tr'^ .^ .//-"■". ,'/?^ 1 ^ .\- '1/ ^>vv.^ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTACKS Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. A charge is made on all overdue books. U. of I. Library !1AR iUH JAN 2 1) '3! 1^^ 7, 'lr f. O T^l r» DEC 03 m IM l««*f !JEtl4\ AND P. J. LENNOX, IJttD., PttOFESSORS AT THH CATHOLIC UNIVEESITT OF AMEBICA PHOENIX. UMTTED WASHINGTON. D. C. 1914 Copyright, 1914, by Phoenix, Limited All Rights Reserved ap' & TO THE IRISH RACE IN EVERY LAND 4o46i:)9 Ireland: 'All thy life has been a symbol ; we can only read a part : God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that drench thy heart." John Boyle O'Reilly. PREFACE We had at first intended that this should be a book without a preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncer- tain tones for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be more seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and our methods. As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during our experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion that the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to us the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive, and permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish achievement dur- ing the last two thousand years. In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first place, we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent substantial reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by placing in their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of facts as telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second motive was that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the part taken by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the spread of re- ligion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom should sin, not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a thousand quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of knowledge should be able to spring to his confutation. To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so im- mense our lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not possible to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in other work of an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the execution of our undertaking, we de- cided to invite the collaboration of many scholars and spe- cialists, each of whom could, out of the fullness of informa- tion, speak with authority on some particular phase of the general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent writers VI preface; to whom we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and alacrity to our call, and have supplied us with such a body of material as to enable us to bring out a book that is abso- lutely unique. From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifia- ble statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of absolute reliability. Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said than what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our request, appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected bibliography, so that those who are in- terested may have a guide for further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of reference to be a highly useful feature. It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his Irish descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons and daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously dis- tinguished themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of their achievements in a form never before attempted. We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward in this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded to it will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still better known the Glories of Ireland. Joseph Dunn P. J. Lennox Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. November, 1914 CONTENTS PAGE The Romance oe Irish History 1 Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G. The IsIvAnd oe Saints and Scholars 9 Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D. Irish Monks in Europe 20 Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B. The Irish and the Sea 33 William H. Babcock, LL.B. Irish Love oe Learning 38 Rev. P. S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I. Irish Men oe Science 44 Sir Bertram C. A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D. Law in Ireland • 56 Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P. Irish Music 71 W. H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D. Irish Metal Work 78 Diarmid Coffey Irish Manuscripts.. ., 84 Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L. The Ruins oe Ireland 89 Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I. A. Modern Irish Art 95 D. J. O'Donoghue Vin CONTENTS PAGE Ireland at Play 102 Thomas E. Healy The Fighting Race 110 Joseph I. C. Clarke The Sorrows of Ireland 145 John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D. Irish Leaders 153 Shane Leslie Irish Heroines 162 Alice Milligan Irish Nationality 170 Lord Ashbourne Famous Irish Societies 176 John O'Dea' The Irish in the United States. 184 Michael J. O'Brien The Irish in Canada 221 James J. Walsh, M.D. The Irish in South America 228 Marion Mulhall The Irish in Australasia 245 Brother Leo, F.S.C, M.A. The Irish in South Africa 253 A. Hilliard Atteridge The Irish Language and Letters 258 Douglas Hyde, LL.D. CONTENTS ix ■ PAGE Native Irish Poetry 265 Georges Dottin Irish Heroic Sagas 270 Eleanor Hull Irish Precursors oe Dante 277 Sidney Gunn, M.A. Irish Ineeuence on English Literature 283 Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A. Irish Foek Lore 290 Alfred Perceval Graves Irish Wit and Humor ^ 298 Charles L. Graves The Irish Theatre 304 Joseph Holloway Irish Journalists 310 Michael MacDonajrh e> The Irish Literary Revival 317 Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D. Irish Writers oe English 326 P. J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D. THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY By Sir Roger Casement, C. M. G. THE history of Ireland remains to be written, for the pur- pose of Irishmen remains yet to be achieved. The struggle for national realization, begun so many cen- turies ago, is not ended ; and if the long story offers a so fre- quent record of failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the sternest courage. Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy, the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have conferred always a moral gain. Their memory up- lifts the Irish heart; for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged them. When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland from external sources, we learn of it as an island har- boring free men, whose indomitable love of freedom was hate- ful to the spirit of imperial exploitation. Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom might be put out of sight." It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude. The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so dear at home. In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the key- note to all later Irish history — a warring down on the one hand, so that freedom might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the other, so that it might be upheld. It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, 2 THE GIX)RIES OF IRELAND Stuart, and Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest, tells us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that refused to admit defeat. "This indom- itable persistency, this faculty of preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost liberty and of never despair- ing of a cause always defeated, always fatal to those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and noblest ex- ample ever given by any nation." The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition. The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization, a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and courage of indi- viduals. At times one clan alone, or two clans, maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources of a mighty realm — shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold, state- craft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a great Sovereign and a famous Court — and the Irish clan and its chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue in doubt. When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or elsewhere on the conti- nent. English shipping held the sea; the English mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of the Ulster princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the courage, the chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern clansmen, perhaps 20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at bay. Had the Spanish king at any time during the contest made good his promise to lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would have driven Elizabeth from Ire- land, and a sovereign State would today be the guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the world. It THE romance; Olf IRISH HISTORY 3 took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir John Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hun- dred years ago. The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of Tudor England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to Britain was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the mint. It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in the end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood against might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule in Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that, where the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men, the Irish had nothing to fear from English arms. Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, ex- plained the failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and O'Donnell. "These rebels . . . have (though I do unwillingly confess it) better bodies and per- fecter use of their arms than those men whom your Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left Ireland leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the people to depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid admission that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the great chiefs expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people still trusted to their own stout arms and fearless hearts: "The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies they ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4) that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their men are better than ours." And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from 4 THE GLORIES OE IRELAND the continent sails the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had ieft Ireland a little boy in the flight of the Earls, and the dis- possessed clansmen, robbed of all but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen Roe. Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state organization won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay low a resurgent Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave and skilled, but to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps the most vivid testi- mony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is to be found in a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of this ten years* war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting interest, for it displays not only the "better body" of the Irish- man, but something of his better heart and chivalry of soul. One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed to stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the very regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back to Parsons : "I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may threaten my colonel ; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before they be hatched." It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irish- man the custodian of his country's honor. An Irish state had not been born ; that battle had still to be fought; but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an unstained record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland ; it has been "warred down and kept out of sight" ; but it has been kept in the Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of blood shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's blood only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were seeking, those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of TH^ ROMANCE O^ IRISH HISTORY 5 Mayo, who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army fresh from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen might have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having captured the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds of Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish rebellion. The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland to stand in open, pitched fight for their country's free- dom, went to meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or concern as if they were hastening to a show." The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people. Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any but freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that brotherhood, and not domination, constitutes the only nobility for those who call this fair shore their mother- land. The Irish struggle for liberty owes as much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the same lakes and rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of any political frag- ments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the history of the land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us a spectacle of a continuing national unity that long-continuing disaster has not been able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt. To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland. Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition, the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere can we trace the continuous influ- ence of Celtic culture and idealism, coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only. To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, oY Portugal, and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to Ireland. Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of those countries, will find that the record 6 THE GIvORlES OF IRi;i.AND stops where Rome began. Take England in further illustra- tion. The first record the inhabitants of England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion. They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in their his- tory, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien tongue. All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it recorded by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such terms as imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own advancement and the belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone among all western nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of history and before the romance of Romulus began, down to the present day, in the tongue of her own island people and in the light of her own native mind. Early Irish history is not the record of the clan- strivings of a petty and remote population, far from the centre of civilization. It is the authentic story of all western civilization before the warm solvent of Mediterranean blood and iron melted and moulded it into another and rigid shape. The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a past well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island, cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand, years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine event. The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership as well as the tale of an heroic ances- try. They linked the Ireland of yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne, of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster. A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of gods — great in battle, grand in danger, strong in loving, vehe- TH^ ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY 7 ment in death — such a people could never be vulgar, could never be mean, but must repeat, in their own time and in their own manhood, actions and efforts thus ascribed as a vital part of their very origin. Hence the inspiration that gave the name of Fenian, in the late nineteenth century, to a band of men who sought to achieve by arms the freedom of Ireland. The law of the Fenian of the days of Marcus Aurelius was the law of the Fenian in the reign of Victoria — to give all — mind, body, and strength of purpose — to the defense of his country, "to speak truth and harbor no greed in his heart." Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second and third centuries corporeal existence; yet noth- ing is surer than that Ireland claims these ancestral embodi- ments of an heroic tradition by a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation of all later national effort. *Tf ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the He- brews, the Irish held the clearest and most conscious and con- stant grasp of that idea; and that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence of the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its existence and emphasize its power. In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclu- siveness, notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their sense of nationality into higher relief. Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a sort of cult. It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of Ireland without distinction of province or district ; as the language of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of all Ireland; so the 8 TH^ GLORIES OF IREIvAND Irish chronicles from first to last are histories of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that it is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a letter to Mrs. A. S. Green, January, 1914.) The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of, was compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later Ireland is merely to prolong the "Book of In- vasions", and thus bring the epic of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693, heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought against the invader of Ireland. We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire. Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not been to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life itself, not to found an empire, but to Strike a blow for an ancient land and assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen have gone, in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of Ireland with them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of foreign fame, where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield, "Would that this blood were shed for Ireland", and history- records the sacrifice as made in no other cause. Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets. Retebences : Sigerson : Bards of the Gael and Gall ; O'Callaghan : History of the Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World ; Taylor : Life of Owen Roe O'Neill ; Todhunter : Life of Pat- rick Sarsfield ; Hyde : Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht; O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian Nights' Entertainment ; Mitchel : History of Ireland, in continuation of MacGeoghegan's History. THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS By Canon D'Ai^ton, M. R. I. A., LL.D. UNLIKE the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had an acquaintance with letters ; and when disputes arose among them, these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled by the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed. They believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls ; they worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mount- ains, rivers, and wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of religion who were held in greater awe than the Druids. Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and the continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by 431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure, Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle of Ire- land. Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the prominent figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust of time settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of his birth, the schools in which he was edu- cated, and the year of his death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason to depart from the tradi- tional account, which is, that the Apostle was born at Dum- barton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he was cap- 10 THE GIvORlES OP IRELAND tured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering raid into Scotland ; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a slave, and that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who lived in what is now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he escaped and went back to his own country ; that he had many visions urging him to return to Ireland and preach the Gospel there ; that, believing these were from God, he went to France, and there was educated and ordained priest, and later consecrated bishop; and then, accompanied by several ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland. From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored, but in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho ; thence he proceeded south by Downpatrick and Dun- dalk to Slane in Meath, where, in sight of Tara, the high- king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire. At Tara he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king and the chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the Shan- non into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Con- nacht he passed into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which he entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he returned to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul, near Downpatrick, in 493. St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have sur- vived, his Confession and his Epistle to Coroticus. In neither are there any graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of Cicero or Livy. But in the Confession the character of the author himself is completely revealed — his piety, his zeal, his self-sacrifice, his courage in face of every danger and every trial. Not less remarkable was the skill with which he handled men and used pagan institutions for the purposes of Christi- anity ; and equally so was the success with which his bloodless apostolate was crowned. One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the people with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief men — princes, brehons, bards — and these, with little training and little education, he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped with knowledge, the priest, with his ritual, missal, and a catechism, and the bishop, with his crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for the Lord. This condition of things was TH£ ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOI^ARS 11 soon ended. In 450 a college was founded at Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous school, and attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded in the fifth century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth cen- tury arose the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard, Clonmacnois, Arran, and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise of Glendalough and Lismore. St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier and Lerins ; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the early Irish church was one -of its outstanding features; moreover it was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments owed their existence. Flee- ing from society and its attractions, and wishing only for soli- tude and austerity, some holy man sought out a lonely retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer. Others came to share his poverty and vigils ; a grant of land was then obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established Clonard on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the waters of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept Isles of Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints. Before the close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule of St. 'Com- gall at Bangor ; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage made Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to his lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough. And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St. Brigid was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the Gael, Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare, beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and she founded many other con- vents in addition to that at Kildare. Her example was fol- lowed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others ; and if at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents and nuns. Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left 12 THK GLORIAS OF IRELAND Ireland to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Colum- cille settle in lona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St. Aidan and his friends went south to Lindis- f arne to convert Northumbria in England ; and the ninth abbot of lona was the saintly Adamnan, whose biography of St. Columcille has been declared by competent authority to be the best of its kind of which the whole Middle Ages can boast. Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries of Luxeuil and Bobbio owed their origin to St. Columbanus ; that St. Gall gave his name to a town and canton in Switzerland; that St. Fri- dolin labored on the Rhine and St. Fursey on the Mame ; and that St. Cathaldus was Bishop of Tarentum, and is still ven- erated as the patron of that Italian see. And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a monk of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth century two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were described by a monk of St. Gall as "men incompar- ably skilled in human learning". The once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel of Christianity, and was right- \ fully called the School of the West, the Island of Saints and Scholars. With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other great monastic establish- ments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance, neglect of re- ligion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra, O'Hartlgan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose learning was so great that it ex- cited astonishment even at Rome. The love of learning and THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 13 zeal for religion lived on through this long period of accumu- lated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning ; and, when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy. Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland towards the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of his own mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when his people came there. He for- got that a people who could illuminate the Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called savages, nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity that num- bered among its children such a man as St. Laurence OToole. Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war, though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars except Duns Scotus. The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he was called, became the great glory of the Fran- ciscan, as his rival St. Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left no successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth century, till the seven- teenth century the number of Irish scholars or recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders within, and despite oppression from without, at no tink did the love of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish church either heresy or schism. The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short but sanguinary rule of Cromwell. Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the old religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith ; neither the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of Cromwell, nor the ferocious proscrip- tions of the eighteenth century. The priest said Mass, though 14 THD GLORIAS OF IRELAND his crime was punishable by death, and the people heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and the school- master, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then, perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing nothing of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of government except when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion in which they were born. And when, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the tide turned and the first dawn of toleration appeared on the horizon, it was found that the vast majority of the people were unchanged, and that, after two centuries of the most relentless persecution since the days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in faith and practice, a strongly Catholic nation still. On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its chil- dren, it would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet the period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and abroad. At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh, who both became Archbishops o£ Armagh, and O'Hurley who became Archbishop of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke Wadding, the eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore at Rome. At Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadd- ing, a man who did much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland, as parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr. Geoffrey Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John Lynch, the renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was Archdeacon of Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal, the Four Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the Annals of the Four Masters. This work, originally written in Irish, remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the nineteenth century, when it was edited and translated Into English by John O'Donovan, one of Ireland's THE ISUVND O^ SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 15 greatest Irish scholars, with an ability and completeness quite worthy of the original. On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer, Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware. James Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of the Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age and in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his credit be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with history and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only to be fair and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it. James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much greater scholar than Ware. His capacity for re- search, his profound scholarship, the variety and extent of his learning raised him far above his co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great Luminary of the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his fine intellect was darkened by bigotry and intolerance. Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar, who afterwards left money and books for a scholar- ship, which is still in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole machinery of government was ruth- lessly used to crush the Catholics. But Berkeley had little sympathy with the penal laws ; he had words of kindness for the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor must Swift be forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an Irishman, he hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is rightly regarded as one of the greatest of her sons. The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one of great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth Col- lege was established for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland. Still, Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great Catholic scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century. 16 THR GLORIES 01^ IRELAND In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil and Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of all the savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily followed. And in the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a price was set on his head, was still active. With an inherited love of learning, the Irish in the nineteenth century would have made rapid progress had they been rich. But their impoverishment by the penal laws made it impossible for them to set up an effective system of primary education, and until the national school system came into existence in 1831, they had to rely on the hedge-schools? Secondary education fared better, for the bishops, relying with confidence on the generosity of their flocks, were soon able to establish diocesan colleges. And in higher education, equally determined efforts were made by the establishment of the Catholic University under Cardinal Newman. But in this field of intellectual effort, in spite of the energy and zeal of the bishops, in spite of the great generosity of the people, so many of whom were poor, and in spite of the fame of New- man, it is failure rather than success which the historian has to record. Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their love of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain side as the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the rude stone church without steeple or bell ; and when steeple and bell ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise of freedom of religious wor- ship, the untiring efforts of a zealous clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an irre- sistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches are now to be found. In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is now a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of THE IStAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOI.ARS 17 the patron saint of that diocese, and even parish chtyches have been built not unworthy to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of the south- ern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the Rock of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory of John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name of St. Jarlath ; at Queenstown, the trav- eller, going to America or returning from it to the old land, lias his attention attracted to the splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda, dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for religion among the Irish has survived centuries of persecu- tion. Columbanus and Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready as they were to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In recent years an Irish-bom Arch- bishop of Sydney has been succeeded by an Irish-born Arch- bishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his coad- jutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church have the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and O'Connell; and in every diocese throughout the United States the proportion of priests of Irish birth or descent is large. Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of Irish- American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also of the stately cathedrals of Ameri- can cities. And many a church in old Ireland owes its com- 18 THE GLORIES OP IRELAND pletion and its adornment to the dollars given by the poor but generous Irish exiles. And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over by hard working teachers ; in the colleges where the sciences and the classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic schools ; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost ecclesiastical college in the world. And if there are now new universities, the National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in their youth, this does not imply that Trinity College suffers from the decreptitude of age. For among those whom she sent forth in recent times are Dowden and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and these would do credit to any university In Europe. It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more delightful essayist than Father Joseph Far- rell; and who has depicted Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan, whose fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell was a great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle and Arch- bishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and instruct lesser men ; and Ireland, In the twentieth century. Is not less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnols flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore. Refeeences : Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lani- gan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ire- land's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writ- ings of St. Patrick (Dublin, 1905) ; Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History (Loudon, 1905) ; Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847) ; Reeves: Adamnan's Life of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851) ; Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London, 1852) ; Moran : Essays on the Early Irish Church Tllli ISLAND 0^ SAINTS AND SCHOLARS 19 (Dublin, 1864) ; Stokes: Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (Lon- don, 1897) ; Mant: History of the Church of Ireland (London, 1841) ; Bagwell; Ireland under the Tudors (London, 1885-90) ; Moran: Per- secutions under the Puritans (Callan, 1903) ; Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896) ; Meehan: Franciscan Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870) ; Lecky: History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902) ; O'Connell's Correspondence (I^ondon, 1888) ; Wyse: History of the Catholic Association (London, 1829) ; ?)oyle: Letters on the State of Ireland (Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902) ; Gavan Duffy: Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New Century (London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in Ireland (London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the Nineteenth Century (Dub- lin, 1909) ; Healy: Centenary History of Maynooth College (DubUn, 1905) ; D' Alton: History of Ireland (London, 1910). (3) IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE By Rev. Coi^umba Edmonds, O. S. B. ST. PATRICK'S work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid. The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were characterized from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew no bounds. Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was impatient to diffuse itself abroad. SCOTLAND: Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal native of royal descent, accompanied by twelve com- panions, crossed the sea in currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in Caledonia. They reached the desolate Isle of lona on the day preceding Whitsunday. Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the western parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the Clyde received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan Irish were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the Pictish Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be among both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to Caledonia "for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life prove the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty- fourth year when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed lona upon him and his brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts of the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A numerous community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its Abbot, soon caused lona to become a flourishing centre from which men could go forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages rapidly sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These, together with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great religious federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern races were formed under the influence of the holy founder. IRISH MONKS IN iCUKOPiC 21 St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of the River Ness. St, Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by degrees the people followed the example set them. Opposition, however, was keen and aggressive, and it came from the official representa- tives of Pictish paganism — the Druids. Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries. Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the Catholics and non- Catholics of the land of his adoption. There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Cale- donia ; and their names add to the glory of Ireland, their birth- land. Thus St. Moluag (592) converted the people of Lis- more, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie; St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the faith in Aber- deenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548) evan- gelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite (521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness. DISTANT ISLANDS : But Irish monks were mariners as well as apostles. Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope of discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle guards Lam- lash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass, Inch- keith. May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated 22 the: GI^ORI^S 0^ IRELAND with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Colum- cille. St. Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man. Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled on the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as "papar." After their departure — they were probably driven away by Norwegian pagans — these Ice- landic apostles "left behind them Irish books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they were Irish- men." But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without reason, have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled as far as the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great continent of America by Columbus. NORTHUMBRIA : Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that St. Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy, but in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration, because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her borders by Colum- cille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows : Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A. D. 633. St. Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith sought refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at their hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A battle was fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the Tyne and the Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to him : "Be strong and of good faith ; I will be with thee." The result of this vision of the abbot of lona was that a consider- able part of England received the true faith. Oswald was IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE 23 victorious; he united the kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically all England, with«the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to be done, and St. Oswald turned to lona. In response to his appeal, the Irish bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They were esifablished on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman mission- aries in the south under St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for conversions in lona, they displayed still greater on the desolate isle of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks evangelized North- umbria. Want of facility in preaching in the Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English, came forward and acted as interpreter. When St. Aidan died in 651, lona sent St. Finan, another Irish bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda, king of the Mid- Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma and Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of St. Aidan, con- solidated the mission to the Mercians. ANGLIA: While Christianity was thus being restored in Northumbria, other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St. Fursey, accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the priests Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to labor in the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at Burghcastle, in Suffolk, the con- vert king Sigebert made his monastic profession, and in the same house many heavenly visions were vouchsafed to its founder. The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor of the well- known St. Aldhelm. Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great 24 the: GI.ORIES or IRELAND Britain and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of monastic institutions. They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to bring to other peoples the glad tidings af salvation. GAUL : In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ire- land, accompanied by twelve brethren, arrived in France, hav- ing passed through Britain. After the example of St. Colum- cille in Caledonia, they traveled to the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to secure his help and protection. During the course of the journey they preached to the people, and all were impressed with their modesty, patience, and devo- tion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such mission- aries, for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and partly to remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety everywhere prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanc- tity, and learning, was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his early works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil, which became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by himself or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join the com- munity, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise — the "laus perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his strict uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he preferred to leave his flourishing mon- astery rather than pass over in silence the vices of the Mero- vingians. He escaped from the malice of Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake of Constance. By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of evan- gelization. But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in other lands while vigor remained to him, so, bidding his IRISH MONKS IN EUROPi: 25 favorite follower farewell, he crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in northern Italy. King Agilulph and his queen, Theo- delinda, gave the Irish abbot a reverent and kind welcome. His zeal was still unspent, and he worked much for the con- version of the Lombard Arians. Here he founded, between Milan and Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a centre of knowledge and piety was long the light of northern Italy. In this monastery he died In the year 615, but not before the arrival of messengers from King Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil, as his enemies were now no more. But he could not go ; all he asked was protection for his dear monks at Luxeuil. It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son to do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His zeal for the interests of God was un- bounded, and this was the secret of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons, six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy. SWITZERLAND: Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in Switzerland. In a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and surrounded by hills, he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which afterwards bore his name and became one of the most famous monasteries in Christendom. St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia, occupying himself in teach- ing, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded where others had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was reserved for Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the Apostle of Alemannia. Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer in the work of evangelization. Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman, with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was martyred in Wiirtzburg, where he is honored as patron and apostle. 26 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the faith among the half -pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia, St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took its origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus. OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS : Desire for soli- tary life drew St. Fiacre to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded glades into gardens to provide veg- etables for poor people. This charity has earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of gardeners. St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia when he died at Mezerolles, near Doul- lens. St. Gobham followed his master's example, and like him evangelized and founded monasteries. St. Etto (Ze) acted in like manner. St. Foillan and St. Ultan, brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern Brabant. The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of Altomunster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks Tuban and Alto, respectively. Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother ot St. Gall and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through the instrumentality of St. Ouen ; and the monasteries of Jouarre, Rebais, Jumieges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at least indirectly to Columbanus or his disciples. Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the faith in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from Ireland. St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of Christ", established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became bishop there, and died in 781. Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus; but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE 2^ already preceded them, their work resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier. ITALY: Something yet remains to be said of the monks of Ireland in Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow countryman, St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in Italy at Monte Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became famed for sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca, Frigidian was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the Great wrote of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings and holy life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but brought to the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic apostle is still honored under the name of St. Frediano. St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680, became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples. Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St. Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compa- triot, was a famous teacher in the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him : "We desire that at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students should assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli, Tor- tona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como." It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio ; therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall. Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints, Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much hesitation he took upon himself -the burden, which he bore for many years. His 28 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND biographer says of him that "he was Hberal in almsgiving, sedulous in watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready in speech, holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the church and monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in Fiesole as St. Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is, the Irishman. HOSPITALIA: Thus Irish monks were to be found in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So numerous were they and so frequent their travels through the different countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them. These institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum ("Hospices for the Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but the high- est ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors. Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in France to be restored to the dispos- sessed Irishmen. In the twelfth century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession of monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety. RATISBON : Special monasteries were erected to be peo- pled by the Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men were welcomed at Ratis- bon by the Bishop Otto ; and on the advice of Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to join them and a monastery was erected to receive the com- munity. In a short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These, besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised St. James's at Wiirtzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at Vienna, St. James*s at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Mem- IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE 29 mingen, Holy Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These Irish houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of their prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and rightly de- serve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's ancient missionaries. Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal briefs of 1248, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these, novices were usually obtained. But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach, contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is, Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had lip till then been continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of independence involved loss of enterprise, SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE : Irish monks were not only apostles of souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the seventh century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most celebrated school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of the nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for the cloister, but destined for callings in the world. There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland. St. Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity of the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same teaching that Copernicus and later astrono- mers formulated into the system now in vogue. St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman of no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him, sufficiently proves. In all the monasteries which he founded, provision was made for the pursuit of sacred learn- ing and the multiplication of books by transcription. The students of his schools were taught classics, mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They improved the methods of hus- 3a THE CtORir;S OP IRELAND bandry and gardening; supplied the people, whom they helped to civilize, with implements of labor; and taught them the use of the forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every Irish monk. The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life out- side his native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors, and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life of St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His book "De Locis Sanc- tis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information he received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by a tempest to take refuge with the monks of lona. On account of the importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in secular and ecclesiastical affairs of impor- tance, few will question his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the West. Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul ; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Pre- destination") ; Dungal was not only an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as Is clear from his defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable. St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have com- posed an exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St. Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty. The writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more frequent use of confession both in the world and in monasteries ; and his legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic devotion. Marianus Scotus Is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles Is regarded as his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with Saints Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen, Alculn, Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the 17th IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE^ 31 May, 1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for the salvation of his soul. TRANSCRIPTION : In all the monasteries a vast number of scribes were continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred Scriptures. These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands, have been scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many fragments remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts is praised by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find mention in monas- tic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked upon as a privilege and meritorious. It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks, the abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic influence was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for centuries the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied. Many of its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were noted for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library was only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew, and even- tually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The brethren were in correspondence with ill the learned houses of France and Italy, and there was constant mutual inter- change of books, sacred and scientific, between them. They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory. Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its incep- tion to the journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his monk-companions — men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for the religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared they were received with joy, as God's own serv^ants. "And what will be the reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation into the land which God had pointed out to them?'* He answers thus: "They will dwell in the house of the LgrcJ with the 32 Til]' GIvORIliS OF IRIiLAND angels and archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion, to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever." Refeeences : Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829); Montalembert : Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish Saints in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903) ; Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe (London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort Augustus, 1904) ; Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (Lon- don, 1892), Three Months in the Forests of France (London, 1895) ; Fowler: Vita S. Columbae (Oxford, 1894) ; Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859) ; Gougaud: Les Chr6tientes celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ec- clesiastical Record, 1894, 1895 ; Drane : Christian Schools and Schol- ars (London, 1881). THE IRISH AND THE SEA By Wiluam H. Babcock, LL.B. THE beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Ves- sels of some kind obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been among those of the Breton fleet that Caesar dispersed at Vannes after an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find Niall of the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring shores, especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships of the island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom Gildas in the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in furiously storming the Roman wall. The equally adventurous but more pacific work of explora- tion went on also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish sea-sagas, the Imrama, comprising the Voyages of Bran, Maelduin, the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan — the last- mentioned deservedly the most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in the merits of their several parts, for they have been successively rewritten at different periods, receiving always something of the color, belief, and adornment which be- longed to the writer's time ; but under all may be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan original. At their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very subtle and sig- nificant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a visitant of supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where a thousand years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had been overcome by longing for Ireland and home ; the man's falling to ashes at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been long dead ; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living world to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and stirring is St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven, whose "sin was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only the pleasing penance of sing- ing delightfully, in the guise of beautiful birds, the praises of 34 THE GLORIES O? IRELAND the God who showed them mercy and grace, amid the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds sang evensong, so that it was an heavenly noise to hear." It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual incidents are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact, as in Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when ships* companies of different nations meet. The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these Imrama is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ire- land far away and hold them spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long sailing dis- tance, there actually were islands of delightful climate and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages, occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field. Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps of Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas — "The Fortunate Islands of St. Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding, the Pizigani THE IRISH AND THE SEA 35 brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of benediction. The inscription, though riot the picture, was common, thus applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time. Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth, when the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so late a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least exhibits the current interpretation of the written narrative among geographers and mariners, the people best able to judge ; and here the interval was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in a general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island under Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores and Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some islands and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been pitched upon by the interpreters as the suit- able scene of a particularly long tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all gaps of real knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting. Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner- monks, incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission, covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or four centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The Norsemen, fol- lowing in their tracks as always, found them there, and the earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving be- hind them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore which still bears their name. Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great Ireland to be some- (4) 36 THE GW)RIES OF IRELAND where in that region, and it is explicitly located near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were spe- cific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long driven before the storm. The version most relied on came through one Rafn, who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the Orkneys. Brazil, the old Irish Breasail, was another name for land west of Ireland — where there is none short of America — on very many medieval maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the year 1400, the earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually it appears as a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at first altogether too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly well-known Corvo was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as even in the sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly visited, that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards Ire- land, almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if recognizing past error and restoring its proper place. The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen, but there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland ("Ilia Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be readily reached from that Norse colony. It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St. Lawrence — that part of this continent which is by far the nearest Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coin- cidences of real ge6graphy and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps, beginning with 1375, while keep- ing the circular external outline of Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still nearly cir- THE IRISH AND THE SKA 37 cular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by a curved channel nearly from north to south. The former ex- position is possible enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf of St. Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively narrow outlets; the second was after- ward repeated approximately by Gastoldi's map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to minimize the width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits of Belle Isle and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is un- necessary to dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either pure fancy or the very region in question, and it is hardly believable that fancy could guess so accurately as to two different interpretations of real though unusual geography and give them right latitude, with such an old Irish name (Brazil) as might naturally have been conferred in the early voyaging times. That an extensive region, chiefly mainland, should be represented as an island is no objection, as anyone will see by examining the maps which break up everything north of South America in the years next following the achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There was a natural tendency to expect nothing but islands short of Asia. It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by the Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other Europeans. Refebenoks: Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian Pub- lication 2138 (1913); Baring-Gould; Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell : Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America ; Daly ; The Legend of St. Brandan, Celtic Review, voL I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St. Brandan, Celtic Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of Gal way; Hull: Irish Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage of Maelduin ; Nutt : The Voyage of Bran ; Stokes : The Voyage of Maelduin {Revue Celtique, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus {Revue Celtique, vol. 9), Voyage of the Hui Cprra {Revue Celtique, vol. 14) ; Moran; Brendanian*, IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING By Rev. P. S. Dinneen, M. A., R. U. I. <<»T^HE distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to '■' search for and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our necessary cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn, and we esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as indispensable to our happi- ness." {De Officiis I., 4). I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge ; that they have engaged in intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low basis of material comfort ; that they have persevered in the quest of learning under unparalleled hard- ships and difficulties, even in the dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful assembly and school- teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when circumstances were favorable, no people have shown ia more adventurous spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of learning. Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines, elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision, to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares, contrasts, conciliates ; he brings together the new and the old, the near and the distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves from them all the web of systematized human thought. I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's con- tribution to the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest scholars ; I am merely describing the love of learn- ing which IS characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish history. IRISH WVZ OF LEARNING 39 In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief repre- sentative of the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes, and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love for the learning for which he stood. Patrick came : and with him came a wider horizon of learn- ing and greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge. Monastic schools sprang up in all directions — at Clonard, Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismor^, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools were celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and from the fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe in learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and Scholars." Our t)^e is the student in one of these monastic schools. He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the environs of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his time is divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a monk, only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his privations. He copies and illu- minates manuscripts. He memorizes the Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted countries ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and, burning with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the ad- vancement of learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which schools are attached, to the building of churches, and ta the diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have taken books from Ire- land over seas, and, of these, relics are now to be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe. Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgllius occur to the mind in dwelling on this type. The hereditary seanchaidhe, who treasured up the tradi- tional lore of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He 40 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND was high in the graces of the chief, and officiated at his inaugu- ration. An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty established colleges in Rome (1628), Sala- manca (1593), Seville (1612), Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1624), Antwerp (1629), Douai (1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris (1605), and else- where. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478 students, and some of them are still in existence. The young student in going abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by spies, with his life in danger. Yet the supply never failed ; the colleges flourished; and those who returned diffused around them not only learning but the urbanity and refinement which were a striking fruit and mark of their studies abroad. Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native lan- guage, he was a skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At night, by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a splinter of bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which but for him would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and ill- written, but with all their faults they are as noble a monument to national love of learning as any nation can boast of. In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom English writers contemptuously called the "hedge- schoolmaster." The hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored, she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and the IRISH hove, OF LEARNING 41 canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as she had been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge- schoolmaster conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace. In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the hedge- schoolmaster was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs in Irish, which were sung throughout the entire district, and sometimes earned him enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath, called An Mangaire Sugach or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known instances of this type. The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, Manners and Customs, II, 79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille, and some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other t)rpe embodies the love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of develop- ment. He came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly poor. His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the public was a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for study and cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was satisfied, if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with the incon- veniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was ex- tended to him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his thirst for knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help the students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may not have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents before his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim to enter- tain him for the night. Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with 42 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND equanimity, his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of learning. What did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear for its sake "all the thousand aches That patient merit of the unworthy takes"? Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was pur- poseless and void. But he was ever urged onward by the fas- cination of learning and of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature. As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the American and Australian continents have given touch- ing proof of their devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few pathetic examples. An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him the meaning of Erin go bragh, and he felt ashamed to be unable to explain it. A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish language and character. An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve years in exile in the United States and forty- eight on the Australian continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old country and which had clung to his memory to the last. "In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a part of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long seat of work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne. It is old and wanting in the intro- ductory part, but for all was splendid and I loved it as my life." (See Gaelic Journal, Dec., 1906.) Refkbences: Joyce : A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed., Dublin, 1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, IRISH tOV^ 0^ LEARNING 43 1890), Maynooth CoUege Centenary History (Dublin, 1895) ; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irisli, (3 vols., Dub- lin and London, 1873), Manuscript Materials of Irish History, re- issue (Dublin, 1873) ; Carleton : Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol. 3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert : The Monks of the West, authorized translation, (7 vols., London, 1861) ; Meyer: Learning in Ireland in the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh O' Sullivan, Introduction (Dub- lin, 1902), The Maigue Poets, Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris 1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France (Dublin, 1901) ; Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII, 307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641. IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE By Sir Bertram C. A. Windi^e, Sc.D., M.D., President, University College, Cork. WE may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science into three periods: the earliest, the interme- diate, and the latest. In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture, still extant, in which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of the astronomical knowledge of the period, PtolemaIc,*but in many ways remark- ably accurate, is given. There are, however, three distinguished names. Virgil the Geometer, i. e., Fergil (OTarrell), was Abbot of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was after- wards Bishop of Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remem- bered by his controversies with St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with the question of the Antipodes. Virgil is sup- posed to have been the first to teach that the earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that it has been thought that a part ®f the favor in which the author of the Aeneid was held by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion between his name and that of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St. Virgil. Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on geography, De Mensura Provinciarum Orhis Terrae, which was written in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and especially to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with the Red Sea. He wrote between 814= and 816 a work on astronomy which has never been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he belonged to Clonmacnois. Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, Dungali Reclusi Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 8io ad Carolum 'Magnum. This letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of Charlemagne, who considered its IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE 45 author to be the most learned astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem submitted to him. Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers, but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on Materia Medica (1459)' written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe (Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster. A more interest- ing work is the Cursus Medicus, consisting of six books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica, written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France. O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it does not belong there. Inter arma silent leges, and it may be added, scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long years fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance until the end of the eighteenth cen- tury. Still there are three names which can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir Hans Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies, but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest of his most valuable and extensive collec- tions to the nation which was the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the most celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's collection, it should be added, contained an immense number of valuable books and manu- scripts, as well as of objects more usually associated with the idea of a museum. He died in 1753. The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Watcrford, in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle of the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his Skyptical Chimist (1661), he assailed, and for 4G THE GLORIES 0? IRELAND the time overthrew, the idea of the alchemists that there was a materia prima, asserting as he did that theory of chemical "elements" which held good until the discoveries in connec- tion with radium led to a modification in chemical teaching! This may be said of Boyle, that his writings profoundly modi- fied scientific opinion, and his name will always stand in the forefront amongst those of chemists. He made important improvements in the air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society, and founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691. Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He prac- tised as a physician in his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and to demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and not, as had been pre- viously supposed, an artificial production. He was the author of many other scientific observations. He died in 1733. We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be con- venient to divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they were distinguished, and to commence with Mathematicians, of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged to a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He was a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and at twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that magnate's own lan- guage. After these linguistic contests, he early turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet, in his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's Meca- nique Celeste. He entered Trinity College where he won all kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a mathema- tician, but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an undergraduate. He predicted "conical refrac- IRISH MEN Olf SCIENCE 47 tion," afterwards experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics, which resolves an extremely abstruse problem relative to a system of bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here. Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last hundred years. He was educated in Cam- bridge, where he spent the rest of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, inter alia, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those researches which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on this subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen (1883-1885). James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was bom in Tyrone in 1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of insanity, cut short his work, but enough re- mains to permit him to rank amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important work being his memoir on sur- faces of the second order. Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F. R. S. His father was Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and magnetism, and it was in con- nection with the former that he carried out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical refrac- tion which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin, and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a meteorologist of distinction. 48 THE GLORIKS 0? IRELAND George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904:), like the last mentioned subject, was, at the time of his death. Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. Besides theological writings, he con- tributed much to mathematical science, especially in the direc- tions of conic sections, analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many universities and learned societies. John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F. R. S., was edu- cated at a National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely self-taught as a mathematician, he raised him- self from the humble position which he occupied to be a uni- versity professor (in the Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent mathematicians all over the world. Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F. R. S., was also a professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics, terrestrial physics, and climatology. Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F. R. S., is a Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical subjects, especially on the differen- tial, integral, and infinitesimal calculuses. Sir Joseph Larmor (b. :n Antrim 1857), F. R. S., was edu- cated at Queen*s College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he has spent his life as a professor. He now repre- sents the University in parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known for his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as mathematical subjects. Astronomers. William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F. R. S., was a very distinguished astronomer who experi- mented in fluid lenses and made great improvements in cast- ing specula for reflecting telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his park at Parsonstown, of IRISH MEN 01? SCIENCE 49 his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long. This instrument, which cost £30,000, long remained the largest in the world. Ho was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to 1854. Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F. R. S., is known all over the world for his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in the construction of lenses for instru- ments of the largest size. Sir Rx)bert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F. R. S. Origi- nally Lord Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the mathematical theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy have made him known to a far wider circle of readers than those who can grapple with his purely scientific treatises. William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F. R. S. A man of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped building he made many photographic researches, especially into the nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and wrote some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the star Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the probability that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar heat. In fact, the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest interest at the time of his early death. A. A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F. R. S., formerly Astronomer Royal for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the leading astronomers of the day. Physicists. Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824, d. 1907), F. R. S. Amongst the greatest physi- cists who have ever lived, his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow University in 1846, and cele- brated the jubilee of his appointment in 1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His electrometers 50 TH^ GI<0RIES OF IRELAND and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his mariners* compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments. To his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in the field of pure science, especially in connection with his thermodynamic researches, including the doctrine of the dis- sipation or degradation of energy. To this brief statement may be added mention of his work in connection with hydro- dynamics and his magnetic and electric discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and vortex movements are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal and Copley medals and was an original member of the Order of Merit. He received distinctions from many universities and learned societies. George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F. R. S., was fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, where he was educated. He was the first person to call the attention of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment. Perhaps his most important work, interrupted by his labors in connection with education and terminated by his early death, was that in connection with the nature of the ether. George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F. R. S., after being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy at Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied that position until the dissolu- tion of the university in 1882. He wrote many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but his great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the basis of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of quantity of electricity exists in that amount of it which attends each chemical bond or valency and gave the name, now generally adopted, of electron to this small quantity." He proposed the electronic theory of the origin of the complex ether vibrations which proceed from a molecule emitting light. John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893), F. R. S., professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow- worker in many ways with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also on heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874), which was the high- IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE 51 water mark of the mid- Victorian materialism at its most trium- phant moment. Chemists. Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F. R. S. A man of independent means, he devoted himself to the study of chem- istry and mineralogy and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He published works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters, and was the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for agricultural purposes, a research which laid the foundation of scientific agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland. Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F. R. S., held the chair of chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published a number of papers i|i connection with his subject and especially with the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name is most associated. Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F. R. S., was for many years chemist to the great firm of Bass & Co., brewers at Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world. James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F. R. S., pro- fessor of chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances, including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and other compounds of the element silicon. Among others only the names of the following can be men- tioned : — Sir Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor of chemistry in Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of Industry, now the National Museum. He was president of Queen's College, Cork, as was William K. Sulli- van (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890), formerly professor of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir William O'Shaughnessy Brooke, F. R. S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889), professor of chemistry and assay master in Calcutta, is better known as the intro- ducer of the telegraphic system into India and its first superin- tendent. (5) 52 TH^ GI.ORISS O^ IRELAND Biologists. William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F. R. S., was a botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of Good Hope and published The Genera of South African Plants. After this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin, but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South America, exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in order to collect materials for his great work, Nereis Boreali- Americana, pub- lished by the Smithsonian Institution. Subsequently he visited Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Friendly and Fiji Islands, collecting algae. The results were published in his Phycologia Australis. At the time of his death he was engaged on his Flora Capensis, and was generally considered the first authority on algae in the world. William Archer (b. Co. Down 1827, d. 1897), F. R. S., de- voted his life to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms, especially desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in this branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthulordes (in 1868), "one of the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic organ- isms." George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F. R. S., pro- fessor of botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of natural history in the University of Edin- burgh, published many papers on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever been pro- duced." Amongst eminent living members of the class under con- sideration may be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dub- lin 1844), F. R. S., professor of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent morphologist and anthropol- ogist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin), F. R. S., pro- fessor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap. irish men of science 53 Geologists. Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), R R. S., after earning a considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and taking Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the school of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became the reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school. He devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of muscular action, and published his Animal Mechanism, probably his greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the "long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College, Dublin. Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F. R. S., a brother of Sir Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and anthropology. His best known work is Jungle-Life in India. In later life he was director of the Na- tional Museum, Dublin. Medical Science. Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F. R. S., after whom is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical physicians. His System of Clinical Medi- cine was a standard work and was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation. William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity College, and the author of a Theory and Practice of Medicine, known all over the civilized world, was equally cele- brated. To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called "Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the mouths of surgeons. It derives its 54 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND name from Abraham Colles (1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another eminent surgeon,* Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College in the seventies of the last century. Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F. R. S., though bom in London, had an Irish father and mother. Entering the medi- cal profession, he was assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool, which he was largely instnmiental in turning into the University of Liver- pool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liver- pool School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such wide- spread results all over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the ravages of the diseases peculiar to hot coun- tries. It was for his services in this direction that he was knighted in 1906. Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F. R. S., spent most of his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the Dictionary of Medicine, which he edited and which bears his name, has made itself and its editor known all over the world. Sir Ahnroth Wright (b. 1861), F. R. S., is the greatest living authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed, may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods for measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was the discoverer of the anti-typhoid in- jection which has done so much to stay the ravages of that disease. Engineering. Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F. R. S., made his repu- tation first as an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great nebula in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for the construction of many important works, especially in connection with the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney. Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F. R. S., fourth son of the third Earl of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE 55 turbine system and made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread results for motor- cars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion. Miscellaneous. Admiral Sir Leopold McQintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F. R. S., was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view he made a valuable collec- tion of miocene fossils from Greenland, and enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the Parry Archi- pelago. John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F. R. S., educated at Oscott, passed the examination for a high degree at Cam- bridge, but, being a Catholic, was excluded from the d^^ee itself and any other honors which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and published many works on the natural history of Europe and South America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological pur- poses connected with storm warnings. Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange person, Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his Lardner's Cyclopaedia in 132 vols., his Cabinet Library, and his Museum of Science and Art, did much to popularize science in an unscientific day. References : The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in inverted commas are from these) ; "Who's Who" (for living per- sons) ; Healy : Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars ; Hyde : Lit- erary History of Ireland ; Joyce : Social History of Ancient Ireland ; Moore: Medicine in the British Isles. LAW IN IRELAND By Laurence Ginnell^ B. L., M. P. A DISTINCTION. Ireland having been a self-ruled coun- try for a stretch of some two thousand years, then vio- lently brought under subjection to foreign rule, regaining leg- islative independence for a brief period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by violence and corruption deprived of that independence and again brought under the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the expression "Law in Ire- land" comprises the native and the foreign, the laws devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws im- posed upon it from without : two sets, codes, or systems proper to two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either as law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more interesting historically, archseologically, philologically, and in many other ways ; the latter being Eng- lish law in Ireland, and not truly Irish in any sense. ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW. Sean- chus agus Feineachus na hEireann = Hiherniae Antiquitates et Sanctiones Le gales = The Ancient Laws and Decisions of the Feini, of Ireland. Sen or sean (pronounced shan) ="old," differs from most Gaelic adjectives in preceding the noun it qualifies. It also tends to coalesce and become a prefix. Seanchus (shanech-us) = "ancient law." Feineachus (fainech- us) =the law of the Feini, who were the Milesian farmers, free members of the clans, the most important class in the an- cient Irish community. Their laws were composed in their con- temporary language, the Bearla Feini, a distinct form of Gaelic. Several nations of the Aryan race are known to have cast into metre or rhythmical prose their laws and such other knowledge as they desired to communicate, preserve, and trans- mit, before writing came into use. The Irish went further and, for greater facility in committing to memory and retaining there, put their laws into a kind of rhymed verse, of which they may have been the inventors. By this device, aided by the iso- lated geographical position of Ireland, the sanctity of age, and I.AW IN IRELAND 57 the apprehension that any change of word or phrase might change the law itself, these archaic laws, when subsequently committed to writing, were largely preserved from the progres- sive changes to which all spoken languages are subject, with the result that we have today, embedded in the Gaelic text and commentaries of the Senchus M6r, the Book of Aicill, and other law works, available in English translations made under ji Royal Commission appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at intervals extending over forty years, in six vol- umes of "Ancient Laws and Institutions of Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law, literature, and information on the habits and manners of the people, not equalled in antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other Celtic source. In Eng- lish they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from the genitive case singular of Bretheni == "judge", genitive Brethemain (pro- nounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire, and as Latin words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern languages which themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be inferred from this name that the laws are judge- made. They are rather case law, in parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies at which the laws were pro- mulgated or rehearsed, but for the most part simple declara- tions of law originating in custom and moral justice, and rec- ords of judgments based upon "the precedents and commenta- ries", in the sort of cases common to agricultural communities of the time, many of the provisions being as inapplicable to modern life as modern laws would be to ancient life. A reader is impressed by the extraordinary number and variety of cases with their still more numerous details and circumstances accumulated in the course of long ages, the manner in which the laws are inextricably interwoven with the interlocking clan system, and the absence of scientific arrangement or guiding principle except those of moral justice, clemency, and the good of the community. This defect in arrangement is natural in writings intended, as these were, for the use of judges and professors, experts in the subjects with which they deal, but makes the task of presenting a concise statement of them difficult and uncertain. 58 TH^ GLORIES 0^ IRELAND SOCIETY LAW. The law and the social system were inseparable parts of a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each other. Tuath, clann, cinel, cine, and fine (pronounced thooah, clong, kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a tribe or set of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent from a common ancestor, form- ing a community occupying and owning a given territory. Tuath in course of time came to be applied indifferently to the people and to their territory. Fine, sometimes designating a whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of it, occupying a distinct portion of the territory, a potential microcosm or nucleus of a clan, having limited autonomy in the conduct of its own immediate affairs. The constitution of this organism, whether as contemplated by the law or in the less perfect actual practice, is alike elusive, and underwent changes. For the purpose of illustration, the fine may be said to consist, theo- retically, of the "seventeen men" frequently mentioned throughout the laws, namely, the flaithfine = chief of the fine; the geil fine ==his four fullgrown sons or other nearest male relatives; the deirbhfine, tar fine, and inn fine, each consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of kin- ship, say first, second, and third cousins of the flaithfine. The fine was liable, in measure determined by those circles, for contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of its members so far as his own property was insufficient, and was in the same degree entitled to share advantages of a like kind accru- ing. Intermarriage within this fine was prohibited. The modern term "sept" is applied sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider group united under a flaith (flah) = "chief", elected by the flaithfines and provided, for his public services, with free land proportionate to the area of the dis- trict and the number of clansmen in it. Clann might mean the whole Irish nation, or an intermediate homogeneous group of fines having for wider purposes a flaith or ri-tuatha = king of one tuath, elected by the flaiths and flaithfines, subject to elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and training, which limited their choice, and provided with a larger portion of free land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title ri, righ (both pr. ree) = rex. or "king", was applied. A LAW IN IRELAND 59 group of these kinglets connected by blood or territory or policy, and their flaiths, elected, from a still narrower circle of specially trained men within their own rank, the ri-mor- iuatha = kmg of the territory so composed, to whose office a still larger area of free land was attached. In turn, kings of this class, with their respective sub-kings and flaiths, elected from among the riogh-dhamhna (ree-uch-dhowna) = materia principum or "king-timber", a royal fine specially educated and trained, a ri-cuighidh (ree coo-ee-hee) supreme over five ri- mor-tuathas = roughly, a fourth of Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters, elected the ard-ri = "supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held his court and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of Meath for his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the king- ship, but to the position of tanaiste = " second" (in authority), heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in the learned professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed wth free land. The most competent among those specially trained, whether son or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All such land was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its entirety to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of the occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land that be- longed to them as private individuals. Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small fine, or desirable individual, was co-opted into the clan — in other words, naturalized. The rules of kinship determined eineachlann (ain-yach-long) = "honor value", the assessed value of status, with its correlative rights, obligations, and lia- bilities in connection with all matters civil and criminal ; largely supplied the place of contract ; endowed members of the clan with birthrights ; and bound them into a compact social, politi- cal, and mutual insurance copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant. Eineachlann rested on the two-fold basis of kin- ship and property, expanding as a clansman by acquisition of property and effluxion of time progressed upward from one grade to another; diminishing if he sank; vanishing if for crime he was expelled from the clan. 60 THE GU>RIES OF IRELAND FOSTERAGE. To our minds, one of the most curious cus- toms prevalent among the ancient Irish was that of iarrad, called also altar = "fosterage" — curious in itself and in the fact that in all the abundance of law and literature relating to it no logically valid reason is given why wealthy parents nor- mally put out their children, from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter and to seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family, while perhaps receiving and rear- ing children of other parents sent to them. As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason for it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numer- ous instances in history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested, stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has continued stealthily in certain dis- tricts in which the old race of chiefs and clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and the affection generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the middle of the nine- teenth century. The present writer has heard it spoken of lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to question would be cruel and irreverent. LAND LAW. The entire territory was originally, and always continued to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even the private residence of a clansman, with its maighin digona == little lawn or precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his family and property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider. Private ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the law, was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership of the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence. The land officially held as described was not, until the population became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What remained outside this and the residential patches of private land was classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the time being, subject to LAW IN IRELAND 61 gabhail-cine (gowal-kinneh) = clan-resumption and redistribu- tion by authority of an assembly of the clan or fine at intervals of from one to three years, according to local customs and circumstances, for the purpose of satisfying the rights of young clansmen and dealing with any land left derelict by de^th or forfeiture, compensation being paid for any unex- hausted improvements. The clansmen, being owners in this limited sense, and the only owners, had no rent to pay. They paid tribute for public purposes, such as the making of roads, to the ftaith as a public officer, as they were bound to render, or had the privilege of rendering — according to how they re- garded it — military service when required, not to the flaith as a feudal lord, which he was not, but to the clan, of which the flaith was head and representative. The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog- land was common property in the wider sense that there was no several appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel, pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural state. Kings and flaiths were great stock-owners, and were allowed to let for short terms portions of their official lands. What they more usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private land or on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support. A flaith whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king and sublet them to his own people. A feine, aithech, or ceile (kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire stock in one of two distinct ways: saer = "free", which v^as regulated by the law, left his status unim- paired, could not be terminated arbitrarily or unjustly, under which he paid one-third of the value of the stock yearly for seven years, at the end of which time what remained of the stock became his property, and in any dispute relating to which he Was competent to sue or defend even though the flaith gave evidence; or daer ="hon6!\ which was matter of bargain and not of law, was subject to onerous conditions and contingencies, including maintenance of kings, flaiths, or bre- hons, with their retinues, on visitations, of disbanded soldiers. 62 THE GU)RIES OF IRl^LAND etc., under which the stock always remained the property of the flaith, regarding which the ceile could not give evidence against that of the flaith, which degraded the ceile and his fine and impaired their status; a bargain therefore which could not be entered into without the sanction of the fine. This prohibition was rendered operative by the legal provision that in case of default the flaith could not recover from the fine unless their consent had been obtained. The letting of stock, especially of cfaer-stock, increased the flaith' s power as a lender over borrowers, subject, however, to the check that his rank and eineachlann depended on the number of independent clans- men in his district. Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages, wages, or however else arising, were made in kind — horses, cows, store cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese, butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather, manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and silver — whatever one party could spare and the other find a use for. Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person, were easily confused. This tempted the flaith, as the system relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership ; but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory ; but, apart from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was inconceivable. Not even when a daer-ceile, or "unfree peasant", failed to make the stipulated payments could the flaith do more than sue as for any other debt ; and, if successful, he was bound, in seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary for living and recovering. LAW OF DISTRAINING. Athgahail (ah-gowil)= "dis- tress", was the universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or justice or redress in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract or tort. Every command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was enforced by athgahail. The brehons reduced all liabilities of whatsoever origin to material value to be re- LAW IN IRELAND 63 covered by this means. Hence its great importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in the laws, and the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally with every other branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits, and character of the people. A claimant in a civil case might either summon his debtor before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the amount adjudged, or, by distraining first at his own risk, force the defendant either to pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter in dispute to trial before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There was no officer corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the amount adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied by a law-agent and wit- nesses, after, in "distress with time", elaborate notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the defendant to consider his position and find means of satisfying the claim if he could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by very explicit provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him." In urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either case the property seized — usually cattle — was not taken to the plaintiff's home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages became his property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out of what remained, and any ulti- mate remainder was returned. On a fuidir (foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the territory incurring lia- bility to a clansman, the latter might proceed against the flaith on whose land the defendant lived, or might seize immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned none, might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery. Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff had to be preceded by troscead (truscah) = fasting upon him. This consisted in waiting at the door of the de- fendant's residence without food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws contained no process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who allowed a plaintiff prop- erly fasting to die of hunger was held by law and by public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his eineachlann. Both text and commentary declare that whoever refuses to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that 64 the; glories o^ Ireland amount. If the faster!^ having accepted a pledge, did not in due course receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith dis- trained, taking and keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow those whom it at first respected to trifle with justice. Troscead is believed to have been of druidical origin, and it retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of super- natural significance. Whoever disregarded it became an out- cast and incurred risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides being a legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate prayer, or curse, — a kind of magic for achieving some difficult purpose. This mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal system deficient in executive power. NON-CITIZENS. From what precedes it will be under- stood that there were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not comprised in the clan organization, and there- fore not enjoying its rights and advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom were otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and some slaves. Those out- siders are conjectured to have originated in the earlier colo- nists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior con- dition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines. Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to emi- nence, while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes, to the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a daer-tuath = "bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a tradi- tion of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes, they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have been heavy. There were also bothachs = cottiers, and sen-cleithes = old adherents of a flaith, accustomed to serve him and obtain benefits from him. If they had resided in the territory for three generations, and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of them joining their property together to the num- LAW IN IRI^LAND 65 ber of one hundred head of cattle, they could emancipate them- selves by appointing a flaithfine and getting admitted to the clan. Till this was done, they could neither sue nor defend nor inherit, and the flaith was answerable for their conduct. There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of whatever race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field of battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, cap- tives taken in foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the lowest ranks of the fuidre = "serfs." It was as a captive that Saint Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law allowed, rather than entitled, a flaith to keep unfree people for servile occupations and the perform- ance of unskilled labor for the public benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit, oftentimes at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he was responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions saer and daer were recognized among them, according to origin, character, and means. Where these elements continued to be favorable for three generations, progress upward was made; and ultimately a number of them could club together, appoint a flaithfine, and apply to be admitted to the clan. A mog was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as such from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest fuidir. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the twelfth century, tells us that English parents then fre- quently sold their surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The Church repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and mitigation of their condition. The whole institution of slavery was strongly condemned as un- christian by the Synod held in Armagh in 1171. CRIMINAL LAW. Though there are numerous laws re- lating to crime, to be found chiefly in the Book of Aicill, crimi- nal law in the sense of a code of punishment there was none. The law took cognizance of crime and wrong of every descrip- tion against person, character, and property; and its function was to prevent and restrict crime, and when committed to de- termine, according to the facts of the case and the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the compensation or repara- tion that should be made. It treated crime as a mode of 66 TH^ GIX)RIES OF IRELAND incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was mur- dered, his fine, to bring the matter before a brehon, who, on hearing the case, made the complicated calculations and ad- justments rendered necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the criminal, and, in his de- fault, that of his fine. The fine could escape part of its liabil- ity by arresting and giving up the convict, or by expelling him and giving substantial security against his future misdeeds. From the number of elements that entered into the calcula- tion of a fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid in kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property, generic — a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of property the de- fendant possessed, because he could seize only that named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the only cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other corporal punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the law recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal punishment was re- garded as the commission of a second crime on account of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do it was tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of an adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil cases only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to choose a brehon, the loss of eineachlann, partial or whole according to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in calculating the amount of fine, and the technical terms employed. Dire (djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were specific names for classes of fines. Eric = repara- tion, redemption, was the fine for killing a human being, the LAW IN IRELAND 67 amount being affected by the distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other circumstances ; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent, allowed to pass without reparation being tnade. A fine was awarded out of the prop- erty of the convict or of his fine to the fine of the person slain, in the proportions in which they were entitled to inherit his property, that being also according to their degrees of kinship and the degrees in which they were really sufferers. This gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to their moral interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and sup- pression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The injured person or fine, if unable to recover the fine, might, in capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict. Probably restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of criminal law, they had to inflict punishment themselves, they sometimes imprisoned a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift on the sea in a currach or boat of hide Law supported by public opinion, powerful because so inspired, powerful because unanimous, was difficult to evade or resist. It so strongly armed an injured person, and so utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from justice was hardly possible. The only way in which it was possible was by flight, leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery in a strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather than an escape. FOREIGN LAW. The Danes and other Norsemen were the buccaneers of northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh century. They conquered and settled perma- nently in Neustria, from them called Normandy, and con- quered and ruled for a considerable time England and part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were little more than marauders, having permanent colonies only round the coast ; al- ways subject, nominally at least, to the ard-ri or to the local chief ; paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his terri- tory when he was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly prejudicial to law, religion, and civilization. They never made any pretence of extending their laws to Ireland, and their 68 TH^ GI^ORIES OF IREI.AND attempt to conquer the country was finally frustrated at Clon- tarf in 1014. The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression on the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their imperfect adoption of it. Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of English adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as their means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as they were able to wrench from the Irish *'the English Pale", which fluctuated in extent with their fortunes ; and, when compelled to pay tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how they regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the tendency of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized — a most unwilling tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and still more those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the Irish language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny", passed by about a score of these colo- nists in 1367. Presuming to speak in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English colonists from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were accustomed to do, and ex- cluded all Irish priests from preferment in the Church, partly because their superior virtue would by contrast amount to a censure. The purpose was not completely successful even within the Pale. Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were wholly unconscious of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But expressing, as the statute did correctly, the views of fresh adventurers, it became, in arrogance and in the pretension to speak for the whole of Ireland, a model for their future legislation and policy. LAW IN IRELAND 69 Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale, assembled at Drog- heda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ire- land as English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the pacific and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the substitution of English for Irish institu- tions and methods. His daughter, Queen Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest ; but it was by drenching the coun- try in blood, by more than decimating the Irish people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the condition of the ancient fuidre. Her policy prepared the ground for her suc- cessor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts, in which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all English laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, A Discoverie of the True Causes, etc., says : "For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love equall and indiflferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish; or will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it bee against themselves; so as they may have the protection and benefit of the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it." The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards foreign laws and administration is amply ex- plained by the morally indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English rule in Ireland — a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every sense foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though the Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parlia- ltd THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ment, in which the mass of the Irish people had no representa- tion whatever, one of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate the Penal Laws and emancipate the op- pressed Gaelic and Catholic population of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief interval, law in Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant English laws specially enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade or industry that entered into competition with a corresponding English trade or indus- try. In later times those crude barbarities have been gradually superseded by the more defensible laws now in force in Ire- land, all of which can be studied in statutes passed by the Parliament, since the Union with Scotland, called British. Hefebences : Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law Commission and translators, the subject must be .studied in the six volumes of Ancient Laws of Ireland, produced by the first Commis- sion, from 1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and many of the notes. Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary (London, 1903); R. Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889) ; d'Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet : Etudes sur le droit celtique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, 2 vols. (London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws (London, 1894). IRISH MUSIC By W. H. Grattan F1.00D, Mus. D., M. R. I. A., K. S. G. PERHAPS nothing so strikingly brings home the associa- tion of Ireland with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the national arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes ; Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over 2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B. C. 540-475) describes the Celts of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign scholars from the sixth to the ninth century. Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish saints and laics, e. g., St. Sechnall, St. Coliimcille, St. Molaise, St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Col- man, St. Cummain, St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has not heard of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St. Gall, "the wonder and de- light of Europe," whither flocked German students? One of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous sacred pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Pons boni- tatis", included in the Vatican edition of the Kyriale (1906). Not alone did Irish monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but they made their influence felt in Lindis- farne, Malmesbury, Glastonbury, and other cities in England, as also in Scotland. St. Aldhelm, one of the pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close of the seventh century, Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally blazed like the stars of the firmament with the glory of her scholars." 72 THE GI^ORIEIS O^ IRDlvAND During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of instruments in use by the Irish, namely: — the Cruit and Clairseach (small and large harp) ; Timpan (Rotta or bowed cruit) ; Buinne (oboe or bassoon) ; Bennhuahhal and Corn (horn) ; Cuisleanna and Piob (bagpipes) ; Feadan (flute or fife) ; Guthbuinne (bass horn) ; Stoc and Sturgan (trum- pet) ; Pipai (single and double pipes) ; Craoihh cuil and Crann cuil (cymbalum) ; Cnamha (castanet) ; and Fidil (fiddle). The so-called "Brian Boru's Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is now in Trinity College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured harps of the ninth and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig, Ullard, Clonmacnois, Durrow, and Monas- terboice. Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot of St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract De Divisione Naturae, in which he expounds organum or discant, nearly a hundred years before the appearance of the Scholia Enchiriadis and the Musica Enchiriadis. He also wrote a com- mentary on Martianus Capella, now in a Paris MS. of the ninth century. The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salis- bury are equally enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, tes,tifies to the fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland ; and, it may be added, the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad, "The Entrenchment of New Ross" — in 1265 — allusion is made to pipes and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from about 1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner. John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on Organum, and outlined a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dub- lin Troper of the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries and Glorias, also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin IRISH MUSIC 73 Processionale of the fourteenth century contains the most elaborate form of the Officium Sepulchri, with musical nota- tion on a four-line stave — the foundation of the Miracle Play of the Resurrection. Another Dublin Troper dates from 1360 and was used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It contains the hymn, "Angelus ad Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The Christ Church Psaltery, about 1370, has musical notation and is ex- quisitely illuminated. Lionel Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the first English treatise on music in 1395. Exactly a century later, in 1495, a music school was founded in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John lawless was a famous Irish organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years 1530 and 1565, Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels, all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to harp and to dance." A cen- tury later "Blind Cruise, the harper" — Richard Cruise — com- posed a lamentation song on the fall of the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is to the credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became a Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music, pub- lished in 1584 — thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's work. Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the first to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods of transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with profit. Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was bom in Dub- lin in 1567, but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello (madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Sher- gold, and Walter Kennedy. Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an Irish harper, Cormac Mac- 74 THE GI.ORIES OE IRELAND Dermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death of the queen he was given an annual pension of £46 10s. lOd. — nearly £500 a year of our present money. Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous "Callino Casturame" (Cailin og a stuir me) is still fresh. Irish dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to 1603 and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic friend," John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in Europe from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his compo- sitions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in Parthenia Inviolata, of which work, published in 1613-4, there is only one copy known — now in the New York Public Library. From 1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at 200 thalers a year. His successor was Donal Dubh ("the black") O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the first half of the seven- teenth century are : Rory dall ("the blind") O'Cahan ; Nicholas dall Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and Henry Scott; Owen MacKeenan ; Owen MacDermot ; Tadhg O'Coffey ; and Father Robert Nugent, S. J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court from 1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on De- cember 19, 1634. Pierce Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652. Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the excellent per- formance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the fol- lowing year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey, Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still preserved— the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp. There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of which have been incorporated in Moore's Irish Melo- dies. The titles of several airs of this epoch are of historical IRISH MUSIC 75 interest, e. g., "Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill," "MacAlistrum's March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim," "Limerick's Lamentation," "Lilli- burlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne Water," and "The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various editions of Play- ford's Country Dances from 1651 to 1720. Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties, Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's Irish Melodies, although his claim to them has only recently been proved by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well known. The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably in- fluenced Irish minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam Peirb- hig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period. As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of The Messiah, conducted by Handel him- self, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty Clive, Peg Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of this epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were famous instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Mu- sical Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces : it was after- wards improved, by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was music director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in succession to Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin. In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. .D., was appointed first pr5fessor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly 76 THK GI.ORIES O^ IREUVND of Dublin was specially selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don Curzio at the first performance of the opera of Figaro, on May 1st, 1786. Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr. Doyle, T. A. Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were distinguished musi- cians — while the fame of Carter, Mountain, Moorehead, and Dr. Cogan was not confined to Ireland. Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mon- gan, Denis Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792 revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of pipers, with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home. Sterling, Jackson, Mac- Donnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the reputation of this ancient instrument. Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dub- lin was a distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) in- vented the nocturne, developed by Chopin. Sir John Steven- son (the arranger of the Irish Melodies), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper action for pianofortes)^ Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist). Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed. Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names are typical : Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balfe {Bohe- mian Girl), Wallace (Maritana), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson Clarke, Howard Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart, Augusta Holmes, R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns, Allen, Barker, Tor- rance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey, Good- man, Sir Arthur Sullivan (Pinafore, Mikado), Miss Davis, Halliday (inventor of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gas- kin, Lacy, Pontet (Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey. Famous vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signor Foli (Foley), Barton Mc- Guckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig deserve in- clusion. In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Her- IRISH MUSIC 77 bert, Mrs. Needham, Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary ; singers like Egan, Burke, Plunket Greene, John Mac- Cormack, P. O'Shea, Charles Manners, and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily Keady, Arthur Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles Marchant, Brendan Rogers, Dr. Joze, and Professor Buck; writers like Mrs. Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Pro- fessor Mahaffy, A. P. Graves, Dr. CoUison, and G. B. Shaw ; and conductors like Hamilton Harty and James Glover. Rkfekences : Walker : Irish Bards (1786) ; O'Curry : Lectures (1870) ; Hardiman : Irish Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834) ; The Complete Petrie CoUection (3 vols., 1902-1904) ; Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed., 1913), Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911) ; Mrs. Milligan Fox: Annals of the Irish Hari)ers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of Ireland (1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908); O'Neill: Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Mins- trels and Musicians (1913). IRISH METAL WORK By Diarmid Goffey. FROM the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland has been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was copper, and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000 B. C, or even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the early inhabitants of the coun- try were skilled workers in metal. Fields of copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone axe disappears and axes of a true metal type, are developed. Primitive copper knives and awls are also abun- dant. The fineness of the early Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the high- est workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been found in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia. Between the years 2000 and 1800 B. C. the primitive metal- workers discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more suitable metal than pure copper for the manufac- ture of weapons ; and the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500 B. C. The bronze celts at first dif- fered little from those made of copper, but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped celt to the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in the last, or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B. C.). It was during the age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did the sword and rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped bronze weapons riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the graceful socketed spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed. Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been found, but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of sand moulds was discovered, with the result that IRISH METAI. WORK 79 there are no extant examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons. The bronze weapons — celts, swords, and spear-heads — are often highly decorated. In these decorations can be traced the connection between the early Irish civilization and that of the eastern Mediterranean. The bronze age civilization in Europe spread westward from the eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route of Italy, Spain, France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more prob- able, up the river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to Scandinavia, whence traders by the north of Scotland intro- duced the motives and patterns of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the eastern civilization penetrated into Ireland, it left England practically untouched in her primitive bar- barity. Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent- shaped flat gold ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been found in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark. One has been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover. Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze age. The earliest form of collar is the "tore" of twisted gold. Another type, later in date than the tore, is the gold ring-shaped collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in La Tkne, or trumpet, pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and continental designs. A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over £3,000. After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduc- tion of iron wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National Museum at Dublin. It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ire- and is well worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian 80 THS; GlvORlKS O^ IRELAND metalworkers that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In early Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely equalled and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara Brooch, the Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most beautiful metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns, which are typ- ically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and fascinating in the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend themselves readily to metal work. The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period and that of early Christian times is chiefly exempli- fied by the penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in Ireland. Examples of this characteris- tically Celtic ornament may be seen in all Celtic countries. In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in it, to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually the open ends of the ring, which need some enlarge- ment in order to prevent the pin slipping oflF, became larger and ornamented. In time these became regular trumpet- shaped ends, generally ornamented with characteristic "trum- pet" patterns. The next stage was to close the gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning glory not only of the Irish but of any metal- worker's art. The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best illuminated manu- scripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing. Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there very marked. The head of the pin is also IRISH M^TAI< WORK 81 elaborately decorated. The minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the fact that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice and have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines is made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a magnify- ing glass. With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artifi- cers was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong, and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an unsurpassed school of metalworkers. The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in height and 9^ in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated with panels of inter- woven ornament, and on the sides are two circular discs di- vided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of the Chalice is also very beautifully decorated. The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting examples of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King Domnall O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St. Patrick's bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron riveted together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold filigree work and stones are riv- eted. The top of the shrine, curved to receive the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated. The back is over- laid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern. Around the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this 82 the; GI.ORIES o^ irei^and bell [shrine] was made, and for Domnall, successor of Pat- rick, by whom it was made, and for Cathalan Ua Maelchal- lann, the keeper of the bell, and for Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of its kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross of Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the pope in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date. It is 2 feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6^ inches wide. It is made of oak cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded bronze. The ornamen- tation is of the typical Irish type, as on the Ardagh Chalice and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal set in the centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic. It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in Ireland during that period a school of workers in metal such as has seldom been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or since, and never excelled. The examples described are only the more famous of the re- mains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they are sur- rounded by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines, each worthy to rank with the finest productions of the metal- worker. The Shrine of St. Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be mentioned. On it are found several figures, in- cluding three nuns, men with books, sceptres, and swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper. Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use as the artificers were to create works of art in metal. With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sci- ences in Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards, almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons of offense and defense. IRISH metaIv work 83 Refeeences : British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ire- land ; Allen : Celtic Art ; Abercrombie : Bronze Age Pottery ; Wilde : Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection ; Allen : Christian Symbolism ; Stokes : Christian Art in Ireland ; Petrie : Ecclesiastical Architecture in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane : Industrial Resources of Ireland ; O'Curry : Manners and Cus- toms of the Ancient Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland ; Dechelette : Manuel d'Arch§ologie pr6-historique ; Bidgeway: Origin of Currency and Weight Standards. IRISH MANUSCRIPTS By Louis Ei^y O'Carroli., B. A., B. L. IN the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St. Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet, fortunately, in the island home where their beauty w^as born the most superb volumes still remain. From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artifi- cers in gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already evolved and perfected that unique system of geo- metrical ornament which is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features of this system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing strapwork, but later on this type was developed by transforming the geometrical fret into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals, portions of which, such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and woven in ex- quisite fancy through the border. The artistic features of Celtic book decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this nature embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a keen knowledge of color and an exceptional appre- ciation of color values. Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland the learned monks, transcribing the Gos- pels and longing to make the book beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill which was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they used were mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was carbon, made, it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones • ^^^'^ "'Hh them was com- bined some gummy material which made them cling softly to the vellum and has held for us their lustre for more than a IRISH MANUSCRIPTS 85 thousand years. It is noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for book decoration, and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance of the glitter and glare which distinguish eastern art. The Book of Durrow (in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin) is the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the work of St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the Gospels opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of gradually diminishing size, and there are full page decorations embodying such subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors are rich and vivid and all the designs are of the purest and. most Celtic character. The Gospels of MacRegol (now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford) is the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A. D. 820. It is a volume of unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is missing. The Book of Kelts (in the Library of T. C. D.) is the all- surpassing masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is ac- knowledged to be the most beautiful book in the world. This copy of the four Gospels was long deemed to have been made by the saintly hands of Columcille, though it probably belongs to the eighth century. Into its pages are woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of art, and such a miracle of design that the book is today not only one of Ireland's,jgTeatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After twelve cen- turies the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are as fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range of colors is there — green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow, purple, violet — and the same color is at times varied in tone and depth and shade, thereby achieving a more ex- quisite combination and effect. In addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous initials, there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page miniatures of the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and the Madonna and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally beautiful are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the book, their wings shining with glowing colors amid woven 86 THE GI.ORIES O^ IIRELAND patterns of graceful design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces centred in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of anatomical drawing and delinea- tion of the human figure, but rather by their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation ; for the Celtic illuminator was im- aginative rather than realistic, and aimed altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe have baffled the imitator ; for, on an examination with a magnifying glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch, there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground. Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations he speaks with glowing enthusiasm ; "they were," he says, "supposed to have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St. Brigid." The Gospels of MacDurnan (now in the Archbishop's Library at Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each miniature in a bewildering pat- tern of intertwining strapwork and wonderful designs of im- aginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels. The Book of Armagh (in the Library of T. C. D.) was carefully guarded and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous belief that it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was written about the year 800, and would appear to have been copied from documents actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is exceptionally interest- ing by reason of the fact that it contains St. Patrick's Con- fession, that beautiful story of how he found his mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, IRISH MANUSCRIPTS 87 there are occasional beautiful examples which compare in rich- ness with those in the Book of Kells. The Liber Hymnorum (in the Franciscan Monastery, Dub- lin) contains a number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints. The ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a striking use of fanciful animal figures inter- laced and twined with delightful freedom around the main structural body. The Garland of Howth and the Stowe Missal (both in Trinity College Library) belong to the eighth century and are beautiful examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is very incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing figure-representations inserted in the decora- tive work. The Gospels of St. Chad (in the Cathedral Library at Lich- field) and the Gospels of Lindisfarne, which are "the glory of the British Museum", form striking examples of the influence of Celtic art. St. Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St. Finian, where he acquired his training in book decora- tion. The Gospels of Lindisfarne were produced by the monks of lona, where St. Columcille founded his great school of religion, art, and learning. This latter manuscript is second only to the Book of Kells in its glory of illuminative design, and, from its distinctive scheme of colors, the tones of which are light and bright and gay, it forms a contrast to the quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more famous volume. The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster, and the other great manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries are interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the ancient Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king might wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We can picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a single color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life 88 THE GI.ORIKS 01^ IRELAND and teachings of his Master, and striving to endow this record with the glory of the seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As we gaze on his work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the patient love that gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white magic of the artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand years. Refeeencks : O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish History (Dublin, 1861); Bruun: An Enquiry into the Art of the Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, CJeltic Illu- minated Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897) ; Robinson: Celtic Illumina- tive Art in the Gospels of Burrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells (Dublin, 1908) ; West wood : The Book of Kells, a lecture given in Oxford, November, 1886 (Dublin, 1887) ; Gougaud: R6pertoire des fac-simil6» des manuscripts Irlandais (Paris, 1913). r THE RUINS OF IRELAND By Francis Jose:ph Biggkr, M. R. I. A. THE ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a lasting revelation to all mankind — a distinct and definite proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able to raise and adorn some of the finest build- ings in stone that western civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals, the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland, others in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that Irish art- workers held a preeminent place in the early middle ages, and that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their day and time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland has been. Dane, Norman, English — each in turn swept across the fair face of Ireland, carrying destruc- tion in their train, yet withal Ireland has her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable comparison with those of other civilizations. In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found hand- written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by the thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a fragment of them. Ireland produced these in endless number — every great library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples. As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious feeling. What they could do on parchment — like the Books of Kells and Durrow — what they could produce in bronze and precious metals — like the Cross 90 THK GLORIES 0? IRKLAND of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's Bell, the Tara Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh — not to write of the numberless bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long preceding their production — they could certainly vie with in stone. Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the present day, after all the years of plunder she has under- gone, more ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum, or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin, that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on Irish anvils, de- signed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill for Irish use. With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and suitable setting? The earliest stone struc- tures in Ireland still remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing large spaces — walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which there are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot might be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a few examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off Galway; Ail- each, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches, Cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone, with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gal- lerus still remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples, some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin*s at Fore, and St. Molaise's at Devenish. From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are innumerable examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with roofs not so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar window facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of the day to tell the early missioner that his kour of devotion had arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun fell across the altar steps, THi^ RUINS OF IRELAND 91 Speaking of a day that was closing. A south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a sun-dial ; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places. A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill in Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many another island and promontory of the south and west. During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or metal work. It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that the cloicteach, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted by all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in Christian worship ; here they might be safely stored. They were also used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon. The records of the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed. The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our land; In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads sublime, These gray old pillar temples — these conquerors of time. 93 the; glories of* Ireland Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine. And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the shrine. And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the east. And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the priest. D. F. MacCarthy. This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and set up. They vie with the Round Towers in inter- est and in the display of skill. What the towers have in per- fection, masonry and construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden. They were carved in rever- ence by those who knew and esteemed their art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most valued and treas- ured. They were not set up as grave-marks merely — theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised in places where some great event or period was to be commemorated — they were erected where some early disciple of the Cross could stand beside one of them and from any panel could tell the founda- tion of the Faith, for there in stone was story after story, from the Old Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as at the Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a mis- sioner could preach on every recurring holy day from Christ- mas to Christmas, with ever his text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross has been set up in Ire- land in recent years, proving that the heart of the Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up the broken wounds of her past glories. With the religious orders there came to Ireland a wide- spread desire to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded. Here and there we find them still — by winding rivers, on rich meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled TH^ RUINS O? IRELAND 93 what is perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost as they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant companions. Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black Abbey at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the Cathedral of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower beside it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary by the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How long could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery like a spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish marble beside us. Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up sud- denly into sight on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A great abbey dominates ; beside it clings that carved gem of a stone-roofed church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there, and many a sculptured tomb. Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long, shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are of unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to the best of their age. We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give food for thought to every one 94 THS GI^ORIES OF IRELAND desirous of knowing something of the growth and civilization of a great people. Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford, Car rick fergus, and Dunluce have by thefr size and picturesque situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout bastions. The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of Granuaile on the west coast, and the traders' towers on the east coast, especially those of Down, afford ample material for a study of the early colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as providing incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented towers can be seen here and there in every district. Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts, prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys, crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be found in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It is almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so great. References : Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries (Dublin) ; Ulster Journal of Archseology, Old Series and New Series, edited by F. J. Bigger, Belfast; Wake- man: Handbook of Irish Antiquities (Dublin, 1891) ; Stokes: Early Christian Art in Ireland (Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture of Ireland (Dublin, 1845). MODERN IRISH ART By D. J. O'DoNOGHue, Librarian, University College, Dublin. IT would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and excellent artists, that there has always been in modem times an art consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no school, but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors, and engravers, chiefly for exf>ort. With all our acknowledged artistic capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a ctunulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the eighteenth cen- tury — significantly enough, it was while the country enjoyed a short spell of national life — there was something like a national patronage of the artist, and the result is visible in the noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the Irish capital, with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors, ceilings, fan- lights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland had even a partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts were generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few others went to America and obtained an honored place in her art annals. Those who went to 96 THD GLORIES OF IRELAND England secured in many cases the highest rewards of the profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and Cotes, were founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one. Sir Martin Shee, became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished artists remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and engraving were carried to a high pitch of excellence. This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and can only take note of those whose works have actual value and interest, historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650- 1710) did some excellent work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl. 1650-1716), Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and James Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the great Irish person- ages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London, Charles Jervas (1675F-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis Cotes, R. A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people. George Barrett, R. A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of his time; Nathaniel Hone, R. A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted painter, with an indi- viduality displayed in all his portraits; James Barry, R. A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions im- perfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical pictures :— these, with Henry Tresham, R. A. (1749P1814), and Matthew Peters, R. A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable merit, upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth century art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A. R. A. (1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844), also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters, John Comerford (1770P1832) and Charies Robertson (1760-1821), and to the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially) Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time MODI^RN IRISH ART 97 in Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland stands second to none — mezzotint-engraving. One of the earliest engravers in this style w^as Edward Luttrell, already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756) who is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in Dublin, and after- wards in London, a succession of first-rate artists of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare mention of the names of James McArdell (1728?- 1765), Charles Spooner (d. 1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward Fisher (1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811), Richard Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John Murphy (1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl. 1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)— artists of whom any country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to reproduce. Separate mono- graphs might be justifiably written on most of the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not being able in short space to compare and estimate their various qualities. Thomas Chambers, A. R. A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson Gardiner (1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys (1794-1865) are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a survey of the art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the chief architects of the Irish Parlia- ment House, and Thomas 'Burgh (d. 1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose S8 the: glories 0^ Ireland chief claim to remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy; and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House, Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate his name in Dublin while that city lasts — each helped to make the capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe. Nor should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital is another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard Morrison (1767-1849) and his son William (1794- 1838), much of whose work remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity. Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne (fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1883), J. B. Keane (d. 1859), and James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture are those of Benja- min Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871) ; and his son. Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our own days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is still living. In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth (1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl. 1772-1794), whose dignified monu- ment of Bishop Baldwin is one of the most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin. But it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors, including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John Henry Foley, R. A. (1818-1874), and Patrick Mac- Dowell, R. A. (1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown. Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the Houses of Parlia- MODERN IRISH ART 99 ment and other institutions in London. The incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in Dublin by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two of his principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan (1785-1847), of John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell (1798-1876), of Samuel F. Lynn (1834- 1876), and perhaps of Christopher Moore (1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be set down here. Sir Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living sculptors, John Hughes, Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are responsible for some of the more admirable of the public monuments of Dublin. It is much to be deplored that of the work of one of the greatest of Dublin-born artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only one example — the statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as one of her most gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this place of some of the other Irishmen who made their home in America: of Hoban the architect who designed the White House at Washington, modelling it after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles Ingham, W. G. Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and Thomas Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan, Andrew O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and Martin Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art than to that of Ireland. Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop (1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors. Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists who have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home. One can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this unfortunate result ; there is sufficient (8) 100 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND reason in the political and economic condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact. But for this cause men like Daniel Maclise, R. A. (1806-1870), William Mul- ready, R. A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A. R. A. (1793- 1861), and Alfred Elmore, R. A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the spirit of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard Rothwell (1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W. Burton (1816- 1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his time, who at least spent some of their active working career in their native land. The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other branches of the profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a caricaturist with all the power, without the coarseness, of his predecessors; his son, Richard Doyle (1824- 1883), a refined and delicate artist; John Leech (1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an Irish Catholic family; Paul Gray (1842-1866), who died before his powers had fully matured; and Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who also died too early. William Collins, R. A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson Stanfield, R. A. (1793-1867), both eminent representatives of English art, though of Irish extraction, more properly belong to England than to Ireland. Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent losses have been heavy — notably those of Walter F. Osborne (1859-1903) and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have artists of genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct descendant of his famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery, A. R. A.; and William Orpen, A. R. A. Many other names might be given, but already this attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of artists, who, however, could hardly be neglected in such a record. Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for fine achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may be expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only within living memory that any MODERN IRISH ART 101 attempt has been made to direct the known artistic skill of tht Irish people to industrial effort. But the remarkable success achieved in the modem designs for Irish lace in the EngHsh art competitions is an instance of what might be done generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If we only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the best work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would more eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise. BEnsBXNCBs: Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting in Ireland (1795); T. J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keefle: Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W. G. Strickland: DicUonary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913). IRELAND AT PLAY By Thomas E. Healy, Editor of "Sport/' Dublin. ON the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures sadly. We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted enthusiasm, and genuine exuber- ance of spirit. There is nothing counterfeit about the Irish- man in his play. His one keen desire is to win, be the contest what it may ; and towards the achievement of that end he will strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter exhaustion. And how the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a desper- ately contested race, whether between horses, men, motor- cars, bicycles, or boats, or of a match between football, hurl- ing, or cricket teams ! It matters not which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or team is successful: the sport is the thing that counts ; the strenuousness of the contest is what stimulates and evokes the rapturous applause. At such a moment it is good to be alive. Scenes similar to those hinted at may be witnessed on any sports-field or racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle almost any day of the year. All is good fellowship; all is in the cause of sport. No one can question that in some departments of horse- racing Ireland is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no recent growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when King Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of Cuchulainn of Muir- themne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song : Never hoofs like them shall ring. Rapid as the winds of spring. To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war- horses and his charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangabra, at IR^I^ND AT PLAY IW the famous battle of Rosnaree, and again at the last fight be- tween the Red Branch Knights and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like the sound of a trumpet. As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous, and always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed that, bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille, withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught, and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still was the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it galloped so hard that, in my opin- ion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep, or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of The Faerie Queene, writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the Irish horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have hearde some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they had scene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely horseman than. the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really wonderful, and well-nigh turned dis- aster into victory on that memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that, on August' 12, 1690, car- ried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety, where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the defenders of beleaguered Limerick. Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his History and Delineation of the Horse, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into 104 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND England] many saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world. Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the expression, sharper and more frigate-built." It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse- racing. The Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing head- quarters of the Irish Turf Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue of some great equine con- tests; and to this day, with its five important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from Punchestown, Leop- ardstown. Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth £2,500; and there are besides several stakes of il,500 and £1,000. The result of this for- ward policy is that increasing numbers come to our race- meetings and that the turf has never been more popular than it is today. Men and women of wealth and position find in the national pastime a pleasant method of employing their leisure, and in expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in the raising of horses of the highest class they realize that they confer a real benefit on the country. It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an international reputation as a country eminently fitted for horse- breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, Ger- man, Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the principal handicaps on the flat IRELAND AT PLAY 105 have been often won by Irish-bred horses, such as Galtce More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin, Barcaldine, Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel, The Re- jected, Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush, Victor Wild, ■ Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If only a few of the star performers are here set down, it is not from lack of means to continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the compilation of a mere string of names. In France, too, the Irish racer has made his mark. It is, however, in the four-and-a-half miles' Liverpool Grand National Steeplechase, the greatest cross-country race in the world, the supreme test of the leaper, galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred horses have made perhaps the most wonderful record. The list of winners of that great event demonstrates in an unmistakable manner that we are second to none in the art of breeding steeplechase horses. Among many other noted Irish-bred winners of this race there stand boldly forth the names of The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come Away, Cloister, Wild Man from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is the exception when another than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue riband of steeplechasing. Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and' fox- hunting, as well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds, harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the soil, and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is often used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is probably the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in Britain, referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A. D. 391, he acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound played a sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth century, for, as Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days": Their dogs were taught alike to run Upon the scent of wolf and friar. 106 THE GLORIES OP IREUVND The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country are held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several spirited contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black and white dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare dis- tinction of winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869, and 1871. When it is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing what the Liverpool Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom Derby to flat racing, the merit of this triple performance will at once be apparent. Compared with the sports in which horse and hound par- ticipate, all other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still, the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is catholic. We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The prize ring has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention here to try to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced, in a passing way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at least used to be the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone by as well as at the present time has more than held her own. The most conspicuous of the representatives of her race in this depart- ment are perhaps Heenan, Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher, McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty. There is one other prize-fighter, Dan Donnelly by name, who became a sort of national hero, of whom all Irishmen of his day were not a little proud, because he laid the English champion low, and whose performance, now haloed by the antiquity of more than a hundred years, we may with equanimity, as without offense, contemplate, with perhaps a sigh for the good old times. The famous encounter between Donnell yand Cooper took place on the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of scientific boxing Don- nelly knocked his opponent over the ropes and won the world's championship for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the battle came oflf has ever since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a neat monument there erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and skill. A ballad recounting the incidents of the IREI*AND AT PI*AY 107 fight and, as ballads go, not badly composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair and market and other meeting place within the memory of men who are not now more than middle-aged. A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the wondrous little Thomas Conneff from the short- grass county of Kildare? Who does not know of his brilliant performances on the track? We in -Ireland, who had seen him defeat Carter, the great Canadian, over the four-mile course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve now nearly twenty golden years ago, knew his worth before he crossed the broad Atlantic to show to thousands of admiring spectators in America that Ireland was the breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked neither the courage, nor the thews and sinews, nor the staying power, to carry them at high speed over any dis- tance of ground. May the earth lie light on Conneff, for in a small body he had a great heart ! Then there was the mighty runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from Galway, the idol of the crowd in his native land as well as in the United States. Daly was the champion long distance cross-country runner of his day at home, and he showed before various nationalities in the Greater Ireland beyond the seas that he could success- fully compete with the best from all countries. In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Con- nor were for long in the foremost rank ; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to record distance ; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in front; and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W. J. M, Barry. All previous performances in the shot-putting line have, however, been recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the Irish-American Club, who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30, 1914, made a new world's record by putting the 18-pound shot 46. feet 2^ inches. The climax of achievement was reached when T. F. Kiely won the all-round championship of the world at New York. The distinguished part taken by 108 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all departments of the Olym- pic games is so recent and so well known as to call for no comment. Ireland is far indeed from being degenerate in her athletes. In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France at Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long enough she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other three countries, such is not the case rowadays, nor has it been for many years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This branch of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively few seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches for the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest crowds of all go to see Gaelic football, the national game ; and to hurl- ing, also distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses. Since the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both foot- ball and hurling have prospered exceedingly. They are essen- tially popular forms of sport, and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in them a natural outlet for their char- acteristic Celtic vigor. The Gaelic Association has fostered and developed these sports, and has organized them on so sound a basis that interest in them is not confined to any par- ticular district but spreads throughout the length and breadth of Ireland. When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in his Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in doing so stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest enthusiasm. His lordship was not successful, but he was not disheartened. He tried again with Valkyrie III., but again he was only second best, for, though bis yacht sailed to victory in home waters, she proved unequal to the task of lifting the cup. No Englishman was prepared to tempt fortune, but not so that sterling Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who, win or lose, would not have it laid to the charge of Ireland that an attempt should not be made. His Sham- iRStAND AT PtAV 109 rock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock III. — surely a deep sense of patriotism prompted nomenclature such as that — each in succession went down to defeat ; but Sir Thomas has not done yet. Like King Bruce, he is going to try again, and Sham- rock IV. is to do battle with the best that America can range against her. All honor to Lord Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for their persistent efforts to engage in generous rivalry with the yachtsmen across the sea. Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing many of us are enthusiastically devoted ; and at hand- ball our young men — and some not so young — are signally expert. The champion handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we invented — and called it rounders. It is significant that the great American ball game is still played according to a code which is scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish names. This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude. It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a com- plete one at that. It may, however, serve to show that Ire- land's record in sport, like her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high emprize. Hefesences c Racing— Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin, Brindley and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby and Sons). Breeding— The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols. (London, Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Gren- erally— Cox : Notes on the History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897), Boxing and Athletics— Files of Sport and Freeman's Journal THE FIGHTING RACE By Joseph I. C. Clarke, President, American Irish Historical Society. I. — The Fighting Race at Home. "War was the ruling passion of this people," says Mac- Geoghegan, meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had preceded them remains an enig- ma of history not profitable to examine here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or brown. The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain. They came swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our Lord, and divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with an ard-ri, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service, taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely pastoral. Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of frame, vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says, signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned to- ward poetry and song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of copper and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were petty kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each with his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole male population more or less ready to take part in war. The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such THE FIGHTING RACE 111 as Finn, son of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms. Bravery was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the excess of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an era; the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle ; the great Irish epic of antiquity was the Tain Bo Cualnge, or Cooley Cattle- raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength and prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give account of itself and strike for its ideals : "Irritable and bold", as one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish. They worked cheerfully, prayed fer- vently to their gods, loved their women and children de- votedly, clung passionately to their clan, and fought at the call with alacrity. Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a people than submission to what they deemed m- justice. The habit of a proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England. The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-con- lained, Ireland developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of an intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among them by any means, an^ occupied only small portions of the island at a time, but, since the bards* best work was war songs and war histories, with much brag- gadocio doubtless intermixed, a different impression might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in broil or battle, and yet great wars were few". It is undoubted that Scotic, that is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western shores of Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first centuries of the Christian era they were the men who with the Picts foueht the Romans at the wall of Sev- erus. The Britons, it will be remembered, enervated by Ro- man dominance, had failed to defend their "border" when Rome first withdrew ^ler legions. 112 THE GLORIES Of IRELAND At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, in- vaded Scotland, ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany), penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ire- land. Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he was killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In perhaps a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had been converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand years buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its sacri- fices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life, softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars, seductive forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the heart's content. The Irish character remained fixed in its essentials, but, under the influence of religious en- thusiasm, Ireland progressed and prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly have shared the full progress of western Europe from this time on, but for its insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its downfall. A hos- tile power was growing of which it knew nothing. The Norsemen — the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark — had become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fight- ers and able mariners, they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the northern pine and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of England, Ireland, France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the Levant, surprising, massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in England, and lastly in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest success was in England, which Tn% f ZGHIING RACE 112 they conquered, Canute becoming king. Their greatest battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end of the eighth century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores of Erin were attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by successive fleets of the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's protection now became the high roads of the in- vaders. By the river Shannon they pushed their conquests into the heart of the country. Dublin Bay, Waterford Har- bor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork offered shelter to their vessels. They established themselves in Dublin and raided the country around. Churches and monasteries were sacked and burned. To the end these Norsemen were rob- bers rather than settlers. To these onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern seas, again and again renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812 they drove off the invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh hordes descending a year or two later. In the tenth century, Turgesius, the Danish leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but he was driven out by the Irish king, Malachl. The great effort which really broke the Danish power forever in Ireland was at the bat- tle of Clontarf, on Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at the head of 30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the Danes of oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland, but henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a notable ele- ment to itis blood. One of the most grievous chapters of Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fight- ing generations. As Plowden says : "Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the uni- verse, a solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much less wholly extinguish, the na- tional genius, spirit, and character of its inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which ended nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since and to this very day. Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss 114 THS GLORIES OF IRELAND of blood and treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects of its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as it became consolidated after its con- quest by William the Norman, should turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was in 1169 that "Strong- bow" — Richard, earl of Pembroke — came from England at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and began the conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with more troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set himself up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was the beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or portion of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from that vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and was forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish chieftains. The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of outside assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger, richer, more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn character and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And century out and century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe four hundred years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman English, racial cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first wrought at the English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were seated in Irish places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Or- mond and a Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were merging rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more Irish than the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic eflForts to strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish chiefs accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families who at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war became con- tinuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland re- mained unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England had, however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the great defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn, Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the invitation of the north- THE FIGHTING RACE llo ern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing near Carrick- fergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish who joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Ed- ward was a brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great brother, Robert, The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging, and slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two years Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is the fact of moment that comes out of this dark period. The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ire- land, he met fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMor- rough, fighting, harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods, fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the Roses" — ^that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England between the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to 1485 — ^gave Ireland a long opportunity, which, however, she was too weak to turn to advantage; but fighting between Irish and English went on just the same, now in one province, now in another. In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas, went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his allegiance. He took the field — a brave, striking figure — in protest against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the Earl of Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the first real Irish rebel- lion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made combinations with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was victor in sev- eral engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances of pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a prisoner to London, where he was executed. Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ire- land. Her policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot and a few horse ; but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her coming to the throne, to- (9) 116 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND gather with her fanatic devotion to the Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The procla- mations of Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions were only another English sword at Ire- land's throat. The disdain of the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale, gen- erally to return shattered and worn down by constant harry- ing, sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, re- mained unconquered down to the last years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles were fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh O'Don- nell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great soldiers on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and strat- egy of O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell little short of his great compatriot. In battle after battle for twenty years they defeated the English with slaughter. Ire- land, if more and more devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of tens of thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations. Writing from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march through Leinster and Mun- ster, says : *T am confined in Cork .... but still I have been unsuc- cessful; my undertakings have been attended with misfor- tune .... The Irish are stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes and petty war- fare .... and are obstinately opposed to the English govern- ment." They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of THE FIGHTING RACE 117 Shane O'Neill, a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or supreme indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to racial hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they came to be called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin perched upon Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fer- tile valleys. The Irish chieftains with their faithful follow- ers moved from place to place in woods and hollows of the hills. English colonists were settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by those who had been driven from their homes. It was war among graves. At last O'Neill made composition with the government when all was lost in the field, but the passionate Irish resolve never to submit still stalked like a ghost, as if it could not perish. When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming to Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous proclamation : "Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had been deceived by a false report that his Majesty was disposed to allow them liberty of conscience and the free choice of religion, now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of Eng- lish and Scotch settlers on the lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false reports." So again the war of sur- prise, ambush, raid, and foray went on in a hundred places at once, but the result was that the English power was even more firmly seated than before. In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes had disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With Cromwell, the religious persecution took on an apocal)rptic note of massacre, but the Irish were still showing that they were there with arms in their hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid victory, in 1646, at Ben- burb over the English and Scotch, where he slew more than 118 THE GLORIES 0? IRELAND 8,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such a brilliant defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out of the darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was always the weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her. She became mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families, religion playing the most im- portant part in the differences. It had armed Henry and Eliz- abeth, James and Charles against her. It gave edge to Crom- well's sword, and it led her into a great effort on behalf of James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all that followed for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Augh- rim. Limerick, all places of great and fierce contests, were de- cided against her. French support of a kind had James, but not enough. Bravery and enthusiasm may win battles, but they do not carry through great campaigns.- Once again God marched with the heaviest, best-fed, best-armed battalions. The great Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red Hugh O'Don- nell perishing in Spain in the early days of the seventeenth century, were to prefigure the fighting and dying of half a million Irish warriors on continental soil for a hundred years after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth century neared its close. During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dis- persing, reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque. After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ire- land received a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from their trammels, evoked the ut- most malignity in England. Ireland almost at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short lived. A great con- spiracy, which did not at first show above the surface, was set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not the place to follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to note that they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of THE FIGHTING RAC^ 119 the north into preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen was formed, and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in Ireland into its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in Ulster alone. The government was alarmed, and began a systematic persecution of the peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were put at "free quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order into the houses and cabins of the people with demands for bed and board. The hapless people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and bar- barous tortures of men and women by the soldiers, savage re- venges by the peasantry, and every form of violent crime all at once prevailed in the lately peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United Irishmen and executions were many. It was all done deliberately to provoke revolt. In 1798 the revolt came. In the greater part of Ulster and Munster the uprising failed, but a great insurrection of the peasantry of Wexford shocked the country. Poorly armed, utterly undisciplined, without muni- tions of war, but 40,000 strong, they literally flung themselves pike in hand on the English regiments, sweeping everything before them for a time. Father John Murphy, a priest and patriot, was one of their leaders, but Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one time the "rebels" dominated the entire county save for a fort in the harbor and a small town or two, but it was natural that the commissariat should soon be in difficulties and their ammuni- tion give out. The British general, Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a moving column of 13,000, attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and although the fight was heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon over and the British army was victorious. The rest was retreat, dispersal, and wide- spread cruelties and burnings and a long succession of mur- ders. The "Boys of Wexford" under great difficulties had given a great account of themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it has been a glowing lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the soul of the effort that counts, and the disasters do not discredit *98 in Irish eyes. Voltaire, in his Century of Louis XIV., made his reflec- tion on the Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the WilHamite war in Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we 120 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND have seen such good soldiers in France and Spain, have al- ways fought poorly at home"! They had not fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English effort to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and all of that long sv^eep of the sword of Time was a time ©f battle. The Irish were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of a prospering, strongly organized coun- try, and impelled persistently by the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear and pike. The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no power on earth could change them. Over greater Eng- land had swept the Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of Endand. Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed that assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in process of time the feeders of her greatness, but the Tri«;h would not and could not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no mo- mentary defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt of battle when the T>e^ce of an hour was given them. When the four kings of Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of England, an English rVironicler re- marked, "Never were men of ruder manners"; but neither the silken array and golden glitter of Richard's peripatetic court nor the brave display of his thousand knights and thirty thousand archers filled them with longing for the one or fear of the other. They went back to their Irish hills and plains and fastnesses as obstinately Irish as ever. They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined against them. II. — ^The Fighting Race Abroad. We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they ha4 shed so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, THE FIGHTING RACE 121 at Aughrim, at Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to Ireland, demanded Irish troops in re- turn. The transports that brought the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William. The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry^ his chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember that the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and was strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500 killed and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of Limerick. The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, backed by Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed home after William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred the crowning disasters of the war, but in any other country or with any other people than the English the terms of capitula- tion at Limerick, which were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's respect for a brave and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an era of peace. The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the fact that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service with France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which by the irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very day after the signing of the treaty of Limerick, Never in the whole course of the his- tory of nations has more hideous treachery been shown than in the immediate breaking of that treaty ; and dearly has Eng- land paid for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that followed, Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with her trade ruined, her lands stolen, her religion per- 122 TH^ GLORIES OF IRELAND secuted, and all education and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws. If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be added down to 1792. A French writer estimates the whole Irish contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely suffice. Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the Irish Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to perfection, they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem that later was given to Irish regiments in the service of England. King Louis welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his native soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the Irish Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was a cal- dron of wars of high ambitions. The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen, July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Lux- embourg defeated the English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing 8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in the Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish Royal Regi- ment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader, Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here also fell — saddest loss of all — Patrick Sars- field. Earl of Lucan, brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering soldier and lover of his country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed, it had been shed for Ireland — after such a day! It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men. The two battalions of Bourke and THE FIGHTING RACE 1*3 Dillon were surprised at early morn to learn that the Austrians — and there were Irish officers among them — were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their beds to th« gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It was nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ire- land who had held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their GOO they had lost nearly 350. Small won- der that the honor list that day was long. In Bourke's bat- talion the specially distinguished were Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power, Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon, Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gib- bon, John Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse of 1,000 louis d'or, a pen- sion of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of colonel. So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of the French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Due de Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy, and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was a French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704, when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by ar- tillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they could stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the liver, and captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony cf Cremona fame distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of Ramillies, in which Marlborough 124 THE GLORIES OF IREI^ND with the Dutch defeated the French under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many- battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the en- gagements. Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from Ireland — the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces in Flanders. It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a large German and Dutch auxil- iary, met the French under Marshal Saxe, and in the pres- ence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in Bel- gium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tour- nai, which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley, Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all un- der Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare, afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on both sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to the French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged headlong up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember Limerick and British Faith !" The great English column, already roughly handled by the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before that irre- sistible onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory, but the six Irish regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a single volley as they followed their steel into the English lines. When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in 1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen from the Brigade. Colonel John TH5 FIGHTING RACE 125 O'Sullivan was much relied on by the prince in his extra- ordinary campaign- Sir Thomas Sheridan also distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of Culloden, that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days later a score of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at Inverness. In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds of Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments. Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thir- teen Burkes, and four Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had sol- diers for the world. Don Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of Patrick, Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General Prim was a descen- dant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish soldier in Chile and Peru ; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most distinguished sailors ; and James McKenna its greatest military engineer. The son of O'Higgins was fore- most among those who fought for Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest lieutenants was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland. In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, gen- erals of cavalry, and masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service. O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick, to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish de- scent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, Mc- Guire, O'Kelly, Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole court that day. Emperor Francis I. said : "The more Irish officers in the Aus- 126 TH^ GLORIES OF IREILAND trian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our troops will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and Taaffes were famous. It was the dragoon reg- iment of Count O'Reilly that by a splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at Austerlitz. In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever proud of it. Lieu- tenant General O'Moran also served in America. He was afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Bri- gade" remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in the Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, cry- ing, "Vive le roi!" At the foot of the scaffold a woman, prob- ably Mme. Hebert, also condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dil- lon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God. Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and de- ploring the policies that brought them about, says with great significance : "There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be found everywhere except in Ireland — at Versailles, at St. Ildefonso, in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa. One exile (Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General Wall) became Prime Minister of Spain .... Scattered all over Europe were to be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists, Irish counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St. Leopold, of the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they remained in the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of march- ing regiments or freemen of petty corporations." The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions of the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the West Indies at Grenada and St. Eus- tache, also at Savannah, and under Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving regiments of Ber- wick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the bet- THE LIGHTING RACE 127 ter times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volun- teers of 1782 numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appre- ciable proportion were Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there was another stream of fight- ing emigrants, that which flocked to the standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to be heard thereafter. In the American colonies before the Revolution there wero thousands of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had set- tled in Maryland and Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution in Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Caro- linas they constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic or purely Celtic Irish to America in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the eighteenth century it was large and became continuous — a true drift. Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the English govern- ment with them, and their voices fed the storm of discontent. The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were especially efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies. They had no love for England, for they had ex- perienced in Ireland the tyranny of English law, and they would be more than human if they did not imbue the minds of the American children under their care with their own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The log schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revo- lution. They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the field. The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The Pennsylvania line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland," was almost entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland and Virginia regiments contain a remarkably 128 THg GLORIES O^ IREIon. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by Washington sur- geon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of Charleston, a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South Carolina in recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army. Dr. John McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous phy- sician in his day, became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell is known in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr. William J. McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne of New York had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have been pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any language". One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the United States was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. D!rs. Junius F. L)mch of Florida; Charles McCreery of Ken- tucky ; Hugh McGuire and Hunter McGuire of Virginia ; Mat- thew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James Lynch, Charles J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are men- tioned prominently in the histories of their respective localities as the foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the pioneer physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John Mctoughlin. Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations in their profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire, Daniel E. O'Neill, Charles McBumey, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L. Carroll, Howard A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These and many others of Irish descent have been honored by medical societies as leaders and specialists, while it can be said that no surgeon of the present day has achieved such a world-wide reputation as Dr. John B. Murphy of Chicago. Among ex- perts in medico-legal science, the names of Drs. Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J. O'Sullivan of New York stand out prominently, and among the most noted contributors to medical journals in the United States, and recognized as men of great professional skill and authorities in their respective specialties, have been Drs. F. D. Mooney of St. Louis ; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D. Hanrahan of Rutland; James McCann and James H. McClelland of Pittsburgh ; John A. Murphy and John McCurdy of Cincinnati ; John Keating of Philadelphia; John H. Murphy of St. Paul; John W. C. THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES 215 O'Neal of Gettysburg; and Arthur O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be said that American medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish genius. Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest tele- phone system in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer. Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman; Henry O'Reilly built the first tele- graph line in the United States; and John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company. John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson. Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a few : Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jeffer- son American representative at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal ; and Louis McLane, Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in 1832. In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests in Italy and Japan ; a Kerens in Austria ; an Egan in Chili and another of the same name in Denmark ; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico ; a Sullivan in Santo Domingo ; and an O'Rear in Bolivia. Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of num- erous historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and journalist of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive; McMahon and McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia; O'Callaghan, Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South Carolina; and Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or sons of Irish immi- grants J In the field of American journalism have been many able and forcible writers^^ of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man, founded the New York Mercury in 1775. John Dunlap founded the first daily paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first daily paper in Boston, and Wil- liam Duane edited the Aurora, of Philadelphia in 1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman, founder of the New York Evening Post in 1801, was the son of an Irish rebel of 1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia 216 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND Item; Thomas Gill, the New York Evening Star; Patrick Walsh, the Augusta Chronicle; Joseph Medill, the Chicago Tribune. Henry W. Grady edited the Atlanta Constitution; Michael Dee edited the Detroit Evening News for nearly fifty years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati Gazette; Edward L. Godkin, the New York Evening Post; William Laffan, the New York Sun; and Horace Greeley, the New York Tribune. All of these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pitts- burgh Gazette, O'Neill of the Pittsburgh Despatch, John Keating of Memphis, William D. O'Connor, and many other shining lights of American journalism during the last century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star" in the journalistic firmament ; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war correspondent ; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recog- nized leader of his craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and Mary Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers and writers on ab- struse scientific subjects. In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly; Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley ; Eleanor Donnelly ; M. F. Egan ; T. A. Daly ; and Joseph I. C. Qarke, president of the American Irish Historical Society. To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would be necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession. Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue, William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr, William Con- stable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon of Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago; James Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of San Francisco ; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George Meade, the THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES 217 Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas Dolan of Philadelphia ; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of Baltimore, all these have been leading merchants in their day. Few American financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F. Ryan, and no great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of success upon which stands the com- manding figure of James J. Hill, both sons of Irishmen. The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly, James S. Strana- han, and James A. Farrell, president of the United States Steel Corporation, are household words in business and financial circles. John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775) ; Thomas Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won for this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute; John and Edward Mc- Loughlin of New York, for many years the leading publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were large contributors to charita- ble and educational institutions ; William W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art Gallery at Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five million dollars to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the most noted philanthropists in American history, and the first woman in America to whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman, Margaret Haughery of New Orleans. Jrishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H^O'Rourke, James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad builder ; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John Sullivan, ar noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed thfe Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whastf ability as a constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable service to the United States 218 THZ GLORIES OF IRELAND during the Civil War. Among pioneer ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy from Wexford and Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable ser- vice to the patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine. But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous com- poser, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814 ; Henry Inman, one of the very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of Irish parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came to Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was bom in Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of Vir- ginia ; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculp- tors of modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race have been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists and portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J. Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent. Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick, Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corri- gan, and Keane, all of whom have shed lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis Makemie of Done- gal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in America, while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were James Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness," Thomas Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James McGrady, all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel Finley, President of Princeton College in TH^ IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES 219 1761, was a native of Armagh, and John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the Shenandoah Valley and the first president of Union College (1795), was of "Irish descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western wilderness were McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney, Mc- Gee, and many others of Irish origin. Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General James Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emi- grant from county Down in the year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the "Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names. There are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10 Limericks, 9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so on. Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of promi- nent American families. One of the most ancient of Irish pa- tronymics, McCarthy, is found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive generations descendants of this sept were among the leading families of the communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick, Meade, Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the Canteys, Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers ; and in Maryland, the Carrolls and Dulanys are all descended from successful Irish colonizers. Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish blood, brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the building of the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of Ireland merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them in the pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have withheld from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the never- failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at all times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from their homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an hon- orable part in every upward movement in American life. Tes- timony adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn cannot be called into question, and its perusal 220 THE GLORIES OE IRELAND by those who so amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long vista of the years,, at the very beginning of which they would see Celt and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests. References : The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official docu- ments mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State Histories ; the collections and publications of the following societies ; Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of Pennsyl- vania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.). New York Genea- logical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical Society,. Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols., Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record; Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The TraOe and Improve- ment of Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massa- chusetts from the First Settlement in 1628 imtil 1750 (Salem, 1795) ; Proud: History of Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797- 1798) ; Savage : Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston, 1860-1862) ; Morris (ed.) : The Makers of New York (Philadelphia, 1895); Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The Pioneers of Maine and New Hampshire (Boeton, 1908); Richardson: Side-lights on Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913) ; Spencer: History of the United States; Ramsay: History of the United States; Prendergast: Cromwellian Settlement of IrelaxuL THE IRISH IN CANADA By James J. Walsh, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D. WHEN Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish. After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are numerous Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking in- habitants of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers. Colonel Guy Carleton, born at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard Montgomery, born only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county, were destined to play an important role in the future history of Canada. Montgomery was in command of the Revolutionary Army from the Colo- nies, when it attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had been a trusted friend of General Wolfe, was in command of the Canadian forces. The two men were the lives of their respective commands, and with the death of Montgomery Carleton's victory was assured. Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and dur- ing the trying years of the early British rule of New France and the American Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save Canada for the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man to whom the administration of the government was entrusted had known how to make the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little to retain at least within the bounds of neutrality those among them who might have been able, or who believed themselves able, to ameliorate their lot by making common cause with the insurgent colonies." Shortly after being made governor, Carle- ton went to England and secured the passage of the Quebec Act through the English parliament, which gave the Canadian French assurance that they were to be ruled without oppression by the British Government. Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord Dorchester, became the first governor-general of Canada, being given jurisdiction over Nova Scotia and New Brunswick as well as Upper and Lower Canada, and to him 222 THE GLORIi:S OF IRKLAND more than to any other is due the early loyalty to the British crown in the Dominion. After the army the next important source of Irish popula- tion in Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the United States to the British Dominions in America. There were probably many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the French who left Canada for France when the territory passed over to England. Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev. John Stuart, who had become very well known as a missionary in the Mohawk Valley before the Revolution, and who, though born a Presbyterian, was destined to win the title of the "Father of the Church of England in Upper Canada." When the first Canadian parliament met in December 1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for Gaspe, in Lower Canada, and D'Arcy McGee could boast that henceforward Lower Canada was never without an Irish representative in its legislative councils. When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract settled under his super- intendence now comprises twenty-nine townships in the most prosperous part of Canada. The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall of Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total popula- tion of some thirteen thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics, chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one half of the population was Irish. In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers to Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described as divided into Halifax proper, Irish- town or the southern, and Dutchtown or the northern, suburbs. THK IRISH IN CANADA 223 The inhabitants numbered 3,000, one-third of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men of the city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas Corcoran and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society and Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number of Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763, calling their settle- ment Londonderry. They provided a fortunate refuge for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled from New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They also welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New England States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the American Colonies by Great Brit- ain. Between the more eastern settlers around Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the population of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin. It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in politi- cal emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821 Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was re- turned to the Assembly of the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the declaration on Transubstantia- tion in the oath of office tendered him, and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge Haliburton, better known by his nom de plume of "Sam Slick", in an able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration, and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the declaration. The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish soldiers serving in the British army, many of whom after the war settled down and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted farm lands and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their descendants was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a lieutenant adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir William's father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad supported his mother, worked his way through the med- ical school, saved enough money to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great surgeon. He was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one term with great pres- 224 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND tige under the most trying circumstances. He afterwards be- came a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen Victoria. Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French, and yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It was ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed was Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New Ireland, but the home Government refused to countenance the change. At this time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince Edward was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of the most popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly, knighted while in office. He was a mem- ber of a well known Galway family, and first came to America as secretary to one of the governors. He afterwards became provincial secretary for Lower Canada. Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took place in Europe during the early part of the nine- teenth century. The year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower, Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the pan. As might be ex- pected, there were not a few Irish among the disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to obtain from the British Government except by a demonstra- tion of force. There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact", the lack of anything approaching constitu- tional guarantees in government, and political disabilities on the score of religion. However, most of the Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the government. Sir Richard Bon- nycastle, writing in 1846, said "The Catholic Irish who have been long settled in the country are by no means the worst sub- jects in this transatlantic realm, as I can personally testify, having had the command of large bodies of them during the border troubles of 1837-8. They are all loyal and true." Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself for the loyalty of the Irish Catholic priesthood. THE IRISH IN CANADA 225 One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of 1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the Vindicator, the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded in arousing much feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented the Revolution. O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled at Albany, where he became the historian of New York State. To him, more than to any other, we owe the preservation of the historical materials out of which the early history of the State can be constructed. Rare volumes of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of which for historical purposes he had called special attention, were secured from his library for the Canadian library at Ottawa. Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the popu- lation of Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure on the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part of the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the dreaded typhus, broke out on her ves- sel as on so many others, and more than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the Irish emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In 1912, the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monu- ment to the victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration continued unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the Irish numbered 846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946 Scotch (Hatton, quoted by Davin in The Irishman in Canada). It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than in separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the leading statesmen of these 226 THE GLORIES OE IRELAND Provinces was appointed to be held at Charlottetown, P. E. I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a plan for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America. The British North America Act was passed, and received the royal assent, the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of the Dominion of Canada. Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation and who came to be known as the Fathers of Con- federation were several distinguished Irishmen, Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposi- tion cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commis- sioner to the Paris Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming from beyond the At- lantic." Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation from the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed, was offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the influence which he had wielded for Canadian union. At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has been looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress and development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of the higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their city and province. One of THE IRISH IN CANADA 227 the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian clergy- man of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death : "I feel that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart, in mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh, Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto was erected into an arch- bishopric. Bishop Hogan of Kingston, Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more especially, but always with the larger view of good for the whole commonwealth of Canada. The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada. The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful in winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Cana- dian jurists, editors, and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been among her great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our own time Sir William Kingston among the physicians, Sir Charles Fitzpatrick among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy among the administra- tive financiers arc fine types of Irish character. Davin: The Irishman In Canada (Toronto, 1877) ; McGee: Works; Tracy: The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 190S) ; Walsh; Sir William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (Jan- uary, 1911), Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of tho Amer. Catholic Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229. (10) THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA By Marion Mulhall. I. — From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence. SOUTH AMERICA, although comparatively little known until recent times to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary, the scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The twentieth century will probably see hun- dreds following in the footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant achievements of numerous Irish mei^ and women in that part of the world are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to collect the fragments of histor- ical lore connected with their exploits. This paper will cover three periods : — (1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independ- ence: here the principal actors were maritime explorers, buc- caneers, and mercantile adventurers; (2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek or Roman history. (3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part. It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Se- bastian Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty- five years after the discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of Spain, and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot Major to his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous Admiral Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on April 14, 1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of Queen Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, Septem- ber 26, 1580, she came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have been three Irishmen on this expedition. TH^ IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA 229 Fenton, Merrick, and Ward. Fenton, who was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish squadron between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued by moon- light until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish his- torian adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the ene- my's ships, but refrained because there were several women on board. Lozana in his History mentions a revolution in Paraguay in 1555, which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This revolution was quickly suppressed by the Span- ish viceroy, Yrala, but Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was governor of Guayra. The muti- neers named Colman for their chief, put their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in Mis- iones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual clemency. Lozana describes Colman as a daring, tur- bulent buccaneer. For fifteen years he seems to have played an important part in Guayra ; his subsequent fate is unknown. In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman, established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the Amazon. Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo in March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay. This expedition suffered great hardships. Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River Plate with booty supposed to be worth £600,000 sterling. He sailed from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan Fernandez in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers, who com- manded the Duke, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from 230 THC GLORIES OF IRELAND Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fer- nandez, and found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, Robinson Crusoe, who presented a wild appearance dressed in his goatskins. In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the Lord Clive and the Ambuscade, mounting between them 104 guns, attempted to take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the Spaniards. Having shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected every moment to see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the Lord Clive took fire, and 2G2 per- sons perished. The Spaniards fired upon the poor fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land. Macnamara was seen to sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a Colonia fisherman, who presented it to the British consul at Monte- video. Most of the Irish names still extant in the Argentine provinces, such as Sarsfield, Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived from these captives. Among the descendants of the survivors of Macnamara's expedition may be mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known in Buenos Ayres and for many years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez Sarsfield, and also Governor O'Neill. The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different char- acter, consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off the Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence they proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out for Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the foundation of the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such won- derful development in the following two centuries as to cause Voltaire to admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to be the triumph of humanity." Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddcus Ennis, appears in authority in Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted with the removal lower down to tHE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA 231 Parana of such tribes as refused to become Portuguese sub- jects. Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Prot- estant doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medi- cine, was one of the most successful travellers and mission- aries of the 18th century. Among his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the coast of Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently established by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who prevailed on the young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of his voyages as ship surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill at the latter port, and, there being no hotels, he had the good fortune to enjoy the hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father Mahony, whose name proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the impression made on Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he shortly afterwards was received into the Church and entered as a novice in the College of St. Igna- tius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the first years of his mission- ary career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later on he was despatched by his superior to Patagonia, and his success there during 27 years was almost equal to what has already been mentioned of Father Field in Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and traversed nearly every part of Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's Straits, and as far inland as the Andes. He knew most of the Indian tongues, and by his winning man- ners and knowledge of medicine gained a great influence over the savages. When he published his life and travels, such was the effect of his book upon the king of Spain that he at once ordered surveys and settlements to be made along the Pata- gonian coast, which Father Falkiner represented as exposed to seizure by the first adventurer who should land there. Father Falkiner's book has been translated into French, Ger- man, and Spanish. He returned to England and died at Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the end of the 18th century. In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was aa Irish officer in the Sj)anish array. 232 THE GLORIES OF IRELAND n. — The War o? Independence. Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administra- tion lent a willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the ally of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became moreover the object of England to seize the treasure- ships periodically arriving from the River Plate. Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English squadron under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the following year some Spanish galleons laden with treas- ure at the mouth of the River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr Beresford with a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from Buenos Ayres, and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of that city of 60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a humiliation at first caused among the people was in large measure calmed by the manifesto which the conquering commander issued on the occasion. In the Memoirs of General Belgrano we read : "It grieved me to see my country subjugated in this manner, but I shall alwayj admire the gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in ;)0 daring an enterprise." Beresford was, how- ever, unable to hold his ground, for the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and re-took the city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months' detention he and his brother-officers, among whom was another Irishman, Major Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of this brave general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his little army with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony for 45 days, and had he been properly supported from home the result would in all probability have been vastly diflferent. General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his time. He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered the army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of that island. In 1808 he THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA ZZZ successfully covered the retreat of Sir John Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he de- feated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made Duke of Elvas, and the British government con- ferred on him in 1814 the title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year he was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854. The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of the vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared off Monte- video from England. A month later Lieutenant-General Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who commanded a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent, of the 38th. Whitelock en- deavored, but failed, to retake Buenos Ayres. During the siege a small detr<.chment of Spanish troops under Colonel James Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold their lives dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's request his remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly defended, and his tombstone was visible there until 1818. It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American countries, Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish birth in the critical period preceding the Independence, although Spanish law forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in recognition of gallant services in Spain, in ccmbination with the Duke of Wellington, that General O'Don- c-^hue was made viceroy of Mexico in 1821, but the elevation rf the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already displayed by h'm during twenty years of service in Chile. He was bom at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his wa« 234 THE GLORIES 01? IRELAND cne of the chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O iiiggins was educated at a college in Cadiz. He tiien entered the Spanish engineer corps, and in 17GD was given the command of the commission sent to Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of Osorno, and in 179G was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which he held until his death in 1801. The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who succeeded General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army against the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part in the victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed supreme director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his fitness for the position. But, alas ! it was the misfortune of South. Amer- ica to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude shown towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not sur- prising to find that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately styled, was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take refuge in Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller and Lord Cochrane, in their Me- moirs, give frequent testimony to the honesty and zeal of Ber- nard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 21, 1842. He left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who con- tributed large sums for the patriot army against Spain. Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, dur- ing the War of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher, Co. Tyrone ; his mother be- longed to the ancient Irish sept of O'Reilly, whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick in 1691. General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about 1790. He joined the army of San Martin, and accom- panied that general through the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the Spanish regime and the proclama- tion of San Martin as protector of Peru. On the day (July tn^ IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA 235 S8, 1821) when independence was declared at Lima, the pro- tector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and said, "This is my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state canopy of Pizarro, a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys in processions, he presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is for the gallant comrade who fought so many years by my side in the cause of South America." The inscrip- tion on the canopy, in O'Brien's hand, says that it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey from Spain. Little did the viceroys think that its last owner would be an Irishman. General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General O'Connor went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under General Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor, last king of Ireland, 1186. Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In later years Captain Esmonde was em- ployed by the Peruvian government to report on some pro- posed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he embarked was never more heard of. Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander, Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in a most cruel manner. O'Car- roll had his tongue cut out and was then butchered. Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General Devereux. Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-de- camp to General Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was nephew to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on various missions of great 236 THE GLORIES or IRELAND trust and says "he acquitted himself with great ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British charge d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General Arthur Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important garrison in Peru on the close of the War of Inde- pendence. Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson, "above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co. Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him", and the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have voyaged to many countries ; at one time we find him at Archangel. Brown had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot government offered him com- mand of a squadron to commence hostilities against the Span- ish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters of South America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed out of the port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a campaign, which was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part of the waters of the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen. Captains Seaver and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against Spanish ship- ping in the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign at sea against Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his won- derful skill, courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great naval power of that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war vessels) with his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft. After these great exploits Brown spent some months among the wild scenery of Mayo, so dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos Ayres, devoted himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He died surrounded by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day of his funeral was one of national mourning. His widow erected a monument to his memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the municipality of Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on the Paseo Julio, which so often rang with THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA S37 the plaudits of the people as they welcomed this great Irish- man returning from victory. No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those which commemorate the gallantry and self-devo- tion of the Irish soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In 1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America, to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining operations in Colombia, which country had ap- pointed him envoy extraordinary to various European courts. Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among the last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third of the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26, 1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that hard-fought field. Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara, Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's Memoirs of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most of his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieuten- ant William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant- Colonel S. Collins also served in the struggle for independence. The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents in Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon, MacMurrough, Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, But- ler, O'Shee, who had been exiled or had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's permission to settle in Span- ish America. The descendants of these families are now so intermarried in the country that they have mostly forgotten the language and traditions of their ancestors ; but they occupy high positions in political, legal, and commercial circles. S3S tut CLORIES O^ IRELAND III. — The Period After the Declaration oe Independence. A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825 and 1830, to work in the saladeros, or salt mines, of the Irish merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Arm- strong. Previous to this a few Irish mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813 Bernard Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted himself to science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in the Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became editor of the government paper, Gaceta Mer- cantil, in 1823, and held this post for twenty years ; his death occurred in 1857. There is reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the Agreable in 1807, and died in 1876 at the age of 86. In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the barque Reward in 1829. The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817, occupied the foremost place for half a cen- tury in the commerce of that city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's county, one of whose mem- bers was General Sir John Armstrong, founder of Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of Villa- nueva he became intimately connected with all the leading enterprises of the day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took no part in politics, but interested himself in charities of every kind. In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru from the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing and refining. Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief founders of the sheep farming industry in Argentina, His family claimed descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the great statesman and dra»- matist. Sheridan died at the age of 52, in 1844, and was su We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some genuine poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St. Patrick (d. 461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d. 597), and certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh to the ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the ancient poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render history, genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access and easier to retain by putting them into verse- form ; and it is the names of those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while lyric poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has remained for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo- Norman invasion, the best poet seems to have been Donn- chadh Mor O'Daly (d. 1244). Of later date were Teig Mac- Daire (1570-1652), Teig Dall O'Higinn (d. 1615), and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The new school, which abandoned the old rules and whose inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is represented by caoine (keens or laments), abran (hymns), or aislingi (visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey Keating (d. c. 1650), David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly (c. 1670-c. 1734), John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan (fl. 1750), John O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c. 1790). The greatest of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe O'Sullivan (c. 1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who, in the opinion of his editor. Father Dinneen, is the literary glory 2