UNIVERSITY OF LIBRARY AT AGHICULTUP.r NQN CIRCULATING CHECK FOR UNBOUND CIRCULATING COPY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN No. 147 MAKKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT BY L,OUIS D. HAL,L, URBANA, ILLINOIS, JULY, 1910 SUMMARY OF BULLETIN No. 147 1. Objects: To describe and illustrate the standard classes and grades of beef, veal, mutton and pork recognized in Chicago wholesale markets ; and to define technical terms that are commonly used in wholesale meat quotations. BEEF 2. The general divisions of the beef trade are (i) Carcass Beef, (2) Beef Cuts, and (3) Cured Beef Products. Page 155. 3. CARCASS BEEF. The classes are Steers, Heifers, Cows and Bulls and Stags. They differ not only in sex, but also in the uses to which they are adapted. Page 155. The grades within these classes are prime, choice, good, medium, common and canners. The grades are based on differences in form, thickness, finish, quality, soundness and weight. Page 136. The terms "Native," "Western" and "Texas" beef each include various classes and grades of carcasses, and refer to general differences in form, finish and quality. Page 185. The terms "Yearlings," "Distillers," "Butcher" and "Kosher" also include various classes and grades of beef, and merely indicate characteristic features of carcass beef use by certain branches of the trade. Page 186. "Shipping beef" refers to that sent to eastern cities and consists prin- cipally of steers, heifers and cows of medium to prime grades. Export beef consists largely of medium to prime steers. Page 189. 4. BEEF CUTS. The "straight cuts" of beef are Loins, Ribs, Rounds, Chucks, Plates, Flanks and Shanks.. (Fig. 22.) Page 190. The grades of beef cuts are No. i, No. 2, No. 3 and Strippers. The grade of a beef cut depends upon its thickness, covering, quality and weight. Page 190. 5. CURED BEEF PRODUCTS. These are classified as (i) Barreled, (2) Smoked and (3) Canned Beef. Page 208. Barreled Beef is graded as Extra India Mess, Extra Plate, Regular Plate. Packet, Common Plate, Rolled Boneless, Prime Mess, Extra Mess, Rump Butt and Mess Chuck Beef, Beef Hams and Scotch Buttocks. Page 209. Smoked Beef consists of Dried Beef Hams, Dried Beef Clods and Smoked Brisket Beef. Page 210. Canned Beef consists principally of Chipped Beef, Beef Loaf, Corned and Roast Beef. Page 210. VEAL 6. The divisions of the veal trade are (i) Carcass Veal and (2) Veal Cuts. Page 211. 7. CARCASS VEAL. The grades are choice, good, medium, light and heavy. The grade of a veal carcass depends upon its form, quality, finish and weight. Page 211. The terms "Native" and "Western" veal each include several grades of calves, and refer to general differences in form, quality, and finish. Page 216. 147 8. VEAL CUTS. The regular veal cuts are Saddles and Racks. They are graded as choice, good, medium and common, according to the same factors as carcass veal. Fig. 36.) Page 217. Subdivisions of the regular cuts are made in some markets and similarly graded. (Fig. 36.) Page 217. MUTTON AND LAMB 9. The divisions of the trade are (i) Carcass Mutton and Lamb and (2) Mutton and Lamb Cuts. Page 222. 10. CARCASS MUTTON AND LAMB. The classes are Wethers, Ewes, Bucks, Yearlings and Lambs. Page 223. The grades within these classes are choice, good, medium, common and culls. The grades are based on differences in form, quality, covering and weight. Page 223. The shipping trade goes principally to cities in the eastern seaboard states and consists largely of medium to choice lambs. Page 242. 11. MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS. The leading cuts are Saddles and Racks, together with Legs, Loins, Short Racks, Stews and Backs. (Fig. 51.) They are graded in the same manner as carcass mutton and lamb. Page 245. PORK 12. Hog products are described under three heads: (i) Dressed Hogs, (2) Pork Cuts and (3) Lard. Page 252. 13. DRESSED HOGS. The classes are Smooth, Heavy, Butcher, Packing and Bacon Hogs, Shippers and Pigs. The classification is based on the uses to which the hogs are adapted. Page 252. Distinct grades are recognized only in the Packing and Bacon classes, the former being based on weight and the latter chiefly on quality and finish. Page 253. 14. PORK CUTS. The classes are Hams, Sides, Bellies, Backs, Loins, Shoul- ders, Butts and Plates, and Miscellaneous. (Fig. 61.) Page 263. Pork cuts are quoted as fresh pork, dry-salt and bacon meats, barreled or plain-pickled pork, sweet-pickled meats, smoked meats, "English" meats and boiled meats, respectively. Page 263. The grading of pork cuts is much more complex than that of other meats. It involves not only their quality, shape, finish and weight, but also the styles of cutting and methods of packing used. Page 267. 15. LARD. The grades are Kettle-Rendered Leaf, Kettle-Rendered, Neutral, Prime Steam, Refined and Compound Lard. The grading is based on the kinds of fats included, method of rendering, color, flavor and grain. Page 288. 148 CARCASS BEEP BEEF CLASSES STEERS HEIFERS Cows BULLS AND STAGS GRADES r PRIME . . CHOICE . GOOD . . . MEDIUM - COMMON PAGE ...160 ...162 . . . 163 ...165 .. 166 PRIME . . . CHOICE . . GOOD MEDIUM . COMMON . CHOICE . - GOOD MEDIUM . COMMON . CANNERS CHOICE . . GOOD MEDIUM . COMMON . ...168 ...170 ..171 ,..172 ...173 . . 175 . 176 ...177 ...178 .. 179 ...180 ...182 ,..183 ..184 BEEF CUTS CURED BEEF PRODUCTS CARCASS VEAL VEAL CUTS FIG- URE 1 2,4 3,4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 Miscellaneous "Native" " Western" and 1 -' Texas" Beej .185 "Yearlings," "Distillers," "Butcher" and "Kosher" Beef 186 21 Shipping and Export Beef 189 LOINS No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, STRIPPERS 195 23, 24 RIBS " 198 25 ROUNDS " 200 26 CHUCKS " 203 28, 29 PLATES - " 206 31 FRANKS 206 32 SHANKS " 207 33 SuET 208 f BARRELED 208 \ SMOKED 210 ( CANNED 210 VEAL CLASSES GRADES CHOICE 214 34 GOOD 214 34 MEDIUM 215 35 LIGHT 215 35 HEAVY 215 35 "Native" and " Western" Veal f CHOICE 218 37a I GOOD 218 37a SADDLES MEDIUM ....219 37b [_ COMMON 219 37b f CHOICE 220 38a , GOOD 270 38a * MEDIUM 221 38b COMMON 221 38b 149 MUTTON AND LAMB CARCASS MUTTON AND LAMB MUTTON CUTS LAMB CUTS CLASSES GRADES f CHOICE . . . PAGE 227 FIG- URE 40 I GOOD 227 40 WETHERS | MEDIUM . . . [ COMMON . . r CHOICE .227 227 .228 40 40 41 EWES GOOD 4 MEDIUM. . . . .228 .229 41 42 COMMON . . . 1 CANNERS . . . (GOOD .229 .229 .232 42 42 43 BUCKS MEDIUM. . . . .232 43 YEARNINGS COMMON... . (CHOICE GOOD MEDIUM. . . . .232 .233 .233 .233 44 44 r CHOICE GOOD .235 235 45,46a 45 46a LAMBS < MEDIUM. . . . COMMON . . . 1 CUIvlyS .235 .235 .237 45,46b 45,46b {CHOICE .248 52 GOOD .248 52 LEGS LOINS 1 MEDIUM COMMON . . . {CHOICE- .... .248 .248 248 52 52 52 GOOD 248 52 RACKS MEDIUM. . . . 248 52 SHORT RACKS STEWS . BACKS COMMON . . . 248 249 52 {CHOICE .... 250 53 GOOD 250 53 r SADDLES MEDIUM. . . . 250 53 LEGS LOINS COMMON . . . {CHOICE 250 250 53 53 GOOD 250 53 RACKS SHORT RACKS STEWS BACKS. . . MEDIUM COMMON 250 250 252 53 53 150 PORK FIG- CLASSES GRADES PAGE URE DRESSED HOGS BUTCHER HOGS . . . 255 55 (HEAVY 256 56, 57 PACKING HOGS MEDIUM 256 56 LIGHT 758 (CHOICE 259 58 GOOD 26U 59 COMMON 260 59 SHIPPERS . . . 262 60 PIGS . . 262 60 PORK CUTS HAMS SIDES BELLIES REGULAR SHORT-CUT 269 62, 64 SKINNED 269 62 BONELESS ROLLED . . . 270 65 REGULAR L,ONG-CuT . 269 63 STAFFORD 269 63 MANCHESTER 269 63 ITALIAN 269 63 SHORT RIBS REGULAR 271 JOBBING 273 66 HARD 272 EXTRA 273 66 SQUARE 272 SHORT CLEARS REGULAR 273 66 SQUARE 274 EXTRA 273 66 ENGLISH BACON SIDES WILTSHIRE 275 67 CUMBERLAND 275 67 DUBLIN 275 67 LONG RIB 274 LONG CLEAR 275 67 YORKSHIRE 275 67 STAFFORDSHIRE . 275 67 DRY-SALT 277 68 SWEET-PICKLE !77 68 BREAKFAST-BACON.. 277 68,70 ENGLISH 277 68 151 PORK CONTINUED CLASSES PORK CUTS CONTINUED * BACKS L,OINS SHOULDERS BUTTS AND PLATES MISCELLANEOUS KETTLE RENDERED GRADES PAGE f SHORT RIB ........... 227 J SHORT CLEAR ........ 277 I SHORT FAT ........... 277 ^ IVONG FAT ........ 279 REGULAR L/OIN ROLLS 273 280 ROUGH 282 REGULAR 280 PICNIC 284 NEW YORK CUT 282 SKINNED 282 SQUARE 282 NEW ORLEANS CUT . . . 282 BONELESS ROLLED 283 BOSTON STYLE BUTTS 282 MILWAUKEE STYLE BUTTS ........ 283 BONELESS BUTTS ..... 282 BuFFALOSTYLE BUTTS283 NEW YORK STYLE BUTTS ...... ... 282 PICNIC BUTTS ......... 282 DRY-SALT BUTTS ..... 284 SQUARE-CUT BUTTS. . .284 REGULAR PLATES ..... 282 CLEAR PLATES ........ 282 BACK PLATES ......... 285 MESS PORK .......... 273 BELLY PORK ......... 286 BACK PORK .......... 286 SHOULDER PORK ..... 287 SPARERIBS ............ 284 TRIMMINGS ......... 288 lyARD L/EAF 288 KETTLE RENDERED . . 288 ( No. 1 289 NEUTRAL } No. 2 289 ( CHOICE 289 PRIME STEAM ( REGULAR 289 REFINED . . . 290 COMPOUND . . ..290 FIG- URE 69 69 69 61 66b 72 74 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 75 75 73 73 66a 75 152 MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT BY LOUIS D. HALL, ASSISTANT CHIEF IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY The objects of this bulletin are to describe and illustrate the standard classes and grades of beef, veal, mutton and pork of the Chicago wholesale trade, and to define various technical terms that are commonly used in wholesale meat quotations. The most intelligent production of animals for slaughter in- volves a knowledge of the standard requirements of the meat mar- ket. Breeders, feeders or investigators who consider only the cost of production and the market value of the live animal, ignoring the demands of the meat trade, overlook one of the most important factors that affect the live stock market and may thus fail to fol- low the most rational lines of improvement in breeding and feed- ing. Live stock producers, however, have exceedingly limited op- portunities for becoming familiar with this subject. The rapid development of transportation, refrigeration, slaughtering and packing facilities has led to the present system of large markets separated by distances which make them practically inaccessible to a large majority of stockmen. Further, since animals are sold by live weight the shipper feels concerned with their value on foot rather than, their dressed yield. Finally, definite classifications are lacking in some branches of the meat trade, and the classifica- tions in use are often complicated by variations in market condi- tions. The trade has become so vast and complex that it is very difficult and has become increasingly difficult with each succeed- ing year for one not engaged in the meat business to secure a definite knowledge of its various branches. The present tendency toward a more highly centralized organization of the retail meat trade in some localities increases still further its inaccessibility to the live stock producer. As a result of these conditions meat dealers and consumers are far more familiar with the subject than meat producers. The following descriptions, therefore, are in- tended primarily to be of value to breeders and feeders who do not have opportunities to secure the information directly. With 153 154 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, an understanding of meat trade requirements it is possible for a stockman to judge the carcass yield and quality of his animals as intelligently as buyers at the stock yards ; because his knowledge of the feeds used, length of feeding period and gains made, are as essential in making such estimates as the apparent form, con- dition and quality of the fat animal, upon which points the buyer must chiefly rely. The descriptions herein presented are based on data secured by the writer in a personal investigation at wholesale meat mar- kets at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, which are the largest es- tablishments of their kind in the world; also at prominent whole- sale and retail markets in Chicago and other cities which are sup- plied from the large houses at the Union Stock Yards. The en- gravings are from photographs taken under the writer's direction at the markets and at this Experiment Station. The officials and salesmen of the large packing houses and the retail dealers, job- bers, and other expert authorities who were consulted gave the most willing assistance. The valuable suggestions and informa- tion furnished by these gentlemen are gratefully acknowledged. The classifications under which meats are quoted differ slightly in different American cities according to the nature of the sup- plies received and the peculiarities of the local trade. They are essentially alike, however, at all the great packing centers of this country, and since most American wholesale markets are sup- plied from these centers, the classification as presented may be re- garded as standard. Market classifications of meat, like those of live stock, are more or less flexible because of the varied and varying conditions which affect the industry. In those branches of the trade in which the current market terms are vague and the classifications loose, the writer has attempted to present the subject as systematically as possible without exaggerating the classification actually in use. It is impracticable to include here all the minor and intermediate grades of meat within each class, and this bulletin describes only those classes and grades which may be considered standard or rep- resentative. It is also difficult to describe a grade of meat inde- pendently of others within its class. Generally, therefore, each grade should be studied in connection w r ith those above and be- low it. Attention is called to the fact that the following classifications are those of the wholesale meat trade and not of the live stock mar- ket, and that they are described independently of the latter. The weights given refer to dressed carcasses and cuts, and in no case to live animals. Altho in some instances the classes of meat correspond to those of live stock, they are in the main quoted and MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 155 sold quite separately and differently from the live animals from which they are obtained. It is outside the objects of this bulletin to consider the relation of the animal to its meat products. It is hoped, however, that it will assist materially in placing such in- vestigations on a more exact and uniform basis than would oth- erwise be possible, and that it will increase the number and sig- nificance of future investigations along this line. BEEF The general divisions of the beef trade are ( i ) Carcass Beef, (2) Beef Cuts and (3) Cured Beef Products. The term Fresh Beef includes carcass beef and beef cuts. It refers both to chilled beef, which is held in refrigeration at 36 to 38 F. for a few days or weeks only, and to frozen beef, which is stored at 10 to 15 F., usually for several months. About four-fifths of the beef trade consists of fresh beef, the remainder being converted into various products such as barreled, smoked and canned beef, sausage meats, etc. CARCASS BEEF About one-half the supply of fresh beef sold in wholesale mar- kets is carcass beef (sides and quarters). The two sides or halves of a carcass are termed a "cattle". In the right or "closed" side the inner surface of the kidney fat is attached to the loin while in the left or "open" side it is free and a portion of the "skirt" (diaphragm) extends to the tenth* rib, forming the 'hanging ten- derloin". The two sides are nearly equal in weight, but the open one is often one percent the heavier. When sides are sold sep- arately no discrimination in price is made between rights and lefts. Sides are quartered or "ribbed" between the twelfth and thir- teenth ribs* when taken from the chillroom either for shipment or local delivery, except export and "Boston" cattle, which are cut between the tenth and eleventh ribs. The quarters are called "fores" and "hinds". In shipping and export trade, the four cor- responding quarters are regarded as a carcass of beef; that is, they are sold as "straight cattle" rather than miscellaneous sides or quarters. In "car-route" and local city trade carcass beef is to a considerable extent handled as separate "fores" and "hinds". Regular hindquarters contain 47 to 49 percent of the carcass weight and fores 51 to 53 percent, the average being about 48 percent hinds and 52 percent fores. In "exports" the quarters are practically equal in weight. Hinds are quoted about 25 per- cent higher than fores in the cold months and up to 40 percent *Beef carcasses contain thirteen pairs of ribs. It is customary to number them from the neck backward. 156 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, higher in summer. The influence of season upon the price is due to the large amount of boiling and stewing pieces in the fore- quarters, which meats are both more palatable and more econom- ical to cook during the winter season than in warm weather and consequently are in greater demand at that time. Carcass beef which is thick and fat enough so that the entire side can be sold over the butcher's block in retail cuts is known as "block beef" or "side beef". "Cutters" are dressed cattle that are not sufficiently thick-fleshed nor fat to be entirely utilized by the retailer, but contain certain wholesale cuts (loins and ribs) which may be so used. "Canners" are those carcasses from which none of the regular wholesale cuts suitable for butcher-shop use can be obtained, and which, consequently, must be divided into smaller cuts such as boneless fresh meats and cured beef products. CLASSES AND GRADES OE CARCASS BEEF The classes of carcass beef are Steers, Heifers, Cows, and' Bulls and Stags. This classification is based not merely upon diff- erences in sex, but also upon the general uses to which they are adapted, as described in connection with each class. Within the four classes, side beef is graded as prime, choice, good, medium, common and canners. In the markets the highest grade is sometimes termed "extra choice" or "fancy" beef; the term "fair" is frequently used instead of medium, and canner sides are often called "culls". Grading Carcass Beef The grade to which a carcass, side or quarter, belongs depends upon its form, thickness, finish, quality, soundness and weight. By form is meant the shape or "build" of the side, its gen- eral outlines and the proportions of its different parts. Ideal con- formation consists of compactness, i.e., good width in proportion to length ; short shanks and neck ; and full rounds, loin and ribs. It is associated more or less closely with a proper degree of thick- ness and is also partially dependent upon the covering or finish of the carcass. Large plates,* "hollow" loins, prominent hips, thin chucks or "rangy" loosely coupled sides are especially discrim- inated against. A "rimmy" side is one showing an unusual de- gree of curvature in the ribs, giving the side a warped appear- ance and corresponding to paunchiness in live cattle. Thickness of a carcass refers to the amount of lean flesh it *For explanation of cuts see Fig. 22, page 191. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 157 carries. Thick-meated loin and ribs and full, compact rounds and chucks are especially essential. "Built like a cart-horse" describes the fleshing demanded in high-grade carcasses. In the case of quartered sides the depth of lean meat on the ribs is readily seen. It is true that thickness depends somewhat upon the finish of the carcass; but there is a clear distinction between thickness due to fatness and thickness due to muscular flesh. Also, quality and firmness of flesh must be considered in judging thickness. For example, carcasses of distillery cattle often have a plump, thick appearance which is deceptive in that the flesh is not firm. Only the knife can completely reveal the thickness of a side and the pro- portions of fat and flesh. The appearance of an uncut side often misleads the most expert dealers with regard to the actual thick- ness of flesh. Finish corresponds to "condition" in the live animal; in other words, it refers to the amount and distribution of fat on the .car- cass, and to the quality of flesh so far as it depends upon the de- gree of fatness. Perfect finish involves a smooth covering of firm, white fat over the entire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back (about one-fourth inch on 5oo-pound carcasses, up to three-fourths inch on Qoopound cattle) ; a white brittle "kidney" of medium size; and a lining of fat deposited in flakes or rolls on the inner surface of the ribs. The rounds and shanks are covered last in the process of fattening, hence these parts are indications of the last degree of finish. The fat must not be ex- cessive at any point, especially over the loin and ribs, because this indicates either an overdone condition or a tendency toward thick crusty covering without good marbling, i.e., mixture of fat thru the lean flesh. The highest quality of beef is that which contains the largest proportion of well marbled lean with the minimum of excess fat, but a certain amount of the latter is in- dispensable in prime beef. In the lowest grade, outside fat is en- tirely lacking. A carcass carrying soft, "gobby" fat sells at a discount. A "green" or "grassy" appearance of the flesh indicates a marked lack of finish; it is a watery, flabby condition which is characteristic of grass-fed cattle. Quality in beef is so closely associated with form, thickness and finish that the term is often used loosely to cover all three points. In a more definite sense, however, quality has reference to size, color and softness of the bones, smoothness and grain of flesh, color and general appearance of carcass, and an absence of coarseness in general. A carcass may be thick, fat and of excellent form and yet fall below the highest grade because it lacks quality in one or more of the above particulars. 158 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Quality of flesh in a carcass depends chiefly upon its smooth- ness, grain and color. Rough, uneven flesh detracts from the ap- pearance and usefulness of the beef. Coarse grained, stringy, fibrous flesh is usually an indication of poor breeding, staggi- ness, advanced age or improper nourishment of the animal. Lack of grain and firmness, on the other hand, go with beef that lacks the age required for mature beef. Very young beef seldom has "substance" or marbling, and is high in percentage of water. It is considered by beef experts that carcasses of cattle under fifteen to eighteen months old are not generally mature enough for prime beef cuts, and those above three to four years old are usually past the point of highest quality, being too coarse in bone or grain of meat or uneven in finish. There are, of course, individual ex- ceptions outside these limits of age. Quality of bone is judged principally from the chine, breast- bone and ribs. (Fig. 22.) The bones should be as small as con- sistent with the weight of the carcass. They are also a valu- able indication of the age and consequently the quality of fl~sh of a carcass. The "buttons" or cartilages on the ends of the chine bones (spinous processes) are soft and white in carcasses of cat.ie up to one and one-half or two years old, and the bones or pro- cesses to which they are attached are soft and red with blood vessels. Thereafter the "buttons" or "pearls" gradually ossify, and at three years have changed to a dark gray color but are somewhat distinct from the bone proper until about the fifth year. Similar cartilages on the breast-bone disappear thru ossification before the third or fourth year. The breast-bone, backbone, ribs and pelvis gradually harden and whiten, especially after the age of eighteen months, and the segments of the rump bone unite, forming an apparently continuous surface. The bones of cows and heifers turn hard and white earlier than those of steers. In splitting the carcasses of old cows, bulls and oxen the chine bones are so flinty as to break and crush rather than cut, which gives the side a ragged appearance. In color the fat should be a clear white and the flesh a bright, rich red. A "fiery" carcass is one the surface of which is spotted with highly colored blood vessels, due to incomplete bleeding when slaughtered. This indicates a similar condition within the lean and such sides usually "rib" dark. It may be due either to a feverish condition, fatigue from long shipment, pregnancy, or ex- citement at time of slaughter. A dark yellow fat is characteristic of Jersey and Guernsey cattle; it is also believed to be an in- dividual peculiarity of some cattle, and to be due to the feed in some cases. It is not always an indication of poor quality but is generally associated with dark colored and poorly marbled /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 159 meat. "Spotters" are carcasses in which brown or black spots are found in the flesh, varying in size from mere specks to one- eighth inch in diameter. These spots are sometimes found on the flank and skirt (diaphragm) but usually are not visible until the side is cut open in quartering. They are usually found in choice native beef and their cause is not known. Carcasses are generally sold subject to the return or discount of those which cut out spotted or very dark. Such defects detract about 25 percent from the value of a carcass. Soundness is considered in grading all beef carcasses, but most of all in the higher grades. A large percentage of carcasses are sold at a discount or sent to the cutting room on account of bruises, which injure both the appearance and keeping quality of the meat, altho as a rule the injured portion is trimmed off in the dressing process. Bruises are found most commonly on the hips, shoulders, and plates, these being the most exposed parts of the carcass. Such bruises are usually inflicted in shipment of cattle to market or in handling them in the stock yards. Unnecessary blows over the backs and loins of cattle cause the discounting of many car- casses which would otherwise grade high. Cattle which have been shipped long distances, such as Texas and Western range cattle, are bruised to a considerable extent, and droves of horned cattle show more carcass bruises than others, as a rule. Large brands are often visible on the carcass, sometimes sufficiently to diminish its value. "Bone-sour", which is caused by decomposition of the "joint water" of the hip-bone, is a common defect in heavy carcass beef. Especial care must be taken in the case of export beef both as to "bone-sour" and bruises, either of which, however slight, excludes a side from export trade. Over-ripe beef, which has been held in storage too long or with insufficient refrigeration or ventilation is also considered unsound. If well covered with fat it may be allowed to mold on the outside, otherwise a moldy con- dition indicates that the meat is tainted. Weight is of importance in grading beef in the sense that the heavier carcasses are generally better in form, thickness, finish and quality than the lighter ones, and because different classes of retail trade differ as to the size of the steaks, roasts and other cuts which they demand. Consequently a system of grading by weight is of convenience to both buyer and seller. In shipping and export trade, carcass beef is assorted according to the following weights : (i) over 950 lb.; (2) 850-950 Ib. ; (3) 750-850 Ib. ; (4) 650- 750 lb.; (5) 600-650 lb.; (6) 550-600 lb. ; (7) 500-550 lb. ; (8) under 500 lb. The heaviest carcasses seldom exceed 1050 pounds; the minimum weight is about 250 pounds, but compar- atively few beef carcasses are sold in averages below 400 pounds. 160 BULLETIN No. 147 Heifers and cows are separated into only four or five grades rang- ing from 450 pounds or under, to 750 pounds or over. Bulls and stags are not handled as carcass beef sufficiently to necessitate grading by weight, and the bulk of those sold in the carcass weigh 700 to 950 pounds. The influence of weight in determining the market grade of a carcass varies with different branches of the FIG. l. PRIME STEER. jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 161 trade and with the season, as will be noted in describing the var- ious classes of beef. As to the relative importance of the above factors in grading carcass beef, it may be said that in the higher grades finish is particularly essential, with thickness, quality and form of about equal importance. In the medium and lower grades, finish is a minor item and quality is of less relative importance than thickness and form. Weight and soundness are more important in the higher than in the* lower grades. STEERS Steer carcasses are identified by the cod fat, and generally by their full, fleshy rounds and loins, heavier, coarser bones, and short necks as compared with cows. They show more quality and finish than any other class, and are sold as carcass beef more extensively than any other class except heifers. The grades are Prime, Choice, Good, Medium and Common. Prime steers ("fancy" or "extra choice") completely fill all the requirements of carcass beef described on pages 156 to 159. They are the "show cattle" of the beef trade. They weigh 900 to 1 100 pounds (dressed) altho it is not uncommon to find sufficient finish and quality in carcasses below 800 pounds to grade prime. Finish is of special importance because this grade of beef supplies a trade which requires rich, tender steaks and roasts even at the expense of considerable waste tallow. The demand for a limited amount of prime beef is comparatively constant and uniform. It supplies the highest class of city, shipping and export trade. Excepting a few weeks at the holiday season, however, little distinction is made between fancy and choice beef. See Fig. i. Choice steers are excellent in shape and thickness but lack the high finish demanded by the most select holiday trade. They are the highest grade of dressed beef found regularly in the market, and are uniformly compact, thick and smooth. Any indications of coarseness or a marked lack of finish bar a bullock from this grade. They are most in demand from October until Lent. The bulk weigh 800 to 950 pounds. Choice cattle that are shipped or exported are handled in the quarter, while those used locally are sold chiefly as No. i wholesale cuts except the plates and flanks, which are largely sold as barreled beef. See Figs. 2, 4. Good steers are somewhat deficient in either finish, thickness or form, but at the same time have sufficient covering to show that they have been fattened on a grain ration. Or, they may be thick and w r ell finished but coarse in bone and flesh, or show too much age. They commonly weigh 650 to 850 pounds. Steer carcasses 162 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, weighing 750 to 800 pounds generally sell lower than heavier cattle of the same quality and finish because they are too light for the jobbing or hotel trade and too heavy for the retailer. This grade of beef is used largely in the shipping trade, and is also sold to hotels and restaurants that cater to commercial rather than fashionable patrons. See Figs. 3, 4. FIG. 2. CHOICE STEER. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 163 Medium steers are so graded because of a deficiency in any or all of the points mentioned in reference to the higher grades, but to a more marked extent. As a rule they are about as fat as good steers but many have no covering over round or chuck, and a com- mon feature of the grade is coarseness of quality and conforma- tion. Some slightly staggy cattle are included. Heavy plates, hol- low loins, prominent hips and shoulders, light rounds, long necks, dark color, "grassy" flesh or other equally objectionable points are found in this grade. They are the lowest grade of bullocks that are ordinarily sold in the carcass, and the majority of the supply is sold to retail markets. The wholesale cuts of medium FIG. 3. GOOD STEER. 164 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 4. A, CHOICE STEER. B, GOOD STEER. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 165 FIG. 5. MEDIUM STEER. 166 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 6. COMMON STEER. 167 Western steers are frozen in large quantities during the fall sea- son. The 'general run weigh 550 to 750 pounds and some plain carcaeses are included up to 900 pounds. See Fig. 5. Common steers have but little outside fat and kidney suet. They are angular, long in shank and neck, and generally dark colored or "grassy" in flesh. Many sides which are disqualified from higher grades by reason of bruises, stagginess, "off color" (fiery, spotted or yellow), or other defects, are sold as common. (Fig. 6.) They average 450 to 600 pounds. When sold as carcass beef they are taken by jobbers or retailers who supply a cheap trade. Ordinarily, however, they enter the trade as wholesale cuts and barreled beef. They are the lowest grade of steer sides with the exception of an inconsiderable number of culls used for canning purposes. The latter are comparable in quality with com- mon and canner cows. The proportion of common carcasses is much smaller in the steer class than in others because thin steers are extensively shipped from the market to the country as feed,- ers, whereas nearly all cattle of other classes sold at the large mar- kets are slaughtered. HEIFERS Heifer carcasses are distinguished from steers by the bag (udder), and as a rule they have smaller bones, slightly more angu- lar rumps, less development of lean flesh, and average somewhat less in weight. While the percentage of carcass weight in loins and ribs is frequently as high in heifers as in. steers, the greater thick- ness of lean meat in those parts of the steer is greatly to his ad- vantage. Further, the tendency in heifer beef is -to carry the fat more largely in the form of kidney suet or "gobby" fat than steers in the same degree of finish ; they are also flatter in the loin, fatter in the plate and more "necky" than steers. Accordingly heifer beef is rated lower in the market than steers of corresponding grades. The average heifer carcass is lighter in weight and lower in grade than the average steer. Experts are not agreed as to the comparative quality of the two classes of beef, and it may be said that differences in color, texture and "substance" of flesh are not marked. The prevailing notion that heifer beef is in relatively higher favor in England than in America is true only so far as the best grades are concerned. Heifer sides differ from cows in their immaturity, indicated by softer bones and brighter color of flesh ; in shape, especially their less angular rumps, fuller loins, and shorter necks; and in their smoother finish and smaller, firmer bags. Heifers are sold principally in the side or quarter, owing to the demand for this beef for retail butcher trade. A considerable proportion of this class are yearlings (page 186), averaging 400 to 600 pounds. The regular run of heifers weigh BULLETIN No. 147 350 to 750 pounds, and are graded Prime, Choice, Good and Medium. Prime heifers are selected according to practically the same requirements as prime steers, with special reference to full loins and rounds, compact form, smooth finish, short neck and light udder. They seldom have quite the thickness of flesh found in steers. The few carcasses of this grade which appear in the mar- FIG. 7. PRIME HEIFER. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 169 kets are usually seen in lots of choice and prime bullocks, in which case they may sell at a uniform price with the latter. When sold separately they are discriminated against by most American deal- ers, on the ground that the steaks and roasts do not cut out as thick in the lean as those cut from steers and that the proportion of waste fat is greater. Since this discrimination is not made in British trade, owing to its greater demand for fat steaks and roasts, prime and choice heifer carcasses are frequently exported. See Fig. 7. Choice heifers are similar to choice steers except in the points mentioned in the preceding paragraph. As a class they are im- perfect in finish and quality rather than in form and thickness as compared with prime heifers. Like the latter, they must be strictly "maiden" heifers ; that is, the carcass must bear no evidence of pregnancy. They are sold to city and country retail dealers, shipped east, and occasionally exported to Great Britain. See Fig. 8. Good heifers. These are sides that are clearly above the av- erage of the class but lack either the finish, thickness or conform- ation, or all, required of a choice side. They must have sufficient covering and kidney fat to show that they have been fattened on a grain ration. Local retail dealers use a great deal of this grade of beef and much of it is shipped to the smaller cities. See Fig. 9. Medium heifers. The medium or average heifer carcass is plain in conformation and deficient in flesh and finish. A marked deficiency in either of the three points renders a side medium which would otherwise grade good, and many of this grade are of the heavy weights (700-800 pounds) and somewhat "cowislr' in general appearance. They are the lowest grade of heifer sides that can be entirely sold over the block of the ordinary retailer, and are to some extent made into wholesale cuts before being sold by the killer. This beef supplies the second class trade of w r hich most retailers have more or less, and is used for the bulk of the trade in cheaper markets. See Fig. 10. Common heifers. Common heifers have little covering of fat and only sufficient thickness of flesh to be used as cutters. This grade also includes many heavy heifers which are still more "baggy" and "cowislr" than medium heifers. In fact little dis- tinction is made between common heifers and cows as the dif- ferences are much less apparent than in higher grades, and in many cases are quite immaterial. (Fig. n.) Very few heifers are found among canners, and those that are so found are well represented by the illustration and description of canner cows. 170 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 8. CHOICE HEIFER. /9/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 171 FIG. 9. GOOD HEIFER. 172 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 10. MEDIUM HEIFER. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 173 FIG. 11. COMMON HEIFER. 174 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Cows The angular form, long neck, hard, white bones and lack of thickness of the majority of cow carcasses make them easy to dis- tinguish from other classes of beef. The bag is trimmed off as closely as possible in dressing cows but it is generally large and "baggy" enough to indicate the class of the carcass. The bones are also hard and therefore clo not split as smoothly as heifers or steers, especially at the chine and loin. Fat cow carcasses often carry their tallow as kidney fat and in bunches on the back and rump rather than an even covering; and the flesh is seldom as well marbled as that of heifers or steers. Fat is especially im- portant in cows because such beef generally requires "ageing" or ripening to render it tender, and good covering is essential for this purpose. A large percentage of the carcasses of this class are cutters and canners, with a correspondingly smaller proportion suitable for "side beef". Cow sides which have the amount of fat required in prime steers and heifers are as a rule either crusty or lumpy, so that no prime grade is recognized in the markets. The grades are Choice, Good, Medium, Common and Canners. Choice cows average 600 to 900 pounds, canners 250 to 500, and other grades accordingly. Many of the heavy weights, however, are graded lower than choice on account of waste fat. Choice cows have as much fat as choice heifer sides but are not usually as good in shape nor thickness, the loin being flatter, neck and shanks longer and rump more prominent. They are less num- erous than the same grade of heifers, and the few that come into the markets are seen mainly during the fall and early winter. Too much age, lack of loin and rib covering, lumpy fat and a heavy bag are defects each of which bar many carcasses from this grade. Choice cows are taken in the carcass by a good class of retail trade, and are also cut up to quite an extent in wholesale markets for No. i loins and ribs. See Fig. 12. Good cows. This grade is above the average of cow sides in general quality. Deficient finish is found in all cow beef grading below choice, but kidney fat and outside covering are not en- tirely lacking in either the good or medium grades. Good cow sides are chiefly used for the cheaper trade of retail markets. See Fig. 13- Medium cows. While these carcasses have the quality and cov- ering necessary in a low grade of dressed beef, they are better adapted to the cut beef trade and are generally so used. Medium cows must have a moderate amount of kidney fat and a slight cov- ering over the ribs, loin and rump. Many of them are plainly jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 175 FIG. 12. CHOICE Cow. 176 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, deficient in thickness of flesh, especially over the loin and ribs, are rougher about the hips and rump, lighter in the rounds and longer in the neck than good cows. See Fig. 14. FIG. 13. GOOD Cow. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 177 Common cows. These are inferior in conformation to steers of the same grade, being on the "shelly" order, i.e., poorly fleshed, bare on the ribs and warped in shape, showing the effects of re- peated pregnancy. They are very prominent at hips and rump, nearly devoid of covering and kidney fat, white and flinty in bone and decidedly wanting in thickness. This grade also includes a few carcasses that are medium to good in thickness and shape but FIG. 14. MEDIUM Cow. 178 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, inferior in color, finish or general quality. They are used prin- cipally as cutters and for stripped and frozen cuts, barreled beef, etc. See Fig. 15. Conner cows are the lowest grade of this class, and make up the bulk of the beef used for canning purposes. Typical canner sides have no covering, no kidney fat, and in most cases only sufficient flesh to hold the bones together, so that the shape of such carcasses is of the most inferior order. The flesh is generally very FIG 15. COMMON Cow. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 179 dark in color. This grade, as well as"the one above it, also con- tains many bruised sides, some of which are otherwise medium. About one-third of the carcass is used for canning- and sausage o o purposes, and the remainder is "stripped" and sold in the form of boneless fresh beef cuts and barreled beef. See Fie;. 16. FIG. 16. CAXXER Cow. 180 BULLETIN No. 147 BULLS AND STAGS [July, Dressed bulls are easily recognized by the prominent neck, heavy shoulders, thick rounds, dark color, coarse-grained flesh, and the absence of cod fat. Rough conformation and hard bones are also common characteristics of bull sides. Bruises, bad color, and "bone-sour" account for the low grade of many bulls and FIG 17. CHOICE BULL. jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GKADES OF MEAT 181 stags. Many stags approach steers in form, quality and finish, while others are difficult to distinguish from bulls. Altho various grades of beef are found in this class, the proportion of medium and lower grades is much larger than in the steer and heifer classes, and comparatively few bull sides are adapted to the dressed beef trade. As a class bulls have "dark coarse flesh with no marb- ling, which when made into sausage, absorbs a large percentage of water, and when smoked shrinks but little. Hence the majority of bull carcasses in the market are partially used for sausage, and the rounds made into smoked beef hams. The class is for the most part deficient in covering and finish, tho in thickness of flesh bull sides as a class are decidedly superior to cows. The regular grades are Choice, Good, Medium and Common. In weight, choice carcass bulls average 900 to 1200 pounds, common bulls 550 to 800, and other grades in proportion, tho in some cases the grade is quite independent of the weight. Choice bulls resemble good to choice steers in thickness, color and maturity, but are heavier in neck and rounds, and the finish is never equal to that of steers of choice grade. Occasionally, how- ever, a choice stag carcass is seen which is very difficult to dis- tinguish from a steer. 700 to goo-pound bulls of choice quality are used by some retail butchers for their cheap trade, and can be so used to best advantage during the colder months, when boil- ing meat is more in demand than in the warm seasons. Even this grade of bulls, however, can ordinarily be cut up with more profit to the wholesaler than can be realized by selling them in sides or quarters, because wholesale cuts do not bear as much evidence of the sex and general quality of the carcass as beef in the side. There is also a considerable export trade in choice and good car- cass bulls of heavy weights. See Fig. 17. Good bulls. This grade is distinguished from choice bulls by deficiencies in quality, conformation and color. To grade good, however, a bull carcass must be moderately fat and smooth and not too coarse nor dark-colored in flesh. A very small proportion of good bulls sell in the carcass to the cheapest dressed beef trade but they are principally utilized for beef cuts, both "straight" and boneless, and the cheaper parts of the carcass for sausage and smoked or barreled beef. See Fig. 18. Medium bulls. Sides of this grade often have the muscular thickness required in side beef but lack sufficient covering of fat. They are rougher in appearance than good bulls and are usually characterized by coarse fle-~h, hard white bones, and very heavy necks and rounds. Some of the ribs and loins go to a cheap clas> of restaurant trade, ?nd the other parts are largely used as barreled and smoked beef. When common bulls are scarce medium grades are more largely us?d for cured beef products. See Fig. 19. 182 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 18. GOOD Buu,. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 183 FIG. 19. MEDIUM Bui/r,. 184 BULLETIN No. 147 FIG. 20. COMMON BULL. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 185 Common or Bologna bulls. Bull carcasses which have no covering of fat and are plain or rough in form but still fairly thick fleshed are known as bolognas. They include many bruised sides, and most of this grade are very dark in color and flinty in bone. The lean and dry nature of these carcasses adapts them to the manufacture of bologna sausage and dried beef. A considerable proportion of such sides also yield ribs and loins which can be sold straight or stripped. They average 600 to 900 pounds. See Fig. 20. A small percentage of the supply of dressed bulls and stags grade as canners. The description of canner cows applies in all essential points to the corresponding grade of bulls, and their use is similar. "NATIVE", "WESTERN" AND "TEXAS" BEEE In connection with the preceding classification, carcass beef may be further designated as "Natives", "Westerns" or "Colo- rados", and "Texas". These terms are used in the same sense, tho scarcely to the same extent, in the beef trade as in the live cattle market. The distinct differences which formerly separated them have become much less marked in recent years owing to im- provement in quality of beef produced in the West and South- west. It must be understood that these names do not apply to all beef marketed from the section or state indicated. They are suf- ficiently distinct, however, to give each term a reasonably definite meaning in market circles; and they are sometimes applied even to wholesale beef cuts (page 194). "Native" carcass beef differs from "Western" principally in shape, finish, thickness and age. It is fatter and firmer in flesh, showing the effect of grain feeding; more compact in form, shorter in shanks and neck, thicker fleshed in loin, ribs, rounds and chucks, more mature in proportion to age and much better in marbling and general quality. Natives consist chiefly of med- ium to choice steers, heifers and cows of the heavier weights, but they include all grades of beef and are used either as dressed beef, cutters or canners. They make up over 85 percent of the carcass beef trade at Chicago. "Westerns" or "Colorados" are carcasses that are compara- tively "rang}-'' or loose-coupled in form, "grassy" or "green" in appearance, with coarser-grained flesh, larger, whiter bones, lighter kidneys, wider plates, more prominent shoulders and lighter, longer rounds than Natives. They do not run as fat as Natives, and most of them are "hipped' or bruised on the plates and ribs. The flesh just underneath the shoulder blade is almost invariably dark colored, as is observed when the chuck is taken off. The 186 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, rump bone is generally thicker and more prominent than in Natives. Heavy, well-finished "Colos" or "Collies", as they are called by salesmen, frequently yield loins and ribs that can be substituted for those of Natives. By far the greater proportion of carcasses in this class are medium and common grades, with a considerable percentage of cows, and a smaller proportion of heif- ers than in Native cattle. Heavy steers (750 to 1000 pounds) of this description are usually termed "Colorados" and the 500 to 75O-pound steers "Westerns". Western cows weigh 450 to 700 pounds. Most spayed heifers are Westerns; they are a very small percent of the number slaughtered, and little or no difference in price is made as compared with open heifers. The supply of Westerns is confined principally to the period from July to De- cember, which is known in the beef trade as the "cattle cutting season". They are sold to a considerable extent as dressed beef, but are also cut up and stored in freezers in the form of No. 2 and No. 3 loins, ribs, rounds and chucks; also strips, rolls, clods, tenderloins, etc., and to some extent in quarters. These- cuts are sold from the freezers mainly from Februray to June, when med- ium and lower grades of fresh beef are scarce. The plates, flanks and rumps are packed as barreled beef, and the rounds as "beef hams". "Colorado" beef constitutes only about 10 percent of the trade. "Texas" beef refers to light-weight carcasses, more deficient in form and finish than "Westerns", and more "grassy" or "washy" in flesh, together with hard bone and dark color, show- ing considerable age. Many "Texas" sides are severely bruised due to long shipments of the live cattle. Large scars, resulting from branding the hide too deeply, are visible on the carcasses in some cases. They grade from canners to medium or good. Only 5 percent or less of the annual supply at Chicago consist of "Texas" beef, most of this beef being handled at Kansas City, St. Louis and Ft. Worth. It is in season from June to October. A larger proportion of this beef than of "Westerns" is cut for freezers. Both as carcass beef and as beef cuts it is- taken mainly by small retail markets. The supply consists principally of three- and fourvyear-old steers and aged cows averaging as follows : light steers, 500 Ib. or less; medium steers, 500-600 Ib. ; heavy steers, over 600 Ib. ; light cows, 400 Ib. or less ; medium cows, 4001-500 Ib. ; heavy cows, over 500 Ib. "YEARLINGS", "BUTCHER", "KOSHER" AND "DISTILLERY CATTLE". "Yearlings" are carcasses of young steers and heifers of 400 to 700 pounds dressed weight, with sufficient quality and finish to be used as block beef. Their immature age is indicated by light colored flesh and fat, and bones that split soft and red, especially MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 187 FIG. 21. YEARLING (Goon STEER), 188 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, the chine and brisket. They are graded choice, good and medium, and seldom have sufficient finish or maturity to be termed prime. The term yearling is applied more especially to good and choice young carcasses weighing 450 to 650 pounds. Thickly fleshed loin and ribs, short, compact body and high finish with one-fourth to one-half inch of fat on the back and some covering on the chucks and rounds are important points in choice yearlings. These cattle are in special favor with retail dealers who supply family trade, owing to the fact that they contain small but tender steaks and roasts with a small proportion of fat. See Figs. 7, 21. "Butcher" Cattle, as the term is applied to carcass beef, are those which are suited to "butcher shop" trade. The typical re- tail meat market requires carcasses from which can be cut i to 1 1 /2 -pound steaks and 4 to 6-pound roasts with no waste fat and of quality commensurate with a moderate price. The grades of carcass beef which yield such cuts are heifers, steers and cows of good, medium and common grades, averaging 400 to 700 pounds dressed weight. For the better class of trade, good and choice yearlings, especially heifers, are most in demand. Texas steers of the heavier weights are also used. The bulk of the city butcher trade, however, is supplied with light steers and heifers of medium to choice grades. Cows are largely cut up or sold to small re- tail markets. "Kosher" cattle are dressed beeves that have been slaughtered, inspected, cleansed and labeled in accordance with Jewish rites, kosher being the Hebrew word for clean. The throat is cut with- out stunning the animal, the vital organs are specially inspected, and the carcass washed and labeled under the supervision of a rabbi. If not used within three days, the carcass is rewashed, and must be washed each three days until the twelfth day after slaughter, when it is no longer "Kosher". Only the fore quarters are used by orthodox Jews, and the principal grades of cattle used for Kosher beef are medium to choice steers, cows and heif- ers. This trade is confined almost entirely to large cities, es- pecially New York and Chicago. Under the restrictions imposed by Kosher rules, it is impracticable to ship this beef to eastern cities from Chicago and it is therefore a local trade, the eastern supply being shipped on foot. "Distillers" are steers, bulls and stags that have soft, "puffy", "washy" flesh together with the "high_color" that is characteristic of cattle fattened on distillery-slops. They are thick-meated and fat, but the flesh does not become as firm after chilling as that of corn-fed beef and the fat does not "set" as well owing to the soft feed and close housing employed in fattening and the consequent tendency toward a feverish condition of the carcass. The surface /9/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 189 fat has a smooth, glossy, yellowish appearance. On cutting the fore quarters the flesh along the shoulder blades appears very dark. Distillers consist principally of good and medium steers and medium to choice bulls averaging 700 to 900 pounds. They are best adapted to the hotel and restaurant trade of large cities owing to their heavy weight, and a large proportion of the supply is shipped east. They are found in the market from April to June and a few thruout the summer months. SHIPPING AND EXPORT BEEF TRADE The fresh beef trade of eastern cities draws upon Chicago for all grades of carcasses described in the foregoing outline, but principally steers, heifers and cows of medium to prime grades. The demand in each city is as varied as the population, and with improved transportation and refrigerating facilities any grade of fresh beef can be delivered in good condition. Certain cities, how- ever, are characterized by special demands which are recognized by the trade. Boston is the best market for very heavy fat steers, and discriminates less against excessively fat bullocks than any other city. The term "Bostons" is generally applied to such car- casses. Carcass beef shipped to Boston is quartered between the tenth and eleventh ribs. New York is celebrated for its extensive trade in Kosher beef, probably four-fifths of the beef koshered in this country being used in and near that city. This accounts for the large proportion of live cattle to dressed beef shipped from Chicago to New York, and for the large proportion of medium and lower grades in shipments of dressed beef to that city. Balti- more demands a comparatively large proportion of the lower grades of beef. Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Washington, Cleveland and Buffalo use an assortment of grades similar to that sold in Chicago. Refrigerator car-routes which supply small cities and towns thruout the country handle principally the grades of beef enumerated under "Butcher Cattle". Much low-grade beef is used in mining and lumbering districts, and orders from such districts are largely for strictly lean carcasses such as common light cows and bulls. Export carcass beef consists chiefly of medium to choice steers. Heavy heifers, cows, bulls and stags of the good and choice grades are also exported. Bruised sides are discarded, and care is ob- served in testing for soundness, especially "bone-sour". Export cattle are dressed differently from domestic beef in that the sides are not scribed,* the hind quarter has three ribs, and the hanging- *Scribing consists in cutting the chine-bones the length of the fore quarter on a line midway between the back-bone and the outer surface of the carcass. This permits the chine-bones to bend outward when the beef "sets", and gives the side a thicker appearance than otherwise. 190 BULLETIN No. 147 l-//y. tenderloin and skirt are trimmed off. The quarters are wrapped separately in muslin. This trade has greatly diminished during recent years. BEEF CUTS As previously stated, wholesale fresh beef trade is about equally divided between carcass beef and beef cuts. The latter are sold both as "straight cuts" and as subdivisions thereof. The "straight cuts" handled in Chicago markets are Loins, Ribs, Rounds, Chucks, Plates, Flanks and Shanks (Fig. 22). The loin is separated from the round at the hip joint. The flank is cut from about the middle of the thirteenth rib to the opposite lower corner of the loin. The shank is sawed off just below the sec- ond knuckle (shoulder joint). The plate is cut off on a line ex- tending from about the middle of the twelfth rib thru the point at which the shank is removed. The rib and chuck are separated between the fifth and sixth ribs. The standard grades of straight cuts are No. I, No. 2, and No. j. Cuts that are too deficient in thickness and quality to be used on the butcher's block, and which are consequently made into boneless cuts, barreled beef, sausage, etc., are termed strippers. Grading Beef Cuts The factors that determine the grade of a wholesale cut of beef are its thickness, covering, quality and weight. Thickness of lean flesh is of self-evident importance. Con- sumers demand a large proportion of lean in steaks and roasts of whatever grade. Lean beef has a much higher market value than fat or bone, hence thickness of flesh is of first consequence, even in the cheaper cuts used for boiling and stewing. The depth of flesh is usually an indication of the class of beef from which a cut has been made, especially in distinguishing steer cuts from those of .cows. The shape and general appearance of a cut also depend very largely upon its thickness. Covering or depth of fat is most essential in the more valuable cuts, viz., the ribs and loins, because they supply the trade that is most particular in regard to quality of meat ; arid the highest quality of lean can be secured only at the expense of a liberal amount of fat. Those who are accustomed to buying round and chuck steaks expect little or no fat. As explained in referring to carcass beef, the lower grades are often entirely wanting in outside covering; and in second-class retail markets it is not un- common to see ribs and loins, as well as cheaper cut?, from which the fat is conspicuously absent. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 191 1, 2,3. Round 4, 5, 6. Loin 7. Rib 8. Chuck 9. Flank 10. 11. Plate 12. Shank 13. Suet FIG. 22. BEEF CUTS. 1. Hind shank 1, 2, 3, 4, 2. Round, R.&S. off 5, 6, 9. 3, Rump 4, 5. Loin end 6. Pinbone loin 5, 6. Flatbone loin 10. Navel 11. Brisket 7, 8, 10, 11,12. 7,8. 7,10. a. Aitch-bone Hind quarter b. Rump-bone c. Crotch Fore quarter d. Cod Back Piece e. Chine-bones f. "Buttons" 8, 11, 12. Kosher chuck g-. Skirt 8, 10, 11, 12. Triang-le h. Breast-bone 192 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Quality in beef cuts refers particularly to the grain and firm- ness of the lean, the marbling (distribution of fat thru the lean), and the proportion of bone and other waste in the cut. The grain of meat consists in its fineness of fiber or texture and the cut sur- face should be glossy, smooth or "velvety" in appearance and touch, as opposed to stringiness and coarseness. By firmness, in this connection, is meant "substance" or "body", as distinguished from a soft, gluey, or "washy" consistency of the flesh. It is an in- dication of tenderness, juiciness and maturity. On the other hand, firmness due to a dry, stringy condition of the flesh is objection- able. Ripening or "ageing"in the cooler improves the firmness, tenderness and flavor of beef, provided it is sufficiently fat. Very lean beef deteriorates rapidly after a few days in the chill-room. Frozen cuts sometimes develop a flabby or sloppy condition after thawing, due to the separation of the water from the tissues of the meat. This renders the cut tough and greatly detracts from its flavor. The importance of marbling consists mainly in its in- fluence on tenderness. When fat is deposited in the connective tissue cells thruout the lean, the elasticity of the connective tissue is diminished, and the meat is improved in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. Marbling is of special importance in ribs and loins of the higher grades, and is not usually evident in other cuts except the best No. i rounds and chucks. The proportion of bone di- rectly affects the amount of edible meat in a cut and is therefore important. The bone is also a valuable indication of the age and class of the carcass from which the cut was taken. Coarse, hard bone is found in the same cut with coarse, stringy meat. Color is of great importance in grading beef cuts, as it is an indication of the age and quality of the beef. The fresh cut sur- face of the lean should be a rich, bright red, and should turn brighter rather than darker after exposure to the air at refrigerator temperatures. A very dark color is an indication of either an old animal or a feverish or heated condition of the animal when slaughtered, and is also characteristic of cuts taken from bulls and stags. Exposure in a warm atmosphere, however, will produce a dark color on the surface of beef of any grade. A very pale or pinkish tinge, on the other hand, usually indicates immaturity. Cuts showing dark spots in the lean are placed in the No. ? and Stripper grades. The fat should be a clear white. In the lower grades it varies from white to yellow. Weight affects the grade of a beef cut in the same manner and to about the same extent as in the grading of carcass beef. Altho the higher grades are made up largely of heavy cuts, a light cut may grade No. i, if it complies with all other requirements of MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 193 that grade, and a heavy cut is graded No. 2 or No. 3 in case of deficiency in thickness, quality or color. The heavier weights of each grade are cut from steer sides, and from stags and bulls to a small extent in the No. 2's and No. 3's, while the light cuts are largely from cows. For example, No. i cuts are principally from choice and prime 800 to looo-pound native steer carcasses and choice 750 to QOO-pound native cows ; No. 2's are largely from medium and good 650 to Soo-pound steers and 600 to 75O-pound cows; and No. 3's are made chiefly from 450 to 6oo-pound com- mon and medium cows, also from Texas and light Western steers. Stripper cuts are made from canners, medium and common bulls, Texas and common light Western cattle. AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF STRAIGHT BEEF CUTS (POUNDS) Grade Loins Ribs. Rounds Chucks Plates Flanks Shanks No 1 50-85 30-50 75-110 75-110 40 80 15-20 10-20 No 2 40 60 25-35 60 80 60 80 30 50 10-15 5-10 No. 3 25-40 20-25 40-60 40 60 20-35 5-10 Strippers 20 30 15-20 30-40 30-40 15-20 Relative weights of the above cuts vary slightly in different markets according to the method of cutting and are varied more or less with changing market prices of the different cuts. The fol- lowing table represents (i) the range of these variations and (2) the percentages that are commonly used in estimating the cutting vield of side-beef : PERCENTAGES OF WHOLESALE BEEF CUTS TO CARCASS WEIGHT Cuts Thorns Ribs Rounds Chucks Plates Flanks Shanks Suet Extreme rang-e 15-19 8-11 20-26 21 27 12-16 2-5 3-7 2-7 Conven- tional average 17 9 23 26 13 4 4 4 In general, a high finish indicates a relatively large percent of kidney-suet; carcasses of the higher grades contain a smaller per 194 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, cent of kidney suet than lower grades if equally fat; and cows and heifers yield a larger percent of kidney suet than steers of the same grade. Otherwise the various classes and grades of carcass beef are similar in relative proportions of different cuts ; and the above variations are caused mainly by the method of cutting and by individual characteristics of different carcasses. The relative market value of these cuts correspond to the order of their arrangement in the above tables, excepting suet, which is more variable. For the purpose of mental calculations as to the cutting value per pound of side-beef, a carcass is regarded as con- sisting of four parts which are approximately equal in weight, viz., (i) loins and ribs, (2) rounds, (3) chucks, and (4) plates, flanks, shanks and suet. By averaging the market prices of the four divisions the value per pound of a carcass can be very closely estimated. Similarly, "hinds" are regarded as consisting of 50 percent round, 35 percent loin and 15 percent flank and suet; "fores", 50 percent chuck, 20 percent rib and 30 percent plate and shank. It is customary in quotations of beef cuts to differentiate be- tween steer and cow cuts; e.g., No. 2 steer loins and No. 2 cow loins. This distinction is readily recognized in the cuts by their shape, bones, thickness, quality and color as explained in refer- ence to carcass beef. Heifer cuts are seldom quoted, owing to the demand for heifer beef in the side. "Native" and "Wes- tern" cuts are sometimes specified in quotations of No. i and No. 2 cuts and are distinguished by the characteristics described on page 185. In the No. 3 and stripper grades of cuts little or no distinction is made between Native, Western and Texas beef. LOINS The loin is the highest-priced cut of the carcass because of the tenderness and quality of the lean. The grade of a loin may be determined by marked excellence or deficiency in either thickness, covering or quality, or by a uniform degree of development in all respects. No. I's must have a full, well-rounded shape, a com- plete covering of white fat the thickness of which is in proper proportion to the lean, and bright, firm, fine-grained, well-mar- bled flesh. No. 2's are generally less rounded in form, with in- sufficient, excessive, or uneven covering and a slight deficiency in grain, marbling or color of flesh ; while No. 3's are more flat in shape, nearly or entirely lacking in covering of fat and very deficient in thickness and qualitv of flesh, but sufficiently developed to be cut into porterhouse and sirloin steaks for cheap trade (Fig. 23). Stripper loins have no outside fat and are usually extremely flat and rouo-h in shape, with dark-colored, coarse-grained flesh and hard, white bone. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 195 195 BULLETIN No. 147 Several different cuts of the loin are used extensively as wholesale cuts, particularly in the No. 2 and 3 grades. The regu- lar or pinbone short loin is the portion between the thirteenth rib and hip-bone (pinbone) inclusive and includes from 45 to 55 per- cent of the full loin. It contains porterhouse or T-bone, and club steaks, and is valued at 40 to 60 percent more per pound than the full loin. This cut is made in 3 grades, the weights of which run from 20 to 40 pounds. The remainder of the full loin is called the loin end and is valued at about one-third less per pound than the full loin. It is used for sirloin steaks. If the short loin is cut off midway between the pinbone and butt end of the loin it is known as a flatbone short loin. It sells lower than the pinbone loin, and is considerably used in Chicago markets. It is also graded No. i, 2 and 3, and is made in aver- ages from 20 to 45 pounds. The tenderloin ("beef tender" or "fillet of beef") is a long muscle lying between the kidney-fat and the back-bone and extend- ing from the thirteenth rib to the butt end of the loin. As the name implies, it is a very tender piece ; and the great demand for it, notwithstanding its lack of juiciness and flavor compared with other parts of the loin and rib, is a striking example of the im- portance of tenderness in the estimation of beef customers. The tenderloins required to supply the demand are taken principally from No. 3 and stripper loins. They weigh 2 to 8 pounds. No. I's must weigh above 6 pounds and have a bright color. No. 2*s weigh 4 to 6 pounds; No. 3's, 3 to 4; and "strip tenders" or "shoestrings" less than 3 pounds. No. i tenderloins command about twice the wholesale price paid for the lowest grades. See Fig. 30. Loins from which the tenderloin has been removed are called strip loins or strips (Fig. 24). They average 7 to 15 pound? and are graded mainly according to weight. Strips are usually cut into the sirloin strip, or stripped short loin, and the sirloin butt, FIG. 24. FROZEN STRIP LOINS, No. 3 GRADE. Front View. Rear View. ip/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 197 which is virtually a stripped loin end. The lowest grades of strips and butts are often boned out, in which case they are known as boneless strips and boneless butts, respectively. They are almost entirely used for cheap restaurant and hotel trade to be cut into small steaks. Large quantities are frozen during the cutting sea- son. Strips and butts are sometimes made from No. 3 as well as "stripper" loins, and include many from bulls and stags. Bone- less strips average 4 to 8 pounds, and are occasionally made in averages as high as 10 to 12 pounds. Butts weigh 3 to 6 or 8 pounds. RIBS This cut, which includes the portion between the loin and chuck, is also known as the prime or standing rib. As the loin contains the choicest steaks, the rib contains the best roasts. Ribs and loins are commonly sold in sets at a lump price. Quoted sep- arately, ribs are valued at 10 to 20 percent less per pound than loins of the same grade, due to difference in quality of the lean and larger proportion of bone in the rib cut. The various grades of ribs differ in thickness, covering and quality to the same relative extent as the corresponding grades of loins. The depth and quality of flesh are apparent in the "eye" or "heart" of beef at the twelfth rib and in the cut end next to the chuck. ^S^ecovering of fat on No. i ribs should be about one-half inch in depur^The bones in this cut serve as a very valuable index of the quality of beef, the chine-bones and ribs varying accord- ing to age as explained under carcass beef, and the "fea'ther edge" of the shoulder blade indicating the age of the carcass in like manner. The latter is cartilaginous in young animals and is white and soft up to two years, after which time it gradually ossifies, and at 3 years one-half to two-thirds its length is bone. See Fig. 25. No. 3 and "stripper" ribs are also made into "rolls". A "reg- ular roll" consists of the lean part of the rib, stripped of the back- bone, shoulder blade, fat and outer layer of meat. They weigh 4 to 8 pounds, and are used for small steaks. "Spencer rolls" are of better quality and heavier averages than regulars, and the fat and outer layer of lean are left on except that portion above the shoulder blade. Spencers average from 6 to 12 pounds, and are used for roasts and steaks. Both styles of roll are used chiefly for restaurant and small hotel trade and are sold frozen to a con- siderable extent. "Pieces" consist of the rib and navel in one cut. Fore quar- ters from which only the ribs have been cut are called "triangles", "rattles", "slugs", "L's" or "knockouts" (Fig 22). They are graded No. i, No. 2 and No. 3 in the same manner as straight cuts. 198 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 199 ROUNDS The cut surface of the full round being identical with the butt end of the corresponding" loin, the conditions as to grain, marbling, covering and color at that point determine the grade in each case alike. Rough or lumpy cod fat indicates a steer round, a soft, flabby bag a cow round, and a firm or hard bag a heifer. Also, in steer rounds one end of the aitch-bone is surrounded by the lean flesh of the "inside", while in cows and heifers it is surrounded by fat ; and the exposed portion of the "inside" is comparatively nar- row or flat in cows but rounded or triangular in steers. The shape of rounds varies exceedingly, as can be seen most readily by com- paring the carcasses shown in Figs, i to 20. See also Fig. 26. Since the proportion of steaks which can be cut depends upon the shape of the round, the importance of this factor is evident. No. i rounds are generally valued at 40 to 60 percent less than the price of loins and ribs of the same grade; while No. 3's are gen- erally quoted only 10 to 30 percent below No. 3 loins and ribs. Rounds sell relatively higher in summer than in winter because they are used principally for cutting small steaks. Three wholesale cuts for fresh trade are made from rounds, viz., the buttock (quoted as "round, R. & S. off"), rump, and shank. On the average about 60 percent of the full round weight is buttock, 20 percent rump and 20 percent shank. The buttock is wholly suited to cut as round steaks, those nearest the rump being of best quality because containing larger muscles and less waste. This cut is quoted at about 25 percent above the price of straight rounds, the difference being less marked in the higher grades. The rump, when used fresh, is usually sold as a rump butt, or bone- less rump (Fig. 27). This is made by cutting out the aitch-bone (hip-bone) and trimming off square at loin end, leaving a bone- less cut (except the "tail-bone") weighing 5 to 7 pounds and worth about the same price but generally less than the full round. It is used mainly for corned beef. The hind shank consists of about equal parts of bone and boiling meat. The latter, as a retail cut, is known as the "heel of the round" or "horseshoe piece". Shank meat is principally used, however, for Hamburger, sausage trim- mings, or similar purposes. The American preference for loin and rib cuts renders it nec- essary to dispose of a large share of the lower grade rounds other- wise than over the block as fresh cuts. For this purpose they are stripped and made into "beef hams", rump butts and shank saus- age meat. The buttocks of cow, bull and stag carcasses are best adapted for making beef hams. At least a partial covering of fat on the round is required for the bulk of this beef, but the cheapest 200 BULLETIN No. 147 f/w/v, o M fa 1910} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 201 grades are packed from rounds which are almost entirely free from fat. It is impossible to cure beef satisfactorily that has not reached maturity or nearly so, since it shrinks heavily on account of being more watery and does not "take the salt'' as well as beef that is matured. Buttocks intended for curing are cut longei than regular, leaving a smaller rump piece. In stripping a buttock for beef hams, it is divided into three boneless pieces according to the muscular divisions of the round, making an "inside", "outside" and "knuckle". These cuts are known as a beef set (Fig. 30). The average proportions by weight of the three "beef hams" are 42 percent, 31 percent, and 27 percent, respectively; but the out- side and knuckle are sometimes divided equally. They are fre- quently stored in freezers, either fresh or in brine, until it is de- sired to cure them. The rounds of canner sides and others of very light weight and poor quality are used to some extent for canning or sausage purposes. A "Scotch buttock" is a boneless buttock, principally from heavy No. I rounds, a few being made from Xo. 2's.' Rumps are not cured to the same extent as buttocks. When barreled they are sold principally as rump butts and mess beef. For description of cured beef products made from the round, see page 210. FIG. 27. RUMP BUTTS. 202 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, CHUCKS Thickness, shape and color are the most important points con- sidered in grading chucks ; and the covering of fat is of much less consequence than in loins and ribs. The general quality of chucks is indicated by the chine and brisket bones, color and grain of flesh. No. i chucks have a complete covering of fat, which is thickest along the rib end of the cut. No. 2 ! s have little and No. 3's no covering (Fig 28). Nearly equal parts of the chuck are retailed as shoulder steaks and boiling pieces, and a roast may be cut from the last two or three ribs of No. i chucks. Pot roasts are cut from the lower or shank side, and stews or soup meat from the neck. The proportions of the chuck which are suitable for roasts, steaks and boiling meat vary greatly according to thickness and shape ; and in view of the wide difference in market value of those cuts, the importance of compact shape and full thick development of lean meat are apparent. The chine bones and shoulder blade give a clue to the age and maturity of the carcass, as explained in connection with the rib cut. The style of cutting shown in Fig. 22 is known as the square chuck, and is the style most used in Chicago wholesale markets. Chucks are sometimes cut "knuckle out" by removing the shank with a knife at the second knuckle* instead of sawing off below the joint. The lower grades of chucks are often further divided in order to make the cut more salable. Such cuts are the shoulder clod and boneless chuck. The shoulder clod (Fig. 30) is a wedge-shaped piece cut from the fleshy part of the chuck just back of the shoulder blade, and extending from the elbow of the shank nearly or quite to the back-bone. It is taken mainly from No. 3 and "stripper" cuts, and to a small extent from No. I's and 2's. It is a boneless cut weighing six to fifteen pounds, and sells from 10 to 20 percent above chuck quotations. It is used for steaks and roasts, especially in restaurants and small hotels ; and is in some cases smoked and sold as a "dried beef clod". Bone- less chucks are cut "knuckle out" and have the shoulder blade and ribs removed. They are made only from "stripper", No. 3 and light No. 2 chucks; they weigh slightly less and sell about 10 percent higher than full chucks of the same grade. They are principally used for sausage. Necks and neck trimmings are also quoted as sausage-meat, and are used fresh to some extent for soup, hash and mince-meat. Scotch clods are also made from boneless chucks. This is an entirely lean cut, consisting of the inner portion underneath the blade bone, and is the best part of the chuck. It is principally frozen and exported to Great Britain. *The upper or shoulder joint. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 203 4 ^ a <-. 6 204 BULLETIN No. 147 (July. "Kosher" or "New York" chucks consist of the square chuck, shank, brisket and neck, in one piece, (in other words, the fore quarter with rib and navel taken off) cut from Kosher cattle (p. 188). They include about one-third of the carcass weight. Beef sold to Jewish trade is mainly confined to this cut, altho ribs and navels may be so used. Kosher chucks are cut from all grades of cattle that yield other regular cuts for fresh trade, but the greatest proportion are from choice and good sides. They com- mand a price, slightly above the average price of the parts which compose them and thus sell at very nearly the price of full rounds of the same grade. About 10 percent of the carcass beef sold locally in Chicago is cut in this fashion and none is shipped owing to restrictions of Kosher regulations. See Fig. 29. The portion of the carcass left by the removal of the Kosher chuck is called the "hind and piece", and consists of the regular hind quarter, rib and navel piece together. A beef back or "back half" consists of a square chuck and rib in one piece. This cut is not extensively used. See Fig. 22. FIG. 29. KOSHER CHUCKS, No. 1 GRADE. REAR VIEW. SIDE VIEW. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 205 FIG. 30. A, Beef Hams, (Left, "Inside"; Center, "Outside"; Right, "Knuckle".) B, Tenderloin. C, Shoulder Clod. PlvATES The most essential points in grading plates are thickness of the cut, proper proportions of lean and fat, and quality of bone. Color, grain and firmness of flesh are less important factors than in case of the more valuable cuts. No. i plates are entirely covered with a thick layer of fat, which is most abundant over the brisket, and have a corresponding depth of flesh. No. 3's, most of which are cow plates, are nearly bare of fat except on the brisket end, ?.nd differ from strippers principally in thickness of flesh. (Fig. 31.) The grade of a plate is determined more largely by its weight than is that of a loin or rib. Briskets and navel-ends are whole- sale cuts made from plates by cutting them in two between the sixth and seventh ribs, the navel-end containing about three-fifths the weight of the plate. Heavy plates are principally barreled and sold as mess beef of various grades (p. 208) owing to the com- paratively small retail demand for boiling, stewing, and corned beef. Scarcely one retail market in ten has a demand for fresh plate beef but some are sold fresh to restaurants and hotels. Corned briskets and navels are sold in most retail markets, the latter usu- ally being boned and sold as "beef rolls". Navels were formerly valued higher than briskets, but the latter have become more generally used during recent vears and now command a price one-third higher than navels. Strippers and No. 3 plates are boned out for sausage, canning purposes, and soup meat, and few full plates lighter than 30 pounds are barreled. FLANKS As the flank is a boneless cut, its quality and grade depend entirely upon the thickness and quality of the lean and fat. The 206 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, o H fa /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 207 color and grain of flesh are less variable in flanks than in the more valuable cuts, consequently the grades correspond more closely to the weights given on page 193. No. I flanks are thick- fleshed and covered with solid, white fat; No. 3's are thin, soft and in many cases very dark-colored and flabby. The shape and thickness of the different grades are shown in Fig 32. No. I and No. 2. flanks are to some extent retailed in the form of flank rolls, either fresh or corned, but they are principally barreled as mess beef (p. 209), and the lighter grades made into sausage and canned corned beef. While straight flanks are handled but little by retail trade, they contain a cut known as the flank steak, which is used fresh extensively. It forms only about 10 percent of the flank weight but is worth about twice as much per pound as the straight flank. It is "pulled" from medium and heavy flanks and is graded mainly on a weight basis, No. I's weighting 1^4 to 2.y 2 pounds, No. 2's i to i^4, and No. 3's less than i pound. Flanks are quoted both "steak in" and "steak out". SHANKS Except when otherwise specified this term refers in the market to fore shanks, or "shins". Hind shanks are described in this bulletin in connection with rounds. Shanks cut from square chucks are regular or "clod off" shanks. Those taken from "knuckle out" chucks include a part of the shoulder clod and are quoted "clod on". The shank carries little or no covering of fat, and the most important points are thickness of lean with light bone. A large percentage of the supply of shanks are not graded but are stripped (boned) in the packing house, the meat being known as "shank meat", and used for sausaee. Those that are sold fresh are taken by retailers, restaurants and hotels for soup-meat and stews, especially in winter, and are gen- erally graded simply as light and heavy, or below and above 10 pounds. They sell about one-third higher than hind shanks. See Fig. 33. FIG. 33. SHANKS. No. 3 Grade. No. 2 Grade. No. 1 Grade. Clod On. 208 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, SUET Little kidney suet is sold in the wholesale beef trade beside that which goes with carcass beef. (Fig. 22.) Sides and hind quarters are sold with suet in, and retail meat dealers sell more or less of this fat back to packers or other buyers of "shop fats". It is quoted together with beef cuts, however, and is sold in but one grade, which must be clear white and brittle, and weigh 5 to 10 pounds trimmed. Kidney suet sold at retail is used for cooking purposes as a lard substitute, and for mince-meat especi- ally , during the winter season. The bulk of the suet supply is used for the manufacture of butterine, cooking compound, soaps, oleo-oil and stearin. TRIMMINGS In making beef cuts, especially boneless cuts and those used for barreled and canned beef, scraps of various size and shape accu- mulate. Their value depends upon the size and quality of the pieces and the proportion of lean meat they contain. Two grades of trimmings are recognized. The No. i grade consists of large pieces that are comparatively free from fat, such as neck, brisket, and chuck trimmings and hanging tenderloins. No. 2 trimmings include rib, loin, tenderloin, flank and navel trimmings, being small scraps with a larger proportion of fat than No. I's. Both grades are used principally for sausage and canned meats. They are packed in loo-pound boxes or in slack barrels and sold both fresh and frozen ; they are also partially cured in tierces with salt, salt- petre and sugar and sold as "curene" trimmings. The supply of trimmings is largest during the fall cattle-cutting season. CURED BEEF PRODUCTS As previously stated, about one-fourth of the wholesale beef supply is marketed in a cured form. The plates, flanks ?nd rumps of all grades of cattle are at times used in this way and in the lower grades of beef the round and chuck are quite commonly cut up and cured before marketing. The less salable cuts and grades of beef are held in storage for longer periods and are shipped greater distances than the higher grades, and various cured products are the most economical and convenient forms in which to store and ship such meats. Beef is packed as Barreled, Smoked and Canned Beef, and is also a constituent of various kinds of sausage. BARRELED BEEE Barreled or corned beef is packed in brine and is quoted both in 2OO-pound (net) barrels, 3 HI 4 O 216 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, calves of 150 to 300 pounds weight, and the coarse, "bony" sort of the same weights. As a class they sell lower than light calves but in some markets and especially in small cities heavy, well fattened veals sell as high as light and medium grades. Neither heavy nor light calves are valued higher than the medium grade under ordinary conditions. The heavy weights are quoted relatively higher during spring and early summer, when light calves are most plentiful, than at other seasons. It is customary to skin and split the heaviest calves shipped from wholesale houses. See Fig- 35- "Native" and "Western" Veal . Among dressed calves of the various grades are found those which have apparently been fattened on milk under shelter with little exercise, and shipped but a short distance, if any, before slaughtering; and another class of calves which have had little milk, much exercise, and shrinkage incident to exposure or too long shipment on foot. The former are called "Natives". They have, as a rule, long, soft hair with bushy tail and light-colored, fine-grained flesh, indicating indoor feeding and an abundance of milk. They consist largely of young calves of choice, good and light grades. Over 90 percent of the dressed veal handled at Chicago is "Native" veal, about half of which consists of country- dressed calves consigned to commission firms. A large percentage of veal shipments sent east is. also made up of "Natives". "Western" calves have coarse, dark-colored flesh and short, straight hair, which are indications of insufficient nourishment and care. The bones are whiter and less spongy than those of "Natives", indicating more age. They grade principally as med- iwn, heavy, and light. Many Western calves slaughtered at Miss- ouri river markets and Ft. Worth are received at Chicago. "Wes- terns" are best adapted to the trade of small cities and towns be- cause of the wider range of weights and quality which is salable in such markets. A large proportion of Western-dressed calves are frozen during the summer and fall, and held for winter trade. They are skinned before freezing. All grades of "Westerns" are frozen, and the weights most used for this purpose are 100 to 175 pounds. Kosher veal consists of the fore quarters (including 12 ribs) of calves slaughtered and handled according to Jewish regulations similar to those that apply to cattle (p. 188). Choice, good and medium calves are the grades principally used. 79/0] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 217 FIG. 36. VEAL CUTS. 1, 2. Saddle (or 2 hind quarters). 1. Leg- 2. Loin 3, 4. Rack (or 2 fore quarters). 3. Ribs 4. Stew VEAL CUTS Only 10 to 20 percent of the supply of dressed calves are cut up in the wholesale trade, since most retail markets that handle veal have demand for all cuts. A few high-class markets, however, require a larger proportion of choice than of cheap cuts; Kosher 218 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG 37a. VEAI, SADDLES. Choice Good trade takes only a part of the fore quarters; and a small percent of the supply is cut on account of bruises and other defects. Veal cuts are made from all grades of carcasses but principally from those not better than medium to good in quality and weighing 70 to 1 20 pounds. The carcass is skinned before cutting. The cuts most commonly made are the saddle and rack (Fig. 36). The carcass is "ribbed" between the eleventh and twelfth ribs, the hind quarters together forming the saddle, and the fores, the rack. They are about equal in weight. In some markets the division is made between the tenth and eleventh ribs. Skinned calves are sometimes split into sides in the same manner as a car- cass of beef. They are also quoted as separate fore and hind quarters. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAI 219 FIG 37b. VEAL SADDLES. Medium. Common. SADDLES The grades of saddless are choice, good, medium and common (Fig. 37). They weigh 30 to 125 pounds and the lighter weights are usually quoted highest. The most essential points in addi- tion to weight are fullness of loin and leg; firm, light-colored flesh; soft back-bone and hench-bone; and a proper amount of fat, especially evident at the crotch, kidneys and flanks. The value of a saddle depends upon the quality and size of loin chops and leg roasts or cutlets which can be cut from it by the retailer. The two loins are frequently sold in one piece, including about one-sixth of the carcass weight and averaging 10 to 25 pounds. The legs constitute slightly more than one-third the carcass weight and average 20 to 40 pounds per pair. 220 BULLETIN No. 147 (July, FIG. 38a. VEAI, RA.CKS. Choice. Good. Hind quarters are graded in the same manner as saddles, and the weights quoted are 15 to 60 pounds. RACKS Racks are graded choice, good, medium and common and are quoted in the same weights as saddles, viz., 30 to 125 pounds (Fig. 38). They are judged largely by the thickness, quality and color of flesh; softness and color of back-bone, brisket and ribs ; and shortness of shanks and neck. The part of the rack most valuable to the retailer is the rib cut or hotel rack, which is used for chops. This is sold as a wholesale cut in some mar- kets, weighing 5 to 12 pounds. The remainder of the rack is known as the stew or chuck. The two chucks include about one- third of the carcass weight, and average 10 to 25 pounds each. Fore quarters are sold separately to a small extent. They are graded on the same basis as racks and weigh the same as hind quarters, viz., 15 to 60 pounds. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 221 FIG. 38b VEAI, RACKS. Medium. Common. A body of veal is the carcass minus the legs. It includes slightly less than two-thirds the weight of carcass. Bodies are graded in the same manner as carcass veal. MUTTON AND LAMB Dressed sheep and lambs are handled and classified together in the wholesale trade and may therefore be described and illus- trated together most readily. Mutton and lamb are sold almost entirely as fresh or frozen meats, and the bulk of supplies, except those frozen, are disposed of within a week or ten days after slaughter. Chilled and frozen mutton and lamb are handled at the same temperatures as beef. Only a few heavy fat sheep are held in chill rooms for ripening. The freezing of mutton and lamb, however, is carried on to the same relative extent as that of beef. The freezing season extends from September to February. Only a small percentage, and that of the lowest grades, is canned, and practically none is cured. 222 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Because of their high market value, mutton and lamb are used by a wealthier class of consumers on the whole than beef, pork or even veal. Careful and quick slaughtering and good facilities for refrigeration are more essential to the proper hand- ling of this meat than is true of beef or pork. For these reasons the use of mutton and lamb is more largely confined to city mar- kets, and they come into closer competition with poultry, game, etc., than is true of other meats. For the same reasons, together with the fact that lamb is equal or superior to mature mutton in flavor and palatability, the demand for lamb is large in com- parison with mutton, and approximately two-thirds to three- fourths of the wholesale supply of mutton and lamb consists of the latter. The wholesale trade in both lamb and mutton has shown a remarkable increase during the past fifteen years, hav- ing at least doubled during that period. Improvement in quality of supplies and the development of facilities for slaughter and distribution have rapidly stimulated demand among all classes of consumers. The proportion of dressed sheep and lambs to cuts of the same sold in the wholesale markets varies widely. In most large cities one-half to three-fourths of the trade is made up of whole car- casses. CARCASS MUTTON AND LAMB Various styles of dressing are used for different branches of the trade, and since the market value depends upon the manner of dressing as well as the grade of meat, both are usually specified in mutton and lamb quotations. Plain or round-dressed (R.D.) sheep and lambs have the pelt, head and toes removed and fore- leg folded at the knee ; they are opened only from the cod or bag to the breast, split about half way thru the breast-bone, and a spread-stick placed inside the fore-ribs. (Fig. 40.) This is the style most commonly used in dressing sheep; and the best grades of lambs are usually dressed in the same manner. Caul-dressed (C.D.) carcasses have the ribs and flanks turned outward and fastened back with set-sticks, and the caul wrapped about the legs and laid over the inside of carcass (Fig. 46) ; the object being to improve the appearance, prevent drying out and in some cases (especially in lambs) to furnish the fat necessary for proper cooking. The lowest grades of sheep and all grades of lambs are caul-dressed. The term pelt on refers to lambs from which the pelt and head have not been removed. This style is /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 223 generally confined to light lambs. They are opened the same as round lambs, and in some markets are dressed with back-sets, and caul laid over the belly. Sheep and lambs dressed either plain, round, or "pelt on" are quoted pluck in and pluck out. The pluck consists of the heart^ lungs, liver and windpipe and is either left attached to the carcass or removed, as indicated by these terms. Lambs are generally sold pluck in and sheep pluck out. Govern- ment regulations now require the toes to be removed from all dressed sheep and lambs. Some of the photographs reproduced in this bulletin were made before this rule was passed. CLASSES AND GRADES OF CARCASS MUTTON AND LAMB The classes of dressed sheep and lambs are Wethers, Ezves, Bucks, Yearlings and Lambs. This classification is based on dif- ferences in sex and degree of maturity which will be described in connection with each class. The grades of carcasses in the different classes are designated by the terms choice, good, medium, common and culls or canners. Altho the terms "prime", "fancy", "extra choice", etc., are some- times used in referring to carcasses of "show quality", they are less commonly used than in the beef trade owing to the wider variation which exists between the grades of beef; and the term choice is generally applied to all mutton and lamb above the good grade. Medium and fair denote the same grade, and refer to the average of each class. Grading Mutton and Lamb The grade and value of a carcass depend chiefly upon its form, quality, covering and weight. The method of grading is the same in principle as the grading of beef, which has been fully explained (p. 156). It is only necessary, therefore, to state the specific points to which these terms apply in the grading of dressed sheep and lambs. Form. Good width in proportion to length together with com<- pactness and smooth even outlines are the essential points of good shape. This implies a thick loin, broad back, well-meated ribs, a full, thick middle from shoulder to leg, plump, thick legs filled well down on the shanks, and smoothly covered shoulders. The most common faults of form are long, slender legs, narrow backs, lack of development over ribs and loin, and too much "barrel" or "belly". Long necks in ewes and heavy "bucky" necks, shoulders and briskets in wethers are objectionable. 224 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Covering. This refers to the fatness of the carcass. It is essential because of its influence on the appearance of the dressed sheep, quality of the meat and shrinkage both in storage and in cooking. The fat should be smooth and even over the entire carcass, but only in the most highly finished sheep are the legs and shanks completely covered. The kidney fat is an important indication of finish in the minds of mutton experts. It should be well-developed but not excessive. A light kidney usually indi- cates lack of finish, while a very heavy one shows either an over- done condition or an uneven distribution of fat. The cod, udder, rump, flanks and brisket are other points at which the amount of fat is plainly apparent, but it should not be excessive at any of these parts. The lowest grades have practically no outside fat and the amount of covering varies more or less directly with the grades of mutton from common to choice. The covering and kidney-fat should be firm, brittle and white. Quality. Altho a carcass of high quality must be good in form and covering, it must, in addition, have proper quality of flesh and bone, and good general appearance. The flesh should be firm and fine-grained, without the stringy, coarse appearance of aged or inferior mutton. The color of flesh varies from light pink in lambs to dull red in mature mutton, and is less variable than in beef. The covering and kidney-fat should be clear and white. The bones are an important indication of the maturity of the carcass. In lambs the brisket is soft and red, and the ribs and shank bones are colored by blood-vessels. In mature sheep the bones are white and hard. The break-joint (Fig. 39) which is described in connection with yearlings (p. 231), distinguishes lambs and yearlings from mature sheep. In no branch of the meat trade is general quality so important as in mutton and lamb, owing to the custom of using the carcasses for display purposes in retail markets. It must be so dressed, chilled and handled as to have a bright attractive appearance. In grading caul-dressed carcasses the color and quality of the caul are considered and it should be white and brittle. The quality of "pelt on" lambs is judged partially by the pelt and head, which should show no signs of coarseness. The plucks of lambs dressed "pluck in" must have a bright fresh appearance. This depends largely upon careful slaughter and refrigeration. Weight. This is a more important factor in grading mutton than in grading beef because differences in form, covering and quality are smaller than in beef, and because the weight is often a strong indication as to whether a carcass is a lamb, yearling or MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 225 FIG 3'J. '-ROUND'' AND "BREAK" JOINTS. mature sheep. The weights purchased by a retailer depend upon the size of chops and roasts which his customers demand ; con- sequently the most desirable weights in the different classes are confined to rather narrow limits. In this respect the mutton and lamb trade is similar to veal. Weight is of more importance in lambs and yearlings than in wethers and ewes, and in the higher rather than the lower grades of each class. Its importance also varies at different seasons and with varying conditions of supply and demand. WETHERS Wether carcasses are distinguished from ewes by the cod-fat, from bucks by their smaller necks and shoulders and finer quality ; and from yearlings and wether lambs by "round" joints on the fore-legs (Fig. 39). In general they are superior to ewes in compactness of form, shortness of neck and thickness of flesh. Few high grade wethers are seen in the wholesale meat markets and the supply consists largely of Westerns. They are shipped principally to smaller markets and are occasionally exported, tho the export trade has largely decreased. The grades of this class are choice, good, medium and common; extreme weights of the regular sup- ply are 40 and 120 pounds. 226 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Choice wethers fulfil all the conditions specified in the para- graph on grading mutton. Even covering and quality are es- pecially important; wasty, plain or staggy wethers are discrim- inated against. Weights in this grade run from 50 to 100 pounds, with a few up to 120 pounds; the handy weights are 50 to 65 pounds and bulk of supplies weigh 50 to 70 pounds. There is a limited but regular domestic demand for this mutton in large city hotels and restaurants and in the dining-car and steamboat trade. See Fig. 40. Good wethers differ from those of choice grade chiefly in covering and general quality, the majority of this grade being slightly lacking in development of flesh and fat. The covering, however, must be sufficient to suit the consumer of heavy chops and the quality of flesh must be similar to that of choice wethers, since both grades are used largely by the same class of trade. A small proportion of wethers in this grade are too fat to grade choice. The weight seldom exceeds 100 pounds; minimum and average weights are about the same as of choice wethers. See Fig. 40. Medium wethers are the average dressed sheep of this class and are plainly deficient in shape, covering and quality. How^ ever, they are not greatly inferior in either of these particulars, and may be good or choice in one or more of the points mentioned, especially in form or quality. Most medium wethers are partially covered with fat over the back, loin and ribs, but lack covering on the legs and shoulders. On the other hand, extremely fat, "gobby" wethers, especially those of plain quality and heavy weight, are sold at the price of medium sheep. This grade also includes a small proportion of wethers that are somewhat staggy or bucky. Extreme weights found in this grade are 40 and 90 pounds ; the bulk weigh 45 to> 60 pounds. See Fig. 40. Common wethers are the lowest standard grade of wethers. Generally they have a small amount of covering over the back and loin but none on the legs; the poorest specimens of the grade, however, have no outside covering and but little fat on the kid- neys. They are of very plain form and quality being thinly covered with dry, dark colored flesh, and flinty in bone. To some extent they are caul-dressed, especially the most undesirable sheep of the grade, and cauls from high grade sheep are frequently used for this purpose. They weigh 30 to 80 pounds with the bulk from 40 to 60 pounds. Few of this grade are shipped and the bulk are taken by retailers who supply a cheap trade. See Fig. 40. A few dressed wethers of such inferior quality as to be unsuit- able for block use are found in the wholesale trade, but owing ip/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 227 fa 228 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, to the small and irregular supply they can not be considered a standard grade. The description of canner ewes and their use (p. 230) is applicable to such wethers. EWES The "bag" (udder) and a comparatively large "bung" (pelvic cavity) are characteristic of this class of carcass mutton. Ewe carcasses are also distinguished from wethers as a rule by their more angular forms, longer necks, smaller bones and less abundant flesh especially over the loin, back and ribs. In general quality and market value they compare with wethers to practially the same degree that cow and heifer beef compares with steers. Like wethers, they have "round" leg-joints. They are usually more numerous in the markets than wethers, and about two-thirds of the supply of fat, heavy mutton consists of ewes. At the same time, a larger proportion of dressed ewes is found in the lower Choice FIG. 41. EWES. Good (3). MARKET CLASSES AND GHAUTS OF MEAT 229 grades than is true of wethers, owing mainly to uneven covering and deficient quality. Light-weight dressed ewes usually classify as "sheep" instead of yearlings because their shanks do not "break" like yearling wethers of the same age and grade (p. 231). The grades of this class are choice, good, medium, common and culls or canners. Choice ewes are similar to the corresponding grades of wethers excepting the differences enumerated in the preceding paragraph. As a rule they carry more covering and kidney-fat in proportion to flesh than wethers. Choice light ewes (50 to 60 pounds) are usually in greater demand than heavy carcasses because they are less "wasty" in covering; but a limited number of fat 100 to 120 pound ewes is in constant demand for the "English chop*' trade Medium. FIG. 42. EWES. Common. Canner. 230 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, of large hotels and restaurants, and choice ewe carcasses as heavy as 200 pounds are occasionally seen. See Fig. 41. Good ewes consist chiefly of 50 to 70 pound sheep slightly wanting in covering, shape or quality; also over-fat carcasses of the heavier weights. The former are sold largely to country or "car-route" trade and the latter to hotel and shipping trade. See. Fig. 41. Medium ewes are those that are quite deficient in general de- velopment, or good in some particulars and decidedly inferior in others, such as quality and finish. They weigh 40 to 100 pounds, but the general run average 45 to 65 pounds. See Fig. 42. Common ewes have little or no outside fat. They are still darker in flesh and whiter in bone than common wethers and many "shelly" ill-shaped carcasses are found in this grade. They weigh 30 to 60 pounds with a few coarse plain carcasses up to 80 or 90 pounds. See Fig. 42. Culls or canners are the most inferior dressed sheep in the market, and consist principally of old ewes. They are entirely devoid of fat and have not sufficient flesh to be suitable for chops or roasts of even the cheapest grades. They are generally so de^ ficient in flesh that the sides are almost transparent, and are familiarly known to the trade as "jack-o'-lanterns" and "shells". They are most numerous during the fall and early winter. The weights are 25 to 45 pounds and the bulk, 30 to 40 pounds. In most wholesale markets such sheep are sold to city dealers who supply certain laboring classes that are accustomed to use the cheap- est mutton for stewing and boiling purposes. Canners are packed by a few firms in the form of "roast mutton", "potted meats", "meat loaf" and certain varieties of sausage. See Fig. 42. BUCKS This class makes up only a very small percent of the dressed sheep supply. Bucks can be identified by their thick, heavy necks, shoulders and briskets; large bones, coarse, dark colored flesh and fat, and thick, oily "skin". Market quotations do not rec- ognize them as a class, but they are sold separately from other dressed sheep, excepting light bucks that resemble wethers in cov- ering, form and quality, Many stags and some bucks are difficult to distinguish from wethers; and staggy wethers (p. 226) sell at a discount; consequently the two classes overlap \o somfc ex- tent. Altho the general run of bucks are sold as such in whole- sale markets, and are valued 20 to 25 percent lower than wethers of the same grades and weights, they are cut by retailers and job- bers in the same manner as wethers, and the retail cuts are sold quite extensively to the same classes of trade. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 231 The grades of bucks are less distinct than those of other classes of mutton. The terms generally used are good, medium and com- mon. Good bucks are well covered with fat and have a fairly good quality of flesh. The term "choice" is occasionally applied to selected buck carcasses which are of exceptional quality and finish. Yearling bucks are generally graded good, since they resemble wethers more nearly than is true of heavy bucks. Medium and common bucks are graded similarly to the corresponding grades of wethers, considering the general differences noted above. The bulk of supplies in this class weigh 60 to 90 pounds; few exceed 100 pounds, and yearling bucks average 45 to 70 pounds. See . 43- This class may be defined as carcasses that show by their gen- eral development and by the "break-joint" that they are not ma- ture sheep, but are too old and generally too heavy to be classed as lambs. The "break-joint" or " lamb-joint" is a temporary cartilage which forms a dentate suture in the head of the shank (shin-bone) immediately above the ankle. (Fig. 39.) In dressing lambs, yearling wethers and some yearling ewes the foot can be broken off at this cartilage, giving the end of the shank a saw- tooth shape; in lambs the broken surface is smooth and moist, and in yearlings it becomes more porous and dry. The shanks of ma- ture sheep will not "break" because the cartilage is knit or ossified and the foot is taken off at the ankle instead, making a "roundr joint". Shanks of female or ewe sheep outside the lamb class are, as a rule, too mature to "break". Consequently, yearlings con- sist chiefly (80 to 90 percent) of wethers; the remainder are ewes and a small proportion of bucks and stags which in this class fre- quently approach wethers in general quality. It will be seen from the foregoing statements that yearlings are an intermediate class which in certain respects resemble dressed sheep on one hand and lambs on the other. In fact, the terms "yearling lambs" and "yearling sheep" are frequently used by dealers in referring to carcasses of this description. Yearlings are usually dressed "plain" because of the high av- erage of the class in covering, form and quality as well as their weight, and are sometimes called "plain breakers". As a class they are superior to wethers, ewes and bucks, especially in covering and smoothness of finish. Weight is a factor of special importance in this class because, other conditions being equal, it determines whether the carcass sells on a par with heavy, round-dressed lambs or whether it must compete with wethers. A large proportion of the yearling mutton supply is sold to the same class of trade as 232 BULLETIN No. 147 [Inly, MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 233 234 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, heavy lambs. Weights in this class range from 40 to 60 pounds. The grades are choice, good and medium. Yearlings which fall below medium in form, covering and quality or above the weight mentioned are generally too mature to "break", hence a common grade is not recognized in this class. Choice yearlings are well covered with fat, with a medium kidney, compact well-rounded form and strictly choice quality. Bright color of flesh and fat and evidence of immaturity in the bones are important, since this grade is substituted for lambs to a considerable extent. They average 40 to 55 pounds. See Fig. 44. Good yearlings include carcasses that are slightly underfinished or lacking choice quality, and those which have indications of more age than choice yearlings. A small proportion of yearlings are too thickly and unevenly covered with fat and tho otherwise choice, are graded good. They weigh 40 to 50 pounds. Medium yearlings are made up of a still greater variety of carcasses than the good grade. The form and quality are often decidedly plain and the covering deficient, but a few carcasses of heavy weight and good quality sell better as medium yearlings than as good wethers, and are so graded. A few slightly staggy or bucky sheep are also included. The weights in this grade vary from 45 to 50 pounds. See Fig. 44. "Choppers" or "chop-offs" are a grade of mutton between yearlings and sheep, consisting of light, handy young sheep weigh- ing 40 to 50 pounds, of common to medium quality, similar to yearlings in size and shape, suitable to use as a substitute for year- lings of low grade and dressed to supply a class of retail trade which demands yearlings and lambs but at a moderate price. They are caul-dressed. Wethers and ewes are included in this grade. See Fig. 44. LAMBS Carcasses of sheep that are more immature than yearlings are classed as lambs. The difference in degree of maturity is indicated principally by lighter color and finer grain of flesh, red- der and softer bones, and a break-joint that is smoother and more moist to the touch, combined generally with lighter weight of carcass. Sex is not specified in lamb quotations and only in fancy trade is discrimination made in favor of wether lambs. About two-thirds to three-fourths of the wholesale mutton and lamb trade consists of lambs and they are sold chiefly to city dealers. The retail market trade of Chicago uses lambs almost to the exclusion of mature mutton. This is due to the demand tor MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 235 Choice. FlG. 45. lyAMBS. Good. Medium. Common. 236 BULLETIN No. 147 small lean chops and legs of lamb, together with the fact that lamb is superior to mutton in tenderness and flavor. The majority of dressed lambs are known as "spring lambs" from June until December; after August, however, they are fre- quently quoted simply as lambs. Frozen spring lambs are sold regularly, tho in relatively small numbers, during the winter and spring. The terms, "yearling lambs" and "fall lambs" are fre- quently used during the spring and summer with reference to lambs approaching yearlings in age but similar to spring lambs in size and shape. These terms, however, are used somewhat loosely by the trade and do not denote distinct subclasses. The grades of lambs are choice, good, medium, common and culls. The grade is determined more largely by quality and weight and less by form and covering than is the case with carcass mut- ton. Quality of flesh and bone is especially important for the rea- sons stated in describing veal. Weight is a matter of much sig- nificance in selecting lambs and a decided preference is shown for weights well below those of yearlings because the latter are to some extent sold as heavy lambs. Dressed lambs seldom exceed 50 pounds in weight but no distinct line can be drawn between the two classes either in weight or degree of maturity. The minimum weight of lambs is about 15 pounds and few carcasses weigh less than 20 pounds. Form and covering are of most importance in the choice and good grades. Plump legs, full, wide backs and loins and thick flanks and breasts are the principal points by which form is judged. In covering, lambs are not as fully developed as yearlings. The back and loin should be well covered but much less fat is found especially on the legs and ribs than in other classes of dressed sheep. Medium and common lambs are, as a rule, caulrdressed ; the choice grade is principally round-dressed and good lambs either caul or round. All grades of caul and round lambs are quoted both pluck in and pluck out. Choice lambs are short, compact and thick, with flesh of the lightest color and finest grain, small bones, and an even cover- ing of white fat. Shape, covering and general appearance of carcass are especially important in choice lambs because they are generally round-dressed. Short, broad, plump legs and full, thick backs and loins contribute most to the desired form since these are the high priced cuts of the carcass. Lambs which are slightly too long and rangy even tho choice in quality and finish are barred from this grade because they resemble yearlings in appear- ance. Too thick a covering of fat is seldom found in the lamb class. The weights of choice lambs are 35 to 50 pounds and the bulk range between 40 and 45 pounds. Chops and legs cut from lambs heavier than 45 pounds are too large to suit the average trade /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 237 and such lambs are also in closer competition with yearlings, hence they seldom grade higher than good. The supply of choice lambs is largest during the summer and fall months. See Figs. 45, 46. Good lambs include a wider range of quality and weight than choice lambs and differ from the latter chiefly in the matter of covering. Many carcasses sold as good lambs are on the border between lambs and yearlings. The weights of this grade of lambs range from 35 to 50 pounds. The heavier selections weighing 45 to 50 pounds are round-dressed and 35 to 45 pound lambs are principally caul-dressed. The latter are largely used in the eastern shipping trade. See Figs. 45, 46. Medium lambs are those which are either too rangy in form, coarse and plain in quality or too deficient in covering to bring the price of a good lamb. Many of this grade are too heavy in "bar- rel" and others are extremely wasty in kidney r fat. The grade also includes some bucky lambs of good quality and covering which are chiefly found in the heavy weights up to 50 pounds. The bulk of the medium lambs average 30 to 40 pounds and are caul-dressed. See Figs. 45, 46. Common lambs are too deficient in flesh and in covering of fat to be suitable for chops or legs of lamb altho they are used on the block in the cheaper classes of trade. They often possess some outside covering but it is confined entirely to the back and loin. This grade also contains a few bucky lambs weighing as high as 45 to 50 pounds but the -bulk of the grade weigh 25 to 30 pounds and a few as low as 20 pounds. See Figs. 45, 46. Cull lambs are of quality similar to that of canner ewes, ex- cepting that the flesh is less dark colored and is usually some- what more abundant in proportion to the bone. They are entirely devoid of fat and are of the most inferior form and quality. Lambs of this grade are taken by retail markets located in poor city districts and sold for stewing purposes. The weights are 15 to 25 pounds, with the bulk included between 20 to 25 pounds. "GENUINE" SPRING LAMBS The term genuine is used during April, May and June to differ- entiate early spring lambs from other lambs which resemble "springers" in quality and weight, such as frozen lambs stored since the previous summer, and light "yearling lambs". It is grad- ually dropped after the arrival of the regular supply of spring lambs in May and June. For several weeks after the beginning of the season (about April i,) "genuines" are dressed "pelt on", the head not being re- moved, brisket' not split and the carcass opened only sufficiently to remove the offal (Fig. 47). The earliest offerings are known as 238 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, "*wWf FIG. 46a. SPRING LAMBS. Choice Good. Easter lambs, a large proportion of which are consumed by the lo- cal Jewish and Greek population, who use them in connection with religious customs. For this trade, dressed lambs must show the effects of shelter, care and milk feeding, indications of which are thick, white flesh on the breast, flanks and legs, a good covering of fat on the kidneys and lining the crotch, fine shanks, red ribs and soft, white hench-bone. The carcass weight varies from 30 to 50 pounds, gross; the general run weigh 35 to 45 pounds and the most desirable weights are 35 to 40 pounds. Carcasses weigh- ing less than 30 pounds are discriminated against, because their net round-dressed weight is less than 20 pounds, and quarters lighter than 5 pounds are too small to suit the retail trade. The variation in this class of lambs is not sufficient to separate them into distinct grades, altho prices vary somewhat according to weight and quality. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 239 FIG. 46b. SPRING L/AMBS. Medium. Common. After May i to 15 "genuines" are round- and caul-dressed, except special orders of pelt lambs. As the season advances more variation in quality and weight is found, and by July i, this class is identical with the various grades of spring lambs described above. Average weights of caul- and round-dressed "genuines" are 20 to 35 pounds. They are usually dressed with the wool or "stockings" on hind shanks, and plucks in. "Genuine" spring lambs are sold both per carcass and per pound in wholesale markets, early pelt-dressed lambs being most frequently quoted by the carcass. The principal demand for this class of lambs is among hotels, restaurants and clubs of the high- est class. In retail markets they are generally sold by the quarter, and when cut into chops are sold by the cut rather than by the 240 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 47. "GENUINE" SPRING L,AMBS. pound. For this reason medium- and light-weight "genuines" fre- quently sell as high per carcass as heavy ones of the same quality. The supply of this class of lambs handled at Chicago is principally shipped from southern markets, especially Louisville and St. Louis. The number is comparatively limited and forms l:ut a small percent of the supply of lambs marketed annually. During July and August large numbers of choice, light spring lambs which resemble "genuines" are dressed "pelt on" and frozen to be held for the early lamb trade of the following winter and spring. They sell at about 25 percent below the price of "genuine springers". WINTER LAMBS Winter ("hothouse" or "incubator") lambs are light, young lambs which precede genuine spring lambs in the market by two or three months, being in season from January until May and a small number being available for Christmas trade. They are similar to MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 241 FIG. 48. WINTER L,AMBS. early spring lambs but are of lighter average weights and show better development in proportion to their age. They consist prin- cipally of native country-dressed lambs, six or seven weeks old, shipped from Wisconsin, Michigan and Illinois. They weigh 20 to 45 pounds and the bulk, 30 to 40 pounds, gross. They are dressed "pelt on" and "pluck in", with two back-sets and the caul placed over the belly. They are principally shipped to produce commission firms or direct to hotels, restaurants and clubs instead of passing thru the large wholesale markets. Being marketed in advance of the spring lamb season they sell at high prices and are taken by the most select trade. The few that are sold in retail markets are sold by the quarter and not by the pound. Frozen lambs put in storage at different seasons and in various sections of the country are also substituted for winter lambs, and sell at the same relative -7 242 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, discount as frozen spring lambs. Late winter lambs and early "genuines" are practically identical classes. See Fig. 48. KOSHER SHEEP AND LAMBS Like calves and cattle, sheep and lambs sold to Jewish patrons are slaughtered, inspected and dressed under prescribed regulations (p. 1 88). The rack (12 ribs) only is used by this trade. Heavy mutton is not in demand in Jewish markets, and medium to choice lambs are the grades generally sold for this purpose. (See Easter lambs, p. 238). SHIPPING MUTTON AND LAMB The Chicago shipping trade in dressed sheep and lambs goes principally to cities in the eastern seaboard states. The largest percent of this trade consists of lambs. The mutton that is shipped consists of choice, good, and medium wethers, ewes, and yearlings. New York, Philadelphia and Boston are the leading markets to which heavy mutton is sent from Chicago. Shipping lambs are dressed and graded according to the de- mands and customs of the various markets to which they are sent. The principal styles of shipping lambs recognized by the trade are as follows: Regular, custom or Washington shipping lamb. Plain caul- dressed, pluck out. Medium and good grades, 35 to 40 pounds average. (Shipped to Washington and other cities and used lo- cally). See Fig. 46a. New York lamb. Pluck in, caul wrapped about legs in two pieces with heavy end upward, balance of caul placed from legs to kidneys. Medium and good grades, 35 to 40 pounds. Neiv York R. D. lamb. Round-dressed, pluck in. Choice lambs, 40 to 45 pounds. Boston or B. B. (break-back) lamb. Ribs cracked and turned back, back broken, one straight back-set, shanks not folded, pluck out. Choice lambs, 40 pounds average. See Fig. 49. (Boston- style sheep are plaii\-dressed, but with the ribs cracked and turned back, and a spread-stick inside at the flanks. See Fig. 49.) Philadelphia lamb. Pluck dropped thru caul, shanks folded. Medium to good grades, 35 to 40 pounds. See Fig. 49. Baltimore lamb. Caul placed with heavy end upward, one back- set, pluck out. Medium lambs, 30 to 35 pounds. Providence lamb (E. T. or Newport). Ribs cracked and turned back, 2 back sets, caul placed about fore quarters and around the back, pluck out. Choice lambs, 40 to 45 pounds. See Fig. 50. Connecticut lamb (or New Haven). Round-dressed lamb, MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 243 244 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, O o jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 245 caul wrapped around hind legs and over belly with heavy end up- ward. Good lambs, 35 to 40 pounds. See Fig. 50. Dressed sheep and lambs are not regularly exported from this country. GOATS Dressed goats are occasionally sold in connection with mutton and lambs and are frequently substituted for them, especially in re- tail markets. They are comparable in form, quality and finish with the lowest grades of Western sheep. Long shanks, coarse, dark flesh, long neck and thin caul, however, render them quite easily distinguished from sheep carcasses. They are not quoted in distinct grades. See Fig. 50. MUTTON CUTS About one-half the supply of dressed wethers, ewes and year- lings in large wholesale markets is sold as mutton cuts, consisting principally of saddles and racks as illustrated in Fig. 51. The car- cass is usually divided between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, yielding about 49 percent saddle and 51 percent rack. Subdivisions of the saddle and rack are quoted as wholesale cuts to some extent. The cuts derived from the saddle are the leg and loin, separated at the hip-bone and including two-thirds and one-third, respect- ively, of the weight of the saddle. The rack is made into a stew and a short rack by separating 1 ten ribs (the third to twelfth inclu- sive) from the shoulder and breast as shown in the illustration. The short rack includes two-fifths and the stew three-fifths the weight of the rack. The short rack has the highest market value per pound of the wholesale cuts, and the legs, loin and stew are valued in the order named. Legs of mutton and lamb were form- erly quoted and sold at higher prices than the ribs, but retail de- mand for the latter has during the last ten or fifteen years gradu- ally overtaken and exceeded the demand for legs. Grading Mutton Cuts The grades of mutton cuts are choice, good, medium and common. Cuts of these grades correspond in shape, quality, cov- ering and relative weight to the same grades of carcass mutton; and the descriptions of the latter will serve to indicate the more important differences that exist between the various grades of saddles and racks. The principles governing the grading of beef cuts (pp. 190 to 194) also apply in the main to the wholesale cuts of mutton, and should be studied in this connection. Thick- ness and quality of flesh and depth of covering are especially im- portant, and the degree of each is readily determined by examining 246 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, FIG. 51. MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS. i, 2. 3, 4, 5. 1, 2, 3. 2, 3, 4, 5. Saddle Rack Long saddle Body 1. 2. 3. 2, 3. Leg- L,oin Short rack Back 4. Breast 5. Chuck 4, 5. Stew zp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 247 the "eye of mutton'' (the lean flesh covering the ribs and adjacent to the back-bone). It should be deep and well-rounded rather than flat. The color of lean varies from a dull brick red to dark red, the former being preferable. Fine fibre or grain, smooth, velvety surface and firm consistency of flesh are characteristics of choice mutton cuts. Marbling, or mixture of fat within the lean, is less developed and of less importance in mutton than in beef cuts. SADDLES Choice, good, medium and common saddles are illustrated in Fig. 52. It is seen that in shape, thickness and proportion of fat to lean the cuts are similar to the corresponding grades of car- cass sheep. About one-fourth inch of fat over the loin is consid- ered most desirable for choice saddles of medium weight. Since the legs make up two-thirds the weight of a saddle and sell at about ono-sixth higher price per pound, the importance of that portion of the saddle is apparent. Aside from thickness and shape of leg and loin, saddles may grade low by reason of deficiency in general quality, as coarse bone or soft, uneven covering. The proportion of kidney-fat, its color and brittleness are also important factors. It is customary in most markets to quote mutton saddles by classes, as wether, ewe and yearling saddles, these being differentiated as explained in connection with those classes of carcass mutton. Weights of saddles commonly handled are 20 to 50 pounds, and the majority average 20 to 30 pounds. Choice and good saddles are, on the whole, somewhat heavier than medium and common grades. Only a small percentage of saddles are cut up in wholesale mar- kets. A "long saddle" consists of a regular saddle and short rack in one piece ; in other words, it is the portion of a carcass that re- mains when a stew or chuck is cut from it. Legs and loins are cut principally from good and choice saddles. RACKS Regular or "market" racks are graded choice, good, medium and common (Fig. 52). Thickness and quality of flesh, proper thickness of covering on the back and ribs, and absence of coarse- ness are essential points in grading racks. The "eye of mutton" is of the same significance as in the case of saddles. The rib cut, or short rack, tho only two-fifths the weight of the rack, repre- sents about two-thirds of its value and must be considered accord- ingly in grading. Quality and proportion of bone are indicated by the ribs and shanks, as in carcass mutton. The shape of neck indicates whether the rack is from a wether, ewe or buck. The range of weights is the same as that of saddles, viz., 20 to 50 pounds, with the bulk from 20 to 30 pounds. 248 BULLETIN No. 147 (July, /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 249 Short or "hotel" racks, or ribs, are made from medium to choice racks and graded similarly to them. They are cut 8 to 12 ribs long in various markets and in some cases are made "shoulder on," but usually contain only 9 or 10 ribs. They are quoted both "blade in," or regular, and "blade out" or "shoulder raised", a premium of one cent per pound being charged for the latter. As explained in describing beef ribs, the shoulder blade is a valuable indication of the age of the carcass and quality of the bone, being a white soft cartilage in young, well-fed sheep and gradually chang- ing to bone according to the age and development of the animal. The high value of the short rack compared with other parts of the carcass is due to the demand for rib chops, which exceeds that for any other cut of mutton. Short racks are largely used by hotels, restaurants, dining cars, etc., for "French" chops, which consist of a rib chop with the end of the rib trimmed clean of fle=h and fat, leaving only the "eye of mutton" with its covering and bone. A mutton stew (chuck, wing, slug or rattle) is the shoulder, breast and shank in one piece, including nearly one-third of the carcass weight and two-fifths of the rack. The more important factors in determining their grade are thickness, grain and color of flesh and quality of bone indicated by the ribs, shanks and shoul- der blades. This is the cheapest cut of the carcass, frequently sell- ing at less than one-third the price of short racks and one-half that of legs of the same grade. Fore quarters or "fores" are sometimes made from market racks by splitting them thru the back -bone. They are graded in the same manner as racks. BACKS Backs or "long racks" consist of a loin and short rack cut in one piece. They can be cut entirely into loin and rib chops, hence are well adapted to the use of restaurants, dining-cars, steam- boats and high-class city retail markets. They are made chiefly from good and choice sheep. When cut in this style, mutton car- casses yield about one-third each of back, legs and stew. A mutton body consists of a market rack and loin in one piece ; in other words, the carcass with legs cut off. Sheep are not ex- tensively cut in this fashion in wholesale markets. LAMB CUTS Lambs are more largely sold in the carcass than sheep, owing both to their smaller size and to the greater relative demand for the cheaper cuts of lamb than of mutton. It is estimated that one- fourth to one-third of the wholesale lamb trade consists of cuts. 250 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, /9/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 251 The methods of cutting and proportions of the various cuts are identical with those of mutton. Lamb saddles and racks, however, are still less commonly cut up than those of mutton. The grading of lamb cuts is also similar in general to that of mutton cuts. About one-eighth inch of fat over the loin and ribs is desired in choice lambs, and a marked variation in either direc- tion from this amount throws the cut into one of the lower grades according to the degree of excess or deficiency. The color of flesh in cuts of lamb is a lighter or more pinkish red than in mutton. The depth, grain and firmness of flesh and quality of bone are points of prime importance. As in mutton cuts the short rack has the highest market value, followed by the legs, loin and stew. SADDLES. The four standard grades of lamb saddles are illustrated in Fig. 53. The leg is the most valuable portion of the lamb saddle, representing about three-fourths of its total market value, conse- quently its fullness and covering are of great importance in de- termining the grade of a saddle. Kidneys of medium size, white and brittle, are required in choice saddles, together with the proper degree of finish as indicated by covering over loin and rump and the cod fat. Saddles are cut both from round- and caul-dressed lambs and principally from good to choice grades. Caul saddles are quoted below the price of round saddles of the same grade, and as a rule are made from a lower grade of lambs. Lamb sad- dles average 15 to 25 pounds and the bulk 18 to 22 pounds. Lamb legs are also sold to some extent. They are taken prin- cipally from carcasses that are cut into legs, backs and stews, or legs and bodies. They are chiefly of good and choice grades and average 10 to 16 pounds per pair. A few good and choice loins are sold in most markets, but the proportion of saddles cut into legs and loins is much smaller than is true of mutton. RACKS Racks are graded choice, good, medium and common as illus- trated in Fig. 53. Thickness and quality of flesh, especially over the ribs, depth and evenness of fat, and quality of bone as in- dicated by the ribs and shanks are the more important points con- sidered. Like mutton racks, three-fourths of their value is con- tained in the short rack or rib cut, which yields the kind of chops that are most in demand. Hotel racks and stews are made from market racks in the same manner as the corresponding cuts of mutton. They are graded as explained under mutton cuts, but a much smaller proportion of lamb than of mutton racks is thus handled. Fore quarters are also quoted but a still smaller proportion of "fores" than of other rack cuts is made. 252 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, BACKS Backs or "long racks" of lamb, including the loin and short rack, are also made as in mutton. They may be made from any grade of lamb carcasses but are cut principally from the better grades. Lamb bodies, or carcasses from which the legs have been cut, are quoted but relatively few are sold. PORK Hog products may be described under three heads : ( I ) Dressed Hogs, (2) Pork Cuts and (3) Lard. As a rule, not more than one or two percent of the number of hogs slaughtered in large packing houses are sold as whole carcasses. Approximately three- fourths of the trade in hog products consists of various cured meats and fresh cuts, the remainder consisting principally of lard and a small percentage of sausage and canned meats. Further, fresh pork is of much less importance, relatively, than fresh beef or mutton, only about one-fifth of the domestic trade and five percent of the export trade in pork products (other than lard) consisting of fresh meat. Thus the classification of pork consists largely of cured and manufactured products, the number and vari- ety of which renders the outline of this subject quite complex. DRESSED HOGS The classification of hog carcasses is based on the uses to which they are adapted, or the products into which they can be con- verted. The classes generally recognized and average weights included in each are as follows : CARCASS WEIGHTS Smooth Heavy or Heavy Loin Hogs 240 to 400 Ib. Butcher or Light Loin Hogs 160 to 240 Ib. Packing Hogs 100 to 400 Ib. Bacon or Marked Hogs 90 to 170 Ib. Shippers 100 to 200 Ib. Pigs 20 to loo Ib. Different styles of dressing are characteristic of the different classes of carcasses except heavy and light loin hogs, and ship- pers and pigs. Dressed hogs of all classes are cut open along the underline and thru the aitch-bone and brisket, but the method of splitting and trimming varies with the class, as follows : Loin hogs are split down thru the centre of the back-bone ("loin-split" or "centre-split") in order that pork loins may be cut from the sides. They are dressed "packer style", i. e., head off* leaf out and hams faced. f See Fig. 54. *The jowls or cheeks are left as part of the carcass. fFacing consists in trimming a strip of fat from around the face of the ham, so as to expose a larger lean surface. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 253 Packing hogs are usually split like loin hogs, but are some- times split on one side of the back-bone, making a "hard" and "soft" side. In either case they are dressed with head off, leaf out and hams faced. Bacon hogs are usually cut ("marked") with a knife on each side of the back-bone, then split on one side and the back-bone taken out, making sides suitable for English bacon cuts. The head is taken off and leaf out, and the hams are either faced or not, according as they are intended for short-cut or long-cut hams. See Figs. 58, 59. Shippers and pigs are dressed "shipper style", i.e., with head on, leaf in, back-bone not split and hams not faced. See Fig. 60. Only shippers and pigs are extensively sold as dressed hogs. The other classes are cut up directly after being chilled, except relatively small numbers of butcher and packing hogs that are handled by jobbers or sold to retail dealers for fresh use. Grading Dressed Hogs The grades of hog carcasses are much less numerous and com- plex than those of carcass beef or mutton, owing to the greater variation in the latter with respect to age and general de- velopment. Standard grades are recognized only in the bacon and packing hog classes. In a broad sense, however, the six gerreral classes may be regarded also as grades, since they are dif- ferentiated largely -by shape, finish, quality and weight as well as by styles of dressing. The shape desired in loin and packing hogs is great width of side and back in proportion to length of body, straight, even lines and well-filled hams and shoulders. In bacon hogs, length of side is more important, with less width and thickness of back in proportion to that of the side than in the grades of fat hogs. Finish is indicated by the depth and evenness of fat covering the carcass, especially along the back and over the sides; also by the amount and quality of leaf fat.* It is essential that the fat be white and firm. The depth of covering and proportion of leaf fat desired are described and illustrated in connection with the various classes. Quality implies firm, bright, smooth-grained flesh and solid, white fat evenly distributed over the carcass; smooth, thin, mel- low skin free from wrinkles, blotches or bruises ; moderately small, fine shanks and head; soft, red chine-bones, back-bone and brisket ; and an absence of coarseness in general. Points of special importance in selecting dressed hogs are the development and quality of loins and sides, and the size, shape, firmness and *The leaf is the internal fat of the carcass. It includes the kidney fat and extends down to the flanks and skirt (diaphragm). 254 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, covering of the hams. Coarse or extremely large shoulders, neck and jowls, are indications of stagginess, and "seedy"* sows are classified as packing hogs because of their coarse quality. The importance of weight in grading dressed hogs varies according to the class, as will be observed in the weights given on page 252 and in the following descriptions. In general, weight is a very important factor, and in the case of loin hogs it deter- mines not only the grade but also the class to which a carcass belongs. SMOOTH HEAVY OR HEAVY LOIN HOGS These are prime smooth hogs, either barrows or good, clear (not seedy) sows, weighing 240 to 400 pounds, with from four to six inches of fat on the back; thick, wide, level sides without depressions in the back; heavy hams, filled out even with sides, full at the rump and well rounded down toward hocks, without FIG. 54. SMOOTH HEAVY HOG. Inside. Outside. This terra refers to the nipples or teats of sows that have borne pigs or reached an advanced stage of pregnancy. See Fig. 56. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 255 wrinkles or flabbiness; smooth shoulders; short, full neck; and full but not coarse jowls. The skin must not be thick, hard, nor wrinkled. The flesh and fat must be deep, firm and even, the flesh brighb-colored, the fat white and bones not coarse. As their name indicates, such hogs are especially suitable for making heavy loins, the remainder of the side being made into a heavy fat back and dry-salt belly. However, under certain market con- ditions they are cut into the same products as heavy packing hogs. The hams are usually skinned and the shoulders cut into picnics, butts and plates. Hogs of this class are a very small percent of the supply. See Fig. 54. BUTCHER OR LIGHT LOIN HOGS The term "butcher" refers to "butcher shop" or retail family trade. A large proportion of the fresh pork sold in retail mar- kets is pork loins, which are cut into chops and roasts ; hence light loin or "pork loin" hogs are those from which these cuts FIG. 55. BUTCHER HOGS. A, HEAVY. B, LIGHT. 256 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, can be obtained to best advantage. To yield loins of the proper size and quality, a hog carcass should weigh about 160 to 240 pounds and have the same shape, smoothness and general quality described above with reference to heavy loin hogs. Thick, firm flesh, smooth, soft skin and solid, white fat are especially import- ant. The covering of fat should be two to four inches thick on the back. This class is composed of barrows and smooth, clear sows. The weights most preferred for butcher hogs are 200 to 220 pounds. They are principally cut up by packers, the loins being sold to retail dealers or jobbers. Besides loins, fat backs, clear bellies, extra ribs and extra short clears are commonly made from sides of butcher hogs. The hams are cut short and the shoulders principally made into picnics, New York-cut shoul- ders and Boston butts. In some instances, carcasses of this class are sold to retail markets for fresh trade, in which case they are dressed either "head on" or "head off" as ordered. See Fig. 55. PACKING HOGS This class includes mixed hogs of all weights which are too coarse in quality, rough in shape or soft and uneven in finish to FIG. 56. PACKING HOGS (Sows). A, HEAVY. B, MEDIUM. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 257 be suitable primarily for fresh pork products or smoked meats and are therefore principally packed in such forms as barreled pork and dry-salt meats. About one-half the hogs handled in Chicago packing houses belong to this class. Heavy Packing Hogs, also known as Rough Heavy or Mess Pork Hogs, consist of rough and seedy sows, coarse barrows, boars and stags averaging 240 to 400 pounds. All heavy hogs that are too rough to be classed as loin hogs are included in this grade. Defects common to these carcasses are thick, rough and wrinkled skin, dark-colored and coarse-grained flesh, soft, oily fat, large bones and carcass bruises. (Figs. 56, 57.) They are more largely cut into short ribs and mess pork, and less into loins, fat backs and bellies than Heavy Loin Hogs, and conse- quently are more frequently "marked" and side-split altho at times FIG. 57. PACKING HOG (BOAR). Inside. Outside. 258 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, a large proportion of them are loin-split and pork loins taken out. The hams are sweet pickled and shoulders made into picnics and Boston butts. Medium Packing Hogs are sows and barrows averaging 200 to 240 pounds that are inferior to butcher hogs in quality; they also include a small proportion of stags and boars. (Fig. 56.) The cuts made from this grade are dry-salt sides, mess pork, clear backs, dry-salt and "English" bellies, pork loins, short-cut hams, and New York cut and picnic shoulders. Light Packing Hogs are mixed hogs of 100 to 200 pounds weight that are too deficient in shape, quality and finish to be clas- sified as either Bacon, Butcher or Shipper hogs. This grade con- sists largely of light sows. They are cut into prime mess pork, short clear backs, clear bellies, short-cut hams, and picnics, New York and skinned shoulders. BACON OR MARKED HOGS Bacon hogs are those that are suitable primarily for sugar- cured breakfast-bacon bellies and "English" meats. Since such meats must be comparatively lean, firm and of good quality, the leading features of bacon hogs are long, deep, smooth sides with a light, even covering of fat over the entire carcass and especially uniform on the back and sides. The hams should be full but lean and the shoulders light and smooth. The flesh must be firm and not "watery", the fat solid and the carcass sufficiently mature to insure proper curing. Hogs which fulfil these conditions weigh 90 to 170 pounds dressed. Low grades of bacon are made from pigs as light as 60 or 70 oounds, but the most desirable weights are 120 to 150 pounds. They consist principally of bar- rows, but for most grades of bacon smooth, clear sows that re- semble barrows in general quality and finish are used to some ex- tent. Only a small percentage of the dressed hogs handled at Chicago are of this class. The products principally made from them are "English" middles, backs and bellies, domestic breakfast- bacon bellies, long-cut and short-cut hams. Bacon hogs vary from choice to common in quality, finish and shape, and altho no fixed grades are universally recognized among packers, they are usually designated as choice, good and common, respectively. Choice bacon hogs must be evenly fleshed and covered with a smooth layer of fat over the loin, shoulders and sides. Firm flesh, solid, white fat, and a white, smooth skin are especially important in this grade. The depth of back-fat is from one and one-fourth to two inches. It must be evenly distributed, however, not vary- ing more than one-fourth or three-eighths of an inch at different points on the back and shoulders. Large sides of even width are MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 259 FIG. 58. CHOICE BACON HOGS. also essential. This grade is used for the manufacture of "Wilt- shire" and "Staffordshire" sides, "English" backs and bellies, and fancy breakfast-bacon bellies, also "Cumberland" sides to some extent. They weigh about 120 to 160 pounds, and only barrows are generally used. See Fig. 58. Good bacon hogs include those that either lack the prime fin- ish required of the highest grade or are too thickly or unevenly covered with fat; also those that are slightly deficient in length and depth of sides, or firmness and quality of flesh and fat. This grade, therefore, contains a much larger variety of carcasses than the choice grade, but they must nevertheless be reasonably well suited to the manufacture of smoked bacon and English meats. The thickness of back-fat must not be less than one nor more than 260 BULLETIN No. 147 [My, FIG. 59. BACON HOGS. Good. Common. two and one-half inches. Average weights vary from about no to 170 pounds. "Cumberland", "Wiltshire" and long clear sides. "English" bellies and domestic breakfast-bacon bellies are made from, this grade. See Fig. 59. Common bacon hogs are below the average in finish, quality and weight. Tho a hog may have the proper amount of fat, if it is unevenly distributed over the back and belly and not well mixed with the lean, the sides are not adapted to making good bacon. Carcasses that are too fat to grade as good bacon hogs are classified as packers rather than common bacons. The latter are principally light unfinished carcasses, the poorest of which are so thin as to be known as "skippy" or "skinny" hogs. The grade also includes some that have sufficient fat and weight but are soft and dark-colored in their flesh and fat and coarse in general appearance. Average weights of this grade are 90 to no pounds but a few range from 60 to 130 pounds. Com- MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 261 mon to medium bacon hogs weighing 90 to 130 pounds are used for long rib sides, and 60 to no-pound averages are made into Dublin middles. The latter, tho of the same weights as heavy pigs, are generally distinguished from them by darker colored flesh and harder, whiter bones. See Fig. 59. SHIPPERS Shippers are similar to Butcher Hogs in shape and quality but are lighter in weight and generally not as highly finished, having only a moderate covering of fat and a comparatively small amount of leaf fat. As compared with Bacon Hogs they are shorter and thicker-bodied, have a deeper and less even covering of fat, heav- ier jowls and show less age in proportion to their weight and gen- eral development. They average 100 to 160 pounds and are dressed "head-on". (Fig. 60.) Since their chief use is for fresh retail trade they must be carefully selected, and carcasses of this weight that show a marked lack of quality such as thick, rough skin, coarse bones, dark color or very uneven covering are classified as light packing hogs. This is the only class of hogs that is extensively sold in the whole carcass. They are shipped in car lots to eastern points, especially New York City, Boston, Buf- falo and various New England cities, where they are used both for fresh retail trade and for the manufacture of "home-packed" meats. The term "shipper" is also applied by some packers to all other carcasses that are dressed "shipper style", and they are quoted in weights from 40 to 280 pounds. In this case, carcasses heavier than 1 60 pounds are selected from Loin Hogs, and those lighter than 100 pounds are the class described below as Pigs. Heavy hogs quoted in this way are bought principally by retailers in small cities and towns, but the trade is very limited and has been largely replaced by pork loins. Shippers of all grades are sold most extensively during the winter months, when demand for fresh pork is greatest. PIGS Pigs are carcasses of light young swine that are compara- tively lean and light colored in flesh, with thin, soft skin, soft red bones, and weighing from 20 to 100 pounds. They are dressed "shipper style" and are often quoted together with Shipper Hogs. Thin and coarse or staggy pigs are frequently termed "throw- outs". Pigs are chiefly used for fresh trade in small retail mar- kets, where the heavier grades are cut into chops, pork steaks, hams and other fresh cuts, and the smaller carcasses are retailed to certain laboring classes by whom they are used for boiling pur- 262 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, I fc o in s o o fa /p/oj MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 263 poses. New York is the leading shipping point for 80 to 100 pound pigs. The mining districts of Pennsylvania take many of the lighter averages, 60 pounds and under. "Export pigs" are selected carcasses of choice quality averaging 80 to 100 pounds, dressed "head off" and wrapped in muslin. See Fig. 60. Roasting Pigs are dressed suckling pigs which are fat and smooth, with white skin and flesh indicating a well-nourished condition. They are country-dressed, as a rule, with head on and the carcass opened only from the crotch to the brisket. Roast- ers are principally shipped like winter lambs direct to the hotels and restaurants that use them. The most desirable size is 15 to 20 pounds but pigs weighing 10 to 30 pounds are used. PORK CUTS The various cuts made from dressed hogs may be divided into the following general classes : Plains, Sides, Bellies, Backs, Loins, Shoulders, Butts and Plates and Miscellaneous. See Fig. 61. These products are quoted and handled according to the man- ner in which they are prepared or packed viz., Fresh Pork Cuts, Dry-Salt and Bacon Meats, Barreled or Plain-Pickled Pork, Sweet-Pickled Meats, Smoked Meats, "English" Meats and Boiled Meats. It will be necessary to define these terms before attempt- ing to describe the grades and uses of the different classes of cuts. Fresh Pork Cuts are sold either chilled or frozen. The bulk of the uncured product is disposed of within a few days after slaugh- ter, during which time it is chilled at temperatures slightly above the freezing point. Freezing is employed for the storage of pork loins and other fresh cuts and edible offal when supply exceeds demand, and in some cases for keeping bellies, hams, shoulders and other cuts intended for future curing. Frozen pork, however, is not quoted nor handled to the same relative extent as frozen beef and mutton. Cut meats may also be kept without curing by packing in brine and storing at about 15 F., until it it desired to cure them in the regular manner. Cuts packed in a light brine and kept slightly above the freezing point for a short time are sometimes sold as "partly cured" meats. Fresh pork cuts are taken more or less from all classes of hogs. Since the pork loin is by far the leading fresh cut, light loin hogs are more extensively used for fresh pork than any other class. The varying demand for loins determines to a considera- ble extent the method of cutting other classes of hogs from time to time. Tenderloins and spareribs are also primarily fresh cuts. Skinned shoulders, shoulder butts, hams, bellies, fat backs, and raw leaf fat are sold fresh to a small extent. Some packers pur- 264 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, \ FIG. 61. PORK CUTS. ENGLISH CUTS A. Long-cut ham B. Long side or middle DOMESTIC CUTS 1. Short-cut ham 2. Loin 3. Belly 4. Picnic butt 5. Boston butt 9. Jowl Hock Fat back Clear plate 2, 3, 8. 4,7. 5,9. 8,9. Side Picnic shoulder Shoulder butt Long fat back 2, 8. Back 4,5,7,9. Rough shoulder zp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 265 chase their raw material in the form of fresh cuts, such as bellies, hams, picnics, leaf and back fat, and convert them into smoked meats, lard and other products bearing the trade-mark of the packer. Dry-Salt Meats are domestic cuts made from heavy fat pack- ing and loin hogs, cured and shipped in coarse salt, and with a few exceptions, pumped* before salting. These are distinct from "English" meats both as to selection and packing. The cuts that are sold in this form are heavy sides, bellies, shoulders, fat backs, plates and jowls. The same cuts, and particularly bellies and short clear sides, are also quoted as bacon meats, which, after be- ing cured in dry salt are smoked before shipping. The term Bacon, when used as a prefix, refers to dry-salt meats, while Smoked Meats, as described below, are cured in sweet pickle. Dry- Salt and Bacon Meats are generally shipped loose, but are some- times put up in boxes containing 25 to 500 pounds. Barreled or Plain-Pickled Pork is packed in plain salt brine in tight barrels (18" x 29") at 200 pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel (355 pounds gross). The strength of brine is varied somewhat according to the cuts of pork and their destinar tion. The regulation of the Chicago Board of Trade governing standard barreled pork (except prime mess) is as follows: "Be- tween October i, and the last day of February, f inclusive, 190 Ibs., and between March ist and September 3Oth, inclusive, 193 Ibs., of green meat shall be packed in each barrel, with not less than 40 Ibs. of coarse salt and barrel filled with brine of full strength; or 40 Ibs. of coarse salt and in addition thereto 15 Ibs. of salt and barrel filled with cold water". Stan- dard prime mess pork is packed 20 pounds salt and 12 ounces of saltpetre per barrel, otherwise as above. Barreled pork is made largely from sides of Packing and Heavy Loin Hogs, and con- sists principally of mess, fat back and belly pork of various grades. A much smaller proportion of the pork supply is barreled than formerly. Sweet- Pickled (S. P.) Meats are cured in sweet brine. Stan- dard cuts of this class are packed as follows for delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade : "300 Ibs. block weight shall be packed in each tierce with either 22 Ibs. of salt, 3 quarts of good syrup, *Brine is injected into the meat by means of a perforated hollow needle attached to a force-pump. This period of 5 months is known in the pork trade as the "winter pack- ing season", and the balance of the year as the summer season. Formerly, wholesale pork packing was limited almost entirely to the winter season, but with improved facilities packers now handle about three-fifths of the annual supply during the "summer season". 266 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, 12 ounces of saltpetre and tierce filled with water, or tierce filled with sweet pickle according to above standard". Various modifi- cations of this formula are used for meats not intended for reg- ular delivery. After curing, sweet-pickled meats are commonly packed in slack barrels or boxes, or sold loose, but are also sold in tierces (21" x 32"), either "pickle on" or "drained". The bulk of sweet-pickled and other sugar-cured meats are smoked before they reach the consumer, as explained in the following paragraph. A percentage of heavy sweet-pickled hams, picnics and loins are also boned out and sold as "boiled meats", which are described below. The cuts that are quoted as sweet-pickled meats are hams, picnics, New York cut and skinned shoulders, boneless butts, light bellies, and spareribs. This class of meats is cut principally from Butcher Hogs and from medium and light Packing Hogs; hams and picnics from all classes of hogs are generally sweet-pickled. Smoked Meats are sweet-pickled as described above and smoked after curing. They also include light breakfast-bacon bellies that have been dry-cured in salt and sugar. In packing smoked meats, fancy hams and breakfast-bacon bellies are wrapped in "parch- ment" paper or canvas and packed in 50 and 100 pound boxes and crates. Other grades are sold either unwrapped, canvassed, or wrapped in burlap, and either loose, boxed or crated (100 to 500- pound packages) or packed in slack barrels or burlap sacks. "English" Meats is a term applied to certain cuts that are dry- cured in English salt and saltpetre and primarily adapted to English trade, being given a milder cure than domestic meats. They are made principally from Bacon Hogs. The leading cuts of this class are "English" bacon sides, long-cut hams, clear backs and bellies, and square shoulders. After curing, these cuts are packed in borax or salt in 500 to 55O-pound boxes for export. Borax is principally used, but a small proportion of "English" cuts such as long clears are shipped in salt, which con- tinues the curing process during shipment. English meats are generally dried or smoked lightly after their arrival at British ports before being sold. Meats cured by this process are used to some extent in this country, being quoted as "English-cured". Sweet-pickled meats are also shipped in borax to England in con- siderable quantities. Boiled Meats consist of hams, picnic shoulders and loins cured in sweet pickle, cooked in water and lightly smoked. The cuts are usually boned and the fat trimmed off within one-half to one inch of the lean before cooking. Boiled hams and shoulders are generally quoted as "rolled boneless" cuts, which are pressed in jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 267 a cylindrical form, or rolled and tied with cord. Three loins are tied together for boiling, making a "loin roll". Boiled meats are made principally from the heavier cuts but various averages are used, including 12 to 3Opound hams, 10 to 14-pound picnics and 14 to 24-pound loins. The boning and fatting reduces the weight of hams about 25 percent and of loins, about 60 percent. Grading Pork Cuts The grading of pork cuts is more complex than that of other meats since it involves not only their quality, shape, proportions of fat and lean, and weight, but also the styles of cutting and meth- ods of packing by which they are prepared for different classes of trade. Many of the grade names refer merely to different methods of cutting and curing; but since they are applied only to cuts of specified quality, thickness or weight, the grades are in reality based on the latter factors to a large extent. The various cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading; consequently an adequate explanation of the factors involved and their rela- tive importance can be presented only by describing the grades of each class. HAMS Hams are of two general kinds, short-cut and long-cut. The former are made from comparatively fat, plump hams, trimmed short and round at the butt, and the shank cut off at the hock joint. They are sold either as Regular Short-Cut, Skinned, or Boneless Rolled Hams. Long-cut hams are lean, long hams, with the butt left full and the foot taken off at the first joint below the hock. The principal grades are Regular Long-Cut, Stafford Cut, Manchester Cut and Italian Cut Hams. Short-Cut or American Cut Hams are cut from the side mid- way between the hench-bone and slip-bone,* trimmed round at the butt, cushionf faced full, not undercut on the skin side, and shank cut off in or above the hock joint. Until 1909 the Board of Trade required that the shank be cut above the hock so as to ex- pose the marrow. Practically all hams are sold as sweet-pickled or smoked meats. For regular delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade as sweet-pickled hams, they must average, in lots, not to exceed 16 pounds, with no ham to weigh less than 12 pounds and *The hench-bone is the flat portion of the hip-bone that remains attached to the socket joint of the ham when the hog is split. The slip-bone is the portion of the hip-bone that lies in contact with the back-bone near the end of the loin. tThe cushion is the fat butt of the ham where the tail piece is cut off. 268 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, none to weigh over 20 pounds. The short-cut ham is the leading ham cut and has to a large extent taken the place of the long-cut ham in export trade. Short-Cut Hams are graded by packers according to the brand of smoked hams for which they are suitable. For the first brand (known as "extra selected" or "fancy" sugar-cured hams), they are selected for thickness and firmness of lean meat, plump, well- rounded shape, solid, white fat of medium thickness (l|4 to 2 inches on a medium-weight ham), smooth, soft skin, bright color, small shank and absence of bruises. The bulk of this grade weigh 10 to 1 6 pounds, 10 to 12 pounds being most desirable for family trade, and 14 to 16 pounds for hotels and restaurants. They are cut mainly from Butcher Hogs. Especial care is taken in curing and smoking to secure the proper flavor and color. See Figs. 62, 64. Second brand or second grade hams (frequently termed No. z's) are deficient in one or more of the points just mentioned, but must be reasonably good in general quality and not exceed- ingly deficient in any particular. Many of them are too fat for the first brand. They may be cut from any class of hogs but the majority are made from Packing hogs. See Fig. 62. The third brand (also known as "seconds"), includes those from which a skin-bruise has been removed, also thin, light hams and any others which lack the shape and quality required for regular meat mar- ket trade. They are cut from Packing and Common Bacon Hogs. See Fig. 62. "Easter Hams" are light, lean hams (6 to 10 pounds) of good shape and quality but cut from smooth young pigs. They are sugar-cured and smoked and are in season during the spring and early summer. Skinned Hams are cut short as explained above, the skin is removed down to the shank and the fat trimmed off within one inch of the lean. Until 1909 the Board of Trade regulation re- quired the fat to be trimmed off within one-half inch of the lean. They are made from fat hams of first and second grades, weigh- ing from 12 to 30 pounds, but the bulk weigh 16 to 22 pounds. Many skin-bruised hams are also skinned in order to remove bruises. This style is especially adapted to making boiled hams, which are in favor with restaurant trade for slicing. From one- tenth to one-fourth of the wholesale supply of hams are skinned under usual market conditions. They are quoted both as smoked, sweet-pickled and boiled meats. See Fig. 62. Boneless Rolled Hams are made from sweet-pickled short-cut hams by lifting the skin, removing the surplus fat and the bone, and pressing or tying in the form of a roll with skin on. They are also made from skinned hams. 15 to 26-pound hams of first and second brands are used, and they are sold as boiled meats. See Fig. 65. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 269 M 8 P g 270 BULLETIN NO. 147 [July, FIG. 64. SMOKED SHORT-CUT HAMS (FIRST BRAND). FIG. 65 BONELESS ROILED HAMS /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 271 Regular Long-Cut Hams are lean, long hams with only one- half to one and one-half inches of outside fat, and are "cut from the side by separating with a knife the hip-bone from the rump, properly rounded, foot unjointed at first joint below the hock".* They are not faced; and the butt end is left full, which gives it a flat, lean appearance. (Fig. 63.) Average weights are 10 to 20 pounds but usually above 14 pounds. This cut is made from good and choice bacon hogs. It is no longer extensively used but was formerly the leading export ham. "Yorkshire" or "York" Hams are cut slightly longer at the butt than regular, but are oth- erwise as described above. Both are packed as explained under "English Meats." "Smithfield" or Virginia Style Hams are long- cut and very lean, cured hard, spiced, and "aged" for several months before using. They weight 9 to 18 pounds. "Stafford" Hams are cut about 2 inches shorter at the butt end than regular long-cut hams, hench-bone taken out exposing the socket joint, and foot cut off at the first joint below the hock. They are cut from good and choice bacon hogs and cured for English trade. This grade is made principally from 14 to 18- pound hams. See Fig. 63. "Manchester" Hams are a very lean grade of long-cut hams, comparatively flat in shape, butted like "Staffords", and averaging 14 to 18 pounds. See Fig. 63. "Italian" Hams are very thin, long hams, of 9 to 18 pounds average, and of common to good quality. The hench-bone is re- moved as from "Staffords", the leg left extra long, the butt trim- med like American or short-cut hams, the ham pressed flat, dryr salt cured, smoked dark and seasoned with pepper. See Fig. 63. Numerous other styles or grades of hams which were for- merly packed in large quantities, especially for export trade, are no longer made or used sufficiently to be regarded as standard products. SIDES This class includes various grades and cuts of Short Ribs, Short Clears and "English" Bacon Sides. Short Rib Sides. Regular Short Ribs are middles of hogs from which short cut hams and regular or New York shoulders have been taken off, with back-bone and tenderloin removed, hench-bone and breast-bone sawed or cut down smooth and even with face of side, feather of blade not removed and no incision made in the side. This is a regular Board of Trade cut and is quoted in provision reports simply as "Ribs". It is made from medium to heavy packing hogs, in averages from 25 to 80 pounds *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. 272 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, but principally from 45 to 65 pounds. On the Board of Trade regular ribs averaging not less than 30 nor more than 60 pounds are deliverable at contract price; those over 60 and not over 70 pounds average are deliverable at a discount of 20 cents per 100 pounds; those over 70 and not over 80 pounds are discounted 30 cents per 100 pounds. Regular ribs are mainly shipped south either as dry-salt or bacon meat. The manufacture of this cut is confined largely to the winter months. It is used less extensively in proportion to other cuts than formerly but is still the leading side cut, over one-half the stocks of sides generally consisting of short ribs. Many are afterward converted into other cuts, as extra ribs, extra clears, backs and bellies, as determined by cur- rent prices of the various cuts. About one-fifth of the number of heavy hogs packed are cut into short ribs. Jobbing or Rough Short Ribs consist of short ribs with the back-bone left in, the hog being centre-split leaving equal parts of the back-bone on each side. They are sold at a discount of 2 per- cent under regular ribs and must average not less than 30 nor more than 50 pounds for Board of Trade delivery. See Fig. 66. Hard Short Ribs are made the same as Jobbing Ribs except that the hog is split so as to leave the back-bone all on one side. The side containing the back-bone is known as the Hard Side or Hard Short Rib and the other as the Soft Side, the latter being the same as the Regular Short Rib. They usually weigh 50 to 70 pounds, are cut from heavy packing hogs and are sold principally in the South as dry-salt pork. Extra Short Ribs or "Extra Ribs' 5 are made from Short Ribs by removing the loin. They average 35 to 50 pounds. 20 to 30 percent of the stocks of sides usually consist of Extra Ribs. See Fig. 66. Square Cut or "English" Short Ribs are the middles of hogs from which square shoulders and long-cut hams have been cut, thus making the side shorter than a regular rib. square-cut and with the feather of the blade-bone out. They are selected from the better grades of medium weight packing hogs, and average 20 to 30 pounds. They are cured in English Salt and handled like other "English" Meats. Short Clear Sides. Regular Short Clears are made from reg- ular short ribs by removing the ribs and cutting reasonably square at each end. They are graded and handled in the same manner as short ribs. Short Clears average 30 to 70 pounds and to grade regular must average not less than 35 pounds. Their use has declined to a large extent in recent years as compared with cer- tain other cuts, and only i to 5 percent of the stocks of sides are of this kind. It is primarily a domestic cut but is exported to some MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 273 3 31 a* o ft 274 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, extent. See Fig. 66. Square-Cut Short Clears are the same as Square-Cut Short Ribs except the ribs are taken out. Extra Short Clear Sides or "Extra Clears" are made the same as short clears except that the loin is also removed. They may be made from extra short ribs by cutting out the ribs. The pieces weigh 25 to 60 pounds, and must average not less than 30 nor more than 60 pounds to grade regular. 10 to 20 per cent of the stocks of sides are usually made up of this cut. See Fig. 66. "English" Bacon Sides. These so-called sides or long mid- dles include both the side and shoulder, and in one instance (Wilt- shires) the ham is also included. They are cured and packed as described under "English Meats", and after arrival in Great Britain are usually made into "rolled sides", which are dried for English trade, but in Scotland are usually smoked. American packers have discontinued manufacturing several cuts not men- tioned below which were formerly used quite extensively. "Wiltshire" Sides consist of the side, ham and shoulder left together in one piece; the blade-bone is taken out, foot cut off, the shoulder trimmed the same as "Cumberlands", hip-bone taken out, not backstrapped, the belly trimmed smooth and even, and leg of the ham cut off below the hock joint. These sides aver- age 40 to 70 pounds and are selected especially for thickness of lean meat with a light, even covering of fat from i l /\. to 2 inches thick, not exceeding 1 3 A inches in the best grades. They are made exclusively from choice lean bacon hogs, and are the highest grade of English bacon sides. The use of "Wiltshires" has greatly de- clined in recent years. They are shipped principally to the south of England. See Fig. 67. "Cumberland" Sides "have the end from which the ham is taken cut square ; the leg cut off below the knee joint ; the shoulder ribs, neck-bone, back-bone and blood vein taken out; breast-bone sawed or cut down smooth and even with the face of the side; and should not be back-strapped or flanked".* They are made from good and choice bacon hogs and average 20 to 60 pounds, but the bulk run 25 to 40 pounds. This is by far the leading ex- port side cut, and being made in various grades and averages is suitable for converting into other English side cuts, such as "Yorkshires", "Birmin^hams", "Staffords" and others which are no longer generally made in this country. See Fig. 67. Long Rib Sides are made the same as Cumberlands except the shoulder bones are taken out and the leg cut off close to the breast. The average weight is 18 to 25 pounds. They are made from common to good bacon hogs, and shipped to Liverpool for distri- bution to Ireland and Wales. *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 275 FIG. 67. L,ONG SIDES. Wiltshire Long- Clear Cumberland Yorkshire Dublin Staffordshire 276 BUI-LETIN No. 147 [July, Long Clear Sides are cut the same as long ribs and in addition have the ribs taken out. For English trade, they are made from good bacon hogs weighing" 120 to 160 pounds dressed, and the sides weigh 18 to 26 pounds. See Fig. 67. For regular Board of Trade delivery they must average not less than 45 pounds. The latter are used in domestic trade and Continental Europe, and are made from the heaviest bacon hogs and from comparatively lean butcher hogs. This cut is used to some extent both in export and domestic trade, but much less than formerly. Extra long clears are made like long clears except that the loin is also removed. They are seldom used. "Dublin" Middles are thin lean sides cut like "Cumberlands" and in addition the leg cut off close to the breast. They are made from light, common bacon hogs and pigs. The sides weigh 12 to 20 pounds. See Fig. 67. BELLIES The grades of this cut are Dry-Salt, Si^ect-Picklc, Breakfast- Bacon and "English" Bellies. Dry-Salt Bellies are made from short rib sides of mixed pack- ing hogs by cutting off the back. For delivery on the Board of Trade they must be "well cut and trimmed ; no bellies that are coarse, bruised, soft or unsound shall be accepted".* However, they are not as closely trimmed as sweet-pickle bellies. They are made in averages from 10 to 45 pounds. About two-thirds of the stocks of bellies at Chicago usually consist of this grade. They are quoted as Dry-Salt Rib and Dry-Salt Clear Bellies, the latter having the ribs removed and being made usually from bel- lies weighing less than 25 pounds. When smoked they are known as "Bacon Meats". See Fig. 68. Sweet-Pickle Bellies are made from butcher, bacon and good packing hogs, being "well cut and trimmed, to average, in lots, not to exceed 14 pounds".* The edges are squared and trimmed more closely than Dry-Salt bellies. They are made in 6 to 14 pound averages, packed the same as sweet-pickled hams and sold either as sweet-pickled or smoked meats. About one-third of the supply of bellies are sweet-pickled. They are quoted both as Rib and Clear Bellies, the latter having the ribs removed. See Fig. 68. Breakfast-Bacon Bellies are clear bellies cut from bacon or light butcher hogs and selected with reference to firmness, color, proportions of fat and lean, smooth skin and general quality. They are trimmed still more closely than the regailar sweet-pickled bellies. Selected bellies of this class weighing 4 to 10 pounds are *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 277 t-J O w j. pq a> 278 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, known as Fancy or Special Breakfast Bacon Bellies and are made into the best brands of sugar-cured breakfast-bacon. They are carefully selected, dry-cured in air-tight boxes and smoked lightly. The second brand includes bellies that are too fat for fancy ba- con, or which lack the necessary firmness of flesh and thin smooth skin. They weigh 4 to 16 pounds. The third brand is made from bellies weighing 6 to 18 pounds that are either slightly bruised, or too deficient in general quality for the second brand. See Figs. 68, 70. ''English" Bellies are clear bellies weighing 10 to 20 pounds, cut from choice heavy bacon hogs and light butcher barrows, and selected for firmness and a large proportion of lean. They are cut square on all edges and packed as explained under "English Meats". See Fig. 68. BACKS The grades of backs are Short Rib, Short Clear, Short Fat and Long Fat Backs. Short Rib Backs are made from short rib sides by cutting off the belly; they therefore contain the loin, back fat and back-ribs but not the back -bone nor tenderloin. It is a dry-salt cut, weigh- ing 25 to 45 pounds and is not commonly made. Hard Backs are made from hard rib sides, thus containing the back-bone. "Eng- lish" Rib Backs are made from Square Short Ribs, and average 12 to 20 pounds. See Fig. 69. Short Clear Backs are "made from the sides of smooth hogs from which the bellies have been cut, back-bone and ribs taken out and the lean left on, tail-bone sawed off even with the face of FIG. 70. SMOKED BREAKFAST-BACON BELLIES ( FIRST BRAND). 1910} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 279 the meat, and trimmed smooth and square on all the edges".* They are cut from medium and heavy packing hogs, dryr-salted and sold largely in continental Europe. The weights run from 16 to 40 pounds. "English" Short Clear Backs are lighter than reg- ulars, averaging 10 to 20 pounds, and are shorter at the butt end, being cut off in front of the hip-bone. They are packed like other English meats. See Fig. 69. Pickled Clear Backs are short clear backs of light weight and lean quality. They weigh 6 to 10 pounds and are sweet-pickled, smoked, and sold as "Loin Back Bacon" or "Breakfast Bacon Backs". See Fig. 69. Short Fat Backs are "made from the sides of heavy, well- fatted hogs from which the bellies have been cut, back-bone and ribs taken out and all the lean taken off, to be trimmed smoothly and properly squared on all the edges".* This is one of the leading back cuts. It is made from packing and loin hogs when cutting- pork loins, and is usually quoted as a dry-salt cut in 8 to 20 pound averages. See Fig. 69. Export Short Fat Backs have the blade-bone taken out, are more closely trimmed and squared than domestic backs and are made principally in heavy averages, 16 to 40 pounds. Paprika Fat Backs are thin, light fat backs, weighing 4 to 8 pounds. They are dry-salted and seasoned with paprika. Long Fat Backs consist of "the upper half of the side cut thru the centre of the ribs from the ham to and including the shoulder, with the loin and blade-bone taken out, trimmed smoothly and squared on all edges".* It is a dry-salt cut, not as commonly made as formerly and used only for export trade. See Fig. 61. LOINS Loins, consisting of the back with the fat trimmed off, are sold either as Regular Pork Loins or as Loin Rolls. Pork Loins are made from sides of loin hogs, with the belly and back-fat cut off; they contain the back-bone, back-ribs and tenderloin, and have but a small amount of fat (one-fourth to one- half inch) on the outside. The loin is the leading fresh pork cut, and as it is retailed entirely in the form of chops and roasts, it must have reasonably good shape, bright color, firm, fine-grained flesh and good quality of bone. Loins are made principally from butcher hogs, but also to some extent from good packing and heavy bacon hogs. The weights of regular pork loins are 8 to 1 8 pounds and the price usually varies inversely as the weight, except occasional loins that are graded No. 2 on account of dark color or coarseness of flesh and bones. 14 pounds is the heaviest *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. 280 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, average generally used for fresh trade, and a few are made as light as 4 to 6 pounds. See Fig. 66b. Extra or Long Pork Loins include, in addition to the regular loin, the top or lean butt of the shoulder, but this cut is seldom made. Tenderloins consist of short round muscles lying underneath and on each side of the back-bone; they are attached to the "slip- bone" and extend from the loin butt almost to the last rib. They weigh one-fourth to one pound each, but those weighing three- fourths pound or over are most extensively used. They are cut from hogs that are too heavy and rough to yield regular pork loins, and from which short ribs, mess pork and boneless loins are made. The tenderloin is sold only as a fresh cut. Loin Rolls are made from heavy loins (15 to 22 pounds) by boning them completely, tying three boneless loins together length- wise in the form of a roll, curing in sweet pickle, smoking and boiling. Light No. 2 loins are also packed in this manner in smaller quantities. Loin rolls are used by restaurants and deli- catessen shops. SHOULDERS The standard grades are Rough, Regular, Picnic, New York Cut, Skinned, Square, Neiu Orleans Cut and Boneless Rolled Shoulders. Rough Shoulders are unt rimmed shoulders as cut from the hog, separated from the side between the first and second ri>s and with the jowl cut off square. They are quoted as fresh meats but are not extensively used. See Fig. 72. Regular Shoulders are "cut as close as possible to the back part of the forearm joint without exposing the knuckle, (leaving 2 ribs on the shoulder), butted off square on top, the neck-bone and short ribs taken out, neck squared off, blood vein lifted and cut out, breast flap cut off and foot cut off on or above the knee joint".* They are made principally from hogs that are too heavy and rough for New York style shoulders, and at times when the supply of picnics exceeds the demand. About 15 per- cent of the stocks of shoulders generally consist of Regulars, of which about one-third are handled as dry-salt shoulders, averag- ing 15 to 20 pounds, and about two-thirds as sweet-pickled shoul- ders averaging 12 to 16 pounds. Sausage Shoulders are regular- cut shoulders which are unsuitable for dry-salt or sweet-pickle be- cause of being trimmed to remove bruises, cut from "shoulder- stuck" hogs, or otherwise deficient, and are used for the purpose which their name indicates. Bladed Shoulders are cut the same *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 281 as Regulars except the shoulder-blade is taken out and the corners rounded. Comparatively few are cut in this manner. Picnics or Calas (formerly termed California hams) are cut 2^2 ribs wide, trimmed and packed as follows : "Shank cut off above the knee joint, trimmed as full on the face (lean surface) as possible, butt taken off to the edge of the blade, well rounded at the butt in the shape of a ham, breast flap taken off, and trim- med close and smooth, reasonably uniform in size, and to average, in lots, not to exceed 12 pounds. 300 pounds block (green) weight shall be packed in each tierce. Pickle the same as used for hams".* They are cut from good packing and butcher hogs, averaging 4 to 14 pounds, but principally 8 to 12 pounds, and are sold almost entirely as sweet-pickled, smoked and boiled meats. The lighter averages (4 to 8 pounds) are sometimes termed Boston Shoul- ders, and were formerly butted shorter than Calas and only slightly rounded; but Chicago and other western packers now trim them like Calas and designate both as Picnics. About 85 percent of the wholesale supply of shoulders are made into Pic- nics. See Fig. 74. Skinned Picnics are made from the fat- ter grades of Picnics by removing the skin and trimming the fat off within one-half inch of the lean. They average 6 to 10 pounds, and are sold largely as Boiled Meats. New York Cut Shoulders are cut two ribs wide, butted one inch from blade-bone, trimmed smooth, neck and breast flap cut off, and shank cut off between knee and brisket. 8 to 1 4-pound grades are made for domestic trade and the bulk weigh 10 to 12 pounds, but heavier weights up to 18 pounds, are exported. They are made principally from butcher and packer hogs, and are quoted as fresh, smoked and sweet-pickled meats. They are not as extensively used as formerly in proportion to other cuts. See Fig. 72. Skinned Shoulders are cut similar to New York Cut Shoulders and in addition the skin is taken off down to the shank and the fat trimmed off close to the lean. They weigh 6 to 16 pounds, and are sold fresh, sweet-pickled and smoked. They are the lead- ing fresh shoulder cut used in city retail trade. See Fig. 72. Skinned shoulders with the shank cut off close to the breast are termed "Chicago Shoulders", or "Skinned Shoulders, hock off". Square or $-Rib Shoulders are cut three ribs wide, squared on all sides, neck-bones out, breast flap off, foot cut off at the knee joint, butted just above blade-bone, and so trimmed as to expose the lean as much as possible. This is the leading "English" *Regu!ations Chicago Board of Trade. 282 BULLETIN NO. 147 [July, CO /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 283 shoulder cut, and is made in averages from 10 to 20 pounds. See Fig. 72. New Orleans Cut Shoulders are made i l / 2 ribs wide, smooth and rounded on neck end, part of shoulder butt left on and neck- bone out. They are cut principally in 12 to 14 pound averages, but are also made from 10 to 16 pounds, from shoulders that are too rough and fat to make New York Cut or Picnic Shoulders. This is a dry-salt cut. See Fig. 72. Boneless Rolled Picnics are made from heavy picnics by lifting the skin, removing the surplus fat and the bone, pressing or roll- ing and tying with cord in the form of a roll in the same manner as rolled hams. They are also made from skinned picnics. Bone- less rolled shoulders are made similarly from regular shoulders. They are sold as boiled meats. BUTTS AND PLATES Butts are cut from the end or top of the shoulder and from the jowl. Plates are made from shoulder butts. The various grades of these cuts are Boston Style, Milwaukee Style, Boneless, Buffalo Style, New York Style, Picnic, Dry-Salt and Square-Cut Butts; Regular Plates, Clear Plates and Back Plates. Boston Style Butts are the ends or top pieces cut from heavy shoulders when making picnics; the neck-bone, ribs and surplus fat being removed and the piece trimmed smooth. They include the end of the shoulder blade. Average weights are 3 to 7 pounds. They are principally barreled and exported to Germany, Denmark and other European countries, but are also sold fresh for domestic retail trade. See Fig. 73. Milwaukee Style Butts are the same as Boston butts with the neck-bone and rib left on. Boneless Butts or Lean Butts (also termed Cala Butts) consist of the lean, boneless portion of Boston butts between the blade- bone and neck-bone. When sweet-pickled and smoked like hams this cut is known as a Cottage Style butt. See Fig. 73. Buffalo Style Butts are cut the same as boneless butts except that the neck-bone is left in. They are used fresh. New York Style Butts are shoulder butts cut from picnics of the thinner and lighter grades. They contain the neck-bone, fat and lean, and are mainly plain-pickled. See Fig. 73. Picnic Butts are picnics from which the surplus fat and the skin are removed and the shank cut off close to the breast. They are not trimmed as closely as regular picnics. See Fig. 73. Dry-Salt Butts are made from the jowl (lower part of the neck and cheek), with the edges trimmed smooth and the piece 284 BULLETIN No. 147 [July. iMMH Hk Hp^ ^P^w^ FIG. 74. PICNICS. Heavy. Light. FIG. 75. SPARE RIBS (FULL SHEET). SPARE RIBS (HALF SHEET). DRY-SALT BUTT (JOWL). SQUARE-CUT BUTT. VIRGINIA-STYLE JOWL. pounded flat. They weigh 3 to 5 pounds and are usually packed as their name indicates but are sometimes barreled. Vir- ginia-Style jowls are made from the smaller end of the lower jaw including the teeth, and are made both tongue in and tongue out. They are sugar-cured and smoked, but are not extensively made. See Fig. 75. Square-Cut Butts are also made from the jowl but are more closely trimmed and squared. They average 2 to 4 pounds and are dry-salted or barreled. See Fig. 75. Regular Plates are made from shoulder butts by removing a boneless butt, thus making a fat piece with a facing of lean, con- taining the end of the blade-bone, and weighing 6 to 12 pounds. They are packed either as dry-salt or barreled pork. When made with the blade-bone out they are known as Antwerp Backs. See Fig- 73- jp/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 285 Clear Plates are made from shoulder butts by removing a Bos- ton butt, and are a clear fat cut, weighing 4 to 8 pounds. They are generally dry-salted but are barreled to some extent. See Fig 1 - 73- Back Plates are made from long fat backs, cut into keystone- shaped pieces weighing 3^/2 to 10 pounds. They are both bar- reled and dry-salted. MISCELLANEOUS The cuts described under this head consist principally of bar- reled pork and other products made from sides and shoulders of packing hogs. They may be grouped as follows : Mess Pork, Belly Pork, Back Pork, Shoulder Pork, Spareribs, and Trimmings. Mess Pork. Regular Mess Pork is "made from sides of well fatted hogs, split thru or one side of the back-bone, and equal pro- portions on both sides, cut into strips of reasonably uniform width, properly flanked and not backstrapped''.* See Fig. 66a. The reg- ular proportion of flank and shoulder cuts must be included. The strips average about six inches in width, and not over sixteen pieces may be packed in a barrel for regular delivery. Mess Fork is made from rough and heavy packing hogs and occasionally from heavy loin hogs. During the early years of the packing industry about one-third of the wholesale pork product consisted of mess pork, but it has been largely replaced by other cuts during recent years, and is now only two or three percent of the supply. Approximately one- half of the Barreled Pork supply is Mess Pork. On the Board of Trade it is quoted simply as "Pork". Mess pork packed between October i of one year and September 30 of the succeeding year is "new r pork" until January i of the following year, and is thereafter termed "old pork". Mess pork made during December, January and February must have been packed at least ten days before deliv- ery, and that delivered during the period from March to Novem- ber, inclusive, must have been packed at least thirty days before de- livery to grade regular. It is barreled and shipped principally to the southern states, northern lumber camps and South America. Shortj-cut Mess Pork is described in connection with Back Pork. Light Mess Pork is "made from the sides of reasonablv well fatted hogs ; and in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed the same as mess pork, except that as many as 22 pieces may be put into each barrel". f It is made principally from medium pack- ing hogs. *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. "Backstrapping" refers to trim- ming a strip of fat from the edge of the side, above the back-bone. fRegulations Chicago Board of Trade. 286 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Prime Mess Pork is made from the shoulder and side, contain- ing the back-bone and ribs, cut into square pieces of about 4 pounds each. The shank is cut off close to the breast. In making this cut the side is split lengthwise, the back cut into about six pieces and the belly into four. It is made from light packing hogs. Extra Clear Pork is "made from the sides of extra heavy, well- fatted hogs, the back-bone and ribs to be taken out, (the same as short clear sides) the number of pieces in each barrel not to ex- ceed 14, and in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork".* This cut is not extensively made. Clear Pork is "made from the sides of extra heavy, well-fatted hogs, the back-bone and half the ribs next the back-bone to be taken out, the number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed 14, and in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same man- ner as mess pork".* It is no longer in general use. Loin Clear Pork is "made from the sides of medium-weight packing hogs, the loin, back-bone and back ribs being removed and belly ribs left in". It consists of extra short ribs cut into strips, and is also known as Long-Cut Clear Pork. The pieces average five inches in width. It is barreled like mess pork and sold especially to New England trade. Belly Pork. Regular Belly Pork consists of heavy, fat rib bellies cut into 5-inch widths and packed as plain-pickled pork in barrels of 50 to 60 pieces. This pork is made from the same grade of bellies as Dry-Salt Rib Bellies. Brisket Pork Rib is made by cutting a 5 -inch strip from the brisket end of heavy rib bellies (14 to 20 pounds average) and packing like other barreled pork. The pieces average about 4 pounds each. This cut is made only when it is desired to reduce the weight of heavy bellies. Clear Brisket Pork is made in the same manner as the above except the pieces are cut from clear bellies. Fancy Clear Pork is a strip cut from the brisket end of fancy breakfast bacon bellies, averaging i to 1 1 /2 pounds per piece. It is either barreled or sugar cured and smoked. Lean Belly Pork consists of lean clear bellies, 13 to 15 pounds average, cut into three pieces each and barreled in plain pickle. Back Pork. Regular Back Pork (Short Cut Mess, or Family Back Pork) is "made from the backs of well-fatted hogs, after bellies have been taken off, cut into pieces of about 6 pounds each, and in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork".* This cut contains the loin, back-bone and back ribs, with tenderloin out, and the pieces are cut 6 inches wide, averaging 4 to 6 pounds. *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 287 Clear Back Pork is "made from the backs of heavy, well-fatted hogs, after bellies have been taken off, and back-bone and ribs taken out, cut into pieces of about 6 pounds each, and in all other respects to be packed in the same manner as mess pork".* In other words, it consists of Short Clear Backs cut into strips about 6 inches wide, and is the same as Regular Back Pork with the rib removed. It is sometimes called Loin Clear Pork. The pieces average 2 to 7 pounds. Fat Back Pork or Short Cut Clear Pork is made from short fat backs by cutting them into 5-inch strips. The pieces average from 2 to 7 pounds and are packed like mess pork. Speck is made from fat backs, cut into strips, cured in plain pickle and seasoned with pepper. Ham Butt Pork (Loin End or Rump Pork) consists of tri- angular pieces cut from the ham end of short clear backs or sides and includes a portion of the tail-bone. It is made when cutting short-cut hams and "English" sides, or when it is desired to reduce the weight of heavy sides or backs. It is packed in barrels, the pieces averaging 3 to 4 pounds. Shoulder Pork consists of the following products made from shoulders and butts : Extra Prime Pork is "made from heavy untrimmed shoulders cut into 3 pieces; the leg to be cut off close to the breast, and in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same man- ner as mess pork".* The pieces average about 4 pounds. This and the preceding cut are not used as extensively as formerly. Boston Style Butt Pork is made from Boston Style Butts aver- aging 4 to 7 pounds, packed in plain pickle. Bean Pork or Clear Butt Pork is made from the jowl or fat cheek of the hog, cut square, trimmed smooth and averaging 3 to 4 pounds, packed in plain pickle. Spareribs consist of the ribs trimmed from the carcass or side with as little lean as possible. They are termed "full-sheet", ''half- sheet" and "back-bone" spareribs according as they are cut from full sides, bellies or backs respectively. They are essentially a fresh pork product and are sold in retail markets especially in fall and winter, for which purpose "half-sheet" ribs are principally used. Spareribs are also quoted as sweet-pickled, smoked and dry-salt meats. They are packed in limited amounts in sweet pickle at times when the demand for fresh spareribs is dull; dry-salt spareribs are taken from dry-salt sides and bellies when making them into clear cuts after curing. Both pickled and dry-salt spareribs are smoked to a limited extent. See Fig. 75. *Regulations Chicago Board of Trade. 288 BULLETIN No. 147 [July, Various other meats are handled and quoted similarly to spare- ribs. Hocks consist of the shank or foreleg cut from the shoulder, including 1 the portion between the breast and knee. They are sold either fresh or barreled. Back-bones, neck-bones and blade-bones are to some extent sold fresh like spareribs, but are usually tanked. Trimmings are of two grades: Special Lean- or "A" grade, and Regular or "B M grade. Special Lean or Berliner Trimmings consist of the larger pieces of meat with fat cut off and are used especially for making Berliner sausage. The regular grade is made up of small pieces of fat and lean, miscellaneous in shape and quality, and contains about 40 to 50 percent fat. Both grades are almost entirely utilized in sausage manufacture. LARD From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made into lard in large packing-houses, the proportion varying with the rela- tive price of lard and grade of hogs. The standard grades are Kettle-Rendered Leaf, Kettle-Rendered, Neutral, Prime Steam, Refined and Compound Lard. They differ as to the kinds of fats they contain, methods of rendering, color, flavor and grain. KETTLE-RENDERED L EAF LARD This consists of leaf fat only, rendered at about 248 F. in open-jacketed kettles, without the addition of water and without subsequent refining. It is the whitest in color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades of lard. Kettle-rendered lard is distin- guished from other kinds by the wavy or fluffy appearance of the surface, known as a "crinkly top", and this is characteristic es- pecially of leaf lard. It is sold principally in pails of various sizes for retail trade. Most packing firms do not render pure leaf lard but make the leaf into Neutral. Raw leaf fat is also sold fresh to butterine manufacturers and is used to some extent by retail trade. KETTLE-RENDERED LARD This grade is made from back fat with or without a proportion of leaf or "leaf scraped'' lard, (seldom exceeding 20 percent) and not over 5 percent of lard stearin.* Ham- facing fat and fat trim- mings are also used at times. It is rendered in either open or closed kettles but not under pressure nor in contact with live steam. The *Lard stearin is the residue left after pressing the oil from lard. Having a high melting point, it is usually mixed with lard during the summer months or when shipping to a warm climate. /p/o] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF MEAT 289 open-kettle product is sometimes branded "Country Style Lard". This is the highest grade of lard made in most packing houses, and is excelled in whiteness, grain and crinkly appearance of the sur- face only by genuine leaf lard. Kettle-rendered lard more readily becomes rancid than refined lard, hence flavor and keeping quali- ties are especially important in this grade. It is made in com- paratively limited quanities, and is packed in 3 to 50 pound pails for retail trade, 50 to 80 pound tubs, and tierces. NEUTRAL LARD Neutral Lard is made from leaf or back fat melted in water- jacketed open kettles at about 128 F., at which temperature the fat partially liquifies without cooking. No. i Neutral is made from leaf fat only. When dra\vn off and strained the melted fat is tasteless, free of acids and impurities, smooth-grained and re- mains unchanged in odor and color. It is sold in tierces and is used principally in the manufacture of butterine or oleomargarine. This grade of lard is largely exported, Rotterdam being the prin- cipal foreign market for it. No. 2 Neutral lard is made from back fat melted in the same manner as the No. i grade. It is not as white in color nor as fine in grain but is used for the same same purposes when No. i Neutral is high in price. PRIME STEAM LARD Prime Steam Lard is made from fat trimmings (ham, shoulder, belly, jowl and head fats), internal or "killing fats" and other fat parts, sometimes including entire fat backs, jowls, etc., rendered in closed tanks under about 40 pounds direct steam pressure (240 F.) without refining, stirring or bleaching. It is darker-colored and coarser-grained than other grades of lard, and is the form in which nog fats can be most economically stored and shipped. It is stored in tanks and tierces, and shipped in tierces or tank cars. Prime steam lard is refined before using, being converted into other grades of lard or used in Compound. Nine-tenths or more of the lard made at Chicago is of this grade. For delivery on the Board of Trade, "it must have proper color, flavor and soundness for kee > ing, and no material which has been salted must be included. Prime steam lard of superior quality as to color, flavor and body may be inspected and labeled as 'Prime Steam Lard, choice qual- ity' ". When rendered from cured fats such as sweet-pickled ham and shoulder fat, or for other reasons defective in color, flavor or grain, it is graded as No. 2 Steam Lard, being darker in color and coarser in grain than the regular grade. 290 BULLETIN No. 147 REFINED LARD Refined Lard is made from Prime Steam Lard by a bleaching and stirring process, consisting of rapid agitation with fuller's earth at about 180 F., followed by pressing through filter cloths and chilling. A proportion of lard stearin, not exceeding 5 per- cent, may also be added. If oleo stearin, tallow or more than 5 percent of lard stearin be added, the product may not be labeled "Pure Lard", and the added fats must be named on the package. It is sold in tierces, barrels, cans and pails, and is packed in 28 and 56-pound boxes for export. COMPOUND LARD Compound Lard or Lard Compound is a mixture of lard, stearin or other animal fat, and vegetable oil (usually cottonseed oil). All the ingredients must be named on the label, and the pro- portion of lard must equal or exceed that of any other one of the ingredients. Note. Compounds, or lard substitutes, differ from compound lard in that they contain little or no lard but are composed of oleo stearin, lard stearin and tallow mixed with refined cottonseed oil. The proportion of cottonseed oil is usually 80 to 85 percent. The amount of this product manufactured is approximately equal to that of lard. It is packed in the same kinds of re- ceptacles as refined lard. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA