over 20,000 tons this season, is giving an impetus to local stock feeding, mostly sheep. Ninety per cent, of the iDulp will be fed to stock within a mile and a half of the factory, and two cars of pulp per day are being shipped to points along the Union Pacific, as far as Fort Lnpton on the Denver line, and as far as Masters and Orchard on the Julesburg line. The price of the beet pulp is 35 cents per ton f. o. b., also 35 cents per ton at the silo for local beet growers, and 50 cents at the silo to non-beet growers. According to the United States government report beet pulp is worth $1.22 per ton for stock feeding purposes. 36 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. SHeep Indtistr^-. Near the factory the company has 5,0()0 Mexican and Southern sheep, including many old ewes, being fattened on pulp and hay. They were delivered in the factory pens on October 28 and it was esti- mated there were 1,000 head ready for market. It is estimated there will be a net profit of at least $1 per head on these 5,000 sheep, besides 1,000 loads af manure, which is sought after by farmers at 75 cents per load. These i^ulp fattened sheep are ship- ped to Missouri river points as far as Chicago. The Greeley beet sugar factory represents a cash investment of $750,000, and in its two seasons’ operations has practically already paid $127,000 for beets and $168,000 in payrolls, or a total local dis- bursement in two years of nearly $600,000, to say nothing of cost of coal, lime rock, railroad freight, taxes, etc. Eaton, Colo. Eaton has a population of about 1,000, and has two banks, two hotels, two school houses, costing $30,000, a newspaper, a gas iDlant? water works system, sewerage system, telephone system, three churches, elevator with a capacity of 110,000 bushels, flouring mill of 400-barrel daily capacity, and a beet sugar factory of 600 tons daily capacity. There are no saloons. The agricultural country tributary to Eaton is about 100 square miles in e:j^tent, and contains several thousand population. In it there are about 150 miles of main irrigating canals, mostly fed from the Cache la Poudre, but some from the Larimer river. A Great Farming Conntry. Taking the average 160-acre farm, tlie various crops are generally represented about as follows: alfalfa, forty acres; potatoes, forty acres; sugar beets fifteen acres; grain, wheat predominating, sixty-five acres. There are comparatively few eighty-acre farms, larger sizes prevailing. A special feature of the district is large ownerships and the rent- ing the land to tenants on sharek For instance, ex-Goyenor B. H. Eaton owns 15,000 acres of which 12,000 acres are under cultivation. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 87 while his two sons aggregate an additional 6,000 acres, not one of the three doing any farming himself, but renting his land out to the actual cultivators on shares. The owner furnishes the land, irrigating water, house and other improvements, receiving as rent one-third of the grain and potatoes, one-fourth of the sugar beets, one-half of the alfalfa. The tenant furnishes the implements, working animals and the labor? taking the remainder of each crop as his share. This gives the ten- ants a chance, which many of them would not otherwise have. A limited capital will purchase seed and horses, and hire machinery, wdth the certainty of getting tv/o-thirds of the grain and potatoes, three- fourths of the sugar beets, and one-half of the alfalfa raised, while in the event of a bad year or poor crop the tenant farmer is not expected to find a certain amount of cash for a fixed rent, whether he has made it or not. In fact, it is a partnership which works well for both land owner and tenant, is equitable and has enabled many a man to make a start which he could not have done in any other w^ay. THe £aton Stigsir Company. The Eaton district during the past season raised about 150,000 bushels of wheat and about 1,500 cars, or 22,500 tons, of potatoes, net- ting the growers, at $210 per car, $315,000, In 1802, the Eaton Sugar company built and completed a beet sugar factory at Eaton, with a daily capacity of 600 tons of beets. The officers of the company are: C. S. Morey, president; W. D. Hoover, vice-president; M, D, Thacher, treasurer, and W. A. Dixon, secretary. The factory as it stands to-day^ iucluding first cost and subsequent additions and improvements, represents a cash investment of $750,000. The factory premises comprise sixty acres and the site is advan- tageous. In general matters it sufficiently resembles the other factor- ies in Colorado as not to call for any detailed description here. In 1902, its first season, the factory sliced 35,000 tons of beets, paying the farmers therefor at the rate of $5 per ton, $175,000, For the season of 1903 it is estimated the factory will slice ()0,000 tons of beets, paying the farmers therefor, at the rate of $5 per ton, $300,000. 38 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Hundreds o/* Growers In the season of 1903 there were about 6,000 acres of beets con- tracted for the factory, mostly grown within a radius of eight or ten miles from the factory, the company having two dumping stations on the Union Pacific railroad, north of Greeley, viz., one at Lucerne, and the other at Ault. This factory has also received beets from the dis- tricts south of Greeley. About 65 per cent, of the beets come by wagon from the farms within three to four miles, and the other 35 per j^ent. come railroad. There were about 400 individual growlers last year, who averaged about fourteen acres each, the average yield being upwards of twelve tons per acre. There were instances where growers raised as much as thirty-six tons per acre, and in some cases of small tracts, receiving si:)ecial attention, even as high as forty tons per acre. The local cost of beet i^roduction ranges from $30 to $35 per acre. In 1902 the payroll of the factory during the four months’ sugar making season was about $40,000, and during the eight months while 4he factory was idle, about $25,000. In 1903, the payroll of the factory during the sugar making sea- son, commencing October 1 and finishing January 10, is expected to be $50,000, and during the remainder of the fiscal year $25,000. Fortunes Paid Out The beet pulp residue from this factory, amounting to about 30,- 000 tons this season, is sold at 30 cents per ton at the silo, and is being used, along with hay, etc., for the feeding of 30,000 sheex) within mod- arate radius of the factory. At the time of the writer’s visit, Decem- ber 21, there were said to be about 12,000 sheep in feeding pens adjoining the factory. Having regard to the fact that the Eaton beet sugar factory repre- sents a cash investment of $750,000, and in its two seasons’ operations has i^ractically already paid $475,000 for beets and $140,000 in j^ayrolls) or a total local disbursement in two years of about $615,000, to say nothing of cost of coal, lime rock, railroad freight, taxes, etc., the writer was unprepared for the statement from a prominent Eaton man man that there was considerable local prejudice against the beet grow- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 39 ing, as beets are supposed to impoverish the soil. It is surprising how people, who could be expected to know better, jump to unwarranted conclusions, without first making some careful investigation. Yet here is a local example of beets as compared with potatoes and show- ing that beets improve the soil for other crops. Some Good R.etori:is Mr. William Stanley of Lucerne, grew for the Eaton sugar factory in 1903, on rented ground, belonging to a Greeley merchant, twenty acres of beets, which yielded 483 tons, for which he was paid by the factory $2,415. After deducting $200 paid for bunching, thinning, and hoeing, $241.50 for pulling and topping, and $805 (the value of the land owner’s share of the crop) for rent, he had left a net balance of $1,168.50, or $58.42 net per acre. During the same season, 1903, he grew on the same farm thirty acres of potatoes, yielding 2,950 sacks, which he says will shrink in weight by the time they are sold to 290,000 pounds. If sold at present price of 80 cents per 100 pounds, they will realize $2,320. From that amount he deducts picking, $147.50; sacks, $60; twine, $3; taking out of “dug-out,” $58; or a total of $268.50, which, added to $1,160 (the value of the land owner’s share of the crop) for rent, makes his ex- penses $1,428.50, leaving him $891.50 net for the thirty acres of pota- toes, or $29.71 net per acre, as compared with S58.42 per acre for his beets. How One Man Was Paid In the above comparison there is no mention of the cost of irri- gating, cultivating, digging, etc., as Mr. Stanley says those items are about the same in beets as in potatoes, bat if anything rather in favor of the beets; as beets can be dug with two ho'^ses, while four are required for digging potatoes. In 1902 Mr. Stanley had a certain thirty acres of which five acres were in beets, yielding twenty tons per acre, and the other twenty-five acres being in wheat, which, however, was destroyed by hail June 27, did not yield an ounce of wheat, though irrigated, and therefore remained practically fallow in 1902. Of this same thirty acres, in 1903 he planted the five acres in potatoes which had been in beets in 1902, 40 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION and they yielded 655 sacks, or 131 sacks per acre. The other twenty- five acres which had been in whetb in 1902 he also i3lanted wdth pota- toes in 1903, and they yielded 2,295, sacks, or an average of 91.8 sacks per acre, as compared with 131 sacks per acre on the five acres which had , previously grown beets. Mr. Stanley’s experience is by no means an isolated case. li\cl\istr>’ Yet New The sugar beet industry in Colorado is too new for Colorado peo- ple yet to know all about it, and Colorado can learn much from Ger- many, where the industry has been long established and has been largely brought down to scientific principles. Report No. 74 (page 149) of the United vStates Department of Agriculture says that the influence of beet culture on the farmer’s land is best shown by reproducing that portion of the report of one of the United States consuls in Germany, which treats of the effects of beet culture in rotation with other crops. The Germans are not only exceedingh" systematic, but very scientific, and the following report of exhaustive experiments most carefully made, should serve to unde- ceive any who erroneously believe that sugar beets rapidly exhaust the soil. The United States Consul’s report is as follows; Some German^ Figures “A German farm of 625 acres produced, before the introduction of beet culture, yearly 9,736 bushels of grain in ten years’ average. After beet culture was introduced, with 125 acres yearly to beets, the average yearly grain crop from the remaining 500 acres was 9,870 bushels, or 134 bushels’ increase. Another farm in the province of Saxony, also of 625 acres, produced, before beet culture was intro- duced, in ten years’ average, 13,879 bushels of grain. When five years afterwards 135 acres were planted with beets, the grain crop of the remaining 490 acres was 14,365 bushels’ average, and afterwards, when yearly 220 acres of beets were planted, the average grain crop from the remaining 405 acres was 14,397 bushels, or 518 bushels more than from the whole 625 acres before beets were raised.” The figures of thirty-five other farms of from 500 to 1,000 acres each, in the x^rovince of Saxony, are given on page 150 of Rej^ort No. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 41 74, the average beet crop on which was 17 1-5 tons per acre, and show- ing that, in consequence of growing sugar beets in rotation with other crops, the average yield of the other crops was increased as follows: Wheat, 24 per cent.; rye. 14.8 per cent.; barley, 25.2 per cent. ; oats, 41.5 per cent.; peas, 86 per cent.; potatoes, 103.2 per cent. SHould Stu-div' Subject In the light of the exj^erience of Germany, it is evident that the farmers in Montana, who desire to materially increase the average of their crops of wheat, oats, potatoes, etc., cannot do better than grow sugar beets in rotation with such other crops. On this subject, Rei^ort No. 74 of the United States Department of Agriculture says that the above quoted German demonstration ‘‘shows that the farmer who rotates his beets with other crops does not decrease the productiveness of his land, when sown to other crops, but, on the contrary, greatly increases its productiveness. The troth is that a good farmer cannot measure his profits by his beet crop alone, but must consider the extra profit which beet culture enables him to make on everything else he grows.” The individual beet growers of Montana would do well to study the valuable information contained in the before mentioned Report No. 74, as they would thereby avoid being misled by the prejudiced statements of practically irresponsible iDersons, who have evidently given insufilcient study to the subject. 42 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Report of Crop of 1903. TABLE OP COMPOSITION, YIELD AND VALUE Laboratory No. Co-operating Farmer Locality Date Analyzed 2499 H. O. C. Andrews McLeod, Sweet Grass Co Sept. 2500 I. D. O’Donnell Billings, Yellowstone Co 2501 H. Shrammeck Cascade, Cascade Co u 2502 C. H. Norton Bridger, Carbon Co 2503 J. R. Stevens 2504 G. P. Hunter 2505 J. R. Stevens 2506 A. Anderson Peeley, Silver Bow Co 2507 C. R. Schurch Deer Lodge, Powell Co 2508 M. Plannigan Billings, Yellowstone Co ii 2515 Chas. E. Coleman Missoula, Missoula Co a 2516 Daniel Payne Monarch, Cascade Co 2517 H. Backhouse Missoula, Missoula Co 2518 Jas. Largent Ulm, Cascade Co u 2525 H. O. C. Andrews McLeod, Sweet Grass Co Oct. 2532 Theodore Koenig Kalispell, Plathead Co 2539 N. D. Root Whitehall, Jefferson Co u 2547 J. A. Conrey Cascade, Cascade Co u 2550 IT. Shrammeck a n u 2551 J, B. Taylor u u u 2552 Toman Bros 2553 J. R. Stevens Bridger, Carbon Co 41 2554 C. R. Schurch Deer Lodge, Powell Co (4 2555 J. R. Stevens Bridger, Carbon Co 44 2562 P. W. Bradford Great Palls, Cascade Co 44 2563 A. Anderson Peeley, Silver Bow Co Nov. 2564 Jos. L. Sargent Ulm, Cascade Co 3 U SI 3 3 3 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 26 26 28 30 30 30 3 14 14 24 24 28 28 29 29 29 31 . 1 3 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 43 TABLE OF COMPOSITION, YIELD AND VALUE.— Continued Laboratory No. Average weight 1 Per cent. sugar 1 in juice 1 Per cent. sugar in beet 1 Per cent. total solids in juice Yield, tons per acre 1 Per cent, purity 2499 1 lb. 8 oz 16.8 16.0 20 GO 1 2500 4 lbs 10.6 10.1 15.5 20 68.8 2501 1 lb. 834 oz 9.1 8.6 14.5 62.7 2502 1 lb. 2 oz 13.2 12.5 17.6 75 2503 1 lb. 5 oz 8.6 8 2 13.7 10 62 2504 1 lb. 5 oz. . . ./. 10.6 10.1 15.5 10 68.3 2505 1 lb. 0 oz 9.0 8.55 13.2 10 68.2 2506 1 lb. 5.5 oz 12.9 12.3 16.9 20 76.3 2507 1 lb. 2.7 oz 14.0 13.3 18.8 10 74.4 2508 1 lb. 8 oz 10.9 10.4 15.5 70.3 2515 1 lb. 13.2 oz 15.6 14.8 18.0 86.6 2516 1 lb. 1.22 oz. 15.4 14.6 19.4 79.3 2517 0 lb. 6 oz 11.8 11.2 14.5 4 81.3 2518 0 lb. 14.7 oz 11.3 10.6 15.4 73.3 2525 1 lb. 15 oz 14.4 13.7 16.8 85.7 2532 1 lb. 5 oz 17.8 16.9 22.1 80.9 2539 2 lbs. 5 oz 11.9 11.3 15.4 9 83.8 2547 3 lbs. 0 oz 10.8 10.3 16.0 67.5 2450 2 lbs. 0.7 oz 13.0 12.4 17.8 73 2551 1 lb. 3.7 oz 13.8 13.1 18.7 12 2 73.7 2552 0 lb. 11 oz 14.9 14.2 19.3 7 77.2 2553 1 lb. 5.5 oz 13.2 12.5 18.1 10 72.9 2554 1 lb. 4.7 oz 14.6 13.9 18.8 13 72.3 2555 ] lb. 6.7 oz 14.0 13.3 19.3 10 72.5 2562 11b. 9.7 oz 13.0 12.4 15.7 21 82.8 2563 1 lb. 9 oz 13.5 12.8 17.6 20 76.7 2564 1 lb. 0 oz 12.2 11.6 16.6 73.5 Average 1 lb. 8,5 oz 12.5 11.87 17 12.5 74.2 4‘4 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION TABLE OF CULTURE NOTES Laboratory No. Co-operating farmer Soil Date planted Date thinned 2499 H. O. C. Andrews Black loam May 14 June 12 2500 1. D. O’Donnell “ 15 “ 10 2501 H. Schraninieck River bottom “ 20 “ 20 2502 C. H. Norton ‘ 10 2503 J. R. Stevens Clay loam “ 24 June 20 2504 G. F. Hunter. . “ 20...... July 1 2505 J. R. Stevens “ 24 June 20 2506 A. Anderson Sandy loam “ 28 “ 20 2507 C, R. Schurch “ 14 July 8 2508 M. Flannigan Alkali soil 2515 C. E. Coleman Sandy loam May 10 June 25 2516 D. Payne Bench land “ 13 July 3 2517 H. Buckhouse Gravelly black loam “ 25 June 10 2525 H. O. C. Andrews Black loam “ 16 “ 14 2532 T. Koenig “ 18 Not thinned 2539 M, D. Root Gravelly loam “ 15 June 15 2547 J. A. Conrey Black sandy loam June 14 .... 2550 H, Schrammeck River bottom May 20 June 20 2551 J. B. Taylor Heavy black, some alkali June 6 July 10 2552 Toman Bros Black sandy loam May 29 June 15 2553 J. R. Stevens Clay loam 24 “ 20 2554 C. R. Schurch Black loam “ 14 July 8 2555 J. R. Stevens Clay loam ‘ 24 June 20 2562 P. W. Bradford Light sandy loam “ 1 “ 15 2563 A. Anderson Sandy loam “ 28 “ 20 MONTANA EXPEEIMENT STATION 45 TABLE OF CULTURE NOTES!— Continued Laboratory No. Date harvested Width 1 between rows Irrigation Cultivation Remarks 2499 Sept.18 18 in. June 20, July 25. . Plowed 8 in. deep. Season unfavorable 2500 “ 18 24 “ “ 7 “ 7.. 12 “ “ . 2501 “ 21 24 “ None 6 “ “ . “ favorable 2502 “ 21 July 1, Aug. 1 . . . . None 2503 “ 21 16 in. June 10, Aug. 12, Sept. 8 Plowed 10 in. deep “ unfavorable, 2504 26 18 June 12, Aug. 15, stand poor Sept. 1 “ 10 “ “ Season unfavorable 2505 “ 21 16 “ June 10, Aug. 12, Sept. 8 10 “ 2506 •• 22 18 “ June 21, July 5, July 20, Aug. 12 “ 7 “ “ favorable 2507 “ 25 28 “ Twice 8 “ “ fair 2508 “ 28 unfavorable 2515 “ 28 30 “ June 23, July 15, Aug. 10 “ 8 - “ “ u 2516 “ 28 30 “ 8 “ “ Stand excellent, season ■■ unfavorable 2517 Oct. 1 18 “ None 8 “ “ Season favorable 2525 - 3 20 June 20, July 25. . 8 “ " “ unfavorable 2532 “ 10 20 “ None. .6“ V 2539 “ 16 20 “ July 1, Aug. 10, ' o Aug. 15 8 “ 2547 “ 22 20 “ Twice. 8 “ “ Planted too late 2550 “ 26 24 “ 8 “ Season fair 2551 “ 24 24 •' Frequent It 2552 “ 22 30 “ Twice a 10 “ “ “ unfavorable 2553 “ 26 16 “ June 10, Aug. 12, Sept. 8 10 “ “ “ fairly good 2554 “ 26 28 “ Once in June “ 8 “ - “ fair 2555 “ 26 16 “ June 10. Aug. 12, Sept. 8 10 “ “ • “ very unfavorable 2562 29 32 “ Not irrigated 6 “ “ fair No subsoiling . . ■ ■ ! 2563 “ 29 18 June 21, July 5, Aug. 12 Plowed 7 in. ,4eep. “ favorable 46 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION EXPERmENT STATION,— VARIETY TEStS. Lab. No. Date Harvested. Plat 1 2493 Sept. 19 2 2494 “ 19 “ 3 2495 “ 19 “ 4 2496 “ 19 “ 5 2497 “ 19 “ 9 2498 “ 19 Plat 1 2509 Sept. 26 “ 2 2510 “ 26 “ 3 2511 “ 26 “ 4 2512 “ 26 5 2513 “ 26 “ 5 2514 “ 26 Plat 1 2519 Oct. 3 “ 2 2520 3 “ 3 2521 “ 3 “ 4 2522 “ 3 “ 5 2523 3 “ 6 2524 “ 3 Plat 1 2526 Oct. 10 “ 2 2527 “ 10 “ 3 2528 “ 10 u 4 2529 “ 10 “ 5 2530 “ 10 6 2531 “ 10 Plat 1 2533 Oct. 17 “ 2 2534 “ 17 “ 3 2535 “ 17 “ 4 2536 u 47 “ 5 2537 “ 17 “ 6 2538 “ 17 Plat 1 2541 Oct. 24 “ 2 2542 “ 24 “ 3 2543 “ 24 “ 4 2544 “ 24 “ 5 2545 “ 24 “ 6 2546 " 24 Plat 1 2556 Oct. 30 “ 2 2557 “ 30 “ 3 2558 “ 30 " 4 2559 “ 30 “ 5 2560 “ 30 “ 6 2561 “ 30 Variety. Zehringen, No 3942 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2885. . . Hoerning Zehringen, No 3842 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2885. . . Hoerning Zehringen, No 3942 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2885. . . HoerninS Zehringen, No 3942 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Standes Braune, No 2885. . . Hoerning. . . . . . . . Zehringen', 'No ' 3942 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2888. . . Hoerning Zehringer, No 3942 . Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2885 , . . Hoerning Zehringen, No 3942 Kleinwanzlebener . Vilmorin Strandes Braune, No 2885. . . Hoerning Average Weight. 14.6 oz. 14.6 oz. 12.3 oz. 14.6 oz. 15,1 oz. 12.6 oz. 15.8 oz. 14.6 oz. 14.7 oz. ib 2.3 oz. lb lb 2oz. lb 1.1 oz. lb 2.6 oz. 15.5 oz. 15 oz. 14.8 oz. lb 3.1 oz. 14 oz. lb 2 oz. lb 3oz. lb .15 oz , lb' 0.3 oz. 12.3 oz. lb 0.6 oz. lb lb lb lb lb lb lb lb lb 0.6 oz. 1.0 oz. 3 oz. 3 oz. 3.6 oz . 3.0 oz. 2.8 oz. 3.8 oz. lb 11.3 oz. 14.3 oz, lb 4.5 oz. 14.3 oz. 13.0 oz. 12.7 oz, lb 3.7 oz, Per Ct. Sugar in juice 14.2 15.5 15.0 13.6 11.7 12.4 13.7 14.2 12.5 14.5 11.8 11.8 16.8 17.0 15.4 14.6 13.1 13.4 17.2 15.7 14.9 16.4 14.7 15.5 20.1 17.1 17.0 17.3 14.6 15.5 18.5 18.4 17.7 15.8 15.7 14.5 19.0 16.8 17.9 17.8 16.5 16.1 Per Ct. Sugar in beet 13.5 14.7 14.3 12.9 11.1 11.8 13.0 13.5 11.9 13.8 11.2 11.2 16.0 16-2 14.6 13.9 12.5 12.6 16.3 14.9 14.2 15.6 14.0 14.7 19.1 16.3 16.2 16.4 13.9 14.7 17.6 17.5 16.8 15 0 14.9 13.8 18.1 16.0 17.0 16.9 15.7 15.3 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 47 EXPERIMENT STATION— Variety Tests Continued. Laby. No. Per Ct. Total Solids in Juice Purity. 2493 17.9 79.3 2494 18.9 82. 2495 18.5 81.1 2496 18.0 75.6 2497 15.3 77.1 2498 17.8 69.7 2509 17.1 80.1 2510 17.7 80.2 2511 16.1 71.4 2512 18.1 80.1 2513 15.3 77.1 2514 15.5 76.1 2519 20.1 83.6 2520 20.3 83.7 2521 19.5 79. 2522 18.0 81.1 2523 16.9 77.5 2524 16.9 79.3 2526 21.1 81. 2527 20.1 78.1 2528 18.3 81.4 2529 19.9 82.4 2530 18.2 80.8 2531 18.8 82.4 25.33 22.7 88.1 2534 20.1 85.1 25 a 5 19.7 86.3 2536 19.8 87.3 2537 18.1 80.6 2538 18.4 84.2 2541 21.7 85.2 2542 21.4 85.9 2543 21.2 83.5 2544 19.0 83.2 2545 19.0 82.6 2546 17.9 81.0 2556 21.3 89.2 2557 19.4 86.6 2.558 20.9 85.6 2559 20.8 85.6 2560 20.2 81.6 2561 19.4 82.9 48 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. VARIETY TESTS. EXPERIMENT STATION. CULTURE NOTES. Variety 'Planted Irrigated 1 1 Thinned j Yield Plat 1 Zehringen, No. 3942 May 26 July 3 and 4 about June 1 and 15 Stand very “ 2 Klein wanzlebener. “ 26 3 in. deep; Aug. 1, 2 in. deep . . . . , 'July 5 and 4 about June 1 and 15 good, 1872 lbs. 1992 lbs., stand “ 3 Vilmorin : “ 29 1 3 in. deep; Aug. 1, 2 in. deep ; July 3 and 4 about June 1 and 15 very good 1632 lbs., stand “ 4 Strandes Klein- wanzlebener . . . 1 “ 29 3 in. deep; Aug. 1, about 2 in. deep July 3 and 4 about i June 1 and 15 only fair 1368 lbs., stand “ 5 Braune, No. 2885. . “ 29 3 in, deep; Aug. 1,’ about 2 in. deep July 3 and 4 about June 1 and 15 only fair 892 lbs., stand 6 Hoerning improv- ed Kleinwanzle- bener “ 29 3 in. deep; Aug.l, about 2 in. deep July 3 and 4 about June 1 and 15 only fair 1392 lbs., stand 1 3in. deep; Aug.l, about 2 in. deep only fair EXPERIMENT STATION TESTS Effects of Degree of Maturity on Weight, Richness and Purity of Beets. All Varieties Averaged Together Date harvested Average weight Average per cent, sugar ' in juice Average per cent, sugar in beets Average of total solids in juice Average purity, per cent. Sept. 19 .... “ 26 1 3 . 9 oz 13.7 13.0 OZ . . . . . . 12.4 “ 17.7 77.4 16.2 “ 13.1 16,6 77.5 Oct. 3 16.6 “ 15.0 14.3 “ 18.6 80.7 “ 10 16.4 “ 15.7 14.9 “ 19.4 81.0 “ 17. “24 . .. 16.3 “ 16.9 15.9 “ 19.8 20.0 85.3 83.6 20.4 “ 15.7 “ 16.7 17.3 15.8 “ “ 30 16.4 “ 20.3 85.3 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 49 EXPERIMENT STATION. VARIETY TESTS. VARIETY AVERAGES. Date harvested Average weight Average pel- cent, sugar in juice Average per cent, sugar in beets Average of total solids in juice Average purity, per cent. Zehringen, No. 3942 Sept. 19 14 6 07 .... 14 2 .... 13 5 17.9 79.3 “ 26 Oct. 3 15.8 17.1 13.7 16.8 13.0 16.0 17.1. 20.1 80.1 83.6 “ 10 14.0 u 17.2 16.3 21.1 81 “ 17 12.3 20.1 19.1 9 9 , 7 88.1 “ 24 19.0 18.5 17.6 21.7 85.2 “ 30 14.3 19.1 18 1 21.3 89.2.... ;... Totals 107 1 oz 119.6 113.6 141.9 586.5 Averages . . KIeinwanz= lebener 15.3 17.1 16.2 20.2 83.8 Sept. 19 14.6 oz 15.5 14 7 18.9 82 “ 26..... 14.6 14.2 13.5 17.7 80.2 Oct. 3 18.6 U 17.0 16.2 20 3 83.7 ... “ 10 18. u 15.7 14.9 20.1 78.1 “ 17 16.6 u 17.1 16.3 20.1 85.1 “ 24 19.6 18.4 17.5 21.4 85.9 “ 30 20.51 16.8 16.0 19.4 86 6 Totals 122 . 5 oz 114.7 109.1 137.9 581 6 Averages . . Yilmorin 17.5 16.4 15.6 19 7 83.1 Sept. 19 12.3 oz 15 14.3 18.5 81.1 “ 26 14.7 It 12.5 11.9 16.1 71.4 Oct. 3 15.5 15.4 14.6 19.5 79.0 “ 10 19. U / 14.9 14 2 18 3 81.4 “ 17 16. ( t 17 16.2 19.7 86.3 “ 24 19. (i 17.7 16.8 21 9 86.5 “ .30 14.3 « i 17.9 17.0 20.9 85.6 Totals 110.8 oz 110.4 105.0 134.2 568.3 Averages . . 15.8 15.8 15.0 19.2 81.2 50 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION VARIETY AVERAGES.— Concluded. Date harvested Average weight Average per cent, sugar in juice Average per cent, sugar in beets Average of total solids in juice Average purity, per cent. Strandes Sept. 19 “ 26 14.6 oz 18.3 “ 13.6 14.5 12.9 13.8 13.9 15.6 16.4 15.0 16.9 18 18.1 75.6 80.1 Oct. 3 15.0 “ 14.6 16.4 18.0 81.1 10 16.0 “ 19.9 82.4 “ 17 16 6 “ 17.3 19.8 87.3 ‘‘ 24 18.8 “ 13.0 “ 15.8 17.8 19.0 20.8 83.2 *• 30 Totals Averages . , Braune, No. 2885 Sept. 19 85.6 112.3 oz 16.0 “ 110.0 104.5 14.9 11.1 11.2 133.6 575.3 15.7 19.1 82.2 15.1 oz 16. 11.7 11.8 15.3 77.1 “ 26 15.3 77.1 Oct. 3 14 8 “ . 13 1 12.5 16 9 77.5 “ 10 15 “ . . 14.7 14.0 18 2 80 8 “ 17 17 14 6 13.9 18.1 80.6 “ 24 18.8 “ 15.7 16 5 14.9 15.7 19.0 82.6 “ 30 12.7 “ 20.2 82.9 Totals Averages . . Hoerning Sept. 19. . . . “ 26 Oct. 3 “ 10. . .. 109.4 oz 15 6 “ 98.1 14.0 93.3 13.3 123.0 17.6 558.6 79.8. . . 12.6 oz 12.4 11.8 17.8 69.7 18. 19 1 “ . 11.8 13 4 11.2 15.5 76.1 12.6 16.9 79.3 16 3 “ 15.5 14.7 18.8 82.4 “17 19 15.5 14.7 18.4 84.2 “ 24 27 3 “ 14.5 16.1 13.8 15.3 17.9 81.0 30 19.7 “ 19.4 81.9 Totals Averages . . 132.0 oz 99.2 94.1 124.7 559.6 18 8 “ 14.2 13.4 17.8 80.0 >> o ct3 o Sz cS 1805 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1842 1843 1844 1845 1843 1847 1848 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 .19 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. EXPERIMENT STATION. VARIETY TESTS.— Season Variety Miscellaneous KleinwanzIeJbener, No. 5770 Utah Seed Zehringen, No. 3942 Braune, No. 2885 Klein wanzlebener Dippe, No. 3944 Kleinwanzlebener Russia, No. 3943 Vilmorin Unknown variety Kleinwanzlebener No. 5770 Utah Seed Zehringen, No. 3942 Braune, No. 2885 Kleinwanzlebener Dippe, No. 3944 Klein wauzlebener Russia, No. 3943 Vilmorin Kleinwanzlebener, No. 5770 Utah Zehringen, No. 3942 Braune, No. 2885 Kleinwanzlebener Dippe, No. 3944 Kleinwanzlebener Russia, No. 3743 Vilmorin Kleinwanzlebener, No. 5770 Utah Zehringen, No. 3942 Braune. No. 2885 Kleinwanzlebener Dippe, No. 3944 Kleinwanzlebener Russia, No. 3943 Vilmorin Kleinwanzlebener, No. 5770 Utah Zehringen, No. 3942 Braune, No. 2885 Kleinwanzlebener Dippe, No. 3944 Kleinwani^lebener Russia, No. 3943 Vilmorin Average weight, oz. Sugar in juice Sugar in beet Purity Coef. 20.00 16.8 15.96 84.44 24.8 15.8 15.3 81.00 25.4 16.5 15.67 85.5 16.8 15.6 14.82 88.2 23.00 16.1 15.19 83.3 19.6 16.3 15.58 82.02 23.4 15.00 14.25 78.00 20.2 15.8 15.01 79.7 20.4 16.6 15.77 85.5 20.5 16.1 15.29 76.3 21.00 17.9 17.00 87.5 22.00 15.9 15.10 74.6 20.00 17.7 16.71 82.3 19.00 19.5 18.52 88.6 18.00 17.6 16.72 86.1 26.5 14.00 13.3 72.9 25.5 17.0 16.15 86.00 17.00 18.5 17.57 84.9 15.5 18.3 17.38 83.3 16.5 18.5 17.57 86.3 14.00 19.1 18.14 90.5 14.5 18.6 17.67 88.5 17.00 19.2 18.24 87.6 15.00 18.4 17.48 82.9 18.00 19.3 18.33 86.1 14.66 20.00 19.00 87.00 16.66 19.9 18.9 87.6 18.66 18.3 17.38 85.9 14.66 18.2 17.29 86.6 17.00 17.9 17.00 84.00 20.8 17.90 17.00 81.8 17.4 20.10 19.05 85.00 20.00 19.70 18.76 85.5 21.00 19.70 18.74 87.00 23.00 19.50 18.46 88.00 19.00 19.30 18.35 87.5 22.00 17.97 17.01 86.00 52 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. AVERAGES OP ALL TESTS. EXPERIMENT STATION.— Season of 1901 Variety Average weight, oz. Sugar 1 in juice, per cent. Sugar in beet, per cent. Purity Coef. Tons per acre Lbs. sugar per acre Klein wanzlebener, No. 5770 21.32 17.01 16.31 81.6 13.5 4403 Utah 19.76 18.44 17.51 85.8 11.7 4007 Zehringen. No. 3912 17.8 17.91 17.01 83.7 11.45 3895 Braune, No. 2885 19.43 18.38 17.12 85.3 10.5 3658 Kleinwanzlebener Dippe, No. 3914 18.85 18.53 17.61 87.00 10.4 3662 Klein wanzlebener Russia, No. 3913 17.91 17.75 16.85 85.3 9.25 .3117 Vilmorin 20.5 17.13 16.27 81.00 9.5 3091 General average . . . 19.37 17.88 16.98 81.9 10.9 3690 AVERAGES FOR SUCCESSIVE DATES. EXPERIMENT STATION.— Season of 1901 Date S rt.H o tx c s; o o txx: C o > > ^ T ^ < ^ Ph fS Sept. 28. . . . 21.7 oz 15.96 15.20 82.90 October 5. . 21.0 “ 16.96 16.13 81.19 12.. 17.14 “ 18.46 17.53 86.73 “ 19.. 16.38 “ 18.86 17.92 85.73 “ 26.. 20.45 “ 19.18 18.25 85.83 MOJNTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. oB RESULTS IN 1901.— CLARK’S FORK VALLEY.— BRIDGER AND GEBO. The * indicates that the P. O. address is Gebo; the address of all others is Bridger. Laboratory J\o. Name ■ Average weight ill oz. Sugar ill juice Sugar in beet Purity Coef . Tons beets per acre Lbs. sugar per acre 1850 P.R. Miller* ’ . 8.8 17.1 16.22 79.9 6.5 2108 1854 C. F. Sexton 29.00 15.9 15.10 80.3 25.00 7552 1881 A. E. Parker 31.5 14.3 13., 58 69.4 9.00 2444 1889 William Barclay 14.7 16.2 15.39 78.2 12.00 3695 1891 James Barclay 19.43 21.3 20.23 82.88 20.00 8092 1903 C. M. Larkin 10.8 16.88 16.00 80.00 1907 W. H. Bostic 24.9 19.5 18.52 78.3 20.00 7408 1934 C. H. Bostic 9.4 15 . 5 14.72 67.1 1935 W. F. Gibson 35.5 18.00 17.1 74.4 24.00 8208 1936 Lucy H. Smith 28.00 20.1 19.09 83.7 20.00 76.36 1937 Hugh Morrow j 26.5 19.7 18.71 74.5 15.00 5613 1938 R. B. Teesdale 1 18.8 17.86 85.4 25.00 8930 19,39 E. T. Bostic 28.50 21 9 20.8 88.3 1940 J. R. Stevens 55.0 14.81 14.06 77.4 15.00 4218 1941 S. H. Mendenhall 14.8 18.11 17.2 83.8 20.00 6880 1942 Thomas Barnett 20.8 16.5 15.67 80.00 12.00 3760 1943 A. G. Duffield 32.00 17.8 16.9 83.00 25.00 8450 1944 L. G. Preno 24.5 17.9 17.00 79.6 20.00 6800 1945 F. O. .Tennings 31 00 17.6 16.7 75 . 00 1946 B. F. Bayler 33 00 22.7 21 . 56 85.3 1947 Richard Barrows 25.5 18.6 17.67 82.00 20.00 7068 1952 I. A. Goff * 11.6 . 13.4 12.73 74.44 12.00 .3055 1953 F, E. Stevens 21.00 16.00 15.20 82.05 25.00 7600 1954 Frank Hiser 9.2 19.3 18.33 84.65 15.00 5499 1955 E. D. Lovegreen 14.33 16.3 15.48 77.94 15.00 4644 1956 E. T. Preuitt 18.66 19.1 18.14 86.80 20.00 7256 1957 W. A. Cowan* 21.00 16.8 15.96 80.00 1958 E. Cowan 15.4 19.8 18.81 90.00 20.00 7524 1959 N. Webber 18.6 18.7 17.76 86.12 1960 C. M. Laughery 17.5 19.9 18.90 88.83 20.00 7560 1961 T. E.pStearns 18.66 14.7 13.96 76.96 1950 R. A . Duncan 25.00 17.7 16.8 80.00 t P. O. address is Rockvale. .54 MONTANA EXPEKIMENT STATION. RESULTS IN 1901.— BITTER ROOT STOCK FARM.— HAMILTON, MONTANA Laboratory No. Locality Average 1 weight in oz. 1 Sugar in juice Sugar in beet Purity 1 Coef. 1 Tons boets per acre 1 Lbs. sugar per acre 1855 Hamilton Ranch, No. 1 17 8 2C.1 19.09 87.3 18.9 7216 1856 Hamilton Ranch, No. 2 16.6 19.3 18.33 86.9 13.6 4985 1857 Hamilton Ranch, No. 3 15.2 20.1 19.9 82.4 22.00 8756 1858 Hamilton Ranch, No. 4 8.8 21.1 20.04 87.5 12.7 5090 1859 Gilchrist Ranch, No. 1 11.00 20.6 19.57 88.4 18.4 7201 1860 Gilchrist Ranch, No. 2 11.6 22.00 20.9 91.2 1861 Prendergast Ranch, No. 1 11.8 19.8 18.81 87.6 20.00 7524 1862 Prendergast Ranch, No. 2 13.6 22.1 20.99 92.00 18.00 7556 1863 Lower Ward Ranch, No. 1 13.00 21.1 20.04 90.6 18.3 7334 1864 Lower Ward Ranch, No. 2 12.4 20.8 19.76 89.2 14.00 5532 1865 Upper Ward Ranch, No. 1 13.4 20.3 19.28 87.5 12.00 4627 1866 Ravalli Ranch 13.00 20.2 19.19 90.00 14.6 5603 1867 Corvallis Ranch 15.6 20.4 19.38 86.4 25.6 9922 LOCALITY AVERAGES FOR 1901 Locality Cascade County (1) .... Yellowstone County. . . . Flathead County Valley County (1) Park County (2) Custer County (1) Dawson County (1) Powell County Fergus County Jefferson County Carbon County (3) Missoula County Ravalli County (4) Gallatin County (5) . . . . Bitter Root Stock Farm Experiment Farm Clark’s Fork Valley. . . . Average weight in oz. 1 Sugar in juice Sugar in beet 1 Purity Coef. Tons beets per acre 1 1 Lbs. sugar per acre 24.5 16.25 15.4 75.4 25.00 8075 35.66 10.50 10.00 62.6 16.45 18.9 17.95 82.24 12.8 4520 19.40 15.2 14.43 82.7 20.00 5968 19.5 16.66 15.94 73.07 20.5 6498 16.00 18.4 17.5 78.00 18.6 14.00 13.3 76.5 21.9 15.6 14.86 81.8 17.00 15.4 14.63 71.6 23.00 7552 23.00 13.50 12.82 83.00 29.2 13.9 13.2 66.5 16.00 4244 16.7 17.3 16.46 83.00 13.00 4288 16.8 17.8 16 96 82.45 22.88 15.46- 14.68 78.9 31.00 9332 13.37 20.60 19.64 87.46 16.5 6771 19.37 17.88 16.98 84.9 10.9 3690 22.7 17.84 16.97 80.5 18.00 6174 (1) . One lot only. (2) . One locality only. (3) . Excluding Clark’s Fork Valley. (4) . Excluding Bitter Root Stock Farm. (5.) Excluding Experiment Farm. MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. 55 On the whole the results of the experiments in 1903 are unsatis- factory. This view is forced upon one after a study of the results in preceding years, especially those of the year 1901, some of which are included in this bulletin for comparison with the work of the past season. These results are due largely to the fact that even less interest than usual has been given to the culture of beets during the past year. This lack of interest is due mainly to the fact that notwithstanding the excellent results obtained in the past, no market for beets, through the establishment of a factory in Montana, has yet been made, and in con- sequence beets have received but scant attention, It is said that “figures speak for themselves,” and certainly the results presented show that under proper attention Montana can hold its own as a beet sugar producing state. With the figures presented for many years past by the Montana Experiment Station, why is it that we are not producing our own sugar? I am indebted to “Beet Sugar Points,” and to articles by Mr. Thomas Tonge for much of the matter of a general nature introduced into this bulletin, to Prof. Linfield, Agriculturist of the Station, for supervision of the variety tests, and to Mr. Edmund Burke, assistant chemist, for the analytical work on all the beets submitted. For additional information concerning results obtained in Mon- tana in former years, readers of this bulletin are referred to Bulle- tins 19, 33 and 41 of the Montana Experiment Station. INDEX = ^ ' PAGE Eequisits for Locating Factory Factory Site Procedure to Secure a Factory... i Cost of Operation ; Beet Culture General Directions for Seeding and Cultivating Method of Growing Beets Preparing the Seed Bed The Seed , Planting Germination f Bunching and Thinning Cultivating ; Irrigation Harvesting Topping Siloing General Data Condensed Refineries vs. Home Grown Sugar The Future Prospects Statistical Present Sources of World’s Sugar Supply ' Increase in Beet Sugar Production ; Detailed Supply of the United States for 1901 .• Average increase of Total Sugar Consumption per Year for 20 Years Sugar Consumption of Dominion of Canada for 1900 With Source of Supply Factory at Loveland, Colo Factory at Sugar City, Colo L. Factory in the Greeley District High Wheat Average in Beet District Beet Sugar Factory, Capacity of Wide Territory Covered by Factory Cost of Production of Beet Sheep Industry at Factory . Eaton, Colo A Great Farming Country The Eaton Sugar Co Fortunes Paid Out by Co Some Good Returns to Farmers Some German Figures on Soil Exhaustion Report on Crop of 1903 Table of Composition, Yield and Value Table of Culture Notes Experiment Station.— Variety Tests Variety Tests. — Experiment Station. — Culture Notes Experiment Station Variety Tests. — Variety Averages Experiment Station Variety Tests — Season 1901 Averages of all Tests— Experiment Station,— Season 1901 Averages of Successive Dates.— Experiment Station,. -Season 1901 Results in 1901— Clark’s Forks, Bridger and Gebo Results in 1901— Bitter Root Stock Farm — Hamilton, Mont Locality Averages for 1901 NO. . 6 . 8 . 8 . 10 . 13 . 13 . 13 . 15 . 15 . 15 . 16 . 16 . n . 17 . 17 . 17 . 18 . 20 . 21 22 . 24 . 24 . 25 . 25 . 25 . 26 . 26 . 27 . 32 . 33 . 34 . 34 . 35 . 36 . 36 . 36 . 37 . 38 . 39 . 40 . 42 . 42 . 44 . 46 . 48 . 49 . 51 . '52 . 52 . 53 . 54 . 54 Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station F, B. LINFIELD, Director. BXTLLETirsr NO. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES; ORGANIZATION, BUILDING AND EQUIPHENT Dairy Building —Montana Experiment Station. BY W. J. ELLIOXX, An.^istant Dairyman. BOZEMAN, MONTANA: THE AVANT COUllIER PUBIASHINO CO. AUGUST. lOOT. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION. BOZEMAN, nONTANA. STATE BOARD OE EDUCATION. Joseph K. Toole, Governor, \ James Donovan, A ttorrzeju-Gerzera/, > W. W. Welch, Swpt. of Public Instruction, j Ex-Officio Helena J. M. Evans, . . . Missoula C. R. Leonard, Butte N. W. McConnell, Helena W. M. Johnston, Billings 0. P. Chisholm, Bozeman J. G. McKay, .... Hamilton b. T. Paul, Dillon N. B. Holter, Helena EXECUTIVE BOARD. Walter S. Hartman, President, Bozeman E. B. Lamme, Vice-President, Bozeman Peter Koch, Secretary, Bozeman John Maxey, Bozeman John M. Robinson, Bozeman STATION STAEE. F. B. Linfield, B. S. A.. Director and Agriculturist. J. W. Blankinship, Ph. D., Botanist. R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., Entomologist. V. K. Chesnut, B. Sc., Chemist. J. S. Baker, B. S., Irrigation Engineer. R. W. Fisher, B. S., Horticulturist. Edmund Burke, Assistant Chemist. W. J. Elliott, B. S. A., Assistant Dairyman. Alfred Atkinson, B. S. A., Assistant Agronomist. H. J. Reese, B. S., Assistant Chemist. Postoffice, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications to the Experiment Station should be ad- dressed to THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. NOTICE. — The Bulletins olThe Experiment Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana on request. Please state whether all i)ublications arc desired as issued or only those specified. Give name and address plainly. Montana Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 53. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES THEIR ORGANIZATION, BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT. Dairying can scarcely be said to be an industry in Montana, though the natural facilities, climate, soil, water and feed, as well as the market, are very favorable indeed. Montana probably offers as good prices for dairy products as an}^ state in the Uniofi and very much bettet than most of the states, yet there are millions of pounds of butter and cheese imported into the state annually. There are probably several reasons for this. As a rule the farms in Montana are large and much hired help has to be depended upon. The suc- cessful herd requires the careful supervision of the owner which is generalise possible only on the smaller farms. Montana farms are^ productive and her farmers have, been content with the smaller re- turns rather than undertake the more exacting demands of dairy work. The profitable dairy herd produces milk the year round and’ some of the cows have to be milked 365 days in the year, morning and evening. Though the income is substantial many will not try to increase it at the cost of the extra tax on their time and attention. That the dairy industry may be attended with marked success in Montana, there is ample evidence to prove. A dairy herd in thq Gallatin valley last year returned its owner $65 from each cow, The feed at market prices cost not to exceed $30 for each cow. On this basis, by selling the feed to the cows the returns of the farm were more than doubled as compared to selling the crop off the farm. These returns indicate a good dairy herd, but that is the only kind with which a person should attempt the business. 60 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ADVANTAGES OF DAIRYING. 'When we consider that the value of the dairy products in the United States amounts to the enormous sum of four hundred and fifty million dollars each year, we see at once that it is one of the largest branches of agriculture. Its advantages to those en- gaging in n are manv. In the first place it is a cash business and also a business from which there is a little ready money coming in all the year round, which is infinitely better, both for the farmer and the merchant, than having one to two pay days a year, for instance, When the grain is threshed and drawn to market, or live stock sold. Another point is that it gives employment all the year round. Just think of “he exclusive grain growing practice for a moment and note how all the wvrk of the year is rushed into a few weeks in the hottest part of the summer, when it is almost impossible to get competent help. Right there is where the dairy industry is a boon to the farmers’ sons. It gives them something that pays well for their time and employment all the year round. In other words, it keeps the farmer and his family busy. They do not need to seek employment in the city. It keeps the boy on the farm. Another advantage of the dairy industry for Montana is that there are not long freight hauls to market. There is an unlimited market riglit at home, with prices for butter and cheese that excel those of almost any other state in the Union. In addition there is a fine climate, pure water, and as good feed as can be grown any- where. All these are prime essentials for high quality butter and cheese. One of the questions that we generally meet with is, ‘‘What is the use of starting a creamery to make more butter, when we can- not find a market for that which we are making on our ranches now?” The reason that a ready market cannot be found for the ranch butter is simply because it is hard to find any two lots of but- ter in a community that are exactly the same in every respect. But where all the farmers bring their cream or milk to a central plant, and have a skilled butter or cheese maker turn out a uniform arti- cle, there is not the least difficulty in disposing, right in our own state, of all the butter and cheese that fifty plants could turn out. . CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 61 CAUTION. We do not wish for a moment to give only the bright side of the dairy industry, tor there is a “work” side also. It is just like any other business. To make money out of it requires care and at- tention. It requires care and selection in handling the cows, care in the feeding, care in the handling of the milk, and care over all these things for twelve months in the year. But there is no other branch of farm work that will pay better, for the care and attention you give it, than the dairy business. Far better than selling the farm crops at the prevalent market prices, sell them through the cow and the milk pail, and you will realize just double market prices for your crop. The creamery or cheese factory business like any other manu- facturing business, requires a certain amount of raw material before the plant can be run successfully. A lack in the milk supply is per- haps the cause of more new creameries failing than any other. The first thing in starting a factory therefore is to find out if tliere is sufficient milk with which to keep the plant running the year round. Those interested must have an absolute guarantee of the milk from 300 cows fcr a creamery and 150 to 200 for a cheese factory, with prospects that this number will be increased as rapidly as possible in the near future. If the milk from about this number of cows can- not be guaranteed it will be good business to let the creamery pro- ject rest for a time. No creamery, however well equipped or managed, can make any money for its owners or patrons with but one to two thousand pounds of milk a day. When the farmers own the plant and enter into a written con- tract with each other to supply the milk from the requisite number of cows, under good management the factory cannot fail to succeed^ Because of the above facts and of the large number of inquiriesi that are coming into the office, with reference to the building and equipping of creameries and cheese factories, it was thought advis- able to prepare this bulletin, which we trust may be usef’il to those who are thinking of erecting such plants. 62 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Plans and specifications are given for an iip-to date creamery and cheese factory, and also complete lists of machinery for both. These plans we have found after ten years of practical work in such plants to be well adapted for the purpose, and not only that, but every article mentioned is necessary for the successful opera- tion of either plant. In the descriptions which follow the object has been to give clear and condensed plans and specifications, and also a complete list of machinery for an up-to-date, thoroughly equipped butter and cheese factory. On the following pages will be found plans for what we consid- er a model creamerv and cheese factory. These plans combine the best points of sever al creameries and cheese factories. Blue prints of these plans may be had on application to the Station. ORGANIZATION OF CREAMERIES OR CHEESE f FACTORIES. If the required number of cows are found, within the pre- scribed limits, the next thing is organization. Montana, Minnesota, North and South Dakota have laws which should be followed in forming corporations. The best plan is to have some attorney draw up the necessary corporation papers, if you desire to incorporate. The laws of the state of Montana, however, permit the organi- zation of cooperative creameries and cheese factories without the necessity of incorporating. Any attorney can draw up the necessary agreement, or you will find elsewhere in this bulletin a copy of agreement, constitution and by-laws, that are recommended. FORM YOUR OWN ORGANIZATION. By all means, however, form your own organization, and do not be led by the b-gent of any creamery supply house into a plan whereby he organizes you into a company, builds your creamery, equips it and turns it over to you in complete running order. This is the rock on which m.ost of the creameries that have failed have jOA, 4 ^ r**- 66 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. Split. The agricultural and dairy papers have for years been teem- ing with exposures of this swindle of ready built creameries ; but every year seems to find a new crop of people ready to bite. And the consequence ls the country is dotted with expensive worthless creameries standing idle. ■ The leading creamery supply houses do not undertake to organ- ize and build a creamery. Their business is to furnish the machin- ery only, but there are one or two houses that have agents con- stantly going through the countiy offering to work up a creamery company in any neighborhood, soliciting stock and getting up the articles of incorporation, building the creamery and equipping it and turning it over to an association of farmers at a given price. This, of course, seems like a very nice way, as it relieves the members of the creamery association of all the preliminary work and the organization of the creamery, but you can rest assured no one is going to do this work for nothing, and no outside parties can do this as cheaply and effectively as you can do it yourselves. When any man comes along offering to organize a creamery company, solicit stock, draw the papers, build the building, and* equip it, turning it over to you a ready built creamery, and taking all the work of organization off your hands, look with suspicion upon the project. He isn't working for his health, but is doubtless draw- ing a big salary to do work you can just as well do yourselves. No outside company ran go into a neighborhood and spend the time necessary to work .ip a company, build and equip a creamery, pay salaries, traveling expenses and hotel board for nothing, and they usually get a good large profit on top of the expenses made. There- fore, we repeat, form your own organization, and build the cream- ery yourselves. Keep your business in your own hands and don't sign away your rights to organize and build your own business and give the benefit of what profit there may be in it to others. HOW TO RAISE THE MONEY. The old plan for building factories was for each patron to take one or more shares of stock, paying the cash for them. In many CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 67 instances it has been found difficult to raise the money under this plan, as many desirable patrons were unable to raise the amount of cash re'^uired to build and equip the plant. To overcome this difficulty a plan was devised which has been used by a great t.-^any companies with very satisfactory results. This plan is as follows: Let each patron of the proposed creamery sign an agreement similar to that drawn on page 68 marked “Or- ganization Agreement,” signing his name and the number of cows he will agiee to milk for the creamery or cheese factory. You will notice this agreement provides for borrowing the amount of money necessary to build the creamery, and that each person signing the agreement agrees to be personally responsible , for the payment of the sum borrowed. There is hardly a community in the state in which some one cannot be found to loan $2500 (cheese factory) to $4500 (creamery) to an association of twenty-five or fifty or more, farmers each one of whom agrees to be personally responsible for the loan. When the required number of patrons and cows have been se- cured, call a meeting of the patrons and perfect the organization, by adopting and signing articles of agreement. We give on page 68 articles of agreement and by-laws which have been used in a great many creameries and cheese factories and have been found very satisfactory. Of course such changes could be made in these as might be desired. You will notice that Article Two of the by-laws provides that 5 cents on each hundred pounds of milk received at the creamery shall be retained 10 form a sinking fund to be used to pay off the money borrowed, .md that Article Four of the agreement author- izes the board of directors to borrow the sum required, the loan to be paid back out of the sinking fund as fast as it accumulates. This plan enables the creamery company to start without the individual patrons being required to raise the cash; and at the same time it gives the creamery the ready cash to buy their lumber, ma- terial and machine!}' so as to obtain the benefit of the lowest cash prices. The five cents per hundred pounds that is deducted from the amount of milk taken to the creamery is not felt by the patrons, as 68 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. even after this is taken out they will get more out of their milk than they have been getting by making it into butter and cheese themselves, so the creamery is gradually paying for itself without expense to the patrons. Under this plan a creamery that is receiving milk from 300 cows shouid be get^uig six thousand pounds of milk a day; if five cents per hundred of this went into the sinking fund, it would be three dollars a day; so that it would require from two years and a half to four years to pay off the loan, and have the creamery clear under this plan, on a creamery receiving the amount of milk stated. By this means also the factory is paid for and the patron practically does not feel it at all. We give below a draft of organization agreement, articles of agreement, and by-laws which can be used as a guide and changed or modified as desired. ORGANIZATION AGREEMENT. We, the undersigned citizens of county. State of Montana, do hereby agree to form themselves into an association to be known by the name of Association, and we agree to borrow the sum of dollars or less, to put up a building and equip it with the necessary machinery, and jointly to become personally responsible for the sum borrowed including interest. The money to be raised in the manner agreed upon by the association. We also agree to furnish the milk from the number of cows oppo- site our names. Name Cows ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. We, whose names are hereto subscribed, and whose residences are within the county of in the state of Montana, do hereby associate ourselves together as a cooperative association under ihe laws of the state of Montana, to which we have adopted the following constitution, viz.: CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 69 ARTICLE 1. The name of the association will be the Association, and its place of business shall be at or near Section. . . . in the town of in said county. article II. The i.»bject of this Association shall be the rnanufacture of butter and cheese .>r both from whole milk, at actual cost. ARTICLE III. The odicers of ihis Association shall be a President, Vice Presi- dent, Secretary, Treasurer and three trustees, who shall be elected annually at the regular annual meeting of the Association to be held on the first Monday of January of each year, and their term of office shall be one year and until their successors shall have been duly elected and have qualified. ARTICLE IV. The duties of tlie respective officers shall be as follows: The President shall preside at all meetings of the 'Association. He shall have power to call special meetings of the Association whenever in his judgment requi'*ed by the business of the Association or upon the written request of five or more members. The Vice President shall perform the duties of the President when he is absent or otherwise unable to attend to them. The Secretary shall keep a record of all the meetings of the Association, and make and sign all orders upon the Treasurer and pay over to the Treasurer all money which comes into his posses- sion, taking the Treasurer’s receipt therefor. The Treasurer shall receive and receipt for all moneys belong- ing to the Association, and pay out the same only upon orders which shall be signed by the Secretarry. The Secretary and Treasurer shall give bonds in such amount as the Association shall provide. The President, Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer and three trustees shall constitute the Board of Directors, whose duties shall be to audit ;ind allow all just claims against the Association. They shall compute the amount of milk receipts, the amount of 70 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. product sold, and the moneys received therefor, and, after deducting^ from the total receipts the percentage herein provided for as a sink- ing fund and also the running expenses, on the 15th day of each month, divide the remaining receipts of the preceding month among the members and ja'itrons of the Association, proportionately to the amount of whole milk or fat furnished by each. Provided, how- ever, that in case of withdrawal of any member from this Associa- tion before the moneys herein pfbvided to be borrowed shall have been paid in full, principal and interest, all product from milk fur- nished by such withdrawing members then on hand, and any mon- eys received from such product then in the possession of the Asso- ciation, shall be retained until all said moneys so borrowed shall have been fully repaid, and thereafter said moneys, or any remainder thereof after applying the just share of such withdrawing mem-^ bers therefrom to the repayment of any balance of such indebtedness not paid from the sinking fund, shall be paid over to him or his- assigns. The Board of Directors shall cause the Secretary to make in writing, a report to the annual meeting of the Association, setting forth in detail the gross amount of milk receipts, the net amount of receipts from all products sold and all other receipts, the amount paid out 'or running expenses, the sums, if any, paid out for milk,, and all other matttu's pertaining to the business of the Association. A like statement, containing the gross amount of milk receipts, the net receipts from products sold and all running expenses of the cream f'^y shall be made each month and posted conspicuously in the creamery building at the time of the division of the prior month’s receipts as aforesaid. The .Board of Directors shall borrow a sum of money not ex- ceeding thousand dollars, to be used by them in the erection and completion and furnishing of the creamery building and for no ether purpose. Said members of said board may borrow said money on their own responsibility, and in case they do so, then the sinking fund herein provided for shall by them be applied in payment of said borrowed moneys as the same fall due in the same manner as though said moneys had been borrowed by the Associa- tion. Said members of the board shall in such case be held to be CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 71 creditors of the Association to the amount of such moneys unpaid, and the several members of said Association shall be personally responsible, jointly and severally, for the same. Provided, however, that prior to any legal assertion of such individual responsibility, the entire sinking fund then accrued and on hand shall be applied upon such indebtedness. And, provided, further, that said mem- bers so borrowing said moneys may, if they so elect, demand and receive aii}^ part or all of the moneys received from the products sold then 'n the possession of the Association, upon such indebted- ness before enforcing such personal responsibility. In which case only that part of such indebtedness remaining after applying there- on all sums so received shall be recovered or demanded from the members of the Association. ARTICLE V. The several members shall furnish all the milk from all the cows subscribed by each, all milk to be sound, fresh, unadulteratea, pure and unskimmed, and patrons of the As- sociation, not members, may by agreement with the Board of Trustees furnish such amounts of milk as may be agreed upon. The Association shall receive all such milk so furnished, manufac- ture the .same into butter, cheese or other products, and sell and receive all moneys from the product; and from the moneys so re- ceived deduct such a percentage thereof or such a number of cents per one hundred pounds of milk as shall have been agreed upon by the Association in the by-laws or otherwise, and also deduct the running expenses of the creamery, the remainder thereof to be dis- tributed as provided in Article TV hereof. ARTICLE VI. Each member shall be entitled to one vote only at any meeting of the Association. New members may be admitted as provided in the by-laws. Members shall be permitted to withdraw only as pro- vided by the By-Laws. 72 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. ARTICLE VII. The lirst officers and Board of Trustees shall be as follows: President ; Vice President ; ‘ Secretary ; Treasurer; Trustees. ARTICLE VIII. These articles may be amended at any annual meeting, or at any special meeting called for that purpose, provided that two- thirds of al! members present vote in favor of such change ; and pro- vided further, that at least one month’s notice of such proposed amendment shall have been given in such manner as may be pro- vided in the By-Laws, or otherwise by the Association. BY-LAWS OF ASSOCIATION. I. The Secretary and Treasurer shall give bonds in the sum of dollars, both bonds to be approved by the Board of Directors. II. Five cents on each one hundred pounds of milk received at the creamery shall be reserved to foim a sinking fund. III. No inllk shall be received or business of any kind transacted at the creamery on .Sundays. IV. During the interval between the 20th day of May and the 20th day of September of each season all milk shall be delivered at the creamery as early at least as nine o’clock a. m., during the remain- CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 73 ing portion of the se.'ison as early as ten o’clock a. m. V. All milk deliv^eiecl shall be sweet and in good condition; and if any be found otherwise, the operator may condemn the same, and in such case he shall notify the president thereof. The operator shall preserve samples of every delivery of each patron’s 'milk, testing the same at proper intervals on the composite testing plan. VI. Any member or patron of the Association found skimming, watering oi- in any manner adulterating his milk offered at the creamery rdrall forfeit to the Association as follows: For the first offense, ten dollars: for the second offense, twenty-five dollars; for the third offense, he or she shall forfeit all interest in the Associa- tion and also all claims for milk theretofore delivered to the Asso- ciation. But no such forfeiture shall be adjudged without first affording to the member or patron charged with so having skimmed, watered or adulterated his milk, full opportunity to defend himself from such charge. Any member sending to the creamery any bloody or unhealthy milk, or any milk from any cow within four days after calving, shall, if convicted of having done so knowingly, forfeit as prescribed above in this section. VII. Members and patrons furnishing whole milk may take from the separator or tank at the creamery four-fifths of the quantity of milk (in pounds or quantity) delivered at the creamery by them on that day. Any member taking therefrom more than such amount shall forfeit to the Association the sum of five dollars for each such taking. VIII. Withdrawals from the Association shall be allowed only as fol- lows : The member desiring to withdraw shall give at least one month’s notice of his application therefor. Such application shall only be allowed on a vote of two-thirds of all members present and voting at any meeting or hearing at which such application shall 74 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. have been noticed. Provided, however, that any member living more than three miles by the nearest road from the creamery building, may make application to the Board of Directors, who, in their dis- cretion, may grant permission to such member to withdraw from the Association. IX. Any member refusing to deliver at the creamery the amount agreed to be there delivered, shall, without reasons satisfactory therefor to the Association, forfeit all interest in the pro- duct on hand. X. Notice of any proposed amendment to the Constitution shall be in writing or printing and shall be kept posted prominently in the creamery building and also on the walls of the delivery department for the reception of milk. LOCATING A CREAMERY. There are four things to be considered in locating a creamery: First, there must be on an average 300 cows, milking for three hundred and sixty-five days in the year, within a paying hauling ladius of the creamery, (from 6 to 8 miles on each side of the creamery). Second, there mi st be pure water. Third, there must be good drainage. Fourth, good roads by which the patrons may reach the fac- tory are very essential. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 75 GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CREAMERY. 1 . Trenches shall be excavated for all walls, at least i foot be- low the natural surface of the ground. 2 . Stonework. All foundations and piers to be rubble work, consisting of sound local stone laid in lime and sand mortar mixed to proper proportions. Sand to be clean, coarse and sharp. Lime, fresh local lime. All walls to be faced on outside, slushed up and neatly pointed. All walls to be well bonded with frequent headers, and the angles tied v.dth through stone. Stonework to be 6 inches above ground at highest point. The contractor may at his option use concrete in place of stone work, of proportions hereinafter spe- cified for concrete work. 3 . Cement Work. All cement used to be standard grade ce- ment. Engine and boiler room to have concrete floors. Also con- crete foundation for separator, said foundation to be started i^ feet below the natural surface of ground. The concrete will be composed of one part cement and three parts sand and five parts broken stone and gravel, tamped in place until water shows on the surface. Top coating will consist of one part cement and two parts clean sand, free from loam, 'to be put on before concrete is dry. Surface to be troweled smooth. There shall be proper slope to the concrete in engine and boiler room for drainage. 5 . Carpenter Work, All two sash windows will be i^ thick, pine or fir, and free from imperfections that may impair its strength. Building to be substantially framed together and thoroughly nailed, using nails of suitable size. Floor joists 2x10-16 inch on centers. Rafters 2x6-24 inch on centers. Studding 2x4-16 inch on centers. All partition studding to be 2x4. Plates 2x4 double. Ceiling joists 2x6-24 inch centers. Truss on every third rafter 1x6 tie and 2-1x6 studs. 5 . Sheeting. Cover all outside walls as well as roof with i ' 76 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. inch surfaced sheeting well nailed to every bearing. On inside ceil up with No. 2 1x6 M. & D., all except coal room which is to be sheeted up with same material used for outside sheeting. 6. Window Frames. All sash windows will be thick and have frames with pockets for weights and good axle pulleys. There will be 2-inch sides, blind stops, pulley stiles, and outside cas- ing. All windows except coal room to contain two lights 24x30, windows in coal room to be hung with 3x3 buts and to have hook fasteners. 7 . Roof. Covered with 26 guage metal roof. 8. Paper. Under all roofing and siding cover sheeting with red rosin sized building paper, well lapped and brought up carefully to cornice and frames. 9 . Outside Finish. All outside finish will be of No. 2 pine free from pitch and loose knots. Corner boards and base will be of i-inch stuff. Cornice to consist of 1x8 frieze, 1x12 plancia, 1x4 facia, 3^4 inch crown moulding and 2-inch bed mould. All other outside finish will be No. 2, 6-inch rustic. 10 . Ventilators. To consist of two good weather proof galvan- ized iron ventilators of at least 150 inch capacity each. 11 . Flooring. 1x4 vertical grain Oregon fir over all except engine and boiler room and coal room. Coal room to have no floor but leveled up with ('ari'n to the level of engine and boiler room floor. There will be a gutter for drainage running the entire length of the make room floor, which will also drain the engine and boiler looms as well as refrigerator room. 12 . Inside Finish. All openings to be cased up with 1x4 No. 2 pine for paint. 13 . Doors. All interior doors to be four panel 1% inch No. 2 doors for paint with 2 feet 6 inch by 6 feet 8 inch openings. Double doors to be built up with inch stiles and rails, halved intersec- tions and covered on opposite side with No. 2 1x4 M. & D. and to have 5 feet by 7 feet opening. Double door in milk receiving room to have 2 feet 6 inch by 3 feet opening. 14 . Sash. All sash will be of pine inch thick and glazed with two 24 inch by 30 inch lights as shown, with good quality CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 77 window .^lass. All double windows to be hung with cast iron weights to balance with braided sash cord. 15 . Stairs inside to raise 3 feet to milk receiving room with 7% inch raise and 9 inch breadth steps. 16 . Hardware. All outside double doors to have head and foot bolts and good thumb latch and No. 42 Yale cylinder night latch. Interior doors to have mortised knob locks with long escutcheon and jet knobs. All sliding windows to have 2 sash lifts and Ives sash lock, Berlin bronze finish. 17 . Painting. Roof to have two coats of mineral paint. All outside woodwork to have two good coats of strictly pure lead and oil paint, colors to suit. Inside, with exception of coal room, to have two good coats of paint, colors to be selected. COST OF BUILDING. The cost of this building will vary slightly, according to the local cost of material in the particular locality. We submitted these plans to a contractor who figured lumber from the following prices : 2x4, 2x6, 3x10 $17*50 per 1000. Sheeting i7-50 per 1000. 1x4 22.00 per 1000. 1x6 25.00 per 1000. No. 2 ship lap or rustic 26.00 per 1000. Oregon fir 35*oo per 1000. Window frames $1*25 to $2.50 each. Doors 2 ft. 6 in. x 6 ft. 8 in $3*50. 2 ft. 8 in. X 6 ft. 8 in $4.00. The contractor’s figure on this building was $2000 to $2200 fin- ished according to foregoing plans and specifications, $2000 being a safe estimate in most localities. 78 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. MACHINERY I«OR CREAMERY. A great many firms in outlining the machinery for a plant only give a list of the larger and more important parts of the machinery and never mention the large number of smaller things that are ab- solutely necessary in the creamery. Take for example such things as salt, oil for engine, cylinder and cream separator, butter color, extra brushes, parchment wrapping paper, shipping boxes or tubs, radia- tors, pails, etc The following is a complete list of everything in the line of machinery, equipment and supplies needed to begin running a creamery. LIST OF MACHINERY. I 20-H. P. horizontal boiler, complete with all fixtures including door, grate bars, bearing bars, pop valve, steam guage and syphon, water column with glass water gauge, 3 guage cocks, feed, check and blow-off valves, injector fitted to boiler, whistle, smoke stack and saddle, guy wires, flue cleaner, poker ,coal scoop, etc. 400 fire brick. I barrel fire clay. I 15-H. P. horizontal engine with brass oiler and Detroit lubri- cator. I boiler feed pump with lubricator. I 4x6 steam well pump. .1 Separator of 3,000 pound capacity per hour. I Churn, working capacity 600 pounds butter. I 20o-gallon galvanized skim milk vat. I 300-gallon galvanized butter milk vat. I 300-gallon galvanized water tank. I 400-gallon milk receiving vat. I Tvvin cream vat (300 gallon, ice box on end). I 24-bottle Ideal tester. I 6oo-pound five beam scale. , I 6o-gallon weigh can. . , . > CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 79 1 Conductor head and 5-ft. trough. , I Milk strainer. i I Ideal wash sink, No. 2. 2 No. I rotary milk pumps. I Whole milk heater. I Pasteurizer for skim milk. I Ideal skim milk weigher. I Noiseless water heater. I 14 inch iron head mop with one half dozen extra rubbers. I 250-page milk ledger. 4 dozen weekly milk sheets. I Newton computator. I dozen Babcock test bottle brushes. I Cream acid tester complete. Yz dozen composite test jar brushes. 50 T. T. pint sample test jars. I 18 inch butter tryer. . I 8-ounce graduate for color. ^ dozen common floating thermometers, i I Butter packer. ' •' ' - I Dairy or New York style ladle. I Factory ladle. 1 Butter salting scale. 4 16x1 ii/ie adjustable drop hangers. 2 I ^Vie shaft collars. 28 feet PVie inch shafting. 20 feet inch 4 ply steam hose. 30 feet inch 3 ply conducting hose. I Belt awl. 50 feet cut rawhide lacing. 5 pounds Italian hemp packing. I pound each piston and cylinder packing. Necessary connections in black piping for boiler, engine, pumps, wash sink, pasteurizer, vats, etc. Necessary check globe and angle valves (Jenkins) for above. % Dozen extra seats for all valves used. Necessary ells, tees, unions, nipples, reducers, couplings. 80 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. plugs, etc., for above. ' 1 1 Main drive wood split pulley. 2 Wood split pulleys for rotary pumps. I AVood split pulley for churn. I Separator wood split pulley. 1 Pulley (wood split) for starter can. ,, (Size of pulley will depend upon speed of engine). 2 14-quart pails. 1 Starter can. 34 Dozen gallon butter color. y2 Dozen scrub brushes. y2 Dozen ox fibre brushes. % Dozen A. B. C. brushes. 3 Gallons sulphuric acid (commercial). 2 Boxes preservative tablets. I S. H. dipper (gallon). I S. PI. dipper (1-2 gallon). I Barrel butter salt. I Butter maker’s set of tools (including saw, hammer, brace, and set bits, wrenches, dies, etc.) ^ dozen extra separator ropes. I Elbow strainer for churn. I Butter printer. 3000 Parchment wrappers. 100 K. D. 54-pound shipping boxes. I Keg floor powder. I Spring belt punch. 10 pounds waste. 5 Gallons engine oil. 5 Gallons cylinder oil. 5 Gallons separator oil. 1 Refrigerator, 8x12 feet. 2 Radiators for make room. Now in a number of cases we have not specified just exactly the particular make to get, for in such cases there are a number of standard varieties that are equally good. Should anyone desire par- ticular advice on any particular make of machinery, we will be CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 81 pleased to help if they write iis at the Dairy Department of the Agricultural Experiment Station. Considerable money can be saved by the farmers getting to- gether and deciding how many milk cans they will need, and also the sizes they want, and ordering them to come in the car of machinery. By this means they can be obtained practically freight free as the* freight on the car of machinery will be a fixed rate any- way. COST OF MACHINERY. The machinery listed above can be laid down anywhere in Montana for $2300.00, and it will cost in the neighborhood of $200 for local drayage, installing the machinery .and doing the necessary piping. So that $2500.00 is ample to pay for a complete list of machinery, including the freight and the cost of installing it. Thus the plant complete will cost for building $2000.00, and for machinery $2500.00. Making the total cost of a 500 to 1000 cow capacity creamery $4500.00. Plans pof^ Cheese Factory RECOMMENDED BY TWE DAIRY DEPy^f^TMENf End EucYATJoj^i /,Sa CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 85 CHEESE FACTORY. The same may be said of the requirements and location of a cheese factory as was said of a creamery, with the exception that it does not require as many cows for the successful operation of a cheese factory as for a creamery. A very successful cheese factory can be run with 150 to 200 cows, and such a plant will pay just as well, and possibly a little better, than a creamery with 300 cows at the present prices of . cheese. With the same number of cows and at the prevailing prices there is more money in making cheese, by 20 cents per hundred of milk, than by making butter, but the pa- tron has to wait a little longer for his money as cheese has to lie on the shelves from four to six weeks before it is ready for market. Herewith are given plans of an up-to-date cheese factory. SPECIFICATIONS. The main building shall be 20 ft. 44ft., 10 ft. ceiling and Vs. pitch roof with a boiler room on the side 12 ft. x 20 ft. 1. Trenches. Same as trenches under specifications for creamery, page 75. 2 . Stone Work. Same as under creamery specifications, page 75. 3. Cement Work. Only the boiler room will have concrete floor. Cement work to be made and laid as under creamery speci- fications, page 75. 4 . Carpenter Work. Same as under creamery specifications, page 75. 5 . Sheeting. Cover all outside walls as well as roof with i inch surfaced sheeting well nailed to every bearing, also walls and ceil- ing of curing room with same material. On inside, except curing room, ceil up with No. 2 1x6 M. & D. 6. Window Frames. All windows to contain two lights 24 inch X 30 inch. All the rest same as under ‘‘Window Frames,’" creamery specifications, page 76. 7 . Roof of main building and boiler room to be covered with 26 86 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. giiage metal roofing. 8. Paper. Under all roofing and siding cover all sheeting with red rosin sized building paper well lapped and brought up carefully to cornice and frames. In addition the inside walls and ceiling of curing room to be covered on top of i inch sheeting with same paper nailed on with i inch x 2 inch strips, 16 inch centers. On top of these strips put 2 perpendicular layers of same kind of building paper and ceil up with i inch x 6 inch M. & D., thus making two dead air spaces. 9 . Outside Finish, same as creamery specifications, page 76. 10 . Ventilators, same as creamery specifications, page 76. 11 . Flooring, 1x4 vertical grain Oregon fir over all except boil- er room. There will be a gutter running across the make room to which the floor from both sides will slope. 12 . Inside Finish. Same as creamery specifications, page 76. Doors. All doors same as creamery specifications, page 76. 13 . Sash. Same as creamery specifications, page 76. 14 . Platforms. There will be one platform in the make room to hold the weigh scales and weigh can to carry 800 pounds. Plat- form to be 4 ft. X 8 ft and 3 ft. above the floor. Steps rising to it to have 734 inch raise and 9 inch tread.' Where necessary there will be a platform outside of boiler room to hold cans while the patrons are loading up the whey. Plat- form to be the same size as the one inside. MACHINERY FOR CHEESE FACTORY. I 8-H_P. upright boiler complete with fixtures as follows : stack, grate bars, pop valve, steam guage and syphon, water column, with glass water guage, 3 guage cocks, feed, check, and blow-ofif valves, injector fitted to boiler, whistle, guy wires, flue cleaner, poker, coal scoops, etc. I Steam well pump. Necessary iron pipe for all piping inside factory. Necessary ells, tees, unions, nipples, reducers, couplings, plugs, etc., for above. Necessary valves for above fittings (Jenkins). CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. I 6oo-poimd 5 beam Fairbank scales. I 240-poimd S. B. scale (Family). I 8o-gallon weigh can. I Conductor head. 6 Foot conductor trough. 1 500-gallon cheese vat (2 inch gate). 2 Curd racks. I Combination Cheddar and Y. A. cheese pre.‘:.=>. I Harris curd mill. 12 14^4 inch seamless hoops. 6 Y. A. seamless hoops. I 24-bottle Facile tester. I 15-barrel steel tank. I Curd pail. I 14-quart pail. 34 dozen floor scrub brushes. 3 Jorsey brushes. 500 yards 1434 cheese bandage. 500 yards Y. A. cheese bandage. 4 Gallons Hansen rennet. I Gallon cheese color. I Gallon acid. I Box cor. sub. tablets. I Allens pay roll. I S. and S. record. 1 Dozen rec. sheets. 2 Dozen pint T. T. bottles. I 17-barrel steel tank. I 8x20 Hor. curd knife. I 14x20 Perp. curd knife. I L. H. Dipper (34 gallon). I S. H. Dipper (i gallon). I Whey strainer for cheese vat. I Curd scoop. I 16-ounce graduate. I Stirring knife. I Gram measure. 88 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION. I Cheese knife for hoop. -i : ■ I Dating stencil, paste and brush. I Floor mop 14 inch with';^ dozen extra rubbers. 6 Floating thermometers. I Barrel cheese salt. I 4x8 Moore pump. ? I Wash sink, galvanized. I Noiseless heater. I Dozen brushes. I M. 13 1-2 cloth circles. I M. 6 1-2 cloth circles. TOTAL COST OF CHEESE FACTORY. The same prices have been figured on lumber for the cheese factory as for the creamery. Such a building constructed as per plans and specifications here given can be built for $1500. A complete outfit of the very best cheese factory machinery, for such a plant, can be laid down in- Montana, and placed in shape in the factory ready to run for $800. This price includes actual cost of machinery, freight from Minneapolis or St. Paul to Montana, and the cost of installing said machinery in factory. Thus the factory complete can be built for $2300. This price may vary $100 one way or the other according to the local price of material. These plans and specifications are given with the hope that they may be of use to those who are thinking of building, and if any one is desirous of using these plans, blue prints may be had by applying to the Dairy Department of the Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. As far as possible, any other help towards the building and equipping of either plant will be cheerfully given.