THE 
 
 POTATO PLAGUE 
 
 IN IRELAND 
 
 1890 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES MACDONALD 
 
 C3 
 
( 
 
 ■* 
 
 the university 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY * 
 
 
 $ 
 
 i 
 
 From the collection of 
 James Collins, 
 
 Drumcondra, Ireland. I^HM 
 
 Purchased, 1918. 
 
 
 
THE 
 
 POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND 
 
 1890 
 
 BEING 
 
 A SERIES. OE LETTERS CONTRIBUTED TO 
 ‘ THE SCOTSMAN ’ 
 
 GIVING THE RESULTS OF AN EXHAUSTIVE INVESTIGATION 
 ' INTO THE EXTENT OF THE POTATO PLAGUE 
 IN IRELAND IN 1890 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES MACDONALD 
 
 OF THE ‘ FARMING WORLD ’ 
 
 AUTHOR OF ‘FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST;’ 
 JOINT-AUTHOR OF ‘ POLLED CATTLE ’ AND ‘ HEREFORD CATTLE : 
 EDITOR, AND IN GREAT PART AUTHOR, OF THE 
 NEW EDITION OF STEPHENS’ ‘BOOK 
 OF THE FARM,’ ETC., ETC. 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON 
 MDCCCXC 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE, 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3 
 
 OBJECT OF THE INQUIRY, 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND 
 
 I. WEST CORK, 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 ii. west cork — continued , 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 hi. west cork — concluded , 
 
 
 
 
 1$ 
 
 1 
 
 IV. KERRY, TIPPERARY, LIMERICK, AND 
 
 CLARE, 
 
 
 
 
 V. GALWAY, 
 
 
 
 
 2;7 
 
 VI. MAYO, 
 
 
 
 
 al'3 
 
 VII. DONEGAL, . 
 
 
 
 
 
 viii. Donegal — continued , 
 
 
 
 
 t 4 
 
 IX. DONEGAL COTTAGE INDUSTRIES, 
 
 
 
 
 149 
 
 X. THE YEAR’S CROPS, 
 
 
 
 
 1 55 
 
 XL RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION, 
 
 
 
 •I 
 
 60 
 
 XII. THE POTATO FUNGUS, 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
\oZ^,lo 
 
 M \\ 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 In the succeeding article, reprinted from the ‘ Scotsman ' 
 
 of the 9th October 1890, the Editor of that journal has 
 fully explained the objects and scope of the investi- 
 gation which, by his desire, I undertook. When writing 
 
 the dozen letters which record the results of that inves- 
 
 tigation, and which make yp this pamphlet, I had no 
 thought that they would occupy any other form than 
 that for which they w T ere originally intended. They 
 were of set purpose limited in their scope. They deal 
 chiefly with the extent and character of the “ Potato 
 Plague ” ; its probable effect upon the condition of 
 the poor people in the congested districts ; and the un- 
 toward influences which are mainly responsible for its 
 occurrence. Only incidentally has any reference been 
 made to remedial measures, for that phase of the subject 
 lies beyond the objects of the inquiry. 
 
 Thus, feeling that my letters merely, as it were, 
 touched the fringe of a great national question, I was 
 reluctant to believe that they were worthy of republica- 
 tion in a permanent form. Requests for this, however, 
 have come so persistently, and from so many men of 
 
4 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 influence who have at heart the enduring interests of 
 the small farmers of Ireland, that I now readily assent 
 to the desire. 
 
 It is thought that the immediate objects will be best 
 served by the republishing of the letters exactly as they 
 originally appeared, and by themselves. One might 
 naturally feel inclined to enter upon the great question 
 of how the recurrence of distress through the failure 
 of the potato crop on the small farms of Ireland might 
 be most effectually prevented. Obviously, however, this 
 cannot be done in a Prefatory Note. 
 
 I have to thank the proprietors of the ‘ Scotsman , for 
 their consent, readily given, to republish the letters. 
 
 It is perhaps well to explain that, where not otherwise 
 stated, it is the statute not the Irish acre that is meant. 
 
 JAMES MACDONALD. 
 
 Edinburgh, Nov. 1890. 
 
OBJECT OF THE INQUIRY. 
 
 (From an Editorial Article in the ‘ Scotsman ’ of October 9 , 1890 .) 
 
 This morning we publish the first of a series of letters by 
 our Special Agricultural Commissioner on the Potato Disease, 
 or, as he calls it, the Potato Plague, in Ireland. The accounts 
 that have come to this country as to the extent and character 
 of the disease that has afflicted potatoes in Ireland have 
 been so numerous and so diverse, that it has been extremely 
 difficult to discover what is and what is not the truth of the 
 matter. On the one hand, there has been talk of dire famine ; 
 on the other, the disease has been spoken of as of little import- 
 ance. An American Committee, apparently guided mainly by 
 electioneering motives, but trading principally upon the generous 
 sentiments of the people, have proclaimed that Ireland is threat- 
 ened with a dreadful famine. The same sort of talk is heard 
 from the National Leaguers ; though, with all their courage, 
 they scarcely venture to go so far as the American Committee 
 have gone. Obviously, it is most desirable that the exact 
 state of the facts should be known ; and it is in order that 
 they may be known that we have sent to Ireland a Special 
 Commissioner, with instructions to inquire faithfully and 
 impartially into the extent and nature of the disease. 
 
 The trustworthiness of the Commissioner and his ability will 
 not be called in question by any one who knows him. In 
 1877 he did most excellent work for the British public in 
 letters which he wrote from America in reference to the cattle 
 trade there. He had been sent out by us to inquire into the 
 
6 
 
 OBJECT OF THE INQUIRY. 
 
 question, which at that time was of enormous interest to the 
 cattle breeders and feeders in this country ; and he wrote a series 
 of letters, of which it is not too much to say that they formed 
 the basis of much of the future action of Scottish farmers. He 
 is one of the best known authorities on agriculture in this coun- 
 try. He has received several prizes from the Highland and 
 Agricultural Society for essays and descriptive papers which 
 he has written, and he is editing the new edition of Stephens’ 
 ‘ Book of the Farm.’ As a matter of fact, we are entirely 
 ignorant as to what are his views of the political question in 
 Ireland. It is enough for us to know that he is intimately 
 acquainted with agricultural subjects, a most competent author- 
 ity on these subjects — perhaps the most competent authority 
 that could have been secured — and that he is in all respects 
 trustworthy. What the result of his inquiry will be remains 
 to be seen. His letters will be published as he writes them ; 
 that is to say, every fact he states and every experience he 
 describes will be given as he puts them down. It is hoped 
 that in this way the public will receive information upon which 
 it can implicitly rely as to the potato disease in Ireland, the 
 extent of country over which that disease exists, and the 
 amount of injury that it has done or is likely to do. 
 
 It has been thought desirable to say thus much of the let- 
 ters which are to be published, because of their real importance, 
 and because it is necessary that accurate information upon the 
 state of agricultural matters in Ireland should be put before 
 the public. The public will know that the author of the 
 letters is competent and trustworthy, and it cannot but be 
 that what he writes will have great weight and interest for 
 those who desire to know the facts. 
 
THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 I. WEST CORK. 
 
 “Well, before yon start, I have only one thing to say. I 
 want you to tell us the truth — the bare, absolute facts, un- 
 tainted in any way with political feeling. You will conduct 
 the investigation as you think best, and satisfy yourself as 
 to the actual state of matters. I want you to understand 
 that we shall rely implicitly on what you say.” In pursuance 
 of these editorial directions, the “ Special Commissioner” enters 
 upon the investigation with the sole object of acquainting 
 himself with “ the bare, absolute facts,” and of • stating them 
 for publication, so that others may draw such conclusions as 
 may seem to be warranted. 
 
 In the practical work of this inquiry, a beginning was 
 made in the county of Cork. Attention was in the first place 
 directed chiefly to West Cork, which is understood to be one 
 of the most severely disease-stricken parts of the country. 
 In the journey from Cork to Skibbereen, one passes over 
 great diversity of soil and surface. Near the beautiful city 
 of Cork the country undulates abruptly, is conveniently laid 
 off into farms of moderate size, and, comparatively speaking, 
 would seem to be fairly well farmed. Weeds are kept a 
 little more in subjection than in many similar parts of Ire- 
 land, and one can readily see that the fertile soil is made to 
 yield, if not its full increase, at least a very large measure of 
 it. The cereal and hay crops have been well saved. These 
 
8 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 are, on the whole, fairly good, and the roots promise more 
 than an average yield. Yellow turnips predominate, hut 
 mangels grow admirably in this part of the country, and are 
 raised to a considerable extent. 
 
 The potato-fields present a curious appearance. Only a 
 very small portion of the crop has as yet been dug. The 
 tops have almost entirely disappeared, and the drills and 
 lazy-beds — the latter predominate — are now closely covered 
 with coarse weeds. In these circumstances there is only one 
 way of judging of the condition and character of the crop, 
 and that is to have the tubers dug out for inspection. It 
 will thus be readily understood that this investigation has 
 been rather a slow process — somewhat akin, in fact, to a tour 
 of mine-prospecting. Most willing have been the farmers, 
 big and little, to go and dig out the treasures of their potato- 
 plots ; and if the appearance and numbers of these did not 
 always quite tally with the tolerably abundant preliminary 
 remarks, there were always at hand very ample explanations 
 to account for the discrepancies. “ Why, sur, I dug here for 
 hours yesterday, and I could not get what would breakfast 
 my family ; and these, sur, although they may not look dis- 
 ased, are full of water inside when boiled. Indeed, sur, thim 
 are not fit to ate.” It was a poor crop certainly, but by no 
 means an absolute failure — a little over two and a half tons 
 per acre I should say, and only about one in six or seven in 
 the slightest touched with the disease. But the tubers as a 
 rule were small, at least one-half of them not half the usual 
 size. It was easily seen that the crop had been early checked 
 in its growth ; for although the great majority of the tubers 
 were quite sound — that is, quite free from actual disease — 
 they were very far from being properly matured. 
 
 “ When did the disase appear, sur, did you say ? Why, it 
 seemed just to come up with the taters, for the tops got black 
 just as they got green ! ” Obviously enough it was early in 
 the season that the mischief was done here — early in summer, 
 when the weather was wet and cold, and altogether most un- 
 favourable for healthy potato growth. The weather lately has 
 been delightfully fine, dry, warm, and breezy, with a great deal 
 of strong sunshine — just the kind of weather that is detested 
 by the whole tribe of vegetable fungi. And so in this inland 
 
WEST COKK. 
 
 9 
 
 valley in West Cork the Peronospora infestans has lain a van- 
 quished invader for probably a month or more. What he has 
 left unblasted can never be much more than half an average 
 crop, and that of an inferior quality. This would most pro- 
 bably be the general verdict in inland parts here, and as we 
 push on towards Skibbereen we find that the condition of the 
 crop becomes worse. 
 
 The disease has this year been most virulent around the 
 sea-coast. It is generally understood that the poor, rocky 
 country which lies between Skibbereen and the sea, and along 
 the coast here for many miles, has suffered about as badly as 
 any part of Ireland. It was therefore decided that it should 
 be explored as thoroughly as possible. A “ poor, rocky 
 country ” this assuredly is. Bare rocks rise up in irregular 
 masses all around, hiding the many patches of arable land 
 which the inhabitants have contrived to form in the little ill- 
 shaped hollows. Such heather as grows is short and stunted, 
 and the rough pasture is of a very poor description. Soil is 
 the great want. The climate is exceptionally favourable for 
 the growth of most farm crops. There is little snow or frost, 
 but a great deal of rain. Mangels and turnips grow very 
 well indeed. On little patches of ground, usually egg-shaped, 
 often not more than 15 to 20 yards long and one-third as 
 broad, and hedged in by bare or heather-clad rocks, we have 
 seen here crops of globe mangels that would not discredit a 
 well - managed farm in the southern counties of England. 
 The tillage work is done almost entirely by hand labour ; and 
 it is a pleasure to say that, on the whole, the little holdings 
 we saw in this district are worked with care and thoroughness 
 which larger farmers in much better farmed parts of Ireland 
 might copy with no small advantage. Occasionally, indeed, 
 we came upon a holding that was a treat to see, with every 
 square yard that would carry a crop of any kind contributing 
 its full quota to the support of the by no means small family 
 which the holding had to maintain. On the other hand, the 
 “ whole truth ” would not be told unless it were stated that 
 the small farmers on the rocky heights of West Cork are not 
 all model farmers, any more than are all the large farmers in 
 the golden vale of Tipperary. 
 
 In the Union of Skibbereen there are in all 3026 holdings 
 
10 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 — 144 not exceeding 1 acre, 149 above 1 and not exceeding 
 5 acres, 491 above 5 and not exceeding 15 acres, 816 above 
 15 and not exceeding 30 acres, 766 above 30 and not ex- 
 ceeding 50 acres, 519 above 50 and not exceeding 100 acres, 
 and only 141 over 100 acres in extent. Amongst these 
 there were last year only 21,511 acres under “crops, in- 
 cluding meadow and clover” — an average of about 7 acres, 
 with natural grass extending to nearly 64,000 acres. The 
 predominant position which the potato crop holds on the 
 small farms in Ireland is well shown by this Union. Last 
 year there were here 4996 acres of potatoes, while all the 
 other kinds of crops (exclusive of grass) put together extended 
 to only 8457 acres. Potatoes and oats occupy nearly equal 
 areas; wheat about 1400 acres, turnips 1500 acres, and 
 mangels 500 acres. The oats grown are nearly all of the 
 black variety, and are grown for sale as animal food, or fed to 
 cows on the holdings. No oats are grown for milling, and 
 oatmeal finds no place in the dietary of the farmers and their 
 families. Small quantities of wheat are said to be ground 
 and used along with bought flour in home-made bread. Eye- 
 grass and clover are sown to a small extent on the majority of 
 the holdings. 
 
 It will be seen that the extent of potatoes exceeds an 
 average of an acre and a half to each holding. In very few 
 cases is the extent of potatoes less than half an acre, and on 
 many of the farms it exceeds three acres — all, it may be said, 
 grown for consumption on the holding, chiefly, of course, by 
 the farmer and his family, but also to a large extent by pigs, 
 and to a smaller extent by cows. The average produce of 
 potatoes, even in a good year, would scarcely satisfy a Lothian 
 farmer. It seldom exceeds 3J tons per acre. It is estimated 
 that in the Skibbereen Union last year’s crop of potatoes 
 yielded about 17,000 tons — a little more than half a ton per 
 head for every man, woman, and child in the Union. “Oh 
 yes, sur, we live entoirely on the pratie, and what will become 
 of us without it at all, at all — myself, my wife, and my 
 family, my family of eight, sur ? ” “ Have you no cows ? ” 
 
 “Only one, sur, and two -three little pigs, sur. Shure we 
 will be very ill off this year.” The father of this “ family of 
 eight ” holds a very poor exposed farm of hardly five acres, 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 11 
 
 and his half Irish acre of “ praties ” will not yield him half 
 a ton of eatable potatoes this year. 
 
 Here the question will very naturally arise, Has the Skib- 
 bereen farmer nothing else than the “ pratie ” to depend on 
 for his daily food ? Referring to the official agricultural 
 statistics, we find that in the Skibbereen Union there were 
 last year 29,367 cattle, of which just about one-half were 
 cows. There were thus very nearly an average of five cows to 
 each holding, and it is well known that there are few even of 
 the very smallest holdings on which that most useful adjunct 
 to a family, the cow, is not to be found. And it should be 
 stated here that we were quite surprised to find so good a class 
 of cattle in this very poor district. They are mostly of the 
 shorthorn type, not big but well shaped, and of a thoroughly 
 profitable and thriving kind. The great majority of the cows 
 are quite capable, we should say, of producing bullocks good 
 enough to fatten even into prime Aberdeen “ beeves.” Well 
 cared for they are also, and most of them seem to be fairly 
 good milkers. 
 
 Few sheep are kept here, only about one sheep — and it is 
 not a good one — for every cow. There are very nearly as 
 many pigs as sheep, and, upon the whole, they are of a better 
 class, sometimes well cared for, but often, like other rent- 
 payers, not very kindly treated. The feathered stock has a 
 fair share of attention. It is estimated that there is an aver- 
 age of over 30 head of poultry to every holding in the Union 
 of Skibbereen. Turkeys and geese are raised for sale in large 
 numbers, and help to make up the rent on many a poor hold- 
 ing. The very small extent to which horse labour is relied 
 upon will be gathered from the fact that last year there were 
 only 2488 horses used for agricultural purposes in the Skib- 
 bereen Union — not equal to one for each holding. There 
 are a good many donkeys, but these most useful creatures 
 are not employed nearly so extensively here as in County 
 Kerry. We found fewer goats than we expected — fewer goats 
 and a greater number of cows. The holders who cannot keep 
 a cow have at least one goat, some of them two or three. 
 
 These facts and figures will help the reader to understand 
 the circumstances of the small farmers, who are chiefly affected 
 by the visitation of the potato disease, and to better estimate 
 
12 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 the importance of the information we may be able to obtain 
 as to the actual extent, of the disease. 
 
 II. WEST COBK — continued. 
 
 Having conveyed some idea of the holdings and stocking 
 of the small farmers in the Skibbereen district of West Cork 
 — and the conditions here fairly well represent a large stretch 
 of the country along the seaboard in this county — I shall now 
 confine my attention more closely to the subject of the potato 
 disease. I have personally inspected a large number of hold- 
 ings, studded over a wide stretch of country, mostly within 
 eight miles of the sea-coast, the majority of them close to the 
 ocean, where the blight was first observed, and where I have 
 found its ravages to be the most severe. I will speak with 
 decision only of such cases as I have thus inspected ; for I 
 have invariably found the hearsay evidence so contradictory 
 and, where I have been able to test it by personal investiga- 
 tion and ocular demonstration, so utterly untrustworthy, that 
 I cannot safely be guided by it. 
 
 In this district, then, I have found the crop very bad in- 
 deed. It is not by any means an entire failure. It is not 
 nearly so bad as I was told, on what seemed good authority, 
 I should find it. The disease has been general throughout 
 this district, but it has not been uniformly destructive. I 
 have seen several holdings on which it has rendered the crop 
 a “ total failure ” as far as human food is concerned ; and I 
 have seen a good many others where only a fraction of the 
 crop — perhaps a third, a fourth, or a fifth — has been so injured 
 as to be unfit for consumption by the people. 
 
 The course of the disease here has been somewhat curious. 
 It appeared phenomenally early, and has injured the crop 
 mainly by the havoc it played with the leaves and stems. 
 The summer from the very outset was wet and cold, and the 
 potato plants, as soon as they came above ground, were swept 
 by unwholesome blasts from the Atlantic. I was assured that 
 “ the blight” appeared on the young potato-shoots down by 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 13 
 
 the seaside here as early as the 14th of May, and that by the 
 middle of July the disease was quite general, and the tops 
 blighted everywhere within a few miles of the coast. The 
 tops have almost entirely rotted away, so that in some cases 
 it is only by close inspection that one could ascertain that 
 potatoes had been grown there this season. With this early 
 blighting of the tops anything like an average yield was out 
 of the question. It is a moot point, I think, whether all this 
 early mischief had been done by the fungus Peronospora in- 
 festans. Most likely the Peziza postuma has likewise had a 
 hand in the catastrophe. Tor it is an earlier riser than the 
 former, and its peculiar habit is to destroy the leaves before 
 the crop has had time to attain anything like full growth. 
 And there is no doubt that the unfavourable climatic condi- 
 tions anticipated and paved the way for the fungoid visitation, 
 which here at least some authorities would regard, not as the 
 primary cause, but rather as the effect, the outcome of the 
 injury which the crop had already sustained. I shall not 
 attempt to give a deliverance upon these scientific points, 
 further than to say that if the mischief here be the handi- 
 work of what is commonly known as the potato disease — the 
 fungus Peronos'pora infestans — I have never before known the 
 fungus to behave exactly as it has done in this instance. 
 
 When I saw the condition of the potato-tops, I expected to 
 find that the majority of such tubers as could be traced at all 
 would be turned up in a rotten mass. Not so, however. The 
 rule has been a crop of about two-thirds an average in bulk 
 of tubers, from one-fifth to one-half of these touched with the 
 disease, barely one-fourth fully grown, and the other three- 
 fourths much under the usual size, and not nearly ripe. The 
 loss is thus due much more largely to the growth of the crop 
 having been prematurely checked than to the actual destruc- 
 tion of tubers by the disease. Only in a few cases have I 
 seen more than a small fraction of the crop so consumed by 
 the disease, so far decayed, as to be quite useless for pig or 
 cattle feeding. The tubers actually diseased are considerably 
 scabbed — not a few of them, of course, far gone with decay ; 
 but in the great majority there is still a substantial amount of 
 useful animal food. 
 
 The worst feature of the crop is the deficiency of mature 
 
14 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 potatoes. Even where there are only faint traces of the germ 
 of the disease having reached the tubers, the great majority 
 of these are so imperfectly grown, and in such a green imma- 
 ture condition, as to be very ill fitted for human food. The 
 formation of starch has made little progress ; and so, when 
 boiled, the potatoes are wet and unpalatable — as unlike the 
 well-matured “ floury ” Champion as any “ tater ” could well 
 be. In the most severely afflicted parts I have seen there is 
 a considerable quantity of sound potatoes, hut they are mostly 
 very small, unripe, and so of inferior quality as human food. 
 To use such potatoes as the sole or principal article of diet 
 would he very undesirable — I should be inclined to say 
 dangerous. They cannot possibly he wholesome, and eaten 
 alone or to excess might have serious results. Indeed there 
 is reason to believe that some deaths have already been caused 
 by too exclusive living on diseased or unripe potatoes. I 
 learned that in this district there has already been a good 
 deal of ill-health, which is attributed to the same cause. But 
 it does not follow that these potatoes are all unfit for use as 
 human food. Assuredly those tainted with disease and the 
 smallest and greenest ones should he fed only to animals ; 
 but the sound and fairly well-grown tubers may safely enough 
 he used by the people if they are carefully cooked and used 
 in moderation, along with other varieties of food. 
 
 The verdict upon this district must therefore be, that while 
 the crop in some cases is almost an entire failure, it is, upon 
 the whole, decidedly better than has been generally reported 
 — very much better than, I believe, those who saw the crop 
 in the month of August could have expected to find it now. 
 I am inclined to think that had the weather continued till 
 now as unfavourable as it was early in the summer, there 
 would scarcely have been a sound potato in all this district. 
 There has lately been a spell of delightfully fine weather, and 
 it has had almost a miraculous effect. It has completely 
 checked the progress of the disease, and has done not a little 
 to improve the quality of such tubers as escaped the fungus. 
 What this fine, dry, June-like weather in September has done 
 for the small farmers of this part of the country can hardly be 
 over-estimated. In very many cases where I believe that 
 otherwise there would not have been an eatable potato, it has 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 15 
 
 left rather more than half an average yield of medium tubers. 
 What this means to these holders and their families will be 
 readily imagined. 
 
 In this part of the country, as over Ireland generally, the 
 Champion is the variety most largely grown. It occupies 
 more than nine-tenths of the entire area of potatoes here, the 
 other varieties grown being Flounders, White Rocks, Skerry 
 Blues, and Scotch Downs. The great bulk of the crop was 
 grown from seed which has been on the same holdings for 
 eight or nine years — from seed imported from Scotland after 
 the visitations of disease in 1879 and 1880. The question 
 therefore naturally arises, Has the outbreak of the disease 
 this year been to any appreciable extent caused or intensified 
 by deterioration of the seed ? This point will be considered 
 more fully later on. Here it will suffice to say that in my 
 wanderings in West Cork I have found little evidence that 
 would support a charge against the seed. The crop has been 
 uniformly sound and good for several years, and last year’s 
 tubers would seem to have been exceptionally robust. Then 
 in several instances I have seen side by side on the same 
 little field the produce of seed taken from Scotland last year, 
 and of seed grown on the same farm for about eight years, 
 and in no case could I discern the slightest advantage to the 
 one over the other. 
 
 Culture and manurial treatment would seem to have had 
 more influence this year than seed. As a rule I have found 
 the crop best, bulkiest, and soundest where the seed was 
 planted comparatively early and the land well manured with 
 farmyard dung — best of all where such treatment was applied 
 to dry land, on a porous subsoil, and of a naturally fertile 
 character. On the other hand, the poorest crops and most 
 disease are seen on poor soils, badly tilled and sparely man- 
 ured, and where the seed was late in being planted. Near 
 the coast a good deal of sea-ware is used as manure for pota- 
 toes, and a share of the blame is laid upon this material, 
 which many assert has a tendency to predispose the crop to 
 the disease. Within sight of the Atlantic, as I have said, 
 were some small fields of good land fairly well tilled, which 
 had been manured with sea-ware, and in which there was not 
 more than one-fourth of an average crop of sound tubers, and 
 
16 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 these were small and immature. But while it is the rule that 
 early planting and liberal dunging have given the best results, 
 I have come across striking exceptions for which no feasible 
 explanations were apparent. 
 
 The lazy -bed system is almost all-prevailing here. Occa- 
 sionally a field in drills is met with, but the disease would 
 seem to -have done as much harm in the one as in the other. 
 Somewhat primitive systems of rotation are followed. Oats 
 or wheat, and sometimes sown grasses, come in between the 
 crops of potatoes. If a field has lain for a few years in 
 sown or natural grasses (and weeds), two successive crops of 
 potatoes are often taken from it, and in favourable seasons 
 the second crop may be better than the first. In this case 
 it is considered a good plan to grow the first crop in lazy- 
 beds and the second in drills. I have endeavoured to ascer- 
 tain whether the crop on new land — land which has not 
 before borne potatoes, or on which they have not been grown 
 for several years — has fared better than on land cropped with 
 them at the usual intervals ; but the results here were so 
 variable that it would not be safe to draw any definite con- 
 clusions from them. Some of the very worst fields I have 
 seen have not before been under potatoes for seven or eight 
 years. On the other hand, I have seen a really good sound 
 crop on new land which had been well dunged, and which 
 lies on a porous subsoil. 
 
 III. WEST CORK —concluded. 
 
 There is little doubt that the seaboard of West Cork has 
 suffered greater loss from the potato blight than the more 
 inland parts of the county. Unquestionably the crop is very 
 poor on many inland holdings, notably on poor land, which 
 gets little manure and imperfect tillage. In the Bantry dis- 
 trict I saw some miserable crops, not half an average in yield, 
 and nearly a third of these unsound. It must be said, how- 
 ever, that, apart from the seaboard districts specially referred 
 to in the last letter, I found the crop in County Cork de- 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 17 
 
 cidedly better than I had been led to expect. The crop “ digs 
 up ” surprisingly well — that is, in view of the weathered ap- 
 pearance of the tops, and the somewhat alarming reports one 
 hears at all hands as to the “ entoire failure ” of the crop It 
 varies greatly even on adjoining farms. On one there may be 
 two-thirds of an average crop of sound tubers, moderately well 
 matured; on its neighbour barely one-third, and this -of very 
 inferior quality. It is only by minute inspection of the 
 potatoes themselves, by digging them out and inspecting them 
 closely, that a trustworthy estimate can be formed as to the 
 actual condition of the crop. 
 
 It may as well be said at once that it is most unsafe to rely 
 either on floating reports or on statements made in response to 
 direct inquiries by many who might be assumed to be well in- 
 formed as to the condition of matters in their respective dis- 
 tricts. I was solemnly assured that in certain districts the 
 “poor farmers have not a single potato they could ate — the 
 ne’er a one but what is black or as small as a marble, sur.” I, 
 of course, made tracks for such parts, and invariably found the 
 crop quite different from what had been represented, — usually 
 from one-third to one-half an average crop of sound, eatable 
 potatoes — often, indeed, more than that. I listened with some 
 amusement to a lively discussion between two constabulary 
 sergeants as to the character of the crop and the extent of the 
 disease in their respective districts. No. 1 considered it “not 
 so bad at all. I get them good quality myself ; and although 
 the crop round about is smaller than last year, there is not 
 many diseased.” No. 2 retorts, “Well, indeed, it is not so in 
 our part [the adjoining district], for there’s ne’er a good potato 
 to be seen. Why, sur,” addressing the writer, “ I daresay 
 you will have seen a potato-field harrowed after the crop has 
 been lifted. Well, sur, I assure you there is no more potatoes 
 up my way this year than you would see after the harrows in 
 that field.” I did not argue the point, but I had been up 
 that very way the day before, and found generally a crop 
 from one-fourth to one-half short of the average, with one 
 tuber in three to one in six or seven touched with the disease. 
 
 I have never happened to see quite so much as this left behind 
 the harrows. 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Nowhere in County Cork have I seen a full average crop 
 in bulk, and nowhere have I seen the tubers fully and evenly 
 developed or all properly ripened. It is a poor crop, quite 
 one-third under the average, and wry slightly affected with 
 disease. This is the worst that can with anything like an 
 approach to the truth be said of the potato crop in County 
 Cork — excluding, of course, the exceptionally unfortunate dis- 
 trict along the seaboard spoken of in last letter, and perhaps 
 one or two smaller spots inland. 
 
 I have said wry slightly affected with disease. This state- 
 ment may probably excite some surprise, for it is at variance 
 with most published reports, as well as with the general tone 
 of conversation. It is, nevertheless, incontrovertibly true. 
 There is a large percentage of the tubers small and of inferior 
 quality ; hut, outside the specially unfortunate district referred 
 to, I have found very few potatoes which exhibit in the very 
 slightest extent the germs of the well-known potato fungus. 
 I account for this somewhat curious and unexpected condition 
 of matters by the occurrence of dry, warm weather, which 
 arrested the disease before its germs had in full force reached 
 the tubers. 
 
 The significance of this point is very great. It justifies 
 one in placing more reliance on the produce that is available 
 than would otherwise he the case. A tuber which contains 
 the germ of the disease will sooner or later give way to its 
 insidious enemy. Immature tubers, if free from the germ of 
 the disease, will improve considerably with careful storing, and 
 he useful either as food for the people or as seed for next 
 year’s crop. The County Cork farmers are, therefore, much 
 better off with their deficient crop, only slightly diseased, than 
 from the blighted condition of the tops the most sanguine 
 could have anticipated, even as recently as the end of August. 
 
 I am not speaking at random. I have taken exceptional 
 care and trouble to arrive at the truth, and it is here faith- 
 fully represented. That this moderate view of the situation 
 is the correct one would be gathered from the course of events 
 in the potato markets, local and general. Prices are every- 
 where much higher than usual, in many cases double or treble 
 the price obtainable twelve months ago, when the supply was 
 in excess of the demand. In the Cork market, excellent 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 19 
 
 Champions, of fair size, and perfectly sound, are being bought 
 at about £4 per ton. In small towns and villages throughout 
 the country a common price is 6d. to 8d. per stone. These 
 prices, to be sure, are high, comparatively speaking, but they 
 are far away from “ famine prices.” In most cases the price 
 has been falling recently, due mainly to the fact gradually be- 
 coming known that the crop, as a rule, is better than was 
 expected it would be. The prices quoted are those given for 
 sound potatoes, the best qualities to be had. 
 
 It is gratifying to be able to say that with the bad crop of 
 potatoes the other crops are, for the most part, tolerably good. 
 Wheat suffered from the excessive rainfall and deficiency of 
 sunshine, so that in many cases the produce of grain from it 
 is unsatisfactory. Oats were bulky, and turnips and mangels 
 are exceptionally good. With the very fine weather lately, 
 these root crops have made wonderful progress. The little 
 extent of hay saved by the small farmers is not of good 
 quality this year ; but this will be counterbalanced by the 
 bulky crops of roots. Many of these farmers sow rye to 
 supply green food for the cows in winter. On some farms 
 this is now coming up in a most promising braird ; on others 
 it is just being sown. The winter here is mild and open, and 
 by Christmas the rye sown now will afford a rank cutting of 
 excellent food for cows giving milk. 
 
 Another point of great importance for the small farmers 
 here is the proximity of an abundant supply of excellent turf 
 or peat. Fuel is to be had in ample quantity by the smallest 
 holder, so that his humble hearth may always be warm. The 
 dripping summer spoiled much of the turf this year, but 
 during the past few weeks a very large quantity has been 
 secured in good condition. In many cases a second supply 
 was cut, and is now being stored. The dwelling-houses of 
 the small farmers are still in many cases far from what could 
 be wished, but in this respect a vast improvement has taken 
 place, and is steadily going on. Very primitive many of 
 these houses are, and it cannot be said that they are always 
 tidy in the interior. With the free access to the family circle 
 enjoyed by the “ porkers,” perfect tidiness is hardly to be 
 expected. As far, however, as the mere matter of comfort 
 is concerned, these small farmers are much better off than the 
 
20 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 casual observer would imagine. It goes without saying that 
 the families are large. Seven, eight, and ten are the general 
 run. Occasionally one comes across a “ baker’s dozen ” ; and 
 at long intervals a family of fifteen or sixteen may be met 
 with. “ Yes,” said my companion the other day, “ that man 
 there, sur, has sixteen children, nearly every one of them 
 twins.” In the most remote parts there is excellent pro- 
 vision in the way of schools ; and in the very poorest parts 
 we visited in County Cork the school children were tidily 
 and comfortably dressed, showing a marked contrast to what 
 we have seen in some other parts of Ireland. 
 
 One thing which impressed me in conversing with the small 
 farmers of County Cork was the wonderfully intelligent con- 
 ception which most of them displayed as to the nature of the 
 potato disease. Hone of them ventured to give it the “ long- 
 nebbit ” name which learned people assign to it. Most of 
 them, however, seemed to have a fairly accurate knowledge 
 of its nature and mode of attack, as well as of the most 
 generally accepted methods of prevention and mitigation. 
 They are all fully impressed with the importance of having 
 fresh, vigorous seed at short intervals. They know that the 
 crop stands less risk of destruction on new or fresh land than 
 on land on which potatoes have been frequently grown. And 
 they are now well aware that there is great risk of the disease 
 being carried from the one year’s crop to that of the next in 
 the crop refuse, such as tops and stray tubers. A most useful 
 series of instructions on these points have lately been issued 
 by the Commissioners of National Education for Ireland, and 
 already they are bearing fruit, even on the rocky heights of 
 West Cork, where I saw small tenants gathering and burning 
 the tops and assorting the tubers, as was wisely advised by 
 the Educational Commissioners. 
 
 The circular containing those directions, which the teachers 
 in national schools were instructed to occasionally read aloud 
 to their agricultural classes, is worthy of reproduction here. 
 There is, unfortunately, potato disease in Scotland as well as 
 in Ireland, and the remedial measures recommended are appli- 
 cable to both countries. The circular runs as follows : — 
 
WEST CORK. 
 
 21 
 
 Potato Disease. 
 
 An attack of potato disease is calculated to do serious injury to the 
 farmer in other ways besides the loss of the crop. 
 
 Decayed and decaying stems, diseased potatoes or old sets, if allowed to 
 remain upon the land, will cause the disease to be kept in the district for 
 years. 
 
 Directions. 
 
 First , At once clear the land of all decaying potato stalks and weeds ; 
 collect them into a heap and burn them. 
 
 Second , Dig out the crop as soon as the growth has ceased, and sort them 
 into badly diseased, partially diseased, and sound lots. Remove the badly 
 diseased potatoes and old sets from the land, and destroy them by burning. 
 Keep a large boiler, pot, or steaming vessel constantly in use, and as the 
 potatoes are dug out boil well those partially diseased. Then, whilst they 
 are hot, pack them in large barrels or other large vessels. Ram them well 
 down, so as to exclude the air, and cover the openings of the vessels with 
 earth. Thus packed the potatoes will keep as food for pigs, &c., for a 
 considerable time. 
 
 Third , Place the sound potatoes in small quantities together, and sprinkle 
 earth amongst them to allow of their becoming mature. Keep them very 
 dry. Remove them, if possible, to another field, away from that in which 
 they grew, or, if they are kept in the latter, dig up some of the subsoil and 
 mix it with the potatoes. Do not cover the potatoes with “ old stalks ” or 
 with the surface-soil of the field in which diseased potatoes had grown. Ex- 
 amine the potatoes occasionally for the purpose of removing such as show 
 signs of disease. 
 
 Fourth, Change of seed is most important. Select seed potatoes from a 
 soil different from that in which they are to be planted, and if possible 
 from a distance. Potatoes grown on peat or moor should be chosen for the 
 ordinary arable soils. Peaty or moory soils should be planted with 
 potatoes from other soils. It is most advisable not to depend altogether 
 upon one variety. 
 
 Fifth, Practise early planting in order that a good growth may be made 
 before the period when the disease appears. Plant potatoes in land 
 naturally dry as early as February, and where circumstances permit plant 
 even in January. Low lands and bog should be laid in ridges during 
 winter for the purpose of drainage and for securing as early as possible a 
 dry seed-bed in spring. Plant all potatoes before they “ sprout ” ; vigour 
 is lost through planting potatoes whose buds have been taken off. 
 
 The small farmers of West Cork look forward to employ- 
 ment on the railway to be constructed to Baltimore. Many 
 of them will, unquestionably, have to procure new seed for 
 next year’s potato crop. They say they are unable to pay 
 for it in cash, but assert that they are ready and willing to 
 earn it by labour, if the opportunity for doing so were 
 
22 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 afforded them. In very few instances have I heard expressed 
 an expectation of, or desire for, absolutely gratuitous relief. 
 The cry is that the Government should provide them with 
 work to enable them to buy food for their families during the 
 winter and spring. 
 
 IY. KERRY, TIPPERARY, LIMERICK, AND CLARE. 
 
 The county of Kerry is in many parts just as poor, from 
 an agricultural point of view, as the poorest of County Cork. 
 Mountain, moor, and bog make up a large extent of Kerry, 
 and on the poorer lands of the county there are a great many 
 small holdings, the tenants of which can never, if they depend 
 entirely on the produce of these holdings, raise themselves 
 very much above the position of providing the daily bread as 
 it is required. There are in this county about 5800 holdings 
 which do not exceed 15 acres each in extent, nearly 1400 
 of one acre or less, and 1600 above one acre and under 5 
 acres. There are nearly 4000 whose area exceeds 15, but 
 does not exceed 30 acres each. 
 
 All these holders, even the very smallest of them, own 
 live stock of some kind. The vast majority of them have 
 one, two, three or more cows, and those who cannot keep a 
 cow own goats and some poultry, both of which contribute in 
 no small degree to the comfort of the family. The extent 
 under potatoes last year was 28,177 acres, or rather more 
 than an average of an acre and a half to every holding in the 
 county. The potato crop is thus one of great importance in 
 Kerry as in most other parts of Ireland, yet the small farmers 
 here have wisely devoted a good deal of attention to cattle 
 and sheep. They derive a substantial share of their living 
 from these, notably from those hardy and thrifty little cows 
 for which the county of Kerry is famous. As showing the 
 extent to which cattle-rearing is carried on in Kerry, it is 
 worthy of mention that last year there were no fewer than 
 99,760 cows, making an average of over five cows for every 
 holding in the county of one acre and upwards. On holdings 
 
KERRY, TIPPERARY, LIMERICK, AND CLARE. 
 
 23 
 
 of 8 to 15 acres it is no uncommon thing to find from five 
 to eight cows. In addition to these cows there were last 
 year over 56,909 cattle over one year old, and about twice 
 as many calves, with about 110,000 sheep and 70,000 pigs. 
 
 Although, in the aggregate, Kerry thus gives a good account 
 of itself as to the material condition of its farmers, there are 
 nevertheless many of its holders so poor that a total failure of 
 the potato crop would throw them into a serious state of pri- 
 vation. The reports, therefore, that in a large extent of this 
 county the potato crop had this year failed entirely or almost 
 so, naturally caused much anxiety. Reports to this effect have 
 been current for some time, and they have been repeated to 
 me time after time in my wanderings throughout the county. 
 I am happy to be able to say, however, that a close inspection 
 of the crop itself does not confirm these alarming rumours. 
 Unfortunately, in many cases the crop is indeed a very poor 
 one. In a few instances it may he called an entire failure, 
 for what little produce there is in these exceptional cases will 
 be of use only for pig-feeding. 
 
 I have personally inspected a very large number of hold- 
 ings in different parts of Kerry, having the potatoes dug out 
 and inspecting them so closely as to count the proportion of 
 tubers touched with the disease. I speak only from the in- 
 formation thus given to me, as it were, by the tubers them- 
 selves. To be guided by the appearance of the tops, or even 
 by a casual glance at the tubers when dug out, would be 
 misleading. The tops were early blighted, and their condi- 
 tion would lead one to expect that the crop was as near as 
 might be if not an entire failure. Indeed it is pretty evident 
 that the blighted condition of the tops is mainly responsible 
 for the alarming reports which have become current as to the 
 character of the crop. Here, as in West Cork, it is only by 
 digging out the tubers and examining them closely that the 
 real character and condition of the crop can be estimated with 
 any reasonable degree of accuracy. 
 
 In the course of such an inspection in Kerry I found that 
 the crop is almost everywhere below the average, but is by no 
 means universally poor. There is, as a rule, from one-half to 
 two-thirds of an average crop — in many cases more, in many 
 cases less. The percentage of tubers actually diseased is 
 
24 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 decidedly less here than in West Cork. It was, indeed, sur- 
 prising to find so few of the tubers touched with the fungus. 
 The tubers, as a rule, are larger and further advanced towards 
 maturity than near the coast in West Cork — just as would be 
 expected from the fact that the tops were not blighted so 
 early here as there. But in Kerry, as in Cork, the tubers 
 generally are small and imperfectly ripened. A considerable 
 proportion is so small and so very green as to be quite unfit 
 for consumption by the people. 
 
 It would be unsafe to make any general statement as to 
 where the crop is best or worst. The results vary in the most 
 curious manner, and have shown clearly that it is only by 
 minute inspection that the heaviest losers can be known. I 
 have, as a rule, found a better crop on new land, or land which 
 had not formerly grown potatoes for several years, than on 
 land frequently put under this crop. I saw really good sound 
 crops on bog land and fresh moory land, and several of the 
 worst crops were on old soil with an inclination to clay. 
 
 I was expressing surprise at the really good appearance of 
 the crop upon medium land on low-lying holdings, and was 
 told that these were favourable exceptions. “ This land, sur, 
 is well done to, it is well farmed and well manured, but if 
 you go back to the poor land on the hills you will see them 
 bad enough ; no potatoes at all, sur.” I went to the hills, in- 
 specting the crop as I proceeded on my journey of fourteen 
 miles. All through the crop was as already indicated — very 
 bad in a few cases, and usually from one-half to two-thirds an 
 average in bulk, with very little disease, but many small im- 
 mature tubers. As I approached the hills it seemed to get 
 better instead of worse, not heavier in the yield, but better 
 grown and ripened, and freer from disease. 
 
 Amongst the small farmers in the bosom of the Macgilli- 
 cuddy Reeks I had a most interesting ramble. Right good 
 farmers some of these are — many of them just as bad as need 
 be, and most of them I found cheerful and contented, with a 
 moderate appearance of comfort, no lack of intelligence, and 
 varying symptoms of industry and thrift. Most willing they 
 all were to go with me and dig out the “ spuds ” ; amusingly 
 ingenious were some of them in their side-efforts to discover 
 the object of my mission. “ Perhaps, sur, you will be a gentle- 
 
KERRY, TIPPERARY, LIMERICK, AND CLARE. 
 
 25 
 
 man from the Government ; will we get any seed this year, 
 do yon think, sur ? ” and on the questions went, interspersed 
 with remarks as to the failure of the potato crop and the 
 difficulties they would have in providing food for their 
 families. 
 
 I was hospitably invited to join at the family dinner of one 
 of these Kerry-mountain farmers, high up on the “ Beeks.” 
 It was a comfortable house of the class, one long room, quite 
 fifteen feet long and ten or eleven wide, with earthen floor and 
 hanging chimney. Chairs with straw-woven bottoms made 
 comfortable seats. In the one corner near the cosy turf- fire 
 was the dinner-table with its plentiful supply of potatoes and 
 milk waiting the hungry family of eight. The opposite corner 
 was the happy hunting-ground of a fine big white sow and 
 her splendid lot of little ones. A very handsome sow she 
 was of the large Yorkshire type, almost good enough for 
 Sanders Spencer himself. And she was as well-mannered as 
 she was handsome, and a good disciplinarian to boot ; for dur- 
 ing the dinner I could not but admire the irreproachable habits 
 of that happy porcine family. The dinner-table was covered 
 with a piece of canvas, and in the centre was turned out, in 
 an inviting heap, a huge potful of well-grown Champions, with 
 their jackets burst just as they ought to be, and as “ floury ” 
 and as well flavoured as the most fastidious Irishman could 
 desire. With these potatoes ad lib ., and a bountiful supply 
 of milk, the rosy children and growing lads and lasses made a 
 hearty meal. The mention of milk will no doubt interest 
 dairy authorities, who are now so plentiful, and who would 
 perhaps like to know something of the dairy management on 
 an average farm on the Kerry mountains. There are eight 
 cows — of the small Kerry breed — in this dairy, and there is 
 an excellent market for the produce. It is all consumed on 
 the premises. Little attention is paid to the system of “ set- 
 ting,” for it is not allowed to sit long. Fastidious dairy author- 
 ities would probably say that, in the circumstances, it is just 
 as well that this should be so. The “ milk-house ” is a 
 spacious cupboard right over the corner assigned to the social 
 sow and her numerous tribe of young ones. 
 
 In the markets throughout Kerry the supply of potatoes is 
 smaller than usual, and prices average about 6d. per stone. 
 
26 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Two or three weeks ago, when it was thought the disease 
 would be worse than it has turned out to be, the price was 
 still higher, by nearly 2d. per stone. In other years 4d. per 
 stone would be considered a good price. Indeed in a good 
 potato year the supply is usually so much in excess of the 
 demand that the local selling price would not nearly pay for 
 the growing of the crop. I was told by some of the larger 
 farmers in Kerry that they cannot now get a sufficient num- 
 ber of labourers to work their land ; and I suppose that one 
 must take the superabundance of weeds everywhere as evi- 
 dence of this. Still the price of labour here is very low, 
 rarely more than Is. per day and food. Fortunately, all the 
 crops, excepting potatoes and wheat, are good this year. Fuel 
 will now also be plentiful, although much of it was damaged 
 by the wet weather in summer. 
 
 Leaving Kerry, and taking tours of inspection through the 
 parts of the counties of Tipperary, Limerick, and Clare reputed 
 to have suffered most from the potato disease, I have found a 
 very similar state of matters — a miserable crop in many cases, 
 nowhere up to the average, and in the great majority of cases 
 from one-half to two-thirds of an average crop, with little 
 actual disease, but many small immature tubers. The entire 
 failure of the crop is a rare exception, and the existence of 
 the disease to any appreciable extent is by no means general. 
 In a large extent of Tipperary the crop is wonderfully good. 
 In Limerick and Clare the deficiency is greater ; yet even in 
 the worst districts of these there is a very much larger supply 
 of sound tubers than was generally expected from the blighted 
 condition of the tops and the alarming reports which had 
 obtained currency. There was a plentiful supply of really 
 good Champions in Ennis market the other day, and 6d. per 
 stone purchased the best. 
 
 In the extensive range of country which I have now gone 
 over nothing has impressed me more sadly than the dreadful 
 waste incurred by the apparently unheeded growth of weeds. 
 Farms on which weeds would seem to be systematically and 
 persistently cut down are rare exceptions, as rare on rich lands 
 as on poor. Fine old grass-land is as much neglected in this 
 respect as the very poorest ; and tillage land is little or no 
 better. The potato fields and patches are, as a rule, one thick 
 
GALWAY. 
 
 27 
 
 mass of rank weeds. The early blighting of the potato-tops 
 has, of course, given freer play to the weeds, so that I have 
 seen the land at its worst in this respect. With all due 
 allowance for this, however, it is undeniable — it is all too 
 clearly obvious — that the grossest of neglect prevails as to the 
 cleaning of the land. 
 
 Y. GALWAY. 
 
 The county of Galway contains a very large number of small 
 holdings — no fewer than 18,500 — whose extent does not 
 exceed fifteen acres each. There are of these about 1700 
 of one acre or less, and about 4300 over one acre, and not 
 exceeding five acres in extent. Then, between fifteen and 
 thirty acres in extent there are as many as 8800 holdings. 
 The extent under potatoes in this county last year was about 
 43,251 acres, or an average of nearly an acre and a quarter 
 for each holding. The oat crop covered a similar area, and 
 between the two they occupied more than three-fourths of the 
 entire extent put under sown crops of all kinds. There was 
 an average of about one-third of an acre of turnips for 
 every holding, big and little, and about one-sixth of an acre 
 of wheat, with about the same area of sown grasses as 
 turnips. 
 
 The past summer here was excessively wet and cold. The 
 wheat crop, which is grown chiefly for grinding into flour for 
 home consumption, was a poor one. The crop of oats, how- 
 ever, was far above the average, quite the best crop of oats 
 that has been grown here for many years. There was not 
 only an exceptionally heavy yield of straw, but also, as a 
 rule, much more than an average return of grain. A large 
 proportion of white oats is grown in this county, so that the 
 fine crop of oats will be of great advantage to the small 
 farmers. 
 
 As to the potato crop, I have found it extremely variable 
 in this county, more so than in any other part of Ireland 
 which I have as yet visited. Even in the worst districts 
 here the reports are a trifle overdrawn. It is only in excep- 
 
28 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 tional cases in which the crop could he said to have failed 
 entirely, but these unfortunate exceptions are proportionately 
 more numerous than in any of the other counties I have yet 
 visited. 
 
 The outbreak of the disease has been extremely virulent in 
 several parts of Galway. I have seen a very large number 
 of holdings here on which from one-third to two-thirds of the 
 entire produce, deficient as it is, is far gone with decay, many 
 of the tubers turning up in a mass of rottenness. But, 
 happily, this regrettable state of matters is by no means 
 general. It is the exception, not the rule. 
 
 With such great variety in the results it is not easy, it 
 would probably be unsafe, to attempt any general estimate 
 of the character and production of the crop over the country 
 as a whole. Very rarely, indeed, have I seen anything better 
 than two-thirds of an average crop of sound potatoes. In 
 the large majority of cases the produce of sound tubers which 
 I have seen dug up would range from two-fifths to three-fifths 
 of an average crop. Here, as in most other parts of Ireland, 
 many of the tubers are very small, and, of course, far from 
 ripe. They are, as a rule, of very bad quality for eating, and 
 a great proportion is so wet and green as to be quite unfit 
 for use as human food. 
 
 The course of the disease here has been unusually curious 
 and erratic. The crop is, on the whole, poorer on the sea- 
 coast than inland, but I have seen more actual destruction 
 by the fungus in the interior than near the sea. One of the 
 worst fields I have seen this season was a field of very rich 
 old land, deep loam, with a tendency to clay. It is in the 
 hands of its owner, and is in the highest state of fertility and 
 cultivation. The crop of champions, grown from fresh seed 
 put in in good time in well-tilled and well-cleaned lazy-beds, 
 is practically a complete failure. The tops were blighted 
 early in July, and now there is not more than one sound 
 tuber where there would have been twenty or thirty in an 
 average year ; the others which formed at all having been 
 entirely consumed by the fungus. This field is hedged in by 
 high trees on all sides, and it is more than probable that 
 the serious havoc made by the fungus here is mainly due to 
 the want of ventilation. It is well known that the fungus 
 
GALWAY. 
 
 29 
 
 delights in close, low-sheltered spots, where fresh breezes can 
 have little access. It is an ideal hunting-ground this for the 
 Peronospora infestans, and it has bagged nearly all the game 
 within its reach. 
 
 On higher ground, almost adjoining this field, much poorer 
 in condition, but exposed to fresh air, the crop, although about 
 one-third deficient in number and size, is comparatively free 
 from disease. High up, on an exceptionally exposed field of 
 moderate land in this very locality, the crop is not very far 
 short of the average. On another field in this part also I 
 found three-fourths of a small crop one mass of rottenness. 
 This field, too, had been comparatively well tilled, and it had 
 a free exposure to the four winds of heaven. It was the 
 second successive crop of potatoes, however, and probably this 
 explains the exceptional extent of the destruction by the 
 disease. As a rule, I have found the best crops, those freest 
 from disease, on bog land and on land which had not for 
 many years before grown potatoes. On the poorer lands here, 
 where little dung or manure could be given, the crop is, as a 
 rule, very deficient, in many cases not more than one-fourth 
 or one-third of an average crop of sound tubers. 
 
 But that the crop should, as a rule, be a poor one, could 
 not, I think, surprise any one who observes closely the con- 
 ditions under which the potatoes are here grown. The wonder, 
 indeed, is not that the crop is deficient, but that there should 
 be any crop at all in such an inclement summer as the past, 
 and under such deplorably unfavourable conditions of culture 
 as are manifested here in the great majority of cases. The 
 system of rotation is not what it ought to be, potatoes recur- 
 ring on the same land far too frequently. But the greatest 
 defect of all is in the tillage, or rather in the want of tillage. 
 Little or no attempt would seem to be made to keep weeds 
 in subjection, and with the accumulated seeding of these for 
 many years the potato land is now a perfect forest of weeds. 
 In some cases, rank coarse weeds abound, and in others thick 
 creeping plants which cover the surface almost as closely as an 
 old meadow. I do not forget that the early blighting of the 
 potato -tops gave the weeds exceptional freedom of growth 
 this year. Nevertheless, it is obvious enough to a practical 
 man that the land in these small holdings is literally one mass 
 
30 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 of filth, the greater portion of which might be eradicated by 
 timely and persistent labour. “ Weeds, did you say, sur ? 
 Why, these worn-out lands will grow nothing else. The poor 
 people would do nothing else all summer if they kept down 
 the weeds.” “ You may tell that to the marines, my man ; 
 the land that grows that splendid crop of weeds would grow 
 useful produce if it got the chance.” 
 
 Moreover, the land is not only choked with weeds, but is 
 neither drained nor dug as it ought to be. That the potato 
 should give any increase at all, or be able even to reproduce 
 itself under such unkindly conditions, is nothing less than 
 surprising, especially to those who are accustomed to find it 
 profitable to raise up potatoes with almost all the care a good 
 gardener bestows upon his onion-bed. Nature is amazingly 
 tolerant of man’s abuse. It does rebel occasionally, however, 
 and the wonder is, not that the Irish potato crop should fail 
 now and again, but rather that it does not do so much more 
 frequently than has been the case. 
 
 But bad as is the crop in many parts of Galway, it is not 
 nearly so deficient over the county as a whole as has been 
 represented. There is in most parts a tolerably large supply 
 of potatoes which, although of inferior quality, may safely 
 be eaten if judiciously and carefully cooked. There is also 
 a considerable portion of the crop sound enough to be used 
 as seed, if the tubers are now sorted and carefully stored. 
 Undoubtedly, however, a change of seed would be very desir- 
 able for next year. The Champion is the all-prevailing potato 
 here also, and most of the seed has been on the farms for 
 from four to eight years. Very good potatoes either for seed 
 or consumption can now be purchased in Galway at from 
 4 id. to 6d. per stone. 
 
 The people of Galway are greatly delighted with the grant 
 of £180,000 to construct a railway from the town of Galway 
 to Clifden, on the west coast of Connemara. The engineers 
 are now pegging off the line, and the work of construction is 
 to be begun soon after Christmas. It is expected that two 
 years will be required for the making of the line, and care 
 will be taken to give the people of the county the preference 
 in the labour required. With this extra labour in prospect, 
 the small farmers are, as a rule, in fairly good spirits. Many 
 
GALWAY. 
 
 31 
 
 of them may add largely to their usual incomes by working 
 on the railway while it is being made, and it is quite ex- 
 pected that the material prosperity of the country through 
 which it passes will be greatly promoted by the line when it 
 is completed. 
 
 Those who have known the county of Galway well for 
 twenty or thirty years have interesting experiences to relate 
 as to the changes in the habits and conditions of the people. 
 That there has been a marked improvement in the material 
 condition of the people is the universal verdict. Their houses 
 are much more comfortable, the people are better educated, 
 have a greatly improved stock of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and 
 are receiving more assistance from their friends in America. 
 They are altogether more civilised, and live in a higher scale 
 of comfort. 
 
 It would not be claimed that all the changes in the modes 
 of living on these small Galway farms have been changes for 
 the better. I daresay Galway has been pretty much like the 
 rest of the world in this respect. With the advance of edu- 
 cation, and the general spread of civilisation, comes unavoid- 
 ably a rather more costly scale of living. A few of the more 
 common luxuries of modern life have undoubtedly obtained a 
 stronger footing in those poor farming communities than for- 
 merly, and are still probably on the increase. Licences for 
 the sale of spirituous liquors are now very numerous ; but I 
 have no evidence to show whether or not the residenters here 
 spend more money on whisky and porter than the rest of their 
 countrymen. The licences cost about £5 or upwards each per 
 annum, and it may be assumed that they are not taken out 
 by their holders for philanthropic reasons. If all these 
 licensed houses are conducted at a profit, it is tolerably clear 
 that in the course of the twelve months the small farmers 
 of Galway must melt a good deal of hard cash in spirituous 
 liquor. 
 
 I can speak with more confidence as to the use of the 
 “ noxious weed.” Smoking is, I should say, the pet luxury 
 of the small farmers of Ireland. They have the pipe in the 
 mouth at all hours, and by almost every grown-up man from 
 sixpence to ninepence per week is thus blown away in smoke 
 — making an outlay on many small holdings of from Is. to 
 
32 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 2s. per week for tobacco alone. Naturally enough, the female 
 members of the family have little sympathy with this in- 
 dulgence, and I am inclined to think, from side remarks made 
 to me, that strike organisers would have little difficulty in 
 arraying the wives and daughters of the small farmers of 
 Ireland in a powerful crusade against the “ weed.” What 
 measure of success would be attained is doubtful ; for I was 
 solemnly assured by one worthy woman — a sworn enemy to 
 the pipe sure enough — that many a farmer would rather want 
 his meal than his tobacco. 
 
 The potato is still the staple article of diet with the people 
 on these small farms, but as a rule they do not live on it any- 
 thing like so extensively as in bygone times. They now use 
 a great deal of tea and sugar, and for the more solid material 
 they depend to a large and steadily growing extent upon flour. 
 What little wheat they grow themselves is ground into flour 
 for home use, and this is supplemented by very large quan- 
 tities of American flour. This latter is usually very dear in 
 these out-of-the-way parts. Tor ready cash the price is now 
 about 25 s. or 26 s. per sack of sixteen stones, and if sold out 
 in single stones it runs up, perhaps, to Is. lOd. per stone. 
 Very little oatmeal is consumed by the people here. It is 
 disliked by most of them. Milk is tolerably plentiful, and a 
 large stock of poultry is kept. 
 
 A very large extent of Galway is ill fitted for agriculture. 
 The rock comes near to the surface, which is studded, and in 
 some parts almost entirely covered, with huge boulders. A 
 vast area consists of barren moor and bog, and even on these 
 many small farmers are struggling to earn a living for them- 
 selves and their families. Fuel is everywhere abundant, and 
 many of the small holders add a few shillings to their in- 
 comes by carting turf into Galway and other places for sale. 
 
 The stock of cattle in Galway is of a fairly good class, 
 but comparatively small in numbers. There are only about 
 44,000 milch-cows in the entire county, not a great number 
 amongst 33,000 holdings. Most of the young cattle are 
 reared till they are one or two years old. The cattle are, as 
 a rule, of a useful mixed - bred class, with the shorthorn 
 element prevailing. Good pure-bred bulls are much wanted 
 here, and these would materially increase the income of the 
 
MAYO. 
 
 33 
 
 small farmers. A very large stock of sheep is maintained in 
 Galway, in all about 589,000. Not a few of these belong to 
 small farmers, and they are, as a rule, of a fairly good class, 
 mostly of the Eoscornmon character. 
 
 There is comparatively less pig-rearing than in some other 
 counties. The pigs of all ages would not much exceed an 
 average of two to each holding. There are few goats, about 
 19,000 asses and mules, and only about 30,000 horses of all 
 sorts and ages — not one for each holding. It is thus obvious 
 that the spade plays an important part in the agriculture of 
 Galway. 
 
 VI. MAYO. 
 
 In a journey from the county town of Galway to the 
 smaller and thriving, but not over-cleanly, town of Swinford, 
 in Mayo, one passes through an extensive and ever-varying 
 range of country. There is not a little of the land of excel- 
 lent quality for agricultural purposes. The greater portion of 
 this, as well as of the medium soils, lies under permanent pas- 
 ture, and carries a moderate stocking of well-bred cattle, and 
 a sprinkling of sheep of an equally good character. A large 
 tillage farm is an exception here, although on every farm 
 there is a certain extent under tillage, worked in a manner 
 which one scarcely feels justified in describing as invariably 
 advanced and thorough. But a great proportion of the 
 earth’s surface in this region of the Green Isle is exceedingly 
 ill fitted for agricultural purposes. Bog, moor, rock, and 
 boulder abound on all hands, giving the country a non- 
 inviting appearance to the enterprising farmer. The eye was 
 more particularly upon the potato crop, however, and at vari- 
 ous points of this journey I had an opportunity of seeing the 
 produce dug out. The results vary greatly, but on the whole 
 the produce is not so very bad — considerably better than had 
 evidently been expected a month or six weeks ago. Much 
 rottenness is a rare exception ; small immature tubers the 
 rule. 
 
 c 
 
34 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Swinford was the centre of my “ mining operations ” in 
 Mayo. I have examined the crop in this district in a most 
 laborious and painstaking manner. I have walked over a 
 very large number of the small holdings here, have seen the 
 potatoes dug out, have examined the soil, noted the cereal and 
 root crops grown, the system of working the land, the live 
 stock kept, and the general outward conditions of the occu- 
 pants of the farms. The intercourse with these small Mayo 
 farmers has been most agreeable and interesting to me. They 
 have been frank and friendly, have given me the fullest op- 
 portunities of seeing their little holdings and modest home- 
 steads, and have discussed their position and prospects with 
 marked intelligence and with more cheerfulness than I had 
 expected to find. It is understood that the Swinford district 
 is one of the most severely congested districts in the West of 
 Ireland, and the reports circulated as to the potato crop here 
 have been exceedingly alarming. For these reasons I have 
 made my personal investigation of the potato crop in this 
 part of the country exceptionally extensive and thorough. 
 
 That the Swinford district is seriously congested will be 
 obvious to the most casual observer. Originally the surface 
 must have consisted chiefly of bog, moor, solid rock, and loose 
 boulders. Over the land the small homesteads are now 
 studded thickly, often in groups, sometimes singly, and occa- 
 sionally in couples. As a rule, the holdings, as well as the 
 separate fields, are fairly well laid off, — a characteristic feature 
 being massive fences of stone walls, made thick and high, to 
 hold the many stones dug out of the cultivated land. The 
 dwelling-houses are small and primitive-looking, but as a rule 
 they are tolerably comfortable. With whitewashed walls and 
 straw-thatched roof, many of these humble dwellings have 
 indeed quite a smart appearance in the rather sombre land- 
 scape in which they are placed. Some of them have small 
 gardens, stocked chiefly with cabbages and onions. In rare 
 instances is there any attempt to brighten the home by the 
 cultivation of flowers. 
 
 The entire arable area of Swinford Union does not exceed 
 32,000 acres, yet it contains no fewer than 7753 holdings of 
 1 acre or upwards. Of these holdings, about 4700 do not ex- 
 ceed 15 acres each, 138 do not exceed 1 acre, and 518 are 
 
MAYO. 
 
 35 
 
 over 1 and not over 5 acres each. Then there are 2433 
 holdings over 15 and not exceeding 30 acres, 424 between 
 30 and 50 acres, 125 between 50 and 100 acres, 45 be- 
 tween 100 and 200 acres, 13 between 200 and 500, and 
 only one holding over 500 acres in extent. All kinds of sown 
 crops, including meadow and clover, covered only 31,591 acres 
 last year; but there were in addition 77,400 acres in grass— 
 partly two or three years’ old lea, and partly old grass. There 
 are barely 500 acres of trees in the entire Union, which ex- 
 tends to 151,494 acres. The population of the Union is about 
 52,000, and its valuation last year was only about £41,000. 
 The assessment for the relief of the poor amounts to about 
 4s. in the £, and it would seem that the Union is in debt. 
 
 After the potato failure in 1879, new seed to the cost of 
 £27,000 was advanced from the Treasury to the small farmers 
 of this Union. The price was £12 per ton; and I under- 
 stand that about £21,000 of the original sum has now been 
 repaid by the farmers. Again, in the spring and summer of 
 1886, the inhabitants were in great want, and were main- 
 tained for several months almost entirely on charity. It is 
 evident that the great majority of the holdings here have been 
 subdivided to provide each son as he married with a separate 
 home of his own ; and it is in this way that the congestion 
 has arisen. The rents here run from about £3 to £4 for the 
 great bulk of the holdings under 15 acres, and it would seem 
 that, on the whole, good feeling exists between landlord and 
 tenant in this district. J udicial rents have been fixed in most 
 cases without the aid of the Land Court. 
 
 It is thus apparent that the failure of the crops here would 
 be followed by very grave consequences. Happily, however, 
 the crops this year are by no means so poor as they have been 
 represented to be. I was led to understand that the potato 
 crop in Swinford was an utter failure. I have not found this 
 to be the case. I have been over several holdings on which 
 the produce is so deficient and so ill-matured that it must be 
 regarded in these cases as practically a failure. These, how- 
 ever, are exceptions. Upon the whole, I have found the crop 
 just about as good here as in Kerry and in the inland parts of 
 West Cork, and better than in many parts of Galway and the 
 seaboard of West Cork. There is comparatively little disease ; 
 
36 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 in some cases one diseased tuber in four or five, — as a rule, 
 one in ten or fifteen. I have examined a dozen fields in suc- 
 cession here without finding more than the merest traces of 
 disease in the tubers. The loss, as in most other parts, arises 
 from deficiency of produce rather than from destruction by 
 disease. The majority of the tubers are small and green, and 
 the whole crop is of inferior quality as food for the people. 
 To say that the potatoes are unfit for human food, however, is 
 going much too far. 
 
 As to the yield, it is, as a rule, from three-fifths to one- 
 third below the average. I have come across a few cases here 
 in which there is a full average yield of sound tubers of 
 medium quality. These good crops are grown either on new 
 land of a peaty character, or on well-managed old land worked 
 in a judicious rotation, well tilled and liberally manured. I 
 examined many fields of exceedingly poor soil, thin and moory, 
 lying on a very stiff, unkindly subsoil, and on these, with an 
 admittedly stinted allowance of manure, the crop could not be 
 otherwise than small. Here, as in the south, the blight came 
 upon the tops very early in the season ; and it is generally 
 admitted by the farmers themselves that the crop is digging 
 out better than they expected it would have done from the 
 appearance of the tops in August. I am quite of opinion that 
 had the wet weather of early summer continued on till the 
 end of September, the potato crop here would have been an 
 absolute failure, or very nearly so. Thanks to the favourable 
 change in the weather, it is turning out to be not so very black 
 as it has been painted. 
 
 The crop is now being dug, and, as a rule, the farmers seem 
 to be moderately careful in sorting the tubers. Many of them 
 are storing separately for seed the soundest tubers, grown on 
 new or fresh land. If the potatoes can be spared from the 
 supply of food for the family, there will be abundance of good 
 seed in this part of the country. Many of the farmers I have 
 spoken to, however, expressed an anxious desire to have new 
 seed, if only they were able to procure it. The Champion is 
 the all-prevailing potato, and I am bound to say that I think 
 it is here almost as robust in constitution as ever. On all the 
 small farms the tillage is done by spade labour, and every- ! 
 where the potatoes are grown in lazy-beds. The system of 
 
MAYO. 
 
 37 
 
 tillage here is a trifle more thorough than in some other parts 
 I have visited, but it is, as a rule, very far from what it ought 
 to be. Again, let me say that the weeds get too much freedom 
 — far more than is good for either the land or the potatoes. 
 
 The great error lies in allowing the weeds to mature their 
 seeds. It is the habit with many of the farmers to gather 
 weeds and other vegetable refuse into the dung-pit. This is 
 in itself a commendable plan, for the supply of useful manure 
 may be thereby substantially enhanced. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, much of the good that would be done is counterbalanced 
 by the mischief which is inflicted upon the soil by the seeds 
 of such weeds as are allowed to attain maturity before they 
 are cut down. All such material to be gathered into the 
 dung-pit should be cut down or uprooted before its seeds have 
 been formed. On nearly all the holdings some sort of method 
 is followed in alternating the crop. As a rule, potatoes suc- 
 ceed either oats or lea, and on the better managed places 
 ryegrass and clovers are sown along with the oats. Hay is 
 cut the first year, if the grass can be spared, and the land 
 may be allowed to lie two or three years in pasture. By the 
 third year, however, the pasture is usually of poor quality, and 
 not very abundant. 
 
 In the Swinford Union, potatoes and oats occupy nearly 
 equal areas — about 11,000 acres each. All the other sown 
 crops, exclusive of grasses and clovers in rotation, occupy 
 considerably under 2000 acres, of which 850 are under 
 turnips. Sown grasses in rotation cover about 2200 acres. 
 For the direct supply of the food of the family the potato 
 is thus the principal crop. The oat crop, however, is also of 
 great importance to these small farmers, and it is gratifying 
 to be able to say that the yield of oats both in straw and 
 grain has this year been exceptionally abundant. It is sur- 
 prising, indeed, to see such a quantity of oats on these poor 
 holdings, and it was a genuine pleasure to note the very tidy 
 and careful manner in which this crop has been reaped, 
 stacked, and thatched. If anything like the same amount 
 of care were exercised in keeping the potato land clean as in 
 harvesting the oat crop, the produce of the holdings would be 
 very substantially increased. Everywhere the supply of turf 
 is abundant. 
 
38 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Few sheep are kept in the Swinford district, on an average 
 barely one for each holding. Neither is the stock of cattle 
 very large. On nearly all the holdings there is at least one 
 cow, the total number of cows in the Union being about equal 
 to two cows for every holding over one acre in extent. The 
 cows are, as a whole, of a fairly good class. There are scarcely 
 a thousand horses in the entire Union used for agricultural 
 purposes, about one horse for every seven holdings. On almost 
 every holding there is an ass or a donkey, an average of nearly 
 two pigs to each farm, big and little, and a very large stock 
 of poultry, including geese and turkeys. 
 
 There is no employment near at hand for the surplus labour. 
 The men and lads go to England for from five to ten months 
 of the year, and they bring home from 10 s. to 20 s. for every 
 week they are away. Cheap fares are granted to them for 
 these journeys, the ticket to Liverpool from this district being 
 only about 12 s. A very large number of young men and 
 women have gone from this district to America and Canada, 
 and these send home a good deal of money to their parents. 
 
 Great efforts are being made here to have a line of railway 
 constructed from Claremorris right past Swinford to Collooney 
 in County Sligo, but it seems doubtful whether the agitation 
 will be successful in its object. There would appear to be a 
 strong desire in Swinford to have some useful employment 
 provided for the people, but most of the leading men in the 
 district make no secret of their decided aversion to aid in the 
 shape of the gratuitous feeding of the inhabitants. One in- 
 fluential citizen, whose sympathy and political feeling are 
 entirely with the people, and who knows well their circum- 
 stances and habits, assured me that he would almost as soon 
 see them in starvation as witness a repetition of the demoral- 
 ising scenes which occurred during the gratuitous feeding of 
 the poor people of Swinford in 1886. 
 
DONEGAL. 
 
 39 
 
 VII. DONEGAL. 
 
 It is a far cry from Mayo to Donegal. In the varied 
 stretch of country which intervenes there are several districts 
 which I should have liked to have visited, but my process of 
 investigation is of necessity so very slow, that if I attempted 
 to “ prospect ” every district it is just possible that a new crop 
 of potatoes might be ready for inspection before the examina- 
 tion of the old would be completed. Taking a few long leaps 
 at a time, I have given my attention chiefly to those parts of 
 the country which are reputed to have sustained the severest 
 strain from the potato plague. The county of Donegal has 
 attained unenviable prominence in this respect, and I am 
 sorry to say that in many of the parts which I have already 
 visited here I have found the enemy almost as black as it 
 has been painted. More than this I shall not say as to the 
 potato crop until I have completed my tour of inspection. 
 Meantime, however, a few general notes as to the circum- 
 stances of the small farmers of Donegal may be of interest 
 to those not acquainted with this cold northern region of the 
 Green Isle. 
 
 In the county of Donegal there are in all about 32,000 
 holdings. Of these 1400 do not exceed 1 acre in extent; 
 above 1 acre and not over 5 acres, there are about 2600 ; 
 above 5 and not over 15 acres, 10,300; above 15 and not 
 exceeding 30 acres, 8500 ; above 30 and not exceeding 50 
 acres, 4041; above 50 and not exceeding 100 acres, 3234; 
 above 100 and not over 200 acres, 1070; above 200 and 
 not over 500 acres, 358 ; and upwards of 500, 110 holdings. 
 Donegal has a greater number of small farms — that is, of 
 holdings — between 5 and 30 acres in extent than any other 
 county in Ireland excepting Mayo and Galway, and upon the 
 latter it approaches very closely. County Down is not far 
 behind, and it has by some thousands the greatest number of 
 holdings under 5 acres. 
 
 These statistics represent the Donegal small farmers in a 
 somewhat rosy light. The great majority of them have hold- 
 ings between 5 and 30 acres in extent, but as a rule only a 
 small portion of the holding is under tillage. Perhaps only 
 
40 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 a half or a third of it is capable of being cultivated. The 
 rest consists of bog, moor, rock, or boulders. The statistics 
 of the extent under sown crops bear out this. The entire 
 area in Donegal under all kinds of crops, including meadow 
 and clover, extends to only about 237,400 acres, or little 
 more than an average of 7 acres to every holding. Then 
 the Union of Glen ties, which embraces a wide area of the 
 highlands and seaboard, has an average of less than 5 acres 
 for each of its 6600 holders. 
 
 A notable feature in the Donegal farming is the large 
 extent allowed to lie under permanent grass. Even of a 5- 
 acre holding a certain portion is assigned for tillage — that is, 
 for the oat and potato crops — and a certain portion for pas- 
 ture and hay. The former is tilled year after year, and put 
 alternately under potatoes and oats, while the grass land is 
 grazed and meadowed continually, most likely both each year. 
 The sheep and cattle graze all over the holding early in the 
 season ; and when the pasture on the rough moors and moun- 
 tains has made some progress, the stock are turned out there. 
 The grass land then throws up a short but wonderfully thick 
 crop of hay, which is of poor quality, and often saved in bad 
 condition. Hay grown in such circumstances, and saved so 
 late in the season — much of it is only now being stacked, 
 some of it just being cut — could not possibly be either palat- 
 able or nutritious. The produce per acre, however, is sur- 
 prisingly abundant. The average yield of hay for the whole 
 county of Donegal is officially stated at over two tons per 
 acre, and the importance of this crop to the Donegal farmer 
 will be gathered from the fact that last year it extended to 
 nearly 69,000 acres, about one-third more than the area under 
 potatoes, and within a third of the area sown with oats. The 
 small farmers depend upon hay to a large extent for the food 
 of their cows in winter, and up here the cattle need far more 
 hand-feeding in winter than in any other part of Ireland. 
 
 It is assuredly a wise plan to save hay on these holdings, 
 but it is a serious mistake from several points of view to 
 have the meadow land and the tillage land distinct from each 
 other to such an extent. It leads to greater deterioration of 
 both the meadow and the tillage land than would take place 
 if the oats, potatoes, roots, hay, and pasture were methodically 
 
DONEGAL. 
 
 41 
 
 intermixed in a judicious rotation. It may, perhaps, save 
 labour. It is easier, no doubt, to dig in potatoes and dig 
 them out again in land where oats were grown last year and 
 potatoes the year before, than in land which had lain under 
 grass for a few years, and so become tough in the surface. 
 But it is well enough known that what fits the farmer’s per- 
 sonal convenience best does not always best serve the land or 
 the crop. The small farmer of Ireland loves his little bit of 
 land almost too well ; yet he does not use it in a manner cal- 
 culated to husband its resources. He also lays great store 
 upon his “ praties.” He is just as improvident in his method 
 of growing them. 
 
 Donegal is famed for its crops of oats. It grows usually 
 between 80,000 and 90,000 acres of oats, the area having 
 gradually decreased by about 10,000 acres within the past 
 ten years. The average yield is stated at about 12 to 13 
 cwt., or from 32 to 38 bushels per acre. This year the crop 
 is decidedly above the average in bulk, but, unfortunately, 
 much of it has been injured by inclement weather in the har- 
 vesting. There is still a great deal of this crop on the fields, 
 in some cases in stooks, but more generally in small rickets, 
 and the quality of the corn for grinding into meal has been 
 much deteriorated. The crop, however, will supply more than 
 the usual amount of food for cattle, and this applies as fully 
 to the small holdings in the poorer parts as to the farms in 
 better favoured districts. 
 
 Wheat and barley are grown only to a very small extent. 
 Turnips grow well in the county, and are raised to a moderate 
 extent by the small farmers, not so largely as would seem 
 desirable. Last year there were 17,618 acres under turnips, 
 about 2000 acres more than ten years ago. Lew mangels are 
 grown — less than 1000 acres in the whole county. Flax was 
 at one time cultivated to a considerable extent on the small 
 holdings, but it has in most of these cases been abandoned. 
 It is only at long intervals that flax succeeds on any soil, and 
 on the small holdings the system of rotation was not suited 
 for it. 
 
 The potato crop has its characteristic share of attention in 
 Donegal. Its area is usually about 45,000 acres, equal to 
 about an acre and a third to every holding in the county. 
 
42 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 The extent assigned to the crop has been diminishing slightly 
 in recent years, the decrease since 1880 being fully 10,000 
 acres. I am inclined to think, however, that this wholesome 
 contraction has not occurred to any appreciable extent on the 
 smaller holdings. 
 
 When it is mentioned that, with nearly 32,000 holdings, 
 Donegal has only 20,000 adult horses, it will readily be 
 understood that this county is very largely dependent upon 
 spade labour for the tillage of the land. The donkey is not 
 so largely employed here as farther south. There are barely 
 2500 of these most useful beasts of burden in the entire 
 county. The stock of cattle is fairly numerous, but not, as a 
 rule, of a good class. On the small farms they are usually 
 small, stunted-looking, and ill-shaped, many of them brindled 
 in colour and of a stamp not liked by feeders. They are evi- 
 dently slow growers and sluggish in fattening, and the cows 
 are scarcely moderate as milkers. There is great need for 
 improvement in the class of cattle. In effecting this improve- 
 ment great care and skill should be exercised, for none but 
 hardy beasts could thrive on these poor holdings. Nearly all 
 the small farmers have one, two, or more cows. In the Union 
 of Glenties, for instance, there is very nearly an average of 
 two cows for every holding, big and little. Donegal possesses 
 nearly 200,000 sheep and about 38,000 pigs, and the small 
 farmers have a large proportion of these. It will be seen 
 later on how substantially the few sheep they own contribute 
 to the living of the small farmers and their families. This 
 county is noted for poultry -rearing. Many of the small 
 farmers derive no inconsiderable sum from eggs, the produc- 
 tion of which they pursue with commendable enterprise. 
 
 The greater part of Donegal is a bleak, bare, mountainous 
 country. In my wandering through it, I have more than 
 once unconsciously imagined myself in the county of Suther- 
 land. There is a greater extent of brown moor here than in 
 that northern Scottish county, and there is a vast deal more 
 of the surface covered with solid rock or huge loose boulders. 
 Along the sea-coast and in most of the inland straths there 
 are irregular stretches of arable land, but only in exceptional 
 cases does the soil seem to be so kindly and fertile — and 
 rarely, let it be said at once, is it so w~ell handled — as is the 
 
DONEGAL. 
 
 43 
 
 arable land of Sutherlandshire. The small holdings have in 
 most cases been laid off with some degree of taste and regu- 
 larity, but the land itself almost everywhere gives unmistak- 
 able indications of primitive and improvident farming. These 
 remarks, of course, apply to the seaboard and highland districts 
 of the county. 
 
 The better-favoured parts of East Donegal, and an occasional 
 farm or two in other districts, exhibit a system of farming 
 which seems to be on the whole advanced and profitable. 
 Even here such glutinous weeds as docks, thistles, and rag- 
 weed, are held in higher respect than they deserve from good 
 farmers. Yet there is in these parts the general appearance 
 of thrift, intelligence, and enterprise which one invariably 
 finds in well-farmed districts. 
 
 That the poorer and less-favoured parts should compare 
 unfavourably in this respect is perhaps only what might be 
 expected. It is a rule this which, I daresay, has a very wide 
 application ; yet in my wanderings over our owm kingdom, and 
 elsewhere, I have met with many striking exceptions of cases 
 in which the small holdings and poor lands are worked in a 
 manner which throws far into the shade the average standard 
 of farming on large holdings and good land. I cannot con- 
 scientiously pay this compliment to the small farmers of 
 Donegal. They are — the great majority of them, at least — 
 placed in untoward circumstances, but in rare exceptions have 
 they made the most or best of what they have got. There is 
 a want of thrift and intelligence and industry in the working 
 of their little holdings which I could never contemplate with- 
 out a feeling akin to surprise. I have had opportunities of 
 observing the behaviour of Irish men and women — the sons 
 and daughters of these small farmers, and many of these 
 farmers themselves — as farm labourers, and at other varieties 
 of labour in countries other than their own, and if one were 
 to judge from that behaviour, one would certainly expect to 
 find their humble homes in the Green Isle, which they all love 
 so well, wearing a different aspect from what they generally 
 present. Although the county of Donegal is now more 
 particularly under notice, these remarks apply in a varying 
 measure to the whole of Ireland. I have, I gladly acknow- 
 ledge, seen samples of farming amongst the small holders of 
 
44 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Ireland which would delight the most fastidious. The rule, 
 however, is exactly the reverse, and it would serve no good 
 end to overlook or minimise this regrettable state of matters. 
 
 VIII. DONEGAL — continued. 
 
 Now that I have completed my “ borings ” in Donegal, I 
 am sorry to have to say that I cannot improve upon my 
 earlier impressions which were indicated in last letter. I 
 think there can hardly be any doubt that in Donegal the loss 
 from the potato plague will be heavier than in any other 
 county in Ireland. I have seen certain parts in Cork and 
 Galway as bad as any here, but nowhere else have I seen the 
 crop so uniformly deficient, with so many of the tubers in- 
 jured by the fungus, as in the seaboard and highlands of 
 Donegal. 
 
 There is good reason to believe that the greater injury 
 which the disease has inflicted in Donegal is due mainly to 
 the fact that the wet and cold character of the summer con- 
 tinued longer here than in most other parts of Ireland. I 
 have more than once made reference to the remarkably fine, 
 almost June-like, spell of weather which has been experienced 
 lately in several counties farther south. And I ventured to 
 express the opinion that that June-like spell of weather had 
 in many parts saved the potato crop from almost complete 
 destruction. In Donegal, unfortunately, the elements have 
 not been so merciful to the farmer. Here the only cessation 
 of the cold dripping weather which prevailed throughout the 
 summer was in the second and third weeks in September, and 
 the short-lived glimpse of bright sunshine and clear sky was 
 unable to do more than give a temporary check to the opera- 
 tions of the potato fungus. With the return of dull, wet 
 weather, which has prevailed during the past three weeks, the 
 insidious enemy resumed its destructive work, so that from 
 their weed-covered, water-logged, ill-made beds, the Donegal 
 “ praties ” are turning out in a miserable condition. 
 
 The blight did not appear on the tops quite so early here 
 
DONEGAL. 
 
 45 
 
 as in West Cork, and I am inclined to think that in the num- 
 bers and the size of the tubers Donegal is no worse off than 
 some of the other counties. Here the tubers are certainly, as 
 a rule, both small and “ seldom ” — not quite so small, I think, 
 as in County Cork and County Mayo — but it is in the pro- 
 portion of diseased tubers that Donegal compares most un- 
 favourably with other parts. The heavy and continuous 
 rainfall has facilitated the transit of the spores of the fungus 
 from the tops to the tubers, and it is evident from the appear- 
 ance of newly dug potatoes that amongst these the fungus has 
 lately been remarkably active. 
 
 It is obvious, both from the soaked condition of the soil and 
 the character of the weeds which luxuriate so profusely, that 
 most of the tillage land in Donegal sorely needs arterial drain- 
 age. This of course intensifies the effects of the wet season, 
 and the two combine to lay the much-loved but ill-cared-for 
 potatoes an easy prey to their insidious enemy. I am quite 
 prepared to believe that a great extent of the land would be 
 rather difficult to drain thoroughly with underground drains, 
 yet the small farmers and their sons might with much advan- 
 tage employ a little of their long spells of partial idleness in 
 the winter months in providing means of carrying the surplus 
 water from their arable land. 
 
 To form a perfectly trustworthy estimate of the produce of 
 potatoes in the county of Donegal would be extremely difficult. 
 The deficiency occurs chiefly on the seaboards and in the 
 highlands. The crop is not uniformly bad. How and again 
 I have come across — usually on fresh, moderately well-drained 
 bog-land — a fairly good-looking crop, from one-half to two- 
 thirds of an average yield of rather small-sized sound tubers, 
 with a very small sprinkling of disease. These, however, are 
 exceptions. The rule is an imperfectly grown crop, which 
 will afford little if any more than from one-fourth to two-fifths 
 of an average yield of sound, eatable potatoes. In most cases 
 the proportion of tubers touched with the fungus varies from 
 one in three to one in ten, and a great many of these are far 
 gone in decay. Several cases of complete failure we have seen, 
 but over the county generally such instances would be rare 
 exceptions. I have been assured by those whose opinion is 
 entitled to carry weight, that on the small farms of Donegal 
 
46 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 the yield of sound, eatable potatoes would not exceed one- 
 fourth of the produce of an average year. The results of my 
 inspection of the dug-out potatoes would not lead to quite so 
 low an estimate as that. From 30 to 40 per cent of an 
 average yield would come nearer to what I have seen. 
 
 This “ average yield,” I may say, is not by any means high. 
 Of tubers it is only about 3 J tons per statute acre. Of weeds, 
 which should not be there at all, it is often twice as much ! 
 A passer-by would sometimes be at a loss to know which was 
 the potato-field and which that of grass. The cover of herb- 
 age is often just about as close and luxuriant in the one as 
 in the other. Possibly the small farmers of Ireland may be 
 of opinion that the “ pratie ” delights in the company or in 
 the shelter of an abundant growth of - weeds. I have met 
 some farmers who believe that one crop is enough for the 
 land at a time, and who spare no trouble to carry their belief 
 into practice. Somehow these single-minded farmers contrive 
 to dig three or four times as many tubers from an acre as are 
 obtained by the over-ingenious Irish farmer, who 'seems to 
 expect that the potato-field should give him a crop of hay 
 from the surface, and a crop of “ praties- ” from the under-soil. 
 One thing at a time, and that done well, would be a good 
 motto for the Irish potato-grower — if only he would carry it 
 into practice. 
 
 In Donegal, as in most other parts of the country, I have, 
 as a rule, found the best crops the soundest and best grown, 
 if not always the best in point of numbers, on soils of a de- 
 cidedly boggy ( i.e ., mossy) character. a It is proved beyond 
 question that potatoes thrive uncommonly well in land in 
 which there is a considerable amount of decaying vegetable 
 matter. Good crops of potatoes are often grown in fresh, 
 boggy, or moory land, with little or no manure, and as often 
 as they can the small farmers of Ireland put the potatoes in 
 land of this character. I have this year seen surprisingly 
 good crops of champions on land which seemed composed 
 entirely of bog (i.e., moss) : such material, in fact, as would 
 make excellent turf for the fire on the farmer’s hearth. 
 
 So long as he has fresh land for the crop the Irish farmer 
 succeeds fairly well with his potatoes, but in the growth of 
 the crop upon old land he has more often failed than succeeded. 
 
DONEGAL. 
 
 47 
 
 The small extent of his holding no doubt hampers his opera- 
 tions, but I have visited very few holdings in Ireland on which 
 it would not be possible to carry out a system of cropping 
 which would introduce from three to five years between every 
 two crops of potatoes, and yet give the farmer as many stones 
 of potatoes as he obtains under the close-cropping methods 
 which are now prevalent. 
 
 In Donegal the prevailing system of rotation is as bad as 
 it could well be. In most cases oats and potatoes follow each 
 other almost continuously, and it is by no means rare to find 
 a farmer growing potatoes year after year, for two, three, or 
 more years on the same little plot of land. The worst crops 
 I have seen, those most largely destroyed by disease, have 
 been grown on land which carried potatoes last year or for the 
 two or three immediately preceding years. And, unfortun- 
 ately, many of the farmers would seem to have but little idea 
 of the risk which they run in pursuing such a dangerous 
 practice. I was sympathising with a small farmer in the 
 Ardara district of Donegal who was digging out a very poor 
 crop, with more than 50 per cent diseased, and my conversa- 
 tion brought forth information which I was scarcely prepared 
 to receive. “ Yes, sur, they be very bad. Last year in this 
 very bed where I have got all you see of them rotten things, 
 not a creelful, I had the full of three creels of splendid 
 ‘praties.’ Yes, sur, I had ‘praties’ in it last year. Ah, it is 
 elegant ‘ pratie ’ land, sur ! It has grown ‘ praties,’ beautiful 
 crops, sur, for five or six years, and ne’er a crop of corn. It 
 is splendid ‘ pratie ’ land, sur ; but look at it this year. I will 
 have to dig all day to supply the family, sur.” It was a bad 
 crop certainly, and with such admirable devotion to the 
 “ pratie,” it was no doubt trying to the farmer to find that the 
 “ elegant pratie land ” had failed him at last. 
 
 Upon this same farm I found that another field had been 
 grazed and meadowed every consecutive year for six or seven 
 years, and yet the simple-minded farmer seemed to think that 
 the fates were sadly against him when he found that his crops 
 were beginning to fail. 
 
 A great portion of the arable land on the small farms of 
 Donegal, as on those of other Irish counties, is thoroughly 
 “ potato sick.” It has grown potatoes so frequently for so 
 
• 48 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 many years, that it cannot be expected to yield either a 
 bountiful or a robust crop. To pursue this system would be 
 extremely dangerous, for any influence which tends to impair 
 the vigour of the crop predisposes it to destruction by disease. 
 These small farmers must break up patches of their grass-land 
 for potatoes, and must allow a longer interval to elapse between 
 every two crops of potatoes. Unless they do this, the risk 
 of repeated epidemics of the disease will be greatly increased. 
 And along with this extension of the system of rotation, they 
 must have the land better drained, so that the tubers may 
 have dry, airy soil to grow in, not such cold, water-logged soil 
 as is now generally to be found in the potato-beds of Donegal 
 and other parts of Ireland. There should also be a little more 
 liberality in manuring, and a vast deal more hand labour in 
 tillage and weeding. The supply of dung is far from adequate, 
 and little artificial manure is employed. Sea-weed is plentiful 
 on the Donegal coast, and it is used pretty freely on the 
 potato-land along the seaboard. 
 
 In many parts of this county the short-sighted and alto- 
 gether objectionable system of “ paring and burning ” is 
 pursued. In the month of April, or as soon as it is suffi- 
 ciently dry, the turf or sods which cover the surface of the 
 potato-patch are gathered into heaps and burned, and the 
 ashes spread over the land as manure. The ashes stimulate 
 the early growth of the potatoes, but the practice should be 
 condemned for at least two important reasons : it leads to 
 the waste of useful soil, and encourages late planting. The 
 burning cannot be carried out until the land is tolerably dry, 
 and thus planting is often unduly delayed. 
 
 The lazy-bed system prevails generally on the small farms 
 of Donegal, yet in several instances the crop is grown in 
 drills. The Champion is the variety most largely grown here, 
 and it has upon the whole given good results for six or eight 
 years. The other kinds grown in this county are Flounders, 
 White Eocks, Skerry Blues, Magnum Bonums, Brown Eocks, 
 Scotch Downs, American Whites, Kemps, Cruffies, Gawkies, 
 &c. I have not been able to obtain such conclusive evidence 
 as would justify me in saying that any one variety had clearly 
 excelled the others, or had failed more signally than its 
 neighbours. One variety has fared best on one farm and 
 
DONEGAL COTTAGE INDUSTRIES. 
 
 49 
 
 another upon a different farm. I saw some crops of Skerry 
 Blues almost a full average in numbers and size, but fully 
 one-third of the tubers were diseased. It is evident that in 
 Donegal a large quantity of fresh seed will be required for 
 next year’s crop. 
 
 The procuring of this will be a matter of great importance 
 to the small farmers, who still to a great extent, although not 
 so largely as in former times, depend upon this one crop for 
 the sustenance of themselves and their families. 
 
 Happily considerable progress has been made in Donegal 
 in the development of what may be called side industries 
 amongst the small farmers. Almost incalculable benefit has 
 already been derived from this admirable movement, to which 
 fuller reference will be made in my next letter. 
 
 IX. DONEGAL— COTTAGE INDUSTRIES. 
 
 In view of the shortcoming in the potato crop this year, it 
 becomes an important question to consider to what extent the 
 small farmers are now dependent upon the potatoes which 
 they grow, and what other sources of food and income are 
 available to them. In regard to the county of Donegal, 
 several parts of which are at the present moment more 
 seriously congested than ever before, it is gratifying to be 
 able to say that the potato can no longer be truthfully 
 described as the "staff of life,” or the main support of the 
 small farmers and their families. Even here there is still 
 far too much reliance placed upon the potato crop, yet by 
 degrees comparatively greater attention is being given to the 
 growing of other crops, to the raising of live stock, and to 
 extraneous sources of revenue. 
 
 It was indicated in the last letter that the small farmers 
 of Donegal hold amongst them a very large number of cattle, 
 sheep, pigs, and poultry, and that they raise a considerable 
 quantity of oats. One estimate, made by a man well ac- 
 quainted with the county, and inclined to err on the side of 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 safety, places the quantity of oats available for sale or grind- 
 ing into meal on the small farms of Donegal this year at an 
 average of about seven quarters, or one ton per holding — 
 this being the quantity he believes to be available after 
 setting aside food for the farm-horses and seed for next year’s 
 crop. Unfortunately, in many cases the quality of the oats 
 has been much injured by the wet weather in harvesting, but 
 there is more than an average bulk of both grain and straw. 
 It is not likely that much of the wonderfully abundant crop 
 of hay will he available for direct transference into money. 
 It will be required for the maintenance of one, two, or more 
 cows, the value of which in the feeding of a family is well 
 known to all, especially to those who do not possess the 
 luxury of a family cow. 
 
 I have noted with some curiosity the light appreciation 
 here evinced of the cow, or rather of the amount which her 
 produce contributes to the food of the family. Indeed it is 
 only rarely that one hears the cow mentioned in conversation 
 or discussion as to the supplies of food amongst the small 
 farmers of Ireland. Milk is not estimated here at anything 
 like its full value as an article of diet, nor is it as a rule 
 turned to the best account for this purpose. Nevertheless 
 these small farmers do derive a substantial amount of food for 
 their families in the form of cows’ milk, and, with the exercise 
 of a little intelligence and care in cooking, the milk might 
 he employed so as to counteract the had quality of the 
 potatoes. 
 
 But the most gratifying feature in the modern history of 
 the congested districts of Donegal is the development of 
 subsidiary industries, such as knitting, spinning, and weaving, 
 sprigging (or flowering muslin), and shirt-making. In the 
 extension of these industries marked progress has been made 
 in recent years, and the material comfort of a very large 
 number of families has been thereby substantially improved. 
 The making of homespun tweed and flannel is an old industry 
 here, and it is now pursued in the homes of thousands of the 
 small farmers. Many of the farmers turn all their own wool, 
 or more, into cloth, the whole process of manufacture, includ- 
 ing carding, spinning, and weaving, being carried out by the 
 farmer’s family in his own humble cottage. In many cases 
 
DONEGAL: — COTTAGE INDUSTRIES. 
 
 51 
 
 one man weaves for several families, and an expert hand at 
 this work can earn from 3 s. to 4s. 6d. per day. 
 
 Many who have no sheep of their own buy wool and manu- 
 facture it into cloth ; and those who own sheep have such a 
 keen appetite for wool that they clip the poor creatures twice 
 a-year — a practice which, no doubt, adds to the comfort of 
 the farmer and his family, but leaves his flock poorly clad for 
 the winter. 
 
 The amount which the families can earn at this work is 
 very considerable. It could not be called high wages, but it 
 gives employment in the homes of the people in the winter 
 months, when such employment is much needed. It is cer- 
 tainly an excellent way of utilising the wool grown on the 
 farms ; for, by manufacturing it into a good class of homespun 
 cloth, the farmer can turn a shilling’s worth of wool into 
 half-a-crown. I have seen a large quantity of this homespun 
 cloth in Donegal, and although I cannot pretend to speak 
 authoritatively upon its quality, I may say that it not only 
 looks well, but it has the appearance of material that should 
 wear well. It is used chiefly in ladies’ dresses and summer 
 suits for gentlemen, and there is a fairly good demand for it 
 at from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per yard, the width of the piece 
 being about 27 or 30 inches. London is the principal market 
 for it, but considerable quantities have gone to the United 
 States, where, it is feared, less will go now on account of the 
 increased tariff. 
 
 The home-made flannel sells at from Is. to Is. 3d. per yard, 
 the same width as the cloth. At carding and spinning for 
 these materials, women can earn 6d. or more per day. Tor 
 more than twenty miles along the seaboard, from Ardara 
 towards Carrick and Killybegs, this industry is prosecuted on 
 a very large proportion of the small farms, and I have been 
 assured by those intimately acquainted with the business and 
 with the country that there is plenty of scope for extension. 
 
 Stocking-knitting is another industry of great importance on 
 many of the small farms of Donegal. In the districts around 
 Gweedore and Glenties it has been introduced and developed, 
 with great benefit to the inhabitants. Dor instance, one 
 gentleman in Gweedore pays about 300 women for knitting 
 stockings over £1000 a-year, or more than £3 each ; and 
 
52 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND# 
 
 this is earned during the winter months, when there is little 
 or nothing else for them to do. This gentleman gives out the 
 yarn, and takes in stockings twice a -week. He pays from 
 6Jd. to 8 id. for knitting a pair of socks, and from Is. to 
 Is. 6d. for long stockings. This is higher than the usual 
 rate, as fine work is required. These stockings go to a 
 London firm, and their agent here told me he had just heard 
 that they could take a much larger supply of the stockings if 
 he could get the knitting done. Similar praiseworthy efforts 
 have been made in this district by Mrs Ernest Hart, who has 
 established a woollen factory with a moderate degree of 
 success. 
 
 Then the quiet little inland town of Glenties, situated in 
 the midst of a mountainous country, has long been a centre of 
 much activity in this cottage industry. One firm here, Messrs 
 D. & H. M‘Devitt, have for many years been paying from 
 £2000 to £5000 per annum in wages to women on the small 
 holdings in the surrounding country for knitting stockings, 
 gloves, jerseys, &c. They sometimes employ as many as 4000 
 women ; but as it is chiefly yarn of a coarse quality that is 
 knitted here, the rate paid is very low — only Is. 6d. per dozen 
 for socks. A woman can knit two pairs of these in one day, 
 and many children, who would otherwise be adding nothing to 
 the family income, earn a trifle at this work. This enterpris- 
 ing firm also gives encouragement to the manufacture of 
 homespuns. 
 
 In the Carrick district, which is also much congested, a 
 knitting factory is conducted by a London firm, and has been 
 of great benefit to the people. Shirt -making, for which the 
 ambitious and historical city of Derry has become so famous, 
 has been extended from that centre into the wilds of Donegal, 
 where it is taking root rather slowly. It is an industry, how- 
 ever, which might be developed with great advantage to the 
 people, who are in want of employment. Sprigging or flower- 
 ing muslin is likewise a means of employment for a large 
 number of women and young girls on the small farms of 
 Donegal. It will thus be gathered that in these cottage in- 
 dustries the small farmers of this county have the opportunity 
 of substantially enhancing the returns from their limited 
 holdings. 
 
DONEGAL COTTAGE INDUSTKIES. 
 
 53 
 
 In addition to these cottage industries, which give much 
 useful employment to the women, but little to the men, there 
 are other extraneous sources of revenue which add not a little 
 to the comfort of the Donegal peasants, and which are nearly 
 all capable of expansion. Comparatively little is now done at 
 fishing and kelp-making, but with the extension of railway 
 communication likely to be carried out, both these industries 
 might be developed to great proportions here. 
 
 The most fertile source of external revenue, however, is the 
 labour which is obtained in Scotland and East Donegal in the 
 harvest season. Thousands of men go from the small farms 
 of Donegal to Scotland for harvest work every year, and they 
 each bring back from £5 to £8 — in some cases even more, 
 when they go for the turnip-thinning, haymaking, and grain 
 harvest. From many farms two or three men go to Scotland 
 for this work. I happened to know of one case in which the 
 farmer and his two sons have this year returned with £25 to 
 their home in Donegal. The young women and lads go in 
 large numbers to East Donegal for the harvest work, and 
 these also bring back a few pounds to help the family in 
 tiding over the long period of idleness in the winter 
 season. 
 
 With the view of providing labour for the people in the 
 congested districts, and of developing the country, the Govern- 
 ment has given grants for the construction of railways from 
 Donegal to Killybegs on the southern coast, and from Stran- 
 orlar to Eintown and Glenties in the interior of the county. 
 These railways are to be made by public money, and will be 
 handed over to existing companies, w T ho will maintain them in 
 working order, and run, at least, two trains each way daily, 
 Sunday, of course, excepted. The whole of the receipts go 
 to the companies, who can hardly fail to derive benefit from 
 these “ feeders.” The advantage of the lines to the districts 
 opened up by them will be very great, both in the employ- 
 ment given in their construction and in the stimulus they 
 will impart to the development of the local resources. 
 
 That the material condition of the small farmers of Donegal 
 has undergone marked improvement during the past ten or 
 fifteen years is well known to all acquainted with the county. 
 Evidence of this, as well as of the altered customs of the 
 
54 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 people in their living, is afforded by the greatly increased 
 quantities of bread-stuffs, tea, and sugar imported every year 
 into the congested districts. It is notorious that the peasants 
 are extravagant in the use of tea and sugar, and it is stated 
 on good authority that it is the more expensive tea which is 
 for the most part consumed here. The large extent to which 
 bread-stuffs are now employed in the families on the small 
 farms of Donegal will be surmised from the fact that in the 
 course of the twelve months ending with June last close on 
 2300 tons of flour and 2800 tons of Indian meal were 
 shipped from Londonderry to the ports on the Donegal coast 
 — all this in addition to the considerable quantities conveyed 
 thither by road and rail. From one shop in a small town 
 in the heart of the congested districts over 600 tons of flour 
 are sold annually. These facts are significant, not only as 
 indicating an increase in the “ purchasing power ” of these 
 small farmers, but also as betokening the gradual dethrone- 
 ment of the faithless “ pratie ” from its much too prominent 
 position in the dietary of the people. 
 
 I have remarked incidentally that certain parts of Donegal 
 are more seriously congested now than at any former time. 
 In spite of all the hard lessons taught by years of distress, 
 and all the efforts put forth against it, subdivision has gone 
 on continually, and is still taking place. In several of the 
 parishes in the poorer parts of Donegal there has been a 
 marked increase in the population since 1841. In a few 
 cases, in about the poorest parts of all, the increase has been 
 little short of 20 per cent. These subdivisions occur by one 
 or two sons marrying and settling down in a humble hut on 
 a portion of their father’s holding, and by-and-by each divi- 
 sion has to maintain as large a family as had been reared on 
 the entire farm. The landowners have striven hard to dis- 
 courage this grave improvidence, yet it goes on in defiance of 
 them. Many of these subdivided holdings have never been 
 recognised by the landowners, the original farm standing in 
 the estate books in the name, perhaps, of the father of two 
 sons, who now hold the land in equal portions, divided by 
 themselves, and practically forming two distinct farms. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that even in the very poorest 
 districts there is an active demand for any of these small 
 
THE YEAR S CROPS. 
 
 55 
 
 holdings which may by any chance become vacant, or the 
 tenancy of which may be offered for sale. It will be sur- 
 prising to many, I daresay, to learn that the “ tenant right ” 
 of these small holdings should possess any saleable value — 
 that any one would be willing to pay down hard cash for the 
 right to become the tenant of holdings so often described as 
 incapable of bearing any “ economic rent.” Be that as it 
 may, the fact is that as high as 80 to 100 years’ purchase 
 have been paid in recent years for the “ tenant right ” of 
 small farms in the congested districts of Donegal. Common 
 prices are 35 to 45 years’ purchase — that is, a tenant who 
 pays, say, 30s. annual rent, receives from £50 to £67 to go 
 out and let another man into his place. Such is the desire 
 of the Irish peasant to be the occupant of a small piece of his 
 native land. It is a misfortune to himself and others that he 
 uses it so badly when he gets it. 
 
 X. THE YEAR’S CROPS. 
 
 It will have been observed that my letters hitherto have 
 dealt with the poorer districts of Ireland. I have devoted my 
 attention chiefly to the congested districts, for the reason that 
 it is only in these that the failure of the potato crop could 
 cause anything approaching a famine. It will be readily 
 understood, however, that the character of the potato crop in 
 the better favoured parts of Ireland, as well as in England 
 and Scotland, will have an important bearing upon the results 
 of the deficiency of the crop in the congested regions. It is 
 obvious that if there is an abundant supply of potatoes within 
 the British Isles, the shortcoming of the crop in any particular 
 part will not be so serious as if the crop had been deficient 
 throughout the country generally. It is also of importance 
 to consider the character of the agricultural year as a whole, 
 for this, too, will have an influence upon the districts that 
 have been overtaken by misfortune. At this stage, therefore, 
 it may be useful to introduce a very few notes regarding farm 
 crops in general, and the potato crop in particular, in other 
 
56 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 parts of Ireland. I have recently travelled through a large 
 extent of the principal agricultural districts of Ireland, and 
 have taken some trouble to supplement my own observa- 
 tions, by intelligence derived from trustworthy sources. And 
 although in this letter I am giving information part of which 
 I have not had an opportunity of verifying personally, I feel 
 quite justified in saying that it may be regarded as trustworthy. 
 
 Throughout Ireland generally the weather during summer, 
 so wet and sunless, was unfavourable to the interests of the 
 farmers. Upon the whole, however, the harvest has been a 
 good one. Wheat suffered from the excessive rainfall and 
 lack of sunshine ; yet, in the great majority of cases, it is 
 giving a full average yield of grain. In exceptional cases, 
 chiefly on imperfectly drained lands, it is quite one-fourth 
 below the average. The barley crop is a bulky one in Ire- 
 land as well as in Scotland. The quality has sometimes been 
 better, but on most well-managed farms the yield exceeds the 
 average. 
 
 This has been emphatically an oat year. Not often, indeed, 
 is a better crop of oats grown all over the United Kingdom 
 than has been obtained this year. The oat crop delights in a 
 good deal of moisture, and will thrive with less sunshine than 
 either wheat or barley. In Ireland, in particular, there is 
 this year a remarkably rich and abundant crop of oats. On 
 the whole it is, perhaps, about the best that has been grown 
 in the poorer districts for a dozen years. Only in rare excep- 
 tions is the yield of oats below the average, and on the great 
 majority of farms it is considerably over the average. 
 
 Similar remarks might be applied to the crop of turnips. 
 A good year for oats is seldom a bad one for turnips. In 
 almost all parts of Ireland there is an excellent crop of tur- 
 nips this year. It is decidedly above the average, and this 
 means a good deal ; for wherever in Ireland the turnip crop 
 gets anything like fair treatment, it usually affords a bounti- 
 ful return. Both the climate and soil are favourable for root 
 culture. The bulbs continue growing longer through the 
 autumn than in Scotland, and I believe heavier yields of 
 Swedes are occasionally grown in Ireland than in any other 
 part of the United Kingdom. 
 
 But while this is true, it is only part of the truth. The 
 
THE YEAR’S CROPS. 
 
 57 
 
 Irish farmers as a rule, especially the tenants of the smaller 
 holdings, do not bestow sufficient care upon the preparing 
 and the cleaning of the turnip land. It is not stirred so 
 thoroughly as it ought to be, and too much licence is given 
 to noxious weeds. On this account the average yield of 
 turnips over Ireland generally is by na means great. Last 
 year the average for the whole of the Green Isle was stated 
 officially to be just over 13 tons per statute acre, and that 
 was nearly 2 tons in excess of the average in 1888. 
 
 Mangels, which cannot be grown with success in Scotland, 
 thrive admirably in Ireland, and form a valuable addition to 
 the farm crops, especially where dairying is pursued exten- 
 sively. Mangels usually yield a ton or two more per acre 
 than turnips, and this year the crop is very nearly as good as 
 the crop of turnips. On the small holdings, especially in the 
 midland and southern counties, mangels give an excellent 
 supply of food for cows wherever they receive anything like 
 * decent treatment. 
 
 There is a bulky crop of hay all over Ireland this year. In 
 most cases it is decidedly above the average, and only in 
 exceptions below it. With the dripping character of the 
 climate, haymaking is usually a precarious business in the 
 Emerald Isle. This year it was extremely so, for there was 
 more “ dripping ” than usual. The dry weather and bright 
 sunshine of September came in time to save much of the hay 
 crop, which lay in jeopardy at the end of August. The qual- 
 ity in many cases is not first-class, but the supply is abundant. 
 
 In the north of Ireland the flax crop is one of great im- 
 portance, and there has rarely been a richer produce from this 
 plant than has been obtained this year. It was both rank 
 and even, and will give a large return of fibre. As to pasture, 
 the supply of it has been exceptionally abundant. It would 
 have been more fattening in a warmer season ; yet stock have 
 thriven fairly well upon it. Still, it has not been a good year 
 for graziers. They bought in a dear market, and have been 
 selling in a cheap one. 
 
 Apart from the potato, then, as to which something will be 
 said presently, the year 1890-91 will be a year of plenty in 
 Ireland. It should, on the whole, be a good agricultural year, 
 giving plenty of food for man and beast. 
 
58 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 One other crop which luxuriates admirably in Ireland de- 
 serves a word. Weeds are everywhere plentiful as a rule, I 
 daresay above the average, both in quantity and quality ! 
 Give a weed “ half a chance ” in the genial climate of Ireland, 
 and it will grow well. It usually gets a full chance, and it 
 grows amazingly. On the richest grazing-lands of the large 
 farms it is just as abundant as on the poor tillage-land of the 
 smaller holdings. Does the average Irish farmer ever dream 
 of what he lets run to “ waste in weeds ” ? 
 
 A few words now as to the potato crop. What it is on the 
 small holdings of the congested districts has been pretty well 
 indicated. How has it fared in the other parts of Ireland ? 
 Variously, but on the whole much better than the appearance 
 of the tops six weeks ago led most people to expect. In a 
 large extent of the better-farmed parts there is an excellent 
 crop of well-grown potatoes, showing little or no disease. It 
 is only in exceptional cases that the yield could be said to 
 exceed the produce of an average year, but over a very large 
 extent of the country it approaches very nearly to the average. 
 
 Almost invariably where the land is of fairly good quality, 
 in good heart, well drained, and the crop skilfully and careful- 
 ly grown, there is a tolerably satisfactory return, rarely more 
 than 20 to 30 per cent under the average. On wet soils the 
 crop has suffered most. There is a great extent of imperfectly 
 drained land in Ireland, and this in a season like the past is 
 ill suited for potato-growing. In County Down, where the 
 land is, as a rule, worked more carefully and more thoroughly, 
 perhaps, than in most other counties in Ireland, the crop of 
 potatoes is wonderfully good. In many parts here it is even 
 over the average, and little damage has been done by the 
 disease. The tubers are well grown, and are of excellent 
 quality when cooked. These remarks apply especially to 
 Champions and Magnum Bonums. The latter variety has 
 lately been introduced extensively into County Down, and 
 the results from it this year are most satisfactory. In most 
 cases it has excelled the Champion. The older sorts, such as 
 Skerry Blues, have not done so well in County Down. They 
 are on many farms small in size and considerably injured by 
 disease. 
 
 In the adjoining county of Antrim the crop is more variable. 
 
THE YEAE’S CEOPS. 
 
 59 
 
 In several parts here it is from one-fourth to one-third or 
 more under the average. On the drier, better-managed land, 
 and where it was planted early, the crop is not far short of 
 the average. As a rule, in County Cavan the yield is under 
 the average. In some cases it is deficient by from 40 to 50 
 per cent, but in most instances the crop is turning out better 
 than had been expected. In the north of Ireland generally 
 the supply of potatoes is considerably below that of last year, 
 when it was far in excess of the local requirements. It is by 
 no means seriously deficient, however, and large quantities 
 are now being exported to England and Scotland. 
 
 In County Dublin the potato crop varies greatly, but it is, 
 as a rule, fairly satisfactory. A common experience is to dig 
 a little under an average yield in bulk and find from one- 
 sixth to one -fourth touched with disease. In Kildare the 
 crop approaches an average in a few cases where the land is 
 exceptionally good and well farmed, but it is badly diseased 
 in many parts of this county. On wet soils here it is just as 
 bad as in any part of the country — imperfectly grown and 
 much damaged by disease in the tubers. King’s County has 
 fared rather better. The crop as a rule varies from one-half 
 to three-fourths of an average yield of sound tubers. The 
 quality when cooked is not satisfactory. 
 
 In Queen’s County the crop is most erratic in its character 
 — fairly good on one farm and very bad on its neighbours. 
 On the wet, poor lands the disease has done much damage. 
 On dry, good land there are some excellent crops of Magnum 
 Bonums in this county ; nearly an average in bulk, and 
 almost free from disease. Curiously enough, on some of the 
 very richest land in County Meath the crop is very seriously 
 injured by disease. This is notably the case on land worked 
 in regular rotation. On the other hand, on fresh land on 
 which potatoes have not been grown before for several years, 
 and are now grown after lea oats, the crop here is, as a rule, 
 very good indeed. It is almost an average in bulk, shows 
 few traces of disease, and is of moderately good quality when 
 boiled. In Westmeath there is, as a rule, about one-third of 
 an average crop, with a small proportion of diseased tubers. 
 In some cases it is worse ; in others better. The crops in 
 the counties of Wexford and Wicklow vary from rather less 
 
60 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 than one-lialf to about two-thirds of an average, with some 
 exceptional cases in which, with disease and imperfect growth, 
 there will be little, if any, more than one-third of an average 
 yield. 
 
 Upon the whole, then, the Irish potato crop of 1890 will 
 be considerably short of the average, but will not be so defi- 
 cient as was at one time expected. I have seen estimates in 
 which the supply of sound potatoes was given at half that of 
 last year. I am inclined to think it will considerably exceed 
 that. And it should be remembered that in an average year 
 Ireland grows far more potatoes than it requires for its own 
 consumption. . Then, in England and Scotland, although in 
 certain parts of these countries also the crop is deficient, 
 there is a very large supply of sound potatoes. Taking the 
 United Kingdom as a whole, the supply of potatoes this year 
 is evidently ample for all its probable requirements. 
 
 XI. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 Now that the survey of the potato crop in the congested 
 districts of Ireland has been completed, it may be of interest 
 to draw together the threads which were picked up. Eirst, as 
 to the extent of the deficiency in the crop. In every district 
 this varies considerably. In the most severely afflicted parts, 
 such as the seaboard of West Cork, the wet, ill-cared-for soil 
 of Galway, and the still wetter and equally worn-out lands of 
 Donegal, the crop, I think, could not as a rule be safely 
 stated at more than from 30 to 40 per cent of an average 
 yield of sound, eatable potatoes. In certain cases, probably 
 on one holding in eight or ten, the deficiency is still greater. 
 In just as many instances the produce of eatable tubers would 
 be as high as from 50 to 80 per cent of an average crop. The 
 cases of entire failure are few and far between. 
 
 What quantity of food, then, will these small farmers have 
 lost in the deficiency of the potato crop ? In a moderately 
 good year their gross produce of potatoes would average about 
 3 to 4 tons. This year in the worst parts they, as a rule, 
 
RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 61 
 
 are not likely to have more than from 1 ton to 2 tons of pota- 
 toes that are suitable for consumption by the family. Many, 
 no doubt, will have more ; a few will have even less. It has 
 to be noted that in an average year most of the small farmers 
 grow considerably more potatoes than they require for food for 
 their families. Pigs and poultry are largely fed upon them, 
 and often the cows have a small share, while small quantities 
 are sold, or exchanged for groceries and Indian meal or flour. 
 
 It is notorious, indeed, that in years of plenty, potatoes are 
 used on the small farms of Ireland in the most lavish and im- 
 provident manner. It is but right that in considering the 
 actual extent of suffering or loss which the contraction of the 
 food-supply from the potato crop may inflict upon the small 
 farmers, these facts should be taken into account. It may be 
 assumed that in a year of scarcity a ton of potatoes may be 
 made to “ go much further ” than in a year of plenty, — this, 
 too, without the family suffering any more serious discomfort 
 or inconvenience than is involved in the practice of wholesome 
 economy. Although it may be the case that the great majority 
 of the small farmers in certain congested districts of Ireland 
 will raise from 1J to 2J tons less sound potatoes this year 
 than in an average year, it does not follow that they have lost 
 that much of essential food for themselves and their families. 
 They have assuredly been overtaken by a very serious mis- 
 fortune. The sum of their loss, or rather, their actual 
 suffering, however, will not, or at any rate need not, be so 
 great as would be represented by the proportionate shortcom- 
 ing in the potato crop. If they would promptly close up the 
 ordinary channels of waste, and use the supply they have got 
 with the strictest economy and care — in particular, if they 
 would take a little more than ordinary trouble in cooking the 
 potatoes and presenting them on the table in palatable forms 
 — they would not be so badly off as the percentage of 
 deficiency would indicate. They might make the ton and a 
 half go as far in feeding their families as a couple of tons or 
 more would carry them in years of plenty. A ton and a half 
 of potatoes will supply a family with 10 lb. daily for 336 
 days. 
 
 A word here as to the cause of the deficiency in the potato 
 crop on these small Irish farms. The dull, wet, sunless weather 
 
62 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 which prevailed during the greater part of the summer was 
 undoubtedly the chief and the primary cause. It brought in 
 its train a visitation of the potato fungus, Peronospora infestans, 
 varying in severity and not quite universal. The wretched 
 systems of culture pursued on most of these small holdings 
 intensified the untoward influence of both the weather and the 
 disease. The three combined have brought about the grave 
 calamity which has overtaken so many of the small farmers of 
 Ireland. The proportion of the mischief arising from each 
 cannot be precisely defined. I am decidedly of opinion, how- 
 ever, that the mysterious and much-abused fungus has had less 
 to do with the calamity than either the bad weather or the 
 bad systems of culture. The last-named must get the lion’s 
 share of the blame. No doubt had the weather been favour- 
 able, the potato land on these small holdings, wretchedly ill- 
 treated as it is, would have given a ton or two more produce 
 per acre. It is equally true, I think, that if the potato crop 
 had been grown on these holdings in anything like proper or 
 advantageous conditions, the bad weather and the fungus 
 could not have done a tithe of the mischief they have brought 
 about. 
 
 We have seen that when the potatoes were planted early 
 in the season on well- drained, well- tilled land, sufficiently 
 manured, and kept moderately free from weeds, the crop has, 
 as a rule, been fairly good — about two-thirds to three-fourths 
 of an average crop, with only a small percentage of diseased 
 tubers. In particular, on dry soils in airy situations very 
 little damage has been done l)y the disease. On the other 
 hand, where the crop has been grown in less advantageous 
 conditions — on wet, poor land, worn out and “ potato sick ” by 
 too frequent cropping with potatoes, chock-full of the grossest 
 weeds, and manured very sparely — the produce, as a rule, is 
 sadly deficient. Even here the loss is not due so much to 
 the actual destruction of the crop by the fungus as to the 
 deficiency in the development of the tubers. That this 
 deficiency in growth arises mainly from the unfavourable 
 conditions under which the crop is grown on the majority of 
 these holdings, cannot for a moment be doubted. 
 
 These points I have noted particularly, and I emphasise 
 them here, 7 for the reason that in a contemplation of the 
 
RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 63 
 
 recurrence of a potato plague in Ireland they seem to me to 
 possess very grave importance. The seat of the mischief is 
 the bad system of culture. So long as this continues, a 
 potato plague may be expected to follow every wet season. 
 If the disease accompany or succeed the inclement -weather, 
 which- it would be very likely to do, the disaster would be all 
 the greater. But even with little or no disease, a wet season 
 such as the past would be sufficient to seriously curtail the 
 crop of potatoes grown in such conditions as those under 
 which it is raised on the vast majority of the small farms of 
 Ireland. What inference is to be drawn from this ? That 
 by hook or crook these conditions of potato culture should be 
 radically altered. This must take place if Ireland is to 
 be saved from periodical distress. 
 
 There is much talk as to the propriety of the Government 
 giving the small farmers new seed, to be paid for at certain 
 intervals. This would be a temporary relief to those who 
 will have to eat what would otherwise have been used as seed. 
 But there is no permanence in this remedy. To distribute 
 costly seed to be planted in the miserably ill-conditioned, ill- 
 cared-for, “ potato-sick ” land which is waiting for it, would 
 seem to be doubtful policy. It may tide over the difficulty 
 for a year or two ; it will not remove it. The only remedy of 
 any reasonable degree of permanency and trustworthiness 
 would be the introduction amongst these small farmers of a 
 better system of culture — of such a system as would give the 
 potato something like a fair chance of holding its own against 
 the influences which oppose its healthy development. How 
 this improved system could be introduced on many of these 
 small holdings is a matter of extreme difficulty. There are 
 various means, however, by which improvement might be 
 effected, and the subject is one which demands most serious 
 and careful consideration. But it lies outside the subject- 
 proper of this inquiry, and I cannot conveniently further 
 discuss it here. 
 
 What are the prospects as to famine ? This is the question 
 of most immediate importance. I shall not presume to speak 
 upon it with absolute decision. It is a delicate question, sur- 
 rounded with difficulty and with not a little uncertainty. My 
 object has been rather to elicit facts than to draw inferences. 
 
64 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 Yet it will, perhaps, be expected that I should indicate the 
 impressions which I formed from what I saw and learned. 
 Actual distress cannot be general. It was, indeed, only in 
 exceptional cases that I discovered any symptoms of approach- 
 ing want. The small farmer who has at least one cow, a fair 
 stock of poultry, a pig or two, a ton or more of potatoes, a 
 small patch of turnips, and three or four small stacks of oats 
 and straw (perhaps thirty to fifty bushels of oats), and an 
 ample supply of turf for fuel, can hardly be regarded as on 
 the brink of starvation. The great majority of the small 
 farmers have more than one cow, and most likely also several 
 sheep. Then, one or more members of the family may have 
 earned a few pounds by labour in England or Scotland, or in 
 other parts of Ireland. And in Donegal, at any rate, several 
 shillings may be obtained weekly by knitting, spinning, weav- 
 ing, sprigging, > or shirt-making. In those families to which 
 these remarks would apply, there can be no danger of real 
 famine or of anything approaching it. 
 
 In those families which are not possessed of a cow, have 
 lost the greater portion of their potato crop, and have little 
 support from able-bodied men, there will undoubtedly be 
 varying degrees of want. Towards spring many of these may 
 require assistance to stave off starvation. There has been 
 much discussion as to how this relief should be given. 
 There is a consensus of opinion amongst intelligent men of 
 all classes and in all parts of the country against the giving 
 of absolute charity in a wholesale fashion as in 1886, or, 
 indeed, in any fashion excepting through the ordinary chan- 
 nels employed for the relief of the poor. I have heard warm 
 sympathisers with the people assert that they would almost 
 as soon see famine stalking the land as have the people again 
 exposed to such degrading, pauperising, dishonest practices as 
 occurred in connection with the relief given in 1886 and 
 1879. 
 
 In all the congested districts there will be during the 
 winter a vast amount of unemployed labour — men who are 
 well able to earn all the assistance their families are likely to 
 require. The cry is for work for this unemployed force. By 
 the extensive schemes of railway extension which the Govern- 
 ment have sanctioned, and have under consideration, this will 
 
THE POTATO FUNGUS. • 
 
 65 
 
 be provided to a very large extent. By other works, such as 
 road-making and land improvement, additional employment 
 may be given. There is therefore little likelihood of serious 
 privation overtaking any very large section of the Irish peas- 
 antry through the deficiency in the potato crop. 
 
 Nothing is further from my desire than to misrepresent 
 or minimise the calamity which has befallen the small farmers 
 of Ireland. It seems right, however, to point out that this 
 calamity consists solely of the deficiency in the potato crop. 
 In regard to all other sources of food-supply and income they 
 are as well off as in average years. The great majority of 
 them have lost about a ton and a half to two and a half tons 
 of potatoes. A few have lost rather more ; a good many con- 
 siderably less. 
 
 The rent of these small holdings seems, as a rule, to be very 
 moderate. In a vast number of cases it is so small as that it 
 could hardly affect them greatly either way whether they paid 
 it or not. On one property which I visited in Donegal there 
 are over 800 holdings of about 10 to 13 acres, with 3 to 5 
 or more acres arable, and the right of pasturage on the ad- 
 joining mountains. The rent of these averages just over 17s. 
 per annum. I was assured on excellent authority that on 
 this same property, as over this part of the country generally, 
 the amount annually spent on tobacco for smoking would 
 average from 40s. to 60s. per holding. More than three rents 
 blown away in smoke ! 
 
 XII. THE POTATO FUNGUS. 
 
 It has been thought that a fitting termination to the letters 
 on the potato plague in Ireland would be a few notes regard- 
 ing the particular fungus which periodically plays such havoc 
 with the potato crop. Peronospora infestans is its scientific 
 name. It is one of those mischievous agencies which would 
 seem to be for ever prowling about ready to seize upon 
 struggling objects, leaving only the fittest to survive. A 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 strong, healthy potato plant, grown in advantageous conditions 
 as to soil, climate, and weather, can defy all the Peronosporce 
 that ever existed. A weak plant in unfavourable environ- 
 ments falls an easy prey to its fungus enemy. 
 
 It may be assumed that the germs of the disease are ever 
 present. With conditions congenial to fungus development 
 they come forth in myriads, devastating the potato crop in 
 their progress. These congenial conditions are damp, dull, 
 calm weather, and a moist or wet soil enveloped in mists 
 morning and evening, and — if I may use the phrase in this 
 connection — deficient in ventilation. The fungus generally 
 delays its coming till about the last ten days of July. I have 
 been assured that it appeared this year in some parts of 
 Ireland as early as the first week in that month. It is more 
 than probable that my informants may have mistaken its 
 cousin-german Peziza postuma for the Peronospora infestans. 
 Be this as it may, I saw enough to make it certain that the 
 latter had begun its destructive work earlier than usual this 
 year. I likewise inferred from the traces of its handiwork 
 which I came across, that while it had begun early, it was not, 
 as a rule, so rapid in its progress as one would have expected 
 from the character of the season. In this remark I refer only 
 to Ireland. Amongst the early potatoes in the south-west of 
 Scotland it ran its ruinous course with all its wonted rapidity. 
 The truth is, I firmly believe that, wet as was the summer, 
 and congenial to it as are the conditions under which much of 
 the potato crop is grown in Ireland, the outbreak of the fungus 
 in the Green Isle this year has been of a mild type, hardly, 
 except in a few limited localities, so virulent as to assume the 
 character of an epidemic. 
 
 The life-history of this fungus, in so far as is necessary for 
 practical purposes, may be told in a very few words. It is 
 believed that the fungus invariably begins its attack in the 
 leaves of the potato plant. There it is first seen in a delicate 
 white bloom, accompanied by dark blotches caused by the 
 spawn of the fungus having pierced the leaf and set up 
 putrefaction. These early traces will most likely be seen in 
 greatest profusion in the lower or drooping leaves, which may 
 be covered with moisture and are not exposed to the drier air 
 playing upon the upper leaves. If the climatic conditions are 
 
THE POTATO FUNGUS. 
 
 67 
 
 favourable to the fungus, it will now develop rapidly, ramify- 
 ing throughout the leaves, blasting them as it proceeds, and 
 sending into the atmosphere an offensive odour too familiar to 
 potato-growers in recent years. The power of reproduction 
 possessed by this mysterious fungus is so wonderful, that with 
 a favourable temperature (from 60° to 68° Fahr.) and a 
 moist atmosphere one growth or germ will in a few days 
 multiply ten thousand times. The spores or germs of the 
 disease are so light and fine that they float through the air, 
 while by insects and birds they are carried about in vast 
 numbers. The disease will most likely have begun at only 
 one or two centres, but by the germs carried from plant to 
 plant in a moist breeze it may rapidly cover the entire field. 
 It may even pass from one field to another, for in a dull misty 
 morning or evening the tiny but deadly germs may be con- 
 veyed long distances. From the leaves the disease spreads 
 successively to the leaf-stalks, the stems, and the tubers. The 
 latter may be also reached by the spores or germs falling from 
 the leaves and being carried thence through the soil by mois- 
 ture. The spawn of the fungus would seem to have no diffi- 
 culty in piercing the skin of the tuber. When it has done so, 
 it consumes or rots the cells and corrodes the starch, and 
 ultimately may reduce the entire tuber to a black mass of 
 rottenness. 
 
 In this last stage of its active course of destruction the 
 fungus provides means of continuing its life. It produces 
 myriads of “ resting- spores ” which lie dormant during the 
 winter and spring, and carry on the disease to the crop of the 
 succeeding year, which in its turn passes the fungus through 
 another round of its curious life, to be handed on again from 
 crop to crop as before. It is believed that every part of the 
 fungus excepting these resting-spores perishes with the plants 
 upon which it has been developed. These resting -spores, 
 however, would seem to be possessed of amazing vitality. 
 They live through the winter and spring in decayed potato 
 material, ready to throw out new growth in the following 
 June. 
 
 It is extremely desirable that farmers should make them- 
 selves familiar with the life-history of this destructive pest. 
 If they do so they will be the better able to contend against 
 
68 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 it. Many remedial measures have been tried. Those which 
 have been found most useful in preventing or mitigating the 
 onslaught of the fungus are — (1) Earthing up the potato 
 drills with a deep covering of earth, with the view of pre- 
 venting the fungus from passing down the stem or through 
 the soil to the tubers ; (2) cutting off the diseased potato-tops 
 before the fungus reaches the tubers ; (3) removing and 
 burning all dead and decaying potato-stems, leaves, and 
 tubers, especially after a crop which has been attacked by the 
 disease ; (4) planting varieties which have been known to be 
 exceptionally successful in resisting the disease; (5) growing 
 the potato crop under such general cultural, sanitary, and 
 manurial conditions as will ensure to the fullest extent pos- 
 sible the healthy and vigorous development of the crop ; and 
 (6) careful selecting and storing of potatoes to be used as 
 seed. As yet no certain prevention or absolute remedy has 
 been discovered, but all these measures have been carried out 
 with advantage. 
 
 The Jensen system of earthing-up has been extensively 
 tried, with results which have been variable. The general 
 conclusion regarding it would seem to be, that if carried 
 out carefully and at the proper time, immediately the first 
 symptoms of the disease are seen, it will most likely have the 
 effect of greatly mitigating a serious attack of the disease. 
 In many cases, however, it has been tried with no avail, and 
 in most instances it has been found to have a marked ten- 
 dency to lessen the yield of fully grown potatoes, increasing 
 the proportion of small unmarketable potatoes to such an 
 extent in not a few cases as to render the crop unprofitable. 
 The practice has never come into general use, and very few 
 persevere with it. Still when it can be done without serious 
 injury to the potato-tops, it might be well to resort to the 
 protective moulding when a vigorous attack of the disease is 
 threatened. 
 
 The plan of cutting off the tops when the fungus appears 
 will most likely stop its progress. It is a cure, however, 
 which may be worse than the disease. If the leaves and 
 stems are removed the tubers will cease growing. The starch, 
 of which the tuber is so largely composed, is first formed in 
 the leaves, and if these are prematurely removed the result 
 
THE POTATO FUNGUS. 
 
 69 
 
 must be a deficient crop of tubers. Nevertheless some resort 
 to this plan, thinking it preferable to secure a small crop of 
 immature potatoes than to rely upon what the unchecked 
 disease might leave. It is recommended as a further pre- 
 caution, that when the tops are cut off, the cut ends of the 
 stems should be sprinkled with dry lime. 
 
 Experience has proved conclusively that certain varieties of 
 potatoes are for a time more successful in resisting the fungus 
 than others. The potato, as we now know it, is a highly 
 cultivated plant, living a decidedly artificial life, and therefore 
 liable to lose vigour and stamina unless tended with the most 
 perfect care. Varieties which are long in use become im- 
 paired in constitution and fall an easy prey to the fungus 
 which delights to feed upon them. On the other hand, nevr 
 varieties of exceptional robustness repel the disease with un- 
 usual success. A good illustration of this is afforded by the 
 Champion potato, which, after several years of remarkable 
 immunity from disease, is at last showing weakened powers 
 of resistance. The obvious lesson from this is, that the raising 
 up of new varieties of marked constitutional vigour should be 
 encouraged by every possible means. 
 
 The fifth remedial measure mentioned above is one which 
 may be specially commended to farmers. Unquestionably the 
 strength of the crop to resist the fungus, or its liability to 
 injury from an onslaught of the disease, may be powerfully 
 influenced by the conditions under which the crop is culti- 
 vated. It is true beyond all doubt that whatever tends to 
 impair the healthy growth of the plant, or weaken its vitality, 
 assists the fungus in its attack. It is well known that for 
 the fructification and free propagation of the fungus on the 
 potato plants a considerable amount of moisture on and 
 around the potato plants is essential. Indeed nearly every 
 part of the fungus speedily perishes in dry air, heat, or frost. 
 Eor its existence water or moisture is absolutely necessary. 
 From this we draw the practical lesson that potatoes should 
 as far as possible be grown upon well-drained land, in a dry, 
 elevated, bracing position. From this the small farmers of 
 Ireland might learn that the cutting of a drain or two in their 
 small potato-patches would not be lost labour. 
 
 Manuring is another important point. If the soil is poverty- 
 
70 
 
 THE POTATO PLAGUE IN IRELAND. 
 
 stricken, and the application of manure insufficient for the 
 immediate wants of the crop, the produce can be neither abun- 
 dant nor constitutionally strong. And the manure to produce 
 a. sound, vigorous potato must be well balanced, supplying all 
 the essential elements of plant-food in due proportion. More- 
 over, the land must not only be dry and well manured, but it 
 must also be well tilled, so that the tubers may have a free, 
 well-aired soil in which to ramify and develop. 
 
 And is it too much to expect that the crop should have the 
 land to itself ? If it should perchance have to raise 5 to 1 0 
 tons of weeds at the same time, could it be reasonably ex- 
 pected that the soil (especially if it should happen to be 
 steeped in water, and miserably manured) would produce a 
 vigorous crop of tubers, such as would be well fitted to combat 
 the fungus ? Those who have perused my letters will observe 
 that this picture, faintly indicated, does not misrepresent the 
 prevailing conditions under which the potato crop is grown 
 on the small farms of Ireland. We have it on the authority 
 of the late Professor Baldwin, that “ it is no uncommon thing 
 to find 1 0 tons of weeds in an acre of potato ground ” in Ire- 
 land. I presume it will hardly be contended that potatoes 
 grown in these conditions are likely to be well fitted to resist 
 the fungus. The fact that even in an average year the small 
 farmers of Ireland dig only from 3 to 4 cwts. of potatoes for 
 every cwt. of seed which they plant, indicates fairly well the 
 miserable conditions under which the crop is grown. Is it 
 any matter for surprise that epidemics of the fungus should be 
 of frequent occurrence on these holdings ? It is with the 
 potato as with a human being — deprive it of wholesome food 
 and healthy sanitary surroundings, and disease will speedily 
 ensue. 
 
 An essential and useful precaution against future outbreaks 
 of the disease is to gather and destroy all potato refuse — 
 leaves, stems, and rotten tubers — that may be left on the field 
 when the crop has been raised. In all probability, if the disease 
 has attacked the crop this refuse will be swarming with the 
 germs of the disease. On many farms it is the practice to 
 gather this infested rubbish into the dung-heap. It is a bad 
 practice. The sooner it is given up the better. It is practi- 
 cally nursing the enemy — keeping it warm and vigorous for 
 
THE POTATO FUNGUS. 
 
 71 
 
 future attacks. The rubbish should be either burned, or 
 buried beyond the reach of the plough. 
 
 The storing of the potatoes to be used as seed is a point of 
 some importance. If there has been any disease in the crop 
 from which the seed has been taken, only such tubers as ap- 
 pear to be perfectly sound should be selected. They should 
 be stored in perfectly dry, airy places, with ample means of 
 ventilation. Seed potatoes should never on any account be 
 stored on wet ground, and they should not be covered up till 
 they are perfectly dr} r . A pit in which potatoes have been 
 allowed to heat and decay is a veritable hotbed for the fungus. 
 Peronospora infestans is an insidious enemy. It must be kept 
 at bay at every corner. 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 
 
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