,1 
 
 i'. 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 656.3 
 
 C95elQ 
 

Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 
 
 https://archive.org/details/electricvehiclehOOcush 
 
(lOTH ANNUAL EDITION) 
 
 The 
 
 Electric Vehicle 
 Hand-Book 
 
 A practical guide for the operation and 
 maintenance of Electric Vehicles, Trucks 
 and Tractors, their Storage Batteries, Mo- 
 tors, Controllers, Tires and Accessories 
 with a Special Section on the Comparative 
 Cost of Operation of Electric, Gas and 
 Horse-Drawn Trucks. 
 
 BY 
 
 h/^/cUSHING, Jr. 
 
 i • 
 
 Fellow of the American Institute of Electricax, 
 Engineers. Author and Publisher of “Standard 
 Wiring” and “The Central Static^’ ” 
 
 Published by 
 
 H. C. Cushing, Jr., 8 West 40th Stbe*!* 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
Copyright, 1922 
 by 
 
 H. C. Cushing, Jr. 
 
 \ 
 
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 (p56,3 
 
 d^ 3 <H-)C) (J||^V^J,^PJ7J^ f 
 
 LOOKING FORWARD TO THE FUTURE 
 OF THE ELECTRIC 
 
 'Z 
 
 ci 
 
 
 A sane and consistent development of the Electric 
 truck for urban transportation, the field 
 in which it is supreme, will mean the 
 extinction of the horse and a 
 hard fight for the gasoline 
 truck to compete 
 
 With a growing appreciation of the service 
 achievements and possibilities of the electric 
 truck we are facing a new era. Henceforth we 
 may look for a sane and consistent development 
 with the electric truck occupying the field in 
 which it is supreme, where its usefulness is prac- 
 tically unlimited and its possibilities greatest. 
 That field is urban transportation, and the place 
 where it is densest is in New York City. 
 
 While over half of the electric trucks of the 
 country are being operated in the New York 
 district, it is significant as emphasizing the 
 economy and reliability of electrically propelled 
 vehicles, that their use is also increasing greatly 
 in cities like Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, 
 Cleveland and Detroit. Last year the increase 
 in New York City alone was over 400 per cent, 
 and with the vast improvements in contempla- 
 tion with reference to traffic congestion and port 
 development which must be brought about very 
 soon, there seems to be no reason \vhy that per- 
 centage shall not only be increased but also 
 maintained for many years to come. 
 
 53058 7 • 
 
Actual service achievements are convincing the 
 business world, slowly perhaps, but none the less 
 surely, that the electric truck of today is a prac- 
 tical and economical car capable of meeting every 
 demand of modern business. In no feature from 
 top to botom does it lack in any degree the es- 
 sentials of adaptability, stability and strength. 
 On such matters we have the irrefutable testi- 
 mony of persons who have used electric vehicles 
 for over twenty years and to any reasonable 
 person such testimony must carry conviction. 
 
 When one considers that there are few cities 
 in the country in which a large part of the freight 
 and package transportation cannot be carried by 
 the electric truck with great advantage to the 
 user, the public and the power companies, the 
 question naturally arises “Why are not more 
 electric trucks used?’’ 
 
 Is it because they are inefficient? 
 
 No! Tests show them to be more efficient 
 than the horse-drawn or gasoline-driven truck. 
 
 Is it because they do not give satisfaction? 
 
 No! Experience shows that the greatest pur- 
 chasers of electric trucks are those who already 
 have them in operation. 
 
 Is it because of excessive repairs and upkeep? 
 
 Most assuredly not, for it is just in low up- 
 keep and insignificant repairs that the electric 
 vehicles excel all others. 
 
 Are they unreliable? 
 
 Hardly, since the most conservative business 
 organizations in the city including the express 
 
 4 
 
Companies and others to whom reliability of 
 transportation is of very vital importance are 
 the greatest users of electrics. 
 
 Are they intricate? 
 
 Quite the contrary ; the}^ are so simple that 
 a child can operate them. 
 
 Are they more expensive? 
 
 Not exactly; for while the first cost may be 
 higher the ultimate cost taking into considera- 
 tion the life and upkeep of the truck, is less than 
 that of the gasoline truck. 
 
 Why then are not more of them used? 
 
 Because they, are not being properly sold. 
 
 Public opinion on the electric vehicle is a 
 blank — there is none. Yet public opinion will 
 do more than manufacturer, user or power com- 
 pany can do to bring about that improvement 
 in traffic conditions and freight and package 
 transportation which is the need of the hour, 
 particularly in the large cities. 
 
 There are some who have doubts about the 
 fairness of the public, and yet we have an abiding 
 faith that once we get before the people the basic 
 facts of this business and the inherent advantages 
 of the electric vehicle and its capabilities they 
 will endeavor to do the wise thing, and are very 
 apt to do the direct and very wholesome thing. 
 We must therefore reach the people so that a 
 properly informed and enlightened public opin- 
 ion may move in the direction of our civic well 
 being. 
 
 And when we speak of the public, we mean 
 
 5 
 
the man in the street who is accustomed to deal 
 in easy and familiar terms, and to whom facts 
 must be presented in a form he can understand 
 without much mental effort on his part. He re- 
 cognizes the superior advantages of the electric 
 light. He is familiar with the merits of the elec- 
 tric vacuum cleaner and the electric washing ma- 
 chine. He even appreciates that he can cook 
 with electricity if he so desires; but when it 
 comes to the truck, the rattle and clatter of the 
 gasoline vehicle impress him more than the quiet 
 reserve and staying qualities of the electric. The 
 thing to do then is to commercialize the product 
 and put behind it the requisite energy, force and 
 financial support to cause the public to view the 
 electric truck as it ought to be viewed, — an 
 economic necessity. 
 
 Of all motor-driven trucks, those electrically- 
 driven have proven themselves best suited in 
 every respect to supersede horse traction in city 
 delivery service. The speed of the electric is 
 double or treble that of horses with equal loads. 
 It is self-starting and is easily controlled. The 
 vehicle has a short wheelbase so that it takes 
 up less space than any other vehicle on the public 
 highways and in garages. It is clean, sanitary 
 and has no fire risks. Operating within a radium 
 of ten miles, which embraces most of the truck- 
 ing of department stores, express companies and 
 others, with frequent stopping and starting the 
 electric vehicle is supreme. 
 
 These are not mere conjectures, or the glorified 
 
 6 
 
claims of manufacturers, they are the testimony 
 of people of experience, — of persons who know 
 because they have used and are still using electric 
 trucks. This is what some of them say : 
 
 We have been using electric vehicles since 
 1899 and find them to be the most serviceable 
 and economical delivery cars for our line of busi- 
 ness. — :The Gorham Company. 
 
 We get much better service from electric 
 trucks than we do from gasoline, with a reduced 
 package delivery cost. — Bonwit Teller & Co. 
 
 The maintenance cost of the electric is easily 
 over 50 per cent, less than the gas truck and we 
 obtain more days of service per year from our 
 electric trucks with greater reliability. — Hecker- 
 Jones-Jewell Milling Co. 
 
 Electrics are more servicable and far more 
 efficient and econqmical than horses. They serve 
 our purpose better than any other type of ve- 
 hicle. — Whitlock Cordage Company. 
 
 Our experience for the past 15 years with the 
 electric truck has convinced us that it is the 
 most dependable and economical method of trans- 
 portation. — Horn & Hardart Co. 
 
 We have been using electric vans since 1911 
 and have found them most dependable. For city 
 work they are a great deal more economical than 
 gas cars. — Manhattan Storage & Warehouse 
 Company. 
 
 We have been using electric vehicles in our 
 trucking service for the past five years and have 
 obtained excellent results from them. — Bush. 
 
 7 
 
The greatest single user of electric vehicles in 
 the world is the American Railway Express Com- 
 pany, which has in operation in twenty-three 
 cities 1,444 electrics. The general superintendent 
 of motor vehicle ecjuipment has this to say of 
 them. 
 
 ''From our experience and observation v;e are 
 firmly convinced that in its particular field the 
 electric is the most economical, reliable and ef- 
 ficient vehicle in operation today. This is es- 
 pecially true where the truck is operated in 
 service where the hauls are short, stops frequent 
 and freight abundant; because they are so easy 
 to control, they are extremely simple, their ac- 
 tion is positive while in motion and they require 
 absolutely nothing while standing.'' 
 
 ELECTRIC TRUCKS PURCHASED 
 BY 
 
 AMERICAN RAILWAY EXPRESS COMPANY 
 
 Year Number 
 
 1908 I 
 
 1911 51 
 
 1912 283 
 
 1913 96 
 
 1914 14 
 
 1915 93 
 
 1916 202 
 
 1917 122 
 
 1918 75 
 
 1919 54 
 
 1920 30 
 
 1921 39 
 
 1922 123 
 
 Street trucks ii94 
 
 Industrial trucks 250 
 
 Total 1444 
 
 Statements like these are invaluable assets of 
 the electric, and indicate more than anything else 
 
 8 
 
their growing popularity and serviceability. Sim- 
 ilar testimony can be obtained from users in 
 other cities where after years of experience and 
 careful detailed study, the supremacy of the elec- 
 tric for all city work is admitted. 
 
 It goes without saying that all of the large 
 electric light and power companies of the country 
 are favorably disposed toward the electric, one 
 would hardly expect them to be otherwise con- 
 sidering the income derivable from battery-charg- 
 ing service. They are moreover rather liberal 
 supporters and believers in electric vehicle de- 
 velopment. Many companies maintain electric 
 vehicle bureaus for the purpose of helping the 
 growth of this form of transportation and ren- 
 dering full and complete service. It is only 
 recently that the power companies in New York, 
 Newark and Chicago gave over a large part of 
 their showroom space for electrical vehicle 
 shows. Cooperation of this kind is very real and 
 effective and as a result it is expected that five 
 times as many electrical vehicle shows will be 
 held next year. 
 
 The outlook is, therefore, most promising and 
 especially in New York City. We have here a 
 great city, the greatest in the Western Hemi- 
 sphere with the finest harbor and with more in- 
 dustries than Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland 
 and St. Louis combined. But no city in the world 
 has so much traffic congestion, and few ports 
 have such abominable terminal facilities. 
 Whether you realize it or not, the fact remains 
 
that we have either got to get rid of this traffic 
 congestion or it will get rid of us, and we have 
 got to improve our port facilities or give up our 
 position of shipping dominance on this conti- 
 nent. The cost of delivery from railroad ter- 
 minals to the consumer is generally much greater 
 than the entire freight cost from factory to ter- 
 minal, because our streets are so congested with 
 pleasure cars and slow-moving horse-drawn 
 trucks that* rapid delivery service is out of the 
 question. We cart through the city every year 
 hundreds of millions of tons of freight and it is 
 only because under the present system of freight 
 rates the charge for terminal operations is com- 
 bined with the rest of the charges for freight 
 transportation that the great burden imposed on 
 the public has been more or less concealed and 
 not generally understood. Otherwise much 
 needed improvement in terminal operating effi- 
 ciency would have been stimulated and most 
 likely considered imperative long ago. 
 
 It is not the purpose to go into the subject 
 of freight terminals. Our existing freight sta- 
 tions were built many years ago and their ar- 
 rangement is such as to prevent the effective ap- 
 plication of labor-saving machinery. For that 
 reason the hand truck still predominates and 
 will predominate until our system of handling 
 freight at terminals in New York is radically 
 changed. When that time comes we shall see 
 an almost universal use of electric tractors with 
 or without trailers. 
 
 10 
 
It is in the hauling of packages and freight 
 through any city that the great field of the elec- 
 trick truck lies and that field, economically 
 speaking, has hardly been touched. While the 
 hauling distance is usually considered to in- 
 fluence the cost of a movement most, long hauls 
 may be less expensive than short ones if the 
 latter must be made under the adverse conditions 
 which prevail in the heart of the business sec- 
 tion. 
 
 The distance freight is moved is not a true 
 measure of the operating cost, the time required 
 to move freight a given distance is the deter- 
 mining factor. Therefore, conditions which in- 
 crease the time required in delivering freight in- 
 crease the cost and this is almost in direct pro- 
 portion to the time lost. Various plans for con- 
 serving time in handling miscellaneous packages 
 and freight have been proposed. These involve 
 the use of standard containers or elevated plat- 
 forms which keep all freight in ambulant con- 
 dition, easily under power control, thereby in- 
 suring minimum time-consuming movements. 
 By. this method alone the demand for motor 
 equipment for cranes and for electric trucks to 
 facilitate transportation from terminal to desti- 
 nation will be very large. It is not always ap- 
 preciated that every time a package is lifted or 
 delivered something is added to the cost. 
 
 Even though congestion at freight terminals 
 is relieved and the port facilities greatly im- 
 proved, the problem of street congestion still 
 n 
 
remains; because we clutter up our streets with 
 parked pleasure cars or trucks, we back trucks 
 in against the curb, thus impeding traffic or 
 worse still, back them in against plat- 
 forms on the sidewalk impeding not only the 
 roadway but the walkway. Moreover, we still 
 permit slow-moving horse-drawn trucks to re- 
 tard the passage of faster moving motor trucks. 
 Where electric trucks are used there is relatively 
 little confusion and congestion because they are 
 self-starting, occupy a minimum of space and 
 possess marked ability in winding in and out of 
 traffic, and while this is an advantage not pos- 
 sessed by other vehicles, the ultimate solution 
 of the congestion problem, granting proper regu- 
 lation of traffic on the streets, is to be found in 
 some sort of contained delivery, whereby the 
 truck will simply deposit the container with its 
 load, presuming of course that the load is big 
 enough and move on just as is now being done 
 on a smaller scale with the storage battery 
 tractors equipped with elevating platforms. In 
 this way maximum use is made of the investment 
 in the truck and the labor cost per ton delivered 
 is a minimum. Now the electric is the only type 
 of vehicle which will permit of freight movement 
 in this way and when once such a plan is carried 
 out thereby insuring minimum time consuming 
 movements so far as trucking is concerned, the 
 horse will quickly disappear from the streets and 
 the gasoline truck will have to fight hard to main- 
 tain its existence in city delivery service, 
 
 13 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LEAD STORAGE BATTERIES, 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 The stoi;age battery is the part of the electric 
 vehicle which holds the energy necessary for pro- 
 pulsion. It is the heart of the vehicle and so should 
 receive proper care and attention. It consists of a 
 number of cells or units grouped in trays accord- 
 ing to the size and character of the vehicle. Each 
 ''ceir’ consists of a jar containing a number of 
 plates properly connected, spaced with separators 
 and immersed in a solution or electrolyte. 
 
 There are two classes of storage batteries en- 
 joying commercial representation. These are, the 
 lead-sulphuric-acid and nickel-iron-alkaline cells. A 
 description of each of these important divisions will 
 be given in order that the instructions covering 
 their care and operation may be more easily and 
 fully understood. 
 
 Historically the lead battery is the oldest 
 form of storage cell used to any extent for vehicle 
 service. The nsOine lead-acid battery is given be- 
 cause the plates of the cells are made of lead and 
 the solution is sulphuric-acid and water. 
 
 The plates of a lead battery are of two kinds, 
 positive (+) and negative ( — ), Figs, i and 2, 
 arranged alternately in the cell, there usually being 
 an excess of one negative plate so that all surfaces 
 of the positive plates may be active. The plates of 
 
 13 
 
batteries used in vehicle service are of two general 
 sizes, 4%" X 8^" or 5^" x 8 fi" and from 
 
 Fig. 1 — Positive Plate. Fig. 2 — Negative Plate. 
 
 10 in thickness, depending upon the require- 
 ments as explained later. By means of lead con- 
 necting straps (Fig. 3) all the positive plates in 
 each cell are joined into what is known as a positive 
 group; all the negative plates similarly into a nega- 
 
 Fig. 3 — Pillar Strap. 
 14 
 
Fig. 5 — Element Assembled with Pillar Straps. 
 
 15 
 
nve group. These two groups, with the separators 
 (Fig. 4) for keeping the positive plates from mak- 
 ing contact with the negative plates, form an element 
 (Fig. 5). A hard rubber /or contains this element, 
 
 Fig. 6 — Cell, Assembled. 
 
 immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid called 
 electrolyte, the complete unit being called a cell 
 (Fig. 6). A hard rubber cover is usually sealed 
 over the top of the cell to reduce evaporation and 
 
Spraying. I'he sealing compound is easily applied 
 or removed when slightly heated. 
 
 Ihe connecting straps, besides connecting the 
 plates of a group, have a pole or terminal, extend- 
 ing slightly above the top of the jar, so that the 
 positive group of one cell may be connected to the 
 negative, group of the next cell by a lead connector 
 
 (Fig- 7)- 
 
 By connecting the negative pole of each cell to 
 the positive pole of the next, the cells are said to 
 be connected in series; all Positives together and 
 all Negatives together, respectively, ''in parallel.” 
 If the total number of cells is divided into two or 
 more parts, of cells in series, and the divisions to- 
 gether in parallel then the connection is. said to be 
 "series-parallel.” In vehicle practice, the series 
 grouping is used with very few exceptions. 
 
 A storage battery does not store electrical energy 
 but holds the energy chemically. The electrical 
 power produces chemical changes in the cells which 
 are known as charging, and when the chemical en- 
 ergy is converted to electrical energy, then the reac- * 
 tions taking place in the cell are called discharging. 
 These phenomena are very interesting and explain 
 not only the reasons for the details of construction 
 but the method of operation most conducive to satis- 
 factory and efficient results. 
 
 When the battery is said to be charged then the 
 lead of the positive plate is of chocolate brown color 
 and is called lead peroxide while the negative plate 
 IS gray colored and consists of metallic lead in a 
 form called spongy lead. This action is caused by 
 
 17 
 
the passage of current from the positive to the nega 
 tive plate through the electrolyte. When the cur- 
 rent is reversed by connecting the positive and 
 negative poles through external resistance then the 
 reaction known as discharge takes place, and the 
 lead peroxide of the positive plate is converted to 
 lead -sulphate of lighter brown color and the nega- 
 tive plate from spongy lead to lead sulphate, light 
 slate in color. Pure lead sulphate is white, but as 
 it is mixed with the lead peroxide and sponge lead, 
 in the plates according to the extent to which the 
 reactions of charge or discharge have taken place, 
 the color of the plate will depend on how far the 
 plate has been charged or discharged. In other 
 words, the more the discharge the lighter the color 
 and the more complete the charge the darker. These 
 colors, however, are relative and give definite indi- 
 cations only to those experienced. 
 
 The action described above takes place over the 
 surface of the plates and extends only very slightly 
 within when sheets of lead are used as the plates. 
 •This layer or film of chemically active lead is there- 
 fore called active material. During that part of 
 the cycle when the cell is discharged, the active 
 material consists partially of lead sulphate. Sulpha- 
 tion is the normal condition of the plates on dis- 
 charge and is caused by the sulphuric acid going 
 into the plates. Inasmuch as the specific gravity 
 of the electrolyte decreases in proportion to the in- 
 crease of sulphation in the plates, low specific gravi- 
 ty is the indication of the extent of sulphation or 
 
 18 
 
of the extent of discharge. This indication is very 
 important since in charging when the sulphate is 
 removed from the plates, returned to the electro- 
 lyte, the battery is charged and the rise in specific 
 gravity shows its progress. When the specific 
 gravity has remained stationary for some time then 
 no more sulphate is being transferred to the solu- 
 tion, the useful chemical action is completed, and 
 the charging should be discontinued. 
 
 Lead sulphate is hard so that a discharged nega- 
 tive feels harder than a charged one, because the 
 surface is covered with it. If the current is not 
 supplied long enough to reduce all of the sulphate 
 then it hardens and requires still more current to 
 reduce it on the following charge. This is under- 
 charging. If the plates be allowed to stand long 
 in a discharged condition, then the hardening of 
 the sulphate requires an excessive amount of charg- 
 ing beyond that normally needed, or overcharging, 
 to bring the plates back to healthy condition. It is 
 necessary to do this as the pores of the plate would 
 otherwise be clogged, and less surface be useful. 
 
 When the current has charged the plates suffi- 
 ciently for the greater part of lead sulphate to be 
 decomposed then the further passage of current is 
 spent not in useful chemical action (as that is com- 
 plete), but in breaking up the electrolyte into hydro- 
 gen and oxygen gas. When thus liberated the gase- 
 ous particles are said to be nascent, and are par- 
 ticularly violent in their action. They are formed 
 during the entire charge and act on the sulphate 
 The action of the hydrogen reduces the sulphate 
 
 19 
 
leaving spongy lead on the negative plate and the 
 oxygen oxidizes the sulphate of the positive plate 
 to lead peroxide. These actions being completed, 
 the same amount of current continues to produce 
 the same amount of gaseous particles, which, find- 
 ing no sulphate to reduce or oxidize, force their 
 way through the active material and out of the 
 solution as gas. The more violent and rapid the 
 gassing, the greater is the tendency for small par- 
 ticles of active material to be forced off of the 
 plate surface to fall to the bottom of the cell as 
 sediment. As the coherence of the positive active 
 material is considerably less than that of the nega- 
 tive, excessive gassing deteriorates the positive plate 
 most rapidly. From this it will be seen that the 
 gassing should be kept a minimum and is accom- 
 plished by reducing the current gradually until the 
 plates are fully charged. The values of current used 
 in charging are called charging rates and those in 
 discharge, discharge rates. They will be explained 
 in detail on page 25. 
 
 The discussion in the preceding lines assumed 
 only two lead sheets as plates to begin with. In 
 vehicle service, however, a minimum of weight with 
 a maximum of capacity during life is a very import- 
 ant feature, so that instead of making use of only 
 a thin layer of active material on a thick sheet of 
 lead which is inherently heavy, the active material 
 is formed chemically and firmly pressed into a light 
 but strong network or frame of lead alloy. This 
 frame or grid (Fig. 8), is characterized by the 
 necessity for strength to hold the greatest amount 
 
 20 
 
of active material firmly in the least space and to 
 withstand the stresses of expansion and contrac- 
 tion as well as to present good conductivity to the 
 passage of the electric current. This type of plate, 
 invented by Faure, is the Parted plate, and is prac- 
 tically standard for vehicle use. Both positive and 
 negative plates are made in this manner. 
 
 Fig. 8 — Positive Grid. 
 
 Negative Grid. 
 
 Another form of positive plate is one having 
 slotted hard rubber tubes as the containers of the 
 active material. These tubes have a cylindrical lead 
 alloy core fastened to the grid at top and bottom 
 and are surrounded by lead peroxide held by the 
 casing in order that the shedding of active material 
 may be reduced and the effective surface increased. 
 
 The separators which correctly space the plates 
 
 31 
 
are of two kinds, thin sheets of perforated hard 
 rubber and thin ribbed wood, chemically treated to 
 remove injurious impurities. One side of this wood 
 separator is flat, pressing against the negative plate 
 while the other side presses the rubber sheet against 
 the surface of the positive plate. The separators 
 serve the purpose of allowing circulation of the 
 electrolyte and escape of gas, while preventing con- 
 tact of the plates which would cause a short circuit 
 in the cells. Through vibration, the separators are 
 liable to work loose and float up from the bottom 
 of the plates, exposing them to contact. To prevent 
 this, extensions from the under side of the plate 
 straps, or hard rubber blocks are made use of m 
 holding the separators in position. 
 
 The containing jars are composed of hard rub- 
 ber compound, of dimensions that will snugly con- 
 tain the assembled elements, leaving a space of 
 from i" to 3" under the bottom of the plates to 
 collect sediment and about ly^" above the tops of 
 the plates to allow sufficient height of electrolyte 
 without slopping over. The tops of the jars are 
 fitted with covers, having openings for adding pure 
 water (to replace evaporation) and are provided 
 with vent plugs to allow the escape of gas. These 
 covers are generally sealed on with a compound to 
 avoid sloppage, reduce evaporation and prevent 
 introduction of foreign material. Two supporting 
 ribs or bridges cast integral with the bottom of the 
 jar, are provided to support the element and pro- 
 vide space for the collection of sediment without 
 allowing it to come in contact v/ith the plates. 
 
 22 
 
A tray (Fig. 9) is used to hold a number of 
 cells rigidly in the vehicle and protect the 
 containing jars from damage as well as admit of 
 convenient handling in assembly or removal from 
 the battery compartment. These trays are built 
 
 Tray, Showing Slatted Bottom. 
 
 Fig. 9 — Tray, Showing Cell Assembly. 
 
 of hard wood treated with acid-resisting paint. 
 Handles for handling and connectors for making 
 secure connections to the wiring of the vehicle arc 
 placed on the outside of the tray ends. A name 
 
 23 
 
plate is usually attached at a conspicuous point foi 
 ready reference. 
 
 Fig. 10 — Acid Testing Set. 
 
 Fig. 11 — Hydrometer Syringe. 
 
 The process of attaching the plates to the con- 
 necting straps to form the positive and negative 
 groups, and the connectors to the poles, is known 
 as lead burning and consists in the application of a 
 flame of sufficient heat to weld or melt the lead 
 parts into one. This is similar to soldering, except 
 that in this case no flux is used and the flame is 
 applied to the parts directly. For temporary re- 
 pairs soldering may be applied, but not otherwise. 
 This process is described in detail on page 95. 
 
 24 
 
The specihc gravity or relative density of a solu- 
 tion is determined by the use of an acid testing 
 set (Fig. lo) or a hydrometer syringe (Fig. ii). 
 The hydrometer syringe is most convenient as it 
 permits a reading of specific gravity to be taken 
 quickly in any cell of the battery. The syringe 
 with rubber bulb allows electrolyte to be withdrawn 
 from the cell into the tube in which the hydrometer 
 floats. The hydrometer reading may be thus ob- 
 served, after which the electrolyte is returned to 
 the cell without spilling or contamination. 
 
 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE RATES. 
 
 The ‘'Charging Rate'' is the current measured 
 in amperes, used to effect the chemical changes in 
 the cell known as “Charging." “Starting Rate" and 
 “Finishing Rate" are the values of current em- 
 ployed at the beginning and finishing periods. 
 
 The “Discharge Rate" is the value of current in 
 amperes at which energy is furnished by the bat- 
 tery. This rate may be constant for a number of 
 hours as on a laboratory test or may vary con- 
 siderably as when furnishing current to the motor. 
 The length of time in hours during which the bat- 
 tery will deliver its catalogue discharge rate before 
 reaching 1.7 volts per cell, multiplied by the dis- 
 charge rate in amperes, gives the "Discharge Ca- 
 pacity" of the battery in ampere-hours. 
 
 In charging, since the storage battery is not 100% 
 efficient in operation, it is necessary to add from 5 
 to 15% more ampere-hours of charge than are re- 
 covered in ampere-hours of discharge. As it is 
 not possible to charge continuously at the same 
 
 25 
 
rate as that at which the battery may be discharged, 
 several hours more are needed to completely charge 
 than are required to discharge ^t the catalogue dis- 
 charge rate. The catalogue charge and discharge 
 rate established by the manufacturers are neither 
 maximum nor minrmum values for the cells in ques- 
 tion but average or moderate figures which ex- 
 perience and test have ^hown to be acceptable for 
 all ordinary variations of vehicle service. 
 
 26 
 
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GOULD STORAGE BATTERY COMPANY (CONTINUED) 
 
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PHILADELPHIA STORAGE 
 
 
 
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LIGHT AND HEATING COMPANY (CONTINUED) 
 
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TABLE V. 
 
 WILLARD STORAGE BATTERY CGMPANT 
 
 
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 Note. — Initial charge applies only when plates are received undeveloped. 
 
CARE OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 General Instructions 
 
 APPLICABLE TO ALL STORAGE BAT- 
 TERIES 
 
 Considerable may be and has been written on the 
 subj'ect of care and operation of storage batteries 
 and the whole matter may be summed up in a few 
 words by saying the few things that it is necessary 
 to do and the correct times for doing them. There 
 are certain requisites in the care which cannot be 
 made light of and yet which require a very small 
 amount of time. In the operation of the battery, 
 proper charging is of first consideration since the 
 energy taken from the battery must be replenished 
 for continued operation. 
 
 Charging. In charging Storage Batteries, be the 
 make or design what it may, a direct current sup- 
 ply must be used. If alternating current only is 
 available then means must be had for transforming 
 or converting it into direct current. This is a sub- 
 ject which has received careful attention by the 
 manufacturers and will be taken up in detail in 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 The common practice in the arrangement of elec- 
 tric vehicle batteries for charging is to connect all 
 the cells in series, the adjacent positive and nega- 
 tive poles being connected, leaving a positive termi- 
 nal (pole) at one end and a negative terminal at 
 the other unconnected. These are connected re- 
 spectively to the positive and the negative wires of 
 
 37 
 
the charging circuit in order that the charging cur- 
 rent may be forced into the battery through each 
 cell in the same and correct direction, positive plate 
 to negative through the solution. This rule can- 
 not be varied as injury to the battery, with per- 
 haps ruin, will follow. The procedure just described 
 is actually taken care of in the wiring of the ve- 
 hicle, as received from the manufacturer so that 
 when the trays are installed in the positions indi- 
 cated and the cells of one tray connected in series 
 to those of the next, it remains only to attach the 
 leads of the vehicle wiring to the end cells. 
 
 These are carried to a charging receptacle 
 situated on the frame of the vehicle con- 
 venient of access. This receptacle is constructed 
 for rigid holding of the charging plug, to .which are 
 connected the wdres from the charging source. The 
 plugs and receptacles used at present are relatively 
 simple and serve the purpose of connecting the 
 charging source to the vehicle battery, preventing 
 accidental or careless contact of the wires of op- 
 posite polarity which would cause a short circuit. 
 
 At the present time the different forms of charg- 
 ing plug and receptacle supplied by the individual 
 manufacturers of electric vehicles necessitate the 
 public garage carrying an assortment of these to 
 handle such different makes of vehicle as may re- 
 quire charging, either regularly or transient. This 
 inconvenience is obviated by the use of the charg- 
 ing plug adopted as standard by the Electric Ve- 
 hicle Association of America. 
 
 Automatic means for regulating the charging 
 
 38 
 
operation are widely used and are explained In tliei 
 Chapter on “Charging Apparatus/' 
 
 Ventilation. The battery should be ventilated 
 as much as possible during charging to carry off 
 the gases liberated, hydrogen and oxygen. To this 
 end the battery compartments should be opened. 
 
 Naked Flame. The gases liberated, hydrogen 
 and oxygen, will combine explosively when ignited, 
 so that great care should be exercised to keep the 
 compartment free of a naked flame, especially while 
 the cells are gassing or immediately thereafter. An 
 electric light should always be used for inspection. 
 
 Electrolyte. Before commencing a charge, the 
 height of the solution should be adjusted to a level, 
 Yj” above the tops of the plates, using distilled wa- 
 ter only for this purpose, never electrolyte. How 
 often it will be necessary to add water will depend 
 upon the amount of charging, but will be about 
 once a week, more or less. Where it is especially 
 desired to use water, other than distilled, it is best 
 to send a one quart sample to the manufacturer 
 before running the risk of ruining the battery due 
 to impurities in the water. Electrolyte should only 
 be added where necessitated by sloppage or leak- 
 age and then as explained in detail (page 73). 
 Evaporation removes only water and so nothing but 
 water should be added to compensate. It should 
 be stored in clean carboys which have been used 
 for no other purpose and distinctly labelled. 
 
 Voltage. The voltage required at the Battery 
 Terminals in order to force the current through 
 
 39 
 
the battery is given in the tables on pages 49 and 
 131 for batteries of a number of cells of both lead 
 and nickel-iron types. 
 
 Inasmuch as voltage during charge is consider- 
 ably higher than that during discharge, the lamps, 
 bell, signal horn or other such devices should not 
 be left on or operated during the charging opera- 
 tions, as the increased voltage will in most cases 
 be sufficient to burn them out. These devices are 
 designed to operate during the discharge only, there 
 being practically no reason for their use at other 
 times. 
 
 Temperature. During the charging or discharg- 
 ing operations, described below, the temperature of 
 the battery should at all times be kept below 110° F. 
 The temperature should be measured in those cells 
 near the center of the battery and if there is a 
 tendency to overheat the charging rate should be 
 reduced or if necessary the charging discontinued 
 until the temperature has fallen below the allow- 
 able limit. Practically no difficulty will be experi- 
 enced during discharge except under most extraor- 
 dinary circumstances. 
 
 Charging: Manipulation. Having determined 
 the proper charging rate and the length of time for 
 the charge, the charging apparatus should be put in 
 position for the beginning of the charge, with all 
 switches open. The controller is then placed in 
 the off position, or as demanded in the vehicle in 
 question, some controllers having a special charg- 
 ing position, or notch. With the total resistance of 
 the rheostat in circuit, the charging plug is placed 
 
 40 
 
in the receptacle and the switches closed. The am- 
 meter will show a low value of current, which will 
 increase to the necessary amount as the rheostat 
 handle is revolved. As the charging progresses and 
 the current either increases or decreases the manip- 
 ulation of the resistance by the movement of the 
 rheostat handle wilP increase or decrease the charg- 
 ing rate as desired. Usually a movement of the 
 rheostat to the right increases while a movement 
 to the left decreases the current. When the bat- 
 tery is fully charged the operation should be fol- 
 lowed in the reverse direction, that is, put all the 
 resistance in, decreasing the current, by moving 
 back the rheostat handle before opening all the 
 switches and removing the charging plug. Making 
 a rule of this practice will avoid short circuits, and 
 burning of contacts. 
 
 Discharging. In vehicle batteries the discharg- 
 ing of the cells consists in allowing the current to 
 flow in the reverse direction from that of charge, 
 through a motor which converts the electrical en- 
 ergy into mechanical energy for motion. The 
 amount of current supplied to the motor is regu- 
 lated by the controller so that starting, stopping, 
 reversing or running at the dififerent speeds may 
 be accomplished with little effort on the part of 
 the driver and without injury to the motor, bat- 
 tery or other parts. 
 
 Charging: Out of the Vehicle. When it neces- 
 sary either for test, after repairs, or with reserve 
 batteries to charge them out of the vehicle on a 
 bench, then the operation, familiarly known as a 
 
 41 
 
bench charging or discharging, is identical with that 
 described for the battery in the vehicle in nearly 
 all particulars. It admits of ready access to each 
 of the cells during the entire charge and discharge 
 and enables the operator to make complete and full 
 readings of voltage, specific gravity, temperature 
 and such other inspection, as may be required, upon 
 each cell of the number. As this treatment can 
 best be given by placing the battery in a garage 
 where the necessary apparatus and skill is to be 
 had, the details will be given in section II., page 
 49, devoted to garage practice. 
 
 42 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CARE OF LEAD STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 The instructions in Part I. of this section are 
 intended for the guidance of the individual user 
 of the Electric Vehicle. It is assumed that the 
 individual user is concerned with the primary prin- 
 ciples of operation, in order that satisfactory use 
 may be secured with the expenditure of the least 
 time and labor in accomplishing these results in the 
 Private Garage. When it is said that the electric 
 vehicle requires little care and attention, the state- 
 ment is made seriously but should not be inter- 
 preted to mean that it requires no attention what- 
 ever. This foreword may seem superfluous to some, 
 but experience has shown that it has been this fail- 
 ure to observe the few simple but important rules 
 that has been responsible for the majority of com- 
 plaints against the electric car. The storage battery 
 is neither mysterious nor complicated, but being 
 constructed to work, must be kept in condition to 
 do work. The attention required is very moderate 
 indeed, but it is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Part II. of this section deals with the Care of 
 Lead Storage Batteries in detail, from the time of 
 their receipt from the manufacturer to the end of 
 their useful life. This material has been collected 
 and prepared to include garage practice so as to be 
 of value to all concerned in the operation and main- 
 tenance of vehicle batteries. 
 
 43 
 
PART I. 
 
 To charge a battery completely without exces- 
 sive gassing, or heating, is the Book of Rules told 
 in one sentence. The remarks which follow ex- 
 plain these three items. 
 
 Water. The height of electrolyte to be main- 
 tained at all times is one-half (34") inch above the 
 tops of the plates. This is accomplished by the addi- 
 tion of pure water (preferably distilled) only. The 
 addition of pure water should be made before 
 charging and as often as required by evaporation. 
 
 Charging. Direct current only must be used for 
 charging. Where alternating current only is avail- 
 able suitable apparatus (Chapter VI.) must be 
 used to convert it to direct current. The polarity 
 must be correct, that is, the positive terminal of 
 the battery must be connected to the positive 
 terminal of the charging supply circuit. 
 
 As it is necessary to ventilate the battery during 
 charge, the battery compartment should be opened. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions it is not necessary to 
 charge the battery more often than once a week 
 unless over fifty (SO%) per cent, of its capacity 
 has been discharged. The battery should never be 
 allowed to stand in a discharged condition. 
 
 The limitations imposed at any and all points of 
 the charging operation are those of gassing of the 
 cells and temperature of the electrolyte. Excessive 
 gassing must not be permitted. Under all ordinary 
 conditions begin the charge at the starting rate or 
 higher of the two rates given on the name plate 
 or in Tables I-V, and reduce the current in 
 
 44 
 
several steps, avoiding gassing and high tempera- 
 ture, until the finishing rate has been reached. Con- 
 tinue the charge at this rate until the voltage and 
 specific gravity have risen to maximum values. At 
 this point the cells will be gassing freely. It is 
 better to stop the regular charge too soon than to 
 overcharge. It is permissible to begin the charge 
 at a higher rate, but care must be exercised to re- 
 duce the current should the cells gas or the tem- 
 perature rise above the allowable limit. 
 
 Where any device or means is used in regulating 
 the charge, especially as to the length of time, it 
 should be adjusted so that a uniform gassing at the 
 finishing rate,* indicating the end of a regular charge, 
 will be produced. This amount varies somewhat 
 but is between five and fifteen per cent, more 
 than the number of ampere-hours taken from the 
 battery on the preceding discharge. This statement 
 applies to ampere-hour meters, time clocks and rec- 
 tifiers fitted with an automatic attachment. 
 
 Quick Charging or “Boosting.” At times 
 where conditions may require the greatest possible 
 amount of charge in the time available, the charge 
 may be begun at a high rate, which must be re- 
 duced according as the gassing and temperature in- 
 crease. The temperature must never be allowed to 
 exceed iio° F. 
 
 Equalizing Charge. Bi-weekly at the end of the 
 regular charge continue the charging at a rate not 
 greater than the finishing rate until the specific 
 gravity has stopped rising. When hourly gravity 
 
 46 
 
readings on the pilot cell are alike for four succes- 
 sive readings, then the overcharge may be discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 Discharge. The battery should not be dis- 
 charged below 1.7 volts per cell at its normal serv- 
 ice rate and should not be allowed to stand in a 
 discharged condition. If the full charge cannot be 
 immediately given it should be put on for a partial 
 charge. Beyond these limits the battery may be 
 discharged as the requirements of the service de- 
 mand, however severe it may be. 
 
 Gassing. In charging the battery, the rate at 
 which the cells give off gas, is the determining fea^ 
 ture. Violent gassing should at no time be permitted 
 and whenever the gassing exceeds a very moderate 
 amount, the charging rate should be lowered even 
 though the length of time required for a charge 
 be greater. Disregard of this precaution is^ prob- 
 ably responsible for the shortening of the life of 
 most batteries. 
 
 Temperature. The temperature of the electro- 
 lyte should be kept below 100° F. and never be 
 allowed to rise above 110° F. during charge. If 
 necessary, the rate should be decreased or charging 
 temporarily discontinued until the cell has returned 
 to a normal temperature. 
 
 Electrolyte. The electrolyte should be main- 
 tained at the proper level by the addition of pure 
 water. Never add acid. 
 
 At least once a month at the completion of the 
 overcharge, readings of specific gravity should be 
 recorded on all cells. Should any cell have a read- 
 
 46 
 
ing higher than 1.300 or lower than 1.250 when 
 fully charged, it is evidence of trouble, such as a 
 leaky jar, partial short circuit, or sloppage. The 
 trouble should be found and remedied immediately. 
 See “Electrolyte,'' page 72. 
 
 The specific gravity of the electrolyte should at 
 no time be in excess of 1.300. Should this con- 
 dition be found, some of the electrolyte should be 
 withdrawn and water added to reduce the gravity 
 of the solution. On the other hand, should the 
 reading of any cell be less than 1.250, it may point 
 to insufficient charging. If all of the cells have 
 gradually decreased in specific gravity to below 
 1.250 and the cause not be insufficient charging, 
 or lost electrolyte replaced by water, then it is 
 safe to say that sediment has accumulated in the 
 bottom of the jars, the battery should then be placed 
 in the hands of a competent battery man for in- 
 spection. 
 
 The “Pilot Cell" referred to above is a conveni- 
 ent cell of the number which may be taken as rep- 
 resenting the state of charge of the battery. There 
 is a known variation in specific gravity during 
 charge for each type of cell so that the amount of 
 this variation be, low the specific gravity, when fully 
 charged, will indicate the partial condition of 
 charge at any time during charging process. The 
 point at which the specific gravity reading of the 
 pilot cell fails to increase and the cells gas freely 
 may be considered the end of a regular charge. 
 
 Battery Out of Service. If the battery is to 
 stand idle for any length of time, an overcharge 
 
 47 
 
should be given immediately before and immedi- 
 ately after the period of standing. Should this ex- 
 tend over several months, then a freshening charge 
 should be given monthly at the finishing rate. If 
 the idle period is to exceed four months or the 
 treatment prescribed cannot be given, then the bat- 
 tery should be sent to a garage for the proper 
 care. 
 
 Caution. Keep naked flames away from the bat- 
 tery, both while charging and immediately after 
 charging as the gases liberated are explosive. Ven- 
 tilation is required to dispose of them. 
 
 For handling the water or acid, only clean glass 
 or earthenware should be used. 
 
 The battery should be kept in a clean condition 
 and no foreign material allowed to find its way 
 into the cells. 
 
 POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN THE 
 CARE OF LEAD BATTERIES. 
 
 Unnecessary Charging. Is wasteful of current 
 and uses up the life of the battery. 
 
 Standing Discharged. Is to be avoided in all 
 cases as the succeeding charge would otherwise 
 have to be for a longer time than usual in order to 
 bring the battery into normal condition. 
 
 Adding Water. Pure water (preferably dis- 
 tilled) only should be used and added before charg- 
 ing. Under no condition put in acid unless dis- 
 tinctly specified. 
 
 Kind of Current. Use direct current only, con- 
 necting the positive (-{-) terminal of the battery 
 to the positive pole of supply source. 
 
 48 
 
TABLE VI. 
 
 CHARGING VOLTAGES FOR LEAD BATTERIES. 
 
 
 VOLTS AT 
 
 No. of 
 
 VOLTS 
 
 AT 
 
 No. of Cells. Start. 
 
 Finish. 
 
 Cells. 
 
 Start. 
 
 Finish. 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 69 
 
 81 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 73 
 
 87 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 41 
 
 36 
 
 77 
 
 92 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 46 
 
 38 
 
 82 
 
 97 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 86 
 
 102 
 
 22 
 
 47 
 
 56 
 
 42 
 
 90 
 
 107 
 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 61 
 
 44 
 
 95 
 
 112 
 
 26 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 46 
 
 100 
 
 117 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 71 
 
 48 
 
 105 
 
 123 
 
 30 
 
 64 
 
 76 
 
 50 
 
 110 
 
 128 
 
 These 
 
 voltages are 
 
 approximate 
 
 and are 
 
 intended for 
 
 guidance 
 
 only. 
 
 A battery when cold or new will show a higher voltage than an 
 old one or at high temperature. 
 
 It is not safe to regard a fixed voltage 'as the end of the charge, 
 but a maximum voltage for the battery in question. 
 
 Ventilation. Open the battery compartment 
 during charge and secure as much draft of air in 
 the neighborhood of the battery as possible. 
 
 Gassing. Charge only until moderate amount 
 of gassing is produced and not longer as it is waste- 
 ful both of current and battery. 
 
 Temperature. During charge do not allow the 
 temperature to exceed iio° F. Either reduce the 
 current or discontinue the charge temporarily, if 
 necessary. 
 
 Caution. Keep naked flames away from the 
 battery in order that the gasses may not be ignited. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Unpacking. The crates or boxes containing the 
 trays should be handled carefully and kept right 
 side up to avoid spilling the electrolyte. They 
 should be opened from the top and if necessary, 
 one of the sides taken off for the removal of heavy 
 trays. Care should be exercised in the handling of 
 tools so that the jars may not be cracked. The 
 
 49 
 
trays and cells should then be cleaned off thoroughly 
 and each cell examined for any possible damage. 
 All the connections should be tight and clean as a 
 loose connection would be liable to cause reduction 
 in speed and mileage and eventually burn off. 
 Should a loose connection be found, it should be 
 lead burned or if that cannot be done at the time, 
 then a temporary repair can be made by soldering 
 but should be lead burned as soon as possible. 
 
 Should any broken or cracked jars be found, they 
 should he replaced immediately. If there are no 
 extra jars available, then the element should be re- 
 moved from the broken jar and placed in a glass or 
 earthenware vessel in acid of approximately 1.275 
 sp. gr. The plates must not be allowed to dry in 
 air as it would require a very long charge to bring 
 them back to a healthy condition. If the electrolyte 
 level is lower than ^ inch above the tops of the 
 plates, due to spilling and not to broken jars, then 
 solution should be added to the correct level. 
 
 Batteries when shipped in the wet condition are 
 shipped fully charged and require a freshening 
 charge at the finishing rate of the make of battery 
 in question, until all cells gas freely, before being 
 placed in service. 
 
 When cells are shipped in the dry condition, they 
 may either be assembled ready for the addition of 
 electrolyte and the developing charge or as plates 
 to be burned to the straps and assembled in the 
 cells. As both of these shipments would require 
 the developing charge they cannot be placed in ser- 
 vice as can the batteries received in the wet state. 
 
 so 
 
ASSEMBLING AND PUTTING NEW BAT- 
 TERIES INTO CONDITION. 
 
 The parts must be unpacked, cleaned and exam- 
 ined carefully to see that they are in good condition 
 and free from foreign material. 
 
 The plates must be grouped, that is, lead burned 
 to the straps. This must be done by an experienced 
 lead burner and when finished must be inspected 
 to see that no lead has run down between the plates. 
 
 The plate lugs should be scraped clean and bright 
 by a scraper of the kind used by a plumber and the 
 plates for one ‘group placed in a burning rack or 
 burning box as shown in (Fig. 12). Across the 
 top of this box is fitted a piece of iron in which 
 notches are cut correctly spacing the plate lugs. 
 (Fig. 13.) The strap is then placed over the lugs 
 and burned to them. The details of this assembly, 
 as to the distances between plates and from the 
 top of the plate to the strap, will depend upon the 
 particular type and make of battery in hand. After 
 the plates have been assembled into groups, the 
 latter should be combined ready for the insertion 
 of the separators. This is done by placing a per- 
 forated hard rubber sheet separator against the 
 grooved side of a wooden separator. These pairs 
 are then inserted between the surfaces of each posi- 
 tive and negative plate so that the flat side of the 
 wooden separator is against the negative plate and 
 the hard rubber sheet against the positive plate in 
 each case. Should a separator, either wood or rub- 
 ber, be broken while being placed in position, it 
 
 51 
 
should be discarded for a new one. No separators 
 are placed between the surface of the negative plate 
 and the containing jar. It is well to be careful that 
 
 Fig. 12 — Burning Box. 
 
 Fig. 13 — Burning Iron. For as- 
 sembling elements with top or high 
 burned straps. 
 
 the edges of the separators are flush with the bot- 
 tom of the plates so that contact between the plates 
 may be avoided. The plates may be gently pressed 
 together and are then ready to be placed in the jar. 
 
 62 
 
With the element lying horizontally on the bench, 
 the top of the jar, bridges crosswise with the plates, 
 is placed around the element, being started carefully 
 so that no edge of the plates or separators may 
 catch on the rim of the jar. Only jars in good con- 
 dition and thoroughly washed should be used. 
 
 It is necessary to secure the separators firmly in 
 position so that they may not have an opportunity to 
 float up from between the plates, allowing the latter 
 to touch. For this purpose ''hold downs’" are used. 
 When the groups are assembled with pillar straps, 
 then a fin projects down sufficiently to keep the 
 separators • in place. With "L” straps, however, 
 blocks of rubber or glass are used to keep the 
 separators in a rigid position. 
 
 The cells are then ready for the acid, assembly in 
 the trays and connections, so that the developing 
 charge may be started. In several factories, the 
 practice is to place the cells on a bench, instead of 
 in the regular trays, in order that they may be kept 
 cool by circulation of air during the initial charge. 
 Where there' is any tendency for the containing 
 jars to warp or bulge from the heat, it is prefer- 
 able to assemble the cells in the trays before begin- 
 ning the developing charge as, otherwise, they could 
 not be readily assembled in the trays. When the 
 developing charge has been completed, the acid may 
 be poured out and acid the proper strength immedi- 
 ately added to the correct level. 
 
 In some cases, where considerable developing is 
 done, arrangements are made so that the jars may 
 be placed in a tank through which cooling water 
 
 5B 
 
may be circulated around the jars. An electric fan 
 also helps considerably in keeping down the tem- 
 perature of the cells during charging by circulating 
 the air. 
 
 When preparations are completed, then the elec- 
 trolyte of such specific gravity as recommend- 
 ed by the maker should be added to the cells 
 to a level of Yz inch above the plates. The 
 acid should not be above atmospheric tempera- 
 ture as the mere addition of acid to the cell 
 will cause heating. It is necessary for the tempera- 
 ture of the cell to decrease to a normal value, such 
 as that of the room, before the initial charge can 
 be begun. As this may take from lo to 15 hours, 
 it is generally advisable to add the electrolyte in the 
 afternoon so that the cells may be allowed to cool 
 over night and be ready for developing the follow- 
 ing morning. Also, the acid will combine with th * 
 water in the separators so that the cells should stand 
 for at least 12 hours before the initial charge is 
 begun. 
 
 Having made the necessary connections, the 
 charging should be begun at the rate given in the 
 table and continued for the length of time neces- 
 sary to charge the plates beyond any question of 
 doubt. As the plates are received dry, and may 
 have been standing in a dry condition for some 
 length of time, they are in a somewhat sulphated 
 state and need a long initial or developing charge 
 to remove the sulphate. All of it must be removed 
 by charging since if it is not removed at this time 
 it will probably remain permanently. 
 
 64 
 
Cells received from the manufacturer assembled 
 and ready for developing are sometimes provided 
 with hard rubber separators instead of with wooden 
 separators because wooden separators unless main- 
 tained in a moist condition would warp and crack 
 and be unsuited for service. To the cell thus as- 
 sembled, it is necessary only to add acid of 1.170 
 specific gravity as described and continue with the 
 initial charge. 
 
 The wooden separators are specially treated by 
 the manufacturers to remove impurities, especially 
 organic substances, which would greatly reduce the 
 life of the plates. They are generally shipped in 
 wet sawdust and should be kept moist by frequent 
 sprinkling with water. If they are to be kept for 
 any length of time they should be placed in ad:ank 
 of pure water slightly acidulated with sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 The amount of charge necessary in developing 
 a new battery will amount to about six times the 
 rated ampere-hour discharge capacity, but must be 
 governed solely by the indication of completeness 
 of charge with very little gassing and not exceed- 
 ing a temperature of 100° F. Should the tem- 
 perature, during any part of the charge, rise above 
 110°, the charging should be temporarily discon- 
 tinued until the normal temperature has been re- 
 sumed. The charge should continue without inter- 
 ruption if possible until the voltage and specific 
 gravity have reached a maximum. It is well to 
 continue the charging for about ten hours beyond 
 the point where these quantities no longer rise, in 
 
 65 
 
order that surety of completeness may be obtained. 
 In order to obtain true density readings, since the 
 specific gravity varies with the temperature, they 
 must be corrected for the temperature changes on 
 the basis of .001 specific gravity for each rise of 
 3° F., the standard being 1.280 at 80° F. Table 
 No. 7, page 79, gives these corrections at a glance 
 for the entire range ordinarily encountered in ve- 
 hicle batteries. 
 
 After the charge has been completed, the elec- 
 trolyte in each cell should be tested and the density 
 adjusted to what corresponds to 1.280 at 80° F., 
 maintaining the proper solution level of above 
 the plates. The cells will usually increase in ca- 
 pacity for a number of cycles of charge and dis- 
 charge during the early life of the battery, al- 
 though the most rapid period of increase will be 
 during the first 10 cycles. Should a high dis- 
 charge capacity be required immediately when the 
 battery is put into service, then several test runs of 
 charge and discharge should be given before put- 
 ting the battery into commission, in order to work 
 up the capacity. In general it may be considered 
 good practice to make a few t^t discharges after 
 the developing charge, taking careful readings of 
 the voltage and specific gravity of each cell in order 
 to make sure that all cells have been developed 
 evenly and sufficiently. 
 
 Assuming that the cells have been tested and 
 found ready for service, they are then ready to 
 be assembled in the trays. Before doing this, how- 
 ever, inspection should be made to see that they 
 
 56 
 
have been correctly assembled with separators in 
 proper position and with no lead ''flow downs'' 
 lodged on top or between the plates. When placed 
 in position in the trays, the connections between 
 cells should be carefully lead burned to the full 
 depth of the straps and covers placed in position. 
 If the cells are to be sealed, this should be done 
 before the cells are placed in the trays and burned 
 together. The jar and cover must be clean and 
 dry for the compound to adhere. If acid or wa- 
 ter remains on the hard rubber it will not stick. 
 The sealing compound may be softened by being 
 placed in a vessel heated over a moderate flame 
 or the flame rhay be applied directly over the com- 
 pound. When almost liquid it may be readily 
 applied by a hot putty knife. For pressing into 
 final position and finishing the sealing the putty 
 knife should itself be heated in the flame. The 
 sealing compound must neither melt at the work- 
 ing temperatures of the battery nor crack at low 
 temperatures, so that the compounds supplied by 
 the manufacturers should be used rather than un- 
 tried material. 
 
 Cleanliness. It is necessary to maintain the cells, 
 trays, terminals, connections and the battery space 
 in the vehicle dry and free of electrolyte as a great 
 many of the difficulties encountered in ordinary 
 use can be traced to neglect. Should the electro- 
 lyte be slopped over the outsides of the jars and 
 connectors or metal fittings, corrosion will result 
 which will ultimately create loss of capacity. 
 
 67 
 
CHARGING. 
 
 Service Charging. In charging, direct current 
 only can be used in order to effect the chemical 
 changes. Should alternating current only be avail- 
 able, then a suitable rectifying device must be used 
 to convert the alternating current to direct current. 
 These devices are described under '^Charging Ap- 
 |)aratus/’ Chapter VI. 
 
 Before charging is begun pure water (preferably 
 distilled) should be added to compensate for evapo- 
 ration, bringing the level of the electrolyte to one- 
 half inch above the tops of the plates. 
 
 As the normal condition of the plates in the 
 discharged condition, is the lead sulphate state, the 
 change to lead peroxide and spongy lead in the 
 positive and negative plates, respectively, should 
 be accomplished without wasting current or wear- 
 ing the plates too rapidly. If the battery is steadi- 
 ly undercharged then the plates will gradually ac- 
 cumulate sulphate which will be evidenced by low 
 specific gravity and low capacity. The longer the 
 sulphate remains in the plate the more difficult it 
 is to remove, that is, the more charging will be 
 necessary. The desire therefore in bringing the 
 battery to a fully charged condition is to send all 
 of the sulphate from the plates back into the acid. 
 In so doing, the current must not be so great as 
 to cause excessive gassing since that would tear 
 small particles of active material from the plate 
 and thus shorten its life. Moderate gassing is per- 
 missible and at the proper rate, as explained later, 
 
 58 
 

 is an evidence of the charged condition. The tem- 
 perature must be kept within moderate limits also 
 so that the chemical action may not be too rapid. 
 
 It is recommended that the charging be regulated 
 so that temperatures in excess of iio° F. will not 
 be reached. If necessary reduce the current or dis- 
 continue charging until the battery has returned 
 to safe limits. 
 
 With the above in mind, it can readily be under- 
 stood that when a battery has been fully discharged 
 it should not be allowed to remain in that condi- 
 tion since the sulphate would be hard to reduce, 
 taking an abnormal amount of charging to restore 
 to healthy condition. 
 
 From this it is evident that a battery may be 
 charged at any rate, no matter how large or small, 
 as long as the temperature does not rise above 
 110° F. and the gassing does not become excessive. 
 Under ordinary circumstances the most satisfactory 
 results may be obtained by observing the follow- ‘ 
 ing rules. 
 
 Begin the charge at the starting rate, given in 
 Tables I-V, and reduce the current in sev- 
 eral steps, avoiding gassing and high temperature, 
 until the finishing rate has been reached. Con- 
 tinue the charge at this rate until the voltage and 
 specific gravity have risen to a maximum value. 
 At this point the cells will be gassing freely. It 
 is better to stop the regular charge too soon than 
 to continue too long. It is necessary to add be- 
 ll tween 5 and 15% more ampere hours in charging 
 
 69 
 
than have been taken out on the previous dis- 
 charge. 
 
 The voltage of the battery will rise during the 
 charge to a maximum value, which is not neces- 
 sarily, and which probably will not be, a fixed val- 
 ue. It will change with the age of the plates, the 
 strength of the electrolyte and the temperature. 
 New plates will have a higher final voltage than 
 old plates and both will give higher final voltage 
 with low temperature. These changes render charg- 
 ing by voltage alone as a standard a very unre- 
 liable process, so that specific gravity and gassing, 
 with voltage as a check, give the best results. 
 Providing that the battery is given the required 
 care, the action in all cells will be practically uni- 
 form and one cell, conveniently located, may be 
 taken as indicative of the others. Readings of 
 specific gravity taken on this pilot cell therefore af- 
 ford a simple and easy means of keeping the 
 charging within bounds. The gravity varies 
 slightly with the temperature and Table 7, page 
 79, is given so that corrections may be easily made, 
 to the density of 8o° F. 
 
 While the battery should not be allowed to stand 
 in a discharged condition, it should not be charged 
 unless necessary. If less than 50% of the capacity 
 has been discharged then a charge should not be 
 given unless the subsequent discharge will require 
 more than the capacity available. To run the car 
 a comparatively small percentage of its mileage 
 and then give approximately a full charge is evi- 
 
 60 
 
dently a waste of current and battery. The number 
 of cycles of charge and discharge depends upon the 
 conditions of service, so that wasteful charging 
 dissipates not only current uselessly but plate life 
 also. 
 
 A very convenient method of automatically re- 
 cording and calculating the charging necessary is 
 accomplished by an instrument known as an Am- 
 pere-Hour Meter, Fig. 14. This instrument is fur- 
 nished with a dial, and hand revolving in a coun- 
 ter-clockwise manner on charge, and clockwise 
 manner on discharge. (This order is reversed by 
 some vehicle manufacturers.) During the dis- 
 charge a glance at the meter gives a direct read- 
 ing of the discharge capacity used, so that know- 
 ing the total discharge capacity available, the 
 amount remaining is readily given. The total avail- 
 able ampere hour capacity divided by the number 
 of miles under average conditions of driving will 
 give the ampere hours per mile. This figure de- 
 pends upon the condition of vehicle, roads and load 
 carried. Taken under normal conditions, however, 
 this figure divided into the capacity gives the aver^ 
 age mileage obtainable on one charge of the bat- 
 tery. If the capacity be 120 ampere hours and the 
 ampere hours per mile be 3, then approximately 
 40 miles is available per charge of the battery. 
 
 During charge the pointer revolves counter- 
 clockwise until it reaches the vertical position where 
 it remains against a stop, showing full charge. An 
 adjustment is provided allowing the charge to be 
 made from o to 30% greater than the discharge. 
 
 61 
 
This setting is arbitrary and depends upon the 
 
 service conditions. Additional wiring is provided 
 
 so that a circuit breaker may be closed when the 
 
 pointer reaches the stop, disconnecting the battery 
 • • • • 
 from the charging circuit. 
 
 This feature is very convenient for effecting 
 
 the desired charge with little waste and minimum 
 
 Fig. 14 — ‘Ampere-Hour Meter. 
 
 attendance as well as for discontinuing a charge 
 during the night, 
 
 EQUALIZING CHARGE. 
 
 Under the head of charging the instruction was 
 given to discontinue the charge too soon rather 
 than to charge too long. Under this heading the 
 instruction is to overcharge too long rather than 
 
 62 
 
loo little. The reason for this is tliat the over- 
 charge is designed to bring each cell of the bat- 
 tery to a fully charged condition. This is accom- 
 plished by continuing a regular charge at the fin- 
 ishing rate three or four hours after the pilot cell 
 has reached a maximum of specific gravity and 
 voltage readings. Hourly readings should be taken. 
 When several of these are alike the overcharge 
 may be discontinued. Before beginning this charge 
 inspection should be made of all cells and pure 
 water added to bring the solution to the correct 
 level of one-half inch above tops of plates. 
 
 The regular charge should be discontinued when 
 the battery is approximately charged so that no 
 harm may be done bv constantlv overcharging. As- 
 suming that the plates are not fully charged each 
 time, the capacity will decrease gradually as indi- 
 cated by the lower specific gravity readings. It is 
 necessary to send the acid held in the plates 
 back into the solution, recovering the full capacity, 
 by the periodic overcharge. Therefore, should the 
 car be charged and discharged daily, a weekly over- 
 charge would be most satisfactory, while on the 
 other hand if the mileage required be small and 
 the regular charges infrequent then a bi-weekly 
 overcharge is sufficient to keep the plates in healthy 
 condition. 
 
 When a battery is to remain idle for any length 
 of time, a freshening overcharge should be given 
 at least monthly and preferably bi-weekly while not 
 in service. Should the period be for over four 
 months or facilities for this charge not available 
 
 63 
 
then the battery should be taken apart and stored 
 dry as explained under ‘'Taking Out of Commis- 
 sion/' page 91. 
 
 CHARGING OVERNIGHT. 
 
 There are a number of applications in which it 
 is impossible for attention to be given the battery 
 during charge, such as, charging overnight or when 
 no attendance can be given. In this case the bat- 
 tery may be placed on charge at a rate never more 
 than 2/3 of its regular “starting rate" and allowed 
 to remain on charge, the current gradually de- 
 creasing until discontinued either by hand or by 
 an automatic device. The number of ampere-hours 
 required should be estimated by adding 10% to 
 the capacity in ampere-hours taken from the bat- 
 tery on its previous discharge. Thus the number 
 of ampere-hours required to fully charge the bat- 
 tery, divided by the number of hours available, will 
 give the average current for the charge. When 
 charging from a constant potential circuit, the cur- 
 rent will decrease gradually throughout the charge. 
 This is most rapid at the beginning due to the 
 heating of the charging rheostat and the rise in 
 counter electromotive force of the battery. For this 
 reason the rate may be set two or three amperes 
 higher than the average current at the beginning, 
 but a rate exceeding Yz of the “starting rate" 
 should not be used unless attention can be given. 
 
 The limiting conditions of charging in this man- 
 ner are gassing and temperature and what has 
 been said in the previous paragraphs is also true 
 
 64 
 
in this case. Excessive gassing or high tempera- 
 tures must not be permitted so that it will be neces- 
 sary to give frequent attention, observing the tem- 
 perature and gassing during the first few periods 
 of charge, in order that the results may be obtained 
 without running the risk of ruining the battery. 
 After these experimental charges, conditions will 
 be known approximately and a close, estimate can 
 be arrived at for subsequent unattended charges. 
 
 There are a number of automatic means for reg- 
 ulating charging. The ampere-hour meter has been 
 described. When wired to a circuit breaker it dis- 
 continues the charge when the required number of 
 ampere hours have been supplied. The hand on 
 its dial rotates to its zero position m.aking a con- 
 tact which closes the trip circuit of the circuit 
 breaker. 
 
 A time clock may also be secured that will open 
 the circuit at a predetermined time. Mercury Arc 
 Rectifiers are furnished with attachments which 
 not only restore the arc in case the service has been 
 discontinued, but which also cut-out when a cer- 
 tain rriaximum voltage has been reached. None of 
 these devices control the rate of current during 
 the charge so that while the time during which 
 the charge lasts may be correct, the rate of charge 
 depends wholly upon the attendant, and should be 
 kept as low as possible in order that the limita- 
 tions of temperature and gassing may not be ex- 
 ceeded. Whenever possible, attention should be 
 given to obviate any damage from excessive heat- 
 ing or gassing. 
 
 C5 
 
BOOSTING OR EMERGENCY CHARGING. 
 
 Charging of this nature is particularly adapted 
 to conditions under which the capacity required 
 from a battery is greater than the normal output for 
 which it is designed. If the vehicle requires a 
 boost in order to reach its garage or cover its route, 
 after a trip which has taken practically all of its 
 available capacity, or if an extra trip is contem- 
 plated which it is estimated the remaining capacity 
 will not meet, then this emergency charging is ex- 
 ceedingly useful. During certain times of the year 
 the road conditions or extra heavy loads make an 
 extra charge necessary. This may be given either 
 when the battery has been fully discharged or dur- 
 ing a noon hour, or other similar period of rest. 
 The advantage of the noon hour period is that no 
 unnecessary time need be . spent, but on the, other 
 hand, the charge will be limited to approximately 
 one hour. The use of boosting charges makes it 
 possible to design the battery for average require- 
 ments instead of carrying sufficient battery capacity 
 for maximum requirements. 
 
 In giving a charge at a high rate, the limiting 
 features are temperature and gassing. The tem- 
 perature must not be allowed to rise, under any 
 circumstances, above iio° F. and should be kept 
 as much below ioo° F. as possible. In the sum- 
 mer it is evident that this will limit this method 
 of charging. The gassing should at no time be 
 permitted to be excessive and it is well to keep it 
 a minimum, The more fully the battery is dis- 
 
charged the higher may be the starting rate of the 
 boost so that a fully discharged battery may re- 
 ceive the same amount of charge in a shorter time 
 than a battery which has been but partly discharged. 
 
 The standard instructions for giving a rapid 
 charge are to start the charge at a rate 50% above 
 the normal charging rate, gradually reducing the 
 current step by step until the finishing rate is 
 reached, when the charging may proceed as de- 
 scribed under ''normab’ service charging. The 
 limits of gassing and temperature must be very 
 rigidly observed or damage will result. The indi- 
 cations of the extent of charge are voltage, specific 
 gravity and gassing as have been explained. 
 
 A method for boosting which has been developed 
 and recommended by several prominent storage 
 battery engineers, making use of the ampere-hoiu 
 meter is as follows: Make the boosting rate in 
 
 amperes equal to the quotient of the ampere-hours 
 discharged from the battery divided by one plus 
 the time available for boosting in hours. That is, 
 if the ampere-hour meter shows 200 ampere-hours 
 discharged and one hour available for charging 
 
 200 
 
 then the rate would be = 100 amperes 
 
 I + I 
 
 for one hour. If but 15 minutes should be avail- 
 
 200 
 
 . able then the current could be as high as 
 
 I + .25 
 
 = 160 amperes. It is said that the gassing point 
 
 67 
 
will just be approached at the end of the specified 
 time, when the rates are determined by the above 
 rule. 
 
 Experience has also shown that when a battery 
 is placed upon a constant potential circuit of 2.3 
 to 2.35 volts per cell without intervening resistance, 
 that the charging rate in amperes will then very 
 nearly equal the state of discharge in ampere-hours 
 at any time. 
 
 Having in mind what has been said under this 
 heading, it is evident that a charge may be begun 
 at any current rate, several times the normal charg- 
 ing rate if necessary and reduced according as 
 the gassing and temperature dictate. This method 
 is very convenient and will admit of very flexible 
 operation of the electric vehicle, but it is recom- 
 mended for use only in the hands of competent 
 attendants. 
 
 CHARGING OUT OF THE VEHICLE. 
 
 When it is necessary either for test, after re- 
 pairs, or with reserve batteries to charge them out 
 of the vehicle on a bench, then the operation fami- 
 liarly known as a ‘'Bench Charging’’ or “Discharg- 
 ing” is identical with that described for the battery 
 in the vehicle in nearly all particulars. It admits 
 of ready access to each of the cells during the en- 
 tire charge and discharge and enables the operator 
 to make complete and full readings of voltage, 
 specific gravity, temperature and such other in- 
 spection, as may be required, upon each cell of the 
 number. 
 
 68 
 
The connections from the battery to the charg- 
 ing source are not effected by means of the charg- 
 ing plug and receptacle, as the- battery is discon- 
 nected from the vehicle wiring. Should there be 
 necessity for considerable bench charging then it 
 might be convenient to have an extra receptacle 
 the terminals of which would admit of rapid bu^ 
 secure fastening to the battery terminals. 
 
 When the battery is in the vehicle it is dis- 
 charged by passing the current through the motor, 
 
 Fig. 15 — Battery Connected for Test Discharge. 
 
 which does useful work, such as propelling the ve 
 hide. In this case, however, the current is to be 
 dissipated in the form of heat by passing the cur- 
 rent through a suitable resistance or rheostat. The 
 positive and negative terminals are connected (Fig. 
 15) through the rheostat or suitable resistance and 
 an ammeter. The ammeter indicates the current 
 rate of discharging in the same manner as that of 
 
charge. The rheostat used in charging will not 
 have sufficient resistance for discharging the bat- 
 tery especially at the beginning of the discharge. 
 When the voltage is high, additional resistance 
 must be placed in series. 
 
 One that is very convenient and easily con- 
 structed is what is known as a W^ater Resistance. 
 This is constructed by making use of a wooden 
 tub or half-barrel. Two wooden sticks or rods 
 are laid parallel across the top of the barrel and 
 from them are suspended two metal plates (iron 
 grids or lead iron) parallel to each other One 
 wire from the battery is connected to one of these 
 plates through one pole of a double pole switch, 
 the other plate is connected through the ammeter 
 to the other pole of the switch and thence to the 
 other battery terminal. Before starting to dis- 
 charge, all the resistance should be put in the cir- 
 cuit in the charging rheostat ordinarily used and 
 the plates in the tub separated as far as possible. 
 
 Fiff. 16 — Battery Connected for Charging when Out of tlie 
 Vehicle. 
 
 70 
 
The till) can then be filled with clean water and 
 the switch closed. 
 
 Small quantities of sulphuric acid added to the 
 water from time to time will increase the current 
 and will serve in the same way as moving the 
 plates toward each other. It is preferable to have 
 the plates remain fixed and to add acid, increasing 
 the conductivity of the solution as short circuit be- 
 tween the plates will be less liable to result. This 
 resistance in series with the regular resistance will 
 give easy and fine regulation of the current. The 
 diagram shows the method of connecting the parts 
 and taking the readings. 
 
 In making the connections referred to, the wires 
 or cables should be of such size as not to heat 
 unduly at the maximum current of discharge. The 
 size of wire used in the vehicle is sufficiently large 
 
 n 
 
INSPECTION. 
 
 An inspection should take place at least every 
 month in order that slight troubles may be rem- 
 edied before they become serious and serious ones 
 remedied immediately. If the battery compartment 
 is constructed so that the inspection may take 
 place with the trays in the vehicle then it is not 
 necessary to remove them. If this is not the case, 
 however, then it would be necessary to disconnect 
 the end leads to the controller and slide the trays 
 out. A low truck on rollers is found to be very 
 convenient for this work as the truck can be run 
 up along side or in front of the battery compart- 
 ment and the tray placed upon it. In fact, an ad- 
 justable platform truck is manufactured for this 
 service. The rubber plugs should be removed so 
 that the tops of the plates may be seen. The level 
 of the electrolyte, which should be one-half inch 
 above the plates, should be determined by means 
 of a piece of one-quarter inch glass tubing or by 
 inserting a clean strip of wool or hard rubber. If 
 the level is not correct it should be made so by 
 adding pure water. The connectors between the 
 cells should be examined and if any are found to 
 be weak, loose or broken they should be repaired. 
 After cleaning, the trays are then ready to be 
 placed in commission. 
 
 ELECTROLYTE 
 
 The electrolyte used in the lead type cell is a 
 mixture of pure sulphuric acid and pure water. 
 This mixture, known as dilute sulphuric acid, should 
 be chemically pure, but no harm will result if cer- 
 
 72 
 
tain chemicals are present which do not afifect the 
 activity of the cell. Impurities such as iron, cop- 
 per, platinum, mercury, arsenic, chlorine, nitric 
 acid and acetic acid must never be present. 
 
 Always ponr acid into zvater, never water into 
 acid. 
 
 When acid and water are combined, a chemical 
 reaction takes pl^ce and considerable heat is de- 
 veloped, the amount of heat depends upon the rela- 
 tive proportion of acid and water. Should a small 
 quantity of water be poured into a vessel of acid, 
 the water would immediately be turned explosively 
 into steam with the result that a part of the mix- 
 ture of water and acid would fly up from the ves- 
 sel and probably seriously injure the face and hands 
 of the operator. Ordinarily it is more advisable 
 for the user to purchase electrolyte ready for use 
 or if wanted in quantity, acid of 1.400 specific grav- 
 ity will usually be found of sufficient strength. 
 
 Owing to the heat generated it is necessary to 
 allow the solution to cool before taking the spe- 
 cific gravity of the mixture inasmuch as the dens- 
 ity changes with the temperature. By referring to 
 Table 7, on page 79, the real density at any tem- 
 perature may be found and compared with that at 
 a standard temperature of 80° F. This change in 
 specific gravity is due to temperature and is a physi- 
 cal change only. However, when electrolyte is 
 used in the active cell then another change takes 
 place which has already been described, that is, a 
 variation in density due to chemical change, the 
 acid being absorbed by the plates. The acid itself 
 
 73 
 
is broken up, the sulphate part combining with the 
 plates and the hydrogen part combining with the 
 oxygen set free to form water in the electrolyte. 
 
 Thus the specific gravity of the cell will decrease 
 as the cell is discharged and increase upon charge, 
 returning to the original value upon charging to 
 the same extent as originally, making allowance for 
 the temperature change. The density increases un- 
 til all the acid is out of the plates. In some cases 
 where the plates are badly sulphated, that is where 
 the sulphate has hardened, excessive charging will 
 be required to remove it. During such a charge 
 the rise in gravity will be very slow. 
 
 This specific gravity or density is measured by 
 simple instrument known as a hydrometer. This 
 very useful accessory is constructed of glass 
 weighted at the bottom with lead shot and posses- 
 ses a calibrated scale so that when immersed in the 
 liquid, the reading of the scale at the surface of 
 the solution is the specific gravity of the electro- 
 lyte. 
 
 For convenience in making this reading the hy- 
 drometer is usually placed in a second glass tube 
 of sufficient diameter to allow the hydrometer to 
 float. This hydrometer syringe furnished with a 
 pure rubber tube at the lower end and a rubber bulb 
 at the upper end permits electrolyte to be drawn 
 from the cell into the barrel and to float the hy- 
 drometer. In this manner the gravity readings of the 
 electrolyte in all the cells of the battery may be read- 
 ily and quickly determined. For ordinary charging it 
 is necessary to read the gravity of a few cells only, 
 
 74 
 
“pilot cells/' assuming that these are characteristic 
 of the battery. At the inspection and reforming 
 periods, however, each cell should be carefully gone 
 over. 
 
 The amount of the electrolyte required in the 
 cells depends upon the size of the containing jar 
 and the number and size of plates and is usually 
 given in the manufacturer’s catalogue. However, 
 it is a simple matter to remember that whatever 
 this size may be, the electrolyte in any cell should 
 be one-half inch above the tops of the plates so 
 that sufficient may be available for evaporation 
 or sloppage without exposing any of the plate 
 surfaces, which is injurious. 
 
 The specific gravity, when the cell is fully 
 charged, will be approximately 1.260 to 1.280, de- 
 pending upon the condition of the cell and tem- 
 perature ; when the cell is considered discharged, 
 the gravity will have fallen loO' points more or 
 less depending upon the type of battery, owing to 
 the, removal of sulphuric acid by the plates. From 
 this it can be readily understood that the amount 
 of charge can be at once found by taking hydro- 
 meter readings, knowing the upper and lower limits 
 for the particular battery in question and correcting 
 for temperature change,. 
 
 Throughout the instructions emphasis has been 
 laid upon the fact that distilled water only should 
 be used to replace evaporation. The reason for 
 this is, that adding acid would change the gravity 
 of the cell and so there would be no check upon its 
 condition with the effect that the strength of the 
 
 76 
 
solution would gradually become too great for sat- 
 isfactory results, sulphating the plates and reduc- 
 ing the efficiency of the cell. It is obvious that by 
 changing the gravity through such means that no 
 indication of the state of charge would be reliable. 
 High density when thus given will shorten the life 
 of the battery. 
 
 Should a leaky cell be found it would be neces- 
 sary to place the element in a new jar and fill with 
 electrolyte of 1.250 specific gravity. After charging 
 at the ‘‘finishing’’ rate until the gravity of the leaky 
 cell has ceased to rise, the density should be finally 
 adjusted to the correct point (1.270-1.280). 
 
 After the overcharge has been given, gravity 
 readings should be taken of all cells of the battery. 
 If the battery has received the proper overcharge 
 and it is evident that low specific gravity in any 
 cell is due to sloppage or spilling and not under- 
 charging, then some of the electrolyte should be 
 withdrawn and acid added to bring the gravity up 
 to that of the other cells. If the specific gravity 
 be higher than 1.300 in any cell it should be re- 
 duced by withdrawing electrolyte and adding pure 
 v/ater. This “equalizing” should be done only when 
 low density is not due to insufficient charging, be- 
 cause the gravity is the indicator, and tampering 
 with the indicator will only give temporary, mis- 
 leading results. 
 
 Should there be doubt of the purity of the water 
 or electrolyte or indications of trouble from them, 
 then samples of one quart of water or eight ounces 
 
 76 
 
of solution should be sent to the manufacturer for 
 test. 
 
 Electrolyte — Low Cells. There are many 
 causes for low cells, among which may be men- 
 tioned, insufficient charging, leaky jar, loss of 
 electrolyte by spilling, broken parts or presence of 
 foreign material. The remedies for these may be 
 divided into three classes. 
 
 The first and simplest is to treat the cell electri- 
 cally, by prolonged charging at a low rate, until 
 the gravity and voltage reach a maximum. This 
 charge should be too long rather than too short, for 
 if not complete the trouble will be only temporarily 
 removed. 
 
 In the case of leaky jars it is necessary only to 
 replace the jar and give a long charge at a low rate, 
 after which the gravity should be adjusted to the 
 same value as that of the adjoining cells. When 
 water has been added to replace spilled electrolyte 
 then the gravity may be equalized by adding acid 
 enough to bring up the density. If foreign material 
 has found its way into the solution, then the solu- 
 tion should be renewed and the water used to re- 
 place evaporation tested for impurities as explained 
 under “Electrolyte.’’ Salt and iron are most likely 
 to find their way into the cells. Salt will be indi- 
 cated by the offensive odor of the chlorine gas given 
 off during charging and iron by the dirty yellow 
 color given to the positive plates. Similar evidences 
 are given by other impurities. 
 
 77 
 
If these are found present, the cell should be dis- 
 mantled irrespective of its state of charge or dis- 
 charge, as explained under ‘‘Sediment,’’ washed and 
 reassembled with pure electrolyte of the same grav- 
 ity as that removed and new wood separators and 
 given several charges and discharges. After these 
 and while discharged, again take the cell apart, rinse 
 the parts well and reassemble with new electrolyte 
 of 1.200 specific gravity. Then give a long charge. 
 All precautions should be taken as detailed under 
 “Sediment,” p. 82. 
 
 Taking the cell apart to inspect for sediment, con- 
 tition of separators, short circuits between plates, 
 etc., includes only dismantling the cell and reassem- 
 bling into the original condition as nearly as 
 possible. 
 
 When it is necessary for inspection or in testing 
 to determine the cell voltages throughout the charge 
 and discharge periods, the readings are taken with 
 a low reading voltmeter. An accurate instrument 
 should be used for this purpose and should be re- 
 turned to the manufacturer or competent labora- 
 tory for calibration at least twice a year. 
 
 Probably the most convenient form of voltmeter 
 is one which has a double scale, one scale reading 
 o to 150 volts for determining a complete battery or 
 line voltage and the other scale reading o to 3 volts. 
 Where there is sufficient use for a low reading volt- 
 meter, an instrument with but one (low reading) 
 
 78 
 
TABLE VII. 
 
 TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ELECTROLYTE 
 
 30SOOOOl>l^;0?OiO‘0'«i<'^COCO<NClrHrHOOO>OiOOQOI>t^?0«OOU3T*H 
 5 Oi 
 
 O CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO OO CO 00 CO 00 CO OO CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 00 00 CO 00 
 f^050000t-t^C0Oir0U0'ii<rt(C0C0CMOir-lrHOOa)050000l>t^«0OOU0'>ti 
 
 COOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOO 
 O O Oi Oi 00 00 1> «D CO uo lO CO CO C4 (OJ iH iH O O Ol 05 00 00 i> i> <C UO 
 
 p CO (M C4 
 
 70 
 
 1.167 1.163 1.160 1.157 1.163 1.150 1.147 1.143 1.140 
 
scale might be of increased value for taking the 
 individual cell and cadmium readings. Voltme- 
 ters are delicate and will not stand abuse with im- 
 punity. Care should be exercised not to apply 
 the o — 3 volt terminals to the iio-volt circuit or 
 over more than one cell, as the instrument would 
 very probably be burned out. Also the needle 
 should not be sent in the wrong direction as the 
 violent shock would be liable to bend it out of 
 shape. 
 
 Voltage readings of the cells are of value only 
 when taken, while current is passing through the 
 cells either in charging or discharging. They then 
 serve to indicate the condition of the cell under all 
 its states of health. 
 
 The leads or small rubber covered copper wires 
 from the voltmeter terminals to the points across 
 which the voltage is to be measured should be of 
 sufficient length to reach from the terminals of the 
 meter to the cell at the most remote corner of the 
 battery, so that readings of every cell may be 
 quickly obtained. A very convenient method of 
 making good contact rapidly between the leads and 
 the cell terminals is to fasten the leads to sharp 
 metal points held in wooden handles. These may be 
 easily constructed by inserting a wire nail into a 
 wooden handle and soldering the lead to the nail. 
 These are familiarly known as ‘^stickers’’ or ‘*stab- 
 bers.’’ One should be conspicuously marked posi- 
 tive ( + ) or the wire from it knotted at both its 
 ends in order that the positive lead may be placed 
 
 80 
 
upon the positive pole and not on the negative by 
 accident. 
 
 During charge, voltage of a cell will rise from* 
 2.2 volts to 2.5 — 2.6 volts and during discharge will 
 decrease from 2.1 to 1.7 volts. The discharge 
 should not be carried below 1.7 volts per cell as the 
 voltage drops very rapidly after that point and an 
 abnormal amount of charging would be required to 
 bring the cell back into condition when thus over- 
 discharged. However, should the rate of discharge 
 be higher than the normal or catalogue discharge 
 rate, then the limiting voltage will decrease with 
 increase of current and a somewhat lower voltage 
 is permissible. This is the condition which obtains 
 when cells are discharged under service conditions. 
 When they are being tested, the catalogue rates of 
 discharge should be maintained in order that a defi- 
 nite basis for comparison may be secured. The 
 manufacturers’ catalogue discharge rate is a 4, 4V2, 
 5 or 6 hour discharge rate, depending upon the type 
 and thickness of the plates. 
 
 By a study of the voltage readings of each cell 
 of the battery during the progress of the charge, 
 it is possible to determine accurately how the cells 
 are reaching their state of completely charged con- 
 dition and whether all increase uniformly. 
 
 In a similar manner half-hourly readings taken 
 during the discharge show the relative capacities of 
 the cells. Those which give noticeably lower volt- 
 ages than the rest during the discharge are called 
 ‘'low cells,” and if extra charging does not restore 
 them to the condition of the other cells then it is 
 
 81 
 
necessary to treat them as explained under '‘Loss of 
 Capacity’' (page 88). 
 
 SEDIMENT 
 
 As explained in the description of storage bat- 
 teries used in vehicle service, the “Pasted Type” 
 plate is used in practically all cases. Throughout 
 the life of the plates, the active material is slowly 
 disintegrated and forced off the plate surface, grad- 
 ually finding its way to the sediment space in the 
 bottom of the jar. Practically, there are two limits 
 lo the allowable amount of sediment. When the 
 plate has lost sufficient active material to reduce its 
 capacity abnormally then it is more economical to 
 install new plates than to operate with the old. If 
 the space at the bottom of the jar should not be sf- 
 ficient lo accommodate the total amount of sedi- 
 ment forced off the plates before this condition, 
 then it will be necessary to dismantle the cells and 
 remove the sediment in order to prevent short- 
 circuiting of the plates by the waste material. The 
 proper adjustment of these two limitations is taken 
 care of in design, by the proportioning of the cells, 
 but as space is not sufficient in the electric vehicle 
 to allow larger size jars than are absolutely neces- 
 sary, it is found more practicable to remove the sed- 
 iment from the cells at intervals. This is not true 
 in all cases as there is a strong tendency at this 
 time to assemble medium thin or thin plates in high 
 bridge jars so that no cleaning is required during 
 the life of the positive plates. The positive plates 
 are those, which are deteriorated most rapidly inas- 
 
 82 
 
much as the active material of the positive plate is 
 very much less coherent than the active material of 
 the negative plate. Hitherto it has been considered 
 good practice to subject a set of positive plates to 
 one cleaning during their life and using one set of 
 negative plates with two sets of positives. As men- 
 tioned above, however, the introduction of thinner 
 plates and special types of positive plates has devel- 
 oped the design of a negative plate of life of ap- 
 proximately that of the positive plates with which 
 it is to operate. 
 
 By these means, under certain conditions of ser- 
 vice where these types of plates are recommended, 
 cleaning is avoided. The process is given in de- 
 tail, as it is standard practice to remove the sedi- 
 ment from the cells except in the cases mentioned. 
 
 The length of time for which a battery would 
 operate without necessitating cleaning, depends 
 upon all the peculiarities of the service and cannot 
 be predetermined accurately, in fact, that is not nec- 
 essary. The better the treatment and handling that 
 the battery receives, the less frequent will be the re- 
 moval of sediment. Increasing quantities of sedi- 
 ment make themselves known by decreasing capac- 
 ity, the more conspicuously by the gradual decrease 
 in specific gravity taken when fully charged. This 
 material resting at the bottom absorbs the sulphate 
 of the acid, decreasing its density so that ordinarily 
 when the density has fallen below 1.250, over the 
 cells of a fully charged battery, it may safely be as- 
 sumed that the cause is due to the collection of sedi- 
 ment, provided that water has not been added to 
 
 88 
 
compensate for solution spilled or slopped from the 
 jars. 
 
 After 50 to 75 discharges, one cell of the number 
 should be cut out, the depth of sediment recorded, 
 and replaced. In doing this, the element should be 
 removed without disturbing the separators and 
 without shaking up the sediment while pouring out 
 the acid. Should only a small quantity of sediment 
 be found, then the cell should be washed out, the 
 element replaced, solution returned and the cell 
 burned into position. An estimate of the growth of 
 sediment may be formed from this, as to the length 
 of time necessary before cleaning, when the sedi- 
 ment has reached to a height of below the bot- 
 tom of the plates. Checks may be made upon the 
 rising of the sediment level by removing other cells 
 at intervals for inspection. 
 
 When sufficient material has accumulated to 
 reach to within below the plates, then the bat- 
 tery should be given an overcharge and the cells 
 disconnected. 
 
 Where ‘"L” or ''T’’ straps are used, a hack-saw 
 is most convenient for cutting the cells apart. If 
 they are assembled with pillar straps^ then a 
 drill, in a carpenter's brace, can be used to bore 
 down to the depth of the strap allowing the con- 
 nector to be easily removed. If they are handled 
 carefully in this manner they may be readily burned, 
 in reassembling without renewal. The use of a 
 Connector Puller as illustrated and described on 
 page 106 will be convenient in disconnecting cells. 
 
 84 
 
Care should be given in the use of tools, so that the 
 rubber jars or covers are not damaged. If the cells 
 have been sealed, the sealing compound may be 
 readily removed by means of a hot putty knife. 
 
 If the battery is to be cleaned and immediately 
 reassembled, then one cell should be handled at a 
 time, other^vise if the battery is to be left out of 
 commission then the treatment need not be limited 
 to a single cell. The element should be lifted 
 from the cell carefully and placed horizontally on 
 a clean bench, the plates resting on their edges. 
 Spreading the plates gently, the hard rubber and 
 wood separators should be removed and the groups 
 separated. If the wood separators are not in very 
 good condition, they should be discarded and new 
 ones used in reassembling. But if they are in good 
 condition, then they must be kept wet either by 
 being frequently sprinkled with water or immersed 
 in a vessel of pure water or electrolyte after being 
 washed. The positive group should be rinsed very 
 carefully so that loose sediment may be washed oflf 
 but no damage done to the plate by a strong stream. 
 
 The negative plates should also be rinsed care- 
 fully and if the active material has expanded ap- 
 preciably pressed back into place. This operation is 
 accomplished by inserting clean pieces of wood be- 
 tween the plates of the negative group. The thick- 
 ness of these strips should be approximately equal 
 to the thickness of positive plate with wood and 
 rubber separators so that the joints of lugs and 
 straps may not be strained. The group may then 
 
 85 
 
be placed in the press and the spongy lead forced 
 back into position. 
 
 The spongy lead, when exposed to the air will 
 quickly absorb oxygen and be oxidized with con- 
 siderable heating. The oxidation may be removed 
 by long charging, but it is not well to allow the 
 plates to heat excessively, so they should be 
 sprinkled with pure water in order to prevent it and 
 reassembled, placed in the jar and the acid added as 
 soon as possible. The positive plates will not heat 
 in the air and need no such attention. 
 
 Having thoroughly washed the jars, the element, 
 assembled as in the case of a new battery, is placed 
 carefully in the jar and the solution added without 
 delay. Particular care should be taken to see that 
 the assembly is correct in all details as explained on 
 (page 51). If the old separators have been used, 
 then the jars should be filled with electrolyte of the 
 same specific gravity as that previously in the cell. 
 If, however, new wood separators have been used, 
 then the acid should be 40 points (.040) higher than 
 when the cell was dismantled, in order to compen- 
 sate for the water in the new separators. After re- 
 placing the separator holddowns and hard rubber 
 covers, the cells may be placed in the trays and 
 after going over the assembly with a low reading 
 voltmeter to determine the correct polarities, burned 
 together. The trays and connections should be 
 thoroughly cleaned before the cells are returned to 
 positon. A weak alkaline solution, such as bicar- 
 bonate of soda (baking soda), in water, may be 
 
 86 
 
used for this purpose after which the trays, when 
 dry, should be given a treatment of acid proof paint. 
 Inspection should be made to see that all connec- 
 tions are correct and secure. 
 
 The battery should be given a charge at the fin- 
 ishing rate (pages 27-36), and continued until the 
 voltage and specific gravity of each cell has ceased 
 to rise for a period of ten (10) hours. 
 
 It is recommended that a test discharge b@ made 
 before placing in service so that the condition of 
 each cell may be found correct. The capacity will 
 be slightly less after cleaning than before, but will 
 increase as the battery is worked. 
 
 DIFFICULTIES AND THEIR EVASION 
 
 Of the different parts of the electric vehicle, the 
 storage battery is the most important and while re- 
 sponsible for some deficiencies is not open to crit- 
 icism for everything that goes wrong with the ve- 
 hicle. A general tendency has been to find that 
 there is something wrong and then assume without 
 question that it is the battery. Besides being un- 
 just, such an assumption is not always founded on 
 fact. 
 
 The battery is rated in ampere hours and not in 
 miles so that if the roads be heavy due to mud or 
 snow, or if the brakes bind, the ampere draw will 
 be increased and the mileage necessarily reduced. 
 Brakes, motor bearings and connections should be 
 frequently inspected so that the energy consumed 
 in running may be as small as possible. Inefficient 
 tires are very often a source of trouble. Such tires 
 
 87 
 
may consume more current in locomotion than all 
 the elements of vehicle and load put together. 
 
 However, should the vehicle with the exception 
 of the battery be found in good order, then it is 
 reasonable to look there for the trouble. The most 
 common difficulties encountered in the operation of 
 lead storage batteries in vehicle service are the 
 following: 
 
 1. Loss of Capacity. I.oss of capacity of the 
 battery may be occasioned by avoidable or unavoid- 
 able causes. The unavoidable causes are accident 
 and the natural wear and tear incident to its opera- 
 tion in rigorous service, presuming the correct care. 
 The avoidable causes are lack of care either in hand- 
 ling the battery in the garage or in operating the 
 vehicle on the highways. This includes allowing 
 to stand in a discharged condition, failure to repair 
 as soon as possible after the development of a leaky 
 jar or internal short circuit, failure to remove sedi- 
 ment before reaching the bottom of the plates and 
 allowing impurities such as iron, chlorine, copper, 
 and organic matter to find their way into the elec- 
 trolyte. The specific reasons for loss of capacity 
 and their remedies are given under 2, 3, 4, etc., as 
 they all affect the capacity or output of the battery. 
 
 2. Sulphation. Sulphation, or the presence of 
 lead sulphate in the active material of the plate in 
 hardened form, not reduced by usual charging is 
 produced by allowing the battery to stand in a dis- 
 charged condition or by continued undercharge. 
 It stands to reason that if the battery is given 
 
 88 
 
the small amount of necessary care as required, 
 then sul])halion can only be due to accidental 
 cause, which is either avoidable or unavoidable. 
 Assuming that with the slight education nec- 
 essary that only the unavoidable will remain, there 
 should be very little possibility of damage from 
 this cause. The remedy should be immediate and 
 thorough as the effects are additive. A thorough 
 overcharge at a low rate followed by several cycles 
 of charge and discharge will usually be sufficient to 
 bring the battery back into good condition. 
 
 3. Reversal of the Plates. This is a difficulty 
 which arises only in rare instances but might occur 
 when the cell loses capacity and during the discharge 
 its capacity is exhausted before that of the other 
 cells, resulting in current being forced through it, 
 reversing its plates. Under usual conditions this is 
 not a very probable difficulty providing that a regu- 
 lar inspection of voltage and gravity are made, but, 
 should it be found, then the treatment described for 
 Sulphation (No. 2), will usually bring the cell back 
 into condition. 
 
 4. Shedding of Active Material. It is obvious 
 that the plates of the storage battery are made to 
 give the maximum life with the maximum capacity 
 during that life, but it is only reasonable to allow 
 that they wear out. In this respect they are almost 
 human and during the life of the plates the capacity 
 gradually decreases until finally it is more econom- 
 ical to scrap them and install new. This is an un- 
 avoidable cause and can be tempered only by giving 
 the little attention necessary at the correct time. The 
 
 89 
 
main cause of shedding or loss of the particles of 
 active material is excessive gassing. The loss 
 of the minute quantities from the plate under the 
 violent gassing shortens the life of the plate. This 
 is probably the most important difficulty and the 
 remedy consists only in prevention which is sim- 
 plicity itself. Permit only moderate gassing at all 
 times. 
 
 5. Corrosion of Plates. As the battery in whole 
 or part is furnished by the manufacturer it is chem- 
 ically pure so far as harmful impurities are con- 
 cerned and if distilled water and chemically pure 
 sulphuric acid alone be used during the useful life 
 there need be no cause for trouble. However, 
 should impurities such as copper, iron, mercury, 
 chlorine, nitric acid, platinum, organic matter, etc., 
 be introduced the passage of current will cause 
 them to react upon or corrode the active material 
 of the plates. Necessarily this will reduce the ca- 
 pacity of the cells as it will reduce the amount of 
 active material effective in useful chemical reac- 
 tion. The remedy consists in removing the corro- 
 sive agent. This is described under ^'Electrolyte,’’ 
 page 72. 
 
 6. Temperature. At high temperatures chem- 
 ical action takes place more vigorously and physi- 
 cal effects are more pronounced. Thus the action 
 of hot acid upon the plates and separators is unnec- 
 essarily severe for the service rendered, resulting in 
 reduced life. The physical efifect of the heat upon 
 
 90 
 
ihc rubber jars is to warp ibeni. It is a simple matter 
 under all usual conditions to keep the cell tempera- 
 ture well below iio° F., but should it reach this 
 limit on charge then the current should be inter- 
 rupted until normal temperature has been attained. 
 
 Extremely low temperatures will cause a tempo- 
 rary decrease in capacity. Bringing the battery to 
 its normal operating condition, however, will make 
 the total capacity available. Only in the most un- 
 usual instances are difficulties of this nature ex- 
 perienced. Acid of 1. 130 specific gravity will freeze 
 at 0° F., but 1.275 acid will not freeze at 40° below 
 zero. 
 
 TAKING OUT OF COMMISSION. 
 
 Under certain conditions of service the battery 
 may be allowed to stand for days or perhaps weeks 
 at a time without being discharged, in which case 
 it is necessary only to maintain the proper level of 
 ^2" above the plates for the electrolyte by the addi- 
 tion of pure water and to keep in a charged condi- 
 tion. Ordinarily it is not necessary to charge un- 
 less over 50% of the capacity has been discharged, 
 but if the battery is to stand idle for weeks it 
 should be fully charged, and in the case of the bat- 
 tery which is to remain idle for several months, it 
 should at least be given an overcharge before and 
 immediately after the period of idleness. The best 
 practice is to give an overcharge once in two weeks 
 and not less in any case than once a month. Where 
 the battery is to stand without use for over four 
 months or facilities are not available for giving the 
 
 91 
 
periodic overcharge required, then it is best to take 
 the battery apart for dry storage. Furthermore, if 
 the battery has been used considerably and is about 
 ready for the removal of sediment, then both pur- 
 poses can be served at the same time by taking apart 
 and cleaning, leaving the battery ready for assembly 
 when needed. The length of time during which a 
 battery may stand in dry storage is very long, as 
 practically no changes take place if the plates have 
 been treated properly. 
 
 The battery should be given an overcharge and 
 dismantled as explained under '^Sediment,'’ page • 
 82. The positive plates should be rinsed to re- 
 move any loose material and allowed to dry when 
 they are ready for storage. In most cases it will be 
 found more practicable to discard the wooden sep- 
 arators. The perforated hard rubber separators, 
 however, may be washed thoroughly and if not 
 damaged, saved for future use. The acid may be 
 carefully poured into a clean carboy and saved. 
 The jars, hold-downs, connectors, etc., unless dam 
 aged should also be very thoroughly cleaned and 
 stored. 
 
 After separating the groups from the element, 
 the negative plates may be dipped in pure water 
 and pressed if necessary. 
 
 As explained under ‘"Sediment,” the negatives 
 will heat to a certain extent while drying and this 
 should be kept a minimum by sufficient sprinkling 
 of pure water. The evaporation of the water will 
 absorb the heat from the plates and allow them 
 
 92 
 
to dry comparatively quickly without danger, after 
 which they may be put in storage for an indefinite 
 period. 
 
 The parts should be placed in a dry and clean 
 place and protected from dirt, dampness, etc. 
 
 The directions for putting the battery into serv- 
 ice are identical with those given for assembling 
 and placing in commission of new batteries. In 
 this case, however, the plate lugs remain burned 
 to the straps and unless damaged in handling need 
 no burning as do the plates received separately 
 when new. 
 
 93 
 
BATTERY ACCESSORY SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Hydrometer syringe. 
 
 Double scale portable voltmeter for locating low 
 cells, discharges, etc. 
 
 Earthenware pitcher, two~quart. 
 
 Earthenware crock, 5-10 gallons, for mixing acid. 
 
 Distilled water for flushing. 
 
 Carboy of 1.300 electrolyte. 
 
 Moderately heavy mineral grease for greasing 
 brass terminals. 
 
 Wire jumpers with suitable terminals for con- 
 necting trays when charging outside of the vehicle. 
 
 Extra jars and covers. 
 
 Bench or platform truck to hold battery when 
 outside of vehicle. 
 
 Rubber gloves. 
 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda. 
 
 »4 
 
LEAD BURNING— MANIPULATION OF 
 
 HYDROGEN GENERATORS 
 
 111 the preceding pages frequent mention is made 
 of the method- of connecting the plates into groups 
 and the groups of one cell to those of the next by 
 means of 'dead burning’' the connection. Lead 
 burning, as explained on [)age 24, consists in a)) 
 plying a llame of sufficient heat to the cleaned 
 lead parts to make them melt and flow together. 
 In this operation solder is not used but pure lead 
 in stick or bar form, for convenience in handling, 
 is used to supply the filling. This requires very 
 little elucidation as it can be readily seen that the 
 lead joint is very easily made since this metal has 
 a very low melting point and it is not oxidized 
 freely at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 The flame which is used to melt the metal at the 
 point of application is known as a hydrogen flame 
 and is concentrated and non-oxidizing and is se- 
 cured in a relatively simple manner, namely by the 
 action of sulphuric acid upon zinc. The acid at- 
 tacks the zinc and produces hydrogen gas which 
 is conducted through a bottle of water "O” (Fig. 
 17) to wash out and remove acid spray or zinc 
 dust, as well as to prevent the flame being drawn 
 back into the generator causing an explosion. The 
 gas, conducted to the Burner’s Tee is mixed with 
 air at a slight pressure, forcing it out of the burn- 
 ing tip with a small hot flame. 
 
 The complete outfit necessary for lead burning 
 consists of the following parts : 
 
 One hydrogen gas generator. 
 
 95 
 
One bottle or trap (for cleaning the gas and 
 preventing the flame from drawing back into the 
 generator). 
 
 One air pump. 
 
 One air tank. 
 
 One lead burner^s mixing tee. 
 
 One length of 150' of 5/16" soft rubber tubing 
 (cut into lengths as per requirements). 
 
 One blowpipe. 
 
 Set of tips for burning. 
 
 The size of the generator will depend upon the 
 number of flames to be furnished from it. Size 
 No. I is generally used when but one flame is to 
 be operated, while size No. 2 or larger is used 
 depending upon the number of flames to be fur« 
 nished. 
 
 06 
 
Operation. When the generator is connected 
 for use, the parts will be arranged as shown in the 
 diagrammatic sketch shown on page 96, in which 
 '‘a’’ shows the hydrogen generator, ‘‘b’' the wash- 
 ing bottle or trap and ‘'c’’ the air reservoir. The 
 bottle should be tilled about two-thirds full with 
 water and connection made to the generator by 
 the tubing ''K-T' allowing the tubing to reach to 
 the bottom of the bottle as shown in the drawing 
 '‘h” Should this bottle become heated, it should 
 either be placed in a pail of cold water, reaching 
 to its neck, and the water replaced from time to 
 time as it becomes hot or immersed in cold run- 
 ning water. The required amount of granular zinc 
 (''spelter”), broken into pieces sufficiently small 
 to allow their insertion at the opening "L” should 
 be put in the generator and the cover "J” clamped 
 down securely. Into the upper portion of the gen- 
 erator "M” the proper amount of water is then 
 added before pouring the required amount of acid, 
 "Oil of Vitriol” (Sulphuric Acid, but not chemi- 
 cally pure). Remember that the acid is to be 
 poured into the water and very carefully to pre- 
 vent splashing out. Should any acid find its way 
 onto the skin, oil should be applied rather than wa- 
 ter. The main point is to get it off quickly. 
 
 The length of hose from the mixing valves "D” 
 and "E”‘ to "G” should be no longer than neces- 
 sary for convenient handling so that the gas and 
 air valves "D” and "E” can be within ready reach 
 and easy control of the operator. The air pump 
 "A” is used to create the air pressure in the reser- 
 
 97 
 
voir so that when the pumping is discontinued the 
 cock “B’’ is closed until further pumping is neces- 
 sary. The cock ''C’’ is^ opened and with that of 
 ‘‘D’’ closed the gas is allowed to escape from the 
 burning tip by opening the cock ''E/’ and is 
 lighted with a match or candle. When the gas is 
 ignited ''D’’ is opened and the flame regulated by 
 closing '‘E’’ until the adjustment gives a flame 
 which will melt the lead leaving a clean bright sur- 
 face. Trial of scrap lead will show a correct ad- 
 justment and the flame is then ready for use. 
 
 The size of the burning tip used will depend upon 
 the character of work to be done ; usually all the 
 lead burning required in vehicle work can be ac- 
 complished with the tips with small holes. The 
 adjustment of gas and air will also vary the size 
 and flame to suit almost all conditions. 
 
 The apparatus should be set up in such a m^an- 
 ner that there is- no possibility of water discharg- 
 ing over into the tube between ''H’' and ''E’’ as it 
 is evident that this would discontinue the flame 
 and add dirty water either onto the straps or bars 
 or into the cells. Should vv^'ater be formed by con- 
 densation in this length of tubing, however, it may 
 be removed by kinking the hose between ‘'K’‘ and 
 'T,’’ detaching the tubing at and allowing the 
 pressure in the air tank to force the water out by 
 opening the cocks “E/’ and ''C.” 
 
 The amounts of zinc given in the table are usu- 
 ally sufficient for three renewals of water and acid* 
 so that when the charge is exhausted or the opera- 
 tion is discontinued for a night m any period, _ th^ 
 
 9 $ 
 
solution should be drawn ofif and the generator 
 flushed out with water poured into the upper cham- 
 ber. The new acid should not be added until it 
 is to be used. Before discharging the solution 
 from the generator, the tubing at ‘‘H’’ and ‘‘K’" 
 should be removed before taking out the rubber 
 plug at ‘‘N.’’ As this acid solution is corrosive, it 
 should not be allowed to come in contact with any- 
 thing near to it or be thrown where it may have 
 opportunity to damage the boarding, asphalt, ce- 
 ment, etc. When discharged into the plumbing, 
 the latter should be well flushed immediately in 
 order to prevent any action upon the piping or fit- 
 tings. 
 
 Its action upon most substances can be counter- 
 acted by the quick application of alkaline sub- 
 stances such as ammonia, washing soda and the 
 commercial cleaning compounds (‘^Gold Dust,'’ 
 ''Dutch Cleanser,” "Pearline,” etc.). 
 
 MATERIAL REQUIRED IN STARTING UP 
 A GENERATOR 
 
 Size of 
 
 Generator Zinc Water Vitriol 
 
 No. I 15" X 15" 20 lbs. 9 gals. 2 gals. 
 
 No. 2 18" X 18" 25 lbs. 12 gals. “3 gals. 
 
 If the work does not demand the quantity of 
 hydrogen generated in this apparatus then tanks 
 of hydrogen and oxygen or compressed air may be 
 purchased and readily connected to. the mixing tee. 
 If there is available a supply of air under pres- 
 sure, then the tank of compressed air may be dis- 
 
 99 
 
pensed with. It will probably be necessary to use 
 a reducing valve as two (2) pounds pressure per 
 square inch is usually sufficient for the purpose. 
 Figures No. 12 and 13 show the burning box and 
 burning rack used in burning the plates into the 
 straps. 
 
 A device for accomplishing the results given bv 
 the hydrogen flame is shown in (Fig. 18) and con- 
 sists of a clamp with insulated wire attached to a 
 carbon electrode mounted on an insulated handle. 
 
 The clamp is attached to the connecting strap of a 
 cell near the one upon which the burning is to be 
 done. In this manner by connecting across 5 cells, 
 a potential of ten volts is available for the arc. The 
 connections should be made so that the carbon is 
 the negative pole. The carbon may then be used 
 as a soldering iron. The materials used in this case 
 
 100 
 
are identical vvitli those used in the operation of tlie 
 hydrogen flame excepting that the heat is produced 
 by the arc instead of the hydrogen generator. In 
 work involving the use of an arc it is always well 
 . to wear blue glasses to protect the eyes. 
 
 Where neither of these methods are available 
 for mending connections, as for instance, the break- 
 ing of a connector upon the road, a soldered joint 
 may be made for temporary use. This, however, 
 is only for the purpose of reaching the garage 
 where the proper treatment can be given. 
 
 At all times when the parts of the cells are lead 
 burned or the elements connected, care must be 
 given that strips of lead or pieces of solder do not 
 gain access to the ceil or flow between the plates 
 as this 'Towdown^' would be likely to make con- 
 tact between the plates, contaminate the electro- 
 lyte or do other damage. 
 
 101 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TYPES OF LEAD STORAGE 
 BATTERIES 
 
 (Arranged alphabetically) 
 
 Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, 
 Pa., “Exide” 
 
 This company produces four distinct types of 
 battery for this purpose, known respectively un- 
 der the trade-names of ''Exide,’’ '^Hycap-Exide,'' 
 “Thin-Exide’^ and ‘Iron-Clad-Exide.’’ 
 
 The standard Exide plate was the first of the 
 four and is still in very wide use throughout the 
 country, giving satisfaction where it is used in 
 the proper application. The ''Hycap-Exide” 
 plate is of the same size in length and breadth but 
 is not as thick, so that more plates may be as- 
 sembled in the same size jar as used for the 
 ‘‘Exide'’ plate and is intended for use where the 
 daily mileage consumed is greater than that af- 
 forded by the “Exide." ,The daily mileage pro- 
 cured from the “Hycap-Exide" will be greater 
 than that from the “Exide" but the total mile- 
 age under average conditions will be approxi- 
 mately the same. The type of grid used in these 
 plates, shown in (Fig. 8 , p. 21) is known as the 
 “staggered bar type" and serves as a very ef- 
 fective container for the active material which 
 receives special treatment, the result of many 
 years of experimenting. 
 
 The “Exide" and “Hycap-Exide" type plates 
 
 102 
 
are each made in two sizes known as and 
 
 ‘TV.’’ The length and thickness of the ‘TV” 
 plate is identical with that of the “MV” plate, 
 of the corresponding type, but the width is re- 
 duced from 5%" to 4 13/16" or a reduction of 
 about 16%. The ‘TV” type plate is used where 
 the output required is somewhat less than that 
 .required from the “MV” type plate. 
 
 The “Thin-Exide” plate has the same general 
 dimensions in length and width as the preceding 
 types but being thinner the manufacturers state 
 that even greater mileage may be secured upon 
 a single charge of the battery than from the 
 “Hycap-Exide” plate. The total mileage, how- 
 ever, during the life of the plates as compared 
 with either the “Hycap-Exide” or “Exide” plates 
 should be about the same. The statement is 
 
 POSITIVE. 
 
 NEGATIVE, 
 
 Fig. 19 — “Iron-Clad-Exide” Plates. 
 
 103 
 
also made that where the daily mileage given by 
 either the ''Hycap-Exide’' or ‘Thin-Exide’’ plates 
 is not required, the ''Exide'' should be used and 
 will be found more satisfactory from the stand- 
 point of service and economy. 
 
 Within the past few years this Company has 
 introduced and placed large quantities of cells 
 
 Fig. 20 — Iron-Clad 
 Exide Assembly. 
 
 in service equipped with a positive plate known 
 as an ‘Iron-Clad-Exide.’’ 
 
 This plate known also as the ‘^Pencil Positive' 
 Plate is shown in (Fig. 19). The manufacturers 
 find that in this plate greater effective surface is 
 
 104 
 
secured for the active material, giving greater 
 capacity than the ‘'Exide’’ plate and that by this 
 design a life of tAvo or three times that of the 
 “Exide’’ is obtained. 
 
 The active material is held in the rubber (Fig. 
 21 ) in such a manner that ordinaiy wear and 
 tear will not dislodge it with the same rapidity 
 that will obtain in the ‘‘Exide’' so that the ac- 
 cumulation of sediment will be very much less 
 rapid and the useful life of the plates will have 
 been secured before it is necessary to take the 
 
 
 Fig. 22- 
 
 "lrcncla{i‘i£xiic*’ 
 -Cross-section of 
 
 “Iron-Clad-Exide” Plates. 
 
 Fig. 23 — Iron-Clad Connectors. 
 
 cells apart for cleaning. The negative plate has 
 the same characteristics as those found in the 
 ''Exide’' cell but in this case is made slightly 
 heavier in order to compensate for the increased 
 life of the positive plates without necessitating 
 a renewal before the life of the positive plates 
 have been exhausted. In other words, it is in- 
 tended that the life of both positive and nega- 
 
 305 
 
tive plates shall be equal. In the assembly of the 
 plates a perforated hard rubber sheet separator 
 is not required. A thin wood separator espe- 
 cially treated and cross grained is used, how- 
 ever. 
 
 A flexible connection shown in connection with 
 the description of the cell is another feature char- 
 acteristic of the ‘‘Iron-Clad’’ assembly. Frequent 
 reference has been made to the disconnecting of 
 
 Fig. 25 — Iron-Clad Cell Cover. 
 
 Fig. 26 — Connector Fuller as Applied. 
 106 
 
cells in the preceding pages and the method 
 given, that of drilling through the strap to the 
 pillar post. 
 
 A connector puller produced by this Company 
 is designed to accomplish this result in a sim- 
 ple and effective manner. It is placed around 
 the connection as shown in (Fig. 26) and shears 
 the connector free from the post without injury 
 to either, so that the connector may be again 
 used. 
 
 Gould Storage Battery Company, New York 
 City 
 
 The plates produced by this Company use the 
 staggered bar grid which has been found very 
 satisfactory and efficient in vehicle battery prac- 
 tice. Numerous experiments and years of serv- 
 ice have proven this statement a fact. The claim 
 is made by the manufacturers that the active ma- 
 terial in the positive plates is compounded in a 
 manner designed by a special process for hard- 
 ening without entailing loss in capacity, the prin- 
 ciple being the use in service of a layer of active 
 material of sufficient thickness to give the neces- 
 sary capacity but not thick enough to increase 
 the precipitation of sediment (Fig. 27). Prac- 
 tically, this works out well for, as the active ma- 
 terial falls off through wear, the hard material in 
 the center is softened at approximately the same 
 rate, and thus maintains a uniformly thick layer 
 of active material and uniform capacity during 
 the life of the plate. 
 
 107 
 
From the above it will be seen that great ef- 
 fort has been expended in the many details in- 
 volved in producing plates of such a character 
 
 Fig. '27— Gould Type “TH” Positive Plate. 
 
 that the all important features of resistance to 
 wear, retention of capacity and ability to with- 
 stand severe service conditions, such as dislodg- 
 
 lOS 
 
iiig of active material through overcharge or 
 damage due to jarring, may be secured. The 
 negative plates are constructed with the same 
 ideas in mind, and an effort is made to prevent 
 shrinkage and softening of the material, which 
 would result in its rapid loss. 
 
 The plates decrease in thickness through seven 
 types so that the proper size, type and thickness 
 
 Fig. 28 — Gould Type “TH” Cell. 
 
 of plate is available for each class of vehicle serv- 
 ice. The so-called ''thick/' or "standard" type 
 plate is designated by this Company as type RP, 
 
 109 
 
and the medium “Hycap” as MC. The TH and 
 THS are the thin plate types. Types NR, NM 
 and NH are the corresponding designations for 
 the thick, medium and thin plates in the nar- 
 rower style of plate. These types include the 
 medium, thin and high capacity thin plates as 
 shown in the accompanying tables. 
 
 In the higher capacity types this Company 
 claims to have succeeded in developing combi- 
 nations which will give increased total mileage 
 life in direct proportion to the increased mileage 
 per discharge; that is, the total number of dis- 
 charges is the same for the higher capacity type 
 as for the '‘standard’’ or "thick” plate, so that 
 increased mileage per discharge results in in- 
 creased total mileage life. They claim this is 
 particularly true in their type MC. i 
 
 The detail construction of batteries and their 
 plate combinations are designed to meet the gen- 
 erally accepted standards of vehicle manufac- 
 turers as regards number of plates per jar, size 
 of jar, medium or high bridges, different forms 
 of connections between cells, battery accessories, 
 etc., as shown in Figure 28. 
 
 Philadelphia Storage Battery Company 
 
 This Company has developed a very success- 
 ful type of plate which receives its name from the 
 construction of the frame, the "Diamond Grid. 
 Figure 29 shows a skeleton obtained by placing 
 two sheets of diagonal lead net opposite each 
 other and allowing space between for the active 
 110 
 
material so that when the compound is finally 
 pressed into place the plate is given a smooth 
 surface with the active material confined within 
 the staggered meshes. These staggered diagonal 
 members are designed to give strength for re- 
 sisting a buckling or warping action and is a 
 
 firm support for the active material so that hard 
 service may be endured through a considerable 
 life. 
 
 The Philadelphia plates are made in the thick, 
 
 111 
 
medium, thin and extra thin types with sizes of 
 each type varying slightly according to the serv- 
 ice application in order that the minimum weight 
 with the maximum life and capacity may be se- 
 cured. The most prominent of these is known 
 as the ‘'WTX'' or ''Diamond X” (Fig. 30), an 
 
 Fig. SO — Philadelphia Cell, Type “WTX.” 
 
 extra high capacity thin plate which represents 
 an increase of approximately 54.5% in capacity 
 over the Standard thick plate, type "W/' The 
 
 112 
 
positive and negative plates are so designed and 
 the space for sediment increased with extra high 
 ribs (2^") that no renewal or cleaning is neces- 
 sary during the useful life of the battery. This 
 type of plate is recommended by the makers for 
 the majority of vehicle battery equipments be- 
 cause of its light weight and the extent to which 
 the chemical actions penetrate its body. 
 
 United States Light and Heating Co., N. Y. C., 
 “USL” 
 
 A glance at the illustration in (Fig. 31) will 
 serve to show the method of construction of the 
 staggered bar grid used in the manufacture of 
 this plate. The “CB” negative grid shows a va- 
 riation from that found in the other types. The 
 metal web is perforated so that triangular prongs 
 are raised from the sheet metal of the grid and 
 serve to firmly hold the active material in place. 
 The retention of a maximum amount of active 
 material considering weight and wear is claimed 
 for this arrangement. The careful methods used 
 in the manufacture of the component parts and 
 finished plates are reflected in the quality of 
 service which results. 
 
 The ribs supporting the plates are furnished 
 with soft' rubber tops so that the vibration and 
 jarring from travel over bad roads will be cush- 
 ioned and reduced, thus eliminating a source of 
 loss of active material. 
 
 The types of plates include those of the me- 
 dium and thick design so that the fields of elec- 
 
 113 
 
Fig. 31 — **USL** Positive Plate and Grid. 
 
 114 
 
Fig. 32 — “USL” Negative Plate and Grid. 
 
 Iric vehicle service are covered. The construc- 
 tion of the plates with either ‘‘L’’ or ‘‘T’’ strap 
 or pillar post connectors admits of flexibility in 
 the methods of assembly for either side or end 
 assembling of cells. The bolt connector shown in 
 (Fig. 33) makes a still more flexible arrangement 
 where the latter may be necessary. 
 
 115 
 

 Fig. 33— “USL” 
 
 T Bolt Strap Cell. 
 
 116 
 
Willard Storage Battery Company, Cleveland, 
 Ohio, “LBA” 
 
 In the manufacture of the ‘‘LBA’’ type of bat- 
 tery a great deal of attention has been paid to 
 the perfecting of the numerous details connected 
 with the manipulation of the battery after it is 
 put into the user’s hands. These include jars 
 with heavy walls to insure against breakage. 
 These jars (Fig. 34) are furnished in two depths 
 so that should a deep space be required for the 
 collection of sediment, obviating the necessity 
 of cleaning, the deeper cell may be used. The 
 
 Fig. 34 — Jar with High Mud Space. Fig. 85 — Pillar Bolted Top 
 
 Connector. 
 
 117 
 
connectors are made in either the pillar type 
 burned link or the unbreakable connector formed 
 
 Fig. 36 — Copper Plate Top Connector. 
 
 Fig. 37 — Vent Plug. 
 
 by using lead plated copper as a connecting me- 
 dium (Figs. 35 i& 36). For use where quick con- 
 
 Fig. 38 — Cover with Gasket. 
 
 necting or disconnecting may be required, the 
 pillar posts are threaded to accommodate the 
 bolted top connector screw which secures the 
 bolted connector into place. In addition to these 
 
 118 
 
features, the plates may be assembled with either 
 the '‘U' strap or ‘'T'' strap connectors. A vent 
 plug is furnished as shown in section in (Fig. 
 37) for the purpose of allowing the gas to es- 
 
 Fig. 39 — Cover in Place. 
 
 Fig. 40 — Cover for 'Deep Sealing. 
 
 cape without carrying electrolyte spray with it. 
 
 The plates (Fig. 41) are of the staggered bar 
 grid construction with active material pressed 
 firmly into place leaving a flat surface and are 
 made in the heavy, medium and thin types. Last- 
 ly, covers (Figs. 38-39) are available for these cells 
 which permit quick sealing by the use of a pure 
 soft rubber gasket. This allows the cover to 
 be inserted over the gasket sealing the jar im- 
 mediately and just as readily removable. Where 
 this is not necessary the cover is furnished so 
 
 119 
 
that deep sealing with compound can be accom- 
 plished with little trouble by the extra wall shown 
 in the sketch (Fig. 40). 
 
 Fig. 41 — Willard Cell, Showing Construction. 
 
 120 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ALKALINE STORAGE BATTERIES (EDI- 
 SON BATTERY) : DESCRIPTION AND 
 CARE 
 
 Of this class of cells there is but one combina- 
 tion of elements which has met v/ith practical suc- 
 cess. The Edison battery has the same general 
 
 Fig. 42 — Positive and Negative Plates. 
 
 characteristics as the lead battery but no lead is 
 used in its construction and the electrolyte is a solu- 
 tion of caustic potash instead of sulphuric acid. 
 
 121 
 
The peculiarities of construction and the character 
 of the materials used enable the manufacturers 
 to claim a long term of service for the cells. 
 
 Fig. 43 — 
 
 Positive 
 Tube. 
 
 Fig. 44 — Type A-4 Cell As- 
 sembled, but Removed from 
 Container. 
 
 Fig. 45 — Negative 
 
 Pocket. 
 
 The grids for both positive and negative plates 
 are stampings from sheet steel. These, as well as 
 all other steel parts used in the assembled cell are 
 nickel plated to prevent corrosion. The active ma- 
 
 122 
 
terial is contained in tubes or pockets, fastened rig- 
 idly to the supporting frame or grid and giving 
 electrical conductivity. 
 
 flLUt»lCAP yPOSlTiwt POlC 
 
 VAcve 
 
 '''.COPPtP WIRE SWE06E0 
 ^INTOSrttL LUO 
 
 8 '■cell cover WElOEO 
 TO CONTAINER 
 $TumN6 BO* 
 f^^^wELO TO COVER 
 IiI^SlANO RIN6 
 yp5P*CIN6 WAShER 
 connecting rod 
 jjy— POSITIVE 6RiO 
 
 CELL COvtR- 
 
 NEGATivt GRID- 
 
 'QATiVt POCKLT- 
 [IRON OAIOE] 
 
 ^6RlO separator 
 
 ‘SEAMLESS STEEL 
 RINGS 
 
 Pin insulator- 
 
 7 positive Tube 
 [nickel MVORaTE anc 
 [nickel in layers 
 
 Side rod insulator. 
 
 ■ SUSPENSION BOSS 
 
 SOLID STEEL^ 
 CONTAINER 
 
 .CELL BOTTOM , 
 IwELOCD TO SIDES] 
 
 Fig. 46 — Type A-4 Cell Assembly. 
 
 The positive plate (Fig. 42) is built of hori- 
 zontal rows of fifteen (15) vertical cylindrical 
 steel tubes containing the active material nickel hy- 
 drate, interspersed in thin layers with pure nickel 
 flakes. These flakes are used to give good con- 
 ductivity between the hydrate and the tubes. These 
 tubular containers (Fig. 43) are made of very thin 
 
 123 
 
steel ribbon, finely perforated, nickel plated, about 
 4" long and in diameter. The ribbon is wound 
 in the form of a spiral with the edges double 
 
 lapped. Nickeled steel rings, or ferrules, at 
 intervals, prevent the tube from expanding. In the 
 Type A Plate there are two horizontal rows of fif- 
 teen (15) tubes placed vertically. 
 
 124 
 
The coustructiuii of the negative plate (hig. 42) 
 IS very similar to that of the positive, but instead 
 of the nickel active material held in tubes, iron 
 oxide mixed with mercury oxide in this case is 
 tightly tamped into flat pockets (Fig. 45) of finely 
 perforated nickel plated steel ribbon, rectangular 
 in shape and >2" wide by 3" long with a thickness 
 of not more than These pockets are placed 
 
 Fig. 48 — ^Five A-4 CelLs in Tray. 
 
 in position on the grid and under heavy pressure, 
 forced into close contact v/ith it, at the same time 
 making the surface of the pockets corrugated, thus 
 supplying a firmer contact between the metal and 
 the active material. The type A plate has twenty- 
 four (24) pockets arranged in three horizontal 
 rov/s. 
 
 The plate frames have a hole locatttd in one up- 
 per corner through which a vSteel stud is passed. 
 
 125 
 
Two groups (Fig. 44) respectively of positive and 
 negative plates are formed by arranging the re- 
 quired number of plates with spacing washers and 
 a terminal post at the centre of the stud. The end 
 of the studs are threaded and nuts hold the plates 
 and spacing washers rigid. These two groups 
 f positive and negative) of the cell are placed to- 
 
 Fig. 49 — Cell Connector. Fig. 50 — Flexible Connector. 
 
 gether so that the positive and negatives alternate, 
 there being one more negative than positive plate. 
 Between the plates hard rubber rods are inserted 
 and serve the purpose of insulating and properly 
 spacing. Pieces of hard rubber in ladder form 
 (Fig. 44) are fitted snugly, by grooving, to the 
 edges of the plates so that a well insulated but firm 
 and rigid unit is obtained. 
 
 The receptacle used to hold the elements is called, 
 in this case, a can (Fig. 46) as it is made of sheet 
 steel, nickel plated with corrugated sides to fur- 
 nish strength. The seams on side, top and bottom 
 are welded by the autogenous method with the oxy- 
 acetylene flame. The can receives the insulated 
 unit described above, projections at the lower ends 
 of the side insulators (Fig. 44) supporting the 
 126 
 
plates at the bottom while two thin sheets of hard 
 rubber are inserted between the outside negative 
 plates and the can. The cover (Fig. 47) for this can 
 is provided with two fittings through which the pole 
 pieces pass, being suitably insulated by rubber 
 washers which also prevent passage of gas or 
 liquid. A combination filler and gas vent is placed 
 in the centre of the cover and allows the addition 
 of solution or distilled water to the cell. The 
 hinged cover of this mounting is designed so that 
 
 Fig. 51 — Socket Wrench. 
 
 Fig. 52 — Disconnecting Jack. 
 
 the gases liberated during operation may be dis- 
 charged without allowing entrance of air or im- 
 purities as these would cause contaminated electro- 
 lyte reducing the efficiency of the cell. 
 
 The welding of this cover into place completes 
 the cell except for the electrolyte, which is a 21% 
 solution of potassium hydrate with a snxall quan- 
 tity of lithium hydrate. 
 
 127 
 
The cell is filled with electr.olyte until a level of 
 about Yz' above the tops of the plates is reached. 
 The cell is then ready for the forming charges and 
 service conditions. The characteristics of the de- 
 sign and manufacture are such that repairs or re- 
 placements, except of a minor character such as 
 external parts and electrolyte, must be made at the 
 factory unless special apparatus is at hand for such 
 work. This would indicate that repairs are seldom 
 required. 
 
 Cells, of size and number dictated by service 
 requirements, are assembled in hard wood trays. 
 (Fig. 48). The cells are provided with steel bosses 
 projecting from the sides which rest in recessed 
 hard rubber buttons embedded in the tray slats 
 
 Fig. 53 — Method of Holding Cells. 
 
 (Fig. 53. The trays permit of easy handling, 
 ready inspection for damage, or quick exchange of 
 cell as well as good ventilation and because of the 
 rubber button suspension provide perfect insula- 
 tion between cells. 
 
 The terminal posts or positive and negative poles 
 referred to above are tapered and threaded at the 
 
top. The connectors (Fig. 49) are formed by 
 swedging a nickel plated copper rod into two lugs 
 bored so as to fit firmly on the tapered poles. The 
 placing of the connector thus accomplishes the con- 
 nection of adjacent cells and admits of connection 
 between trays, parts of the battery, controller, etc. 
 Where connections must be flexible a stranded con- 
 
 Fig. 54 — Quick Method of Determining Level of Electrolyte. 
 
 RUBBER 
 
 TUBING 
 
 14"GLASS 
 
 TUBE 
 
 A3. A4. A5. A6.= 
 A 8. A 10. AI2.= 
 A3H.A4H.A5H.A6H.= 
 ASH. AlOH. AI2H.= 
 
 ductor (Fig. 50) instead of a copper rod is sold- 
 ered into the lug. Nuts are screwed tightly into 
 position (Fig. 51) making connection firm and 
 
 129 
 
permanent at the same time admitting of quick 
 and easy disconnecting. A disconnecting jack 
 shown (Fig. 52) is used to remove the connector 
 from the poles. 
 
 EDISON BATTERY 
 
 Care and Operation. In addition to the general 
 instructions given above which apply to all storage 
 batteries, the following are applicable to the Edi- 
 son battery alone. 
 
 Upon arrival of the cells inspection should be 
 made of the height of the solution level (Fig: 54) 
 y'-f above the tops of the plates for the A-3, A-4, 
 A~5 and A-6 types and above for the A-8, A- 10 
 and A- 1 2 types, taking care to close the filler caps 
 after the inspection. If the level is lower than these 
 values spilling or damage in transit is indicated and 
 the manufacturer should be notified. 
 
 In making connections connect the positive pole 
 of the end cell of one tray to the negative pole of 
 that in the next, etc. Where connections other 
 than these are necessary the wiring diagram of 
 the vehicle in question should be followed, although 
 the terminals of the vehicle leads are generally 
 lettered ore marked to correspond with the battery 
 terminals for simplicity in assembling. 
 
 Charging. Before charging, the battery com- 
 partments should always be opened in order to al- 
 low ventilation. Inspection should be made of the 
 height of the electrolyte and if not found to be 
 correct^ thw it should be brought to the proper 
 
 130 
 
level by the addition of distilled water only as 
 described below and added before the charge is 
 begun. (Page 135.) 
 
 The charging voltage required for various num- 
 bers of cells usually encountered in vehicle prac- 
 tice is in (Table 8) or may be easily calculated by 
 multiplying the number of cells to be charged by 
 1.85 volts. 
 
 Table No. 8. 
 
 VOLTS REQUIRED TO CHARGE 
 
 
 Volts 
 
 
 Volts 
 
 No. of 
 
 Across 
 
 No, of 
 
 Across 
 
 Cells 
 
 Cells 
 
 Cells 
 
 Cells 
 
 10 
 
 18.5 
 
 60 
 
 III .0 
 
 20 
 
 37-0 
 
 70 
 
 130.0 
 
 30 
 
 55-5 
 
 80 
 
 148.0 
 
 40 
 
 74.0 
 
 90 
 
 167.0 
 
 50 
 
 92.5 
 
 100 
 
 185.0 
 
 These voltages are the lowest sufficient to charge 
 the numbers of cells given in series, at the normal 
 rate toward the end of charge. While a few per 
 cent, reduction in voltage will not materially affect 
 the charge, allowance should be provided if it is re- 
 quired to charge at higher rates or charge several 
 combinations of cells. 
 
 The initial charge should last for 12 hours at the 
 normal rate for service. The ^'Normal Rate’’ is the 
 catalogue rate of current for charge or discharge 
 prescribed by the manufactuer. 
 
 131 
 
Type of Cell 
 
 TABLE 9. 
 
 ELECTRICAL DATA 
 
 A-8 
 
 A'- 10 A- 12 
 
 Capacity, Ampere Hours... 112.5 150 
 
 187.5 225 
 
 300 
 
 375 450 
 
 Normal Charge Rate, 
 peres 
 
 Am- 
 
 22.5 30 
 
 37.5 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 Normal Discharge, 
 Amperes 
 
 Rate, 
 
 37.5 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 The normal charge for a battery practically dis- 
 charged is seven hours at the normal rate (Table 
 9) line 3. The method of maintaining this rate as 
 well as others described below is explained under 
 “Charging Apparatus” Chapter VI. Should condi- 
 tions prevent maintaining the normal rate, then the 
 rate at the beginning may be set at a value approx- 
 imately 50% above the normal at the start. This 
 figure will vary somewhat depending upon the 
 amount of resistance in the charging circuit. As 
 the battery voltage rises, during the progress of the 
 charge, this rate decreases and the average charging 
 current will be approximately the normal rate 
 prescribed. 
 
 When the battery is not fully discharged suf- 
 ficient charging need only be furnished to com- 
 pensate for the capacity removed. If the cells 
 are half discharged then half of seven hours or 
 three and one-half hours' charge at the normal 
 rate or its equivalent is necessary. In other 
 words it is necessary to make the ampere-hour 
 input about 20-25% greater than the ampere-hour 
 output or if an Ampere-Hour Meter (Page 192) 
 is used, set to operate 20% slow on charge. 
 
 The battery may be charged at any time, be 
 the state of charge what it may, or may be dis- 
 charged without other consideration than that 
 
 13t 
 
of the capacity needed. Should a vehicle be ca- 
 pable of a mileage capacity of 6o miles, but 15 
 of w^hich are needed per day, then a daily charge 
 can be added sufficient to- compensate for the 
 fraction removed or no charging done until the 
 capacity is exhausted. 
 
 Where the daily mileage is apt to vary consid- 
 erably the first method is probably preferable. 
 
 Overcharge. The first charge of the battery 
 should be an overcharge, that is charging for 
 twelve hours at the normal rate. This operation 
 should be repeated after thirty and sixty days 
 of service and after each renewal of solution. 
 It should be understood that overcharging at 
 the normal rate has no harmaful effect at other 
 times but is not necessary and thf^refore a waste 
 of current. 
 
 Boosting. Hastening a charge, familiarly 
 known as '‘Boosting’’ may in general be accom- 
 plished by using a high charging rate, the value 
 of the current being governed by the tempera- 
 ture of the cells, a temperature of 115° being a 
 practical limit. Experiment under many condi- 
 tions has shown that the following are permis- 
 sible : 
 
 5 minutes at five times normal rate 
 
 or 15 “ four “ ‘‘ 
 
 30 “ “ three “ 
 
 60 “ “ two “ 
 
 In this way noon hour or other emergency charg- 
 ing can be done v/ithout injury to the; cell and 
 in fact is recommended by the manufacturer as a 
 
 133 
 
very efficient method of operation when the neces- 
 sary charging apparatus is available. This admits 
 of a flexibility of operation, placing the electric 
 vehicle in a class by itself. While the battery equip- 
 ment required for usual demands may not be of 
 capacity sufficient for great mileage, yet with proper 
 boosting, continuous operation m.ay be obtained. A 
 few minutes' thought will show that this is possible 
 as there are very few vehicles which are not idle 
 for the limited length of time necessary for the 
 boost. It need not be accomplished without inter- 
 ruption, so any time can be called the right time. 
 Simply a matter of giving the horse a drink. To se- 
 cure the best results it is not advisable to charge 
 at less than the normal rate as a lower discharge 
 voltage will result reducing the speed of the vehicle 
 for the following discharge. In cold weather the 
 charging rate should be above rather than below 
 the normal fate in order to heat the cells before 
 use. Where vehicles are stored and charged in a 
 cold garage it is often found convenient to arrange 
 the charging so that the end of the charge will ter- 
 minate with the current several times the normal 
 rate. Where a battery is to be used in a locality 
 of exceptionally low temperature and may be al- 
 lowed to stand for hours at a time, as might obtain 
 with a pleasure vehicle, then the battery compart- 
 ment should be suitably protected from air circula- 
 tion so that the heat may be retained and the out- 
 put of the battery thus increased. If this means be 
 made use of, however, the compartment should be 
 returned to its original condition when moderate 
 
 134 
 
temperature conditions return, as the temperature 
 of the cells would rise above that recommended for 
 the most efficient results through a long life. 
 
 Fig. 55 — Filling Apparatus for Distilled Water. 
 
 Discharge. Very little need be said in regard to 
 the discharge except that for continuous operation, 
 the rate of discharge should not exceed 25% above 
 the normal discharge rate, which is identical with 
 the normal charge rate for the same size cell. This, 
 of course, does not affect sudden or short overload 
 conditions at which there is no limit to the discharge 
 current. 
 
 Solution. The cells as received from the manu- 
 facturer are filled with electrolyte of proper 
 
 135 
 
strength and (providing that no accident has oc- 
 curred) to the correct level as explained above. As 
 the battery is charged this level is reduced owing to 
 evaporation of solution by gassing produced by the 
 passage of current. As this evaporation is 
 nearly entirely water, distilled water only should 
 be used for replenishing; never potash and only 
 distilled water. Water should not be spilled onto 
 cells or trays and the filler caps should be 
 closed except when filling or testing for height 
 of solution. 
 
 The distilled water should be kept in carboys 
 which have held no acid and which are distinctly 
 labeled, so that by no possibility may acid be in- 
 troduced. 
 
 An electric filling outfit furnished by the manu- 
 facturer is arranged to save time and trouble in 
 bringing the solution to the proper level with dis- 
 tilled water. It consists of a tank for the distilled 
 water (Fig. 55) and a length of rubber hose at- 
 tached to the filler which is designed to allow water 
 to flow into the cell until the solution level has been 
 brought to the proper height, when an electric bell 
 circuit is closed by the solution and the bell rings. 
 The spring valve of the filler is then released and 
 the flow discontinued until the filler is placed in the 
 next cell. This filler or tank should be used for 
 no other purpose than the above. 
 
 With use, the specific gravity of the solution will 
 decrease in ordinary service, so that after a period 
 of approximately eight to twelve months of continu- 
 
 136 
 
ous daily service or its equivalent, the solution 
 should be tested with a hydrometer and if the read- 
 ings of a majority of the cells are below 1.160, after 
 full charge, the solution should be renewed. The 
 weight necessary per cell is given in (Table 10) 
 below. 
 
 TABLE 10. 
 
 WEIGHT OF ELECTROLYTE REQUIRED IN RENEWAL 
 
 Type of Cell A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-8 A-10 A-12 
 
 Weight of solution to refill 
 
 one cell in pounds 2.4 3 3.6 4.3 5.8 8.2 9.7 
 
 Having the necessary amount of solution at hand, 
 the battery should be thoroughly discharged, re- 
 moved from the battery compartment and the solu- 
 tion removed by inverting the trays. Sloppage over 
 the cans and trays should be avoided. By syphon- 
 ing or with a glass funnel the renewal solution 
 should be added immediately. 
 
 For export shipments, the potassium and lithium 
 hydrate are supplied in dry crystalline form, ready 
 to be mixed with di.stilled water, according to the 
 instructions, at the destination. 
 
 At this point in the care it is well to emphasize 
 that cleanliness is most necessary, for neglect is re- 
 sponsible for the majority of battery ailments. 
 When the trays are out of the vehicle it is well to 
 clean them thoroughly and also to see that no for- 
 eign material adheres to the cells. Usually a jet 
 of dry steam or compressed air will accomplish 
 this, the former being preferable. The compart- 
 ment should be cleaned out well, made tight so as 
 to keep waste and dirt out. Where cold weather 
 is experienced it is important that this compart- 
 
 137 
 
ment be closed tightly, so that the heat generated 
 during charge and discharge may be retained. If 
 the temperature of the battery fall below 50° F. on 
 discharge, the output will be materially lessened. 
 The temperature of 50° F. here refers to the tem- 
 perature of the electrolyte of the cell. If the com- 
 partment is properly enclosed the temperature out- 
 side the compartment may be very low, below zero 
 in fact, without reducing the working cell tempera- 
 ture to the limit indicated. This capacity is ac- 
 cessible, however, upon raising the temperature of 
 the cell to normal. 
 
 The highest immediate discharge capacities are 
 obtained when the charging is carried on at a mod- 
 erately low temperature, between 75° and 85° F. 
 (not below 50° F.) and the discharge at a high 
 temperature, not exceeding 115° F. As heat dur- 
 ing the charge is more detrimental to the life of the 
 plates than heat during discharge, it is recom- 
 mended that the charging instructions (page 130) 
 given above be followed as they are the result of a 
 study of the many conditions involved in actual 
 service. 
 
 With the above explanation, however, such va- 
 riations may be made as the emergency demands 
 or the requirements of the service dictate. 
 
 After replacing the trays in the compartment, 
 care should be exercised in assembling correctly so 
 that the end cells are properly connected as ex- 
 plained above. The contact surfaces of the con- 
 nectors and tapered poles should be cleaned with 
 fine emery cloth so that good electrical contact is 
 
 138 
 
obtained as poor contact would cause heating of the 
 connection. After the cells have been on charge 
 for a few hours, if the hand is run over these con- 
 nectors, any poor connections will be found to be 
 warm or even hot. If such is the case, the con- 
 nectors should be removed, cleaned and again firmly 
 secured. 
 
 POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN THE 
 CARE OF THE EDISON BATTERY. 
 
 1. Never put acid into an Edison battery or use 
 utensils that have been used for acid; you may 
 ruin the battery. 
 
 2. Never bring a naked flame near the battery. 
 
 3. Never lay tools or pieces of metal on the 
 battery. 
 
 4. Keep the filler caps closed at all times except 
 when necessary for filling. 
 
 5. Keep the cells filled to the proper level by . 
 adding distilled water only. 
 
 6. Keep the cells externally as clean and dry as 
 practicable. 
 
 139 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CHARGING APPARATUS AND CHARGING 
 STATIONS. 
 
 In the chapter on the subject of Storage Bat- 
 teries, the words ''charging*’ and "discharging’’ 
 are used very frequently and refer to the 
 chemical effects produced in the cells of the stor- 
 age battery by the passage of electric current 
 through them. It is necessary that this charging 
 current must pass through the cells in one and only 
 one direction during the charging operation. For 
 this reason the negative terminal of the series of 
 cells is connected to the negative terminal of the. 
 charging source and the positive terminal to that 
 of the positive source. 
 
 In the case of a direct current charging supply 
 these terminals when connected through the proper 
 rheostat will supply the required charging current. 
 With alternating current, however, the terminals 
 are po.sitive and negative one instant, negative and 
 positive the next and this change continues so rap- 
 idly that absolutely no charging effect is produced 
 on the battery. If it were not for the apparatus 
 which transforms this alternating current into the 
 current of one direction, direct current, then the 
 latter only would be available for battery charging. 
 Transforming apparatus has been developed which 
 meets every need in this respect with the features 
 of simplicity of operation, safety to battery and 
 user, and efficient results. Thus we have two divi- 
 
 140 
 
sions in the field of charging apparatus; ihat used 
 for direct current charging and that for transform- 
 ing or ''rectifying’’ alternating current. The meth- 
 ods used with the accessories necessary will now 
 be taken up under those headings. The actual 
 operations in the charging of vehicle storage bat- 
 teries are few in number and simple of manipula- 
 tion, however complex the theory concerning the 
 
 Fig. 56 — Charging Rheostat for Mounting on Wall. 
 
 actions may be. The pleasure derived from the 
 passenger car or the efficient results from the use 
 of the commercial car are gained not by a theo- 
 retical study of the inherent parts, but by a work- 
 ing familiarity with the few and simple rules of 
 conduct. It is true of the electric vehicle as it is 
 true of electrical contrivances in general that they 
 are simple, safe and reliable. 
 
 141 
 
DIRECT CURRENT APPARATUS. 
 
 Where direct current is available it is in nearly 
 all cases of no volts, 220 volts or 500 to 600 volts. 
 These voltages will vary somewhat, but not con- 
 siderably. 
 
 You remember that for charging, the cells are 
 arranged in series and that the highest charging 
 voltage required at the end of the charge is, with 
 few exceptions, less than no volts. At the be- 
 
 Fig. 57 — Row of Charging Rheostat Units. 
 
 ginning of the charge, the required voltage is about 
 15% less than the final value so that in every case, 
 ^ means must be provided for gradually increasing 
 the voltage from the lowest to the highest value 
 required, in order that the proper charging current 
 may be maintained. Where a no volt supply serv- 
 ice is available, the introduction of a variable re- 
 sistance rheostat in series with the battery is suffi- 
 cient to accomplish the result. 
 
 142 
 
The charging rheostat or variable resistance is 
 of sufficient size to carry the required charging 
 current continuously without undue heating and is 
 constructed so that a movement of the handle or 
 lever lowers or raises the current, which is meas- 
 ured by the ammeter in convenient location for 
 reading. These rheostats as illustrated are pro- 
 duced in many sizes and in several types, repre- 
 senting careful study on the part of the manu- 
 
 58 — Compression Carbon Disc Rheostat. 
 
 facturer, of the needs of the several classes of serv- 
 ice, as private small garage, private large garage or 
 small or large public garage. Where the garage 
 is large, many rheostats are needed and while they 
 may be located at one large switchboard or at the 
 individual charging plugs, the operation of each one 
 is simply that described above. 
 
 Should the voltage of the supply source be 220 
 volts then it will be necessary to use a rheostat with 
 much greater resistance than for a no volt circuit. 
 The loss in the rheostat is more than twice, as much 
 in this case, but is unavoidable excepting where a 
 
 143 
 
motor generator set may Ire used as described on 
 page 173. 
 
 Fig. 59 — Twelve-Circuit Rheostat Set for a Public Garage. 
 
 There are localities where neither no volts, 220 
 volts D. C. (direct current) or alternating current 
 is available, but where 500-600 volts D. C. may be 
 had from an electric trolley line. As the loss of 
 energy, dissipated in heat in the resistance, is so 
 large in proportion to that effecting chemical change 
 
 144 
 
in the battery, this application is to be recom- 
 mended only in extreme cases, such as temporary, 
 
 Fig. 60 — Flexible Unit Type Charging Panel. 
 
 emergency or other charging applications to which 
 there is no other alternative. It should be clearly 
 
 145 
 
understood that the above statement refers to the 
 charging of a vehicle battery from the 500 volt cir- 
 cuit through resistance. If the use is to be per- 
 
 FRONT. REAR. 
 
 Fig. 61 — Moderate Capacity Public Garage Panels. 
 
 manent then it would be advisable to use a motor 
 generator set (page 173). This is especially true 
 where a number of vehicles are to be regularly 
 
 146 
 
charged as the efficiency of the total installation 
 will rise with the number of cars charged at the 
 same time. 
 
 The rheostat is usually mounted upon an insulat- 
 ing slab of slate or marble and connected through 
 
 Fig. 62 — Charging Board of Large Garage. 
 
 a fused switch and circuit breaker, protective de- 
 vices and instruments (voltmeter, ammeter and 
 watt-hour meter), to the battery. (Fig. 63.) The 
 circuit breaker is an electrical device which auto- 
 matically discontinues the passage of current when 
 
 147 
 
it reaches too high a value. An adjusting screw 
 fixes the value at which the flow will be interrupted. 
 Ihe setting is arranged to prevent excessively large 
 current passing through the battery and ruining 
 it by overcharge, overheating or both. The switch 
 which cuts off all current to the battery is fused 
 so that additional safety from too high current or 
 short circuit may be provided. If the circuit 
 breaker opens or “trips,’' it is necessary only to 
 reduce the current and close it, but when a fuse 
 “blows” it is necessary to insert a new one after 
 locating the trouble. For this reason the breaker 
 should be set to trip below the capacity of the fuse 
 so that this inconvenience may be avoided without 
 impairing the protection. The current passes di- 
 rectly through the ammeter which gives the rate 
 at which the charging is done. 
 
 The voltmeter records the voltage across the 
 battery terminals; the readings of voltage are 
 those referred to in the tables (pages 49 & 131). 
 The watt-hour meter is usally on the service side 
 of the main switch in small installations and is 
 not an indicating meter as are the above, but is a 
 recording instrument giving the additive result. 
 The difference in reading between the end and 
 beginning of charge is the amount of energy in 
 kilowatt-hours used. This number multiplied by 
 the price per kilowatt-hour is the cost of the ener- 
 gy and can be regularly and easily checked. In 
 many garages, one of these meters is provided for 
 each vehicle charged, so that its energy consump- 
 tion may be measured individually. The protec- 
 
 ts 
 
tive devices mentioned in addition to those de 
 scribed are an underload release (low current) 
 cut-out (Fig. 63), maximum voltage cut-out (2) 
 and solenoid switch (3). The low current release, 
 automatically opens the circuit if the current falls 
 to a predetermined minimum. This prevents the 
 battery from discharging into the line should the 
 voltage of the supply circuit fall below that of the 
 battery. The maximum voltage cut-out automat- 
 ically opens the circuit when the voltage of the 
 battery reaches the voltage at which the cut-out 
 is set to operate. In this way the charge may be 
 automatically discontinued when completed, by 
 setting the cut-out to trip when the battery in 
 question has come up to the required voltage. 
 This action would have to be dispensed with dur- 
 ing the period of bi-weekly overcharge so that all 
 cells can be brought up to healthy condition. The 
 solenoid switch ''makes’' or "breaks” the circuit 
 by closing or opening. It is automatic in action, 
 remaining closed and keeping the charging cir- 
 cuit closed when the main switch is closed, but 
 opening and remaining open when that switch is 
 opened until it is again closed. This device is 
 usually accompanied by the overload breaker 
 (Fig. 63), so that protection is afforded to 
 the battery under all conditions with a minimum 
 of attention. The operation of these devices in 
 connection with a rheostat will now be given. 
 
 Having the battery arranged for charge (page 
 37), all switches open and the resistance all "in” 
 (usually with the handle to the left or at the bot- 
 tom position), the charging plug is inserted in 
 
 14P 
 
the receptacle on the vehicle. The knife switch 
 is then closed and the lever moved to the right to 
 the second or third contact segment (depending 
 on the particular make of rheostat), while bringing 
 
 1 2 S 4 
 
 Fig. 63 — Charging Panel with Protective Devices. 
 
 the plunger on the low current cut-out up into posi- 
 tion, allowing the flow of current to energize the 
 main line solenoid . switch permitting the flow of 
 current to the battery through the ammeter and 
 resistance. The lever is then moved further to the 
 right until the current is at the proper rate as in- 
 dicated by the ammeter. 
 
 160 
 
Should there be an interruption in the supply 
 circuit, or the voltage of the line drop below that 
 of the battery tending to cause it to discharge into 
 the line, then the low current cut-out will release 
 its plunger causing the current to cease in the sole- 
 noid switch, demagnetizing it and opening the 
 circuit. Should the charging current reach too high 
 
 Fig. 64— Time Switch. 
 
 a value then the overload circuit breaker will be- 
 come sufficiently energized to “trip’’ the solenoid 
 switch, opening the circuit. Finally, if the charge 
 progress without interruption, when the voltage 
 reaches that at which the maximum voltage cut-out 
 is adjusted to operate, it will “trip” and discon- 
 tinue the charge, eliminating any danger of over- 
 charge but allowing a full charge. Some devices 
 
 151 
 
are arranged so as to prevent the operator placing 
 the battery on charge except by moving the lever 
 to the extreme left and beginning with a small 
 current; others return the lever to the starting 
 position as soon as the circuit is opened. 
 
 Fig. 65 — Panel for Automatic Constant Current Charging. 
 
 It is possible to control the current automatically 
 by reducing the resistance in series with the bat- 
 tery step by step as the counter voltage of the cells 
 increases. Fig. 65 shows a device designed 
 
 153 
 
to maintain a constant current throughout the peri- 
 od of charge. Ihis is accomplished by means of 
 the pointer of the meter and the relay and solenoid 
 on the lower part of the panel. As the battery 
 voltage increases with the charge, the current is 
 decreased, the meter pointer travelling to the left. 
 Adjustment made by a set screw on the instru- 
 ment, permits the relay of the lower right hand 
 corner to be energized, when the minimum cur- 
 rent desired is reached. The energizing of the re- 
 lay causes it to close fhe contacts of the solenoid 
 circuit, allowing the latter to draw its plunger in, 
 advancing the regulator one step. Each step thus 
 cut-out increases the current rate about five am- 
 peres. This process continues until either the 
 charge is complete or all the resistance is cut-out. 
 When the latter condition has been reached the 
 relay at the top of the board causes the charging 
 circuit to be opened. This rheostat is designea to 
 maintain a uniform charging rate and is more ap- 
 plicable to the charging of Edison batteries than 
 lead batteries, which are favored by a tapering 
 (decreasing current) charge. 
 
 The Ampere-hour Meter is described on page 192 
 and has come into very extended use for vehicle 
 charging purposes. In nearly all cases it is mount- 
 ed directly upon the vehicle, but the connections 
 are arranged so that when the pointer makes the 
 contact, when the charging is completed, the cir- 
 cuit breaker upon the charging panel is ''tripped’’ 
 and the circuit is opened. This affords a simple 
 means of automatic charging as the battery may 
 
be put on charge at a starting rate such that the 
 average charging current will be the same as 
 though attendance was given at the board. This 
 method is described on page 64. In this connec- 
 tion it should not be understood that no attention 
 is required during the charging as in nearly all 
 cases the more attention the better would be the 
 results but a little time at the right time will ob- 
 viate, in the majority of cases, the difficulties en- 
 countered. 
 
 A device known as an ''automatic time switch 
 cut-out'' (Fig. 64) is frequently ifsed for term- 
 inating the charging of a battery and is reliable 
 and safe in accomplishing this result if properly 
 installed. The device is merely a clock which can 
 be set to "trip" open the circuit at a specific time 
 in much the same manner as the alarm clock awak- 
 ens the slumberer. It is to be recommended where 
 the requirements do not exceed these qualifications. 
 The only disadvantage is that it relies upon the , 
 intelligence of the operator to predetermine the 
 amount of charge necessary before setting the dial. 
 However, with a given battery, several carefully 
 watched charges, checking up by voltage and spe- 
 cific gravity readings, will readily determine the 
 approximate length of time needed to bring the 
 battery into a fully charged condition. 
 
 A maximum voltage cut-out (Fig. 63) has been 
 mentioned above and its effectiveness in operation 
 depends upon the assumption that the voltage of 
 the supply circuit remains constant or practically 
 so while the battery voltage gradually increases to 
 
 154 
 
the limit set on the cut-out. The end of charge 
 of lead battery is determined not by the voltage 
 reaching a certain voltage but by its reaching and 
 maintaining a certain maximum voltage. The lat- 
 ter will vary with the temperature, the specific 
 gravity and the condition of the plates but for a 
 given battery the change will probably be not very 
 great from time to time so that by taking an occa- 
 sional check reading with a hydrometer and volt- 
 meter the cut-out can be made not only very use- 
 ful but also reliable. In such cases where the exact 
 conditions are not definitely known as with a new 
 battery or when charged only infrequently at a 
 garage, it is not well to depend upon a voltage cut- 
 out as either under-charge or serious and harmful 
 over-charge with attendant heating might result 
 and entirely ruin the battery. 
 
 In the previous paragraphs practically all of the 
 devices commonly used in vehicle battery charging 
 have been explained. This does not mean that the 
 battery cannot be charged unless accompanied by 
 the use of such devices, but that they are very ef- 
 fective and convenient means of accomplishing the 
 desired result with the least effort. To summarize 
 therefore, to charge from a direct current source 
 it is necessary to have a suitable rheostat placed 
 in series with a battery for controlling the current 
 as well as a voltmeter and ammeter to measure 
 these quantities. The voltmeter and ammeter may 
 either be a combined instrument having the two 
 scales or two separate instruments. When located 
 on the vehicle the combined instrument (volt-am- 
 
 156 
 
meter) is used. Where the ampere-hour meter is 
 located on the vehicle then the volt-ammeter is not 
 usually found necessary and is located on the charg- 
 ing panel instead. 
 
 ALTERNATING CURRENT APPARATUS. 
 
 In order to make an alternating current available 
 for storage battery charging it must be changed or 
 “rectified’' into current which is of one direction, 
 direct current. When it has been thus treated its 
 effects upon the battery are identical with those 
 of the direct current supplied from the power sta- 
 tion. When alternating current is rectified by 
 means of a device which produces a current which 
 is uniform in direction but pulsating in pressure 
 the effects upon the storage battery are just^ the 
 same as if the current were of constant and uni- 
 form voltage. The devices for changing or con- 
 verting alternating current into direct current for 
 vehicle charging are, known as Motor Generators; 
 Rotary Converters and Mercury Arc Rectifiers. 
 
 The motor generator (Fig. 76) effects the 
 transformation in a very . simple manner." The al- 
 ternating current supply is used to operate the alter- 
 nating current motor to which is coupled a direct 
 current generator. The generator in this case gives 
 a direct current of the voltage required and acts 
 in all respects similar to the generating apparatus 
 used in the power stations. It may be varied in 
 speed, voltage and in current out-put so as to con- 
 form to the requirements of the garage, be the 
 number of vehicle batteries small or large. The 
 
 156 
 
Rotary Converter makes use of the same prin- 
 ciple as tlie motor generator with the excep- 
 tion that the motor and generator are combined 
 
 Fig. 66 — Mercury Arc Rectifier. 
 
 into one machine having a common field and ar- 
 mature. At one end of the armature the commu- 
 tator for supplying the direct current is placed 
 while at the other end the slip-rings of the alter- 
 
 157 
 
nating current motor are situated. The Rotary 
 Converter or Motor Generator is used where a con- 
 siderable number of batteries are to be charged at 
 one time. Should but a few vehicles require charg- 
 ing at one time or if arrangements are such that a 
 few vehicles may be charged at intervals, then 
 neither of these machines would give efficient re- 
 sults and the combination would best be effected 
 by use of mercury arc rectifiers. ’ 
 
 Fig. 67 — Mercury Arc Rectifier Tube 
 
 The mercury arc rectifier is probably the most 
 widely used piece of charging apparatus as the 
 majority of central stations supply only alternating- 
 current. Its action is reliable and continuous while 
 its operation is very simple. Any number of bat- 
 teries may be charged efficiently and the equip- 
 ment can be increased from time to time as the de- 
 
 168 
 
niands require. For a private small garage a sin- 
 gle mercury arc rectifier unit is used while in a 
 large garage a number of units of large capacity 
 operate with similar results. An individual unit 
 (Fig. 66) consists of a slate panel upon which 
 are placed the switches, measuring instruments and 
 mercury tube, and an enclosed coil on the floor be- 
 neath it. The leads from the alternating supply 
 circuit are brought to the panel and connected to 
 the apparatus through a fused switch. A cable 
 from the vehicle is connected through a circuit 
 breaker to the converting apparatus. The apparatus 
 which effects the change from alternating current 
 to direct current consists of a large glass bulb of 
 peculiar shape as shown in (Fig. 67) and a num- 
 ber of coils of wire over an iron core known as re- 
 actances shown diagrammatically in (Fig. 68, E. & 
 
 F). 
 
 The rectifier tube is an exhausted glass vessel 
 in which are two graphite electrodes (anodes “AA’A 
 and one mercury cathode (“B”). Each anode is con- 
 nected to a separate side of the alternating current 
 supply, and also through one-half of the main re- 
 actance to the, negative side of the load. The 
 cathode is connected to the positive side. There is 
 also a small starting electrode (“C') connected to 
 one side of the alternating current circuit through 
 resistance, and used for starting the arc. When the 
 rectifier tube is rocked, so as to form and break 
 a mercury bridge between the cathode ''B’' and the 
 starting anode ''C/' a slight arc is formed. This 
 starts what is known as the ''excitation’’ of the tube. 
 
 159 
 
and the, cathode begins supplying ionized mercury 
 vapor. This condition of excitation can be hept u]) 
 only as long as there is current flowing toward the 
 cathode. 
 
 Fig. 68 — Automatic Rectifier, Front View. 
 For description see page 169. 
 
 If the direction of supply voltage is reversed, so 
 that the formerly negative electrode, or cathode, be- 
 comes positive with the reversal of the alternating 
 current circuit, the current ceases to flow, since, in 
 order to flow in the opposite direction, it would re- 
 quire the formation of a new cathode, which can be 
 160 
 
accomplished only by special means. Therefore, in 
 the rectifier tube, the current must always flow to- 
 ward the cathode which is kept in a state of excita- 
 tion by the current itself. 
 
 Such a tube would cease to operate on alternating 
 current voltage after one-half the cycle, if some 
 means were, not provided to maintain the flow of 
 current continuously toward the cathode. 
 
 Fig. 69 — Automatic Rectifier, Cover Removed. 
 
 For description see page 169. 
 
 The maintenance of the current flow is accom- 
 plished by the main reactance. As the current al- 
 ternates, first one anode and then the other becomes 
 positive, the current flowing from the positive anode 
 through the mercury vapor, toward the cathode, 
 thence through the battery, or other load, and back 
 through one-half of the, main reactance to the oppo- 
 site side of the alternating current supply circuit. 
 
 m . ^ 
 
As the current flows through the main reactance, 
 it charges it, and while the value of the alternating 
 wave, is decreasing, reversing and increasing, the 
 reactance discharges, thus maintaining the arc until 
 
 -WVWWV\MV- 
 
 Tran^ form er 
 
 
 t© 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 70— Elementary Diagram of Connections Mercury Arc 
 Rectifier. 
 
 the voltage reaches the value required to maintain 
 the current against the counter e.m.f. of the load, 
 and reducing the fluctuations in the, direct current. 
 In this way, a true continuous current is produced 
 with very little loss in transformation. 
 
 162 
 
The manipulation of the mercury arc rectifier is 
 very simple and requires a minimum of attention 
 although it must be understood that in battery 
 charging attention of the right kind is required. 
 Exactly what such attention should be is explained 
 under the separate headings. 
 
 As mentioned above the rectifier unit (Fig. 66) 
 consists of the panel with the controlling devices 
 upon it and the reactance coil encased in iron 
 situated on the floor beneath it. Without going 
 into details in regard to the construction of the re^ 
 actance coil, suffice it to say that the connections 
 are made and the terminals brought out and let- 
 tered for ordinary connections to the proper points 
 on the panel. Excepting in cases where vehicles 
 of different numbers of cells are to be charged 
 from the same rectifier at different times no changes 
 are necessary in the wiring of the reactance to the 
 panel. Where necessary they may be very simply 
 accomplished by following the manufacturer's di- 
 rections. The panel of the rectifier unit which holds 
 the meters and controlling devices, is usually of 
 slate mounted upon pipe support. All wiring connec- 
 tions are on the back of the board so that on the 
 front there may be no confusion to the inexperi- 
 enced. Al main '‘A. C." line switch (Fig. 66) and 
 circuit breaker, ammeter and voltmeter in the 
 ‘‘D. C." circuit, are usually found on the panel. 
 The handle or dial switch shown at the bottom 
 of the panel is connected to a small reactance coil 
 mounted on the rear of the panel for making finer 
 regulation of the voltage applied to the battery. A 
 
 163 
 
tube mounted in a convenient holder at the back 
 of the panel is connected by a rod extending 
 through the board to a small knob on its face 
 so that the tube may be rocked to and iro in start- 
 ing its operation. This leaves but one switch 
 upon the board unexplained. It is a special switch 
 for starting which is thrown in an upward position 
 while rocking the tube and after the arc has been 
 formed is released and is held in the lower position 
 by a spring. 
 
 The connections established in the operation of 
 this switch supply the resistance and load neces- 
 sary for maintaining the arc in the tube before the 
 battery is put on charge. 
 
 It is not necessary that the panel be provided 
 with instruments, but if the vehicle is not provided 
 with volt-ammeter then the board should be. In 
 all cases it is well to have the panel thus provided 
 as the vehicle instruments being subject to shocks 
 and jars may not be in good condition at all times. 
 
 To begin a charge at the proper starting rate, for 
 the battery in question, inspection should be made 
 of the panel to see that the switches are in the 
 proper starting position, that is, open, and with the 
 regulating handles in the lowest position then close 
 the alternating current line switch and circuit 
 breaker. While rocking the tube gently so that the 
 mercury bridge between the cathode and start- 
 ing anode may be broken, place the starting 
 switch in the starting position. The arc will 
 then be formed and maintained in the tube 
 after which the regulating switches may be ad- 
 
 164 
 
justed to give the proper charging current. As 
 the charge progresses, the adjustments of current 
 are made by simply altering the position of the 
 regulating switches without discontinuing the op- 
 eration of the rectifier until the end of the charge. 
 If the tube “goes out” or does not maintain the 
 arc when the starting switch is released into the 
 operating position, the operation should be tried 
 again with the setting of the regulating switch 
 several points higher. As there are two regulating 
 handles, one being steps of regulation of greater 
 
 Fig. 71 — Testing Tube for Vacuum. 
 
 size than the other, adjustment should be made with 
 the smaller or fine regulating switch until it has 
 reached its maximum when it should be reduced 
 to its lowest position and steps of the coarse regu- 
 lating switch added and final adjustment made with 
 the fine regulating switch. By this means any 
 voltage supplied by the rectifier from its minimum 
 to maximum capacity may be obtained. 
 
 165 
 
Should on the other hand the tube fail to main- 
 tain the arc when thrown over into the operating 
 position and an increase of voltage described does 
 not efifect the desired results, then the trouble is 
 elsewhere. Inspection should be made of the con- 
 nections on the back of the board to see if all are 
 secure and if this does not produce the desired 
 results then the tube should be disconnected, care- 
 fully removed from its holder and held in the posi- 
 
 Fig. 72 — Testing Tube for Vacuum, 
 
 tion shown in (Fig. 71). Giving care not to al- 
 low the mercury to run into the side arm, the lower 
 end should be raised (Fig. 72) until the mercury 
 rises in the large end. This operation should be, done 
 slowly so that the mercury will run in a small 
 stream separating into drops. If the tube is in good 
 condition the drops will come together with a sharp 
 metallic click, but if the tube should be defective. 
 
 166 
 
by reason of a poor vacuum, then the stream will 
 be relatively slow to run and a dull thud will be 
 heard instead of the characteristic metallic click. 
 Should this test show that the vacuum is impaired, 
 
 Fig. 73 — Runabout Type Rectifier. 
 
 it will be necessary to communicate with the manu- 
 facturer with regard to a new tube, but if the tube 
 is found to be in good condition then the services 
 of a competent electrician will be required. 
 
 For the operation of a single vehicle, a rectifier 
 set (Fig. 73), is designed to charge the number of 
 
 167 
 
cells in the particular battery in the vehicle and is 
 not adapted for charging much greater or less num- 
 ber. Should it be desired to charge batteries hav- 
 ing different numbers of cells, then a rectifier unit 
 which can be operated over a wide voltage range 
 
 Fig. 74 — Public Garage Type Rectifier. 
 
 will be most suitable. In fact, if the owner is likely 
 to purchase a new car at any time it would be wise 
 to install the latter or standard set so that there 
 
need be no difficulty at the time of change of cars. 
 
 In figure 68 is shown another make of mer- 
 cury rectifier which is entirely enclosed in a single 
 unit. The transformer reactance, bulb, etc., are 
 mounted on a cast iron frame (Fig. 71) and com- 
 pletely enclosed by metal covers. No live parts 
 whatever are exposed, which eliminates all danger 
 of shocks to the operator, or to children. Large 
 and small step dial switches make it easy to charge 
 any number of cells within a wide range, without 
 change of commutators. A magnet energized from 
 a small auxiliary transformer is provided to tilt the 
 bulb and automatically restart the outfit whenever 
 the current has been interrupted by line voltage 
 fluctuations. A relay energized by the charging- 
 current disconnects the tilting outfit as soon as the 
 arc starts up in the bulb, and reconnects it when- 
 ever the current fails for any reason. This is par- 
 ticularly important for private garage installations, 
 where charging is done at night without attendance, 
 as it ensures a full charge in the morning. For 
 public garages where attendance is available, a simi- 
 lar outfit is available arranged for hand starting 
 only. Its outside appearance is the same as in the 
 case of the automatic outfit. The dial switches on 
 both outfits permit adjusting the current without 
 putting out the arc. The design of the transformer 
 and reactance is such that no change of adjustment 
 is ordinarily necessary during a charge. 
 
 A circuit breaker on the automatic outfit, and a 
 fuse on the hand-starting outfit, give protection 
 against overload or reversed polarities. 
 
 169 
 
(Figure 75) shows a rectifier outfit that has been 
 simplified down to its essential elements in order 
 
 Type W Simplified Low Price Rectifier. 
 
 to till the demand for an outfit of low first cost. 
 The transformer and reactance have been combined 
 in one coil and control is by means of link connec- 
 tions instead of dial switches. Hand starting only 
 is provided. This outfit is suitable for use where 
 only a single vehicle is to be charged, and is de- 
 signed to cover a comparatively narrow range of 
 cells including only the most commonly used bat- 
 teries. As no changes of adjustment are ordinarily 
 needed during a charge, the lack of dial switches 
 causes little inconvenience. 
 
 170 
 
For garages handling a number of vehicles, 
 whether of the pleasure or commercial type, the 
 rectifier units (Fig. 74), will prove very satis- 
 factory, flexible and efficient. If but one car is to 
 be charged at a time, but one rectifier unit need 
 be run while on the other hand if a number of bat- 
 teries are to be charged then the required number 
 of rectifier units to supply this demand may be 
 added. This feature does not obtain with either 
 the motor generator set or the rotary converter as 
 either of these machines operate as a unit irrespec- 
 ' tive of the number of batteries charging. This 
 flexibilty of the mercury arc rectifier is a very im- 
 portant feature, not only afifecting the efficiency of 
 the garage apparatus in operation, but allowing the 
 establishment to add equipment from time to time, 
 providing, of course, that the estimated demands at 
 the beginning or after a reasonable interval of time 
 of operation do not require the installation of a 
 motor generator set. 
 
 It requires a certain dissipation of energy to 
 maintain the arc in a mercury tube which is evi- 
 denced in the form of heat and a small quantity of 
 light. The voltage required to maintain this arc is 
 about 15 volts and is practically constant for all 
 currents which the tube will stand, thus the effi- 
 ciency of the rectifier depends upon the total volt- 
 age delivered to the battery or in other words, the 
 greater the number of cells charged within the 
 limits of the rectifier the greater will be the effi- 
 ciency. In practice this efficiency increases from 
 70% at 60 volts D. C. to 80% at 175 volts D. C. 
 
 171 
 
As to the life of the tube, a good tube should last 
 at least 600 hours, but many have run 6000 hours 
 or more. This is practically the only part of the 
 apparatus which will wear out under normal aver- 
 age use. 
 
 The mercury arc rectifier is usually operated 
 from a single-phase alternating current circuit, or 
 one phase of a three-phase circuit. The fre- 
 
 Fig. 76 — Motor Generator, A.C., Motor, D.C. Generator. 
 
 quency upon which the mercury arc rectifier 
 will operate may be from 25 to 140 cycles with 
 slight changes in the apparatus. The voltage 
 impressed is either no or 220 volts. Higher volt- 
 ages than these may be easily reduced to these 
 values through suitable transformers. The maxi- 
 mum current which a single tube is capable of giv- 
 
 172 
 
ing is 50 amperes at continuous operation. Larger 
 currents than this are obtained by arranging a num- 
 ber of rectifiers in parallel by means of an auxiliary 
 control j^anel. 
 
 MOTOR GENERATORS. 
 
 The motor generator has two applications in ve- 
 hicle charging, namely, changing direct current of 
 a high voltage to no volts or less (Fig. 76) and 
 for changing alternating current to direct current 
 of suitable voltage (Fig. 77). In speaking of di- 
 rect current voltages, 220 volts and over, it was 
 recommended that it was very much more econom- 
 ical to install a motor generator set than to charge 
 
 Fig. 77 — Motor Generator Set, D.C. Motor, D.C. Generator. 
 
 through a resistance on account of the great loss in 
 the rheostat. Where charging is temporary or in- 
 frequent this condition will of course not apply, but 
 in nearly all cases it will be found upon calculation 
 that it is more efficient to use the set. The effi- 
 ciency will increase directly with the number of 
 vehicles charged at the same time from the gen- 
 173 
 
erator. It is often found advisable to operate the 
 motor generator when the load is heavy, that is, a 
 considerable number of cars charging and to sliut 
 it down and charge from a few rectifiers when the 
 number of cars is not sufficient to justify the op- 
 eration of the mot'or generator with economy. 
 
 Rotary Converter. This piece of machinery 
 
 Fig. 78 — Lincoln Electric Charger. 
 
 produces the results efifected by the rectifier and the 
 motor generator set, but usually requires a larger 
 number of cars to be charged for efficient results. 
 
 174 
 
LINCOLN CHARGER. 
 
 The apparatus used for charging electric cars in 
 the usual private garage is divided in one sense into 
 two classes : 
 
 First, apparatus on which the variation of voltage 
 of supply current will affect the charging rate and 
 those which do not. 
 
 The first class is represented by the mercury arc 
 rectifier and the rotary converter. 
 
 The second class is represented by all classes of 
 motor generator sets in which a motor of the induc- 
 tion type is used for driving the generator which 
 charges the battery. 
 
 The apparatus is divided into these two classes 
 for the following reason : 
 
 Lead batteries must be charged at the end of the 
 charge at a very low rate. If this is not done, 
 destructive gassing and heating occur. Since the 
 internal resistance of a lead battery is small and 
 small variations of voltage impressed on the battery 
 terminals will make a large variation in charging 
 rate, therefore, with whatever type of apparatus is 
 used for charging, if the voltage impressed on the 
 battery terminals is varied even slightly it will make 
 a large difference in the rate at which the charging 
 is done. The reason for this is that the line voltage 
 in any district, particularly, in the residential and 
 outlying districts is subject to considerable variation 
 on account of variation in load. Unfortunately this 
 variation is in the wrong direction for safety of the 
 battery. The voltage starts in lowest when the load 
 
 175 
 
is heaviest and is highest when the load is lightest. 
 The battery in the usual private garage is charged 
 during the night, the charging being completed early 
 in the morning. 
 
 In the usual residential district the voltage is 
 somewhat lower from 8 to lo o'clock than it is from 
 4 to 5 o’clock the following morning when the 
 charge is generally completed. This means that 
 with a setting which will give a proper finishing 
 rate at g o’clock in the evening, there will be too 
 high a finishing rate if the battery finishes up at 5 
 o’clock in the morning. 
 
 This variation is not nearly as large in the very 
 large cities as it is in some of the smaller towns 
 but it is present to a certain extent in all cases. This 
 has caused the battery builders and consequently 
 the car builders to seek some type of charg- 
 ing apparatus whose charging rate will not be de- 
 pendent upon the line voltage. This has brought 
 to the front the use of a motor generator set for 
 this purpose on account of the fact that the line 
 voltage has no effect whatsoever on the charging 
 rate. A variation of 25% above or below normal 
 in line voltage will make absolutely no difference in 
 the finishing rate of the charge. This has meant 
 that particularly in the last few years, there has been 
 a very large application of motor generator sets to 
 charging work especially where skilled attendance 
 is not present. The slightly lower electrical effi- 
 ciency is more than compensated for by the enor- 
 mously less battery depreciation and charger de- 
 preciation, since a well built motor generator set 
 
 176 
 
will operate on this charging work indefinitely with- 
 out appreciable wear. 
 
 As an example of this fact, let us take a standard 
 equipment and assume conditions which are more 
 or less standard all over the country. Suppose we 
 take a battery equipment of 40 amperes, thirteen 
 plates. This will take under normal conditions 80 
 amperes to charge when the battery is in good con- 
 dition and the car is in good condition also. 180 
 ampere hours input will give a full charge in 
 this battery. Data from a large number of batteries 
 which have been in service show that under average 
 conditions when a battery is charged with a rectifier, 
 that 7,500 miles is its life. There are a number of 
 battery builders willing to guarantee that if charged 
 with a non-gassing, non-heating schedule which a 
 properly built motor generator set will give, that this 
 battery life will be doubled. Let us then assume 
 that the cost of power is 4c per k.w.h. that the k.w. 
 hrs. input to charge with the rectifier will be 21^, 
 with the properly built charger. The battery cost 
 of an outfit similar to the one above will be approxi- 
 mate $250, then our comparative cost to charge 
 will be as follows : 
 
 Current cost with rectifier, 86c or i.o8c per mile. 
 Tube depreciation on a basis of $22.50 as the cost 
 of tube and 300 hours the guaranteed life of the 
 tube, .6c per mile. Battery depreciation on a basis 
 of $250 as the cost of the battery, 7,500 miles as 
 its life, 3.3c per mile. Total cost per mile, 5.07c. 
 
 Now let us consider its cost under the conditions 
 of being charged on a non-gassing, non-heating 
 
 177 
 
schedule as would be given by the Lincoln charger. 
 
 Current cost, 96c per charge or 1.2c per mile. 
 Charger depreciation, negligable, as there is no tube 
 or other such devices to depreciate. Battery depre- 
 ciation on basis of 15,000 miles, i^c per mile. Total 
 cost, 2.87c per mile. 
 
 This covers the reason why a charger of this type 
 is supplanting the use of the rectifier. A description 
 of this outfit will be about as follows : 
 
 The scheme that the manufacturer had in mind 
 in making it was to come as close to a constant 
 ])otential charge as is practical and still keep the 
 size and efficiency of the charger up to the highest 
 possible point. By so doing it was possible to get 
 an outfit which will start off at a rate of 40 to 60 
 amperes and finish up at a rate of 8 amperes, or 
 less. This will give a charge which is absolutely 
 non-gassing and non-heating and which will keep 
 the battery in the very best condition. No mat- 
 ter what happens on the line, whether the volt- 
 age rises or falls, whether it is interrupted entirely 
 for short periods, the charge is made complete and 
 is always on a non-gassing, non-heating schedule. 
 The details of construction have been carried out 
 so that the set is built together, the armature mount- 
 ed in ball bearings and the whole set connected and 
 wired to the switchbox so that all that is necessary 
 to do when the apparatus is received by the user 
 is to screw the switchbox to the wall, insert the 
 plug into the car, connect the leads from the supply 
 line to the two lugs in the box, close the switch and 
 then the charge will be completed in from eight to 
 
 178 
 
twelve hours and the charge also will be perfect. 
 If it is left on less than 8 hours, the charge is not 
 quite complete, and if it is left on more than 14 
 hours no damage is done, in fact, this could be left 
 on a week at a time without any damage whatever 
 to the battery or the apparatus. 
 
 These reasons have determined the application of 
 this apparatus to charging rather than the mercury 
 arc rectifier. 
 
 Mechanical and Synchronous Rectifiers. Con- 
 siderable experimenting has been made upon 
 mechanical, chemical and synchronous rectifiers, 
 but up to the present time they are available only 
 for rectifying currents of small amperage, not being 
 adapted to the charging of electric vehicles, espe- 
 cially in numbers. 
 
 Boosting. Hastening a charge or ''Boosting'' is 
 very often a feature of value in electric vehicle 
 operation, and if there is any likelihood of high rate 
 charges being necessary, the charging apparatus in- 
 stalled should be capable of maintaining the required 
 current without undue heating. Not only the in- 
 struments and resistance should be of capacity, suf- 
 ficient to operate under these conditions, but all 
 wiring on the charging panels and vehicles as well. 
 
 Temperature is a limiting feature in storage bat- 
 tery charging. The current is limited only by the 
 maximum allowable temperature (page 50) and 
 the gassing. For lead batteries the gassing should 
 be kept a minimum at all times; Edison cells are 
 not aflfected by the gassing, temperature only re- 
 quiring consideration. The necessity for boost- 
 
 179 
 
ing is practically eliminated in the small private 
 garage, but in public garages is a very important 
 feature and it is safe to say that current in excess 
 of tw^o hundred amperes from a charging plug 
 could be utilized for this purpose, in maintaining 
 vehicle operation during adverse w^eather and 
 road conditions. For this reason this item should 
 be considered in the choice of apparatus for an 
 installation. 
 
 The word '^Booster’’ is used in another connec- 
 tion, and designates a direct current generator of 
 low voltage but of ample current carrying capacity. 
 It sometimes happens that the direct current volt- 
 age supplied is no volts and that 6o cells of Edi- 
 son battery or 44 cells of lead battery, requiring 
 no volts, are to be charged. Should the line volt- 
 age be less, however, or it be required to increase 
 the rate by increasing the voltage then the booster 
 would increase the voltage the desired amount, car- 
 rying the current so dealt with through its arma- 
 ture. This use is resorted to in some cases when 
 the capacity of the existing apparatus is found in- 
 adequate in the above respect, rather than install 
 a new equipment. Excepting for this use in ve- 
 hicle battery charging there is little occasion for the 
 use of a booster, its application being confined in 
 most cases to large lighting battery installations. 
 
 180 
 
ISOLATED PLANTS 
 
 As a general rule it may be said that, except in 
 very few cases, the isolated plant cannot compete 
 with the central station in supplying current for 
 vehicle charging. This applies both to the price 
 and flexibility of the service rendered. There are 
 peculiar conditions existing in some localities which 
 do however merit the use of a steam or hydro-car- 
 bon engine and generator. 
 
 Should no power be available from a central sta- 
 tion, as obtains with some farms, country homes, 
 hotels or factories, then the problem resolves itself 
 into the choice of the proper size of electric outfit, 
 as electric light and power for kindred devices are 
 demanded in most cases. Usually a 115-125-volt 
 generating set, gasoline or oil engine driven, will be 
 found thoroughly satisfactory and economical, pro- 
 viding that apparatus designed for this use is in- 
 stalled. Makeshift combinations of engine and 
 generator, ill suited to combined operation, can 
 hardly be recommended as the little attention given, 
 and the probable absence of expert service in time 
 of need, would make the results not only unsatis- 
 factory, but more costly in the long run. The ca- 
 pacity of the equipment should be determined with 
 regard to the future requirements as well as the 
 present needs. It is impossible to lay down a fixed 
 rule as no two problems will be identical. The 
 manufacturers of recognized equipments may be 
 relied upon to effect a simple and economical solu- 
 tion and -will gladly offer their services. 
 
 181 
 
Charging Stations. Communication with the 
 central station companies supplying electricity in 
 the larger cities of the country has shown that 
 there is at present an abundant supply of charging 
 stations, and that the number is constantly increas- 
 ing at a very rapid rate. The names and locations 
 of these stations change somewhat from time to 
 time so that a list of the 700 and more public charg- 
 ing stations distributed over the United States is 
 not appended. Definite information as to the names 
 and locations of these stations may be readily se- 
 cured by communicating directly with the central 
 station company supplying the district concerned. 
 In practically all cases the electric lighting and 
 power companies have these lists, supplemented 
 with road maps and other attractive information 
 of local character. The Electric Vehicle Section, 
 N. E. L. A., maintains a bureau for the dissemina- 
 tion of such knowledge, and communication will 
 bring forth the desired information. 
 
 The number of public charging stations given 
 above includes only those which operate for public 
 garaging of electric vehicles The large number 
 of private commercial installations, such as brew- 
 eries, express companies, department stores, gro- 
 cers, etc., owning fleets of vehicles garaged in their 
 own installations, are not included The number 
 of electric passenger vehicles is increasing very 
 steadily, and as the small private garage with charg- 
 ing set adjacent to the residence is attractive and 
 convenient, the number of private garages for pleas- 
 
 182 
 
Lire cars will be found to be several times in excess 
 of the number given for public stations. 
 
 When the electric is to be charged at a station 
 other than its regular garage, a plug should be car- 
 ried so that the necessary wiring arrangements may 
 be conveniently secured, and the capacity and 
 charging rates of the battery should be recorded 
 and carried for convenient reference. 
 
 188 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: ELECTRI- 
 CAL AND MECHANICAL. 
 
 In the explanations of operation and instructions 
 for the care of practically each item of the electri- 
 cal apparatus concerned with the electric vehicle, 
 reference has been made to the electrical quantities, 
 current, potential, resistance and power. These are 
 measured respectively in terms of the units, am- 
 peres, volts* ohms and watts. The unit of electro- 
 motive force (the volt) will cause unit current (one 
 ampere) to flow in a circuit of unit resistance (one 
 ohm). This expression is a simple but fundamental 
 equation of electrical phenomena and is called 
 Ohm’s Law. From it are derived, by the applica- 
 tion of proper mathematics, all of the whys and 
 wherefores of modern electrical engineering. For 
 the purposes of this book, however, it is unneces- 
 sary to complicate matters with these technicalities. 
 The simple relation given above is sufficient for an 
 understanding of the usual manipulations incident 
 to electric vehicle operation. 
 
 The flow or passage of current in a circuit pro- 
 duces a definite amount of power, which is meas- 
 ured in watts. The watt is the product of one volt 
 and one ampere. The kilowatt is i,ooo watts. Thus 
 the amount of energy used in one hour, when 
 the power exerted in one kilowatt, is one kilo-watt- 
 hour. 
 
 These quantities defined in terms of the units are 
 very readily measured by means of the electrical 
 
 184 
 
measuring instruments, ammeter (ampere-meter), 
 voltmeter, ampere-hour meter, and watt-hour meter. 
 
 Voltmeter. The voltmeter indicates the dififer- 
 ence of potential, or voltage, of any number of cells 
 of the storage battery or of the supply circuit from 
 the power station. The magnitude of the voltage 
 to be measured determines the range of the instru- 
 ment. The scale of the instrument depends upon 
 the voltages to be measured normally and the high- 
 est which may be measured. The scales usually 
 used are 0-3, 0-15, o-iio, 0-150, 0-250, and 0-300 
 volts. The scale shows the maximum voltage for 
 which the instrument is to be used, as higher volt- 
 ages would send too much current through the fine 
 wire of its coils and burn them out. The meter 
 measuring up to 3 volts is used for indicating the 
 voltage of individual cells of the battery and should 
 not be used on more than one cell. A meter of 1^0- 
 volt range is suitable to measure any voltage up 
 to 150 volts, such as the complete battery voltage 
 or the voltage of a charging circuit of no or 125 
 volts. If the wiring be of the three-wire system 
 having 230 or 250 volts across the outside wires, 
 then it is evident that the meter should be used 
 only between the neutral and the outside wires, and 
 not placed across the 250-volt potential. For the 
 measurement of this voltage, an instrument having 
 a 300-volt scale should be used. 
 
 The scale is a part of the instrument, is cali- 
 brated and is correct for its own instrument only. - 
 The question might be asked if placing a o-150-volt 
 scale on a 0-3-volt meter would permit the measur- 
 
 186 
 
ing of potentials up to 150 volts. From what has 
 been said above it should be clear that such can- 
 not be done as the wiring of the instrument is suffi- 
 cient only for 3 volts, as indicated by the scale. 
 
 Figure, 79 illustrates a voltmeter which adequately 
 fulfills the requirements of a small portable com- 
 bination instrument for general testing of apparatus 
 operated with batteries, or testing of any low volt- 
 
 Fig. 79 — Portable Volt- Ammeter with Triple Scale. 
 
 age direct current circuits. The instrument con- 
 tains in a single case, an ammeter of three ranges 
 and a voltmeter of three ranges. These instruments 
 are arranged to show polarity, have no hysteresis 
 error and are of low internal losses, employing per- 
 manent magnets so as to correctly measure the aver- 
 
 186 
 
age value of a pulsating direct current — this being 
 the value generally required for storage battery 
 work, especially where charging is effected from a 
 mercury arc rectifier. The instrument may be used 
 to measure either a 3, 30 or 150- volt capacity, and 
 in amperes .3 to 3O'. The instrument is easily con- 
 nected, having only two binding posts. By turning 
 a rotary switch, any one of the various capacities 
 is set. 
 
 The leads of a voltmeter are thin flexible cop- 
 per insulated wires attached to the positive and 
 negative binding posts of the meter. The free ends 
 are then applied to the source whose potential is 
 to be measured. Both leads must first be secured 
 to the meter binding posts before the free ends are 
 used in order to avoid damage from accidental 
 short circuit. The same positive meter terminal 
 is conventionally used for each of the scales when 
 the instrument has more than one. Care should be 
 taken, when the voltage to be measured is not ap- 
 proximately known, to use the high voltage scale 
 to determine the reading roughly so that danger 
 of burning out the low reading coil may be avoided. 
 
 The lead from the positive binding post, which 
 is marked ( + ), should be applied to the positive 
 wire or pole of the battery, and the negative lead 
 upon the negative pole, respectively. Where the 
 voltmeter is used as a means of determining which 
 is the positive wire or tracing out connections, then 
 the positive lead should be held fast to one pole and 
 the end of the other lead tapped on the supposed 
 
 187 
 
negative pole. The pointer should be carefully 
 watched when the lead is tapped. If the pointer 
 reads in the right direction, that is, gives a reading 
 on the scale of the instrument, then the assumption 
 of positive and negative was correct. Should the 
 pointer indicate in the wrong direction, however, 
 then the position of the free ends of the leads 
 should be reversed immediately, as a violent throw 
 of the needle in the wrong direction would be very 
 likely to bend it. 
 
 The remarks in the preceding paragraphs are 
 general, applying to portable as well as switch- 
 board or dashboard types of meters. Switchboard 
 meters, of course, when once placed in position 
 require no change of connections as they are made 
 on the back of the board so that, when the switches 
 are closed, the voltmeter will indicate. On large 
 switchboards consisting of a number of circuits, it 
 is usual to use one voltmeter and one ammeter for 
 each panel of six circuits, a selective dial allowing 
 the voltage of each circuit to be read. 
 
 In order to secure accuracy in electric measuring 
 instruments, it is necessary to have them extremely 
 well balanced. This is accomplished by making the 
 moving system as light as possible and pivoting it 
 upon polished jewels. The instrument is thus as 
 delicate as a watch and so should not be handled 
 roughly. As to making adjustments, it may be 
 said that unless such are explained and recom- 
 mended by the manufacturers they should not be 
 attempted. It is preferable in the majority of 
 cases to place the instrument in the hands of a 
 
 188 
 
competent instrument man or return it to the manu- 
 facturer for a small repair rather than to meddle 
 with it and then send it for complete overhauling, 
 as would probably then be necessary. 
 
 The low reading voltmeter having a 3-volt range 
 IS made in many convenient forms for use in go- 
 ing over individual cells, on charge and discharge 
 
 Fig. 80 — Miniature D’Arsonval Testing Voltmeter. 
 
 or for cadmium readings. Care should be exer- 
 cised in the use of such a meter as its usefulness 
 depends upon its accuracy, Fig. 80. 
 
 The voltmeters placed upon the dash, or in any 
 other convenient location in the vehicle, are usually 
 combined in one case and on the same base with 
 the ammeter, so that both may be easily and simul- 
 
 180 
 
taneously noted, Fig. 8i. They are made as rugged 
 as possible so as to withstand the effects of travel 
 over rough pavements. The leads are placed so as to 
 give the voltage applied to the motor, whether the 
 battery is in series or in parallel, during the dis- 
 charge. On charge the cells are practically always 
 
 Fig. 81 — Illuminated Twin Automobile Alnmeter and Voltmetei. 
 
 charged in series so that the voltmeter then gives 
 the voltage applied across the battery in charging. 
 
 As explained under ''vStorage Batteries,’’ there 
 is a maximum voltage reached on charge and a 
 safe minimum voltage on discharge with normal 
 current flow. These amounts may be, and often 
 are, indicated on the scale of the meter in red lines 
 by the vehicle manufacturers so that they may be 
 readily observed in charging or during operation. 
 
 Ammeter. The instrument used to measure the 
 electric current in amperes is the ammeter. It is 
 very similar to the voltmeter in construction, but is 
 placed in series with the circuit instead of across 
 it, as shown in Fig. 82. What has been said of the 
 scale ranges of voltmeters is also true of ammeter 
 
 100 
 
scales, and care should be taken to see that currents 
 jn excess of the scale range are permitted only 
 for very short periods, as damage to the meter 
 would otherwise be likely to result. Ammeters 
 used in storage battery work generally have a zero 
 
 
 
 . + 
 
 lili*— | i|h 
 
 Bottery 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 Voltmeter 
 
 
 Ammeter 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Fig. 82 — Method of Connecting Voltmeter and Ammeter in 
 Circuit. 
 
 centre scale, as shown in Fig. 83, so that no change 
 of connections need be made when reversing from 
 charge to discharge of the battery. It would other- 
 wise be necessary to do so, as the current flows in 
 opposite directions in charge and discharge. 
 
 The ammeter measures the current flowing 
 through a special resistance, known as a shunt. 
 Fig. 84, which may be located within the ammeter 
 case or external and separable from it. Care 
 should be taken to use the meter only with the 
 
 191 
 
shunt furnished with it, unless specified otherwise 
 by the manufacturer, as the meter would not give 
 correct readings and might be damaged. 
 
 The combined instrument, voltmeter and am- 
 meter, Fig. 83, when assembled in one case for ve- 
 
 Fig. 83 — Vehicle Type Volt- Ammeter. 
 
 hide service, is generally spoken of as a volt-am- 
 meter, and has met great favor in giving the in- 
 formation required in the operation of storage bat- 
 tery vehicles. 
 
 The Ampere-Hour Meter. The voltmeter and 
 ammeter are indicating instruments which give the 
 instantaneous values of the voltage and current of 
 the circuit. In practical storage battery operation, 
 however, it is very convenient to have more in- 
 formation than the instantaneous value of current 
 or voltage because, what the operator of an electric 
 vehicle is most interested in, is the mileage capacity 
 of his battery. When starting out with the battery 
 fully charged it is known approximately how many 
 
 192 
 
miles the vehicle can be run upon a charge, but, if 
 the operation is discontinued and the car allowed to 
 stand or a routing selected which differs from that 
 previously gone over, then the latter part of the 
 discharge will not be definitely determined unless 
 the ampere-hour meler is employed, which gives a 
 definite indication of the remaining value of the 
 charge. 
 
 Fig. 84 — Ammeter Shunt and Leads. 
 
 Readings of voltage at a definite current flow 
 from the battery will give a very close idea of the 
 state of charge in the battery, but, to the inexperi- 
 enced or when the instruments are not in good con- 
 dition, the results are not always satisfactory. Read- 
 ings of specific gravity are the most reliable and 
 at all times give an absolutely correct determina- 
 tion of the state of charge in the battery. Owing 
 to the method of taking these readings, it is evident 
 that such indications are not practical for ordinary 
 vehicle operation, and that some sort of meter, 
 which will record the current which has been put 
 
 193 
 
into and taken out of the battery, is needed. Such 
 a meter is known as the ampere-hour meter, Fig. 
 85, and is designed to measure the current put in or 
 taken out of the battery. It is also designed to 
 compensate in its record of the state of charge or 
 discharge of the battery for any loss which may 
 occur by internal discharge of the battery within 
 
 Fig. 85 — Ampere-Hour Meter, 
 
 itself, which usually takes place when the battery 
 remains unused for any considerable length of time. 
 
 The ampere-hour meter is of the Faraday motor 
 type, which depends in principle of operation upon 
 the action of a magnet upon a copper disc armature 
 free to rotate while carrying current The sec- 
 
 194 
 
tional illustration (Fig. 86) shows the construction 
 of the meter with the permanent magnet omitted 
 so as not to complicate the drawing. The arma- 
 ture disc in this instance is of copper, rotating, and 
 submerged in a chamber of mercury. The current 
 is conducted to and from the disc by contacts im- 
 
 
 Fig. 86 — Cross Section of Motor Element of meter. 
 
 bedded in suitable insulating compound in the walls 
 of the chamber. The mercury carries the current 
 from the contacts to the armature, and also pro- 
 duces an upward thrust on the axis of the arma- 
 ture so that there is no pressure on the lower sup- 
 port or bearing, and only a slight pressure on the 
 upper support which is practically the only bearing. 
 With this construction the manufacturers claim a 
 
 196 
 
high degree of accuracy combined with freedom 
 from accident due to constant vibration and jarring 
 such as exists in vehicle operation, all vibration 
 being absorbed in the mercury. 
 
 The upper part of this shaft carries a worm 
 that engages with a geared wheel which, through 
 a proper gear train, operates a movable hand or 
 pointer rotating in front of the face or dial of 
 the meter. The current, or a portion of it from 
 the meter shunt, passes through the armature of 
 the meter and is reacted upon by the powerful, 
 permanent, driving magnet, so that in combination 
 with the gear train, mentioned above, the large 
 pointer will rotate, the speed and amount of rota- 
 tion depending upon the current flowing and the 
 time. The voltage is not in any way recorded 
 since we are interested particularly in ampere- 
 hours. 
 
 Intelligent use of the ampere-hour meter is a safe^ 
 guard against too frequent charging of the battery, 
 overcharging and heating. It is well recognized that 
 the most reliable method of determining the state 
 of charge in a battery is comparison of the change 
 in specific gravity by means of the hydrometer 
 and the use of an ammeter. This method, however, 
 can only be taken advantage of when there is direct 
 access to the battery, or it is removed from the vehi- 
 cle; and consequently, the ampere-hour meter is the 
 most convenient means of continuously keeping the 
 state of battery charge under observation. 
 
 In the case of the lead battery, the specific gravi- 
 
 196 
 
ty is a definite indication of state of charge, but 
 in Edison batteries it tells very little so that the 
 meter is found to be even more useful with the 
 alkaline battery than with the lead battery.- 
 
 The meter equipped with a single shunt records 
 the true ampere-hours charged into the battery and 
 those drawn from the battery. It does not take 
 into account, however, the fact that it is necessary 
 
 Fig. 87 — Diagram of Variable Resister Type Sangamo Ampere-hour 
 Meter. 
 
 to put more ampere-hours into the battery than 
 can be removed from it in any succeeding discharge. 
 In order to compensate automatically for this in- 
 efficiency, an arrangement known as a ''differential 
 shunt'' is incorporated in the earlier types of this 
 meter, but this device has been superseded by a 
 "Resistor Element" in all later instruments ; both 
 allowing a percentage overcharge to be given. 
 There is a range of adjustment for ro to 25% 
 
 197 
 
variation. Lead batteries are generally set from 
 lo to 15 per cent, slow and Edison batteries from 
 15 to 25 per cent. The amount of overcharge thus 
 given is determined by the class or condition of 
 service in which the vehicle is to operate. If the 
 vehicle is to be only partly discharged each day or 
 used in a section of good and level roads, then it 
 does not need as much overcharge as when it cov- 
 ers a severe route. 
 
 It will be noted that there are two methods which 
 may be employed in showing the recording on the 
 meter dial. One is to have the hand move clock- 
 wise on discharge and counter clockwise, or back 
 to the zero point or top of the dial, on charge, 
 while the other is to reverse this sequence. The 
 advantage of the former is that the position of the 
 hand at any time during discharge shows exactly 
 how many ampere-hours have been taken from the 
 battery, and, when the pointer reaches the zero 
 mark in charging, then use may be made of a zero 
 contact or ^'stop charge’' feature. The second ar- 
 rangement mentioned does not allow of this auto- 
 matic feature, but gives a direct reading of the 
 amount still available in the battery. 
 
 The instructions which have been given in Chap- 
 ter III. on the care and operation of storage bat- 
 teries are not affected by the use of an ampere- 
 hour meter, and precautions which are given there 
 are not to be abridged with the use of this instru- 
 ment. The regular overcharge which is prescribed 
 for both lead and Edison batteries should also be 
 
 198 
 
given, and may be accomplislied readily by resetting 
 the main hand the desired number of ampere hours 
 before beginning the charging. 
 
 The resetting device for the main hand, 
 while not necessary for ordinary charging, may 
 
 Fig. 88 — Type D-5 Ampere-hour Meter with Totalizing Circles on 
 Dial. 
 
 be found very useful for the regular over- 
 charge every two or three weeks, or when a 
 new battery is substituted for the one which 
 has been operating in the car, and the position of 
 the hand on the dial is not “in step’’ with the bat- 
 tery, that is, when the pointer does not give the 
 
 199 
 
true condition of charge in the battery. By this 
 means it is possible to arrange the pointer so that, 
 when it reaches the zero mark after allowing the 
 required charge, it will operate the zero contact 
 Teature and discontinue the charge automatically. 
 The manufacturers have furnished the device with 
 a cap so that tampering by unauthorized persons 
 is avoided, and injury by jamming or stripping of 
 gears in the clockwork while resetting is prevented. 
 
 The zero contact or stop charge feature, which 
 has been referred to in preceding paragraphs, con- 
 sists of a contact at the zero point on the dial 
 operated by the pointer. When the pointer is re- 
 volved back to the zero position indicating that the 
 battery is fully charged, then the contact completes 
 a circuit to a circuit-breaker, which causes the lat- 
 ter to open, discontinuing the flow of current 
 through the battery to which the meter is connected. 
 This device depends only upon the ampere-hours 
 and not upon the voltage of the supply circuit or 
 the battery, differing from the method employed 
 in the mercury arc rectifier, where the current is 
 reduced as the effective voltage deceases as the 
 charge progresses. This is a very convenient fea- 
 ture in many instances, among which may be men- 
 tioned the small private garages in which a pleasure 
 vehicle may be placed upon charge late in the eve- 
 ning, or after reaching home from the theatre, and 
 the charge automatically discontinued during the 
 night or early morning, according to the amount 
 required, without necessitating further attention 
 from the owner. 
 
 200 
 
The dial of the meter is graduated in ampere- 
 hours and the unit number of ampere-hours, per 
 revolution of the hand, should be somewhat more 
 than the greatest discharge capacity of the battery, 
 so that, if it be required to give an overcharge. 
 
 Fig. S9 — Type D-5 Ampere-hour Meter with “Duplex” Recording 
 Train. 
 
 making use of the resetting of the main hand, the 
 complete charge in ampere-hours may be indicated 
 upon the dial. Sometimes a second hand is added, 
 turned by means of a knurled head at the centre 
 of the glass in front of the dial. This hand is not 
 connected with the main hand or mechanism of the 
 
 201 
 
meter in any way and is used only by the operator 
 in being set at an arbitrary reading of the dial for 
 reference such as the maximum safe discharge ca- 
 pacity. Thus as the battery increases in capacity 
 during life, the position may be changed using a 
 gradually increased reading as the safe maximum 
 discharge. 
 
 As explained above, the large hand operates 
 through suitable gearing, and, as it rotates the meter 
 speed is proportional to the ampere-hours and will 
 indicate the, ampere-hours input plus the necessary 
 overcharge, or the true ampere-hour output. 
 
 This large pointer gives the condition of charge 
 for one cycle of charge or discharge, as it operates 
 in one direction for charge and in the reverse di- 
 rection for discharge. 
 
 In addition to this pointer a recording train is 
 sometimes included, Fig. 88, this being so connect- 
 ed to the pointer through suitable gearing that it 
 will record the total ampere-hours of charge or 
 discharge during several cycles, or for any con- 
 siderable period. 
 
 For special cases it is possible to furnish a dial, 
 termed by the manufacturers the ''Duplex Train/’ 
 Fig. 89, arranged to record the total of both 
 charge and discharge. In using this arrangement, 
 however, it is not possible to use the large pointer 
 to indicate the condition of the battery for each 
 individual charge and discharge. For any given 
 voltage the readings of charge may be calibrated 
 upon the dial in kilowatt hours instead of am- 
 pere-hours input. In connection with an odome- 
 
 202 
 
t-er or other mileage recording device, complete 
 and detailed results may be thus obtained by 
 means of such a meter. 
 
 The ampere-hour meters are constructed in two 
 general types known as the self-contained meter 
 and the distant dial meter. The first named is 
 manufactured in three styles, called the Auto type, 
 the Service type and Extension Back type. Elec- 
 trically all three of these are identical, the differ- 
 
 Fig. 90 — Distant Dial Mechanism. 
 
 ences being only in the arrangement of the base 
 casting upon which they are mounted and the spe- 
 cial way in which the leads are brought into the 
 meter. 
 
 The Auto type is supported upon an aluminum 
 base and is intended for location in passenger ve- 
 hicles in position for easy reading. 
 
 The Service type is slightly larger than the Auto 
 
 203 
 
type and is mounted upon a solid cast iron base 
 with lugs for external line connections. 
 
 The Extension Back type, is contained in a pair 
 of aluminum castings so arranged that the meter 
 is supported by lugs at the front, allowing the dial, 
 with friction tight bezel ring and cap only, to pro- 
 trude through the heel or dashboard. 
 
 Fig. 91 — Distant Dial Type Ampere-Hour Meter and Contact 
 Train, Cover Removed. 
 
 In some cases it is not convenient to place the 
 meter, in the forms described above, in the most 
 suitable location in the car body on account of the 
 space it would occupy and the heavy wires leading 
 to it. To meet this demand the manufacturers 
 supply a meter of the Distant Dial type. This ar- 
 rangement allows the meter proper to be placed out 
 of the way, as beneath the seat or supported on 
 the chassis. The dial mechanism may then be lo- 
 
 204 
 
cated within the body of the vehicle at the most 
 convenient spot. This dial inechanisni is furnished 
 in the flush or projecting- tyj)C as shown, 90. 
 
 OPERATION OF CONTACT MECHANISM 
 AND DISTANT DIAL. 
 
 Instead of the recording mechanism as de- 
 scribed for the standard meter, in which the 
 shaft drives a hand, a contact train, h'ig. 91, is 
 
 Fig. 92 — Ammeter and Distant Dial Mechanism. 
 
 provided which closes a contact to the distant dial 
 mechanism at equal intervals of ampere-hours 
 measured by the meter. The dial mechanism con- 
 sists of two electro-magnets facing each other, and 
 provided with a lever free to rock between them. 
 The energizing of one of these attracts the lever 
 on charge, the motion thus imparted advancing 
 the hand one division on the dial toward the zero 
 point. During discharge a similar series of im- 
 
 205 
 
pulses through the other electro-magnet change the 
 position of the dial hand in the opposite direction 
 from that travelled during charge. Should the 
 leads connecting the contact-making mechanism 
 with the dial mechanism be broken, the meter prop- 
 er would not be afifected, as the rotation will con- 
 tinue, the driving wheel of the contact train simply 
 escaping past the bar operating the contact in either 
 direction. 
 
 The zero contact feature is provided in the dis- 
 tant dial type as well as the standard type of meter, 
 so that an auxiliary circuit breaker may be oper- 
 ated, opening the charging circuit. 
 
 Leads and cables connecting the meter and dial 
 to the charge and discharge circuits are furnished 
 in distinct colors so that, with the diagrams, the 
 proper connections may be readily effected with 
 small opportunity of error. 
 
 Ammeter and Distant Dial. Since the intro 
 duction of the distant dial type of ampere-hour 
 meter, the suggestion was made that the scales of 
 all the electrical instruments carried on the vehicle, 
 such as voltmeter, ammeter and ampere-hour meter, 
 be combined in one case. This may be readily ac- 
 complished. A recent design, illustrated in Fig 
 8i, shows the distant dial and ammeter scales. 
 
 Compensated Meter for Lead Batteries. As 
 explained in Chapter III., it is characteristic of 
 lead batteries that the discharge capacity in am- 
 pere-hours varies with the discharge rate, the high- 
 er the latter the lower the capacity. For instance 
 
 206 
 
if the normal rate of a particular battery is 27 am- 
 peres for 5 hours the capacity being 135 ampere- 
 hours, then at three times the normal rate experi 
 ment shows the capacity to be only 90 ampere- 
 hours. In such an instance 45 ampere-hours would 
 be lost, ostensibly, but such is not the case as in 
 practice such an extremely high rate is not main- 
 tained for but very short periods, except under the 
 most unusual circumstances. In going through 
 sandy or heavy roads or climbing long hills the 
 current draw will be considerably increased and the 
 capacity thus reduced. However, this is partly 
 offset in practice by the short periods for which 
 these overloads are borne and the ability of the 
 battery to recuperate. 
 
 In the compensating type meters designed to pro- 
 vide for abnormal rates of discharge, the speed of 
 the meter is automatically increased, and so com- 
 pensates for the condition explained above. 
 
 SMALL AMPERE HOUR METERS 
 
 The “MS’" meter is similar in all respects to the 
 Sangamo standard D-5 ampere-hour meters, except 
 that it is much smaller in size. The general appear- 
 ance of the meter is shown on page 208, figure 93. 
 It is so small that it can be conveniently held in 
 the hand and can be installed on the dash-board 
 of an electric vehicle or gasoline car, as it occupies 
 no more space than a clock or speedometer. It 
 weighs less than five pounds. 
 
 The Type ''MS'' meter is made with two styles 
 of dial — the circular ampere-hour dial and a com- 
 bination ampere-hour and ampere dial. The, former 
 
 207 
 
is simply a regular Sangamo ampere-hour meter 
 circular dial, shown on page 208, figure, 93, while 
 the latter is a circular dial having an ampere-hour 
 scale that extends a little less than two-thirds around 
 the upper part and the circular scale near the bot- 
 tom, shown on page 209, figure 94. The internal 
 construction of these two meters is exactly the same 
 
 Type 93^ — Type “MS” Ampere-hour Meter. 
 
 except that the latter is equipped with a current 
 indicator. 
 
 The ‘"MS” meters have been especially designed 
 to meet the requirements of small storage battery 
 installations such as are used in isolated lighting 
 plants or in connection with the ignition and light- 
 
in^ systems of gasoline automobiles, motor boats, 
 etc.; also for use on electric vehicles. They are not 
 injured by the severe shocks and jars incident to 
 operation in automobiles. 
 
 Fig. 94 — Type “MS” Ampere-hour Meter with Details. 
 
 The plain circular dial type meter is intended for 
 electric vehicles where separate ammeters are ah 
 ready available for measuring the current. This 
 type, meter is reguarly furnished with a red hand 
 stamped with the word ''Empty’' and this can be 
 set at any desired point as a guide to the user. It is 
 also furnished with an insulated contact at zero, or 
 full charge point, which is closed by a platinum tip 
 
 209 
 
on the indicating hand, thus operating a circuit 
 breaker or signal device, when the battery is fully 
 charged. Contact points may be located at any posi- 
 tion on the dial to operate signals or relays at certain 
 points in the discharge of the battery. 
 
 Fig. 95 — Circuit Breaker. 
 
 Like larger meters, it is arranged for automatic 
 overcharging of the battery, and the desired per- 
 centage of over-charge can be set by means of a 
 lever which moves over a scale at the base of the 
 meter, as shown on page 209. Where desired, the 
 regular type ampere-hour meter without the 
 
 current indicator may be equipped with the com- 
 
 210 
 
pensating device which makes allowances for loss 
 of capacity for high discharge rates. 
 
 Installation and Connections. The ampere- 
 hour meters, as furnished by the manufacturers are 
 complete, ready for installation, which is a com 
 paratively simple matter requiring only the placing 
 of the instrument in a convenient location where it 
 may be easily visible, accessible for adjustment and 
 resetting, and convenient for the wiring. When 
 placed upon a dashboard which is inclined, the 
 meter .should be blocked so that the disc will ro 
 
 Fig. 96 — Circuit Diagram of Charge-Stopping Device. . Sangamo 
 Ampere-hour Meter. 
 
 tate in a horizontal plane. If possible it is pre 
 ferable to place the meter beneath the seat in ordei 
 that it may be protected from the weather and the 
 feet of the driver. 
 
 The wiring scheme is shown in Figs. g6 and 97 
 which illustrates the method of connecting the 
 
 211 
 
charging plug, controller, battery and circuit break- 
 er, Fig. 95, with the meter. 
 
 This diagram of connections, with modifications 
 depending upon special wiring of the different 
 makes of cars, can be generally applied. Care must 
 be used in making the connection when the bat- 
 tery is divided for parallel operation during part 
 
 of the time and operating in series on the higher 
 speeds. When the cells are connected in parallel 
 during discharge then the current from one branch 
 only should pass through the meter and not the 
 total current to the motor, because an erroneous 
 reading would be thus obtained. For charging, of 
 course the battery is connected in series, and all 
 of the current passes through the meter in the 
 
 212 
 
same mannef as wjien the cells are all in series on 
 discharge. 
 
 Inspection of all parts of the vehicle is neces- 
 sary and the ampere-hour meter should not be neg- 
 lected as it is very necessary to maintain all of the 
 bolts, nuts, screws and contacts firm and secure so 
 that loose contacts may not develop, causing heating 
 or even burning of terminals. When new it would 
 be well to go over the nuts and screws every two 
 or three weeks, tightening the connections if neces- 
 sary and thereafter approximately every month or 
 two. When doing this the battery contacts, in fact 
 all the electrical leads or wires, should be inspected 
 to see that good contact is made and that the joint 
 is secure. 
 
 Should damage of more than very slight nature 
 be imposed upon the meter, it is preferable to re- 
 move it from the vehicle and return it to the manu- 
 facturer or competent instrument maker for re- 
 pairs, rather than to submit it to the tampering of 
 an inexperienced repair man. 
 
 Maximum Demand Indicator. In some com- 
 munities the cost of electricity is based upon two 
 items, the first being a charge for the readiness to 
 serve, taking into account the highest point of de- 
 mand during a predetermined period ; the second 
 takes notice only of the total amount consumed in 
 the time indicated. The monthly consumption is 
 measured by a watt-hour meter, while the maxi- 
 mum demand is derived by taking either a percent- 
 age of the total connected load of the installation, 
 
 213 
 
by the use of a Demand Indicatpr, or, in the case 
 of very large consumers, by measurement of the 
 maximum load. 
 
 Fig. 98 — Maximum Demand Indicator. 
 
 There are a variety of instruments used for the 
 large installations but the recording of the maxi- 
 
 214 
 
mum values of current for the smaller consumers 
 is done by the indicators illustrated in Fi^s. 98, 
 99 and 100. In the Demand Indicator shown in 
 Fig. 98, the flow of current in the circuit for a 
 period of five minutes or more will cause the 
 liquid in the index tube of this instrument to- rise 
 to a point opposite the scale of current. The 
 liquid will remain at that point until it either is 
 
 Fig. 99 — Maximum Demand Indicator Attached to Watt-Hour 
 
 Meter. 
 
 raised by the recording of a higher value of cur- 
 rent or is reset. 
 
 Resetting is accomplished by tilting, allowing the 
 liquid to return to the main liquid chambers. Fre- 
 quently there are two scales, one of current in am- 
 peres and the other calibrated in kilowatt hours for 
 the potential of the circuit, as 115 or 230 volts. In 
 this manner the electricity meter and the Demand 
 Indicator may be quickly read and reset by the au- 
 
 215 
 
thorized meter reader and readily checked by the 
 consumer. 
 
 The instrument shown in Fig. loo is designed for 
 use with a watt-h’our meter, and prints on a tape 
 the watt-hour consumption during the small time 
 intervals also printed in adjacent position on the 
 tape. This indicator may be used for either direct 
 current or alternating current circuits. 
 
 Fig. 100 — Printing Attachment for Watt-Hour Meters. 
 
 The device illustrated in Fig. 99 takes the, place 
 of the watt-hour meter register, and also includes 
 a large hand which indicates the maximum watt- 
 hour consumption during half hour intervals. The 
 mechanism is arranged so' that, if the rate of con- 
 sumption be less during succeeding intervals, the 
 reading of the hand will not be altered, but if the 
 rate at which the energy passing through the meter 
 increases, then the hand will be moved to a posi- 
 
 210 
 
tion of greater demand. This device is applicable 
 only to alternating current circuits, but modifica- 
 tions are provided so that the same principle may 
 be used with direct current installations. 
 
 Watt-Hour Meter. The watt-hour meter rec- 
 ords the electric power consumption, taking ac- 
 count of the current, the length of time for which 
 it is used and the pressure or voltage at which it is 
 supplied. The meter used for the purpose of meas- 
 uring the electricity supplied in charging a storage 
 battery does not differ from those installed for re- 
 cording the consumption of light or power in fac- 
 tories or residences. 
 
 The external form of these meters is no doubt 
 familiar to all. The internal construction, while 
 interesting, cannot be explained within the scope 
 of this book, but the readings of the dials deserve 
 consideration at this point so that the methods of 
 arriving at the cost of current may be understood. 
 
 The dials shown in Figs. loi and 102 illustrate 
 die meter readings. After noting the direction in 
 which the pointers are moving, read the number on 
 the dial that has been passed by the pointer, that is, 
 the lower number. If there is doubt as to whether 
 the pointer has passed the number or not, inspec- 
 tion of the next lower dial will determine. If the 
 hand on it has started on a new revolution, then 
 the pointer on the first dial has passed the doubt- 
 ful number. The readings are recorded in kilo- 
 watt-hours, and the difference between two read- 
 ings gives the number of kilowatt-hours consumed 
 in the period intervening. 
 
 217 
 
The cost of current for battery charging varies 
 considerably in different parts of the country, de- 
 pending upon the number of vehicles charged regu- 
 larly, whether they are all charged at one time 
 
 P'ig. 101 — Reading 9499 Kilowatt Hours. 
 
 Fig. 102— Reading 1,188,900 Watt Hours. 
 
 or consecutively in sets, and also naturally upon the 
 cost of producing and distributing electrical energy 
 in the particular district. Owing to the fact that 
 the vehicles are charged during the night when the 
 residence and industrial loads are light, special rates 
 
 218 
 
are usually extended in favor of this class of cus- 
 tomers. Fortunately, this is profitable both to the 
 central stations and the vehicles owners, since it 
 provides off-peak load for the former and lower 
 rates for the latter. The peak load refers to the 
 periods of greatest demand on the power stations. 
 
 Remarks on the installation and maintenance of 
 watt-hour meters are unnecessary in this connec- 
 
 Fig. 103 — Hub Odometer. Fig. 104 — Centrifugal Speedometer. 
 
 tion since they are installed and inspected periodi- 
 cally by the central station companies, excepting 
 in such public garage installations as desire more 
 detailed records for their own information. In 
 such cases, arrangements can be made for com- 
 petent supervision. 
 
 Mileage and Speed Indicators. In the operation 
 of motor vehicles it is usually not only convenient 
 and advisable, but very often necessary, to know 
 the speed and distance characteristics of the ve- 
 hicle. In the measurement of distance and speed, 
 including the variation of the latter, many devices 
 are used and they may be divided into two classes, 
 
 219 
 
namely, those which give the instantaneous read 
 ings of speed and those which record its varia- 
 tions over a predetermined period. 
 
 Fundamental quantities involved are time and 
 distance. Time is measured by a clockwork of the 
 familiar type, while distance alone is measured by 
 
 Fig. 105 — Tachodometer. 
 
 a type of odometer. The odometer is usually 
 geared directly to one of the forward wheels of 
 the vehicle although, when combined with a speedo- 
 meter, the device is generally placed within the car 
 or upon the dashboard for easy reading and actu- 
 ated by a flexible shaft from the wheel. The sim- 
 
 220 
 
plest type of odometer is that which is placed upon 
 the wheel itself, Fig. 103, and consists of several 
 small toothed wheels and a recording train show- 
 ing the actual mileage for the size of wheel to 
 which it is geared. 
 
 The speedometers are of four general classes, 
 the centrifugal, hydraulic, magnetic and electric. 
 
 The centrifugal speedometers are among the most 
 widely used and depend upon the action of a re- 
 volving weight against a spring, Fig. 104. The 
 greater the speed of rotation of the weight, the 
 more intense is its effect upon the stationary spring, 
 so that a pointer attached to the latter will be re- 
 volved over a graduated scale or dial face. Any 
 changes in speed are quickly taken up by the sensi- 
 tive instrument and indicated by the pointer. 
 
 The hydraulic speedometer consists in the use 
 of a liquid, such as oil, in a tube or chamber con- 
 taining a small paddle wheel. The flexible shaft 
 from the road wheel is geared to this small paddle 
 wheel, which sets the oil in motion, propelling it 
 to a height in the tube proportional to the speed 
 of the paddle, that is, to the speed of the car. The 
 illustration. Fig. 105, shows this instrument ready 
 for installation. 
 
 The magnetic speedometers. Fig. 106, are also 
 very extensively used. They depend upon the mag- 
 netic attraction between a revolved magnetic core 
 and an attracted aluminum cup carrying the indi- 
 cated speed digits. The attraction between these 
 two, balanced against a spring of special temper, 
 
 221 
 
makes the indication in the window of the instru- 
 ment, at which the numbers appear, dependent upon 
 the speed of the flexible shaft or, in other words, 
 upon the speed of the cai. 
 
 When it is required to record mileage as well 
 as to indicate the speed, a small recording train 
 is also actuated by the flexible shaft within the 
 speedometer case. 
 
 Fig. 106 — Magnetic Speedometer. 
 
 The electric speedometer or tachometer consists 
 of a small electric generator driven from the wheel 
 of the vehicle and connected by two thin wires or 
 leads to the indicating instrument, which may be 
 located in a convenient part of the car. The indi- 
 cating instrument is in reality a voltmeter cali- 
 brated, that is, its scale is graduated in miles per 
 hour instead of volts. Ordinarily this type of in- 
 
 222 
 
strument is very little used in vehicle application 
 and does not include a mileage recording device. 
 
 Frequently it is very convenient and advisable 
 to know the exact slope or grade of a hill, and for 
 that reason an instrument, known as a gradometer, 
 may be attached to the car or secured as a unit with 
 
 Fig. 107 — Recording Speedometer. 
 
 some makes of speedometers. This gradometer is 
 simply a liquid in a tube with a scale marked in 
 per cent, grade. It is very similar to. the carpen- 
 ter’s level in which the bubble under the centre 
 mark shows that the work is true. 
 
 The devices mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graphs are very extensively used, both on com- 
 mercial and passenger vehicles, and it is safe to say 
 that there is a negligible per cent, of the total num- 
 ber of vehicles in use which are not equipped with 
 one or more of these instruments. 
 
 223 
 
Meters which give a permanent record of the 
 travelling time, standing time, etc., of vehicles are 
 important especially in commercial service where it 
 is highly desirable that the most efifective work pos- 
 sible shall be obtained from the trucking equipment. 
 These instruments are, as yet, not so widely used 
 as their importance would warrant, but owners of 
 commercial vehicles are increasingly recognizing 
 the value of using travel recording instruments upon 
 their trucks. From records made by such instru- 
 ments, it is possible for the delivery superintendent 
 or supervisor of the vehicle service to inspect the 
 movements of all the trucks throughout each day, 
 and to plan or devise methods for increasing their 
 efficiency, either by changing the loading, the driv- 
 ers or rearranging the routing. In many cases, very 
 complete records of this nature would leave nothing 
 to be desired toward increased efficiency, but such 
 records could only be assured, without the use of 
 travel recording instruments, by the continuous 
 services of trained -and skillful observers to ascer- 
 tain the details. 
 
 ' Aside from the value of the travel record as an 
 index of a truck's performance, the moral effect 
 exerted upon the driver, through the automatic re- 
 cording of all delays of his truck, is very consider- 
 able, and cannot fail but impel him to use his time 
 to the best advantage. 
 
 Several recording instruments of this class are 
 operated through flexible shafts. One of these is 
 shown in Fig. 107. The driving gear on this type 
 
 224 
 
is attached to one of the wheels of the truck. The 
 instruments proper are so protected in their cases 
 that practically no attention is necessary. The ex- 
 posed wearing parts should be inspected frequently, 
 and kept free from mud, and oiled or greased mod- 
 erately. 
 
 The recorder shown in Fig. io8 is unique in that 
 it has no outside shaft connecting it to the vehicle 
 wheel. It is a self-contained instrument and is 
 operated on the well known principle of the pendu- 
 lum, the ever-present oscillations caused by the side 
 thrust of the vehicle when in motion being the basis 
 
 Fig. 108 — The Service Recorder. 
 
 225 
 
of a record on the time chart. Ordinary vibration 
 or jar of the vehicle, are not recorded. The makers 
 lay considerable emphasis upon the lack of a flexible 
 shaft connection, pointing out that such devices are 
 easily damaged by any sort of malicious interfer- 
 ence, and that they are. more liable to breakage than 
 a self-contained instrument having no outside gear 
 connections of any kind. 
 
 A form of recording device which is very widely 
 and popularly known in the large cities is the taxi- 
 meter, which is a form of travel recorder arranged 
 to show its record in Dollars and Cents as well as 
 in miles. These devices are well known and need no 
 particular comment here. 
 
 22t 
 
CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 WHEELS, RIMS AND TIRES; THEIR CARE. 
 
 The subject matter dealing with the very im- 
 portant parts of the automobile designated by the 
 names of wheel, rim and tire might well occupy 
 a complete volume. In fact, several volumes would 
 not be sure to do the subject justice. For the pur- 
 
 poses of this book it will be considered sufficient 
 if the principles are explained and the points, which 
 make for the most satisfactory service, emphasized. 
 This subject has received considerable attention 
 since the advent of the gasoline motor car and it 
 probably will serve our purpose best if the features 
 
most characteristic of electric vehicle practice are 
 brought forward. 
 
 The wooden artillery wheel shown in Fig. 109 is 
 practically universally used on all motor vehicles. 
 The artillery wheel is very satisfactory inasmuch 
 as the second growth hickory used in its construc- 
 tion combines the features of strength and resist- 
 ance to shocks with light weight. 
 
 In the past few years the reduction in the supply 
 of first-class wood has made the introduction of 
 the wire wheel more rapid, especially in Europe 
 where the scarcity is more pronounced than in this 
 country. Wire wheels (Fig. no) are lighter than 
 wooden wheels and the claim is made that they 
 permit greater tire life by rapidl)'’ radiating the 
 heat generated by tire friction. Inasmuch as the 
 rim of a wire wheel is lighter than the felloe and 
 
 Fig. 110 — Wire Wheel. 
 
 Fig. Ill — Metal Wheel. 
 
 228 
 
rim of the artillery wheel there is less flywheel ef- 
 fect and starting and stopping may be accomplished 
 
 Fig. 112 — Demountable Rim. 
 
 Fig. 113 — Quick Detachable Rim, Clincher type. 
 
 with less time and energy. An essential difference 
 between wire and wood wheels is in the manner in 
 
 229 
 
which the load is carried. In the wooden wheel 
 the weight is carried by the spokes in the lower 
 half of the wheel, while in the wire wheel the hub 
 and housing is suspended from the upper half of 
 the rim by the spokes in tension. For this reason 
 
 Fig. 114 — Q. T). Rim, Straight Side Type. 
 
 it is said that shocks are absorbed more readily and 
 that greater life may be secured horn tires. 
 
 Metal wheels (Fig. m) formed by the use of 
 two steel discs, suitably held by the hub and rim, 
 are being used in trucking service for special pur- 
 poses, such as enclosing motors or gearing in the 
 wheel proper. The manufacturers claim strength 
 and resistance to side-thrusts combined with light- 
 ness as their features and practice appears to verify 
 the statements. 
 
 Rims. The rim is essentially a steel band de- 
 signed to rigidly hold the tire and permit of its 
 ready application or removal. The rim either en- 
 
 230 
 
circles the wheel felloe or is secured to a band 
 which does. If the felloe band and rim are sepa- 
 rate then it is said to be a demountable rim (Fig. 
 M2. A locking device, of screws, bolts or clamps, 
 
 Fig. 115 — Goodrich Silvertown Cord Tire. 
 
 (For description See page 238) 
 
 designed to hold the rim rigidly in position yet easy 
 of removal, is a necessary part of a demountable 
 rim. 
 
 The shape of the rim section as shown in (Fig. 
 1 13) determines the type of tire to be used. For 
 pneumatic tires the rims are known as (A) clincher 
 
 231 
 
or (B) straight side. These names are descriptive 
 of the method employed in securing the tire to the 
 rim. The hooks of the clincher rim engage with 
 the hooked beads of the clincher tire so that when, 
 inflated there is small possibility of the tire coming 
 oflf. In fact, the trouble, is, that when the tire has 
 been on for a length of time and is firmly seated 
 by rusting or otherwise, there is difficulty in re- 
 
 Fig. 116 — Goodrich Tire Caliper. 
 (For description See page 239) 
 
 moving it for repair or renewal. To obviate this 
 difficulty, which is most marked with the larger 
 sizes of tires, the outside hook flange is made as a 
 removable ring held in place by a locking ring. This 
 construction is known as a quick detachable rim. 
 Instead of the clincher tire, a straight side tire is 
 often used so that instead of the hooks of the re- 
 movable ring being curved inward as with the 
 clincher tire, they are reversed, curving outward. 
 
 232 
 
Many of the dimensions of the wheels and rims 
 most commonly used have been standardized by 
 the Society of Automobile Engineers, so that tires 
 of any make whatsoever may be used interchange- 
 ably on a standard dimension wheel. 
 
 Rubber tires may be readily classified as 
 pneumatic, cushion and solid. As the use of 
 wood and steel tires are not recommended for 
 electric vehicle service, except trailers, the follow- 
 ing paragraphs will be confined to the construction 
 and care of rubber tires. 
 
 The pneumatic tire is a combination of rubbei 
 compound and cotton fabric, so proportioned and 
 interwoven that the complete unit may not only con- 
 fine the air for cushioning but also withstand the 
 wear and tear of hard use. Resiliency makes de- 
 mands which cannot wholly be satisfied if endur- 
 ance is kept in mind so that, a compromise must be 
 effected giving the required cushioning with the 
 least sacrifice of durability. 
 
 The . modern efficient electric vehicle has been 
 developed from the earliest type, net by radical 
 changes, but by the refinement of the parts ; by the 
 reduction of waste power to a minimum. At first, 
 tires were used which had satisfactory wearing 
 qualities, but being hard, made it necessary to lift 
 the weight of the car over every obstruction and 
 out of every small crevice. As this took energy, 
 means were found to design a tire which absorbed 
 these inequalities of road surface of its own ac- 
 cord. The battery, therefore, having a definite ca- 
 
 233 
 
pacity, could utilize it to propelling the vehicle 
 forward instead of lifting it over thousands of 
 small obstructions. This improvement is specifical- 
 ly due to the use of more elastic compound and a 
 different weave of fabric. At first strength was 
 sacrificed for this efficiency but today after years 
 of experiments and steady service, tires are giving 
 not only efficient mileage per charge of battery but 
 also long life. 
 
 Fig. 117 — Cross-section, Indicating Parts of Tire. 
 
 This point is important, and although lower first 
 cost may seem to justify the use of less efficient 
 tires, a moment’s thought should be sufficient to 
 emphasize the additive loss during months, result- 
 ing from their use. In the case of the gasoline 
 motor vehicle this refinement in tires is not so neces- 
 sary since the continued supply of energy depends 
 upon the size of the gasoline tank. With the elec- 
 tric; however, the charge in the battery is fixed and 
 
 m 
 
it is not a matter of liow much more gasoline, but 
 what reduction in mileage. The question of tire 
 efficiency applies to cushion and solid rubber tires 
 as well as to pneumatic tires. 
 
 The essential parts of the pneumatic tire are 
 shown in (Fig. 117) illustrating the regular clinch- 
 er type. The parts are known as tread, breaker 
 strip, side walls, cushion, fabric and bead and meet 
 the following uses. 
 
 The tread is the portion of rubber compound 
 which is in direct contact with the road surface 
 and of all parts is most subject to wear. It must 
 resist wear due to the weight of the vehicle and in 
 the case of rear tires, due also to the strain of 
 traction. On good smooth roads this is not exces- 
 sive but becomes quite a feature in slippery places 
 where the wheels may slip and spin, bringing gashes 
 and cuts into the material. While it is advisable 
 to have the tread thick from the standpoint of good 
 wearing qualities, resiliency and weight are items 
 which must be couv^idered in the choice for most 
 efficient results. Careful study and exhaustive ex- 
 periments have lead the manufacturers to their 
 conclusions in the production of a suitable tread. 
 
 The breaker strip immediately beneath the tread 
 is used to receive and distribute the force of the 
 shocks over a wider surface. It, as well as the 
 other fabric parts of the tire, is made of specially 
 treated cotton. The walls on the side of the tire 
 are made of alternate layers of fabric and rubber 
 so that sufficient strength will be given to resist 
 
 235 
 
the bursting stress of the air within and yet be 
 sufificiently resilient to do the greater part of 
 stretching in the operation of rolling. The cushion 
 shown between the breaker strip and inner fabric 
 
 Fig. 118 — Cross-section of Truck Tire. 
 
 Fig. 118 A — Solid Tire, Demountable. 
 
 is of very resilient rubber and is an additional fac- 
 tor in shock absorption. The fabric is usually 
 made of what is known as combed Sea Island cot- 
 ton 'Trictioned’’ or pressed between and impreg- 
 nated with fine Para rubber. The fabric gives the 
 
 236 
 
strength to the tire, is protected and the layers 
 combined into a unit by means of the rubber. Dur- 
 ing the building up process, when layer after layer 
 
 Fig. 119 — Pressed-on-Type, Dual Tire. 
 
 is added, the parts are formed gradually into a 
 finished unit by the ''curing’’ or heating process 
 
 Fig. 120 — Demountable Wireless Tires. 
 
 and finally the completed tire is vulcanized into 
 finished shape. 
 
 The bead is made of fabric saturated with rub- 
 
 237 
 
ber and pressed into the desired shape. It may 
 contain material such as sted wires or hardened 
 rubber in order that it may be firmly secured to the 
 rim when inflated and yet be readily removed for 
 repair or removal. 
 
 GOODRICH SILVERTOWN CORD TIRES. 
 
 A number of years ago a discovery was made in 
 Silvertown, England, which has had a pronounced 
 effect upon the successful operation of electric vehi- 
 cles in this country. It was a new method of manu- 
 facturing pneumatic tires by supplanting fabric with 
 heavy cabled cords made from sea-island cotton, 
 and sole American rights to the manufacture of this 
 type of tire were, secured shortly after by The B. 
 F. Goodrich Company. 
 
 After a number of years of development which 
 were necessary to fit the tire for use on American 
 roads the new justly-famous Goodrich Silvertown 
 Cord Tire, was placed upon the market. 
 
 While this tire has been' very largely used on 
 gasoline cars, it may be regarded as a tire type par- 
 ticularly fitted for use on electrics. 
 
 Two rows of cabled cords, each thoroughly im- 
 pregnated with rubber, driven in under terrific pres- 
 sure form the carcass or foundation of the tire. 
 
 The advantages which the cord construction has 
 over the fabric tire are far greater than would be 
 supposed by anyone who had not given the matter 
 consideration. The cords seem to have greater 
 vitality and strength, and at the same time to be 
 more pliable and resilient so that the tire not only 
 
 23S 
 
gives long mileage, hut increased the radius of car 
 activity per battery charge as high as 25%. 
 
 1'he tires ahsorh unevenness of the road surface, 
 it is not necessary for the battery to push the car 
 up and over obstructions; it is possible to develop 
 greater speed, start quicker, coast farther and steer 
 easier. 
 
 GOODRICH TIRE CALIPER. 
 
 Over-loading is acknowledged to be the most ex- 
 tensive and injurious of all the abuses to which 
 pneumatic tires are subject. Some manufacturers 
 have stated that as high as 90% of the tires which 
 fail to reach their mileage expectancy, do so be- 
 cause sufficient air pressure has not been carried. 
 
 The proper inflation for a pneumatic tire has al- 
 ways been a source of disagreement. Obviously it 
 is foolish to inflate a 4" tire which equips a light 
 roadster and carries only 50O' pounds weight to the 
 same pressure that a 4" tire on a heavy touring car 
 and carrying 750 pounds weight is inflated. And 
 yet manufacturers have heretofore advised an ar- 
 bitrary inflation of 18 or 20 pounds pressure per 
 cross sectional inch of the tire regardless of the 
 weight which it carried. 
 
 Recently seventeen of the largest tire manufac- 
 turers have acknowledged that such recommenda- 
 tions were wrong; acknowledged that a tire should 
 be inflated for the load which it actually carries. 
 
 The Goodrich Tire Caliper has been devised by 
 The B. F. Goodrich Company to relieve this situa- 
 tion and to give users of pneumatic tires an easy 
 
 239 
 
method of determining proper inflation. By adjust- 
 ing the caliper so that the two arms touch the sides 
 of the tire a reading on the scale, entitled “Size 
 Scale of Tire’' may be secured. A corresponding 
 scale entitled “Load Scale on Ground” provides for 
 a 9% difiference between the measurement at the 
 top of the tire and the point where it rests upon the 
 ground. By sliding the movable arm of the caliper 
 to the corresponding figure on “Load Scale on 
 Ground” and then fitting it over the tire at the bot- 
 tom, motorists may determine whether or not there 
 is too much flattening or deflection. Engineers 
 state that deflection greater than nine per cent, is 
 injurious to the tire carcass. If the deflection is 
 greater than that figure the caliper arms will not 
 fit over the tire at the bottom. 
 
 The use of the caliper is exceedingly simple; it 
 is not necessary to remove dust caps or valve caps 
 unless inflation is found to be necessary. The cali- 
 per is also as accurate as a steel tape in direct con- 
 trast to the spring gauge which often weakens, 
 breaks, or is thrown out of adjustment by rust or 
 particles of dirt. 
 
 If the caliper is not used it is necessary to weigh 
 first the front end of the car, then the rear end, 
 divide each weight by two in order to determine 
 the weight upon each tire, and then determine from 
 a table of recommended pressures the inflation 
 which the tire should carry. With this figure se- 
 cured the tire may be, inflated and gauged with a 
 pressure gauge. Should that be inaccurate, the 
 
 240 
 
motorists will be unable to inflate the tires to the 
 exact pressure which they should carry. 
 
 Fig. 121 — High Rubber Cushion Tire Contrasted with Ordinary Type 
 Truck Tire. 
 
 Fig. 122 — Sectional Block Tire (Dual). 
 
 The tire caliper has been adjudged by men of 
 
 241 
 
authority as the only scientific, unfailing method of 
 determining proper tire inflation. 
 
 In cushion tires, the, object sought is to obtain 
 freedom from punctures, blow-outs, etc., secured 
 in the solid tire together with the resiliency ob- 
 tained from the pneumatic tire. This is accom- 
 plished by proportioning the quantity of rubber in 
 the compound and by the method of arranging 
 the supporting ribs or bridges. The surfaces of 
 the tread in some cases are grooved or cupped in 
 order that firm traction and avoidance of skid- 
 ding may be secured. These tires are held to the 
 rim in a similar manner to the pneumatic tires 
 and the latest designs allows for interchangeability 
 with the latter. This form of tire is applicable 
 both to passenger and light commercial cars, the 
 conditions of load and speed being the governing 
 specifications as may be readily understood. 
 
 There are many styles of solid tire, some forms 
 of which are shown in Fig. ii 8 a. They dififer in 
 the method of attaching to the rim, either being 
 secured by simply a clincher rim or fitted with 
 transverse wires held under the hooks of the rim 
 flange or containing longitudinal wires either at 
 the center, near the rim or at the side. Another 
 method of holding the rubber firmly to the base 
 is by making the base of metal dovetailed to hold 
 a hard rubber sub-base .and vulcanizing the tire 
 to it. This practice is applicable for the largest 
 tires and is shown in Fig. 120. 
 
 Tires may be arranged either single or dual, 
 depending upon the weight to be carried, gener- 
 
 242 
 
ally single in front and dual on the rear wheels, 
 as 6 o% of the normal load may be considered as 
 supported on the latter. 
 
 A type of solid tire which meets the require- 
 ments of heavy vehicle service is the ^‘sectional 
 block tire.” ( Fig. 122.) The advaniages claimed 
 for this style are greater life, greater resiliency and 
 less cost of renewal, as the sections may be replaced 
 individually, not necessitating the application of a 
 complete tire when the damage extends to but a 
 limited portion. 
 
 CARE OF TIRES. 
 
 Whether the tire be used in passenger or com- 
 mercial service, the desire to secure continuous 
 service with the least delay and expense is com- 
 mon. Although the pneumatic tire is most vul- 
 nerable, yet there are precautions which apply to 
 all rubber tires because they are rubber, and 
 therefore susceptible to the abuses which rubber 
 will not withstand. 
 
 Elasticity is a characteristic of many sub- 
 stances, but the bare mention of the word brings 
 to our minds the ability of rubber to suffer dis- 
 tortion and return to its original shape. Yet 
 rubber, like steel, when strained beyond its elas- 
 tic limit, will not return to shape. The fibres or 
 small particles possess the ability to hold together 
 and resist motion, but when their resistance has 
 been exceeded they are permanently separated 
 and their power of cohesion is lost. In other 
 words, the material is said to be overloaded. 
 Apply this explanation to a rubber band which 
 
 243 
 
we stretch, or a rubber tire which we compress, 
 it is evident that the results are the same. A tire 
 of a given size is designed and recommended after 
 tests to carry a given load indefinitely. It is not 
 reasonable to expect it to carry twice or three 
 times the load continuously, yet unconsciously a 
 large number of users continually overload their 
 tires and are at a loss to understand their early 
 failure. 
 
 When the tires are installed to carry full load 
 distributed over the vehicle, it is evident that 
 piling it upon the rear end for easy removal by a 
 lazy driver exerts unnecessary strain on the tires. 
 Considerable overhang produces a powerful 
 crushing leverage amounting in effect to a heavy 
 overload. When it is possible to unload a truck 
 should not be allowed to stand over night fully 
 loaded. 
 
 Overspeeding is responsible for many accidents 
 and casualties and is to be heartily discouraged 
 from every standpoint. In this connection it is 
 well to consider the blows to which the tire is 
 subjected when striking an obstacle at high speed. 
 As a rule the maximum speed of the electric 
 vehicle lies within the range dictated by safety 
 and economy, so that difficulty from this source is 
 reduced to a minimum. 
 
 When passing over railroad tracks or ruts care 
 should be exercised so that the blow may be as 
 small as possible. Similarly, in backing against a 
 curbstone, it should not be used as a stop placed 
 there for the convenience of the driver. 
 
 244 
 
The deterioration produced by the several 
 forms of abuse known as overloading may not be 
 even visible to the eye, but the results will in 
 time show up and the failure be unjustly 
 laid to faulty material or poor workmanship. It 
 has been estimated that 5^ excess weight added 
 to the vehicle imposes an overload of 15% in 
 wear and tear on tires. The salvation is in pre- 
 vention alone. Tires which are too large, ''over- 
 size,’' are a profitable investment in the long run 
 over a scant equipment. The following tables 
 are appended representing safe load capacities: 
 
 TABLE NO. 10. 
 
 
 GRADUATED 
 
 TABLE OF 
 
 SOLID 
 
 TIRE CARRYING 
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 
 
 
 32" 
 
 34" 
 
 36" 
 
 38" 
 
 40" 
 
 42" 
 
 
 Cross Section. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 mph. 
 
 2" 
 
 Singles 
 
 . . 450 
 
 475 
 
 500 
 
 525 
 
 550 
 
 575 
 
 20 
 
 2.5' 
 
 . . 670 
 
 710 
 
 750 
 
 790 
 
 830 
 
 870 
 
 20 
 
 3" 
 
 u 
 
 . . 900 
 
 950 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,050 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,150 
 
 20 
 
 3.5' 
 
 
 .. 1,130 
 
 1,190 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,310 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,430 
 
 18 
 
 4" 
 
 ** 
 
 . . 1,350 
 
 1,425 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,575 
 
 1,650 
 
 1,725 
 
 16 
 
 5" 
 
 “ 
 
 , .. 1,800 
 
 1,900 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,100 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,300 
 
 14 
 
 6" 
 
 
 , .. 2,250 
 
 2,375 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,625 
 
 2,750 
 
 2,875 
 
 12 
 
 7" 
 
 
 , . . 2,700 
 
 2,850 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,150 
 
 3,300 
 
 3,450 
 
 10 
 
 2" 
 
 Dual 
 
 , 1,125 
 
 1,188 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,312 
 
 1,375 
 
 1,438 
 
 18 
 
 2.5' 
 
 ' 
 
 . .. 1,675 
 
 1,775 
 
 1,875 
 
 1,975 
 
 2,075 
 
 2,175 
 
 18 
 
 3" 
 
 
 .. 2,250 
 
 2,375 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,625 
 
 2,750 
 
 2,875 
 
 16 
 
 3.5' 
 
 ' “ 
 
 . . 2,825 
 
 8,975 
 
 3,125 
 
 3,275 
 
 3,425 
 
 3,575 
 
 14 
 
 4" 
 
 
 .. 3,375 
 
 3,560 
 
 3,750 
 
 3,940 
 
 4,125 
 
 4,310 
 
 13 
 
 5" 
 
 “ 
 
 , 4,500 
 
 4,750 
 
 6,000 
 
 5,250 
 
 5,500 
 
 5,750 
 
 12 
 
 6" 
 
 (€ 
 
 . . 5,625 
 
 5,940 
 
 6,250 
 
 6,565 
 
 6,875 
 
 7,190 
 
 10 
 
 
 a 
 
 , .. 6,750 7,125 7,500 
 
 TABLE NO. 11. 
 
 7,875 
 
 8,250 
 
 8,625 
 
 10 
 
 GRADUATED TABLE OF PNEUMATIC TIRE CARRYING WEIGHTS 
 
 Size, 
 
 Rear, 
 
 Front, 
 
 Size, 
 
 Rear, 
 
 Front, 
 
 inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 28 X 3 
 
 350 
 
 425 
 
 40 X 4 
 
 850 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 X 3 
 
 375 
 
 450 
 
 42 X 4 
 
 900 
 
 1,050 
 
 32 X 3 
 
 375 
 
 450 
 
 32 X 4J4 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,100 
 
 34 X 3 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 34 X 4^ 
 
 900 
 
 1,125 
 
 30x35^ 
 
 450 
 
 550 
 
 36 X 4^ 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,250 
 
 32 X 3H 
 
 500 
 
 625 
 
 42 X 4^ 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,450 
 
 34 X 354 
 
 550 
 
 675 
 
 34 X 5 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,250 
 
 36 X 354 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 35 X 5 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,250 
 
 30 X 4 
 
 625 
 
 750 
 
 36 X 5 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,375 
 
 32 X 4 
 
 650 
 
 800 
 
 37 X 5 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,350 
 
 34 X 4 
 
 700 
 
 875 
 
 38 X 554 
 
 1,350 
 
 1,600 
 
 36 X 4 
 
 750 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 245 
 
ALIGNMENT. 
 
 It frequently happens that a glancing blow 
 against a curbstone or road shock causing bent 
 axles or wrenched steering knuckles takes the 
 wheels out of true. When thus out of alignment, 
 the tire not alone rolls, but turns in another plane. 
 
 Fig. 123 — Wheels Out of 
 Alignment. 
 
 Fig. 124 — Running in Car 
 Tracks. 
 
 SO that, besides requiring more energy for propul- 
 sion, the tread of the tire is ground oflf as surely 
 as if it were held against a grindstone. (Fig- 
 123. Accidents of this nature should be reme- 
 died at the earliest opportunity by properly align- 
 
 246 
 
ing the wheels. If the distance between the rims 
 of the two front or rear wheels is the same at 
 front and rear points, then the alignment is cor- 
 rect. 
 
 OIL AND GREASE. 
 
 Oils and grease in their proper place are very 
 important factors in maintaining smooth opera- 
 tion, but when applied to rubber tires, the result 
 is the ruin of the tire. The compound is attacked 
 and reduced to the consistency of mush losing its 
 resiliency and resistance. The garage floor should 
 be kept free ‘of oil and the tires kept clear of 
 puddles of oil if they are present. Gasoline may 
 be used to remove oils or grease from the tires, as 
 it dries very quickly. 
 
 ABRASION. 
 
 There are very many ways in which the rubber 
 may be worn off the tread or sides of the tire. 
 Among these may be mentioned tires out of align- 
 ment, cuts from new roads of broken stone, car 
 tracks and scraping against curbstones. Running 
 with the tires out of alignment wears the tread 
 very rapidly, as has been described. 
 
 Small cuts from litter or from sharp stones are 
 not serious in themselves, but when neglected, 
 dirt and sand work their way in, making the cut 
 larger, and injuring a considerable portion of the 
 tire. In the case of pneumatic tires, the sand 
 works its way in between the rubber and the 
 fabric, and with the help of moisture weakening 
 the piles, a 'TIow-out” results. The small cut 
 should be repaired at the earliest opportunity by 
 vulcanizing as explained on (Page 252). 
 
 247 
 
Running in street car tracks (Fig. 124) and 
 against the curbing are very similar. The sharp 
 edges of the rail flange cut small pieces ofif of the 
 sides of the tire and in some cases, such as run- 
 ning over a frog which has been worn to a knife 
 edge, leave big gashes which spell disaster. 
 Granted that it is a big temptation to ride in the 
 trolley tracks rather than bounce over cobbles or 
 Belgian block pavements, yet it should not be 
 
 Fig. 125 — Caused by Overloading. 
 
 indulged in except with the understanding that it 
 is very damaging to the tire. In wet weather the 
 effects are most pronounced, as rubber may be 
 cut very much more readily when wet than dry. 
 Small tires naturally sink deeper into the rail 
 channel and thus have their sides worn away 
 more rapidly than larger tires, which sustain the 
 damage on the tread. 
 
 Starting and stopping give ample opportunity 
 for excessive wear. There is probably no one 
 
 248 
 
with the least observing turn of mind who has 
 not seen cars started from rest with a jump to run 
 oflF at high speed. Such action causes a severe 
 strain upon the tire and its fastenings, and really 
 
 Fig. 126 — Anti-Skid Tire Grips. 
 
 Fig. 127 — Anti-Skid Chains. 
 
 is a form of overloading the elasticity of the rub- 
 ber. With heavy loads there is a great tendency 
 to tear the rubber and fabric from its anchorage. 
 Easy acceleration will do much to prevent injury 
 from this cause. 
 
 Likewise, who is there who has not seen a 
 driver slam on his brakes and bring the car to a 
 grinding stop? No motorist in his sane moments 
 
 249 
 
would think of holding his tire against a grind- 
 stone, yet those who suddenly apply the brakes 
 and slide the locked wheels over the road surface, 
 are guilty of exactly that ofifense. Yes, there are 
 emergencies when danger of accident may even 
 
 Fig. 128 — Section Non-Skid Tire. Fig. 129 — Tire Gauge. 
 
 make reversing the driving mechanism necessary, 
 but those instances are usually far and few be- 
 tween, and our arraignment of the thoughtless 
 ones is just. The vehicle should be gradually 
 brought to a standstill by slowly increasing the 
 brake pressure. 
 
 While speaking of brakes, it is well to remem- 
 ber that the braking should not only be gradual, 
 
 250 
 
but that it should be equal upon each wheel and 
 tire. 
 
 Adjustments are provided so that the pressure 
 may be equal upon each wheel and periodic in- 
 spection should be given to this important item. 
 When one wheel stops the car then the entire 
 grinding action is borne by the tire of that wheel, 
 being double the wear sustained when the slide 
 takes place on both tires. 
 
 Skidding. Skidding, or the uncontrolled move- 
 ment of the rear wheels on wet pavements in a 
 lateral direction, is very often caused by unequal 
 brake adjustment. Also, the momentum of the 
 vehicle, tending to continue in its original path, 
 after the front wheels have been turned, is ac- 
 countable for this dangerous action. When pos- 
 sible, the front wheels should be turned in the 
 direction in which the car is sliding, in order to 
 counteract its efifects. 
 
 Several means have been introduced, such as 
 tire chains, grips and special treads (Figs. 126, 
 127) for the purpose of reducing skidding and se- 
 curing better traction on wet or oily roads. Tire 
 chains are efifective and extensively used with sat- 
 isfaction. They should be loose enough to slide 
 around the tire so that the cross links may give 
 traction to the entire tread instead of confining it 
 to a limited number of points. For this reason it 
 is better to have a considerable number of cross 
 bars so that the blows as the tire grips the road 
 may be increased in number, but decreased in 
 magnitude. While indispensable for driving in 
 
 261 
 
congested traffic or slippery roads, they should be 
 removed when the road conditions do not make'^ 
 them necessary. Under no condition should they 
 
 Fig. 130 — Tire Bandage. Fig. 131 — Inner Tube Protector. 
 
 Fig. 132 — Folding Inner Tube for Storage. 
 
 be fastened permanently to a spot on the tire, as 
 it would direct the entire driving strain to the 
 small section thus confined, severely overloading 
 its elasticity and resiliency. Finally, if the links 
 have been worn sharp they should be replaced, as 
 the sharp corners cut into the rubber of the tread. 
 
 At present there are many special anti-skid 
 treads recommended by the different manufactur- 
 ers, which have the one aim in view. The prin- 
 ciple used is to effect the formation of a vacuum 
 
 262 
 
when there is a tendency to lateral movement. 
 This is accomplished either by cups, small blocks 
 or projections from the tread of many varieties 
 of shape and kind. (Fig. 128.) 
 
 The question of routing has a decided ettect on 
 the wear of tires, so that whenever possible poor 
 roads should be avoided or a detour made, as 
 prevention is far better in most all cases than the 
 cure. This is a very simple matter with passen- 
 ger cars, but naturally might lead to complica- 
 tions with commercial vehicles. Having in mind 
 the probable damage, however, means may usu- 
 ally be found to avoid stretches of sharp broken 
 stone, deep ruts, etc. 
 
 Standing Idle. It is only natural to expect the 
 rubber of the tire to acquire a permanent set or 
 become flattened under several thousand pounds 
 pressure. To avoid such strain vehicles should 
 be jacked up and supported on horses (which 
 may be very inexpensively constructed) when 
 standing idle for any length of time. Heavily 
 loaded vehicles should be relieved of their load 
 when standing over night. With pneumatic tires 
 not only is it necessary for the casings to with- 
 stand the pressure of the air within, but the 
 weight of the vehicle, so that the importance of 
 these simple means of relieving unnecessary 
 strain should be evident to all. 
 
 CARE OF PNEUMATIC TIRES. 
 
 The most important thing to remember in the 
 use of Pneumatic Tires is to keep them well sup- 
 
 96t 
 
plied with air. It has been estimated that over 
 three-quarters of the difficulties encountered by 
 motorists are due primarily to lack of inflation. 
 It is necessary to inflate the tire to the proper 
 pressure specified by the tire manufacturer and 
 given in able No. 12 below and keep it at that 
 
 TABLE NO. 12 
 
 PRESSURE OF AIR IN PNEUMATIC TIRES, 
 
 Size 
 
 Pressure 
 
 inches. 
 
 Lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 2/2 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 50 . 
 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 
 80 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 pressure as long as the tire is in use. There are 
 remarkably few cases of over inflation except 
 where air compressors are carelessly or ignor- 
 antly used. There is little doubt of the fact, how- 
 ever, that with a hand-pump, not over one man in 
 a million has ever put too much air int6 his tire. 
 
 There is but one safe way to govern the in- 
 flation of tires and that is to purchase a reliable 
 tire gauge and use it regularly for inspection and 
 when inflating. It is impossible to tell by look- 
 ing at the tire, kicking it or counting the number 
 of strokes of the pump just what the pressure is. 
 There is only one reliable means and that is the 
 gauge (Fig. 129), which is inexpensive and cer- 
 tainly pays for itself many times over in tire 
 savings. 
 
 254 
 
An erroneous impression which seems to have 
 received wide circulation is the idea that in hot 
 weather tires should not be inflated to their stand- 
 ard pressure. Although the pressure in the tire 
 is not wholly independent of temperature, yet the 
 variation is so slight that it may be neglected for 
 all ordinary conditions. 
 
 The pneumatic tire being constructed of rub- 
 ber compound and cotton fabric, is intended to be 
 possessed of strength to withstand the pressure 
 from within, shocks from without, and offer re- 
 silience in motion. The side walls of the tire are 
 subjected to a bending motion which is very pro 
 nounced and continuous when the tire is run 
 soft or semi-deflated. This alternating bending 
 produces heat just as the bending back and forth 
 of a piece of wire makes the latter so hot that it 
 cannot be comfortably held by the fingers. The 
 heat thus generated in the threads of the fabric 
 extends to the other parts of the tire and pro- 
 duces gradual deterioration. There are other 
 forms of friction within the tire which generate 
 heat which cannot be so easily avoided as the one 
 just explained. The fabric within thus weakened 
 may be readily broken by a severe shock or 
 bruise and if not repaired will result in a ''blow- 
 out.” 
 
 Smaller cuts in the tread or side walls may be 
 readily encountered and if not remedied at once 
 gradually increase in size, causing more serious 
 damage. Sand or dirt may easily work their way 
 into the small cut, making it larger and finding a 
 
 255 
 
place between the rubber of the tread and the 
 fabric make the gap larger and form a “sand blis- 
 ter” or “mud boil.” These blisters continue to in- 
 crease in size and speed, allowing water to find its 
 way to the fabric. Cotton fabric is very strong 
 when dry, but when exposed to dampness or 
 moisture it rapidly loses its strength. It can be 
 easily understood, therefore, that when a small 
 cut is allowed to develop and water is permitted 
 to attack the fabric, that a sharp shock to the ma- 
 terial at the damaged point will cause it to give 
 way and allow air to escape, in many cases ruin- 
 ing both the tube and the casing. 
 
 Another source of injury to the casing is the 
 severe blow encountered at high speed. Al- 
 though no evidence may be left on the outside of 
 the casing and no trace of damage be found until 
 a blow-out occurs, it may generally be assumed 
 that the innermost ply of the fabric is broken. 
 Gradually the plies above it having to endure 
 greater strain, give way until the entire thickness of 
 fabric is destroyed, and finally a blow at the dam- 
 aged point causes a blow-out. 
 
 Under normal conditions of service the tread is 
 gradually worn off and unless damaged by cuts 
 will not need repairing until it is worn almost to 
 the fabric. Obviously it should be retreaded be- 
 fore such a point is reached in order that the 
 fabric may not be damaged either by being 
 ground off or subjected to moisture. 
 
 Small cuts, as noted above, should receive im- 
 mediate treatment by being cleansed of sand and 
 
 256 
 
dirt with gasoline or benzine. The sides and the 
 space about one-half to three-quarters of an inch 
 around the sides should be roughened by rubbing 
 with sandpaper, the cut filled with patching ce- 
 ment, an application of rubber gum should then 
 be worked into the cut and allowed to set for 
 
 rig. 133 — Electric Tube Vulcanizer. 
 
 Fig. 134 — Gasoline Tube Vulcanizer. 
 
 several hours before using the tire. This treat- 
 ment will suffice for small cuts, but with larger 
 ones vulcanizing should be resorted to. 
 
 In the treatment of sand blisters or mud boils, 
 they should be opened and the rubber cut away so 
 
 257 
 
that all dirt and foreign material may be removed 
 from between the rubber and the fabric. After 
 cleansing thoroughly with gasoline, the good tire 
 surface around the edge of the cut should be 
 roughened and several applications of cement 
 given. The cement should be allowed to dry 
 thoroughly before each application and the rub- 
 ber gum added and vulcanized into place. Vul- 
 canizing may be done either by the acid cure vul- 
 canizer or by one of the mechanical types of 
 vulcanizers such as those heated by gasoline, 
 steam or electricity (Figs. 133-136). 
 
 Vulcanizing. Uncured rubber stock is used as 
 a filler in replacing the material which has been 
 cut out of the tire or removed by a blow-out. The 
 vulcanizing cement is different from that used in 
 making ordinary repairs, in that it contains a 
 small amount of sulphur which cures the Para 
 stock integrally with the old material. It is nec- 
 essary to regulate the heat carefully, as the vul- 
 canizing may be effected best at a temperature 
 ranging from 250° to 275° F. Material which has 
 been previously treated should be worked at a 
 lower temperature than new stock. As explained 
 above, the cut or punctured tube should be thor- 
 oughly cleansed and roughened with sand paper, 
 after which two coats of the vulcanizing cement 
 may be applied, allowing the first to dry before 
 the application of the second. Strips of rubber 
 are then cut to fit into the opening and a piece of 
 cloth applied between the face of the vulcanizer 
 and the rubber This treatment of from fifteen 
 
 258 
 
to twenty minutes at the proper temperature will 
 effect the repair of any ordinary damage. Should 
 the cut be very deep it may be necessary to fit 
 in several layers of rubber, all of which may be 
 vulcanized in one treatment. 
 
 Acid Cure. In applying a patch with the acid 
 cure outfit it is also important to clean the surface 
 thoroughly and when the acid has been worked over 
 the cement, the patch should be rapidly placed in 
 position and smoothed down forcing out all air bub- 
 
 Fig. 13o — Electric Tread Vulcanizer. Fig. 136 — Steam Vulcanizer. 
 
 bles and if possible clamped tightly to dry. In mak- 
 ing repairs by patching, the proper time to apply 
 the patch, which also must be prepared with cement, 
 is when the second coat has become '^tacky,’’ that is 
 almost dry but sticky. It is well lo have a clamp 
 for this so as to insure better contact of the patch 
 over the damaged part. 
 
 A number of vulcanizers of the several types 
 mentioned are shown in the accompanying illustra- 
 tions, the principle being the same in each, the dif- 
 ference in the means by which the heat is furnished 
 and regulated. 
 
 259 
 
For the temporary repair of a blow-out, the most 
 convenient method is to apply the inner tube pro- 
 tector (Fig. 131), to prevent the inner tube being 
 cut by the jagged edges of the casing. A bandage 
 (Fig. 130), may then be laced or securely fastened 
 over the damaged portion of the casing to prevent 
 dirt or pebbles from entering. This is a very satis- 
 factory means for repairing the blow-out suffi- 
 ciently to reach a repair station. 
 
 The damages which extend through the body of 
 the tire tearing the fabric as well as the outer cov- 
 erings, necessarily require more extensive handling 
 than has been detailed above. When the plies of 
 fabric are broken it is necessary to cut away the 
 successive layers in slightly increasing size over 
 the opening so that when new material is added 
 with sheet rubber between to efifect a solid joint, the 
 joints of each layer will overlap. 
 
 Attention should be given to the rims as in many 
 instances the hooks of the flanges become jagged 
 or sharp and wear into the fabric near the bead so 
 that a good jar may produce a blow-out. Rust is 
 also a foe to be contended with as it is destructive 
 to the rubber and fabric. For this reason the rims 
 should be kept free of water and moisture and if the 
 rims become rusted they should be cleaned ofif with 
 emery cloth and given a coat of aluminum paint or 
 shellac. This treatment should be afforded at least 
 once a season as it not only prevents rust but makes 
 removal of the tire easier in case of puncture. 
 
 Inner Tubes. The inner tubes should have a 
 life greater than the casing and this is usually the 
 
 260 
 
case if properly cared for. The inner tubes should 
 be protected from light, grease, oils and sharp tools. 
 It is not infrequent that we see inner tubes care- 
 lessly folded, thrown in the tool box to bounce and 
 knock around with sharp edged tools and oily waste. 
 Tubes handled in such a manner are hardly fit for 
 use when installed as the oil has attached the fine 
 rubber and the tools have probably produced cuts. 
 
 The inner tube should be carried in a special bag 
 or wrapped in soft rubber wrapping, being sprinkled 
 with soap stone or French Chalk. The illustration 
 (Fig. 132) shows the method of folding the tube 
 so as to expel all the air without excessive creasing. 
 After removing the valve stem to allow the escape 
 of air, the tire should be handled as shown in (a), 
 (b) and (c). Compressing the tube as in (c) the 
 stem and cap should be replaced when it may be 
 folded as in (e), (d), (f). The bands used in tying 
 should not be tight and the tube should be refolded 
 at intervals so that the folds may not develop sharp 
 creases which weaken the structure. 
 
 It sometimes happens that a small nail punctures 
 the tire and gradually works its way around making 
 punctures at several points by circumferential move- 
 ment of the casing on the rims. Before inserting a 
 new tube, it is always well to run the hand around 
 the inside of the shoe to make sure that there is no 
 obstruction to cause damage. The use of soap- 
 stone or French Chalk is recommended to prevent 
 the generation of heat between the tube and fabric 
 of the casing. Powdered graphite is also efficient as 
 an anti-friction material. 
 
 261 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE MOTOR: CONSTRUCTION AND 
 
 CARE. 
 
 The electric motor is that part of the electric 
 vehicle which utilizes the electrical energy furnished 
 by the storage battery for the purpose of propelling 
 the vehicle. The energy to the motor is regulated 
 by the controller so that sufficient power may be 
 furnished for operating at any desired speed up to 
 the limit of the apparatus. 
 
 The electric motor is no doubt a very familiar and 
 popularly used piece of apparatus, but a brief ex^ 
 planation will probably not be amiss at this point. 
 The quality required in any electric motor is the 
 ability to do a definite amount of work efficiently 
 and immediately when called upon. In general 
 power applications this feature has been character- 
 istic since its introduction, and is the reason for 
 its universal use. This characteristic is very im- 
 portant when applied to the functions of a motor 
 vehicle inasmuch as it makes the operation of the 
 vehicle simple and safe in starting, stopping and 
 traveling. This use of the motor is not new by any 
 means as it dates from the earliest trolley system 
 and has progressed with it over the earth. The 
 motor of the street railway car receives its electri- 
 cal energy from the distant power house by means 
 of a suspended trolley wire or '"third rail,’’ while 
 the electric vehicle motor utilizes that furnished by 
 the storage battery. The energy available from the 
 power house is not limited as far as the needs of a 
 
 262 
 
sing'le car are concerned, but, from considerations 
 of weight and space, it is possible to supply only a 
 limited amount from the storage battery. This 
 restriction means that the manufacturers of these 
 motors must not only furnish a motor capable of 
 turning electrical into mechanical energy, but must 
 provide one which also operates with great effici- 
 ency and which will add as little weight as possible 
 
 Fig. 137 — Field Pole Pieces. 
 
 Fig. 138 — Field Coils. 
 
 to. the vehicle. Under ordinary conditions of op- 
 eration, the power requirements are moderate, but 
 in some instances such as heavy loads, hilly or sandy 
 roads, the use of power many times more than 
 normal is necessitated. The battery is capable of 
 furnishing the energy and the motor must be capa- 
 ble of handling it. This is very severe service, and 
 
 263 
 
it may be interesting as well as instructive to point 
 out at this time that the electric motor is practically 
 the only machine which can be depended upon to 
 
 Fig. 139 — Motor Frame, Motor Door and End Bearing Plate. 
 
 Fig. 140 — Armature, Commutator Attached on Right. 
 
 withstand such abuse by sustaining such great over- 
 loads. The effects will be plainly evident in time, 
 however, and so misuse should be avoided and pre- 
 vented to the greatest extent. This ability to ''de- 
 liver the goods,’’ is applicable both figuratively and 
 literally, explaining the claim of reliability and pos- 
 itive operation, under even adverse circumstances. 
 
 264 
 
without making the operating charges prohibitive. 
 The battery must supply the energy and its ability 
 in that direction cannot be questioned when it is 
 known that those of central stations are sometimes 
 called upon to supply the light and power require- 
 ments of large cities. 
 
 The motor must utilize the current to the best ad- 
 vantage and that this is done must be admitted when 
 the wide application of the electric motor to every 
 art is known. This combination of battery and mo- 
 tor, therefore, offer the most satisfactory and eco- 
 nomical method of transportation, limited to safe 
 speeds and moderate but sufficient mileage. The 
 method is most satisfactory because of the very 
 reasons of the electric motor; simplicity, reliability 
 and flexibility ; most economical because of the few 
 parts, their smooth running and iong life even with 
 hard wear. 
 
 In operation, the motor depends upon the phe- 
 nomena of attraction and repulsion between mag- 
 nets and wires carrying currents. The magnetism 
 is produced in this case by electromagnets, called 
 Poles (Figs. 137 and 138), constructed of insulated 
 copper wire coiled around cores of laminated iron. 
 The coils and cores are always an even number, and 
 are fastened to the inside of a steel ring known as 
 the frame (Fig. 139). Current supplied by the stor- 
 age battery to the coils, produces a powerful mag- 
 netic effect in the poles and frame; in other words 
 sets up a magnetic field. Rotating between and al- 
 most touching the ends of the inward projecting 
 poles, is the Armature (Fig. 140), formed of a mass 
 
 265 
 
of iron laminations over which insulated copper 
 wires are wound. Ihe wires of the armature are 
 coiled in a plane at right angles to the plane of rota- 
 
 Fig. 141 — Brush Yoke Holding Carbon Brushes. 
 
 Fig. 142 — Ball Bearings for Motor. 
 
 tion, and their ends are soldered to a sliding contact 
 member, the Commutator, made of copper segments 
 insulated from each other. Current from the stor- 
 age battery is conducted through the carbon Brushes 
 
 266 
 
(Fig. 141), and commutator to the coils of wire of 
 the armature. 
 
 Thus, the current carried in the armature coils, 
 by reacting upon the field, causes the armature to 
 rotate. The Torque, or turning power of the re- 
 acting combination, varies with the amount of cur- 
 rent in the armature and the strength of the field 
 poles. For electric automobile purposes, the fields 
 are connected in series with the armature, the 
 amount of current in the armature being the same 
 as that in the fields. This combination, known as 
 a Series Motor, is capable of exerting powerful 
 torque in meeting overloads. The amount of cur- 
 rent supplied to the armature circuit determines the 
 power developed. 
 
 This means that as the controller handle is moved 
 into the positions signifying increased power that 
 more current is being allowed to pass from the bat- 
 tery to the motor, which in turn can exert a greater 
 turning efifort. This torque delivered at the shaft 
 of the motor to the chains or gearing, turns the 
 wheels, thus propelling the vehicle. The power 
 may be absorbed in two ways, by propulsion under 
 more difficult conditions, or by increasing the speed 
 with the same conditions. Should the car be run- 
 ning along a smooth, level road and the current to 
 the motor be increased, then the effect will be to 
 produce greater speed. On the other hand, if a 
 grade or hill be encountered, then the speed will 
 dimmish in proportion to the rise in elevation. This 
 is natural as it takes more power to ascend a hill 
 than it does to run along the level. Therefore, 
 
should it be desired not only to climb a hill but to 
 maintain constant speed, it is evident that more 
 power must be used, or, coming back to the motor, 
 that more current must be furnished to it in order 
 to accomplish the desired results. The example 
 of the car climbing the hill is probably one which 
 is most easily understood, but the negotiating of 
 every sandy or muddy road amounts to approxi- 
 mately the same thing. This explains why the rout- 
 ing of a vehicle will have a direct result upon the 
 mileage which may be secured from an electric car 
 on a given charge. In fact, since the motor is re- 
 sponsive to the least whim of the operator, it also 
 uses up the power from the battery in proportion 
 to the length and breadth of his whims, so that a 
 careful and considerate driver may be counted upon 
 to secure a greater mileage with less wear and tear 
 than one who uses up power by unnecessary or sud- 
 den stops and starts, driving through bad roads or 
 over hills which may be avoided. 
 
 The vehicle is equipped with brakes, which may 
 be either of the expanding or contracting type. Ad- 
 justments are always provided, generally by spring 
 links, so that there will be no retarding action ex- 
 cept when pressure is exerted on the brake pedals. 
 Care should be exercised in making the adjust- 
 ment so that the brakes do not drag or bind when 
 running. It is evident that dragging brakes would 
 cause the motor to draw a higher current than or- 
 dinarily required, and that the mileage on a charge 
 of the battery would be thus reduced. This is one 
 of the first places to look for trouble. If the cur- 
 
 ses 
 
rent consumption, as indicated on the ammeter, is 
 higher than usual for the same road conditions, 
 then it will pay to look for dragging brakes. Nat- 
 urally, this difficulty should be obviated by periodic 
 mechanical inspection, but it is mentioned in this 
 connection as it has so important a bearing on the 
 motor performance. 
 
 In order to make the motor of light weight, and 
 yet rugged in its ability to withstand heavy de- 
 mands and shocks, only the best quality of iron and 
 copper, the latter used liberally, may be utilized. 
 Ball bearings are practically standard for reasons 
 of low friction, reduction of bearing dimensions, 
 quiet running and durability. They are packed 
 with light cylinder oil, vaseline, or ball bearing 
 grease, which requires only occasional renewal. The 
 brush holders are conveniently located for inspec- 
 tion. The brushes are of carbon composition of 
 ample capacity to operate without sparking and 
 possess long life. 
 
 Care of Motors. As explained in the preceding 
 paragraphs, the principles employed in the design 
 and construction of the motors are such as to re- 
 quire a minimum of adjustment and inspection. The 
 arrangement of the parts has simplicity as a special 
 feature so that, should dismantling or repair be 
 necessary, it may be accomplished with little delay 
 and without disturbance of the supplementary mech- 
 anism. Being manufactured in large quantities, 
 the parts are standardized and are interchangeable. 
 This is of importance, for to the individual operator 
 it means that repair parts may be readily secured 
 
 269 
 
and installed, and, to the operator of a fleet of ve- 
 hicles, it allows practically uninterrupted service 
 with but few extra parts or spare equipments. 
 
 Ordinarily, the motor requires no attention for 
 months outside of lubrication and adjusting the 
 brushes to the commutator. Inspection may be made 
 frequently, or at least once a month, as to these 
 conditions. 
 
 The commutator should have a highly polished 
 smooth surface of a bluish black color. If the com- 
 mutator is black or shows signs of roughening, it 
 should be carefully polished with fine sandpaper 
 and the dust removed. The commutator bars are in- 
 sulated from each other by sheet mica, which should 
 not extend up to the commutator surface or it will 
 interfere with the contact of the brushes. If the 
 mica is not undercut, however, then a thin scraper 
 or thin hacksaw blade may be used to remove the 
 material to a depth not exceeding 3/64". Small 
 parts must be carefully removed from the edges of 
 the bars. 
 
 Emery Paper Must Not Be Used on the 
 Commutator. 
 
 The brushes should be faced to make good con- 
 tact with the commutator, and move freely in the 
 brush holders so as to allow for any inequalities 
 in the commutator surface and have sufficient pres- 
 sure on the latter. The shunts or pigtails from the 
 brushes to the holders should be properly attached 
 on each end. The brush holders should be securely 
 fastened into position on the frame and spaced cor- 
 
 270 
 
rectly so that there will be the correct number of 
 commutator segments between the brushes. There 
 are always an even number of brushes and brush 
 holders and, for simplicity, the tendency is to use 
 only two brush sets. There are a great many 
 motors, however, which are supplied with four sets 
 of brushes. 
 
 The armature should not only rotate freely in 
 its bearings but should run with the air gap uniform 
 between it and each pole face. Probably the major- 
 ity of bearings are lubricated with vaseline or light 
 grease, but there are some motors which are de- 
 signed to use oil. Instructions with the vehicle show 
 the treatment in such a case. To clean a bearing 
 thoroughly, it should be washed well with gasoline, 
 and any foreign material of hard or gritty nature 
 removed. Lubrication is not so much a matter of 
 soaking the machinery in oil or grease, as it is of 
 supplying moderate amounts at regular intervals. 
 In the modern ball bearing motor, six months is 
 probably frequent enough to meet the usual require- 
 ments. 
 
 Cleanliness is also quite a feature in motor op- 
 eration and, while the frame and covers are fitted 
 closely so as to prevent even water from entering, 
 yet, the motor being suspended below the vehicle, 
 it is only natural that a certain amount of dirt 
 should find its way into its windings. In the yearly 
 overhauling, therefore, it should be removed. Dry 
 compressed air of about 25 lb. per square inch pres- 
 
 271 
 
sure is admirable for blowing all dirt from the field 
 and armature windings. If air pressure is not avail- 
 able, then a hand bellows may be used with good 
 effect. 
 
 After the windings have been cleaned, they 
 should be inspected for broken leads and defective 
 or chafed insulation which might permit open or 
 short circuits. The field poles should be securely 
 locked to the fram.e and the field coils rigidly fast- 
 ened thereto. The above instructions cover the sim- 
 ple items of care and upkeep required under all 
 ordinary circumstances in the yearly overhauling. 
 Monthly, it will usually be found sufficient to in- 
 spect the brush holders and contact with the com- 
 mutator, and every six months to add lubricant. 
 Like all pieces of machinery, a motor is sometimes 
 subject to defects or faults. The most serious of 
 these may be located as follows : 
 
 Should the motor fail to rotate when the controller 
 is thrown into a running position, it is evidence of 
 an open circuit or broken connection. If this is in 
 the motor, inspection should be made to see that the 
 brushes move freely in the holder and that no for- 
 eign material, such as paper, has found its way be- 
 tween the brushes and the commutator surface. An 
 open circuit in the windings or a break in the con- 
 necting leads due to vibration or damage, is also 
 possible and may be readily located and repaired by 
 a competent electrician. 
 
 If there is smoke with a disagreeable pungent 
 odor, it is indicative of burning insulation, caused 
 
 278 
 
by a short circuit. This will usually be shown by 
 the motor drawing a heavy current. In such a case 
 it is best to discontinue the operation of the vehicle 
 until an experienced electrician has made an exam- 
 ination of the motor. 
 
 These faults given above are possible and do hap- 
 pen, so they are given here, but are found very sel- 
 dom in the large number of vehicles operating daily 
 in the hands of unskilled attendants. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE CONTROLLER: CONSTRUCTION 
 AND CARE. 
 
 The function of the controller is to regulate the 
 speed and direction of motion of the vehicle. This 
 is accomplished by altering the amount and direc- 
 tion of current supplied to the motor. The current 
 is increased by decreasing the resistance in series 
 with the armature, and by passing successively 
 through several arrangements of field strength. 
 Modern controllers ar^e designed to operate with con- 
 tinuous torque, throughout their range. This means 
 that while changing fom one speed to another the 
 pulling power of the motor is not interrupted, thus 
 avoiding a jerk with each increase of speed and 
 burning of the controller contacts from breaking 
 the current at each step. Reversing the current is 
 accomplished by reversing the relative position 
 (polarity) of the connecting leads from the battery. 
 
 The control may be either manual or actuated by 
 a foot pedal according to the requirements of the 
 manufacturer. Usually the controller is located under 
 the seat in a suitable compartment at the driver’s 
 left (Fig. T43), in a front hood, or under the 
 car floor. In the latter instance, the control is com- 
 bined with a wheel steering head and is manipulated 
 by the left hand (Fig. 144), so that the right may be 
 used for the more strenuous duty of steering. A 
 form of control which has been recently introduced 
 is known as the remote control type of controller. 
 In this a small handle or dial regulates, according 
 
 274 
 
to its position, the motion of a number of plunger 
 electro-magnets, which in turn open and close the 
 connections between the battery, resistance and mo- 
 tor. The advantage claimed is ease and simplicity 
 of operation. 
 
 Each type and style of control has its advocates 
 and all are safe, positive in action and reliable. The 
 differences are dictated by the requirements of loca- 
 
 Fig. 143 — Drum Controller, Showing Resistance Attached at Left. 
 
 tion and the range of speed to be regulated. The 
 prime consideration in each controller is for the ut- 
 most simplicity, both in construction and operation. 
 Great study and much experiment has been ex- 
 pended toward that end, having efficiency of opera- 
 tion and positive action clearly in mind. 
 
 Structurally, the simple drum controller (Fig. 
 144, consists of a cylinder, or section of one, ro- 
 tated by a handle. The drum is provided with copper 
 segments upon its surface, upon which rest copper 
 contact fingers under slight pressure. To the fingers 
 are attached the leads from the battery, motor and 
 
 276 
 
resistance. The segments on the drum connect the 
 fingers electrically in a similar manner to the closing 
 of a switch. When the controller handle is in the 
 ''neutral’’ position no contact is made by the seg- 
 ments and the fingers so that no current flows from 
 one lead to another. This is the normal position 
 of the controller for current "ofif” and should al- 
 ways be left so when the operator brings the car 
 
 Fig, 144 — Controller Under Floor of Car. 
 
 to a standstill and leaves it. A number of designs 
 of this type of controller are arranged so that when 
 the handle is brought into this position and is to be 
 left there for a time an auxiliary handle or safety 
 switch may be released, discontinuing any connec- 
 tions between the battery and controller, so that an 
 accidental movement of the controller handle may 
 
 ’ 276 
 
not start the vehicle and cause damage. As the 
 drum is rotated the segments are brought under 
 the fingers making a combination of connections 
 between the battery, resistance, and motor field and 
 armature terminals. 
 
 The first position is one designed to give low 
 speed and high starting torque so that the vehicle 
 
 Fig. 145 — Controller with Motor Brake. 
 
 may be started from rest easily, without jerk, but 
 surely and positively under any condition. Provid- 
 ing that the motor be powerful enough and there be 
 sufificient capacity in the battery, the car will start 
 under practically all conditions. The liirnting con- 
 ditions, however, are when the wheels are either 
 firmly secured in deep mud or sand, etc., or cannot, 
 make use of the tractive effort because of their ex- 
 
 277 
 
cessive slipping, as on a sleety pavement. In order 
 to exert the maximum torque, the fields of the mo- 
 tor are arranged in series with each other and with 
 the armature. The motor is then known as a series 
 motor and is capable of exerting a very powerful 
 turning effort. In order to limit the current sup- 
 
 Fig. 146 — Heavy Duty Controller. 
 
 plied to the motor so that the starting will not be 
 too violent, a resistance is inserted in series with 
 the motor allowing only a smooth slow start. 
 
 When the vehicle has once been put in motion, 
 acceleration may be increased more rapidly. It is 
 accomplished through the successive steps of the 
 controller. The second step or point of the con- 
 troller maintains the same connections as before, 
 
 278 
 
with the exception that the resistance in series with 
 the motor is decreased, and in the third step the re- 
 sistance is omitted. To further increase the speed, 
 the fields are arranged in parallel with a little re- 
 sistance placed in series with the armature. The 
 next speed omits the resistance of the preceding. 
 Further increased speed may be gained by further 
 weakening of the field. 
 
 It is obvious that, as the speed is increased, more 
 power is used, and that, as the voltage of the bat- 
 tery is practically constant, the current must in- 
 crease, and, at high speed and in climbing severe 
 hills, it follows that high current will be used. The 
 amount available depends upon the battery capacity. 
 If the battery has a capacity of 150 ampere hours 
 and a current of 100 amperes be drawn continu- 
 ously, then the vehicle could be operated for ap- 
 proximately one and one-half hours, while if the 
 operation demanded but 20 amperes approximately 
 seven and one-half hours of steady running might 
 be obtained. The greater the current the greater 
 will be the heating of the motor, controller, resist- 
 ance, etc., and, while each of these is designed to 
 operate under adverse circumstances, they should 
 not be abused where it can be avoided as explained 
 below. 
 
 In the explanation just given it was assumed that 
 the cells were connected in series during the speed 
 changes. While this is the case in a number of 
 makes of commercial vehicles, it is not universal, as 
 a parallel arrangement is used with several types of 
 passenger car. The motor combinations remain 
 
 279 
 
relatively the same. The method usually employed 
 in paralleling the battery is to divide the battery in 
 half, thus starting with resistance and half the total 
 battery voltage available. The second and third 
 speeds reduce the resistance in the armature circuit, 
 while the fourth speed operates with all the cells in 
 series with resistance. Thus by combining increas- 
 ing voltage from the battery, decreased external re- 
 sistance and weakened motor field, a considerable 
 number of steps of speed increase may be efficiently 
 secured. Up to the present time a range of five or 
 six speed steps has been considered sufficient for 
 smooth acceleration, but some manufacturers are 
 now furnishing controllers having as many as ten 
 steps, augmented by a planetary gear shift for slow 
 running in traffic, or more efficient hill climbing. 
 
 A form of controller which is flat and has but 
 two contact making segments, is shown in Fig. 134. 
 The leads are brought to the segments of the sta- 
 tionary sector and those from the battery to the 
 movable contact piece. The advantage claimed for 
 this type of controller is the small number of mov- 
 able parts and the large contact surfaces. 
 
 In the operation of trui:ks of high capacity it is 
 necessary to have a controller which will handle 
 considerable current without overheating and with 
 small wear of parts so that operation may not be 
 interrupted by the frequent need of renewal. Fig. 
 135 shows a type of controller similar to that made 
 use of in railway practice where severe service is 
 also met. This controller is of the drum type and 
 
 280 
 
provided with insulation and auxiliary features 
 which prevent sticking or burning of the contact 
 making members. 
 
 A controller which has been introduced into elec- 
 tric automobile service recently is known as the 
 “electro-magnetic type.'’ The principle involved 
 consists in making and breaking the contacts of the 
 controller by means of a secondary electrical cir- 
 cuit. The operator of the car, by means of a small 
 dial or lever placed in a comfortable position, regu- 
 lates the current in this secondary circuit. The pri- 
 may circuit is that passing through the motor, bat- 
 tery and controller. A number of plunger electro- 
 magnets operated by the small current in the secon- 
 dary circuit are opened and closed according to the 
 position of the dial. The arrangement effected by 
 the opened and closed position of these magnets 
 determines the direction and magnitude of the cur- 
 rent in the motor circuit in a similar manner to that 
 negotiated by the segments and fingers of the drum 
 controller. By means of this dial, therefore, all the 
 speed combinations required may be effected, and 
 the advocates of this type claim simplicity of op- 
 eration and flexibility as its features inasmuch as 
 the dial is very easily moved and the magnets or 
 controller proper may be located in any suitable part 
 of the vehicle. The essential difference distinguish- 
 ing this controller from those heretofore mentioned 
 is that it is electrically and not mechanically op- 
 erated. A handle or lever does not operate it posi- 
 tively so that its location does not depend upon any 
 arrangement of links, gears or chains. 
 
 281 
 
Figure T 47 shows a developed diagram of conne.c- 
 lions'" effected by the controller in the successive 
 positions or speed points. These points are accorn- 
 plished by the attaching of a star-wheel to the axis 
 of the control drum which registers with a pawl 
 
 Forward 
 
 B«Y«rae 
 
 12 3 
 
 III 
 
 ■f 4 
 
 i-tti 
 
 fP 
 
 A!!! I 
 
 Star Wheel 
 Bud 
 
 tt+ 
 
 
 I 
 
 IfUUUlTiCH'I'lili 
 
 
 FF 2 
 
 rri 
 
 «8 Ibu^ 
 
 uuuinppH'i'i"*j 
 
 M ^Iaa” 
 
 jfirmnrpHii-iiih" ^ 
 
 PF 2 
 FI - - FFl 
 
 • 2 < 
 
 « 
 
 
 Fiff. 147 — Development of Connections of Continuous Torque 
 Controller. 
 
 having a roller end. Thus, as the drum is rotated, 
 the spring of the pawl forces the end of the latter 
 to roll into the slots of the star-wheel with a sudden 
 movement which can readily be felt l>y the hand of 
 
 283 
 
the operator and usually (Hstinguished by a clicking 
 sound. In this manner, as the controller is passed 
 from speed to speed, the steps or notches are sepa- 
 rate and distinct. 
 
 When an auxiliary or safety switch is combined 
 with the controller, it is designed to be placed in the 
 ''ofif’' position when the vehicle is brought to rest, 
 and allowed to stand unattended. By this means 
 accidental throwing of the controller into a running 
 position is avoided and when combined with a Yale 
 lock, prevents unauthorized use of the vehicle. In 
 some instances three-point switches are provided, 
 one position for ‘'running,'’ the second for “off” and 
 the other for charging. Practically every make of 
 car has distinctive features in connection with its 
 control and safety devices, but the principles are 
 identical in each case. The differences are in the 
 details designed toward simplicity in the operation 
 of the particular vehicle in question. 
 
 In some control methods, the designers have seen 
 fit to utilize the impetus for retarding the motion of 
 the car by adding a notch to the controller which 
 short circuits the armature through resistance, the 
 motor fields being excited from the battery. The 
 motor is then acting as a generator, absorbing the 
 energy of the moving vehicle transmitted through 
 the gears to the motor shaft for the generation of 
 electricity. This action gradually retards the motion 
 and is, therefore, known as an “Electric Brake.” 
 When a controller of the side lever type (Fig. 145) 
 is thus equipped, the handle of the controller is 
 pressed forward for the forward speeds, and back 
 
 283 
 
past the neutral or ''off” position for electric brak- 
 ing. Pressing the handle further back beyond the 
 electric brake notch, usually tightens a small band 
 brake operating upon a pulley on an extension of the 
 motor shaft. This method of braking is very power- 
 ful and is convenient for those who find the opera- 
 tion of brake pedals difficult. 
 
 The remarks in the preceding paragraphs on the 
 subject of controllers have been confined to the con- 
 trol of single motor drives. The same principles 
 are applied, however, to the operation of two or four 
 motor equipments, with slight changes in the 
 wiring. 
 
 Owing to the simplicity and the ease with which 
 variations of speed and manoeuvering may be ac- 
 complished, the electric drive has reached high 
 favor in a great number of heavy duty vehicle ap- 
 plications. Among these may be mentioned tract- 
 ors for heavy materials such as lumber, coal, ma- 
 chinery, building materials, etc., as well as coaches 
 and omnibuses. 
 
 Care. The arcing at the points of a knife switch 
 when slowly opened is no doubt familiar to most 
 readers, and the appearance of the scarred metal 
 is evidence that the switch was carelessly opened. 
 This action takes place to a certain extent in the 
 controller if the drum is held between the notches. 
 The fingers are held onto the segments of the drum 
 by a moderate pressure and are faced to make good 
 contact. Should the contact be poor, however, 
 touching at only a few points, or the finger slowly 
 drawn from the segment, then there will be an arc 
 
 284 
 
between them causing a blistered surface. This 
 can easily be avoided by having the contact sur- 
 faces well faced with proper pressure and the 
 spring of the pawl tightened sufficiently to cause 
 the drum to stop exactly in the notch. When work- 
 ing on the controller it is well to disconnect the bat- 
 tery leads so as to avoid burns or short circuits. 
 
 Lubrication should be frequent, regular and mod- 
 erate. About once a week when in daily service, 
 inspection should be made and the fingers adjusted 
 to an even, moderate tension. They should be run 
 parallel with the drum and faced with sandpaper 
 so as to make good contact. Badly burned fingers 
 should be replaced and fitted into position. The 
 drum segments should be kept bright and clean and 
 lubricated by being wiped with a linen rag and a 
 small amount of vaseline. If they are blistered or 
 pitted, they should be smoothed down with sand- 
 paper. When it is necessary to face fingers to the 
 drum, the sandpapering should be done upon the 
 fingers rather than the drum segments as the latter 
 are not as easily replaced as the fingers. 
 
 285 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE CHASSIS: ITS COMPONENTS: THEIR 
 UPKEEP. 
 
 There are two broad divisions in the field of elec- 
 tric cars, commonly designated as passenger and 
 commercial vehicles. The former include the small 
 runabouts, coupes or limousines, while the latter 
 are commonly called trucks. In this latter classifi- 
 cation should also be found the industrial vehicles 
 electrically propelled, such as baggage and dock 
 trucks as well as storage battery cranes and loco- 
 motives. To develop detailed descriptions of the 
 many forms in which these vehicles may be found 
 is neither practicable in a volume of this character, 
 nor is it necessary, as the principles are identical 
 in all storage battery vehicles, and, when once un- 
 derstood, the differences in design may be readily 
 grasped. 
 
 The construction of bodies has received skilful 
 and exact treatment for many years. Coach-build- 
 ing is not a new industry by any means and the 
 advent of the automobile has simply opened a 
 broader field of endeavor to the artisans of that 
 trade. True, the shapes and materials used have 
 changed somwhat, but in the pleasure car, the re- 
 quirements of comfort and protection from wind or 
 weather are identical The lines of the body are 
 shaped so as to be pleasing to the eye and oppose the 
 least resistance to the wind. The necessity for 
 strength and light weight have brought about the 
 use of aluminum for panels, mouldings and seams, 
 
 displacing wood to a great extent. 
 
 286 
 
^riic ulinost simplicity and economy may be ob- 
 served in the design of bodies intended for sales- 
 men's, ins{)ectors', or other business runabouts, 
 while on the other hand the identical chassis may 
 be surmounted with an enclosed type of body, 
 which, in lavish furnishing and refinements for 
 luxurious comfort, might excel the splendor of 
 royal equipages. The features of strength, sim- 
 plicity and economy of operation, however, are as 
 well developed in the most commonplace looking 
 carrier of merchandise, as in the most exquisitely 
 furnished brougham. The trimmings and fittings 
 are matters of taste and choice, dictated by the re- 
 quirements of the owner. 
 
 With the introduction of the motor vehicle into 
 the transportation departments of the various in- 
 dustries, new requirements were placed upon the 
 design of the chassis and bodies used. These were 
 the result of carrying heavier loads and moving at 
 higher speeds than were possible with the horse 
 drawn vehicles. As one of the economies of the 
 motor vehicle consists in moving its loads at these 
 greater speeds, innovations were made in providing 
 many varieties of .special bodies, combining 
 strength, light weight and quick loading and un- 
 loading facilities. Bodies of such construction are 
 characteristic of motor vehicles in general and no 
 doubt familiar to all. 
 
 In electric vehicle practice the word chassis !s 
 used to designate the parts of the car other than 
 the battery and body. These parts consist of the 
 
 287 
 
wheels, frame and supporting springs as well as 
 the controller, motor, gearing and steering appa- 
 ratus. The motor and controller are pieces of elec- 
 trical apparatus and are treated separately in Chap- 
 ters IX. and X. 
 
 Frame. The body with its load is supported 
 upon a strong, but somewhat flexible, structure 
 known as the Frame (Fig. 148), which in turn rests 
 on springs attached to the front and rear axles. 
 By this arrangement, as much of the weight of the 
 vehicle as possible is carried on the springs, cush- 
 ioning the shocks and reducing the vibration. 
 
 The frame is composed of two side members and 
 several cross members, so that with proper riveting 
 
 Fig, 148 — Frame with Underslung , Battery Cradle. 
 
 the parts may be combined into a unit of sufficient 
 strength to carry the load and maintain the proper 
 relation between the sections of the driving gear 
 under the road shocks or the distorting effects of 
 the inequalities of the road surface. Bracing straps, 
 gusset plates and kindred means of reinforcement 
 are used to effect the desired result. Pressed steel 
 forms are usually made use of for the purpose as 
 they combine the requisite strength with light 
 weight. The frame shapes differ widely, depend- 
 
 288 
 
ing upon the size and service requirements of the 
 vehicle. Very often the front ends are cambered 
 to permit turning in a smaller radius. The out- 
 siders and s])i*ing stubs are forged steel and are 
 riveted to the ends of the side members. 
 
 In pleasure vehicle construction the frame is fre- 
 quently raised at a point in front of the rear axle 
 to permit the running board and floor of the car 
 to rest lower than if the entire frame were on one 
 level. It is necessary for the rear part of the frame 
 to be high enough to provide sufficient clearance 
 between the cross members and the rear axle hous- 
 ing. 
 
 The storage battery assembled in several trays 
 may either be underslung from the frame in a 
 cradle or carried on cross members. While there 
 is no rule or standard practice in this regard, it will 
 usually be found that, with commercial vehicles, 
 the battery is underslung, and that in pleasure car 
 design the number of trays are divided and sup- 
 ported slightly below the frame level under hoods 
 at the front and rear. Electric vehicles may be 
 readily recognized at a distance by these character- 
 istic features of arrangement. 
 
 Springs. In order that the shocks and jars in- 
 cidental to travel over roads not absolutely smooth 
 may be absorbed and not transmitted to machinery 
 and passengers, considerable attention has been giv- 
 en to the construction of springs. Special formulae 
 have been developed for treating the steels used, 
 and extreme care is exercised in the fabrication of 
 
 289 
 
the leaves so that the built leaf spring will be able 
 to absorb the shocks and vibration, and, at the same 
 time, carry a considerable weight without sustain- 
 ing permanent deflection or breakage. The length 
 and form of spring used, such as elliptic, semi-el- 
 liptic, three-quarter elliptic, helical or platform, or 
 combinations of these, depend upon the weight, 
 speed and class of service in which the vehicle is to 
 be used as well as upon the individual choice of the 
 designer. 
 
 The springs rest upon specially formed seats 
 forged from the axle proper or welded to it. These 
 seats are curved so as to conform to the curvature 
 of the spring and are drilled so that two ‘‘U’’ 
 shaped rods of steel, known as clips, may be 
 brought over the plate resting on the upper spring 
 leaf, through the holes of the seat, and secured by 
 nuts and lock nuts. The ends of the springs are 
 connected by bolts and bushings. As there is great 
 opportunity for wear at these points, grease or oil 
 cups are usually furnished for lubricating these 
 bearing surfaces. 
 
 Axles. Axles are very important parts of a 
 motor car chassis because, upon their freedom from 
 failure, depends the safety of the passengers. To 
 fulfill this requirement, as well as to support the 
 load properly, they must be strong. 
 
 Front axles not only support their share of the 
 load, but are first to receive the shocks and jars 
 due to holes and ruts in the road. Strength is re- 
 quired to meet these demands, and then comes the 
 
consideration of utilizing the least weight of mate- 
 rial sufficient to provide that support. Steels of 
 special composition, properly forged and heat 
 treated, have been developed in order to combine 
 the necessary strength with light weight. Front 
 axles of I-beam section are probably most exten- 
 sively used, although tubular shapes have been pop- 
 ular on the lighter types of electrics. 
 
 Reference to Fig. 149 will clearly indicate the as- 
 sembly of the axle ends by means of which the 
 steering mechanism is combined with the load sup- 
 
 Fig. 149 — Front Axle Construction. 
 
 porting members. The ends of the axle are yoked 
 so that a knuckle with spindle for the wheel and 
 steering arm may each be mounted in anti-friction 
 bearings, thus permitting both free rolling of the 
 wheels and steering with a powerful leverage. The 
 projecting arms of the knuckles at each end of the 
 axle are connected by a ''cross rod'’ or "tie bar" so 
 that the movement of both wheels in steering will 
 be identical. The motion imparted by the steering 
 gear is transmitted to the tie bar by a rod known 
 as a "drag link." The connection between the drag 
 link and steering arm is either a ball and socket 
 
 291 
 
joint, enclosed in a grease boot, or a yoke and pin 
 arrangement provided with bearings. 
 
 It will be noted that all bearing joints, suscepti- 
 ble either to radial load or end thrust, are provided 
 with anti-friction bearings so that wear and re- 
 sistance to motion may be reduced to a negligible 
 quantity. 
 
 The seats upon which the springs rest, and to 
 which they are secured by the clips, may either be 
 
 Fig. 150 — Rear Axle Construction. 
 
 integral with the axle or forged separately and fast- 
 ened rigidly to it. The upper spring seat surface is 
 curved so as to give greater bearing surface for the 
 spring, and, in some cases, tilted slightly to obtain 
 a caster steering effect. 
 
 Rear axles may be divided into two classes, ac- 
 cording to the service in which they are used ; 
 pleasure or commercial. Front axles are practically 
 the same for both classes of service, the propor- 
 tions being more generous, of course, when used 
 upon trucks. Vehicles of light weight may use the 
 
 292 
 
construction developed for the pleasure car chassis, 
 but those designed for heavy duty must necessarily 
 be provided with rear axle equipment capable of 
 transmitting power efficiently under the stresses of 
 heavy load and poor road conditions. The live 
 axle is characteristic of the light car, while the 
 
 Fig. 151 — Dead Axle and Countershaft Assembly. 
 
 dead axle with countershaft and side chain drive 
 is, with few exceptions, used on the majority of 
 commercial vehicle applications. The live axle 
 (Fig. 150) not only supports the load, but transmits 
 the power from the motor, dividing it through the 
 diflferential gear to the wheels. When the load is 
 
 293 
 
carried by the ‘housing and the enclosed shafts 
 transmit the power to the wheels, then the term 
 “full-floating” is applied to the axle because the 
 shafts are said to float within the housing. Semi- 
 or three-quarter floating refers to axles in which 
 the carrying and torque functions are combined in 
 approximately the amount indicated in the term. 
 
 The dead axle (Fig. 151) is the familiar form 
 which is used to support the load alone, the driv- 
 
 Fig. 152 — Diagram of Differential Gearing. 
 
 ing being done by chain gearing from the counter- 
 shaft to the rear wheels. 
 
 Differential Gear. In order that the power 
 from the motor may be applied equally to both 
 driving wheels and yet permit them to revolve at 
 different speeds, as when turning a curve, the dif- 
 ferential gear is employed. It is necessary with 
 either live or dead axle construction. With live 
 
 294 
 
axles it is contained in the housing but with dead 
 axle construction it is incorporated in the counter- 
 shaft assembly. To reduce wear and make for 
 efficient running the differential casing is made oil 
 tight so that light grease or heavy oil may be held, 
 making adjustment seldom required but assuring 
 proper lubrication. 
 
 Fig. 153 — Phantom View of Differential. 
 
 With the aid of Fig. 152, the following explana- 
 tion may serve to give a clear idea of the operation 
 of the differential, an important but unfamiliar de- 
 tail of the transmission. In the illustration shown the 
 driven gear D is meshed with a bevel pinion S on the 
 driving shaft, but, of course, the driven gear may 
 be of the spur type operated by silent chain or a 
 gear meshed with a worm shaft. The four small 
 bevel pinions P are held on spindles in the plane 
 
 295 
 
of the gear D, and their teeth mesh with the bevel 
 gears G and attached to the axle shaft ends. 
 Thus, when G is stationary, the pinions P will roll 
 over its surface and also upon their own axes, turn- 
 ing G\ Or, if the resistance to motion of the wheel 
 W is greater than that of W^, as in turning a cor- 
 ner, then G will turn but at a lesser speed than G\ 
 When the resistance of both wheels is equal, then 
 the gears G and G^ will be revolved at the same 
 speed by the small pinions P which will not revolve 
 on their spindles. 
 
 It will be seen that the shafts are mounted in 
 bearings of design capable of taking the stresses of 
 radial load or thrust so that the action will be 
 smooth and quiet running. 
 
 Steering Gear. One of the most important 
 mechanisms of any self-propelled vehicle is that 
 used for steering. It must be simple and quick to 
 operate and positive in action so that the direction 
 of motion of the vehicle may be rapidly altered 
 by the driver with little physical effort. The steer- 
 ing is effected by means of a series of links which 
 transfer the small movements of the guiding wheel 
 to the steering arms attached to the knuckles upon 
 which the wheels are mounted, as explained above 
 under ‘'Axles.’’ 
 
 The steering column is furnished at the lower 
 end with some form of reduction gear when a steer- 
 ing wheel is used, which permits a small rotary 
 movement of the steering wheel to be transformed 
 to a reciprocating movement of the drag link. This 
 gear reduction may be by pinion and spur sector 
 
 296 
 
(Fig. 154), spur gear and rack, or worm and gear. 
 At the present time the pinion and sector type is 
 very widely used on electric commercial vehicles. 
 
 rig. 154 — Steering Gear Assembly, Showing Drag Link. 
 
 For light commercial and pleasure vehicles, the 
 horizontal steering lever (Fig. 155) is very exten- 
 sively used, being practically the standard on ac- 
 count of its big leverage and quick action. The 
 horizontal lever is arranged to swing into a vertical 
 position over the steering column to which it is at- 
 tached out of the way of the driver when not in 
 use. At the lower end a knuckle with a ball end 
 
 297 
 
rests in the socket of the drag link. These con- 
 nections are usually furnished with ball bearing 
 and spring adjustments so that friction may be re- 
 duced and the handle kept free of vibration 
 Wheel steering gears are used on heavy vehicles, 
 or on those which are to maintain much speed, be- 
 
 Fig. 155 — Lever Steering Arm. 
 
 cause they are irreversible; that is, a jar or blow 
 on the road wheels will not alter the direction of 
 motion of the vehicle, as might occur with the steer- 
 ing rod previously described. 
 
 298 
 
On the heavier commercial vehicles the steering 
 wheel is standard and with it is very often com- 
 bined the lever to the drum of the controller. Fig. 
 156 shows one method of arranging the controller 
 handle upon the steering column in a manner simi- 
 lar to that employed in gasoline vehicle steering 
 and control. 
 
 , ,^-^CONTROllER HANDIE 
 r ^ ^ (Am mvtmt) ' 
 
 V mnkt HOURMOTR 
 \IAMR SWfTCHES : V' 
 ASAFgtY SWirCH ' 
 
 BRAKE 
 
 BRAKE 
 
 Fig. 156 — Steering Wheel, Controller and Dashboard. 
 
 Bearings. It has been pointed out in the de- 
 scriptions in the preceding pages how important a 
 part in the operation of the electric vehicle anti- 
 friction bearings play. In order that the greatest 
 mileage may be secured from the battery capacity 
 available, friction must be reduced to a minimum. 
 Practically every moving part, which is susceptible 
 to wear, is fitted with a type of bearing most suit- 
 able to the use. The designs. Fig. 146, show the 
 several types very clearly. 
 
 299 
 
and Cone. 
 Cup 
 
 Cylindrical 
 
 Roller. 
 
 Tapered 
 
 Rolkr. 
 
 Fig. 157 — Types of Anti-Friction Bearings. 
 
 300 
 
It will be found that, under identical conditions 
 in cars of different make, different types of bear- 
 ings are used. These differences of opinion nat- 
 urally exist so that several styles of mounting are 
 employed. With very few exceptions, inspection 
 will show the bearing equipment to be of liberal 
 proportions for the loads sustained in order that 
 
 Fig. 158 — Brake, Outer Drum Removed. 
 
 each running part may have the greatest freedom 
 in motion. 
 
 Brakes. One of the most important features of 
 the motor car control is the means used for retarda 
 tion. If the car refuses to start, it is possible to 
 get out and walk, but it is not pleasant to contem- 
 plate a ride down grades with brakes which are of 
 little value. Vehicles of up-to-date construction 
 are in practically all cases furnished with brakes 
 
 801 
 
of ample size to bring the vehicle to stop without 
 jar or suddenness. 
 
 The brakes are operated by pressure exerted on 
 the brake pedals situated within easy reach of the 
 driver’s feet. The rods from the pedals usually 
 transfer the pedal pressure to equalizing bars sus- 
 pended from the frame so that the pressure will be 
 equal upon both brake drums of the rear wheels or 
 
 Fig. 159 — Band Brake on Motor Shaft. 
 
 countershaft. Brake drums are placed in many 
 cases on the countershaft for emergency brake use, 
 and on the rear wheels for general service braking. 
 Frequently hand levers with ratchet locks are used 
 for emergency brake control instead of a foot pedal. 
 
 Most generally the construction of the brakes is 
 of the type shown in Fig. 158. The two semi-cir- 
 
 302 
 
cular shoes are pivoted at one end and held at the 
 other by a cam or toggle linkage. The force ex- 
 erted on the brake levers causes these links to ex- 
 pand the shoes against the surface of the drrnn, re- 
 taring the motion of the vehicle evenly and gradu- 
 ally. When the shoes operate on the inner surface 
 of the drum they are called ''internal expanding/' 
 and when the pressure is exerted on the outer drum 
 surface, the term "external expanding" is used. A 
 band brake is shown in Fig. 159, contracting on a 
 pulley keyed to an extension of the motor shaft. 
 
 In this particular design, the friction brake is 
 operated in conjunction with an electric brake. The 
 electric brake is secured by short circuiting the mo- 
 tor armature through resistance, energizing the 
 fields from the battery. The connections for ac- 
 complishing this are made when the controller han- 
 dle at the left of the driver is brought back slightly 
 beyond "off" position. Under these conditions the 
 motor acts as a dynamo, using the momentum of 
 the car to generate electricity. The greater the 
 speed, the greater will be the braking action auto- 
 matically. As the controller handle is brought back 
 still further, pressure is applied to the band brake 
 on the motor pulley exerting a very powerful re- 
 tarding force. This combination is very pow- 
 erful and quick acting because of the big leverage 
 obtained through the reduction gearing. Some 
 manufacturers of pleasure vehicles consider it very 
 valuable in rendering braking and stopping physi- 
 cjally easy and reliable for drivers of the gentler 
 sex. 
 
 303 
 
The brake shoes are faced with friction mate- 
 rial such as the heat resisting substances composed 
 of asbestos interwoven with copper gauze. These 
 facings gradually wear down and must be renewed ; 
 how often renewal is necessary depends upon the 
 amount of use to which the brakes are subjected. 
 
 Fig. 160 — Bevel Gear Drive. 
 
 Transmission. Experience has shown that elec- 
 tric motors of comparatively high speed, having 
 ranges of from 900 to 1,600 revolutions per minute, 
 are satisfactory for vehicle use. As the driving 
 wheels travel at speeds considerably less that these, 
 however, it is necessary to interpose some means 
 
 304 
 
of reduction gearing between the motor and the 
 wheel. There are many methods of accomplishing 
 this result such as by sprockets and chains, shaft 
 and bevel gear, or worm and gear. Each of these 
 means is both efficient and enduring, and represents 
 the study and experiments of the most skillful de- 
 signers, supplemented by many years of experience 
 from the many vehicles in constant service. 
 
 Fig. 161 — Worm and Gear Drive. 
 
 Probably the greatest number of electric cars at 
 the present time are equipped with a double reduc- 
 tion transmission. The first reduction is in many 
 cases a silent chain gearing, enclosed in an oil tight 
 case, so that the adjustments may be undisturbed 
 by entrance of grit or rust. The larger sprocket 
 of this reduction is connected through a differential 
 gear on the countershaft to the rear wheels by roll- 
 er chain drive, or by means of shaft with universal 
 joints to a differential gear in the rear axle con- 
 struction. In commercial vehicles the final drive 
 from countershaft by side chains is most common, 
 while the shaft drive is much favored for pleas- 
 
 805 
 
lire vehicles because of its neat, noiseless and effi- 
 cient character. 
 
 Shaft drives are used either with bevel gear, Fig. 
 160, or worm drive to the rear axle. The worm 
 and gear reduction is the most recent of refine- 
 ments in electric vehicle design. The illustrations. 
 Fig. 1 61, show the features very clearly. 
 The advantages claimed for the worm drive are 
 that a greater ratio of speed reduction than prac- 
 ticable with bevel gears is possible, permitting a 
 single reduction between motor and rear axle, and 
 that instead of a tendency to wear out of alignment 
 in course of time, as occurs with bevel gears, use 
 makes the adjustment more perfect, providing that 
 the design and initial adjustments have been cor- 
 rect. It is for this latter reason that the shafts for 
 bevel gear drive are provided with means for mak- 
 ing the necessary changes in adjustment, while the 
 worm and gear mounting is enclosed so that 
 changes cannot be made from without. 
 
 The ends of the shaft connecting the motor and 
 rear axle constructions do not remain the same 
 horizontal plane as the spring action raises and low- 
 ers the motor end of the shaft, under the infiuence 
 of uneven road surface. In order to transmit the 
 power to the rear axle efficiently, therefore, the 
 shaft must possess flexibility to compensate for the 
 changes of alignment throughout the range of 
 spring action. This flexibility is secured by the use 
 of universal joints of neat design, as shown in 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 A unique form of drive is shown in Fig. 164, in 
 
 306 
 
which the motor drives through an enclosed silent 
 chain and floating shaft, with two universal joints, 
 to a “herring-bone’' gear connecting with the dif- 
 ferential gear in the rear axle housing. The rear 
 axle construction is arranged so that the axle shafts 
 
 Fig. 162 — Universal Joints with Slip. 
 
 carry no load and the differential is relieved of end 
 thrust. The outer ends of the axle shafts are fur- 
 nished with clutches, engaging with the wheel hub. 
 This type of axle is known as “full floating” be- 
 
 Fig. 163 — Radius Rod. 
 
 cause the load is carried by the housing and the 
 axle shafts may be drawn out from the hubs with- 
 out disturbing the rest of the assembly. 
 
 In order to preserve the proper distance between 
 the sprockets of the chain gearing, adjustable spac- 
 ing members are employed, called “radius rods” 
 (Fig. 163). These maintain the chain in proper ten- 
 sion and secure the countershaft into a unit with 
 the rear assembly. They are also used when shaft 
 
 307 
 
drive is employed to keep the rear axle in proper 
 relation with the frame. In some designs the driv- 
 ing shaft is held in a tubular member, generally 
 attached to the frame so that it serves as a radius 
 rod, permitting tlie axle to move up and down, due 
 to the influence of inequalities of road surface but 
 not allowing end movement of the axle. When the 
 
 Fig. 164 — Shaft Drive with “Herring-Bone” Gear. 
 
 torsional, or turning strains to which the axle hous- 
 ing is subjected when driving, are taken by a single 
 member, it is known as a “torsion rod’' (Fig. 165 V 
 Instead of supporting the motor from the frame, 
 the design of drive shown in Fig. 166 makes use 
 of a motor enclosed in the rear axle housing. The 
 shaft of the motor armature is hollow so that the 
 drive shafts may extend through from the dif- 
 
 308 
 
ferential sockets into the centre of each hollow 
 rear wheel. The differential is located at one end 
 of the hollow armature shaft. On the wheel end 
 of each shaft a pinion is located which transmits 
 
 Fig. 165 — Shaft Drive, Showing Torsion Rod. 
 
 the power to the rim gear on the inside of the wheel 
 through the two idler gears. The fully enclosed 
 construction and simplicity of the parts are claimed 
 by the manufacturers to be important factors in 
 making the drive efficient and durable. 
 
 309 
 
In the descriptions of drive methods typified in 
 the preceding paragraphs, reference has been made 
 only to the use of one-motor equipments. Although 
 the earlier electric vehicles made use of two motors 
 geared to the wheels by single spur gear and con- 
 centric rack, avoiding the use of a differential gear, 
 this design is restricted at the present time to spe- 
 cial cases. Such instances are those where con- 
 
 Fig. 166 — Motor Within Axle Housing. 
 
 siderable traction is required for moving heavy 
 loads over difficult road conditions. Then two or 
 even four motors may be utilized, securing addi- 
 tional traction by the use of the front as well as the 
 rear wheels for driving. 
 
 In Fig. 167 is shown a rear axle construc- 
 tion used on a seven-ton, four-motor truck. The 
 axle forgings are made of yoke form in a vertical 
 plane and bored out to receive the trunnions which 
 are part of the motor casing. The motors slip into 
 
 310 
 
these casings and are clamped in position. A pin- 
 ion on the end of the motor shaft engages with a 
 spur gear meshing with an internal gear bolted to 
 the wheel. This gearing is enclosed by projecting 
 flanges ground to form a grease tight joint. At the 
 front the two casings swivel in the axle and are 
 connected to the steering gear. At the rear they 
 are maintained in fixed relation, holding the wheels 
 permanently parallel and in line with the truck. 
 
 Fig. 167 — Rear Axle of Four-Motor Drive 
 
 A two-motor drive is shown in Fig. i68. The spur 
 concentric gearing is enclosed in this design also, 
 and the motors are held in position between two 
 steel channels which form the rear axle. 
 
 Another type of two or four-wheel drive is ac- 
 complished by placing the motors within the metal 
 wheels. As shown in Fig. 169, pinions on each end 
 of the motor shaft engage with the gear racks on 
 the wheel. The motor is set at a slight angle to 
 the plane of the wheel so that the pinions engage 
 with their respective halves of the cog-rack, being 
 
 311 
 
free of the other half. By this couple arrangement 
 a single speed reduction is effected without the use 
 of a countershaft. 
 
 Sets of either two or four wheels of this con- 
 struction may be employed and the steering may be 
 either by the forward wheels or through all four 
 wheels for fine manoeuvring. When the two for- 
 
 Fig. 168 — Detail of Type of Two Motor Drive. 
 
 ward wheels are used as the tractors, then the rear 
 or drawn wheels may be large steel tired ones such 
 as ordinarily used on horse-drawn vehicles, there- 
 by avoiding the use of rubber tires. The road con- 
 ditions, together with the service requirements of 
 load and speed, are the determining factors in the 
 specification of the amount of traction necessary 
 and the efficiency of applying it by means of two 
 or four-wheel drive. 
 
 812 
 
Lighting. The electric lighting of motor 
 vehicles is indeed most popular. For the storage 
 battery propelled car it involves only the wiring of 
 the lighting fixtures to the battery through switches 
 placed within convenient reach of the driver. The 
 lighting circuits are fused so injury from accidental 
 short-circuits may be reduced to minimum. The 
 lamps are made in a great variety of styles and 
 
 Fig. 109 — Motor Contained Within Driving Wheel. 
 
 shapes and may be placed in positions mo.st suit- 
 able to the owner’s requirements. Arrangements 
 are very often made for trouble lamps which may 
 be attached to a receptacle beneath the controller 
 for giving light to inspect damage to tires, loosened 
 nuts or the like. 
 
 The meters are, in practically all instances, pro- 
 vided with a lamp of small candle power shaded 
 so as to illuminate the dial without glaring into the 
 eyes of the observer. This light may be lit by 
 
 813 
 
pressure on a button underneath the pad of the 
 carpet. Withdrawing the pressure allows the spring 
 to open the circuit. Hitherto the incandescent bulbs 
 used have been of the carbon filament type, but the 
 remarkable developments in the construction of the 
 tungsten lamp have made its use possible for auto- 
 mobile lighting for voltages such as are found in 
 electric vehicle service. The shapes and sizes are 
 suitably designed for use in the different fixtures. 
 
 Recently the bayonet candelabra base lamps have 
 been adopted as standard by the Electric Vehicle 
 Association of America. There are a number of 
 vehicles in use at the present time, however, 
 equipped with candelabra screw base and medium 
 screw base sockets so that lamps may be purchased 
 to fit any of these receptacles. New vehicles will 
 be supplied with the standardized product and it 
 is recommended, where alterations in used cars are 
 made, that they also be equipped with the sockets 
 for the candelabra bayonet base lamps. 
 
 Wiring. The energy from the storage battery 
 is conducted to the electric motor through insulated 
 wires. Actually, the wiring is from the battery to 
 the controller and thence to the motor, in order that 
 the speed of the motor may be regulated by simply 
 changing the position of the controller handle. In 
 many makes of vehicles a main switch for opening 
 the circuit is included so that there may be no dan- 
 ger of starting the vehicle unexpectedly or its use 
 by those unauthorized. For the latter purpose, the 
 controllers of pleasure vehicles, which may stand 
 
 314 
 
unattended for long periods, are furnished with 
 Yale locks, so that the handle cannot be moved 
 until the operator has taken the driving position, 
 inserted and turned the key, which then, cannot 
 be moved until the handle is brought back to tlie 
 ‘‘ofif’ position. 
 
 The wiring is done in a very careful manner, 
 giving attention to the use of material of sufficient 
 size to obviate any tendency to heat at normal loads 
 or overloads. The insulation must be good so that 
 there may be no leakage to the frame or between 
 wires. The installation of the wiring must be 
 such that it will be secure in position and not liable 
 to mechanical injury, which would impair its elec- 
 
 Fig. 170 — Charging Plug and Receptacle. 
 
 trical efficiency. To preclude any such possibility, 
 the most approved installations are made by en- 
 closing the leads in metal tubing, proof against 
 injury and moisture. Naturally it is important that 
 all connections be firm and tight so that there may 
 be no sparking or arcing. The use of the electric 
 is not prohibited on docks, piers or in buildings 
 because of the small likelihood of its producing 
 combustion. 
 
 The above facts in regard to installation are 
 stated not so much to explain the original safe 
 character of the vehicle, as that is well known, as 
 to emphasize that changes in wiring should be 
 
 315 
 
made by conipeient electricians, so that by no re- 
 mote possibility can any inflammable material be 
 ignited. Due to improvements and care in this 
 direction, the insurance rate on electric vehicles has 
 decreased and further reductions are being made 
 periodically. 
 
 For convenience in making the necessary connec- 
 dons for charging, a charging plug and receptacle 
 is furnished. The receptacle is fastened to the 
 frame of the vehicle and connected to the storage 
 
 Fig. 171 — Standardized Charging Plug. 
 
 battery. With the controller in the ''off” position 
 and all switches open, the charging plug, wired to 
 the charging board, is inserted in the receptacle, 
 making the proper connections quickly and without 
 danger of heating. The charging plug and recep- 
 tacle standardized by the Electric Vehicle Associa- 
 tion of America is shown in Figs. 171 and 172. The 
 inner ring of the receptacle should be connected to 
 the negative pole of the battery and the outer ring 
 to the positive terminal. Likewise, the negative 
 and positive wires of the charging cable should be 
 connected to the inner rod and outer shell of the 
 plug. By following this method it will be possible 
 
to place a vehicle on charge f rom any plug without 
 danger of short circuiting or charging the battery 
 in the wrong direction. At the present time there 
 are several styles of plug and receptacle in use, 
 Fig. 170 showing a popular make, but they are more 
 or less defective in strength and there is no uni- 
 formity in size or in arrangement of polarity so 
 that interchangeability is not always possible. To 
 obviate this difficulty, the standard adopted as de- 
 scribed above has been received very favorably, 
 permitting the car to be run into any charging sta- 
 tion for a ‘'Boost.'’ 
 
 In addition to the motor used for vehicle pro- 
 pulsion, motors are employed for operating winches, 
 cranes, dumping bodies, pumps and similar devices. 
 These are operated by controllers constructed for 
 the purpose and wired to the battery independently. 
 The same rules of installation apply in these cases 
 as in the regular vehicle wiring. 
 
 The wiring of a bell or signal horn is a simple 
 matter, the only precaution necessary being to con- 
 nect the device across such a number of cells that 
 it will not be damaged by too high a voltage. It is 
 preferable to use a bell connected across the entire 
 series of cells, and as a matter of fact, that is what 
 is done with but few exceptions. The bell is rung 
 either by means of a button in the controller han- 
 dle or by a floor push, so that in approaching a 
 street intersection or in attempting to pass another 
 vehicle, the signal may be given without perceptible 
 effort on the part of the driver. 
 
 317 
 
MECHANICAL PARTS— THEIR UPKEEP. 
 
 It is stated without fear of contradiction that 
 there is no piece of machinery which will perform 
 continuously without care and attention. The elec- 
 tric vehicle is no exception in this respect. How- 
 ever, the number of moving parts is small and they 
 are neither delicate nor complicated. The most 
 important requirement is lubrication. The subject 
 of lubrication is so important to machinery of all 
 kinds that many treatises have been devoted to the 
 exposition of the details of the theory and practice 
 concerned. J"or the purposes of electric automt)- 
 bile operation, however, no theoretical considera- 
 tion is necessary, the simple rules, ''To err on the 
 side of too much rather than too little,’’ and "Add 
 in small amounts often rather than large amounts 
 seldom,” being sufficient for all practical purposes. 
 
 Vehicles of both the commercial and pleasure 
 types are provided with means for lubrication de- 
 pending upon the character of the contact surfaces. 
 Oil cups, grease cups and grease boots may be 
 mentioned among these. Wheel bearings are packed 
 with grease, while the treatment prescribed for the 
 controller as previously explained consists in wip- 
 ing the copper contact with a rag with a little vase- 
 line. 
 
 The oils and grease used should in all cases be of 
 good quality, free from acid and grit. If dirt works 
 into any of the bearings, they should be washed 
 out thoroughly in gasoline or kerosene, the old 
 lubricant discarded and uncontaminated used for 
 repacking. 
 
 3X8 
 
Adjustments are required from time to time, to 
 tighten nuts or screws, chains, brakes, etc., and 
 may be readily made by inspection of the assembly 
 of the parts, with the aid of the instructions of the 
 manufacturer of the particular machine in ques- 
 tion. These minor adjustments are practically all 
 that will be required in normal service, barring ac- 
 cident, except for the yearly overhauling which 
 should be done by a competent mechanic familiar 
 with motor vehicle construction. 
 
 The object of the yearly overhauling is to renew 
 such parts as may be necessary, such as chains, 
 sprockets, gears, bearings, etc., and submit all parts 
 to examination so that those badly worn may be 
 replaced before an opportunity for breakdown is 
 given. Arrangements should be made for giving 
 this attention as indicated since, with proper care, 
 the vehicle will not fail to give satisfactory service 
 year after year. 
 
 It is the intention in the following paragraphs 
 to give a number of hints which have been found 
 useful in the upkeep of the chassis and in render- 
 ing its operation continuous. 
 
 Steering Gear. The parts of the steering mech- 
 anism require proper lubrication, and oil and grease 
 cups are supplied at points conveniently located for 
 effecting the most satisfactory lubrication and ease 
 of access to the operator. These should be gone 
 over daily and the oil and grease cups attended to. 
 
 The pinion and sector must be well lubricated 
 with heavy grease. There are many designs of 
 connection between the drag link, the steering arms 
 
 319 
 
and the cross bar, but construction will readily in- 
 dicate the proper method of lubricating the wearing 
 parts. These should be cared for daily. All nuts 
 and joints should be kept in good adjustment to 
 prevent play, as a little lost motion on the steering 
 arms would be magnified many times before reach- 
 ing the steering wheel. 
 
 It has been found, that, if the distance between 
 the rims at the front is from Vs" to 3/16" less than 
 the distance measured between the rims across the 
 rear, the steering will be very much easier, and 
 there will be less tendency for the wheels to de- 
 part from a straight line of travel. This toeing in 
 off the front wheels is often called gather. It is 
 important also that, except for the toe in, the 
 wheels run in perfect alignment, as, otherwise, 
 there would be a considerable grinding action upon 
 the tire, which would wear it out rapidly. The ad- 
 justment for gather is made by shortening the 
 length of the tie rod between the steering arms. 
 Any nuts which have been loosened to make ad- 
 justment should be tightened up securely so that 
 they may not be worked loose, allowing play. 
 
 In addition to the grease cups, which lubricate 
 the steering gear proper, it is a good plan to lift 
 the covers, remove the grease and replenish about 
 once every three months. 
 
 r ns and Sprockets. Chains and sprockets 
 reC|f oe both adjustment and lubrication. Under 
 therrlTr:^’ vof adjustment may be classed the proper 
 alif: hilt of the sprockets. The front and rear 
 
 tfts must run in perfect alignment at all times, 
 
 m 
 
as otherwise the teeth of the sprockets would be 
 damaged and the chains made defective. The 
 chains should run with proper tension so that there 
 is sufficient slack when running that they do not 
 run hard or stretqh. They must not be too loose, 
 or they may jump off or slap. The distance or 
 radius rods are provided with means for varying 
 the tension. After altering the distance between 
 sprocket centers by the adjustments of the radius 
 rods, lock nuts, if they are used, should be tight- 
 ened securely so that the adjustment will be per- 
 manent. Sprockets, as a rule, do not last as long 
 as the chains. The wear is evidenced by the teeth 
 becoming hook shaped and causing a whipping or 
 snapping of the chain. This condition naturally 
 imposes unnecessary strain on the latter, and shouH 
 be avoided. 
 
 It is practicable to change the sprockets from 
 side to side of the car, thereby making use of both 
 sides of the sets of teeth. Obviously, when both 
 sets have been worn sufficiently, then new sprock- 
 ets should be installed. New chains should not be 
 used upon old or much worn sprockets for the 
 reasons explained above. 
 
 Chains should be kept in good condition by fre- 
 quent inspection to see that the lengths of the 
 chains on both sides are equal, in order 
 vent the rear wheels running out of line. Th 
 number of links must be employed in bo^’ ( 
 and badly worn parts should not be allowt 
 for any length of time as they will eventu 
 
 321 
 
the entire chain. When a rivet or bushing has be- 
 come loosened from the side plate from some un- 
 usual strain, it should be replaced by a new link. 
 Some roller chains are corrit^osed of links joined 
 in such a way that each link may be removed with- 
 out affecting the others, but a great number of 
 chains cannot be dealt with in such a manner, it 
 being difficult to separate the links. The latter 
 type of chain is furnished with a master link, which 
 is serrated at the top edge and has pins a trifle 
 smaller than the others throughout the chain. It 
 is intended ior simple and quick removal or re- 
 placement. In this type of chain, if it is necessaiw 
 to replace a worn link, it may be done by inserting 
 a master link. 
 
 The lubrication of the chains and sprockets is 
 important and in many cases is practiced in an 
 erroneous manner, namely, by smearing the bear- 
 ing surface of the chain with grease or oil, which 
 gradually collects dust and grit and causes exces- 
 sive wear between the rolls and the sprocket teeth. 
 It furnishes no lubrication between the rolls and 
 bushings of the chain, where it is needed most. 
 The following method has been found successful 
 and is recommended by the leading manufacturers : 
 
 As often as necessary, such as periods of a month 
 or less, the chain should be removed and soaked 
 ever night in kerosene, after which it should be 
 brushed thoroughly and washed with gasoline to 
 remove any adhering particles of gummed oil or 
 j|lr^rust. After careful inspection and replacement of 
 
 322 
 
worn parts, a shallow pan should be used for con- 
 taining a heavy melted lubricant in which the en- 
 tire chain should be submerged. The temperature 
 of the mixture should not be sufficient to draw the 
 temper of the- steel, but high enough so that the 
 oil will find its way between the bushings and the 
 rolls or rivets of the chain. Mixtures for this pur- 
 pose are made up and sold prepared, or a mixture 
 of beef tallow with a small quantity of heavy oil 
 and powdered graphite may be used. In this way 
 the lubricant will penetrate to all parts of the chain. 
 The outside surfaces of the chain should then be 
 wiped dry and the chain may then be replaced and 
 adjusted to the proper tension on the sprockets. 
 It is permissible to apply a light graphite lubricant 
 on the outside of the chain from time to time so 
 that the surfaces of the rolls may run freely over 
 • the teeth of the sprockets. Only a small quantity 
 of material should be used for this purpose so that 
 dust and grit may not be collected. 
 
 Silent Chains. Silent or link belt chains are 
 usually run completely enclosed in oil when em- 
 ployed in vehicle construction in order that they 
 may be well lubricated at all times and maintained 
 free of dirt. They require very little attention, 
 except for adjustment, after the first 350 or 400 
 miles and thereafter approximately every 500 miles. 
 A silent chain operates best when it runs slightly 
 looser than would be correct for a leather belt. 
 The lubricant used should be a medium bodied oil 
 of good quality. The joints of the enclosing case 
 
 323 
 
should be packed so that the enclosure is tight and 
 does not drop oil. 
 
 Countershaft. The countershafts are supported 
 from the frame and have means, such as ball joints 
 or swivel connections with the distance rods, for 
 maintaining the proper relation with the rear axle 
 construction. Adjustments are provided for keep- 
 ing the shaft properly lined up. Provisions for 
 oiling and grease cups are supplied where there is 
 opportunity for wear, and care should be exercised 
 in oiling and turning up the grease cups daily. 
 
 If a brake drum is provided in connection with 
 the countershaft construction, the brake arrange- 
 ment should be inspected regularly and any loose 
 or worn parts tightened or replaced. 
 
 Differential. The differential gear is lubricated 
 by medium bodied grease supplied in the manner 
 adopted in the make of vehicle under consideration, 
 such as by grease cup, or by removing the cover 
 of the housing and filling the lower portion with a 
 sufficient quantity of lubricant. In winter time it will 
 probably be found necessary to supplement the ap- 
 plication of grease with a medium bodied oil to se- 
 cure the proper lubricating quality. Under conditions 
 of unusual commercial service, it is good practice 
 to take down the differential housing every six 
 months, remove the old grease, clean the parts, and 
 replenish with fresh lubricant of the proper con- 
 sistency. 
 
 Bearings. As explained in the description of 
 the various parts of the chassis, it will be noted 
 that every effort is made to reduce the effect of 
 
 324 
 
friction between the working surfaces by the use 
 of anti-friction bearings. With the idea of main- 
 tenance in mind, bearings may be divided into two 
 classes, adjustable and non-adjustable. The latter 
 require lubrication in small quantities and do not 
 permit of adjustment for wear. To prevent side 
 [)lay after adjustable bearings have been in use for 
 a time, thin spacing washers may be secured from 
 the manufacturer which may be placed between the 
 bearings and the moving parts. For sprockets on 
 counter shafts a sufficient number of washers may be 
 added so that, when the nuts at the end are drawn 
 up tight, the shaft turns hard. Then one washer 
 should be removed and the nut again brought into 
 position, when the shaft should be lined up proper- 
 ly and run freely with very little play. 
 
 Front and rear wheel bearings support the en- 
 tire weight load and vehicle, and must be kept in 
 perfect adjustment and well lubricated. The ad- 
 justment consists in having the wheel drawn up on 
 the spindle tight enough so that very little play is 
 felt but allowing wheel to run free. This is usually 
 accomplished by turning up the axle nut until, by 
 grasping two spokes, one at the top and one be- 
 neath the hub, no shake can be felt. The nut may 
 then be backed off a half turn and securely locked 
 to prevent its changing position or coming off the 
 spindle. If there is too much shake, the adjusting 
 nut should be tightened, or, if too tight, preventing 
 the wheel from turning freely, then loosened ac- 
 cordingly. On account of the small amount of 
 wear occurring in properly designed non-ad justable 
 325 
 
annular ball bearings of suitable size for the hub 
 load, these bearings do not require this adjustment, 
 and no provision is made therefor. 
 
 The motor bearings, as well as those on the 
 wheels and countershafts, are properly adjusted 
 before shipment from the factory and, under nor- 
 mal conditions, will require cleaning in gasoline and 
 repacking with non-fluid oil only, approximately, 
 every three months to maintain satisfactory opera- 
 tion. Naturally the class of service in which the 
 vehicle is used determines the length of the period 
 between adjustments and thorough overhauling of 
 the wearing parts. Pleasure cars, which are used 
 for only a few miles daily, and heavy trucks, which 
 are driven to their maximum capacity each day in 
 the year, are obviously not in the same class, and 
 so common sense must be made a part of the ad- 
 justing and overhauling instructions. 
 
 Greases and oils of the best quality without acid 
 or alkaline reaction should be used. Wheel bear- 
 ings of the roller type should be lubricated by 
 spreading the grease upon the cage holding the 
 rollers. In fact, the hub should be filled with 
 grease which will be taken up by the parts when 
 put into operation, although, at first, it may seem 
 to be excessive. A light grease is suitable for roller 
 bearings. 
 
 Bearings in the gear cases, either on counter- 
 shaft or rear axle, are supplied by means of grease 
 cups, which should be filled regularly once a week 
 and turned down daily. 
 
 Springs. Oil cups and grease cups are provided 
 
 326 
 
at the points on the springs where friction takes 
 place, and small quantities of oil should be applied 
 and the grease cups given a turn daily. This will 
 prevent bolts and bushings from grinding and wear- 
 ing out quickly. 
 
 The clips should be tightened so that the spring 
 stands firmly on the seat without play. Prominent 
 spring makers recommend inserting a layer of can- 
 vas steeped in linseed oil and white lead as an ex- 
 cellent packing to be placed between the spring and 
 its seat on t*he axle. The same authority discour- 
 ages the use of wood, paper, fibre or leather for this 
 purpose as being more harmful than beneficial. The 
 clips may be taken up at the end of the first and 
 second week of running with full load on, and 
 thereafter at the end of a period of about three 
 months. 
 
 Very often friction between the leaves gives rise 
 to disagreeable squeaks and grinding sounds. This 
 may be obviated by lubricating the surfaces be- 
 tween the leaves, by prying them apart and insert- 
 ing light grease or oil. In performing this opera- 
 tion. care should be taken not to damage the leaf 
 joints. The most satisfactory method recommended 
 by experienced spring makers is to remove the 
 springs from the car about once a year and to dis- 
 assemble the leaves, washing them in kerosene or 
 turpentine. After boiling in a mixture of tallow 
 and graphite for a few minutes, they may be al- 
 lowed to dry and be reassembled, sprinkling a small 
 quantity of flake graphite between the leaves. It is 
 
 327 
 
said that this treatment will prevent rust for over 
 a period of a year. 
 
 Brakes. The braking mechanism requires fre- 
 quent inspection and adjustment so that there may 
 be no danger of failure at the crucial moment. The 
 care as a rule consists simply in seeing that the 
 normal pressure on the brake pedal produces a firm 
 retarding action. This should be done daily before 
 removing the car from the garage so that, if ad 
 justmems are necessary, they may be made before 
 starting out. If the brakes do not hold, inspection 
 will usually show the method of turning up on the 
 turnbuckle or cam springs, for tightening. It some- 
 times happens that the full travel of the pedal pro- 
 duces sufficient pressure but there is slip between 
 the shoe and drum. This may be due to oil or 
 grease working its way onto the surfaces. It should 
 be washed out thoroughly with gasoline. 
 
 Although the adjustments should be made so that 
 the shoes hold tightly, care should be given that 
 the brakes do not bind or drag. They should take 
 hold gradually and bring the car to an easy stop, 
 except in emergency use, as a sudden locking of 
 the brakes may cause stripped tires, skidding or 
 other damage. 
 
 In many vehicles the brake pedal is connected 
 with a rod running transversely, suspended from 
 the frame, so that the pressure applied to the brake 
 pedal may be equalized and distributed evenly to 
 the brakes by means of this equalizing bar. Ad- 
 justments are provided so that the action of the 
 
 328 
 
rods to the brake shoes may be altered, giving equal 
 retardation on each side of the car. This will be 
 very helpful in preventing skidding. 
 
 Dragging brakes not only cause unnecessary wear 
 of the brake lining but use up power, thereby re- 
 ducing speed and mileage. The shoes should ride 
 about free of the drums when the pedal is in the 
 position to prevent any such trouble. Brakes 
 
 Fig. 172 — Standardized Charging Receptacle. 
 
 furnished with ratchet locks should be released be- 
 fore the car is started. Some vehicles are furnished 
 with automatic switches which open the circuit 
 when the brakes are locked ; others have a bell ring- 
 ing contact to indicate that both power and brakes 
 are operative, but differences of opinion exist as to 
 the relative advantages of these means of securing 
 fool-proof construction. 
 
 329 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE COST OF OPERATING ELECTRICS 
 VS. HORSES AND GAS TRUCKS. 
 
 Generally speaking, electric trucks can be operated 
 for 20% to 35% less than horses or gas trucks and 
 in some cases at 50% less than gas trucks on city 
 loutes. This is including everything — interest on the 
 investment, depreciation, repairs, battery upkeep and 
 renewals, insurance, license, etc. 
 
 The foregoing statement is based upon evidence of 
 users of electric trucks — not upon mere claims of 
 electric truck manufacturers. For instance, Mr. 
 Cowie, Vice President of the American Express 
 Company, made the statement that in their experi- 
 ence electric truck operating costs versus gas truck 
 operating costs are as 17 is to 25 — gas truck costs 
 are nearly 50% higher. 
 
 Mr. Frank Rushton, Rosedale, Kansas, in an ad- 
 dress at the Pie Bakers’ Convention at Chicago in 
 September, 1922, stated that his company was operat- 
 ing 24 electric trucks and 17 gas trucks and his cost 
 of operating the 24 electric vehicles for the year 
 1921 was only $17,009.17 as against $30,267.58 for 
 operating only 17 gas cars. His itemized figures are 
 as follows : 
 
 17 Gas Cars 24 Electric Cars 
 
 Gasoline and oil 
 
 Repairs 
 
 Tires 
 
 Labor garage . . 
 
 Licenses 
 
 Depreciation 
 
 Current 
 
 Insurance 
 
 $6,142.50 
 
 $642.12 
 
 7,321.44 
 
 2,418.80 
 
 4,107.24 
 
 963.08 
 
 4,046.20 
 
 3,560.20 
 
 248.20 
 
 213.37 
 
 6,600.00 
 
 4,800.00 
 
 
 2,461.50 
 
 1,802.00 
 
 1,950.00 
 
 $30,267.58 
 
 $17,009,07 
 
From this it is evident that the average cost per 
 year for his electric trucks is $708.71 as against 
 $1,780.44 apiece for his gas trucks. 
 
 Mr. McClellan, General IVlanager of the Chal- 
 mette Laundry, Ntw Orleans, has stated that their 
 47 electric trucks have saved them nearly $50,000 
 compared with their former delivery — wagons ^nd 
 mules. 
 
 It is a significant fact in this connection that the 
 electric truck is making the greatest headway where 
 the price of the product is small, and the margin of 
 profit per package is slight — the baking field, the 
 laundry field, dairy field, ice cream, etc. 
 
 A large baking company with several plants bought 
 about a dozen electric trucks for one plant to test 
 out whether electrics could save them money. As 
 a result of their experience, they authorized a com- 
 plete survey of their other plants — see page 332. 
 
 They are now eliminating all horses-and-wagons 
 and are replacing a number of their gas trucks with 
 electrics, shifting these gas trucks to longer routes. 
 
 Even in the milk field, electrics are displacing 
 horses because electrics save both time and money. 
 The fallacy that the horse that knows the route 
 saves time has been exposed by stop-watch tests. 
 The Budd Dairy Company, for instance, of Colum- 
 bus, Ohio, checked the electric versus the horse 
 knowing the route, on both short-haul and long-haul 
 routes on house-to-house milk delivery. On the 
 long routes the electric saved 1^ hours a day and 
 on the short trips 15 minutes a trip, enabling drivers 
 to do approximately 20% more work. Result — Budd 
 
 331 
 
INVESTMENT IN DELIVERY EQUIPMENT, BUILDINGS, 
 LAND, ETC. 
 
 Horse and Wagon — 
 
 59 horses and 54 wagons, etc $34,830.65 
 
 Land, stable and equipment 28,458.12 
 
 Total investment $63,288.77 
 
 Gas Truck — 
 
 13 ton chasses $14,367.21 
 
 Equipment 972.95 
 
 Total investment $15i,340.16 
 
 Grand total of horse and gas truck investment $78,628.93 
 
 Electric Truck — 
 
 63 chasses $166,020.00 
 
 Equipment 19,600.00 
 
 Grand total electric truck investment $185,620.00 
 
 YEARLY COST OF OPERATION 
 Horse and Wagon — 
 
 Feed or rental $21,771.70 
 
 Repairs and upkeep 34,176.49 
 
 Interest orn investment 1,898.64 
 
 Depreciation 6,476.15 
 
 Insurance 331.25 
 
 License 
 
 Taxes 551.46 
 
 Total $65,205.69 
 
 Ten year cost $652,056.90 
 
 Gas Truck — 
 
 Fuel or rental $5,595.48 
 
 Repairs and upkeep 11,923.89 
 
 Interest on investment 460.13 
 
 Depreciation 3,448.06 
 
 Insurance 484.00 
 
 License 203.28 
 
 Taxes 107.36 
 
 Total $22,222f.20 
 
 Ten year cost $222,222.00 
 
 Electric Truck — 
 
 Energy $8,358.00 
 
 Cleaning and lubrication 817.20 
 
 Repairs and upkeep 12,482.70 
 
 Interest on investment 4,061.31 
 
 Depreciation 8,664.67 
 
 Insurance 614.08 
 
 License 189.00 
 
 Taxes 600.00 
 
 Total $35,786.96 
 
 Ten year cost $357,869.60 
 
 Note — Figures above cover 54 horse routes and 11 gas 
 routes, which were replaced by 63 electrics. 
 
 332 
 
ESTIMATED YEARLY SAVING 
 
 1. Cost of the part of the present equipment, which it is 
 recommended to be replaced by electric trucks. 
 
 A. Total yearly cost of horse equipment which is 
 
 recommended to be replaced by electric trucks $65,205.69 
 
 B. Cost of 11 gas truck routes recommended to be re- 
 placed by electric trucks $11,111.10 
 
 Total yearly cost $76,316.79 
 
 2. Total estimated yearly cost of the proposed electric 
 
 equipment ' $35,786.60 
 
 Total estimated yearly saving $40,530.19 
 
 Saving in 10 years $405,301.90 
 
 Dairy Company operates 18 electric trucks in house- 
 to-house milk delivery. 
 
 One may ask “How can the electric possibly save 
 time under such conditions?'’ To begin with, the 
 electric gets to and from the route in less time than 
 the horse. Secondly, even when on the actual de- 
 livery route, the electric saves time because with a 
 horse-and-wagon the driver walks his route and 
 the time it takes him to cover it is the time it takes 
 him to walk it. With the electric, he drives beween 
 stops, saving considerable time over the horse in 
 half-block, quarter-block and block runs. Inci- 
 dentally, the electric starts quicker than a horse and 
 gets away faster and. stops quicker. It never gets 
 ahead of the driver when he needs some extra cream 
 or extra butter or eggs as a result of a note found 
 in the bottle. The electric never runs away, never 
 chews up trees, shrubbery, etc. 
 
 The saving in time and money together are suffi- 
 ciently great to result in an economy equivalent to 
 between 2% and 3% of a milk dealer’s business per 
 year. If he is averaging say 10% on his gross vol- 
 
 333 
 
tune, this saving means an increase in profit of be- 
 tween 20% and v30%. 
 
 The following figures of an analysis on house-to- 
 house milk delivery are based on a plant where horse 
 costs were unusually favorable and yet the com- 
 parison shows the electric to be sufficiently econom- 
 ical to save a sum equivalent to more than 2j4% of 
 the gross volume. 
 
 54 RETAIL HORSE-DRAWN ROUTES (N) 
 
 Feed $41,273.76 
 
 Wagons, repair and painting 14,079.73 
 
 Harness 3,268.15 
 
 Shoeing 6,008.45 
 
 Interest on investment, 3% 810.00 
 
 *Depreciation 9,000.00 
 
 Total $74,440.09 
 
 10 year cost of horse delivery $744,400.90 
 
 44 ELECTRIC TRUCKS (N) 
 
 Current at 2>^c. per KWH $7,395.78 
 
 Cleaning and lubrication 660.00 
 
 Repairs and parts, chassis 1,386.71 
 
 Body repairs and painting 4,752.00 
 
 Battery expense 10,807.92 
 
 Tires 2,459.10 
 
 Repairs, building or rental 2,772.00 
 
 **Interest on investment, vehicles, 3% 2,545.30 
 
 Interest on investment, equipment, 3% 390.00 
 
 **Depreciation, vehicles, 10% 8,484.35 
 
 Depreciation, equipment, 5% 650.00 
 
 Insurance 1,138 59 
 
 License 176.00 
 
 Garage help •. 7,200.00 
 
 Total $50,817.75 
 
 10 year cost of electric delivery $508,177.50 
 
 N — Greater load capacity of electrics, greater speed and consequent 
 saving in time, enables 44 electrics to do work of 54 horse teams. 
 
 *Horse depreciation at 20 per cent, stable at 5 per cent, wagons 
 at 10 per cent, harness at 20 per cent, and equ pment at 10 per cent. 
 Average life of horse is figured at 5 years, although in New York 
 and other large cities the average is 4 years. 
 
 **Less tires and batteries. 
 
 In view of the economy of the electric over the 
 horse and the gas truck, why is it that it is not uni- 
 versally used on short-haul city routes ? 
 
 The answer is — ignorance. Business men do not 
 
 334 
 
know their delivery costs. Any l)usiness man who 
 will get together his complete delivery costs will be 
 astounded at the total cost of horses and wagons 
 and gas trucks on city routes. In the dairy business, 
 for instance, delivery is costing from 20c to 25c out 
 of every dollar the dairyman takes in and sometimes 
 more — including interest, depreciation, and main- 
 tenance on vehicles, stable buildings, etc., operating 
 costs, insurance, drivers’ salaries, and commissions, 
 etc. Is it any wonder that efficiency in delivery, 
 efifected through the use of electric trucks, can save 
 a sum equivalent to 2% or of a gross business 
 per year, thereby increasing profits by 20% to 30% ! 
 
 In the ice cream field, delivery is costing between 
 20% and 25% — and sometimes 30%, depending 
 somewhat on how the ice and salt are figured. 
 
 In the bakery field, delivery is ranging from 18c 
 to 25c out of every dollar. 
 
 Laundry delivery is costing from 20c to 30c out 
 of each dollar the laundry owner takes in. 
 
 In the department store field, where delivery is a 
 much smaller per cent, of gross sales, due to the 
 greater value of the parcels and the fact that nu- 
 merous parcels are carried home or sent by parcel 
 post, even in this field delivery amounts to a stag- 
 gering sum in dollars and cents. 
 
 When it is considered that the Harvard Survey 
 shows that department store profits are a very small 
 percentage of gross sales — ranging from about ^ of 
 1% up to about 3% — and when it is considered that 
 delivery in the department store field ranges any- 
 where from ^ of 1% up to 3% or 4% — it will read- 
 
 335 
 
il\' be seen that inefficient or extravagant delivery 
 can wipe out a department store’s profits. 
 
 In view of such figures as these, is it not astound- 
 ing that the average business man does not know 
 his delivery costs? 
 
 It is particularly astounding when there is such 
 a simple way of getting at the facts. Even if a con- 
 cern hasn’t kept its figures on delivery properly, it is 
 comparatively easy to get to the bottom of the sub- 
 ject. On pages 368 and 369 is shown a Cost Analysis 
 Form arranged in three columns, one for horses, one 
 for gas trucks, and one for electric trucks. No mat- 
 ter how a concern has kept its books — whether it 
 separates its delivery or not — ^-the invoices, checks 
 and cash vouchers are in the bookkeeping system and 
 the bookkeeper can usually get the figures together 
 in a very short time by following this Cost Analysis 
 Form. 
 
 When these figures are assembled on horse deliv- 
 ery and gas trucks on city routes, the total will be 
 a genuine surprise to the business man who has been 
 wondering why his overhead is so high. When the 
 yearly cost is multiplied in each case by 10 or 15 
 years — a period long enough to take into full con- 
 sideration the life of the electric truck versus the 
 much shorter life of horses and gas trucks on fre- 
 quent-stop routes, the possible saving through the 
 use of electric trucks will pile up until it looks like 
 a mountain. 
 
 If every business man in this country would' have 
 his delivery costs assembled on a form similar to 
 this and then set up against his horse or gas truck 
 
 336 
 
costs the much lower cost of electric trucks, it 
 would bring- iihout a revolution in delivery equipment. 
 
 Instead of looking- at his horse costs as a question 
 of the horse itself, the wagon, feed and shoeing and 
 a few other incidentals, as he now does, he would 
 have complete figures — 40 odd items that enter into, 
 horse delivery costs. 
 
 Instead of depreciating or charging ofif horses, 
 vehicles, stables, garages, etc., through a general de- 
 preciation fund, by charging them ofif separately, 
 each according to its proper life, he will get a new 
 viewpoint, because horses and gas trucks average 
 only 5 years on frequent-stop routes — the cheap light 
 gas trucks are trade in every 2 or 3 years — whereas 
 electric trucks, built to last more than 10 years, can 
 be safely depreciated at 10% a year as against 20% 
 on horses and 20% to 33j^% on gas trucks. 
 
 Another cost item that is worth any business man's 
 attention is that of stable lands and buildings. The 
 horse requires two to three times the space of an 
 electric truck when you take into consideration the 
 space required by the wagon, the stall for the horse 
 and the horse's share of the hay loft, feed room, 
 harness room, etc. Leading bakers and others have 
 done away with the stable or garage building en- 
 tirely, storing &nd charging electric trucks right at 
 the loading platform. 
 
 Another economy that must be considered is the 
 higher efficiency of electric trucks in days in service 
 per year. Gas trucks are out of service from 30 to 
 40 days a year including repairs, replacements, tire 
 changes, revarnishing, etc. It is unusual for an elec- 
 
 337 
 
First — Figure Your Investment in Delivery Equipment^ Buildings^ Land^etc. 
 
 HORSE AND WAGON GAS TRUCK ELECTRIC TRUCK 
 
 338 
 
Cost of Operation (Continued) 
 
 339 
 
trie truck to be out of service half this long even 
 including revarnishing. 
 
 Fleet performance records on electrics average 
 higher than 98% days in service. 
 
 This higher efficiency of the electric enables a 
 Imsiness man to operate his delivery with fewer 
 spare vehicles than he requires if he uses either 
 gas trucks or horses — because we all know that the 
 horse must have his rest periods, that he is in very 
 bad shape after severe snows, and that he is at times 
 indisposed and unable to work. 
 
 Most businesses are doing a good volume today in 
 spite of lower prices for products and services* But 
 profits are not so good — overhead is still too high. 
 
 It is already clearly evident that wages cannot be 
 brought down rapidly. The economies must be 
 effected somewhere else — overhead must be cut in 
 some other way. Delivery, often the biggest over- 
 head item, offers the opportunity to reduce overhead 
 and thereby increase profits. 
 
 So long as a business man looks only at first cost 
 of the different types of delivery equipment, he will 
 never buy electric trucks because they cost more to 
 build and therefore are high-priced. But if he gets 
 the complete story — first cost divided by the years 
 of life, and the much lozver operating costs on elec- 
 tric trucks, it will be immediately clear that the 
 economies of the electric are so great that they wipe 
 out the difference in first cost in a jiffy, and from 
 then on pay profits. In fact, the statement has been 
 made and proved that in many instances if a business 
 had got its stable of horses or its original gas trucks 
 
 340 
 
for nothing, it could not afford to operate them com- 
 pared with electric trucks at their high first cost. 
 
 The business man who continues to operate horses 
 oi gas trucks because of the smaller investment is 
 burdening his business with a heavy millstone and 
 may even be placing his business in the position 
 where delivery may make the difference between a 
 profitable and an unprofitable business. 
 
 In the keen competition of today and with the 
 public continually demanding lower prices, it is al- 
 most fata-1 to neglect this important subject of de- 
 livery. A business man may have an honest differ- 
 ence of opinion at the start. He may conscientiously 
 believe that horses and gas trucks are cheaper for 
 him on city routes. But why guess ? Why not get 
 the facts Why not set up his horse figures and gas 
 truck figures in the way suggested here and then set 
 up opposite them electric truck- figures, including 
 everything. The totals will speak for themselves ! 
 
 ton Electric truck 
 
 341 
 
INDEX TO CONTENTS 
 
 Acid, Addition of 73 
 
 Acid, Specific Gravity 75 
 
 Active Material, Shedding of 89 
 
 Advantages of Electrics.. 5 
 
 Ammeter 190 
 
 Ampere-Hour Meter (Sangamo) 192 
 
 Assembling New Batteries 51 
 
 Axles 290 
 
 Batteries, Boosting 45 
 
 Batteries, Care of 37 
 
 Batteries, Charging 17 
 
 Batteries, Lead, Assembly 14 
 
 Batteries, Lead, Care of 43 
 
 Batteries, Lead, Storage, Description 13 
 
 Batteries Out of Service 47 
 
 Batteries, Remaining idle 63 
 
 Batteries, Unpacking 49 
 
 Battery Cleaning, Frequency of 83 
 
 Bearings 200 
 
 Brakes 301 
 
 Bridges, Battery 22 
 
 Capacity, Loss of 88 
 
 Chains and Sprockets 3^ 
 
 Charge and Discharge Rates 25 
 
 Charging from Central Stations 182 
 
 Charging Apparatus (A. C.) 156 
 
 Charging Apparatus (D. C.) 140 
 
 Charging, Automatically 61 
 
 Charging, General Rules 37 
 
 Charging, Manipulation 40 
 
 Charging, Out of the Vehicle 41 & 68 
 
 Charging, Overnight 64 
 
 Charging Rates, Tables 27-36 
 
 Charging, Starting Rate 
 
 Charging Plugs 3LS 
 
 Chassis, Design and Care of 
 
 Cleanliness of Cells 57 
 
 Controllers, Construction and Care of 2^4 
 
 Cost of Operating Electric Trucks 330 
 
 Difficulties and Their Evasion 8/ 
 
 Discharging 41 
 
 Discharge, Limit of ^ 
 
 342 
 
Edison Storage Batteries 121 
 
 Edison Batteries, Care and Operation 130 
 
 The Electric Storage Battery Co., Description of 
 
 Batteries 102 
 
 Electrolyte 39 
 
 Electrolyte, Inspection of 72 
 
 Electrolyte, Proper Level 46 
 
 Electrolyte, Testing of 56 
 
 Emergency Charging 66 
 
 Equalizing Charge 45&62 
 
 Electric Vehicle Development. 3 
 
 Gassing 44 
 
 Gears, Differential 294 
 
 Goodrich Silvertown Cord Tires 238 
 
 Goodrich Tire Caliper 239 
 
 Gould Storage Battery Co., Description of Batteries. 107 
 
 Hydrometer 25 
 
 Indicators, Mileage and Speed 219 
 
 Inspection of Batteries 72 
 
 Instruments, Measuring 184 
 
 Isolated Charging Plants 181 
 
 Jars, Adding New Ones 77 
 
 Jars, Battery 22 
 
 Lead Burning 24 
 
 Lead Burning by Hydrogen 95 
 
 Lincoln Chargers I 7 S 
 
 Maximum Demand Indicator 213 
 
 Mercury Arc Rectifier 157 
 
 Motors, Construction and Care of 262 
 
 Motor Generators 173 
 
 Naked Flame, Danger 39 
 
 Parts, Mechanical, Their Upkeep 318 
 
 Pasted Plates 21 
 
 Philadelphia Storage Battery Co., Description of 
 
 Batteries no 
 
 Pilot Cell 47 
 
 Plates, Corrosion of 90 
 
 Plates, Lead Battery 13 
 
 Plates, Reversal of 89 
 
 Pleasure Vehicle Progress 9 
 
 Points to Be Remembered 48 
 
 Prejudice Against Electrics ii 
 
 Resistance, Water 70 
 
 Rims 230 
 
 Rotary Converters 174 
 
 Sediment in Batteries 82 
 
 343 
 
Service Charging 58 
 
 Specific Gravity 25 
 
 Specific Gravity Temperature Tables. 79 
 
 Speedorneters 222 
 
 Sprockets and Chains 320 
 
 Springs 289 
 
 Steering Gear 297 
 
 Storage Batteries, Alkaline ( Edison ) 121 
 
 Sulphation 18 
 
 Sulphation, Cause of 88 
 
 Suggestion, Battery Accessory 94 
 
 Taking Out of Commission 91 
 
 Temperature, Battery Maximum 46 
 
 Temperature Effects on Plates 90 
 
 Temperature in Charging 40 
 
 Tires 231 
 
 Tires, Abrasion 247 
 
 Tires, Alignment of 246 
 
 Tires, Care of... 243 
 
 Tires, Carrying Capacity (Table) 245 
 
 Tires, Injury from Oil. 247 
 
 Tires, Inner Tubes 260 
 
 Tires, Pneumatic, Air Pressure 254 
 
 Tires, Pneumatic, Care of ^.. 253 
 
 Tires, Standing Idle *.. 253 
 
 Tires, Skidding 251 
 
 Tires, Vulcanizing 257 
 
 Transmission 304 
 
 Trays, Battery 23 
 
 U. S. Light & Heating Co., Description of Batteries 113 
 
 Ventilation 39 
 
 Voltage of Battery During Charging 60 
 
 Voltage, for Charging 39 
 
 Voltage, Charge and Discharge 81 
 
 Voltmeter 185 
 
 Water, for Batteries 44 
 
 Water, Distilled 75 
 
 Watt-Hour Meters 217 
 
 Wheels, Rims and Tires 227 
 
 Willard Storage Battery Co., Description of Batteries 117 
 Wiring 3^4 
 
 344 
 
One of. the 19 Ward Electrics used in ice cream 
 delivery by the Hydrox Company, Chicago. 
 
 Ward Electrics save 20 to 35% 
 
 Ward Electrics save 20% to 35% compared with 
 horses and wagons — and usually 50% compared with 
 gasoline trucks on city routes. If you had got your 
 horses or gas trucks for nothing, you could hardly afford 
 to use them in comparison. 
 
 Ward Electrics last 10 years and longer. Some are 
 still operating economically after 15 years. 
 
 These efficient trucks dominate in delivery fields where 
 the unit of sale is low, the profit small, and where de- 
 liveries must be made in spite of weather conditions. In 
 the bakery business, for instance, there are more Ward 
 Electrics than all other electrics put together and they 
 outnumber the trucks of the leading gas truck maker 
 nearly 5 to 1. The laundry field is another example. 
 
 O. H. Geyer & Son, Dairy owners, Chicago, say: “We 
 wouldn’t go back to horses and wagons or gas cars as 
 a gift.” 
 
 We have a book that will make any executive sit up 
 and take a new look at the delivery problem. It is free 
 on request. 
 
 Ward Motor Vehicle Co. 
 
 Mt. Vernon, New York 
 
 6 Sizes : 750 Lbs. to 5 Tons 
 
 345 
 
IDW^T^TRUCKINGt 
 
 (Load Capacities, 
 
 5^2, 1, 2, 354 and 5 Tons) 
 
 Walker Electric Truck Chassis have a 
 profitable life of ten to twenty years be- 
 cause Walkers are of Superior design, 
 workmanship and material. 
 
 The Walker Balance Drive 
 
 is over 95% efficient under 
 all operating conditions 
 throughout entire life. 
 
 WALKER VEHICLE COMPANY 
 
 America’s Leading Manufacturers of Electric Road Trucks 
 CHICAGO 
 
 New York Philadelphia BuflFaJo Boston 
 
 346 
 
American Railway Express Company Operates Many WALKER 
 Fleets and Continuously buy more. WHY? 
 
 Express and Transfer Companies sell 
 transportation for profit. The predom- 
 inance of Walker Electric Trucks in this 
 service proves that Walkers earn the 
 largest profits. 
 
 Walkers are profitable for about 8o% of 
 all trucking on city routes. 
 
 Get the facts from any Walker user, 
 branch or dealer. Write for “PROEIT- 
 ABLE TRUCKING” folder. 
 
 WALKER VEHICLE COMPANY 
 
 America’s Leading Manufacturers of Electric Road Trucks 
 CHICAGO 
 
 New York Philadelphia Buffalo Boston 
 
 liCME^yTRUCKING-COST 
 
 347 
 
r^r\S\T\ M INDUSTRIAL 
 VwVyi-Vi> TRUCKS-TRACTORS 
 
 Originators of the “through ticket” system for moving loads 
 
 COWAN 
 
 ELECTRIC 
 
 Self-Loading Trucks 
 Load Carrying Trucks 
 Industrial Tractors 
 also Hand Lift Trucks 
 
 Cowan Engineers and Representatives 
 throughout the country will gladly give 
 advice gained through long experience 
 in solving industrial transportation 
 problems. Cowan Bulletins will be 
 sent you on request. 
 
 Cowan Truck Company 
 
 4 Water Street, Holyoke, Mass. 
 
 New York Office, Grand Central Palace 
 Offices in Principal Cities 
 
 2030-N 
 
 848 
 
i 
 
 ELECTRIC TRUCKS 
 
 are bought today by truck 
 users, many of them leaders 
 in their field, because they fit 
 the requirements of city trans- 
 portation in nearly eyery line 
 of industry. 
 
 Two Motors No Differential 
 
 In the C-T Truck each driving 
 wheel has its own power plant en- 
 abling it to make use of all the trac- 
 tion available, giving greater sim- 
 plicity and assuring less repairs, 
 more days on the road and greater 
 operating economy. 
 
 Capacities, Bantam (3^ ton) to 5 tons 
 
 Commercial Truck Company 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 349 
 
N ELA park is a ‘'university of light,” 
 dedicated to improvement in lamps and 
 progress in the art of lighting. It serves 24 
 factories, 17 Sales Divisions and 15,000 Deal- 
 ers in the production and marketing of 98 mil- 
 lion National Mazda lamps annually for use in 
 homes, offices, factories, stores, streets, rail- 
 ways, flashlights and automobiles. 
 
 National Lamp Works 
 
 of General Electric Company 
 Nela Park Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 350 
 
Approved Standard cf the Electric I’ehicle Section of the N. E. L. A. 
 and the Electric Vehicle Committee of Great Britain. 
 
 AVOID CHARGING TROUBLES— WRITE FOR BULLETIN 33 
 
 ALBERT & J. M. ANDERSON MFC. CO. 
 
 289-305 A Street, Boston, Mass., U. S. A. 
 
 New York Chicago Philadelphia 
 
 35 Broadway 105 So. Dearborn St. 429 Real Estate Trust Bldg. 
 London, England, 38-39 Upper Thames Street, E. C. 4 
 
 SPECIFY ANDERSON STANDARD 
 
 CHARGING PLUGS 
 
 and RECEPTACLES 
 
 351 
 
Low platform truc ~ 
 equipped with G-E 
 automobile type 
 motor 
 
 Opportunities on Wheels 
 
 £AL« economies are brought to factory and ware- 
 house where electric trucks and tractors are 
 operated. These little machines in industries of this 
 country to-day are helping to clear the where-to-reduce- 
 expense tangle. 
 
 Fifty tractors each with twelve trailers handle 2,500 
 tons a day in a Chicago plant covering thirty-nine acres. 
 Kach train paid for itself in one year by its economies. 
 
 Tractors and trucks in a variety of types equipped with 
 G-E driving, elevating and control equipment have 
 proved satisfactory wherevei used. They» offer every 
 industry expense-reducing opportunities. 
 
 Prominent manufacturers of trucks and tractors use 
 G-E motors and control and co-operate with the ma- 
 terial handling specialists of the General Electric Com- 
 pany in designing and building the most improved 
 machines. 
 
 352 
 
Westinghouse 
 
 Electric Vehicle Equipment 
 
 Type V-54 Vehicle Motor 
 
 From the inception of the electric vehicle, Westinghouse has 
 assisted in its successful development by securing the services 
 of experts to design and manufacture suitable electrical equip- 
 ments, such as motors, controllers, cut-out syv^itches, charging 
 receptacles and plugs, and Westinghouse was alsj the first 
 manufacturer to build this equipment in quantities. 
 
 The salient characteristics of Westinghouse motors marking 
 their suitability for applications to electric vehicle:; are as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. Constructed so as to secure maximum strength 
 with the simplest arrangement and the fewest 
 parts. 
 
 2. Designed to commutate the heavy currents with 
 minimum sparking. 
 
 3. Available for either 60 or 80 volt service. 
 
 4. High efficiency throughout their range of opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Westinghouse vehicle controllers are simple in design, 
 rugged in construction and only require infrequent re- 
 newals of contact fingers and drum segments. 
 Westinghouse early recognized the influence of battery- 
 charging equipments on the extensive use of elctrical 
 vehicles. Therefore, a complete line of battery -charging 
 apparatus has been developed for this service, compris- 
 ing rheostats, mercury arc 
 rectifiers, motor-generator 
 sets, and battery-charging 
 switchboards. 
 
 Type XV-52 
 Vehicle Controller 
 
 Westinghouse 
 Electric & Manufacturing 
 Company 
 
 East Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 353 
 
CHARGING EQUIPMENT 
 
 Constant Current and Constant Potential Methods 
 
 For Industrial Trucks, Tractors, 
 Locomotives and Street Vehicles 
 
 Each section is a complete unit 
 carryingr all the devices assembled 
 to take care of any number of elec- 
 trics. Additions can be made at 
 small cost. Other features are 
 
 Ease of Operation 
 Low Operating Cost 
 Low Installation Cost 
 Durability 
 
 Automatic Protection 
 Suitability for 2-Wire 
 or 3- Wire Service 
 
 Our nearest office will send Publication 830 
 
 Tlie Gutler-Hammer Mfg. Co. 
 
 MILWAUKEE and NEW YORK 
 
 New York Chicago Pittsburgh Boston 
 Philadelphia Cleveland Cincinnati 
 Pr.nel of six C-H Detroit St. Louis Los Angeles 
 
 charging sections Seattle San Francisco 
 
 354 
 
IRONCLAD 
 
 BATTERIES 
 
 For Ppwer and Speed 
 When You Need Them Most 
 
 Power to carry your fully loaded truck ; good 
 uniform speed, even in the late afternoon — that’s 
 what the installation of the Exide Ironclad 
 Battery assures you. 
 
 For this dependable battery — product of the 
 oldest and largest battery manufacturers in the 
 world — delivers power up to 
 20 times its normal rate when 
 the demand arises. 
 
 And it maintains throughout 
 its complete discharge, a high 
 voltage that assures a good 
 truck speed all day long. 
 
 Bulletin No. 182 tells you 
 more about this battery^its 
 long life, low maintenance cost 
 and extreme ruggedness. Write 
 for it. 
 
 The Electric Storage 
 Battery Co. 
 
 Oldest and largest manufacturers 
 in the world of storage batteries 
 for every pus*pose. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 Branches in 17 Cities 
 Manufactured in Canada by 
 
 Exide Batteries of Canada, Limited 
 133-157 Dufferin Street, Toronto 
 
 355 
 
£du3<m. 
 
 STOP ACE 
 
 lDaTli^ij| 
 
 The Standard Battery for 
 
 Electric Vehicles 
 Industrial Trucks 
 Industrial Tractors 
 
 The only Storage Battery with any iron or 
 steel in its construction or elements. 
 
 Full information on request. 
 
 EDISON STORAGE BATTERY CO. 
 
 147 Lakeside Ave., Orange, N. J. 
 
 356 
 
Electrical Vehicles, Trucks, 
 Tractors 
 
 L ong life plates plus long life separators is the vfery 
 d,eslrable combination offered in the Gould Dread- 
 naught Battery. 
 
 The high sustained capacity and stubborn resistance to 
 disintegration of Gould Dreadnaught Positive Plates are 
 due primarily to the uniform high quality cf the lead 
 oxides used in their making. Direct and sole control of 
 the, quality of the oxide is made possible by the Gould 
 Oxide Plant. No other battery manufacturer makes his 
 own oxide. 
 
 Lcng-life is again assured by the Gould Armored Sepa- 
 rator — a long life wood separator. A patented Gould 
 process of rubberizing the wood fibres gives the separator 
 a defensive covering that is immune to the action of ac d 
 and yet does not impair the natural porosity of the sep- 
 arator. 
 
 Gould Batteries are especially constructed to meet 
 specific requirements of all types of electr'c vehicles, 
 baggage and industrial trucks and mine locomotives. 
 
 Gould Storage Battery Co. 
 
 General Offices: 30 East 42nd St., New York 
 Plant: Depew, N. Y. 
 
 CHICAGO DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 HUNTINGTON KANSAS CITY 
 
 357 
 
Acceptance 
 
 are of value in assuring the quality of any appa- 
 ratus or material that is purchased in large quan- 
 tities. The Laboratories can be of service to elec- 
 tric vehicle manufacturers and users by making 
 tests of 
 
 Generators, 
 
 Motors, 
 
 Storage batteries. 
 
 Primary batteries, 
 
 Steel and other construction 
 materials. 
 
 Battery jars. 
 
 Battery electrolyte 
 
 PHYSICAL, ELECTRICAL AND CHEMI- 
 CAL TESTS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Tests can be made at the factories, at store- 
 houses, under operating conditions, or at the lab- 
 oratories of this Company as best suits your con- 
 venience. Our facilities are at your service. 
 
 Electrical 
 
 Testing Laboratories 
 
 80th St. and East End Avenue 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 358 
 
/^O ® /= 
 
 UJf^ iTTC/j /^y 
 
 MEh’ORANDA 
 (/J A-^ 
 
 U^* LO, 3 GA^ ^c>a/T^ 
 
MEMORANDA 
 
 
 360