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 Recommendations 
 
 For Profitable 
 iheep Production 
 
 . E. RICKETTS 
 
 P. C. HINDS 
 
 J. M. LEWIS 
 
 IRCULAR 1126 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 
 
 OLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 <mzr / JWJt 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Systems of sheep production 3 
 
 Specializing in sheep production 4 
 
 Crossbreeding for commercial lamb production 6 
 
 Selection of ewes and rams 8 
 
 Production records for a more profitable flock 12 
 
 Evaluating sire performance 16 
 
 Breeding season considerations 16 
 
 Feeding the stud ram 25 
 
 Feeding the ewe flock 26 
 
 Ewe management during gestation 32 
 
 Ewe management during lambing and lactation 34 
 
 Feeding and management of lambs to weaning 37 
 
 Feeding from weaning to market 44 
 
 Developing lambs into yearlings 45 
 
 Artificial rearing of lambs 46 
 
 Common lamb diseases 49 
 
 Management on pasture 54 
 
 Parasite control 54 
 
 Foot health 57 
 
 Lamb marketing 60 
 
 Lamb carcass shows 61 
 
 Wool production and marketing 64 
 
 The Illinois Cooperative Extension Service provides equal opportunities 
 in programs and employment. 
 
 Urbana, Illinois September, 1976 
 
 Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in 
 cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. JOHN B. CLAAR, Director, Cooperative 
 Extension Service, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 
 
 8M — 9-76 — 34833— GM 
 5M— 11-77— 39444 
 

 Good management is the key to an efficient and highly profitable ewe 
 flock. Flocks cannot realize their maximum potential if they are used 
 and managed merely as fencerow scavengers. 
 
 Most Illinois farm flocks are supplemental farm operations, but there 
 are farms on which sheep are the major livestock enterprise. Sheep 
 economically convert available pasture and roughage into pounds of lamb 
 and wool and provide a more even distribution of farm labor requirements. 
 Ewe flocks call for a smaller investment and show a greater return per 
 animal unit than a beef cow herd. 
 
 Sheep are ideally suited to grassland agriculture, but there has been an 
 increasing interest in partially confined or drylot operations, especially 
 in the Midwest. Many of these operations include some automation. 
 
 There is a wide range in gross return and net return per ewe in mid- 
 west ewe flocks. What is needed to get the highest gross return per ewe? 
 A study of production-record summaries indicates that ( 1 ) all ewes should 
 lamb, (2) there should be a high percentage of multiple births, (3) lamb 
 mortality must be kept low, (4) lambs must be marketed at desirable 
 weights and when prices are highest, (5) longevity should be emphasized, 
 (6) ewes and rams should be heavy-shearing, and (7) wool must be 
 marketed in a desirable condition and at the highest possible price per 
 pound. Essentially, it all boils down to good management in all phases of 
 the sheep enterprise. 
 
 Highly productive commercial flocks have grossed $75 to $85 per ewe 
 per year on once-a-year lambing. The potential is even higher if the 
 lambing program is successfully accelerated; or new breeds such as the 
 Finnish Landrace, noted for high lambing rate, are utilized; or greater 
 selection pressure for multiple births is exerted in our existing breeds. 
 In England the top flocks consistently wean near or above a 200 percent 
 lamb crop on once-a-year lambing, even with flocks of over 400 ewes. The 
 1974 winner of the Shepherd of the Year Award in England marketed a 
 170 percent lamb crop from 2,000 ewes; the work force was the shepherd 
 and his wife plus occasional student help. Certainly we need to become 
 more production conscious in this country. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF SHEEP PRODUCTION 
 
 Most Illinois farm flocks are commercial operations, used primarily to 
 produce market lambs and wool. The most important factors in market 
 lamb production are the number of lambs raised per ewe and the ability 
 of lambs to gain rapidly and efficiently from birth to marketing. 
 
Commercial flocks use western ewes, native ewes, or both. Flock 
 owners who use western ewes feel these sheep have several advantages 
 over native ewes. They are available in larger numbers, can be obtained 
 in more uniform groups, have fewer parasites, are usually hardier, and 
 usually have heavier, more uniform fleeces. 
 
 Native ewes generally cost less per head, often show more desirable 
 mutton conformation, and are often more productive. Many flock owners 
 with native ewes also produce their own replacements. 
 
 Mature ewes with solid mouths are available on the market each fall. 
 If these are ewes that have been sold in order to decrease flock numbers, 
 they may be a good investment. However, many of these marketed ewes 
 have been culled because they did not lamb, did not raise a lamb, raised 
 lightweight or inferior-quality lambs, or have unsound udders. 
 
 Broken-mouth ewes and gummers are also available. Most of them 
 have been good producers or they would not have been retained so long 
 in the original flock. These ewes generally require extra care and man- 
 agement. A person buying these ewes should count on only one or two 
 lamb crops and then sell the ewes. He should also be prepared to raise 
 some lambs on milk replacer. 
 
 The main purpose of maintaining purebred flocks is the production of 
 breeding stock for commercial flocks and for other purebred flocks. It 
 takes good individual sheep but does not require a large flock. The pure- 
 bred flock owner must be a good sheepman and must be able to merchan- 
 dise his sheep. He must also be honest in his dealings and have breed 
 improvement as his major goal. He should realize the value of good pro- 
 duction records and use them in his breeding and selection programs. 
 When selecting a breed, consider the market for breeding stock and the 
 availability of breeding stock in your area. If there is a demand for several 
 breeds, the choice of breed can be based on personal preference and 
 availability. 
 
 SPECIALIZING IN SHEEP PRODUCTION 
 
 The downward trend in the number of sheep has been going on for 
 some time. However, lamb prices have been relatively strong for several 
 years. This could mean that many farmers and sheepmen have not been 
 serious enough about sheep production. Many flocks are too small for eco- 
 nomical production and should be enlarged to contribute a greater per- 
 centage of the livestock income. Such enlargement would also consequently 
 warrant more management attention. Instead of 25 or 30 ewes in the 
 flock, many flock owners should be thinking in terms of at least 100 ewes, 
 preferably more. 
 
In this age of specialization, very few midwestern farmers specialize in 
 sheep production. This is unfortunate because there is a great potential 
 for large, specialized ewe flock operations in the grassland areas as well as 
 right in the heart of the cash-grain areas. Production can be intensified on 
 a pasture system or in drylot, or the two systems can be combined. 
 
 Sheepmen who plan to specialize in sheep production may want to 
 consider some automation, especially where feeding and feed handling are 
 concerned. Automation increases the overall cost of the operation, but it 
 greatly reduces the total labor requirement. 
 
 In general, sheepmen have been slow to accept new ideas, and this has 
 hurt the sheep industry. There is a great deal of information available 
 today that can help people do a better job of production and to receive a 
 greater profit from their flocks. Why shouldn't we see flocks with 500 to 
 1,000 ewes here in the Midwest? We should and we will in the not too 
 distant future. 
 
 There continues to be a growing interest in the possibilities of using 
 slotted floors in sheep production, and Illinois is one of the leaders in 
 conducting research in this area. Some large commercial sheep operations 
 in Virginia have been using slotted floors for several years, and some 
 
 Slotted floor units are becoming more popular in Illinois. This unit, built on 
 the running gears of a wagon, is 12 feet wide and 24 feet long and can hold 
 seventy-two 100-pound lambs. 
 
Illinois sheepmen are now using slotted floors successfully. Some of the 
 advantages of slotted floors are the elimination of bedding, great reduction 
 or elimination of internal parasites, improved performance of lambs dur- 
 ing warm weather, reduction of floor space requirement per animal, and 
 improved control of foot rot. 
 
 The information compiled in recent years concerning ewe and ram 
 fertility, confinement rearing, early weaning, creep feeding, slotted floors, 
 accelerated lambing, synchronization, ewe feeding and management, pro- 
 duction testing, and carcass evaluation is available to help you profitably 
 expand your sheep operation. There is no good reason why our sheep 
 industry cannot take advantage of these advances. 
 
 CROSSBREEDING FOR COMMERCIAL 
 LAMB PRODUCTION 
 
 Crossbreeding has some very definite advantages for commercial 
 lamb production. Crossbred lambs from straightbred parents usually gain 
 more rapidly than the average of the performances of the parent breeds. 
 Moreover, crossbred lambs are usually more hardy and vigorous and have 
 a lower death loss. Mating crossbred ewes to a growthy ram of a third 
 
 Slotted floors have been used successfully in sheep production at the Dixon 
 Springs Agricultural Center. 
 
breed can offer still more advantages. Crossbred ewes are usually more 
 fertile and raise a higher percentage of their lambs than straightbred 
 ewes. In addition, lambing percentage and milk production of crossbred 
 ewes are greater than the average of the breeds involved in the cross. 
 
 In evaluating breeds for crossbreeding, one usually divides the breeds 
 into ewe and ram breeds. In the ewe breeds you should stress early lamb- 
 ing ability, lambing rate, milk production, maternal instinct, and longevity, 
 as well as wool quality and quantity. For the ram breeds, growthiness, 
 carcass merit, sexual aggressiveness, and male fertility need to be stressed. 
 
 Rambouillet, Merino, Corriedale, Columbia, and Targhee are usually 
 considered ewe breeds. Ram breeds are the Suffolk, Hampshire, Shrop- 
 shire, Oxford, and Southdown; Suffolk and Hampshire are the most 
 widely used at the present. Dorsets and Montadales can fit into either 
 category. Finnish Landrace must be considered a strong ewe breed because 
 of their high lambing rate, even though fleece quality and quantity are 
 a serious weakness of the breed. Finnish Landrace crossbred lambs, though 
 small at birth, are extremely hardy. Finnish Landrace crossed with any of 
 the other ewe breeds produce excellent Fl ewes, which can be bred to 
 Suffolk or Hampshire rams for market lamb production. Mature crossbred 
 ewes that are half Finnish Landrace commonly give birth to a 200 to 
 250 percent lamb crop. Dorse t-Rambouillet crossbred ewes also make 
 excellent Fl ewes, especially for sheepmen who plan to follow an acceler- 
 ated lambing program. 
 
 Following a crossbreeding program does have a major problem. You 
 have to either buy crossbred ewes or produce your own. If you buy cross- 
 bred replacement ewes, you don't have your own production records to 
 help with the selection process. If you produce your own Fl ewes, you will 
 need some straightbreds around to produce the desired crosses. 
 
 One way to simplify a crossbreeding program in which you keep your 
 own replacements is to follow a two-breed or three-breed rotational 
 crossing program, the latter being the most desirable. A two-breed 
 rotational crossing program is possible where ewes of breed A are bred 
 to a ram of breed B. The replacement ewes from this cross are bred to a 
 ram of breed A and so the cycle continues. This will work well for small 
 flocks but does not provide as much benefit from heterosis (hybrid vigor) 
 as does the three-breed rotational cross. 
 
 A good example of a three-breed rotational cross is as follows, using 
 Rambouillets, Dorsets, and Suffolks. Rambouillet ewes would be bred to a 
 Dorset ram. The replacement ewes from this cross would be bred to a 
 Suffolk ram. The replacement ewes from this cross would be bred to 
 a Rambouillet ram, with the resulting replacement ewes being bred to a 
 Dorset ram and so on, continuing to rotate the three breeds. 
 
For a crossbreeding program to be highly successful, it must be well 
 planned, use superior rams (preferably performance tested), and be well 
 managed. In addition, an excellent set of records is required if you are to 
 measure the results of your crossing program. 
 
 SELECTION OF EWES AND RAMS 
 
 Selecting good breeding stock to start or expand an operation, whether 
 purebred or commercial, is an extremely important part of livestock 
 management. To make the most rapid progress in flock improvement, 
 you must use outstanding stud rams, and it is here that many producers 
 are most negligent. Selection of a stud ram is a major decision and not 
 something to be done on the spur of the moment. You can't expect to buy 
 an outstanding sire for market price. Neither can you expect outstanding 
 results from a scrub. Give some time and thought to the selection and 
 management of your stud ram. 
 
 When you select breeding stock, consider these criteria : 
 
 1. Growthiness (size for age). Select rapid-gaining sheep that meet 
 your other standards. Rapid-gaining animals usually make the most effi- 
 cient use of feed and can be marketed at a younger age. A slow-growing 
 lamb is not so profitable as a fast-growing lamb. Set as your goal to have 
 twin lambs weighing at least 70 pounds and single lambs weighing at least 
 80 pounds at 90 days of age (if creep-fed ) , then select breeding stock with 
 the gaining ability to produce such lambs. Many lambs of the larger breeds 
 will exceed 90 pounds at 90 days (if creep-fed ) . 
 
 l3- 
 
 This ram indicates 
 the growthiness, 
 ruggedness, mus- 
 cling, soundness, 
 length of body, bal- 
 ance, and masculin- 
 ity that are desirable 
 in a stud ram. 
 
2. Soundness. 
 
 a. Feet and legs. When their feet are well trimmed, sheep should be 
 able to stand squarely on them. Select sheep that have strong 
 pasterns and straight legs with plenty of width between them. 
 Crooked legs and weak pasterns can decrease an animal's ability to 
 move and perform normally and can decrease its years of repro- 
 ductive usefulness. 
 
 b. Mouth. Check the sheep's mouth for age, condition of the eight 
 incisors, and jaw malformations like monkey mouth or parrot 
 mouth. 
 
 c. Udder. If ewes have produced at least one lamb crop, check their 
 udders to be sure that both teats are present and functional and 
 that there are no lumps or hard areas. 
 
 d. Testicles. Check the ram to be sure both testicles are present, fully 
 descended, sound, and at least average in size. 
 
 3. Conformation. The ideal conformation probably varies from one 
 breed to another. However, there are times when you can find about 
 as much variation between animals of the same breed as you can between 
 different breeds. In general, a sheep with desirable conformation has 
 the following qualities: (a) adequate frame; (b) smooth shoulders; (c) 
 fullness through the heart area and the spring of ribs; (d) long body, 
 with major emphasis on length from the last rib to the dock; (e) wide 
 and straight top; (f) long, wide, and level rump; (g) deep, thick, and 
 full leg of lamb or mutton; and (h) overall balance (blending together 
 of body parts) . 
 
 4. Condition of birth (single, twin, or triplet). Your first choice 
 should always be ewes and rams of multiple birth from highly productive 
 ewes. Progress can be made in increasing lambing percentage by selecting 
 for twinning. Under midwestern conditions, a good set of twins is more 
 profitable than a good single lamb. The idea that twinning is economi- 
 cally important is not new; in 1837 Youatt wrote: "Ewes yearly by 
 twinning/Rich masters do make;/The lambs from such twinners/For 
 breeders go take." 
 
 Your second choice should be single ewes and rams from highly pro- 
 ductive ewes. In general, a single-born ewe whose mother has given birth 
 to and weaned ten lambs from six lambings will be more highly pro- 
 ductive than a twin-born ewe whose mother has given birth to and 
 weaned only seven lambs from six lambings. 
 
 5. Previous performance. When you buy breeding stock, get all the 
 performance information you can — such factors as weight at 60, 90, or 
 120 days and weight at one year of age. Find out the performance of 
 
their progeny, if any, and check the performance of sires and dams. Some 
 breeders have carcass information available, so check on this also. 
 
 6. Substance (amount of bone). Select heavy-boned sheep. In 
 general, heavy-boned animals do better than fine-boned ones. 
 
 7. Wool. Select heavy-shearing sheep that have dense, uniform, high- 
 quality fleeces with no dark fiber. This factor is often neglected in sheep 
 selection but should not be since wool makes a sizable contribution to 
 the gross income from a sheep enterprise. 
 
 8. Age. There are several things to consider in deciding what age 
 ewes to buy: the quality of the various age groups, the soundness of older 
 ewes, price differences, the amount of production data available, and the 
 years of expected production. Ewes generally reach peak productivity at 
 four to six years of age. Even though yearlings cost more than older ewes, 
 they have sounder udders, more productive years ahead of them, and a 
 lower death loss. Some sheepmen prefer to buy a mixed age group with 
 equal numbers of yearlings and older ewes. 
 
 High production is important for maximum profit. 
 
 10 
 
In starting into purebred production, sometimes the best investment 
 may be to use highly productive older ewes with several years of produc- 
 tion still left rather than to start with a group of high-priced yearling 
 ewes. Here also a mixed age group may have some advantages. 
 
 It has been traditional for most sheepmen to lamb ewes first at two 
 years of age. However, there is increased interest in breeding ewe lambs 
 to lamb as yearlings, which can be done successfully. The ewe lambs must 
 be well grown and must be fed well during pregnancy and lactation. 
 Special attention must also be given to their nutrition after they wean their 
 first lambs. Yearling ewes should be handled as a separate unit, not mixed 
 with the older ewes. If well managed, their mature size will not be affected 
 by lambing them as yearlings. 
 
 The age of the ram will determine how many ewes he can service. 
 Under normal field mating conditions a ram lamb can be used on about 
 15 ewes, a yearling ram on 25 to 35, and an aged ram on 35 to 45. A 
 good rule of thumb is 3 mature rams for every 100 ewes in the breed- 
 ing flock. 
 
 The age of sheep can be determined by their teeth. Lambs are born 
 with eight milk teeth, or incisors, arranged in four pairs in the lower jaw. 
 The center pair is shed at approximately one year of age and replaced by 
 larger, permanent teeth. When the sheep is two years old, the second pair 
 of permanent teeth replace the second pair of milk teeth; and at three and 
 four years the third and fourth pairs of permanent teeth appear. At four 
 years of age the sheep has a "full mouth." When a ewe loses part of her 
 incisor teeth, she is called a "broken mouth" ewe. Ewes with no incisors 
 are called "gummers." 
 
 9. Sex character. Ewes should look feminine and rams should look 
 masculine. Masculine rams are generally more rugged, active, and aggres- 
 sive than rams which lack this quality. 
 
 «^ t^ <<o^ 
 
 Lamb Yearling 2 Year old 
 
 ^% t^ 
 
 3 Year old 4 Year old 
 
 The age of sheep can be determined by their teeth, as is illustrated here. 
 
 11 
 
10. Breed type. Breed type is an important consideration in pure- 
 bred livestock; without it, breed identity is lost. Even so, do not get carried 
 away to the point where you forget all else. Breed type should be appraised 
 along with the other factors listed here. 
 
 PRODUCTION RECORDS FOR A MORE 
 PROFITABLE FLOCK 
 
 It is hard to determine anything specific about the productivity of a 
 commercial or purebred ewe flock unless you have some accurate produc- 
 tion records on hand to evaluate. Yet, many purebred and commercial 
 sheepmen show no interest at all in keeping production records on their 
 flocks, and some purebred breeders prefer to let show-ring winnings be 
 the only criterion for flock evaluation. True, the show ring is one system 
 of evaluation, but it is not the only way, and it is not the best way. A state 
 fair champion ram has not really "won his spurs" until he has proved to 
 be a highly fertile ram; has settled a high percentage of ewes during their 
 first two heat cycles; has sired vigorous, fast-growing, well-muscled lambs 
 that are acceptable to the industry; and has sired highly productive sons 
 and daughters. All flock owners, regardless of the breeds or breed crosses 
 they raise, should be striving to develop more productive animals. Why be 
 satisfied with a good single lamb when a good set of twins will make you 
 more money? 
 
 Production records have the following uses : 
 
 1 . To measure flock productivity. 
 
 2. To provide permanent records. 
 
 3. To identify top-producing ewes so their lambs can be kept for breed- 
 ing stock. 
 
 4. To help cull low producers. 
 
 5. To evaluate ram performance. 
 
 6. To show differences in gaining ability of lambs. 
 
 7. To supplement what can be seen with the naked eye. 
 
 Tables 1 and 2 point out the large differences in ewe productivity and 
 lamb gains that can exist within a flock. This information was taken from 
 the production records of a flock containing 105 ewes. Male lambs were 
 castrated at 10 days of age and all lambs were weaned at 90 days of age. 
 
 Without some sort of production records, it is difficult to determine if 
 progress is being made in flock improvement. Such factors as weaning 
 weights, fleece weights, lambing percentage, and percentage of death loss 
 have a direct effect on income and profit from the enterprise. 
 
 12 
 
 
Table 1. — Pounds of Lamb Weaned at 90 Days 
 From High- and Low-Producing Ewes 
 
 Ewes raising singles 
 
 Ewes raising twins 
 
 High Low 
 
 High Low 
 
 87.1 44.6 
 
 85.2 46.9 
 84.2 47.5 
 
 148.2 77.7 
 143.1 86.6 
 142.7 92.2 
 
 Table 2. — Daily Gains From to 90 Days (Weaning) 
 for Fast- and Slow-Gaining Lambs 
 
 Single lambs 
 
 Twin lambs 
 
 High Low 
 
 High Low 
 
 .81 .35 
 .80 .38 
 
 .79 .42 
 
 .73 .22 
 .70 .31 
 .70 .32 
 
 A producer checks 
 the yearling weight 
 of a ewe. Weaning 
 weights and yearling 
 weights are essential 
 parts of production 
 records. 
 
 13 
 
Records can be very simple or quite complex, depending on the needs 
 and goals of the producer. Some say that they don't have time to keep 
 records, but you really can't afford not to take the time. Why guess about 
 the overall productivity of your flock and of the individual ewes in the 
 flock when there is a more accurate way of doing it? 
 
 Probably the simplest record system for commercial sheepmen to use 
 is to earnotch lambs at birth, using a coding system for type of birth in one 
 ear and week of birth in the other. This helps evaluate lambs for size and 
 weight, based on their approximate age and type of birth, but does not, 
 however, identify lambs with their mothers or with specific sires. 
 
 Ideally, it would be best to have all ewes and lambs permanently 
 identified so that you could evaluate each ewe's production and each ram 
 used in the flock. Lambs should be weighed at weaning time and their 
 weights adjusted to a standard age such as 60, 90, or 120 days. Weaning 
 weights should also be adjusted for sex, age of dam, type of birth, and 
 type of rearing. Recommended adjustment factors are given in Table 3. 
 
 Table 3. — Recommended Weight Adjustment Factors 2 
 
 Age of dam (years) 
 3 to 6 2 or over 6 1 
 
 Ewe lamb 
 
 Single 1.00 1.09 1.22 
 
 Twin — raised as twin 1.11 1.20 1.33 
 
 Twin — raised as single 1 . 05 1.14 1 . 28 
 
 Triplet — raised as triplet 1.22 1.33 1.46 
 
 Triplet — raised as twin 1.17 1.28 1.42 
 
 Triplet — raised as single 1.11 1.21 1 . 36 
 
 Wether 
 
 Single 97 1.06 1.19 
 
 Twin — raised as twin 1.08 1.17 1.30 
 
 Twin — raised as single 1 . 02 1.11 1 . 25 
 
 Triplet — raised as triplet 1.19 1 .30 1 .43 
 
 Triplet — raised as twin 1.14 1.25 1.39 
 
 Triplet — raised as single 1.08 1.18 1.33 
 
 Ram lamb 
 
 Single 89 .98 1.11 
 
 Twin — raised as twin 1 .00 1 .09 1 .22 
 
 Twin — raised as single 94 1 . 03 1.17 
 
 Triplet — raised as triplet 1.11 1.22 1.35 
 
 Triplet — raised as twin 1.06 1.17 1.31 
 
 Triplet — raised as single 1.00 1.10 1.25 
 
 a Multiply the 60-, 90-, or 120-day weight by the appropriate adjustment factor. For example, 
 a three-year-old ewe raises twins with the ram lamb weighing 80 pounds at 90 days and the ewe 
 lamb weighing 70 pounds at 90 days. To determine the 90-day adjusted weight of the ram lamb, 
 
 multiply 80 times 1 (80 pounds). For the ewe lamb, multiply 70 times 1.11 (77.7 pounds). Remem- 
 ber that all weights are adjusted on the basis of a single ewe lamb from a mature ewe. 
 
 Source: 1968 National Sheep Extension Committee Report, "Recommendations for Uniform 
 Sheep Selection Programs." 
 
 14 
 
After weaning, you may want to feed all of the ram lambs together or 
 by sire groups and determine average daily gain for the next 60 or 90 
 days (depending on age weaned) . If the lambs are fed by sire groups, you 
 could check for feed efficiency differences as well as average daily gain 
 differences between sire groups. The average daily gain for this postwean- 
 ing period is more highly heritable than gain from birth to weaning, be- 
 cause you have eliminated the influence of the ewe's milk production. 
 
 Although very few people obtain yearling weights on rams and ewes, 
 those are important data because yearling weight is a highly heritable 
 trait. This information will be very valuable in your selection program. 
 
 Table 4. — Age in Days Tabulation Chart a > 
 
 Day of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Month 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 month 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 93 
 
 121 
 
 152 
 
 182 
 
 213 
 
 243 
 
 274 
 
 305 
 
 335 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 63 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 214 
 
 244 
 
 275 
 
 306 
 
 336 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 64 
 
 95 
 
 123 
 
 154 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 245 
 
 276 
 
 307 
 
 337 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 65 
 
 96 
 
 124 
 
 155 
 
 185 
 
 216 
 
 246 
 
 277 
 
 308 
 
 338 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 66 
 
 97 
 
 125 
 
 156 
 
 186 
 
 217 
 
 247 
 
 278 
 
 309 
 
 339 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 67 
 
 98 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 187 
 
 218 
 
 248 
 
 279 
 
 310 
 
 340 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 68 
 
 99 
 
 127 
 
 158 
 
 188 
 
 219 
 
 249 
 
 280 
 
 311 
 
 341 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 69 
 
 100 
 
 128 
 
 159 
 
 189 
 
 220 
 
 250 
 
 281 
 
 312 
 
 342 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 70 
 
 101 
 
 129 
 
 160 
 
 190 
 
 221 
 
 251 
 
 282 
 
 313 
 
 343 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 71 
 
 102 
 
 130 
 
 161 
 
 191 
 
 222 
 
 252 
 
 283 
 
 314 
 
 344 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 72 
 
 103 
 
 131 
 
 162 
 
 192 
 
 223 
 
 253 
 
 284 
 
 315 
 
 345 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 73 
 
 104 
 
 132 
 
 163 
 
 193 
 
 224 
 
 254 
 
 285 
 
 316 
 
 346 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 43 
 
 74 
 
 105 
 
 133 
 
 164 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 255 
 
 286 
 
 317 
 
 347 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 75 
 
 106 
 
 134 
 
 165 
 
 195 
 
 226 
 
 256 
 
 287 
 
 318 
 
 348 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 76 
 
 107 
 
 135 
 
 166 
 
 196 
 
 227 
 
 257 
 
 288 
 
 319 
 
 349 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 77 
 
 108 
 
 136 
 
 167 
 
 197 
 
 228 
 
 258 
 
 289 
 
 320 
 
 350 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 47 
 
 78 
 
 109 
 
 137 
 
 168 
 
 198 
 
 229 
 
 259 
 
 290 
 
 321 
 
 351 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 79 
 
 110 
 
 138 
 
 169 
 
 199 
 
 230 
 
 260 
 
 291 
 
 322 
 
 352 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 80 
 
 111 
 
 139 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 
 231 
 
 261 
 
 292 
 
 323 
 
 353 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 81 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 171 
 
 201 
 
 232 
 
 262 
 
 293 
 
 324 
 
 354 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 51 
 
 82 
 
 113 
 
 141 
 
 172 
 
 202 
 
 233 
 
 263 
 
 294 
 
 325 
 
 355 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 52 
 
 83 
 
 114 
 
 142 
 
 173 
 
 203 
 
 234 
 
 264 
 
 295 
 
 326 
 
 356 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 53 
 
 84 
 
 115 
 
 143 
 
 174 
 
 204 
 
 235 
 
 265 
 
 296 
 
 327 
 
 357 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 54 
 
 85 
 
 116 
 
 144 
 
 175 
 
 205 
 
 236 
 
 266 
 
 297 
 
 328 
 
 358 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 55 
 
 86 
 
 117 
 
 145 
 
 176 
 
 206 
 
 237 
 
 267 
 
 298 
 
 329 
 
 359 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 56 
 
 87 
 
 118 
 
 146 
 
 177 
 
 207 
 
 238 
 
 268 
 
 299 
 
 330 
 
 360 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 57 
 
 88 
 
 119 
 
 147 
 
 178 
 
 208 
 
 239 
 
 269 
 
 300 
 
 331 
 
 361 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 58 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 148 
 
 179 
 
 209 
 
 240 
 
 270 
 
 301 
 
 332 
 
 362 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 59 
 
 90 
 
 ( b ) 
 
 149 
 
 180 
 
 210 
 
 241 
 
 271 
 
 302 
 
 333 
 
 363 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 91 
 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 211 
 
 242 
 
 272 
 
 303 
 
 334 
 
 364 
 
 31 
 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 
 151 
 
 
 212 
 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 
 365 
 
 a For example, assume that a lamb is born on February 1 and weighed on May 12. Use 
 the day-of-month column to find the first day under February; the figure found is 93. Do the 
 same for May 12; this figure is 193. Subtract, 193 minus 93, for the age of the lamb in days. The 
 result is 100 days. 
 
 b In leap years, for a lamb born after February 28 add 1 day to the tabulated number. 
 
 15 
 
Fleece weights are also part of a total evaluation program and should 
 be obtained for each breeding animal in the flock. You should also obtain 
 carcass information on some of your lambs to determine whether you are 
 producing desirable meat-type lambs. 
 
 Copies of three production record forms are shown on pages 17, 18, 
 and 19. Notice that on the Barn Record and the Individual Ewe Produc- 
 tion Record you can calculate either average daily gain from birth to wean- 
 ing or calculate a weight per day of age at weaning. Weaning weights can 
 be adjusted to 60, 90, or 120 days of age. Example records have been 
 placed on the forms for illustrative purposes. 
 
 The production record forms and copies of Tables 3 and 4 are avail- 
 able from the Livestock Extension Office, 326 Mumford Hall, Urbana, 
 Illinois 61801. Information about the computerized Ohio Sheep Produc- 
 tion Testing Program, in which some Illinois flocks are enrolled, is also 
 available from this office. 
 
 EVALUATING SIRE PERFORMANCE 
 
 Records indicate that there is a great deal of variability in sire per- 
 formance within each breed and within many flocks. This means that you 
 should evaluate sire performance as well as individual ewe performance. 
 The following data guidelines will be helpful in making this evaluation: 
 
 1 . Percent of exposed ewes that actually lamb. 
 
 2. Percent of ewes that settle during the first two cycles. 
 
 3. Percent lamb crop born per ewe exposed. 
 
 4. Percent lamb crop born per ewe lambing. 
 
 5. Percent lamb crop weaned per ewe exposed. 
 
 6. Percent lamb crop weaned per ewe lambing. 
 
 7. Percent mortality from birth to weaning. 
 
 8. Percent of ewes that have little or no difficulty lambing. 
 
 9. Average 60-, 90-, or 120-day adjusted weight of weaned lambs. 
 
 10. Complete carcass evaluation for at least 5 lambs per sire, preferably 
 for 10. 
 
 11. Average 365-day weights of yearling ewes and rams. 
 
 BREEDING SEASON CONSIDERATIONS 
 Lambing Season 
 
 One of the major decisions a flock owner must make is whether to 
 plan an early-lambing program (late December to early March) or a 
 
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 19 
 
late-lambing program (starting in late March). Early lambing has these 
 advantages: lambs usually are sold on a higher market; lambs gain more 
 rapidly; hot weather and internal parasites are not major problems; lambs 
 can be sold without putting them on pasture; and labor requirements 
 for lambing come at a slack time of the year. 
 
 Late lambing has the following advantages: building and equipment 
 requirements are less; feed costs per ewe are lower; and lambs can make 
 maximum use of pasture forage and be marketed directly from pasture 
 with a minimum amount of grain feeding. 
 
 In recent years there has been increased interest in fall lambing 
 (September 1 to December 1) and in accelerated lambing. The advan- 
 tages of fall lambing are favorable weather; better use of equipment; 
 lower feed and labor requirements; good prices for lambs; and the pos- 
 sibility for accelerated lambing. Disadvantages are a higher percentage 
 of ewes that fail to lamb; smaller birth weights; lower lambing percent- 
 ages; and at times poorer milking ewes. 
 
 Accelerated Lambing 
 
 Two relatively new management practices are currently being devel- 
 oped by some sheepmen: accelerated lambing (three lamb crops in two 
 years) and synchronized breeding and lambing (lambings grouped into 
 three- to seven-day intervals) . Most sheepmen who practice accelerated 
 lambing combine synchronization with it. 
 
 Accelerated lambing is a must for those who go to a drylot or semi- 
 confinement type of operation. Certain breeds are more adapted to fall 
 lambing, and therefore accelerated lambing, than others. Sheep of Ram- 
 bouillet and Dorset breeding seem to have the lead in this respect. Many 
 Hampshire and Corriedale flocks also have quite a few fall lambs. 
 
 In order to lamb every eight months, the lambs must be weaned at 60 
 days or less, thus leaving 30 days in which to rebreed the ewe. Controlling 
 the estrous cycle of a ewe or stimulating the ewe to cycle during the 
 anestrous period begins with progesterone hormone treatments for a period 
 of approximately 14 days. Feed additives, vaginal tampons, and silastic 
 implants impregnated with progesterone or progesterone-like substances 
 have been used for this purpose. Withdrawal of these progesterone sources 
 during the normal breeding season will result in a large percentage of the 
 ewes coming into heat within one to three days following withdrawal. 
 During the anestrous period, the progesterone treatment should be fol- 
 lowed by an additional hormone treatment to insure follicular develop- 
 ment and subsequent ovulation. Pregnant mare's serum (PMS), which 
 contains follicle-stimulating hormones, is often used for this follow-up 
 treatment. 
 
 20 
 
A successful accelerated lambing program requires careful manage- 
 ment. Many of the problems encountered with accelerated lambing may 
 center around the low fertility of many rams in the spring and early 
 summer. Moreover, when ewes are synchronized, there is generally a need 
 for more rams than would be required for a conventional pasture mat- 
 ing system. 
 
 Flushing the Ewes 
 
 Feeding a ewe so that it rapidly improves in condition from ten days 
 to two weeks before breeding (commonly known as flushing) may in- 
 crease the lambing percentage by 10 to 20 percent. However, this increase 
 will not occur if ewes are already in a high condition before breeding. 
 Ewes that become too fat may not breed at all. To flush ewes, let them 
 graze better pasture or feed them Vi to % pound of corn or oats or a 
 mixture of the two per head per day. Use some caution if flushing ewes 
 by turning them onto lush legume pastures; during years of heavy rain- 
 fall, such pastures may contain a high level of coumestrol, a plant 
 estrogen that can cause delayed conception. 
 
 Tagging the Ewes 
 
 All ewes that are in long fleece or that have a lot of manure around 
 the rear end should be tagged before the ram is turned in. Tagging means 
 trimming the wool around the dock area so it will be easier for the ram 
 to mate with the ewes. 
 
 Effect of the Ram on Ewe Fertility 
 
 Although the ram formerly was considered to have no effect on lamb- 
 ing percentage, research reports indicate that some rams consistently sire 
 more multiple births than other rams. According to an Ohio report, the 
 ram exerts a highly significant influence on both the number of lambs 
 born per ewe exposed and the number of lambs born per ewe lambing. 
 And an Idaho report indicates that over a six-year period one particular 
 ram sired an average of 32.8 percent more single lambs each year than 
 did other rams used in the same flock. 
 
 Data from the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center also indicate that 
 there is a great difference in ram breeding performance. A study of the 
 breeding data for 23 rams shows that some rams settled only 25 percent 
 or less of the ewes during the first two heat periods. Other rams, however, 
 settled over 90 percent of the ewes during the first two heat periods. 
 
 The following paragraph, based on material from The Sheepman's 
 Production Handbook, indicates that rams also have other effects on 
 ewe performance. 
 
 21 
 
The presence of a ram appears to have some psychological stimulus 
 from sight, sound, or smell on ovulation and estrual activity. This stimulus 
 is not as pronounced when the ram is constantly associated with the ewes. 
 Introducing a ram (fertile or surgically sterilized) near the end of the 
 anestrous period can induce estrus and ovulation earlier than would nor- 
 mally occur without the presence of a ram. Ewes in the transitional stage, 
 between the nonbreeding and breeding season, have been shown to 
 ovulate without showing estrus (silent estrus) within six days after being 
 placed with or near a ram. Estrus accompanied by ovulation then occurs 
 one estrous cycle later. This effect is not seen if the rams are placed with 
 the ewes earlier in the anestrous period and simply left with the ewes. 
 They must be introduced at the critical time of transition. Smell, sight, 
 and sound are sufficient stimuli to bring about these responses; direct 
 contact with the rams is not necessary. The result is a grouping of breed- 
 ing (and probably lambing) dates rather than an increase in the number 
 of fertilized eggs. No increase in lambing percentage should be expected 
 from teased ewes. Nonteased ewes tend to breed one heat period later 
 than properly teased ewes and their breeding season tends to be longer. 
 Since the nonteased ewes lamb later, lambing percentage may be greater 
 than with teased ewes. Teaser rams should be aggressive, surgically ster- 
 ilized rams. They should be left with the ewes 10 to 14 days, then re- 
 placed with the rested, fertile rams that are intended to sire the lamb 
 crop. 
 
 Ram Management and Breeding Records 
 
 Shear the rams six to eight weeks before the breeding season if you 
 expect maximum breeding results. Rams in long fleece during hot weather 
 may become infertile because of high body temperature, and it may take 
 six weeks or longer for them to regain their fertility. Some flock owners 
 have improved breeding performance and their lamb crops by turning 
 rams in with the ewes only at night and keeping the rams in cool quarters 
 during the day. 
 
 New rams should not be turned in with the ewes as soon as they 
 arrive at the farm but should be allowed at least one or two weeks to 
 become familiar with their new environment. The same is also true of 
 show rams. Gradually lower the condition of these rams and give them 
 plenty of exercise for several weeks before turning them in with the ewes. 
 
 It is advisable to use some system of marking so you will know when 
 the ewes are bred and whether the ram is doing an effective job. A mark- 
 ing harness with crayons can be used for the ram, or his brisket can be 
 smeared with a marking pigment. In either case, whenever a ewe is bred 
 her rump will be marked. Change the marking crayons or the brisket 
 
 22 
 
 
 
The use of a marking harness is a very satisfactory means of determining 
 when the ewes are being bred and whether or not the ram is doing an effec- 
 tive job of breeding. Notice the proper position of the harness as shown here 
 and the fact that the ram has been shorn prior to the breeding season. 
 
 smear pigments every 17 days. For the smear pigment, you can use yellow 
 ochre and old crankcase oil, Venetian red and crankcase oil, or lamp 
 black. Apply it to the brisket every second or third day. 
 
 It will be easier to keep an accurate breeding record if you paint- 
 brand the ewes. Use any good scourable paint-branding fluid. The ewes 
 can be paint-branded in several places such as the side, back, or shoulder; 
 however, the back is most commonly used. In this way when a ewe is 
 marked by the ram she can be easily and quickly identified. 
 
 Close observation during the breeding season is essential so you know 
 whether the ram is serving the ewes normally and whether a high per- 
 centage are being settled on first service. If a high percentage of the 
 ewes have not been settled after two heat periods, the ram should be 
 replaced. 
 
 Effects of Light, Temperature, and Relative Humidity 
 on Reproductive Performance 1 
 
 Light, temperature, and possibly relative humidity affect the season 
 when ewes will exhibit estrus, the relative ovulation rate, and embryo 
 survival. Since there is some interaction among these three factors, they 
 must be considered together. 
 
 1 This section and Table 5 are based on material in The Sheepman's Produc- 
 tion Handbook. 
 
 23 
 
Table 5. — Performance of Rambouillet Ewes Bred During 
 Four Different Seasons in Texas 
 
 
 
 Breeding intervals 
 
 
 
 March 21- 
 May 2 
 
 June 21- Sept. 21- 
 Aug. 2 Nov. 2 
 
 Dec. 21- 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Ovulation rate 
 
 Lamb production 
 
 106 
 
 84 
 
 percent 
 141 175 
 97 127 
 
 152 
 135 a 
 
 a Higher lamb production in December is believed to be due to better embryo survival at 
 cooler temperatures. 
 
 Sexual activity in sheep is primarily controlled by the light-dark 
 ratio. The incidence of estrus increases as the days become shorter. Be- 
 cause of individual and breed differences, breeding activity occurs in all 
 months of the year, but fertility is generally the highest and most effi- 
 cient in September, October, and November, when light exposure is 10 
 to 12 hours. In many parts of the United States cooler temperatures are 
 common during this period, making embryo survival more probable. 
 Ovulation rate and lamb production do change with the season of the 
 year as shown in Table 5. 
 
 Similar differences might be expected in ovulation rate in fine-wool 
 ewes in other sections of the United States. The lamb production pattern 
 might differ with variation in temperature during the breeding season. 
 Ovulation rate in the yearling ewe has been found to be related to subse- 
 quent lamb production. Under some conditions, observed ovulation rate 
 by means of the laparotomy technique in yearling ewes could be used as a 
 method of selecting for increased fertility. 
 
 Temperature has a marked effect on fertility, embryo survival, and 
 fetal development. Experimentally, air temperatures higher than 100° F. 
 for periods of three months or longer almost eliminate reproduction in 
 sheep. Constant temperatures of 90° F. reduced fertility by 50 percent 
 with no embryo survival. In ewes exposed to continuous 90° F. tempera- 
 ture on the day of breeding, none of the embryos survived. Seventy per- 
 cent of the embryos were lost if the ewes were exposed to this temperature 
 one day after breeding. Exposure to heat three, five, and eight days after 
 breeding had progressively less effect on embryo survival. Very little 
 embryo loss occurred later than 25 days after mating. 
 
 These results were obtained with a constant relative humidity of 
 60 to 65 percent. Heat stress with much lower relative humidity may not 
 be as harmful. Temperatures of 90° F. for short periods of time (4 hours) 
 may not greatly reduce fertility or survival rate. Heat stress during gesta- 
 
 24 
 
tion also has an adverse effect on fetal development, resulting in signif- 
 icantly smaller lambs at birth. 
 
 Activity of the ewe may affect the body temperature and fertility. Ewes 
 required to walk long distances for feed and water during hot weather 
 may show sufficient increase in body temperature to be detrimental to 
 reproductive efficiency. Excessive feed consumption in extremely warm 
 weather also may increase body temperature. Excessively fat ewes are 
 more susceptible to heat stress than ewes in moderate breeding condition. 
 
 Control of light and temperature is of little significance to most range 
 sheep producers in the northern half of the United States. When ewes are 
 mated during the months of September to December, producers in the 
 southern portion of the United States may find it advantageous to provide 
 as much shade as possible and to limit exposure to direct sunlight as much 
 as is economically feasible. 
 
 Ewes in farm flock areas may be sheared, kept in cool buildings or 
 shaded areas during the day, and pastured only at night in an attempt to 
 reduce heat stress. In range flocks, where ewes cannot be housed or shaded 
 during the day, wool should be retained on the ewes. Body temperature in 
 direct sunlight will be lower in sheep with 1 to 2 inches of wool than in 
 freshly shorn sheep, as the fleece acts as an insulator to both heat and cold. 
 
 FEEDING THE STUD RAM 
 
 Even though there has been very little research work dealing with 
 nutrition of the stud ram, some general recommendations can be made. 
 The stud ram, like the brood ewe, requires adequate nutrition in order to 
 perform efficiently. Poor nutrition can result in lowered fertility or even 
 infertility, as well as loss of vigor and strength. For best results the ram 
 should be in moderate condition at breeding time. 
 
 In the summer and just before the breeding season the ram can re- 
 ceive all of his nutrient requirements from pasture. If the ram begins to 
 lose weight during the breeding season or if he is thin before the breeding 
 season, he should receive from 1 to 1 Vi pounds per day of shelled corn or a 
 concentrate mixture similar to that recommended for ewes. If a ram lamb 
 is being used, he should be fed more than this amount. 
 
 During the winter months feed the ram so that he gains some weight 
 but does not become excessively fat. One pound of a concentrate mixture 
 and 3!/2 to 4 pounds of legume or mixed hay per day should be enough for 
 a 180-pound ram. Feed a 240- to 250-pound ram the same level of con- 
 centrate and 4V2 to 5 pounds of hay per day. When silage is fed, substi- 
 tute 2 to 3 pounds of silage for each pound of hay replaced. 
 
 25 
 
FEEDING THE EWE FLOCK 
 
 In developing a feeding program for your ewe flock, take advantage 
 of their ability to efficiently use large quantities of roughage and pasture. 
 A sound feeding program should include maximum use of high-quality 
 hay (legume or mixed), silage (corn, grass, or legume), or haylage. Silage 
 for sheep should be chopped finer than for cattle in order to minimize 
 spoilage and obtain the most efficient utilization. 
 
 Two of the most critical periods of the year, so far as nutrition is con- 
 cerned, are late pregnancy and early lactation. If a ewe is expected to 
 deliver large, strong, healthy lambs and provide a heavy flow of milk, 
 adequate nutrition must be provided before and after lambing. Trace- 
 mineralized salt or a salt-mineral mixture should be fed free-choice 
 throughout the year. In areas where copper toxicity is a problem, use 
 plain salt instead of trace-mineralized salt. 
 
 Sheep should have plenty of clean, fresh water available at all times. 
 During cold weather, use water heaters to keep water from freezing so that 
 water intake is adequate. 
 
 Automated feeding of brood ewes may become more common in large 
 intensified sheep operations. 
 
 26 
 
Concentrate Mixtures 
 
 The concentrate mixture can be very simple. Make maximum use of 
 home-grown grains. If a high-quality legume or mixed hay or haylage is 
 fed, no protein supplement is needed during gestation or lactation. Corn, 
 oats, and barley are excellent cereal grains for feeding sheep, and the com- 
 bination of any two or all three can make up the concentrate mixture. A 
 commonly used mixture is a combination of half oats and half shelled 
 corn; however, shelled corn alone will work satisfactorily. Sometimes bran 
 is used to make up 10 percent of the mixture, primarily because of its 
 laxative properties. When poor-quality hay or haylage is fed, approxi- 
 mately 15 percent of the concentrate mixture should be a protein supple- 
 ment (soybean meal, linseed meal, or a commercial protein supplement). 
 
 Feeding During Gestation 
 
 Whether you should give ewes supplemental feed during early 
 pregnancy depends on the availability of feed in the form of pasture, 
 stubble fields, and stalk fields. If the roughage supply in the fields is not 
 adequate and the ewes are not at least maintaining their weight, feed 1 or 
 2 pounds of legume hay per head per day. 
 
 Feed a concentrate ration during the last six weeks of pregnancy to 
 provide an additional supply of energy to meet the demands of the 
 rapidly developing fetus. About two-thirds of the birth weight of a de- 
 veloping fetus is gained during the last six weeks of pregnancy. It is 
 usually thought that a ewe should gain from 20 to 30 pounds during 
 pregnancy. 
 
 Inadequate nutrition during the last six weeks of pregnancy may have 
 the following results : 
 
 1. A higher percentage of ewes with pregnancy disease. 
 
 2. A decrease in birth weights. 
 
 3. Weaker lambs at birth. 
 
 4. An increase in infant lamb mortality. 
 
 5. Slower gaining lambs. 
 
 6. Lower milk yields during lactation. 
 
 The information in Table 6 will serve as a guide in determining how 
 much feed your ewes will need in late pregnancy. Several different rough- 
 ages are listed in combination with shelled corn. Remember that the 
 amounts of feed listed in Table 6 are for ewes of two different weights, so 
 pick the column that best fits your situation. 
 
 The exact amount to feed depends on the weight and condition of the 
 ewes. Silage can be substituted for hay at the approximate rate of 2 to 3 
 
 27 
 
Table 6. — Pounds of Daily Feed Consumption Required To Meet Nutrient 
 
 Requirements 21 When Shelled Corn and Various Roughages 
 
 Are Fed to Ewes in Late Pregnancy 
 
 „ , . Ewe weights' 3 
 
 Feed combinations - 
 
 130 pounds 180 pounds 
 
 Alfalfa hay 3 . 75 4. 50 
 
 Shelled corn 75 .75 
 
 Clover-timothy hav (50-50) 3 . 75 4 . 50 
 
 Shelled corn 75 .75 
 
 Orchardgrass hay 4 . 00 4.75 
 
 Shelled corn 75 .75 
 
 Alfalfa silage (30% DM) 6.5 9.0 
 
 Alfalfa hay 1.0 1.0 
 
 Shelled corn 1.0 1.0 
 
 Alfalfa haylage (50% DM) 6.5 8.0 
 
 Shelled corn 75 .75 
 
 Corn silage (30% DM) 6.75 8.75 
 
 Alfalfa hay 1.0 1.0 
 
 Soybean meal 25 .25 
 
 Shelled corn 50 .50 
 
 a Assuming that a salt-mineral mixture is fed free-choice. 
 b Weights at breeding time with ewes in average condition. 
 
 pounds of silage for each pound of hay replaced, depending of course on 
 the moisture content of the silage. Keep in mind that corn silage is low in 
 protein and calcium, so a protein-mineral supplement must be added 
 unless half of your roughage is legume hay. 
 
 In Wisconsin, ewes that ate 8 pounds daily of grass silage (50 percent 
 moisture content) during late gestation and 12 pounds daily in early lacta- 
 tion produced as well as ewes that received 5 pounds of legume hay and 1 
 pound of grain daily through both periods. 
 
 Even fall-lambing ewes that are on good pasture should receive from 
 Vi to 1 pound of grain during at least the last four weeks of pregnancy. 
 
 Self-Feeding Brood Ewes 
 
 In recent years, there has been increased interest in self-feeding com- 
 plete ground mixed rations to pregnant and lactating ewes. Two main 
 advantages of self-feeding a ground mixed ration are reduced labor in 
 feeding and more efficient use of lower-quality roughages. One of the 
 major problems in self-feeding has been to keep ewes from becoming too 
 fat. However, research at the University of Illinois indicates that ewes can 
 be satisfactorily self-fed. 
 
 Consumption of a self-fed ration can be controlled by limiting the 
 time the ewes have access to the self-feeders. 
 
 28 
 
Table 7. — Two Satisfactory Rations for Self-Feeding Ewes 
 
 Corncob ration Oat hay ration 
 
 Ingredients Early Late T Early Late T 
 
 .°.. " %. " tation %. " .°.. " tation 
 
 tation tation tation tation 
 
 pounds pounds 
 
 Corncobs, ground 70 65 60 
 
 Oat hay, ground a 80 75 70 
 
 Alfalfa meal 5 5 5 5 5 5 
 
 Corn, ground 10 15 20 10 15 20 
 
 Soybean meal 15 15 15 5 5 5 
 
 Steamed bone meal 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 Salt, trace-mineralized 1 .5 .5 1 .5 .5 
 
 a Medium- to low-quality hay can be used in a similar manner as the oat hay. 
 
 Table 7 gives two self-fed rations that have given satisfactory results 
 in studies at the University of Illinois. A high percentage of roughage is 
 used in self-fed rations. 
 
 A self-fed ration that has been used successfully at the Dixon Springs 
 Agricultural Center consists of 34 percent ground ear corn and 66 percent 
 ground grass-legume hay. Self-feeding this ration can begin a month 
 before lambing and should extend for no more than 60 days after lambing. 
 If you have a large number of multiple births, ground shelled corn can 
 be substituted for ground ear corn. If high-quality legume hay is used, then 
 a ration of 80 to 85 percent hay and 15 to 20 percent grain should work 
 during late pregnancy. The grain portion could be increased to 20 to 25 
 percent after lambing. 
 
 Some producers have asked whether some straw can be utilized in a 
 self-fed ration. It can be. For late pregnancy, combine 37.5 percent straw, 
 37.5 percent high-quality legume hay, and 25 percent shelled corn. During 
 lactation, combine 29 percent straw, 29 percent high-quality legume hay, 
 35 percent shelled corn, and 7 percent soybean meal. 
 
 Self-fed ewes nursing twins will require a higher percentage of grain 
 in the ration than self-fed ewes raising only singles. 
 
 Dixon Springs Agricultural Center research indicates that large-framed 
 ewe lambs that are to be bred to lamb at approximately a year of age can 
 be self-fed a 50 : 50 hay-grain ration from market weight through lactation 
 with good results. 
 
 Researchers in Minnesota have reported satisfactory results from feed- 
 ing ewes three times a week. This practice would appear to be very prac- 
 tical during early gestation and following weaning. However, extreme 
 caution should be used in trying to follow this program during late gesta- 
 tion and early lactation. 
 
 29 
 
Use of Antibiotics in Ewe Rations 
 
 If you have been having a high lamb mortality rate, you may be 
 interested in the results of a three-year (1964-1966) South Dakota study 
 in which 531 western ewes of mixed breeding were used to evaluate the 
 influence of antibiotic supplementation to pregnant ewes on lamb survival 
 and performance. 
 
 Supplementing pregnant ewes with 60 milligrams of aureomycin per 
 head daily for 80 days starting six weeks before lambing substantially re- 
 duced lamb mortality. Average lamb mortality rate for the three-year 
 period was 3.9 percent in the aureomycin-supplemented group compared 
 with 14.5 percent in the control group. The antibiotic treatment did not 
 influence weight change of the ewes or lamb gains from birth to weaning. 
 
 Feeding During Lactation 
 
 Lactation places a greater demand on the ewe than pregnancy and 
 increases the level of nutrients needed (see Table 8) . After about 60 to 70 
 days of lactation, the nutrient requirements are less because of declining 
 milk production, so the amount of concentrate fed can be decreased at 
 this time. 
 
 During the first 60 days of the lactation period, feed according to the 
 amounts recommended in Table 9 for small and large ewes, nursing singles 
 or twins. Separate the ewes with twins from the ewes with singles and 
 feed accordingly. Keep in mind that the actual amount fed depends on 
 the weight and condition of the ewes and that the feeding value of 2 to 3 
 pounds of silage is about the same as 1 pound of hay. 
 
 By the time lambs are between one and two months of age, they will 
 be eating quite a bit of the ewes' feed; you must allow for this to ade- 
 quately meet the ewes' requirements. 
 
 After the first 60 days of lactation reduce the amount of feed to the 
 amount the ewes were being fed during late pregnancy. Additional feed 
 
 Table 8. — Changes in Daily Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) and Protein 
 
 Requirements as a Ewe Progresses From Early 
 
 Pregnancy Through Early Lactation a 
 
 Stage of production TDN Protein 
 
 pounds 
 
 Early pregnancy 1 . 69 .28 
 
 Late pregnancy 2 . 68 .43 
 
 Early lactation, single 3 . 59 .57 
 
 Early lactation, twins 4 . 00 .71 
 
 a Based on ewe weight at breeding time of 154 pounds. 
 
 30 
 
Table 9. — Pounds of Daily Feed Consumption Required To Meet Nutrient 
 
 Requirements 3 When Shelled Corn and Various Roughages 
 
 Are Fed to Ewes in Early Lactation 
 
 Ewe weights b 
 
 Feed combinations Nursing twins Nursing a single 
 
 180 lbs. 130 lbs. 180 lbs. 130 lbs. 
 
 Alfalfa hay 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 
 
 Shelled corn 2.25 2.0 1.5 1.5 
 
 Glover-timothy hay (50-50) 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 
 
 Soybean meal! 1 .1 
 
 Shelled corn 2.25 2.9 1.5 1.5 
 
 Orchardgrass hay 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 
 
 Soybean meal 2 .2 .1 .1 
 
 Shelled corn 2. 25 2.0 1.5 1.5 
 
 Alfalfa silage (30% DM) 10.0 7.5 10.0 7.5 
 
 Alfalfa hay 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 
 
 Shelled corn 2.25 2.0 1.5 1.5 
 
 Alfalfa haylage (50% DM) 8.5 7.0 8.5 7.0 
 
 Shelled corn 2.25 2.0 1.5 1.5 
 
 Corn silage 9.5 7.5 9.5 7.5 
 
 Alfalfa hay 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 
 
 Soybean meal 30 .25 .25 .25 
 
 Shelled corn 1 . 75 1 . 50 1 . 25 1 . 25 
 
 a Assuming that a salt-mineral mixture is fed free-choice. 
 b Weights at breeding time with ewes in average condition. 
 
 Note the thrifty condition of these fall-born lambs, indicating that the ewes 
 are good milkers and have been well fed. 
 
 31 
 
at this time will only allow the ewes to put on excess fat and will increase 
 the cost of production. 
 
 Five or six days before weaning, greatly reduce the feed and water in- 
 take of the ewes. This well help to dry the ewes up more rapidly, force the 
 lambs to eat more creep, and get the lambs on feed more easily after 
 weaning. 
 
 As soon as the ewes can be turned out to pasture full time, no addi- 
 tional roughage or grain is needed as long as there is sufficient pasture. 
 
 To be a good shepherd you must use your eyes, your hands, and a 
 scale, if one is available, to keep track of how the ewes are doing in terms 
 of changes in weight and condition. By keeping up to date on the changes 
 in your flock, you can alter your feeding program accordingly. 
 
 EWE MANAGEMENT DURING GESTATION 
 Exercise 
 
 Pregnant ewes should have plenty of exercise. Some flock owners 
 feed hay or grain some distance from the barn so the ewes will be forced 
 to exercise. The last month of pregnancy may present the most problems. 
 Ewes that are extremely fat or carrying twins or triplets may become very 
 sluggish. Watch them carefully and force them to exercise. Many of these 
 ewes will eat less than they should; they are the ones that may develop 
 pregnancy disease (pregnancy toxemia or ketosis) . 
 
 Pregnancy Disease 
 
 Pregnancy disease commonly occurs a few weeks before lambing. Most 
 of the affected ewes are carrying twins or triplets. The disease is related 
 to the metabolism of carbohydrates late in pregnancy. Because of the 
 large amount of abdominal space occupied by the rapidly developing 
 fetuses, the ewe may have difficulty eating enough to supply both her needs 
 and those of the unborn lambs, especially if only roughage is fed. 
 
 In the early stages of the disease the ewes are less active than the rest 
 of the flock and walk very slowly. Later they become weaker, walk stiffly, 
 have difficulty rising, and may stand with their heads against some object. 
 As the disease progresses, they cannot rise and they lie with their heads 
 turned to the side. Other symptoms are rapid breathing, blindness, and 
 grinding of the teeth. In advanced stages the breath may have a char- 
 acteristic sweetish odor that helps to identify this disease. If affected ewes 
 are not treated as soon as the disease is noticed, a high percentage of them 
 will die unless lambing is only a few days away. They will generally 
 recover after lambing if their condition is not critical at lambing time. 
 
 32 
 
Treatment. 1 Treatment during the early stages of pregnancy toxemia 
 is essential to be effective. If treatment is delayed, the brain, liver, and 
 kidneys may be damaged severely, making recovery impossible. Glycerol 
 (glycerine) and glycerol plus insulin are recommended in treating affected 
 ewes. Two hundred milliliters of glycerol given as a drench twice daily is 
 the recommended dosage. 
 
 Insulin with the glycerol may help stimulate glucose metabolism. If 
 insulin is used, glycerol should be administered every eight hours. Intra- 
 venous administration of glucose may be effective in early stages of the 
 disease; however, this glucose is used up rapidly and frequent injections 
 are necessary. Propylene glycol (2 ounces, 3 to 4 times daily) is also an 
 effective treatment for affected ewes. The most successful treatment is 
 intravenous glucose (100 ml of 40 percent glucose) plus glycerol as a 
 drench and insulin (as recommended by your veterinarian) . 
 
 Other treatments that can be used are Vi pint of molasses twice daily or 
 l A pint of a 25- to 50-percent fructose solution twice daily. 
 
 Preparing the Lambing Quarters 
 
 Sheep do not need elaborate or expensive housing and equipment. 
 Whether you are following an early- or late-lambing program will deter- 
 mine how tight and free from drafts the building should be. Lambing 
 
 1 Most of this section is based on material from The Sheepman's Production 
 Handbook. 
 
 These lambing pens are clean and well bedded with water available for the 
 ewes. The ewes have been paint-branded for easy identification. 
 
 33 
 
pens (4'x4' or 5'x5', depending on ewe size and the number of lambs 
 she has) should be set up before the lambing season in a draft-free area 
 of the barn. Even though the average length of gestation is 147 to 148 
 days, some ewes may lamb a week early, so it pays to be prepared. 
 
 Shearing Before or After Lambing 
 
 Many flock owners shear their ewes several weeks before lambing, a 
 practice that has several advantages : 
 
 1. It eliminates the need for crutching. 
 
 2. It is easier for lambs to nurse and is more sanitary. 
 
 3. Fleeces contain less dirt and manure. 
 
 4. More ewes can be put into a limited space. 
 
 5. It is easier to spot ewes that are close to lambing and those with 
 udder problems. 
 
 6. The barn is dryer and less bedding is needed. 
 There are also disadvantages : 
 
 1. A good, warm building is needed. 
 
 2. If ewes are sheared too near lambing time and are handled roughly, 
 some lambs may be born prematurely. 
 
 Crutching 
 
 If you do not shear ewes before they lamb, at least crutch them out. 
 Crutching means to shear around the udder, between the legs, and around 
 the dock. If there is extensive wool covering on the face, it would be a 
 good idea to shear the head also. 
 
 EWE MANAGEMENT DURING 
 LAMBING AND LACTATION 
 
 Lambing time is a very critical period of the year, because at this time 
 you can "make or break" the future productivity of your flock. The higher 
 the percentage of lambs born alive and reared to marketing time, the 
 greater the gross returns from the enterprise. 
 
 Lambing Time Suggestions 
 
 1. Watch ewes closely and give assistance if needed. 
 
 2. When a ewe has difficulty, find out whether the lamb is being 
 delivered in normal position (head between and slightly above the front 
 feet). If not, proceed cautiously. Difficult lambing may be caused by 
 any of the following conditions: 
 
 34 
 
a. The lamb is extra large, especially its head and shoulders. 
 
 b. The ewe has small pelvic area. 
 
 c. The ewe fails to dilate. 
 
 d. The lamb comes backwards (breech birth) . 
 
 e. One or both front legs are bent back. 
 
 f. The head is bent back. 
 
 g. The lamb comes hocks first. 
 
 h. If the ewe is carrying two lambs, their legs may become tan- 
 gled; or, if the two lambs are side by side, the ewe may try to 
 deliver both at the same time. 
 
 3. Just before or, preferably, after the ewe lambs, place her in a 
 lambing pen. 
 
 4. Check the udder to see if colostrum is available, and check the 
 teats to be sure they are open. 
 
 5. Be sure the ewe owns her lambs and allows them to nurse before 
 you leave. 
 
 6. If lambs are weak, help them nurse or use a stomach tube to ensure 
 adequate colostrum intake. 
 
 7. If it is extremely cold, provide a heat lamp for each lambing pen. 
 However, use the lamp only long enough to get the lamb dry and off to a 
 good start. Prolonged use of a heat lamp in the lambing pen may increase 
 a lamb's susceptibility to pneumonia. 
 
 8. Ear-tag lambs and record information on your barn records. 
 
 9. Ewes with healthy single lambs can be removed from lambing pens 
 after one day, and ewes with healthy twins after two days. 
 
 Value of Colostrum 
 
 The first milk the ewe produces after lambing is called colostrum. It 
 differs a great deal in chemical composition and biological properties 
 from the milk secreted several days after lambing. It is highly essential 
 for lambs to get some colostrum as soon as possible after birth, because it 
 provides energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals, as well as antibodies 
 that help them resist infection. For example, lambs are born with a low 
 level of vitamin A. Colostrum is rich in vitamin A and is essential to build 
 up lambs' vitamin A reserves. Ohio studies indicate that ewes delivering 
 twins have approximately 46 percent more vitamin A in their colostrum 
 than ewes delivering singles. 
 
 Some flock owners freeze the colostrum from ewes that deliver dead 
 lambs or those that lose their lambs. They then use it for orphan lambs 
 or for lambs from ewes that have no colostrum available soon after 
 lambing. 
 
 35 
 
Udder Problems 
 
 The need to keep the ewe's udder working well cannot be overempha- 
 sized, because milk is the lamb's main food for at least the first 30 days. 
 There is a close relationship between milk yield and lamb growth and 
 development, especially during the first part of the lactation period. The 
 capacity of the offspring to consume milk is one of the principal factors 
 that govern the amount of milk produced by the dam. Ewes with twins 
 produce about 50 percent more milk than comparable ewes with singles. 
 
 Sound, well-shaped udders are extremely important. Ewes with pen- 
 dulous udders, extremely large teats, or hard spots in the udder should be 
 watched carefully after lambing. Sometimes it is hard to get lambs started 
 nursing on ewes that have low-hanging udders, since their natural instinct 
 is to go up under the flank. You may have to help lambs whose mother 
 has extremely large teats (balloon teats) . It may take as long as a week for 
 these teats to reduce in size so the lambs can nurse without assistance. 
 Ewes with these problems are good candidates for culling if you have 
 much difficulty with them. 
 
 You may want to consider rearing the lambs from problem ewes 
 artificially rather than take a chance of losing some lambs by leaving them 
 with their mothers. 
 
 Observe ewes and lambs carefully throughout the lactation period to 
 detect sickness or other disorders before they become major problems. 
 One of the potential trouble spots is the udder. If it becomes injured or 
 infected and the condition is not treated early, the ewe may lose the milk- 
 producing ability of one or both sides of the udder. 
 
 Mastitis can become a serious problem and may even cause death. 
 One form is so toxic that, if not treated at once, ewes may die within two 
 or three days after the infection starts. When a case of mastitis occurs, 
 isolate the ewe and her lambs from the rest of the flock until the infec- 
 tion is under control. Udder infections can be spread when lambs that 
 belong to infected ewes nurse other ewes. 
 
 Lambs can also injure the udder with their sharp teeth. If these in- 
 juries are not treated early, they may become so painful when the lambs 
 nurse that the ewe will automatically wean them. Udder sores provide 
 excellent avenues for harmful bacteria to enter the body. Keeping the barn 
 well bedded will help cut down udder problems. 
 
 Helping Ewes Own Their Lambs 
 
 Persuading a ewe to claim her lamb or lambs can sometimes be a real 
 headache. This is generally more of a problem with ewes lambing for the 
 first time than it is with older ewes. If you have trouble with a ewe two 
 years in a row, it would be best to sell her. 
 
 36 
 
There is no clear-cut answer to why ewes fail to claim their offspring. 
 Some of the following situations may cause a ewe to disown one or all of 
 her lambs : 
 
 1. A ewe may deliver one lamb in one part of the barn and a second 
 lamb in another part of the barn. 
 
 2. One of a set of twins may wander away from its mother before she 
 has fully recovered from delivery. 
 
 3. The ewe may have a very painful udder because of swelling, caking, 
 or infection. 
 
 4. The teats may be cut or chapped, causing the ewe a great deal of 
 discomfort. 
 
 5. A ewe that has been in labor for a long time may not be interested 
 in her lamb for quite a while after delivery. 
 
 6. Sometimes a ewe may run a high temperature for several days after 
 lambing and not show much interest in her lambs. 
 
 7. Sometimes ewes that are very nervous and flighty may present 
 problems. 
 
 8. Some young ewes lambing for the first time may be frightened by 
 the lambs they have given birth to. 
 
 It takes a lot of patience to work effectively with a ewe that disowns 
 her lamb. Keep in mind that it is much easier for the ewe to raise her 
 lamb than for you to raise an orphan. There is no guaranteed method of 
 getting a ewe to claim her offspring, but flock owners have reported 
 satisfactory results with one or a combination of the following measures: 
 
 1 . Tie the ewe in the pen until she allows the lamb to nurse. 
 
 2. Put a dog near the pen with the ewe and lamb. 
 
 3. Rub the ewe's nose and the lamb with some of the ewe's milk or 
 with kerosene or oil. 
 
 4. Household deodorizer sprays may be sprayed on the lamb and on 
 the ewe's nose. 
 
 5. Blindfolding the ewe is also helpful at times. 
 
 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS 
 TO WEANING 
 
 Lamb Mortality 
 
 Lamb survival and performance determine to a large extent how 
 profitable a sheep enterprise will be. Lamb mortality studies show that 
 50 to 70 percent of lamb death losses occur in the first three to five days 
 
 37 
 
after birth, and 80 to 90 percent occur during the first month. These 
 figures indicate that it is extremely important for each lamb to get a good 
 start and that the first few days are critical ones. These studies also show 
 that the four main causes of lamb losses have been weak lambs, starva- 
 tion, stillbirths, and pneumonia. Male lambs are reported to have a higher 
 mortality rate than females, and twins have a higher mortality rate than 
 singles. In many flocks a higher death loss occurs among lambs born in the 
 second half of the lambing season. 
 
 Disinfecting the Navel 
 
 It is a good practice to disinfect the navel cord of all lambs soon after 
 birth with tincture of iodine or another good antiseptic to prevent navel 
 ill (joint disease), which is caused by bacterial infection. The disease 
 causes a stiffness and swelling of the joints of the legs. Sometimes the 
 navel area also becomes infected. 
 
 Inverted Eyelids 
 
 If not corrected, inverted eyelids (entropion) can lead to total blind- 
 ness. Sometimes lambs have this condition at birth; others may not be 
 affected until they are one or two weeks old. Unless severe, this condition 
 can usually be corrected by catching the lamb several times a day and 
 working the eyelid outward. Use an eye ointment or powder to help elimi- 
 nate infection caused by irritation. If the condition is severe and does not 
 respond to this treatment, try one of these remedies: use adhesive tape 
 to hold the eyelid in place for several days, use metal clips (surgical type) 
 to hold the eyelid back, clamp the excess fold of skin below the eyelash 
 with a small burdizzo to hold the eyelid in proper position, or stitch a fold 
 of skin in the lower lid to keep the eyelid from rolling under. Inverted eye- 
 lids are an heritable trait that should be discriminated against in the selec- 
 tion of breeding stock. 
 
 Docking 
 
 Lambs should be docked between 3 and 10 days of age. Several pieces 
 of equipment can be used for this job including a pocketknife, burdizzo 
 (emasculatome), elastrator ( rubber rings ) , emasculator, "all-in-one," and 
 an electric docker. Cut off the tail 1 to IV2 inches from the body. A good 
 place is the junction or end of the caudal folds on the underside of the 
 tail. Try to push the skin on the tail toward the body before cutting to 
 allow enough loose skin to cover the stub and not expose the bone. Dock- 
 ing gives lambs a better appearance and decreases the chances of maggot 
 infestation. Leaving tails on ewes can pose problems at breeding time and 
 at lambing. 
 
 38 
 
Be sure to vaccinate lambs for tetanus if you now have or ever have 
 had horses on your farm (see page 49) . 
 
 Castration 
 
 Ram lambs that are to be fed for maximum growth and marketed 
 under five months of age need not be castrated. Late-born ram lambs and 
 ram lambs that will not be fed for maximum growth and will be over five 
 months old when marketed should be castrated, preferably at an early age 
 (two weeks or less). Normally, wether lambs will not gain as fast as ram 
 lambs; however, one of the major problems with ram lambs is that they 
 continually pester the rest of the sheep and may settle some of the ewes if 
 left with them too long (5 or 6 months). Wether lambs also usually have 
 higher carcass grades and dressing percentages than ram lambs. Castration 
 can be done with an elastrator, pocketknife, burdizzo, or "all-in-one." 
 
 Be sure to vaccinate the lambs for tetanus if you now have or ever 
 have had horses on your farm (see page 49) . 
 
 Creep Feeding the Lambs 
 
 Creep feeding is a means of providing supplemental feed for the lambs 
 during the nursing period. It is essential with an early weaning program 
 and, under conventional management, is usually more advantageous with 
 an early-lambing program than with a late-lambing program. Advantages 
 of creep feeding are ( 1 ) it increases gains, especially for lambs from multi- 
 ple births; (2) the lambs use supplemental feed more efficiently at this 
 time than after weaning; (3) lambs can be marketed at a younger age; 
 (4) earlier marketing usually means higher prices for lambs born early in 
 
 The above equipment can be used for castrating and docking. From left to 
 right is the "all-in-one," elastrator (rubber rings), pocket knife, emasculator, 
 and burdizzo (emasculatome). An electric docker can also be used for docking. 
 
 39 
 
the lambing period; and (5) early lambs can be sold without being put 
 on pasture, thus permitting more ewes to be carried on available pasture 
 and reducing internal parasite problems. 
 
 Lambs will begin to nibble at grain and hay very early and at least 
 by the time they are about a week old. However, they will not eat much 
 supplemental feed until they are about four weeks old. Set up the creep 
 when your first lambs are 7 to 10 days old, and put it in a convenient 
 location close to the brood flock. Provide water in the creep or as close to 
 it as possible. A heat lamp placed over the creep will help attract the 
 lambs, especially at night. Sunlight shining into a creep during the day 
 will also attract the lambs. The creep area should be kept well bedded 
 and the feeders should be kept clean. 
 
 Make maximum use of home-grown grains and roughage when for- 
 mulating the creep ration. Corn and oats as well as leafy, high-quality 
 legume hay make excellent feed for young lambs. Barley can also be used 
 but may not be quite as palatable as corn and oats for the first couple 
 of weeks. 
 
 Here is a good creep that has been kept clean and well bedded. It provides 
 grain, hay, and water and has a light, which helps to attract lambs into the 
 creep. The grain feeder should be covered, however, to keep lambs from 
 getting their feet into it. 
 
 40 
 
Until the lambs are six weeks old, the grain used in the creep ration 
 should be cracked, crimped, or rolled, unless fed as a pelleted ration. After 
 the lambs are six weeks old, whole grain can be used unless it is extremely 
 hard, in which case the grain should be cracked, crimped, or rolled for 
 several more weeks. Many people are using complete pelleted rations for 
 creep feeding. 
 
 Although rolled oats are often too expensive to use, they are excellent 
 in the creep ration or as a starter for lambs. Molasses is sometimes used 
 in the creep ration, primarily as an appetizer and to hold down dust. If 
 molasses is to be used, it should make up 5 percent — certainly no more 
 than 10 percent — of the ration. Bran can also be included, making up 
 10 to 15 percent of the ration. Many people include bran in the creep 
 ration because of its high palatability and laxative properties. 
 
 The creep ration should contain 15 to 16 percent crude protein, while 
 rations for early- weaned lambs (60 days or less) should contain about 18 
 percent crude protein. High-quality legume hay may be self-fed in either 
 the long or the pelleted form in addition to the concentrate mixture. 
 
 Tables 10 and 11 present suggested creep rations that contain 15 to 16 
 percent crude protein. Table 10 rations are for situations where hay is fed 
 free-choice; Table 11 presents complete rations combining roughage and 
 grain. Linseed meal or other protein supplements can be used in place of 
 soybean meal as long as you balance the ration to contain the desired 
 protein level. If you plan to use a high-urea supplement, it would be best 
 to do so after weaning rather than before weaning. Moreover, the protein 
 supplement with urea should be introduced gradually for best results. For 
 optimum performance, have no more than 25 percent roughage in the 
 complete ration. 
 
 Table 10. 
 
 — Suggested Creep Rations With Hay Fed Free-Choice a ' b 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 Rations 
 
 12 3 4 5 
 
 percent 
 
 Shelled corn 85 45 45 45 38 
 
 Oats 40 35 
 
 Barley 40 
 
 Wheat 40 
 
 Soybean meal 15 15 15 15 12 
 
 Wheat bran 15 
 
 Antibiotics 4- + 4- + 4- 
 
 a If molasses is desired, it should not be used at more than 5 percent of the ration; at that 
 level it can be substituted for any of the grain on a pound-for-pound basis. 
 
 b If urinary calculi has been a problem, replace one pound of grain with one pound of 
 
 feeding-grade limestone in each 100 pounds of feed. See also page 53 for a discussion of urinary 
 calculi. 
 
 c Assuming that a salt-mineral mixture is fed free-choice. 
 
 41 
 
Table 11. — Suggested Creep Rations With Hay Included at the 
 10 or 25 Percent Level a>b 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 Rations 
 
 percent 
 
 Shelled corn 74 61.5 73.5 60 73 58 
 
 Soybean meal 14.5 12 15 13.5 15.5 15.5 
 
 Alfalfa hay, ground 10 25 
 
 Alfalfa-orchardgrass hay, 
 
 ground 10 25 
 
 Ore hardgrass hay, ground 10 25 
 
 Feeding-grade limestone 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 Trace-mineralized salt .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 
 
 Antibiotics + + + + + + 
 
 a The rations with higher roughage levels are safer to use, although lamb gain and feed 
 efficiency may be better on the low-roughage rations. 
 
 b If oats are substituted for part of the corn, 1 pound of soybean meal can be removed for 
 each 25 pounds of corn replaced. If barley or wheat is substituted for part of the corn, 1 pound 
 of soybean meal can be removed for each 20 pounds of corn replaced. 
 
 c A salt-mineral mixture should not be fed free-choice; however, iodized salt can be fed 
 free-choice. 
 
 It is usually recommended that antibiotics be included in the creep 
 ration at the rate of 15 to 20 grams per ton, which is the equivalent of 
 7.5 to 10 milligrams per pound of feed. In some cases antibiotic levels 
 twice that high have been beneficial. Aureomycin (chlortetracycline) 
 and terramycin (oxytetracycline) are the two most commonly used anti- 
 biotics in creep rations. 
 
 Creep rations do not have to be complex to be good. Research work 
 in various states has indicated that lambs will perform as well on simple 
 creep rations as on complex rations. However, there are times when a 
 variety of ingredients or a change in ingredients may be beneficial if 
 lambs go off feed. This is not as big a problem with creep-fed lambs 
 as it is with weaned lambs. 
 
 Creep rations can be hand-fed or self-fed. Many sheepmen hand-feed 
 until the lambs begin to eat regularly from the creep, and self-feed from 
 then until weaning or marketing. The creep feeder must be kept clean at 
 all times to get the largest consumption of the ration. 
 
 Individual Performance Differences 
 
 The period of greatest performance difference between single lambs 
 and lambs of multiple birth is within the first 30 days, when the lambs 
 are relying primarily on the ewe for their source of food. As lambs begin 
 to eat supplemental feed, the differences in gain decrease, and somewhere 
 between 60 and 90 days of age twins usually catch up with singles in rate 
 of gain. The data in Table 12 help point out this tendency. Wether lambs 
 
 42 
 
Table 12. — Performance Differences for Lambs According to Specific 
 Period of Days After Birth 
 
 Average daily gain (lb.) by period 
 
 of 
 
 Item lambs 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-90 0-90 
 
 All lambs 72 .372 .521 .642 .693 .602 
 
 Singles 27 .464 .590 .714 .719 .659 
 
 Twins raised single 11 .387 .519 .565 .691 .579 
 
 Twins raised twins 34 .265 .455 .647 .688 .568 
 
 usually gain at about the same rate as ewe lambs from birth to 90 days of 
 age; ram lambs normally gain from 5 to 10 pounds more during the same 
 period. 
 
 "fn-and-Ouf" System of Lamb Management 
 
 If lambs are not sold before going to pasture, the "in-and-out" system 
 of lamb management may be practical. There are several alternative 
 procedures in this system : 
 
 1 . Keep ewes and lambs together in drylot at night, but place them on 
 separate pastures during the day. 
 
 2. Keep ewes and lambs together in drylot during the day, but place 
 them on separate pastures at night. 
 
 3. Keep ewes and lambs together in drylot at night, place ewes on 
 pasture during the day, and keep lambs in the barn on creep feeders. 
 
 4. Keep ewes and lambs together in drylot during the day, place ewes 
 on pasture at night, and keep lambs in the barn on creep feeders. 
 
 The "in-and-out" system tends to cut down internal parasite problems 
 and improves lamb performance during the pasture season. 
 
 Weaning 
 
 The proper age to wean lambs depends primarily on the system of 
 management. The following factors influence the age at which lambs are 
 weaned: when the lambs are born (early or late), percentage of multiple 
 births, creep feeding, availability of grain or pasture, parasite problems, 
 predator problems, type of sheep raised, and market prices and price 
 outlook. 
 
 Most lambs in the midwestern states are weaned between two and 
 four months of age. Late lambs that reach market weight on pasture are 
 usually weaned at an older age than early lambs that are creep-fed. In 
 recent years there has been more interest in earlier weaning. One reason is 
 that milk production usually reaches a peak three or four weeks after 
 
 43 
 
lambing and decreases thereafter. Three or four months after lambing 
 most ewes will be producing very little milk, and it would be more eco- 
 nomical to wean the lambs and turn the ewes out to pasture or at least 
 decrease their daily ration. Many flock owners now wean at 90 days of age 
 or less with good results, and some research done on weaning at 30 to 60 
 days of age has had good results. Successful early weaning is dependent 
 upon how well the lambs are eating supplemental feed (creep) at the 
 time they are weaned. 
 
 FEEDING FROM WEANING TO MARKET 
 
 Whether feeding an early weaned lamb or a late weaned lamb (which 
 is very similar to a feeder lamb), a key to success is to use high-quality 
 feeds and not change rations rapidly. Make any necessary changes in 
 rations gradually by blending greater and greater proportions of the new 
 feed with the old feed; take six to eight days. The ration of the early 
 weaned lamb should be high in digestible energy and fairly high in crude 
 protein. For optimum performance, rations if self-fed should contain no 
 more than 25 percent roughage (ground hay) and could contain as little 
 as 10 percent. Although all-concentrate rations can be successfully self-fed, 
 this should be done only when very careful management and close obser- 
 vation are possible. Poor management may result in a serious feedlot 
 disease — overeating disease or enterotoxemia — when lambs eat too 
 much of a ration high in grain (see also page 51 ) . 
 
 Protein needs of rapidly growing young lambs are best met by natural 
 proteins (from corn, hay, soybean meal, and other feeds). The protein 
 should be at least 15 percent of the ration. Although research indicates 
 lamb gains will be greater on protein levels higher than 15 percent, it is 
 often found that the cost of the additional protein isn't paid for by the 
 additional gain. 
 
 It is recommended that you continue feeding the rations given in 
 Tables 10 and 11 from weaning to market weight. If desired, adjustments 
 in the crude protein level of rations for lambs within 25 pounds of market 
 weight can be made by substituting 5 pounds of grain for 5 pounds of 
 soybean meal for every 100 pounds of ration. This will reduce the protein 
 content of the ration by approximately 2 percent. Performance should not 
 be greatly influenced by this because the protein requirement for lambs 
 close to market weight is less than for younger, rapidly growing lambs. 
 
 What about replacing part of the natural protein with nonprotein 
 nitrogen such as urea? Urea is most effectively used as a replacement for 
 natural protein when lambs are within 25 pounds of market weight. It 
 
 44 
 
is likely that replacing natural protein with urea before this stage will not 
 allow for optimum performance. 
 
 Take care in meeting the mineral needs of weaned lambs. Calcium 
 and phosphorus are essential minerals in bone formation but can cause 
 urinary calculi (water belly) when not in the proper balance (ratio of 
 Ca to P). The ratio of calcium to phosphorus should be at least 1V£:1 
 and preferably closer to 2 : 1. (See page 53 for further discussion of urinary 
 calculi.) 
 
 Another important mineral is copper. Copper is an essential element 
 for sheep; however, if it is at too high a level in the ration, it may accu- 
 mulate in the liver and become toxic. In selecting trace mineral mixtures 
 be extremely careful that the levels of minerals (especially copper) in the 
 finished feed do not exceed recommended levels. 
 
 Recent experience has shown that using trace mineral mixtures devel- 
 oped for hogs at levels recommended for hogs can result in serious toxicity 
 problems in sheep. At the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center, copper 
 toxicity has been produced when trace mineral mixtures containing copper 
 were fed free-choice to sheep in confinement. Since there may be little 
 control over the consumption of feeds offered free-choice, it is best, if 
 possible, to control the intake of trace minerals through either intermittent 
 free-choice offering or mixing with the daily ration (no more than 5 parts 
 per million). It is doubtful that trace-mineralized salt blocks will allow 
 overconsumption of minerals. 
 
 DEVELOPING LAMBS INTO YEARLINGS 
 
 Ideally, yearlings should be well grown and in good condition but not 
 excessively fat. Excessive finish is costly to put on and detrimental to 
 reproductive performance. 
 
 There are many ideas as to the best way to develop lambs from market 
 weight to yearlings. There is some research information about the develop- 
 ment of ewes but practically nothing about the development of rams. 
 There is no ideal way to develop lambs into yearlings that will work for 
 all sheepmen under all management conditions. 
 
 In determining what type of a feeding program to follow, one must 
 answer several questions. What is the genetic potential of my flock for 
 yearling size? How hard do I want to push them? How much condition 
 do I want on them? At what age do I want to use them for breeding 
 purposes (both ewes and rams) ? And lastly, will I be entering some of 
 them in shows or sales? The development of lambs into yearlings is one 
 of many areas of management where the "eye of the master" reigns 
 
 45 
 
supreme. One must keep a close watch on the animals to know when to 
 change the kind of ration, the amount being fed, or both. 
 
 Lambs that are to be bred and show lambs should continue to be well 
 fed after they reach market weight. Lambs that will not be used for breed- 
 ing purposes until they are yearlings can be developed more slowly after 
 they reach market weight; however, they do need to be well fed over the 
 winter so they will be well developed yearlings that have adequate size in 
 relation to their genetic potential. 
 
 Two items that should not be forgotten when growing out replacement 
 animals are to keep the feet well trimmed and to follow a good parasite- 
 control program. Internal parasites can greatly cut down on the perfor- 
 mance of these young growing animals. Refer to page 55, which deals 
 with internal parasites. 
 
 When lambs are pushed hard for maximum growth, some may have 
 rectal prolapses. Those that do should not be kept for breeding purposes 
 but should be marketed. 
 
 Research at the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center has indicated that 
 large-framed ewe lambs that are to be bred to lamb at approximately a 
 year of age can be self-fed a 50:50 hay-grain ration from market weight 
 through lactation with good results. This proportion of hay to grain can 
 be altered to meet the needs of the individual breeder. This ration will 
 also be affected by the quality of hay. Some breeders may find that % 
 roughage and x h grain may work more satisfactorily, particularly if the 
 ewe lambs are not being bred. 
 
 For rams that are to be pushed hard, the 50 : 50 hay-grain ratio should 
 work. However, if you prefer to develop your rams more slowly, the 2 A : l A 
 hay-grain ration may be more satisfactory. In all cases keep a close watch 
 over your animals so that the proportion of hay to grain is changed before 
 the animals become too fat, not afterwards. 
 
 The NRC requirements indicate that a 220-pound ram gaining 0.22 
 pounds per day would require 5V4 to 5V2 pounds per day of a 50:50 
 alfalfa hay-shelled corn ration. A 130-pound ram gaining 0.44 pounds per 
 day would require 4!/2 pounds per day of the same ration. If rams have 
 the potential to gain more rapidly than this at the weights indicated, and 
 you want them to gain more rapidly, then obviously you will have to feed 
 more per day, or use a ration with a higher proportion of grain. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL REARING OF LAMBS 
 
 Extra or orphaned lambs occur in most flocks at lambing time. They 
 result from ewe losses at lambing, rejection, or the production of multiple 
 births beyond the ewe's nursing capability. It has been estimated that at 
 
 46 
 
least 10 percent of the nation's lamb crop dies from starvation during the 
 first week after birth. The number will vary according to the health, age, 
 and productivity of the ewe flock. Extra lambs can be reared, however, 
 if good management is practiced. 
 
 Colostrum Feeding 
 
 Newborn lambs must receive colostrum milk or a substitute soon after 
 birth or their chances of survival are poor. The colostrum can come from 
 the mother or another ewe that has lambed about the same time. Collect 
 colostrum by milking one side of good milking ewes with single lambs or 
 ewes that have lost lambs within 24 hours of birth. 
 
 If ewe colostrum is not available, cow colostrum can be fed. The 
 supply of colostrum can be frozen in paper cups or plastic bags (4 to 6 
 ounces per container) . When needed, it should be thawed and fed at 
 room temperature. Heating above normal body temperature may destroy 
 antibodies. Feed 4 to 6 ounces of colostrum per head every 4 hours during 
 the first 12 to 18 hours. 
 
 Various suggestions have been made on selecting the lamb or lambs 
 to remove from the ewe. A small or weak lamb may not be able to com- 
 pete when left with the ewe. If the lambs in a litter are equal, one prac- 
 tical method of selection is to offer the bottle to all of them. The lamb or 
 lambs who take it the most easily will require the least labor when re- 
 moved from the ewe. 
 
 Some shepherds find it beneficial to give lambs 1 cc of a vitamin 
 E-selenium compound such as BO-SE. If lambs are to be housed on ele- 
 vated slotted floors, they should also have an iron supplement in either 
 oral or injectable form. This is usually given at the rate recommended 
 for a baby pig. Some oral iron supplements contain copper and should be 
 avoided (see page 45) . 
 
 Milk Re placer 
 
 Lambs can be raised on cow's milk but it should not be diluted or 
 skimmed — most cow's milk is too low in fat, compared to ewe's milk. Good 
 commercial milk replacers designed for lambs are now available and work 
 well. These should contain 30 to 32 percent fat, 22 to 24 percent crude 
 protein, and 22 to 25 percent lactose (dry-matter basis). Calf milk re- 
 placers should only be used in an emergency and must be made more con- 
 centrated than recommended for calves. 
 
 It is often suggested that the milk replacer is one of the most important 
 factors contributing to the success of rearing extra lambs. The milk re- 
 placer that gives good growth rate and lamb health with the least diges- 
 tive disorders will prove to be the most economical. 
 
 47 
 
Since a good lamb milk replacer is high in fat, it mixes more readily 
 in warm water than in cold. Premix the powder with a small part of the 
 water, making a paste, then add the rest of the water and mix well. 
 Rapidly cooling the liquid mix to 33° to 40° F. tends to reduce the prob- 
 lem of ingredient separation during storage or in feeding containers. 
 
 Equipment 
 
 The number of lambs to be reared and the degree of automation 
 desired will determine the type and amount of equipment used. The 
 equipment should be simple to use, easily cleaned, and as inexpensive as 
 possible. Lambs can be fed from a bottle if labor is available. They will 
 need feeding to appetite about every 4 hours during the first week and 
 then every 6 to 8 hours until weaned. 
 
 If several lambs are to be raised, some type of milk dispenser is essen- 
 tial to reduce labor. Several are available, including some with self- 
 priming nipples. They are useful in training new lambs but are somewhat 
 more difficult to clean. Dispensers with the nipple at the top will reduce 
 milk wastage. Good sanitation is easier and digestive disorders generally 
 are reduced if the milk is fed cold. Under most winter conditions the 
 milk will not sour over a 24-hour period if transferred directly from the 
 refrigerator to the milk dispenser. In warm weather the milk may be kept 
 cold by placing plastic jugs full of ice in the feeding unit. 
 
 Under most conditions the feeding unit should be cleaned well every 
 day; however, some research workers have mixed 1 cc of formalin with 
 each gallon of formula and report a sufficient reduction in bacterial and 
 mold growth to reduce cleaning to once a week. 
 
 If lambs are to be raised on self-dispensing units, starve them for 3 to 
 12 hours after the last colostrum feeding, then introduce them to the unit 
 with cold milk. A training pen should be set up where lambs are taught 
 to use the dispenser. Lambs may need to be put on the nipples several 
 times before they learn to nurse independently. When they can nurse 
 independently, move them from the training pen to a self-sufficient pen. 
 Leaving an older lamb who has learned to use the unit in the training 
 pen will help the younger lambs to learn more rapidly. It is advisable to 
 pen the lambs by age and to have a nipple available for each three to five 
 lambs. 
 
 Housing 
 
 The lambs should be well protected from cold and drafts when being 
 trained to use a milk dispenser: however, good ventilation is necessary. 
 Pens should be kept dry and well bedded. An elevated slotted floor made 
 with 3 /4" wire mesh will be the easiest to keep clean and dry. In severe 
 
 48 
 
weather heat lamps will be necessary in the training pen. Provide one 
 lamp for each 10 to 12 lambs. 
 
 Creep feed should be offered to the lambs soon after they are started 
 on liquid milk replacer. The physical form and palatability will influence 
 consumption. Soybean meal is an excellent feed for the very young lamb. 
 The starter creep feed should contain 17 to 20 percent protein. Lambs 
 develop faster if they have access to a small amount of high-quality rough- 
 age such as alfalfa hay. Usually, lambs will consume only a small amount 
 of solid feeds during the period that milk is offered free choice. Yet, 
 having the solid feeds around will familiarize the lambs with dry feed and 
 encourage development of the rumen, which are essential if lambs are to 
 be weaned from milk replacer at four to six weeks. 
 
 Trace-mineralized salt and a clean water supply should be available 
 at all times. After weaning, replace the trace-mineralized salt with plain 
 salt. Water buckets, salt boxes, and feed troughs for dry feed should be 
 located outside the pen so lambs have to reach through a panel to eat 
 and drink. This will keep their feet out of the feeders and waterers, 
 reducing contamination and the occurrence of digestive disorders. 
 
 COMMON LAMB DISEASES 1 
 
 Tetanus (Lockjaw) 
 
 Tetanus is a disease caused by Clostridium tetani, an organism com- 
 monly found in soil and horse manure. It is much more prevalent on 
 some farms than others. The spores will live in the soil for years and 
 thus present a continuing disease problem on some premises. Converted 
 horse barns may be particularly troublesome. The organism may gain 
 entrance to the body through wounds from shearing, docking, castration, 
 and vaccination. The organism may also be introduced to the reproduc- 
 tive tract if ewes are assisted during lambing without using proper sani- 
 tary precautions. 
 
 Stiffness of limbs and difficulty in moving or walking are commonly 
 the first symptoms of tetanus. These early symptoms are very similar to 
 those seen with white muscle disease (see page 52), polyarthritis, erysip- 
 elas, and navel ill (see page 38) . Animals are easily excited and may show 
 spasmodic jerking of the muscles. Later the jaw may become rigid and the 
 animal is unable to open its mouth. Spasms of the neck and back muscles 
 cause extension of the head and neck. The hind legs are normally rigid 
 and extended backward. Affected lambs may fall to the ground when 
 excited. 
 
 1 This discussion of diseases is based on material from The Sheepman's Produc- 
 tion Handbook. 
 
 49 
 
Control and Treatment. Very few affected lambs recover and there 
 is no satisfactory treatment. Where tetanus is a problem, preventive mea- 
 sures must be used. Elastrator bands are not recommended for docking 
 and castration in areas where tetanus is an annual problem. All surgical 
 procedures should be carried out in a strictly sanitary manner. If infection 
 is likely, injection of 200 to 300 units of tetanus antitoxin will provide 
 protection for about two weeks. When tetanus is an annual problem, 
 immunization of the entire flock with the toxoid will give the best protec- 
 tion. Ewes can be immunized with two injections 30 to 60 days apart. Give 
 an annual booster just before lambing. 
 
 Hemorrhagic Enterotoxemia (Hemorrhagic Enteritis, 
 Overeating Disease, Bloody Scours) 
 
 Hemorrhagic enterotoxemia is an acute, highly fatal disease of young 
 lambs caused by the bacterial organism Clostridium perfringens Type C. 
 The disease usually affects young lambs one to four weeks of age. Most 
 frequently, the disease attacks vigorous, single lambs whose mothers are 
 giving an abundance of milk. Small, weak lambs are seldom affected. This 
 disease may affect feeder lambs and older sheep and should be given con- 
 sideration in acute death losses in animals known to be properly immu- 
 nized against Type D enterotoxemia (see next section) . 
 
 The symptoms associated with this disease are variable. Seemingly 
 vigorous lambs may die suddenly without obvious cause. In other cases, 
 the lamb becomes dull and refuses to nurse; it may shiver, bleat, and show 
 signs of colic. Often this occurs during the first few days after birth. 
 Straining may be observed and black or bloody diarrhea may appear, 
 along with fever and depression. As the disease progresses, the lamb may 
 develop spasms before death. The course of the disease may vary from 
 
 2 to 24 hours. 
 
 Post mortem examination shows a spotted or hemorrhagic condition of 
 the small intestines and stomach. The abomasum, or true stomach, fre- 
 quently contains a large quantity of milk, only a portion of which may be 
 coagulated. 
 
 Treatment. Due to the sudden onset of the disease and early death, 
 drugs have been found to have little effect on the disease. The Clostridium 
 perfringens Type C antitoxin is effective as a treatment, as well as a pre- 
 ventive measure, when given to new-born lambs. The preventive dose is 
 
 3 cc; the curative dose is 7 cc. 
 
 The most effective means of prevention is the vaccination of the ewe 
 during pregnancy. Ewes should be vaccinated twice, two to four weeks 
 apart, and the second vaccination should be given two to four weeks prior 
 
 50 
 
to lambing. An immunity is developed in the ewe that is passed on to the 
 lamb. Vaccination with Type D bacterin or toxoid does not render the 
 animal immune to the Type C infection. Vaccination of sheep with both 
 Types G and D toxoid or bacterin can be done concurrently where in- 
 dicated. 
 
 This disease has been reported most frequently during periods of cold, 
 wet, or chilling weather. Clean, dry, draft-free lambing sheds help pre- 
 vent the disease. Crutching or shearing ewes before lambing may also be 
 helpful. 
 
 Enterotoxemia (Overeating Disease, Pulpy Kidney, Apoplexy) 
 
 Enterotoxemia of sheep is a highly fatal intoxication resulting from the 
 sudden release of toxin by the bacteria Clostridium perfringens Type D 
 in the digestive tract of sheep. 
 
 Enterotoxemia affects sheep of all ages (from birth to several years of 
 age). It is most common in lambs under six weeks of age nursing heavy- 
 milking ewes and in weaned lambs on lush pasture or in feedlots. Creep- 
 fed lambs and sheep being fitted for show are also often affected. Fre- 
 quently, the large, single, most vigorous lambs in the flock are lost. 
 
 Enterotoxemia is one of the most common causes of death in feedlot 
 lambs. In "explosive" outbreaks, losses may range from 10 to 40 percent. 
 In unvaccinated feedlot lambs you can expect a minimum of 1 percent of 
 the lambs to die from this disease ; the average death loss is 2 to 3 percent. 
 
 Clostridium perfringens Type D is normally present in the bowel of 
 most sheep. Under circumstances brought about by heavy feeding, it 
 grows rapidly, enters the small bowel, and produces a powerful poison 
 (toxin) that is absorbed through the intestinal wall, causing death in a 
 few hours. In many instances deaths occur so quickly that owners do not 
 observe sick animals. 
 
 The organism responsible for this disease may be present in the in- 
 testine of normal sheep with no harmful effects until certain digestive 
 disturbances occur. When normal conditions within the digestive tract are 
 altered, it may provide the causal organism a favorable environment in 
 which to grow and produce its toxin. 
 
 The most important predisposing factor is a sluggishness of intestinal 
 movement created by digestive disturbances related to diet, lack of exer- 
 cise, or excessive feed intake. Occasionally, the disease may be brought 
 about by run-down conditions associated with poor nutrition, other dis- 
 eases, or parasitism. 
 
 Deaths from enterotoxemia usually occur suddenly and without warn- 
 ing. Occasionally, animals may be observed sick for several hours, or even 
 
 51 
 
a day or longer, before they die. Lambs frequently exhibit nervous symp- 
 toms: the head is drawn back and the animal shows convulsive move- 
 ments, grinding of teeth, congestion of mucous membrane of the eye. and 
 frothing at the mouth. Sometimes the animal falls into a coma with 
 death taking place quietly. Diarrhea may be present shortly before death. 
 
 Fast-gaining lambs on pasture or creep may require vaccination at six 
 to eight weeks of age. If they continue on high concentrate rations, re- 
 vaccination is recommended after weaning. 
 
 Losses may be prevented in young lambs (up to six weeks old) by 
 vaccination of the ewe during pregnancy. Ewes that have not been vac- 
 cinated previously should be vaccinated twice, two to four weeks apart 
 with the second vaccination being given two to four weeks before lambing. 
 An annual booster two to four weeks before lambing is advisable. 
 
 White Muscle Disease (Stiff Lamb Disease, Muscular Dystrophy) 
 
 Nutritional muscular dystrophy (white muscle disease) is a degenera- 
 tion of the skeletal and cardiac muscles of lambs. White muscle disease 
 occurs in a wide range of climates and on many different types of soils 
 and pastures. It is most common in areas of good rainfall or irrigated 
 areas, and the incidence is much higher on legume pasture and in lambs 
 being creep-fed or on other high-quality diets. Pastures heavily fertilized 
 with superphosphate may cause a higher incidence of the disease. A low- 
 level of selenium is normally found in the forage. The condition is due to 
 a selenium or vitamin E deficiency. A selenium deficiency may interfere 
 with the transport of vitamin E. Cull beans contain a vitamin E antagonist 
 and should not make up more than 25 percent of the ration fed to ewes 
 during gestation or lactation. It has been reported that alfalfa hay may 
 contain a substance that interferes with the proper utilization of vitamin E. 
 
 White muscle disease may be present at birth and may result in death 
 by starvation or exposure, since the affected lambs are unable to suckle. 
 Affected lambs are also more susceptible to scours and acute pneumonia. 
 The disease is more common in lambs three to eight weeks of age but may 
 be seen in older lambs. Skeletal muscles are affected, causing symptoms of 
 progressive paralysis. The back is arched and the lambs are unable to 
 move properly, particularly the rear quarters. They may have an ''open- 
 shouldered" appearance because of the relaxing of the muscles of the 
 shoulder girdle, and the forelegs may be spread excessively. 
 
 Muscles of the heart, diaphragm, tongue, and esophagus are also com- 
 monly affected. Some lambs die suddenly from heart involvement without 
 prior clinical symptoms, usually brought on by increased physical activity. 
 More often, a slow progressive cardiac failure results. This leads to passive 
 
 52 
 
lung endema and slow death from suffocation. Such lambs often breathe 
 very rapidly, and the condition may be confused with pneumonia. 
 
 Prevention and Treatment. Studies have been conducted along three 
 routes of treatment and prevention - — oral, injections, and fertilization of 
 pastures with selenium. Selenium cannot presently be included in animal 
 rations. When experience indicates white muscle disease is an annual prob- 
 lem, best results are obtained by injecting ewes with selenium-toeophoral 
 1 to 4 weeks before lambing. When white muscle disease is diagnosed in 
 a flock, it is recommended all lambs be treated at birth. Affected lambs 
 will respond to selenium or selenium and vitamin E injection. Wheat and 
 linseed oil meal in the ration of pregnant ewes and linseed oil meal in 
 creep rations may be effective in reducing the incidence of this disease. 
 
 Urinary Calculi (Urolithiasis, Water Belly, Kidney Stones) 
 
 The occurrence of urinary calculi in sheep is rather widespread. The 
 incidence may be quite high in some areas while relatively low in other 
 areas. Rams and wethers in feedlots or on high-concentrate rations are 
 most often affected, but the condition can occur in sheep being grazed on 
 succulent pastures or on grain stubble. Rations high in phosphorus content 
 or rations with a phosphorus-calcium imbalance are often associated with 
 a high incidence in feedlot lambs. There is some indication there is a 
 higher incidence in diethylstilbestrol-implanted lambs than in nonim- 
 planted lambs in the feedlot. 
 
 Salts normally excreted in the urine are precipitated and form calculi 
 (stones) that may lodge in the pelvis of the kidney, in ureters, the bladder, 
 or the urethra. The composition of the stones may vary, depending on the 
 ration fed. 
 
 Affected animals stand with the back arched and strain to pass urine. 
 The animal may kick at the belly, prefer to lie down, become rather dull, 
 and be disinterested in feed or water. In severe cases of some duration, 
 watery swellings (edema) of the lower abdomen may develop. 
 
 Prevention and Treatment. Prevention of the disease by proper man- 
 agement is essential, as treatment is often ineffective. A clean, constant 
 source of water should be available to sheep. During winter months water 
 should be heated to prevent freezing and to encourage greater water con- 
 sumption. Avoid excess phosphorus content in the ration. When concen- 
 trate rations high in phosphorus are fed, it may be advisable to add 
 feeding-grade limestone to the ration in sufficient quantities to increase 
 the calcium level above the phosphorus level of the diet. The calcium- 
 phosphorus ratio in the ration should be at least VA'A and preferably 
 closer to 2:1. 
 
 53 
 
Ammonium chloride added to the ration at the rate of 0.5 percent 
 (8 to 10 lb./ton) or about 0.25 ounce per head per day will give almost 
 complete control. In areas where there is a history of urinary calculi, 
 ammonium chloride should be included in the pelleted or ground con- 
 centrate ration during the entire feeding period. Ammonium chloride can- 
 not be effectively mixed with whole grain rations, as it settles out and will 
 not be consumed. Ammonium chloride is also rather unpalatable. It may 
 be mixed with liquid molasses or other more palatable substances and 
 applied to the grain ration. Ammonium chloride acidifies the urine, thus 
 keeping the calculi-forming material in solution. 
 
 Ammonium chloride may also be used as a drench for affected animals. 
 Doses up to Wz ounces per head can be used but should be administered 
 only once at that level. Smooth muscle relaxants may aid in the passage 
 of lodged calculi. If the stone is lodged near the tip of the penis, the con- 
 dition may be relieved by cutting off the urethral process. Calculi also may 
 be removed by surgery but this method is rather impractical. 
 
 MANAGEMENT ON PASTURE 
 
 Your sheep will get the most out of pastures if you do as follows : 
 
 1. Wait until pastures are ready before turning in the flock. Most 
 forage should be 6 to 8 inches high before being grazed. Sorghum- 
 sudangrass hybrids should be approximately 18 inches high before being 
 grazed. 
 
 2. Use a moderate stocking rate to prevent close grazing. Stocking 
 rates will vary with pasture forage used, season, and fertility level. If 
 pastures become short because of drouth or overstocking, wean all lambs 
 that are old enough and put them on feed and drylot. 
 
 3. If possible, rotate pastures at two- to three- week intervals. Clip 
 pastures at the end of each grazing period to encourage new growth, 
 retain legumes in the pasture mixture, and control weeds. Grazing with 
 cattle will increase pasture productivity, as measured by animal gains. 
 
 4. Provide clean water and shade. 
 
 5. Fertilize and lime your pasture regularly for maximum forage 
 production. 
 
 PARASITE CONTROL 
 
 Failure to effectively control internal and external parasites can result 
 in greatly decreased performances of ewes and lambs. Severe cases of 
 
 54 
 
parasitism often cause death. Good parasite control is one of the man- 
 agement practices that pays big dividends. 
 
 Internal Parasites 
 
 Parasite control programs are directed primarily toward the control of 
 the stomach worm (the most common internal parasite), tapeworms, and 
 lung worms. Other internal parasites, such as smaller round worms, 
 nodular worms, whip worms, and liver flukes, are occasionally reported. 
 If you suspect your sheep have these internal parasites, your veterinarian 
 can identify them and suggest proper treatment. 
 
 For the most effective control of internal parasites, drench the brood 
 flock and replacement stock at least three or four times a year: once 
 before turning sheep out to pasture in the spring, once or twice during 
 the summer and early fall, and again when the sheep are brought into 
 the barn for the winter. Lambs that are born early and are marketed 
 without going to pasture will usually not need drenching. Those that are 
 to go on pasture should be drenched regularly, the same as the brood flock. 
 
 Don't use the same drench throughout the year, but alternate at least 
 two different ones. If you use only one product, the parasites that are not 
 eliminated may become at least partly immune to it. Common drenching 
 materials are Phenothiazine, Phenothiazine-arsenate of lead, Tramisol, 
 Loxon, and Thiabendazole. Allow sheep free access to a Phenothiazine- 
 salt mixture during the pasture season if you wish, but don't use this as 
 a replacement for a routine worming program. 
 
 This picture indicates the proper method of drenching. Note that the nose 
 and jaws have been clamped shut. 
 
 55 
 
Providing rotation pasture or rotating sheep on permanent pasture 
 is also an effective means of reducing internal parasite problems. 
 
 External Parasites 
 
 External parasites can be controlled best by following a yearly dipping 
 program. Use a toxaphene solution or other dipping preparations recom- 
 mended for livestock use and recognized by the USDA and the Illinois 
 Department of Agriculture. Ticks, lice, and mites can be very detrimental 
 to the performance of sheep of all ages, especially to the quality and value 
 of the wool produced. 
 
 Ticks are probably the most common external sheep parasites. They 
 are brown, have six legs, are about 3/16 to 1/4 inch long, and can be 
 easily seen when the fleece is parted. By sucking blood from the skin of 
 sheep, ticks cause irritation, restlessness, rubbing, and loss of wool. 
 
 There are two kinds of sheep lice, the biting louse and the sucking 
 louse. The more common is the red-headed biting louse. It is very small 
 — seldom more than 1/25 of an inch long — and looks much like a tim- 
 othy seed. You can see lice either in the wool or on the skin. The damages 
 to sheep are mainly an irritation of the skin, which causes sheep to rub 
 off their wool, and an unthrifty condition caused by restlessness. 
 
 Four species of mites affect sheep: the psoroptic or scab mite, the 
 chorioptic or foot scab mite, the sarcoptic or head scab mite, and the 
 
 The picture on the left shows a sheep with one hoof that needs trimming and 
 one that is properly trimmed. A commonly used foot trimmer is also shown. 
 Note in the picture on the right how much better the sheep can stand on the 
 hoof that has been properly trimmed. 
 
 56 
 
psorergates mite, which lives between the layers of skin. The scab mite 
 causes the greatest damage to flocks. It is one of the most destructive 
 external parasites and also one of the most difficult to control. This para- 
 site is only 1/50 of an inch long and burrows into the skin. The sheep rubs 
 itself and pulls at the wool to relieve the irritation and itching. Hard scabs 
 form in the affected areas and the sheep loses condition rapidly. Since 
 sheep scab is such a highly infectious disease, treatment must be prompt 
 and effective. Federal and state programs have practically eliminated 
 scabies from the United States. 
 
 Dipping should be done on a bright, sunny day if possible, but do not 
 wait for the ideal day if scab has been diagnosed. Few farms have per- 
 manent dipping vats, but portable dipping vats are available throughout 
 much of the state. If neither type is available, the sheep may be sprayed. 
 Spraying calls for more material and is usually not so effective as dipping. 
 Dusting is a difficult and dirty job and is less effective than either dipping 
 or spraying. The operator should wear a respirator for protection when 
 he is dusting. 
 
 FOOT HEALTH 
 
 It is very important to keep the feet of all sheep well trimmed. Foot 
 problems keep sheep from performing at the highest level. These problems 
 are much easier to prevent than to cure. 
 
 Suggestions for Foot Care 
 
 1. Trim the feet of all sheep twice a year. Use a sharp knife, pruning 
 shears, or foot rot shears. 
 
 2. Isolate all new sheep until their feet have been carefully inspected 
 and trimmed. 
 
 3. Do not allow sheep to travel through deep mud or manure. 
 
 4. Catch lame sheep and examine their feet as soon as you notice the 
 lameness. 
 
 5. To minimize pasture contamination, isolate all sheep that have any 
 type of foot infection. 
 
 6. Sell for slaughter all sheep that do not respond to treatment. 
 
 Foot problems may be caused by foot rot, foot abcess, and foot scald; 
 lack of timely and proper foot care; poor foot development caused by 
 tissue abnormalities, nutrition, and genetics; injury from cinders, gravel, 
 and plant stubbles; and lip and foot diseases, such as contagious ecthyma. 
 
 57 
 
Foot Rof 
 
 Foot rot is a highly contagious disease; in severe outbreaks it may 
 affect up to 75 percent of a flock at a time. The infection may persist for 
 years in the feet of sheep but dies in soil, usually within 14 days. Although 
 the mortality rate from foot rot is low, loss of condition of adult sheep 
 and nursing lambs and the increased labor, equipment, and materials to 
 treat the disease make it one of the most costly sheep diseases. Foot rot is 
 infrequently seen in areas of sandy, well-drained soils and in regions of 
 low rainfall but may be a major problem on irrigated pastures, wet low- 
 land pasture, and areas of high rainfall. 
 
 Foot rot of sheep commences with inflammation of the skin at the 
 skin-hoof junction, a progressive necrosis of the deeper layers of the epi- 
 dermis with underrunning of the horn, inflammation of the sensitive 
 laminae of the foot, and severe lameness. Foot rot is primarily an invasion 
 of the horny hoof, and the infection spreads rapidly throughout the horny 
 tissue. There is a foul characteristic discharge but no abscesses are formed. 
 The hoof growth often becomes distorted, and frequently sheep will put 
 little or no weight on an affected foot. The organisms causing foot rot 
 require an oxygen-deficient environment for growth. Therefore, over- 
 grown, rolled-under hooves in wet, muddy, unsanitary conditions provide 
 an excellent environment for these organisms. The well-worn or trimmed 
 hoof is seldom affected. 
 
 There is great variation in the incidence of the disease, which is in- 
 fluenced greatly by weather and temperature. Concentration of large num- 
 bers of sheep in small areas contributes to the rapid spread of the infection. 
 Walking over contaminated pastures or areas where infected sheep have 
 been is the principal method of transmission. Complete control can seldom 
 be accomplished in one season but requires a carefully planned inspection 
 program for several years. 
 
 Control. To effectively control foot rot, all feet of all sheep in the 
 flock must be inspected. Where foot rot is a problem, a control program 
 should be initiated during the dry season and strictly adhered to regardless 
 of weather conditions or development of foot rot problems. 
 
 1. Trim all feet of every sheep and treat in a foot bath. If hooves are 
 dry and hard, soaking feet in foot bath or wetting the holding corral will 
 facilitate trimming. 
 
 2. Identify affected sheep and isolate as a hospital band. 
 
 3. Retreat affected sheep a minimum of every three days for at least 
 four treatments. 
 
 4. Inspect affected sheep every two weeks. 
 
 1 Based on material from The Sheepman's Production Handbook. 
 
 58 
 
5. Place recovered sheep in a convalescent band. 
 
 6. Sheep in the convalescent band that pass two clean inspections 30 
 days apart and are treated at the time of each inspection may be returned 
 to the clean band. 
 
 7. The infected band should have treatment continued as the indi- 
 viduals require. 
 
 8. The clean band must pass two inspections 30 days apart with no 
 affected sheep being discovered. Inspect the clean flock twice yearly. 
 
 9. New sheep must be isolated and pass inspections 30 days apart be- 
 fore being introduced into the flock. 
 
 10. When the flock is inspected, clean sheep must go to a pasture 
 that has had no sheep on it for at least two weeks. 
 
 Foot Abscess ] 
 
 Foot abcess is a widespread disease that is sporadic in occurrence. It 
 is infectious but not contagious like foot rot or foot scald. Foot abscess is 
 a disease of the soft structures of the foot. The conditions under which 
 foot abscess occurs may be varied and are related to several contributing 
 factors. Foot abscess may occur under extremely wet or muddy conditions ; 
 after severe trimming in wet weather; after sheep have been placed on 
 stubble, particularly barley or safflower stubble; and in conjunction with 
 severe outbreaks of foot rot. 
 
 The infection may gain entry in the toe or sole, causing no visible swell- 
 ing, or between the heels, producing an area of granulation tissue followed 
 by severe swelling. In the toe type the foot becomes hot and tender. 
 Frequently, a sore spot can be located. If drainage can be established, 
 the foot will rapidly return to normal. When the infection invades the 
 heel, small areas of granulation tissue may develop. The foot is painful to 
 the animal and frequently is swollen above the coronet. Joints and tendons 
 may become involved and permanent lameness may result. 
 
 Foot Sca/d 1 
 
 Foot scald is a contagious disease caused by the same organisms, or 
 perhaps a different strain of the same organisms, that cause foot rot. Foot 
 scald may actually be an early superficial form of foot rot. Foot scald is 
 rather sporadic in its occurrence but is found mostly during periods of 
 extremely wet weather. 
 
 In early stages, foot scald resembles foot rot but in later stages is much 
 less severe. Foot scald commences with inflammation of the skin between 
 the claws and progresses to the rear portion of the heels, causing separa- 
 
 1 Based on material from The Sheepman's Production Handbook. 
 
 59 
 
tion from the hoof. Sheep may be slightly to moderately lame, depending 
 on the stage of infection. Apparently, the forefeet are more often affected 
 than the rear feet. 
 
 Footbath Solutions 
 
 If a footbath is needed, use a solution of 20 to 25 percent copper 
 sulfate, 5 to 10 percent formalin, or 10 percent quaternary ammonia. You 
 can also use 2, hydroxymethyl-2-nitro 1, 3-propanediol diluted 1:17 with 
 water or an iodophor concentrate diluted 2 ounces per gallon. Let sheep 
 stand in a footbath for at least 3 to 4 minutes, and treat even- second or 
 third day for four treatments. Follow a sound yearly foot-health program 
 to minimize foot troubles. 
 
 LAMB MARKETING 
 
 Even though lamb prices have continued to be relatively strong during 
 recent years, they often hit a high in late spring and early summer. 
 
 Large-framed, rapid-gaining lambs that will grade choice or prime 
 should be marketed at approximately 100 to 115 pounds, or even 5 or 10 
 pounds heavier if they will not be penalized in price. Small-framed lambs 
 that finish out at light weights should be marketed at approximately 
 90 pounds. 
 
 Lambs should be pushed for an early market. If they are carried 
 through the summer, they often gain more slowly and less efficiently, have 
 more parasites, grade lower, and have a higher death loss. 
 
 Suckling lambs will shrink a great deal en route to market. To reduce 
 this loss, you should sort, transport, and weigh them in as short a time as 
 possible. Try to sort spring lambs for shipment the day they are to be sold. 
 
 Most Illinois lambs are sold through terminal markets, local pools, 
 and auctions. However, some large commercial flocks move lambs on a 
 direct basis by selling to either a packer representative or an order buyer. 
 Your choice of a market will depend on current prices, markets in your 
 area, numbers of lambs you have to sell, and available transportation. 
 
 Easter lambs are milk-fat lambs weighing 40 to 45 pounds. They are 
 sold to meet the demand during the Easter season. Although the price per 
 pound for Easter lambs may seem high, the most important consideration 
 in selling to this specialty market is the number of dollars you will receive 
 per head. Lambs that are ready for the Easter market in late March or 
 April will probably weigh 90 to 100 pounds in June, the normal peak 
 in spring lamb prices, so you must figure carefully to see what will be the 
 most profitable way to market such lambs. 
 
 60 
 
LAMB CARCASS SHOWS 
 
 When asked by a city person, "What are lambs used for?" an enthusi- 
 astic young sheep showman replied, "To show!" More realistically, lamb 
 shows, especially lamb carcass shows, provide the sheep producer an op- 
 portunity to evaluate the product he is producing and thereby guide his 
 decisions in management, breeding, and feeding. A show does not in itself 
 represent the endpoint of lamb production but is merely a means to im- 
 prove the efficiency of production in terms of lean, high-quality meat. 
 
 Continued efforts must be made toward carcass improvement in 
 order to make progress. Consider the following summation of the results 
 of the Illinois Spring Lamb Carcass Show for 1972 through 1976: 
 
 1976 1975 1974 1973 1972 
 
 Number of total entries 
 Number failing to grade Ave. Choice 
 Number failing to have 0.1 " loin fat 
 Number failing to have 40 lb. HCW 
 Number failing to meet LEA 
 
 requirements 1 
 Number of ram lambs 
 Number of ram lambs qualified 
 
 97 
 
 110 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 65 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 62 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 1 LEA requirements (based 
 
 Hot carcass 
 
 Minimum 
 
 weight (lb.) 
 
 LEA 
 
 40-45 
 
 2.2 
 
 46-50 
 
 2.3 
 
 51-55 
 
 2.4 
 
 56-60 
 
 2.5 
 
 61-65 
 
 2.6 
 
 66+ 
 
 2.7 
 
 It is evident that more work in testing and selection must be done for 
 lamb producers to move lamb into the competitive consumer market for 
 high-quality nutritious meat. 
 
 Special notice should be made by all in the sheep industry to the 
 carcass data from ram lambs. Certainly this is a progressive way to in- 
 crease efficiency of food production through animals as evidenced by their 
 rapid rates of gain and their lean, meaty, yet high-quality, carcasses. The 
 one disadvantage for ram lambs, according to well-known and docu- 
 mented experiences by lamb slaughterers is the difficulty with which their 
 pelts are removed. 
 
 Details concerning lamb carcass evaluation procedures are given in 
 mimeograph AS668, Lamb Carcass Information: Collection and Inter- 
 pretation. This is available from your local county adviser or directly from 
 the University of Illinois Animal Science Department. 
 
 61 
 
The production of fast-gaining lambs that 
 have trim, heavy-muscled carcasses should be 
 one of the goals of all sheep producers. The 
 carcass (left) and loin eyes (below) are from 
 such a lamb. Carcass data are given on the 
 facing page. 
 
 62 
 
The detailed carcass cut-out information that follows is from the 
 Champion Lamb On-Foot at the 1975 Illinois State Fair, pictured on page 
 62. This lamb had an excellent set of carcass data and would have pro- 
 vided strong competition in the carcass show. 
 
 Live weight at the fair (8/9/75) 91 pounds 
 
 Slaughter weight at U of I (8/1 9/75) 92 pounds 
 
 Hot carcass weight 53.5 pounds 
 
 Dressing percent 58.2 
 
 Conformation Average Prime 
 
 Maturity A 
 
 USDA quality grade High Choice 
 
 Fat thickness: 
 
 Top of loin 0.1 inches 
 
 Lower rib 0.3 inches 
 
 Loin eye area 2.69 square inches 
 
 Percent kidney fat 1.5 
 
 USDA yield grade 2.0 
 
 Carcass Cutout 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Percent 
 
 
 
 (pounds) 
 26.1 
 
 of carcass 
 
 Hindsaddle 
 
 50.2 
 
 Hindsaddle less kidney fat 
 
 
 25.3 
 
 48.7 
 
 Frenched legs 
 
 
 15.6 
 
 30.0 
 
 American legs 
 
 
 14.1 
 
 27.1 
 
 Boneless legs 
 
 
 11.75 
 
 22.6 
 
 Loins, bone-in 
 
 
 4.75 
 
 9.1 
 
 Loins, boneless 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 Racks, bone-in 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 Racks, boneless 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.0 
 
 Shoulders, boneless 
 
 
 9.9 
 
 19.0 
 
 Roasts and chops (boneless 
 
 legs and shoulders, 
 
 
 
 bone-in loins and racks) 
 
 30.3 
 
 58.2 
 
 Lean trim 
 
 
 8.5 
 
 16.3 
 
 Total retail product 
 
 
 38.8 
 
 74.5 
 
 Boneless primals (leg, loin, 
 
 rack, shoulder) 
 
 28.3 
 
 54.3 
 
 Fat trim 
 
 
 3.4 
 
 6.5 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 10.2 
 
 19.6 
 
 All who enter carcass shows are most heartily congratulated. You are 
 setting the pace for industry improvement through your interest in carcass 
 evaluation. 
 
 63 
 
WOOL PRODUCTION AND MARKETING 
 
 Value of Wool 
 
 Harvest the wool crop carefully, for it is a valuable product. Wool is 
 one of the highest priced products sold from the farm, and in many cases 
 it is one of the most poorly managed. It accounts for 10 to 25 percent of 
 the gross returns from sheep. 
 
 Fleece weights of brood ewes and rams are important. For example, 
 take two extremes, one ewe shearing 7 pounds and another shearing 14 
 pounds. With wool, including incentive payment, at 72 cents a pound 
 and lamb at 42 cents a pound, the light-shearing ewe would have to raise 
 12 pounds more lamb than the heavy-shearing ewe in order to produce 
 the same gross income. It may be well worth your time to pay more atten- 
 tion to the fleece weights of your breeding stock. 
 
 Care and Marketing of Fleeces 
 
 Working at a wool pool and watching wool come in to be graded show 
 that wool is one of the most poorly handled farm products marketed. 
 Some sheepmen get only half of what their wool should have been worth, 
 because they have marketed fleeces that are full of hay, straw, burrs, 
 manure, mud, or other foreign material. Fleeces are often tied with every- 
 thing from baling wire to binder twine. Paper twine is the only acceptable 
 product for tying fleeces. 
 
 When you shear sheep and handle fleeces, there are certain important 
 procedures to follow: 
 
 1 . Shear only when the wool is dry. 
 
 2. Clean the straw off the belly and legs before starting to shear. 
 
 3. Shear on a clean, dry surface. 
 
 4. Avoid second cuts; remove the fleece in one piece. 
 
 5. Remove all tags, dung locks, and stained wool from the fleece, and 
 bag them separately. 
 
 6. If there is a lot of hay, chaff, or other material in the neck area, 
 remove this section of the fleece and bag it separately. 
 
 7. Bag separately black fleeces or fleeces with a large amount of black 
 in them. Remove black leg and face wool from the fleece and bag 
 with black fleece wool. 
 
 8. Roll fleece with the flesh side out and tie securely, but not too 
 tightly, into a neat package. 
 
 9. Tie fleeces with paper twine only. 
 
 64 
 
Here a properly tied 
 fleece is being inspected 
 for staple length and 
 grade. Note the wool 
 bag in the background 
 where the fleece will be 
 stored until sold. 
 
 10. Store the tied fleeces in a wool bag in a clean, dry area that is pro- 
 tected from dust, dirt, and rodents. Don't store in plastic bags (the 
 kind used for garbage or lawn clippings) or paper bags. 
 
 If you live in an area that holds a wool pool, it may be to your advan- 
 tage to market through the pool. At least check present wool prices before 
 you sell to local buyers so you will have an idea what your wool is worth. 
 
 Wool Grades 
 
 The current U.S. standards for grades of wool have been in effect 
 since January 1, 1966. These standards designate 16 numerical grades de- 
 signed to give the wool industry a more precise and objective means of 
 evaluating wool grades. The grades still retain their traditional numbers, 
 which originally reflected spinning count. Spinning count is based on the 
 number of hanks of yarn (each hank is 560 yards in length) that can be 
 spun from one pound of wool top. 
 
 Present standards specify average fiber diameter limits for each grade 
 in terms of microns (1/25,400 of an inch). Each grade also contains 
 limits on the variation in diameter allowed among the individual fibers in 
 the lot. If the variability of the individual fibers is greater than the limits 
 specified in the standards, the wool will be graded at the next lower grade. 
 
 65 
 
These standards also provide for the grading of wool by both visual 
 appraisal and actual measurement of fiber diameter. 
 
 Before January 1, 1966, the American or blood system and the numer- 
 ical system were both commonly used; however, producers generally refer 
 to the blood system when discussing wool grades. In the blood system, 
 wool is placed into one of seven major grades based on diameter of fiber. 
 A comparison of the official U.S. grades and the blood system follows. 
 
 American or 
 blood system 
 
 Fine 
 
 Official U.S. grades 
 
 Average fiber 
 diameter (microns) 
 
 Finer than 80's 
 80's 
 70's 
 64's 
 
 17.69 or less " 
 17.70-19.14 
 19.15-20.59 > 
 20.60-22.04 
 
 62's 
 60's 
 
 22.05-23.49 ] 
 23.50-24.94 j 
 
 58's 
 56's 
 
 24.95-26.39 | 
 26.40-27.84 J 
 
 54's 
 50's 
 
 27.85-29.29 | 
 29.30-30.99 j 
 
 48's 
 46's 
 
 31.00-32.69 1 
 32.70-34.39 j 
 
 44's 
 
 34.40-36.19 
 
 40's 
 36's 
 Coarser than 36's 
 
 36.20-38.09 
 38.10-40.20 • 
 40.21 or more 
 
 y 2 blood 
 
 % blood 
 
 % blood 
 
 w Va blood 
 
 Common 
 
 Braid 
 
 Marketing Wool 
 
 Selling your wool for the best possible price is important. A higher 
 price per pound means not only a larger check when sold but also a larger 
 wool incentive payment. Most Illinois wool clips are marketed through 
 area wool pools, consigned to wool marketing cooperatives in neighboring 
 states, or sold to wool buyers or their representatives. 
 
 When wool is delivered to area wool pools, each fleece is graded 
 according to fineness, length, color, and cleanness. Each producer's clip 
 is weighed by grade and stored with other fleeces of the same grade. At 
 the end of the pool, the wool is sold by grade on a sealed bid basis. Each 
 consignor is paid for his consignment on the basis of grade and sales price. 
 
 66 
 
Wool cooperatives from several neighboring states are accepting wool 
 on a consignment basis through Illinois points. Wool delivered to one of 
 these points is weighed and a cash advance or partial payment is made. 
 The wool is shipped to the cooperative's warehouse to be fleece-graded. 
 Each grade is weighed and stored or shipped with other wool of the same 
 grade. The consignor receives final settlement on the basis of grade and 
 price received for that grade, minus the amount of the cash advance. 
 
 Wool sold to local dealers is usually sold on a cash basis. Many 
 shearers also buy wool on this basis. These outlets may or may not pay a 
 price differential for various grades. 
 
 This circular was prepared by G. E. Ricketts, Extension Specialist in 
 Sheep and Beef Performance Testing, and F. C. Hinds, Professor, both of 
 the Department of Animal Science, University of Illinois at Urbana- 
 Champaign; and by J. M. Lewis, Associate Professor of Animal Science, 
 Dixon Springs Agricultural Center. The authors express their appreciation 
 to J. R. Romans, T. R. Carr, M. E. Mansfield, A. R. Cobb, and M. H. 
 Wallace for their contributions to this publication. Some parts of this 
 circular are based on material in The Sheepman's Production Handbook 
 (revised edition, 1975) and are used with permission of the Sheep In- 
 dustry Development Program, Incorporated, Denver, Colorado. 
 
 67