OAK ST. HDSF No. . ' Department of 650 5ha-9 YoL J. LIBRARY OF Illinois Industrial University, CHAMPAIGN, ILLINOIS. 4@=*Books are not to be Taken from the Library Soom.^li v Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/saxtonsruralhand01rich SAXTON’S rural hand books. RICHARDSON ON THE HORSE, RICHARDSON ON THE HOG, RICHARDSON ON THE HONEY BEE, RICHARDSON’S PESTS OF THE FARM, ^ RICHARDSON’S DOMESTIC FOWLS, MILBURN ON THE COW. NEW YORK : C. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER. 1852. FIRST SERIE o \ CONTAINING Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1852, by C. M. SAXTON, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. S. W. BENEDICT, Stereotypf.r and Printer 16 Spruce street, N. Y- o o HOUSES; THEIR VARIETIES, BREEDING, r 7 MANAGEMENT {N HEALTH AND DISEASE. ET H. D. RICHARDSON, Autkor of 'Domestic Fowl,” “The Pests of the Farm,” "The H-ag,” •‘The Hive and the Honey-Bee,” etc., etc. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS ON WOOD. NEW YORK: C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY, Agricultural Book ITbumisrs, 140 Fulton St. 18 5 0 . Entered according to act of Congress, in the rear la*'? U M. SAAT-JN, in the C srk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. PUBLISHER’S ADVERTISEMENT. The Publisher, haying found the want of small, cheap Books, of acknowledged merit, on the great topics of farming economy, and meeting for those of such a class a constant demand, offers, in this one, a work calculated to fill the void. The works of Richardson on the Hog, the Horse, the Bee, the Domestic Fowl, and the Pests of the Farm, are popular in England and in America, and, in evidence of their worth, meet with continued sale both there and here. Hitherto they have not been offered to the American public in an American dress ; and the Publisher presents n this Reprint, one of the series, adapted to American wants, and trusts that a discerning Public will both buy and read these little Treatises, so admirably adapted to all classes, and fitted by their size for the pocket, and thus readable at the fireside, on the road, and in short everywhere. 0. M. SAXTON, Agricultural Book Publisher . Z.Z.W CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Page I Page Introductory . 7 | Original Country 8 CHAPTER II. Asiatic Horses. The Arabian 9 The Tazee 13 The Persian The Takan 14 The Tartarian The T^olaree ib. The Turkoman The Cutch ib. The Turkish The Dattywarr ib Hindostanee ." 13 CHAPTER III. African Horses. The Barb 14 1 The Horses of Donkala The Nubian “ ib. The Horses of the “ Hegira ” . . CHAPTER IV. Horses of America. Wild Steed 16 I Horses of West Indian Islands 17 Horses of Canada ib. English Importations ib. Improvement in American breeds ib. | CHAPTER V. Horses of Europe. History of the Horse in England ... . .. 17 1 The Crusades 22 The Roman Conquest Richard Coeur de Leon Introduction of the Saddle ... 19 CHAPTER VI. Horses of Europe — Continued. Establishment of Post-Horses and Stages 26 | The Markharm Arabian 27 CHAPTER VII. Horses of Europe— Continued. The Darley Arabian 23 | The Present time 80 CHAPTER VIII. Indigenous Hop.ses of Scotland and Ireland. Highland Pony 3! I Hunter 32 Shcltie *. ib. Foigh-a-ballagh » 33 Irish Horses ib | Harkaway ib CONTENTS. 6 The Racer Flviug Chil.iers The Hackney The Carriage Horse CHAPTER IX. Hints as to Management. Page .. 34 . . 36 .. 39 .. 40 The Cleveland Bay The Clyderdale — The Flemish The Suffolk Punch, CHAPTER X. Notes on Stable Management — Water Grooming and Dias sing CHAPTER XI. A Few Words to Farmers CHAPTER XII. CHAPTER XIII. Hints about Breeding — Advice as to Foaling Time. CHAPTER XIV. Breaking or Training CHAPTER XV. Feeding and General Management CHAPTER XVI. Horse- Taming and its Secrets CHAPTER XVII. Vices a» j their Remedy Paoe .. 40 . . ib. .. 41 .. 42 43 44 47 48 63 66 69 69 CHAPTER XVIII. Diseases or the Hors* HORSES; THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT. ETC. ETC. CHAPTER I. INTRODU CTORY. Of all animals with which we are acquainted, the Horse is, perhaps., the most calculated to impress the beholder with admira- tion, and of all quadrupeds, probably presents, in his aspect, the most perfect symmetry of form, and adaptation of part to part; his arched neck, his Hashing eye, his expanded and almost trans- parent nostril, his flowing mane and his gallant crest, his wavy tail and his powerful quarters — -all so many points of grandeur and beauty, that cannot fal of arousing the admiration and sympathies of even the most insensible beholder. 8 HORSES. We even consider that the graces of his external conformation bear but a secondary proportion to those inner qualities of disposi- tion and sagacity, which it but requires a brief acquaintance with this truly splendid creature to appreciate. We are disposed to rank the horse next to the dog in the scale of intelligence, and would refer any exceptions that may occasionally present them- selves, to early bad management, or to hereditary vice. The experience of each and all of our readers will suggest to them an enumeration of this noble servant’s valuable qualities. On the utility of the horse to man it is unnecessary to dilate ; his services in war, in the chase, in travel, and last, but by no means least, in agriculture, are familiar to all, and have been experienced by man in every portion of the known world. The generic character of the horse is — twelve fore-teeth, the upper six erect and parallel, lower six more prominent ; tusks, soli- tary and remote ; teats inguinal, and two in number ; breathes solely through the nostrils, not through the mouth ; fights by biting and kicking. The horse belongs to the class mammalia, and genus (ninth of Cuvier’s sixth order) pachydermata. Cuvier’s characters of this order are as follow 1 — Skin very thick, whence the name of the order ; some of the genera partially without teeth, others with three sorts of teeth ; quadrupedal, usually with hoofs ; toes vary- ing in number ; stomach simple ; do not ruminate ; have no cla- vicles ; are inhabitants of the temperate or torrid zones. The genus equus contains six species, and is thus defined by Cuvier : — Six incisors in each jaw, two canines, and six molar or cheek teeth, furrowed on both sides, with flat crowns, and several ridges of enamel. Between the cheek and canines is a void space on each side, known to veterinarians as the “ Bars.” The upper lip is susceptible of considerable motion ; eyes large, pupil oblong, ovate, placed laterally ; sight extremely good ; ears small, pointed, and erect, possessing great mobility, which renders the hearing very acute ; feet, possessing but one apparent toe, covered with a thick hoof ; tail furnished with long hair, or with a tuft at its ex- tremity ; two teats, or mammae, inguinal ; stomach simple and membranaceous ; intestines and caecum very large. Much has been written as to the original habitat , or the first great breeding country of the horse. Arabia and Egypt are the rival claimants ; popular opinion has long been in favor of the former, but these pages not being suited to a lengthened discus- sion of the question, we may just state, that, beyond any doubt, THE HORSES OF ASIA. 9 the latter (Egypt) is entitled to the h jnor. One fact, out of many, may be adduced on either side. In the sacred writings, when de- scribing the very earliest stages of the world, we find the horse in extensive use in Egypt ; while, in comparatively modem times, when Mahomet attacked the Koreish, we find not a single horse in the entire camp — showing how scarce, even at so late a period, were horses in Arabia, and how plenty, at so early a one, they were in Egypt. There is, of course, no question but that Arabia subsequently became a great horse depot, and that in that country this animal attained to a very high degree of perfection ; for, in point of fact, it is to the introduction of Arabian blood that the blood-horses of the British Island^ owe their present eminent posi- tion, maintaining, as they do, an undisputed superiority over all others. It is proper that we furnish, in the first instance, a brief view of the principal breeds or stocks, as at present known, before entering upon either treatment or diseases, and this necessity will become the more obvious, when it will be recollected that, as a matter of course, different varieties present different modifications of form, of disposition, of constitution, and are also suitable, some to one pur- pose, and some to another. We shall commence with the exotic varieties, and shall dismiss them with as brief consideration as pos- sible, in order that we may have the more space for full details relative to our own. CHAPTER II. THE HORSES OF ASIA. The Arabian Horse. — In Arabia the horse runs wild, and is, even in that feral and uncultivated state, a creature of the most exquisite beauty of form, and endowed with the greatest mildness and generosity of disposition. In size these animals are small, usually averaging between thirteen and fourteen hands high. Their color is usually a dappled grey, but sometimes a dark brown, with short and black mane and tail. They are caught in snares carefully concealed in the sand, by which the feet are entangled, and the terrified horse, falling to the ground, is easily captured. This is the only mode by which thev can be taken, their amazing 1 * 10 HORSES. swiftness rendering all -idea of chasing them with dogs, or on horseback, utterly out of the question. The wild Arabs are now nearly extinct, the high price given for Arabian horses having in- duced the natives to draw largely and constantly upon the resources of the desert. To the wandering Arab the horse is of the greatest value. The poorest Bedouin has his steed, which shares with him and his wife and children the shelter of his humble tent, his caresses, and his scanty fare. Oft may the traveler in the desert, on entering within the folds of a tent, behold the interesting spec- tacle of a magnificent courser extended upon the ground, and some half dozen little dark-skinned, naked urchins, scrambling across her body, or reclining in sleep, some upon her neck, some on her carcass, and others pillowed upon her heels ; nor do the children ever experience injury from their gentle playmate ; she recognizes them as the family of her friend, her patron ; and to- wards them all the natural sweetness of her disposition leans, even to overflowing. The Arabs invariably keep mares in preference to horses ; they find them endure fatigue, and the privations necessa- rily consequent upon a journey over the desert, better ; a number of them can also be kept together without danger of their quar- reling or injuring each other : on this account it is very difficult, indeed, to induce an Arab to sell his mare. The Arab is particu- larly careful of his horse’s coat ; he washes the legs, tail, and nos- trils, regularly, morning and evening, or again after a long ride ; the mane and tail are left in their natural state, and very seldom even combed, lest they might be thinned. The animals are fed only during the night, and from morning to evening they get nothing but one or two drinks of water. From sunrise to sunset they are kept, ready saddled, standing at the door of the tent. The Arabs carefully preserve the pedigree of their horses, and divide them into classes, or castes. The most noble of these can, it is said, be traced back to the steeds on which Mahomet and his companions rode the night of the memorable. “ Hegira.” The mare is, as we have stated, almost unpurchasable, there being, in- deed, a law prohibiting her exportation ; and the horse is only to be obtained at the most enormous prices — one thousand pounds not being extraordinary, and instances being on record of mares having gone to double that money. We conclude with a brief description of the appearance of the pure Arabian, as found in a domesticated state, and we conceive this the more necessary, as so many spurious Arabs are frequently endeavored to be palmed upon THE HORSES OF ASIA. 11 the unwaiy or inexperienced. Below we give a portrait of the celebrated Wellesley Arabian. WELLESLEY ARABIAN. The thoroughbred Arab never exceeds fifteen hands, and rarely fourteen hands and a-half in height. The skin is pure black, or blue-black, a circumstance which gives to a white horse of this breed that beautiful silvery grey color, so indicative of the purest blood ; brown, bay, and chestnut, are good colors, but it has long been remarked in India, that no dark-grey ho?'se was ever a winner upon the turf. The head of the pure Arab is light, clean made, wide between the nostrils, broad in the forehead, short and fine in the muzzle, nostrils expanded and transparent, eyes prominent and sparkling, ears small and neatly set on, neck rather short, shoulder high and well thrown back, the shoulder-blade, indeed, inclining backwards nearly forty-five degrees ; withers high and arched ; legs fine, flat, and small-boned ; body somewhat light, but showing substance wherever it is really wanted ; the chest, for instance, has frequently been objected to as being too confined, but a less cursory examina- tion will discover, that although apparently narrow, at a front view, it swells out behind the arm, to a remarkable degree, thus affording ample room fd r the play of the lungs. The hind quarters are set 12 HORSES. on somewhat obliquely ; but from the extreme hardness of the bone, which enables it to endure the additional strain thus induced, this formation, far from detracting from the animal’s strength, rather has a contrary effect, and to this peculiarity of conforma- tion is the extraordinary speed possessed by the Arabian horse mainly attributable. As a racer, on a regular course, the Arab lias never, to my knowledge, been afforded a fair opportunity of competing with our own blood-horses ; such as have been thus tried having always been animals of an inferior stamp, and the natural consequence has been, their invariable defeat. Persian Horse. — In general appearance this horse resembles the Arab, and though, in most respects, less esteemed than that animal, he is in some points his superior. This horse stands somewhat taller than the Arab, is full of bone, and very fast ; that peculiarity, “ ewe-neck,” so indicative of very high breeding, is very common. Like the Arab, these horses are fed, cleaned, and watered, only at sunrise and sunset ; their food is coarse and scant. Hay is unknown as a horse-diet in Persia ; the usual diet is barley and chopped straw, which, when the horse is picquetted, is put into a nose-bag ; but, when fed in a stable, is put into a hole, left for that purpose in a mud-built wall, much higher up, however, than our mangers usually are. His sole bedding con- sists of his dung, which becomes pulverized by the day’s sun, and at night is spread out under him ; his body, however, being inva- riably covered with clothing, varied in quality according to the season, never touches this bedding, which therefore can benefit the horse only by its softness. The Tartarian Horse resembles the Persian in his swiftness ; but there the resemblance, to a considerable extent, ceases. These horses are heavy-headed, very low in the shoulder, awkwardly made, and, altogether, ill-looking brutes. In the wilds of Tar- tary, however, are still some coursers to be met with which are yet ignorant of the spur, and upon whose neck bridle has never yet hung, whose forms would almost give the lie to our descrip- tion ; and in Little Tartary, the natives possess a breed so highly esteemed, that they have entered into a compact not to sell any of them to strangers or foreigners. The Tartars eat the flesh of their horses, and use the milk of the mare, from which they also make excellent cheese. From mares’ milk the Bashkirs make a kind of wine, called “ Kumiss ,” the nutritious qualities of which are of a very high order. THE HORSES OF ASIA. 13 The Turkoman Horse is a variety of the Tartar, l ut superior. It is held in high estimation, and will, even in Persia, frequently fetch so high a price as from one to two hundred pounds. The average height of these horses is fifteen hands, and, in their gene- ral shape and appearance, they bear no distant resemblance to a well-bred English carriage horse. They are possessed of very considerable speed, but are not enduring, from being too small in the barrel , and too leggy. This breed is one of those occasionally used by crafty Asiatics to be palmed off" on English speculators as the Arabian. The Turkish Horse is of slender make, carries his head high, is full of life and fire, and possesses a most docile and affectionate disposition. In his form and character he demonstrates his de- scent, viz., a cross between Persian and Arabian, or perhaps Barb. The Turkish horses have long been celebrated for their docility and gentleness, and they are treated with the utmost kindness by their masters and grooms. The tail of the horse is, in Turkey, regarded as a mark of dig- nity, and is, both in that country and in Persia, employed as an emblem of station, and princes measure their rank by the number of tails they carry. The origin of this custom is as follows : — The Turkish army at one time lost its standard in a battle, and a gal- lant leader, in order to inspire the faltering spirits of his men, cut off the tail from a slain charger, and hoisting it aloft on the point of a javelin, rallied his soldiers, once again brought them to the charge, and gained a victory over the enemy. From this he re- ceived a corresponding military distinction, whence originated “ Pachas of Tails.” Those of the highest ranks are invested with three tails. The Horses of Hindostan. — The climate of India does not appear to be congenial to the constitution of the horse, and that animal is invariably found to degenerate, unless the breed be, from time to time, carefully regenerated and sustained by judicious crossing. The most genuine native breed, or, in other words, that which has been least affected by improvement , is called the “ Tazee.” The Tazee is, as ordinarily known, a small, ill-made, and ugly beast — equally deficient in spirit and in form. This is not, how- ever, the character of the original race, a bold, spirited, and hand- some animal, and so fiery as to require a bold rider. Of this race are the “ Serissahs,” of the North * Bahar, of which upwards of twenty thousand are sold at the annual fairs. Between the Tazee 14 HORSES. and the Persian a mixed race is bred, called in India the Magin- nie. There are several other Hindoo breeds ; but as it is a matter of notoriety that not one remains the same for three generations — being constantly crossed and re-crossed — it appears to me un- necessary to enumerate them. We may, however, just name a few of the best known : — Such are the Takan — strong, powerful animals ; natural am- blers, and hence in much esteem for the use of ladies. Folarce breed. — A variety of Takan ; tall, but spiritless. Catch . — Remarkable for the suddenness with which the withers drop, as if a portion of the vertical ridge of the spine had been cut away ; hence difficult to fit with a saddle. Dattywarr . — Superior in blood to any of the preceding ; usually dun-colored, striped like a zebra. When thus marked it compete* v a value with the Arabian. CHAPTER IH. THE AFRICAN RACES. The principal African race is that known under the name of Barb. This horse exceeds the Arabian in stature, and is remark- able for the height and fulness of his shoulders, drooping of the haunches, and roundness of the barrel. The Barb does not fetch so high a price in his own country as the Arab, and he is hence frequently imported, and fraudulently passed off on purchasers as that animal. On the opposite page we give a portrait of that remarkable horse, the G-odolphin Barb ; sometimes erroneously called the Go- dolphin Arabian. Amongst the most excellent of the African varieties of horse, we may name the celebrated “ Shrubat-ul-reech,” or “ Drinkers of the wind,” in possession of the Maugrabin tribes, shaped like grey- hounds, wiry and flesliless. Mr. Davidson relates of one of these, having performed a journey of sixty miles, under a burning sun, at the hottest period of an African day, without the rider once drawing bridle. The Arabs ride mares only, for they chiefly rely on stealing unawares upon their foes ; the Africans rely on force alone, and consequently ride- the horse , on account of his superior THE AFRICAN RACES. 15 power. Were the Arabs to ride horses, the moment they came within scent of the hostile camp, their steeds would betray every- thing by neighing. Towards the central parts of Africa we find the Bornou race, extolled by Mr. Sully as “ possessed of the qualities of the Arab- GODOLPHIN ARABIAN. ian, with the beauty of the Barb ; they are fine in shoulder, and of general elegance of form.” The horses of Nubia are stated by the celebrated traveler, Bruce, to be far superior to the Arabian, and trace their pedigrees from five stocks ; all the horses ridden by Mahomet and his four companions — Abubeker, Omar, Osman, and Ali — in their flight on the night since designated as “ A1 Hegira.” The little kingdom of Dongola, or Donkala, possesses a remark- able breed of horses of a large size, their chief characteristics being- great shortness of body, length of neck, height of crest, and a beautiful forehand. Bosman pronounces them to be “ the most beautiful in the World.” These horses have been imported into England, but their progeny have never in any instance turned out well. Egypt has long lost its character as a breeding country, and its horses are deservedly held much inferior to those of either Persia, Barbary, or Arabia. 10 HORSES. CHAPTER IV. THE HORSES OF AMERICA. In many parts of the southern portion of this vast continent, are still to be met with innumerable herds of wild horses, and many such are also to be found about the back settlements of its northern, portion ; both, however, evidently the descendants of do- mestic horses, that accidental causes have driven to a feral condi- tion. These herds appear to act in admirable concert, and by their united force defy the attacks of the various ferocious animals who share with them the possession of the wilderness. Nor are they formidable only to these equally savage denizens of the prai- rie : the traveller, if incautious in approaching them, will too dearly rue his temerity or ignorance, and a meeting with such a herd of untamed coursers has often proved to be anything but desirable. When a traveller with laden horses encounters one of these wild herds, even should he personally escape attack, his horses, if they can by any means shake off their burdens, will break away and join their fortunes with those of their emancipated brethren. When it is deemed desirable to capture these horses, the natives employ a long leathern noose called the lasso. They never take the mares , nor even ride them ; and it is related of an Englishman, attempt- ing once to do so in that country, being hooted and pelted by the natives to such an extent as narrowly to escape with life. The horses of North America are somewhat more hardy, more inured to slavery, and are much valued by the Indian natives, who use them in hunting, in war, and in travel. The acquisition of the horse must have proved a great boon to the wandering savage, and he is recognized as such, to so great an extent, indeed, that the felony of the horses of a hostile tribe is conceived to be as heroic an action as the taking of their masters’ scalps. The horses of the Canadas are, as might be expected, principally of French descent, and from this stock have sprung many of the celebrated American “ trotting phenomena.” The horses of the United States are crossed with a great variety of breeds, amongst which the English is predominant. The Americans are now ex- erting themselves strenuously for the improvement of their horses ; and, amongst other efforts, we are not to overlook the establish- ment of horse-races in various states, particularly in the southern EUROPEAN HORSES. 17 ones ; and in these have been, as a matter of course, adopted tho customs common to the turf of Britain. The horses of the West Indian Islands not unnaturally present themselves to our notice in connection with those of America. They are chiefly the breeds of the states to which each island more narticularly belongs. The horses of Cuba especially betray, in a manner too apparent for any mistake, their Spanish origin ; and .hose of the British colonies, on the other hand, present marked evidence of owing much of their blood to the mother-country. The Americans have, from time to time, imported first-rate English blood for the improvement of their stock, and the proge- ny of many homes of celebrity is yet to be met with in many por- tions of “ the States,” especially Virginia, Kentucky, and the Jerseys. Amongst these were, “Shark,” a horse seldom equalled, and decidedly the star of his day. CHAPTER V. EUROPEAN HORSES AS PARTICULARLY REPRESENTED BY THOSE OP THE BRITISH ISLANDS. We now arrive at the history of the horse in the British islands, and his progression, alteration, and improvement, from the earliest periods of which any authentic records remain, up to the present time. The first mention that we meet with of the history of the horses of England, is the era of the invasion of England by the Romans, under the command of Julius Caesar ; and they are mentioned by him in his “ Commentaries” in laudatory terms, speaking highly at the same time, of the skill displayed by those who managed them. These observations prove that the horse must have been long familiar to the natives of Great Britain, as when in a state of barbarism, almost amounting to savageness, they had acquired so perfect a mastery over it. Even at this time, too, it would appear that the Britons had commenced the use of gorgeous and orna- mental housings, and military trappings. We are unable to form even a remote guess at the source whence our ancestors derived this valuable animal, or point out any modern variety of horse as having sprung from, or as retaining any resemblance to the pri- 18 HORSES. mitive stock. §>ome have referred to the rough ai.d diminutive shelties of Scotland, to the hobbies of Ireland, or the mountain- ponies of Wales and Cornwall ; but if so, these animals must have greatly altered in form and stature, for, however well, as Pennanc so justly observes, “ they may answer the purposes of these countries — they could never have been equal to the work of war. 1 We conceive the opinion of the late Mr. Youatt to approach th« truth more nearly than any with which we have met ; he con- ceives the horse to be “ then as ever, the creature of the country in which he lives. With short fare, and exposed to the rigor ot the seasons, he was probably the little hardy thing which we yet see him ; but in the marshes of the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tee and the Clyde, there would be as much proportionate development of frame and strength as we find at the present day.” It is certain that the horses of Britain, in the time of Caesar, were powerful and active, for the war-chariots were of a heavy and clumsy description ; and the roads, if roads they could be called, unformed, and only passable by the exercise of no ordinary power ; that these animals were valuable we learn from the fact, that Caesar carried back several to Rome ; and from the circumstance that they were for a considerable time afterwards in much esteem throughout various parts of the Roman empire. Of the numbers of this animal then kept in Britain, we may form some idea, from the circumstance that the British king Cassibellan, in disbanding the main portion of his army, retained four thousand horse, for the purposes of forage and harassing the Romans. About this period the Romans, finding it necessary to employ ac- tive measures in order to maintain a secure position in the country they had just conquered, deemed it advisable to garrison it strongly, and consequently, acting on this resolution, they sent into Britain a considerable force, amongst which was a powerful body of ca- valry : this, of course, gave rise to a union of the foreign breeds with those of the country into which they were introduced, and this was, in all probability, the first cross to which our British horses had been subjected ; nor was this cross to be regarded merely as one with the Roman horse. That powerful nation had already established intimate relations with their various neighbors, and horses from many different parts of the then known world, must have formed the component parts of the Roman cavalry. Whether any improvement in our British horses is to be attributed to the Roman conquest is, however, at best questionable. EUROPEAN HORSES. 19 The Anglo-Saxon conquest, doubtless, introduced a variety of .other breeds of horses into England, some of which, especially the Frisonic and Danish, were animals of no inconsiderable beauty and stature, and consequently, well calculated to improve our own. From the Roman invasion until several centuries afterwards, we do not find any record, or any mention of the horse in Britain, until the year 631, when we find the commencement of the use of the saddle mentioned by the Venerable Bede, who states that pre- lates and other dignified persons, who had, until then, been obliged to go on foot, now rode on horseback. It is further stated, that the dignitaries of the church always used the mare, and not the horse, as a mark of their humility. King Alfred, of learned and pious memory, the hero of many a tale of valor and romance, exerted himself in the laudable work of improving the indigenous breeds of horses, and that these inten- tions should be the better carried out, an office was created for the occasion, this officer was called Horsethane. Athelstane, son of Alfred, who reigned at 950 years after the landing of the Romans, devoted much attention to the subject of improvement ; and so jealous was he of neighboring nations profiting by his exertions, that he prohibited strictly the exportation of horses, unless design- ed as presents. These enactments furnish the inference, that our horses were then valuable, and that their value was duly appreci- ated by foreigners. Although Athelstane did not choose that foreigners should im- prove their horses by his means, he appeal's to have had no objec- tion to avail himself of whatever advantages they possessed in this respect, for we hear of him accepting a present from Hugh Le Grand, King of France, father of the celebrated Hugh Capet, and the then suitor of his sister, Ethilda, daughter of Edward, subse- quently Athelstane’s brother-in-law. Mr. Youatt has stated this present to have come from Hugh Capet himself ; and, from the reading of the paragraph, we suspect that he derived his informa- tion from the much prior work of our own personal and respected friend, Captain Thomas Brown. Both gentlemen, however, were in this instance, incorrect. Athelstane valued these and other presents of foreign horses highly ; and in his will he made a caxe- ml testamentary disposition of them, particularizing the several presents, “Those given him by Thurbrand, together with the horses given him by Lief brand.” These persons were Saxons , so it is probable that these were Saxon horses ; but besides these, 20 HORSES. we find it related that “ sundry princes sought his alliance and friendship, and sent him rich presents, precious stones, perfumes, and the finest horses , with golden furniture? The horses sent this monarch by the French long are stated to have been “ German running horses” In a document bearing date a.d. 1000 there is a curious account of the value of horses in those days. If a horse were destroyed, or lost through negligence, the compensation to which the owner was declared to be legally entitled, was thirty shillings ; a mare or colt, twenty shillings ; a wild, or untrained mare, sixty pence ; a mule or ass, twelve shillings ; an ox, thirty pence ; a cow, twenty- four pence ; a pig, eight pence ; and a man, one pound ! — a strange valuation, truly, as placing the value of human life one-third infe- rior to that of a horse. The Anglo-Saxons calculated at forty- eight shillings to the pound — equal in silver to about three pounds of our own money ; and five pence were equivalent to a shilling. Howell dha , who lived a short time previous, had enacted laws restricting the price of horses, as well as establishing certain regu- lations relative to this description of traffic, designed to prevent fraud : so early had jockeying not only commenced, but become no- torious in horse-dealing. William The Conqueror , brought many horses with him from Normandy , and thus contributed, in no small degree, not only to the number of varieties known amongst us, but to the positive im- provement of those which we already possessed. It is probable, also, that the horses imported by William were not confined to the French varieties alone, but were brought from other countries also ; for his own favorite charger, ridden by him at the celebrated and eventful battle of Hastings, was a Spanish horse ; and it is the general impression of historians, that to his cavalry William was mainly indebted for his success on that memorable occasion. Roger de Belesme, also, afterwards created Earl of Shrewsbury by the victorious monarch, introduced several Spanish horses into the kingdom, especially into his own estate of Powisland. Beranger, on what authority I know not, describes these horses as having been of a class peculiarly adapted to the “ purposes of war, and the exhibitions of public assemblies, of which horses are always a very essential and ornamental part ; for it is not known that at this time, nor till a much later period, that horse-races were introduced into England, although this agreeable and useful diversion, if con- fined within certain regulations, might have been cultivated with EUROPEAN HORSES. 21 great propriety among a people fond and proud of their horses, and that at a time when bodily exercises alone were the amuse- ments of all sorts of men ; and especially as the English had oppor- tunities of being instructed in them by the Romans, who generally brought their own customs with them wherever they came, and left their impression behind them when they departed. We may, therefore, reasonably conclude, that they were either ignorant of these sports, or, what is more likely, preferred the parade and magnificence of tilts and tournaments, in which the strength, ac- tivity, spirit, -and beauty of the horse, as well as the skill and cour- age of the rider, could be more usefully employed, and more grace- fully displayed.” It may be interesting to our agricultural readers to learn that, until a comparatively recent period, we find no record of the horse having been employed to draw the plow, oxen alone being used for that purpose ; and we find a law enacted in or about the latter end of the twelfth century, prohibiting the me of horses in the plow. This, we think, proves that some change in agricultural matters was even then commencing ; and we have likewise, a piece of tapestry, woven at this period, of that description known as “Bayeux tapestry,” a representation of a man driving a horse in a harrow. This is, I think, the earliest notice which we have of horses having been em- ployed in field labor. In the reign of Henry I., in the year 1121, two fine horses ol Arabian or Barbary blood were imported into Britain ; one was in- troduced to the court of Henry of England ; the other was pre- sented to the Church of St. Andrews, in Scotland, by King Alex- ander I. Col. Smith (Nat. Lib.) expresses it as his opinion, that both these horses were Barbs , and procured from Morocco, through the medium of the Jewish dealers. Mr. Youatt says, that some pretensions to the derivation of a breed of modern racing-horses from this stock have been put forward, but that they are devoid of foundation. In the reign of Henry H., as appears from a curious and scarce Latin tract, such public exhibitions as tournaments and horse-races became comparatively common. They are spoken of by Fitzstephen, the monk, in his description of London. These ex- hibitions were then held in Smithfeld , which appears to have been a resort of merchants and others, and an extensive horse-mart. Fitzstephen says — “ Without one of the gates of the city is a cer- tain plane, or smooth , both in name and situation. Every Friday, except some festival intervene, there is a fine sight of horses brought 22 HOUSES. to be sold. Many come of the city to buy or look on — to wit, «arls, barons, knights, and citizens. It is a pleasant thing to behold the homes there, all gay and sleek, moving up and down ; some on the amble and some on the trot — which latter pace, although rougher to the rider, is better suited to men who bear arms. There, also, are colts, yet ignorant of the bridle, which prance and bound, and give early signs of spirit and courage ; there, also, are managed war-horses, of elegant shape, full of fire, and giving every proof of a generous and noble temper ; horses, also, for the cart, dray , and plow , are to be found here.” The period of the crusades now followed, and these mad enter- prises were the cause of much diminution in the number of our horses, though, I think, of some improvement also. That some valuable horses were at this time brought to England from the East there can, however, be little doubt, and many legendary tales of the Arabian steeds of Richard the Lion-hearted, still exist. This king also purchased (1185) fifteen brood-mares, for which he paid the sum of two pounds twelve and sixpence, and subse- quently distributed to his tenants at four shillings each — a circum- stance indicative, at once, of the king’s desire of improvement, and of his subjects’ welfare, as also of, even taking into consideration the difference of currency, the cheapness of the article. CHAPTER VI. EUROPEAN HORSES CONTINUED. King John paid attention to the improvement of our native breeds of horses. He imported one hundred choice stallions from Flanders — a most important improvement, as being eminently cal- culated to raise our agricultural horses to such a standard of power and vigor as was requisite for field labor and for draught ; and, in the same reign — of course in consequence of the encouragement given, and the example set by the monarch — a private gentleman, named Amphitil Till, possessed a noble breed of horses, but falling under the displeasure of his capricious prince, was imprisoned , and condemned to pay a fine for his ransom — a fine, also, characteristic of the royal passion, viz., ten horses , each worth thirty marks, which is equal to about £300 of our present currency. EUROPEAN HORSES. 23 The next period in which we find any particular mention of horses, is about a century afterwards, when Edward II., in the second year of his reign, gave a commission to one Bynde Bona- venture and his brother, for twenty war-horses and twelve draught- horses, to be purchased in Lombardy, requiring all his friends and loving subjects to assist in carrying Ihe commission into effect. John do Trokelow, who wrote the annals of this prince in 130V, bears strong testimony to his love of horses, and zeal for their im- provement. Edward III., whose genius appears naturally to have been of a warlike character, was devotedly attached to tournaments, and other similar shows of a military description ; hence his warm en- couragement of horse-breeding. Among other instances of his zeal in this respect, he bought fifty Spanish chargers, at a price of one thousand marks. We also find him indebted to Count Hainault in the sum of twenty-five thousand florins, for horses which he had purchased ; also, sending to France for four chargers or great horses. Our modern readers will, perhaps, learn with some surprise that all these war-horses were taught to amble ; and in the account of Edward’s disbursements, for the horses he obtained from France, we find one item of trammels , for the purpose of teaching horses to amble . This prince had also many running horses , which were probably used for hunting and racing, being of a lighter and more active form than the war-horses. The price of a running horse was, at that time, £3 6s. 8d. This prince also crossed the heavier with the lighter breeds, and thus produced a noble race of horses for the chase — a pursuit to which he was devotedly attached. It was during this reign that horses were first classified according to their different qualifications and uses. There was, in these early times, one circumstance which greatly tended to keep up too great a degree of bulk in the horse, and, consequently, to retard his improvement, viz., the mode in which contests were usually decided, the old system of hand-to-hand combat requiring the use of ponderous armor — an objection not removed until the introduction of the use of gunpowder. From this period, the British breed of horses steadily improved, and became known and valued everywhere. As a matter of course, they speedily became a subject of considerable traffic, and this traffic soon led to frauds on the parts of dealers ; hence we find Richard II. enacting certain laws, with a view to the prevention ol dishonest speculation ; and, accordingly, that prince, in 1386, issued 24 ilOKSES. an edict to regulate the prices of the different descriptions of horses then in use. From this as being principally directed to the coun- ties of Lincoln, Cambridge, and York, we can perceive that they were then the principal breeding districts of England ; and it is scarcely necessary to remind our readers that the last-named county continues to the present day so famed for its commerce in this description of article, and for the cunning of its dealers, as to have passed into a proverb — few but are familiar with the expres- sion, “ To come Yorkshire over me.” The civil wars which arose at or about this time, by throwing the kingdom into confusion, and setting one portion of the inhabitants against the other, as a matter of course not only checked the improvement of the horse, but caused our breeds to retrograde ; and, accordingly, Philip de Comyn or Comines, speaks in very disparaging terms of the English army with which Edward IY. disembarked in France. The only notice of the horse, during the reign of Richard III., that we have been able to obtain is, that in it post-horses and stages were first established (a.d. 1483). Henry VII. encouraged the breeding of valuable horses ; the English used to keep large herds of them in their pastures and common fields, and when the harvests were gathered in, those of different owners fed promiscuously together ; hence the horses had to be emasculated, in order to avoid disorder — a practice further rendered necessary, in consequence of an act passed in this reign, that no entire horse should be let out into any pasture. This seems to have given rise to our modern appellation of stallion , or stalled one by contraction, stallum , then stallion. This king also prohibited the exportation of stallions, and even of such mares as were under two years old, and over the value of 6s. 8d. By means of this arbitrary edict, the best animals were kept in the kingdom, - and only the comparatively worthless permitted to leave it; these enactments were only aimed at dealers. Any person might take out of the country horses of what quality he pleased, provided that he made oath they were, bona fide , for his own use, and not for sale. Henry VIII. paid particular regard to the raising of a good breed of horses, and did not hesitate about forming stringent laws in order to carry his intentions into effect. The enactments which he promulgated, with a view to the improvement of horses in these islands were very politic. It is well known to all breeders, that in order to produce a large and vigorous progeny, it is essential to select parents, on both sides, of the most desirable form ; and when EUROPEAN HORSES. 25 it is wished to raise the general character of the horses of any dis- trict or country, there could be no better or more certain plan adopted, with such a view, than the prohibiting of all inferior de- scriptions for breeding. Such was the course adopted by this king, and a law was accordingly passed, directing that every brood-mare should be, at least, fourteen hands high ; and so marked was the effect produced by this statute, that Carew, in his “ History of Cornwall,” suggests that to this was attributable the almost total loss of the small horses, formerly so common in that part of En- gland and in Wales — a loss which Carew regrets, but which has been amply replaced by a race of large and serviceable animals. There were further enactments passed in this reign, all with an evident view to the attainment of a large and powerful breed, but some very singular in their character. For example : every arch- bishop and duke was obliged, under heavy penalties, to keep seven entire horses, each above three years old, and not less than fourteen hands high ; each parson holding a benefice to the value of £100 yearly, or a layman, whose wife should wear any French hood err bonnet , was obliged, under the penalty of £20, to keep one such horse. The obvious reason of enjoining entire horses to be kept, was for the promotion of breeding ; and with a consideration that was hardly to be expected from so peremptory a king, the rich and noble were alone compelled to keep stallions , their keep being so much more expensive, while the humbler classes might keep such mares and geldings as they thought proper — the latter possessing the advantage of being able to be freely turned out to grass. It being found that the nature of the pasture in some counties, as Cambridge, Huntingdon, Suffolk, Northampton, Lincoln, and Norfolk, was unsuited to the raising of horses of the required bulk, a statute was passed, excepting these counties from the opera- tion of the preceding law, and reducing the required standard to thirteen hands. Infected horses were also prohibited from being turned into public pastures. It is a fact, and one much to be regretted, that all King Henry’s enactments appear to have fallen short of the mark, and to have produced only temporary, and not permanent improvement ; for when Queen Elizabeth called out the entire strength of her cavalry to oppose the Spaniards, she could only muster a force of three thousand mounted men-at-arms. There were still fine horses in the kingdom, for Aldrovand says that there were, but principally in possession of the nobles. Some have referred this failure tc the 2 26 HORSES. tyrannical character of Henry’s enactments ; but I think that it is far more likely to have been owing to the superiority the British houses rapidly attained during the middle portion of his reign, which caused them to be eagerly purchased up, and taken out oi the kingdom by foreign grandees for purposes of state — a circum- stance much promoted by the introduction into the kingdom, at the time, of Italian farriers and foreign grooms , who, of course, had the welfare of their native country far more at heart than they could have had that of a foreign one. Queen Elizabeth was fond of horses, and she was herself a bold and spirited horsewoman, riding to the hounds even at the ad- vanced age of seventy. In the commencement of her reign she repealed the statutes enacted by her father, as to the standard size of horses to be kept in certain English counties. In the twenty- second year of this reign, coaches were first introduced, a. d. 1580, by Fitz Allen, Earl of Arundel. Up to that period, the first ladies of the land had no other mode of conveyance than to ride behind a gentleman on the pillion, and even the Queen rode thus behind her Master-of-Horse when she went in state to St. Paul’s. The introduction of. coaches tended much to improve the breed of horses, as, up to that period, slow, heavy brutes were preferred ; and this may therefore be regarded as one of the most important epochs in the history of the horse in Britain. The use of coaches also gave rise to an increased demand, and at length, so great was the number of horses thus employed, that a bill was actually in- troduced into the House of Lords “ to restrain the excessive aud superfluous use of coaches.” The Lords, fortunately for the im- provement of horses, did not entertain the bill. Still some of the old school persisted in keeping up antiquated usages, for we find that in the reign of James I. the judges rode on horseback to the courts in Westminster Hall. Gunpowder having now taken place of the heavy armor and the lance, a lighter and more active breed of horse began to be cultivated, and when armor continued at all to be used, it was of a light and partial description. Such was the origin of our light and fleet breeds of horses, which became as necessary as the weight of the rider decreased, as were the more heavy and powerful, so long as the ancient ponderous armor continued to be worn. In Elizabeth’s reign, tournaments continued in high repute ; and in that of James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, every de- scription of liorsen r -nship received, if possible, still greater encour- EUROPEAN' HORSES. 27 agement. Hoise-racing now became extensively cultivated and promoted. This prince had formerly established this sport in Scotland, but unfortunately his system was urrong , consisting almost wholly of matches against time, or trots of long-continued en- durance. He set about introducing Arab blood into the kingdom ; and his first essay was the celebrated Markham Arabian, for which he gave to a merchant of that name the very sporting price of Jive hundred pounds — no ordinary figure in those days, but equal to at least two thousand pounds of present currency. This is the first tndy authentic Arabian that ever reached England. What the exact characters of this horse were, we possess no means of ascertaining ; but the Duke of Newcastle, considered the greatest judge of horse-flesh of his day, conceived such a dislike to him, that, in his “ Treatise on Horsemanship” — a book, by the way, displaying much judgment — he describes him as a little, bony, bay horse, of ordinary shape, and almost worthless ; and it is certain that it was found that, after training, he was unable to run. The failure of this first attempt to introduce foreign stock did not discourage James : he had conceived an idea which was not to be lightly removed, and he accordingly purchased, from a Mr. Place, a horse which had been brought from the northern coast of Africa. This horse was the celebrated “ White Turk Mr. Place was afterwards stud-master to Oliver Cromwell. This im- portation was speedily followed by the introduction of “ the Helmsley Turk,” by Villiers, the first Duke of Buckingham, to which that fine horse, called the Morocco Barb, was added by Lord Fairfax. From this period, improvement rapidly advanced — indeed so rapidly, as to call forth the lamentations of Lord Harlegh, for the visible diminution of the old stock, known as “ the Great Horse.” Charles I. followed up the advantages which James had already secured, and warmly encouraged both racing and hunting ; indeed, to such an extent was the breeding of light and rapid horses brought by this prince, that it became the subject of a memorial, setting forth that the breed of stout and powerful horses, “ fit for the defence of the country,” was likely altogether to disappear, un- less measures were taken to prevent their doing so. This prince first substituted the use of the bit for the old snaffle. Cromwell had his stud of race-horses, and proved that he felt mere bone and bulk to be no match for speed and endurance ; he therefore recognized horse-racing, as a means of promoting the 28 HOUSES. breed of active coursers, to be connected with his country’s wel- fare. Cromwell had himself trained, probably, the best regiment of cavalry at the time in existence. CHAPTER VH. HORSES OF EUROPE, CONTINUED. The Restoration seems to have given a fresh impulse to racing, tnd, consequently, to horse-breeding ; and not only were the courses already established by Charles I. at Hyde Park and New- market, still encouraged and patronized by royalty, but others were added to the number, and the monarch himself became a competitor for the prizes. These prizes had, up to this period, consisted of a bell, a simple trophy ; and hence the common pmase, intended to imply success, “he bore away the bell.” Behs were now abolished, and a cup, or piece of plate, to the value of one hundred guineas, substituted for them. Newmarket now assumed the lead, and that position it has ever . since occupied. We may add that, in more recent times, the cup or plate is not always to be taken in the literal sense of the words, the actual value, viz., one hundred guineas, being, in nearly every case, given to the winner instead. Charles H. sent his master-of-horse to the Levant, in order to procure horses and mares. These were, of course, from the locality, frequently Turks or Barbs, but speedily every description of eastern horse became engrafted on British stock. William HI. established a riding-school, under the management of a French gentleman, named Major Foubert ; he also added several plates in different parts of the kingdom. Queen Anne encouraged racing, and not only c mtinued a bounty equal to that of her predecessors, but added several new plates. Towards the end of this reign, the prejudice against Arab blood, which originated in the failure of King James’s horse, was effectually removed by the introduction of the celebrated Barley Arabian. Mr. Darley procured this beautiful horse from his brother, a mer- chant settled in Aleppo. This was the horse truly calculated to perfect the British stock, and to render it what it has ever since continued — the first in the world ! Of the Darley Arabian, HORSES OF EUROPE. 29 little need be said beyond stating that he was the sire of “ Flying Childers,” the fastest horse that ever ran. Flying Childers ran over the course at Newmarket, a distance of three miles, six fui- longs, and ninety-three yards, in six minutes and forty seconds ; the Beacon course (four miles, one furlong, and one hundred and thirty-eight yards), in seven minutes and thirty seconds ; and also accomplished very nearly one mile in a minute. Such was the progeny of the Darley Arabian with the old English racer. The British horse is now the fastest in the world, and far superior to the Arab, even, in swiftness. It is not many years since Py ramus, the best Arab in Bengal, was beaten with ease by Recruit, an En- glish racer of scarcely fourth-rate merit. DARLEY ARABIAN. George I. continued the royal patronage of the turf, and was the first to discontinue the practice of giving cups or plates for prizes, giving specie to the value of one hundred guineas in their stead. George II. adopted a wise policy, and one calculated alike to retard the progress of an inferior race of horses, and to remove from the lower class of people much of the temptation to attend races. This was embodied in an Act of Parliament, passed in the thirteenth year of his reign. By this it was enacted, that for any and every horse a certain tax should be paid, besides other par- ticulars. In the reign of George III. special taxes were imposed upon 30 HORSES. race-horses, and in the twenty-fourth year of this reign, it was enacted — that every running-horse, entered to start for any plate or other prize, should, in addition to all former imposts, pay the sum of £2 2s., “ and the owner thereof shall previously pay two guineas, as the duty for one year, to the clerk of the course, or other authorized person.” This king was strongly attached to racing, which, however, he endeavored to strip of its abuses, pro- bably conceiving that horse-racing, when properly conducted as a mere trial of speed, was perfectly legitimate, and calculated to pro- duce good effects, while it was its abuse alone that rendered this amusement incompatible with true religion. By the zeal of this monarch, public riding-schools were established, and this led to the establishment of many private menages by the princes of the blood and persons of fortune. He also instituted the first veterinary college, with a view to placing the treatment of horses and cattle under disease upon a proper footing ; a French gentleman, Monsieur Vial de St. Bel, of much skill, was appointed professor. George IV. was devoted to the horse, to horsemanship, and to the turf, from his earliest years ; and during his reign these amuse- ments attained a height hitherto unprecedented, and, we -may per- haps add, unsurpassed since. During this reign, the French be- came infected with enthusiasm relative to horse-racing ; and our system, regulations, and even the costume of our jockeys, were all eagerly adopted. The Duke of Orleans was the first who assumed the dress of an English jockey in France, and his example was speedily followed. We have now traced the history of the horse in England, from the earliest time of which we possess any record, to the present day. That, to many, such an account must have proved weari- some, is possible ; but we do trust that to the majority of our readers the contrary has been the case, and that the preceding de- tail will rather enhance than detract from the interest which will be experienced in the succeeding portion of a more practical cha- racter. Before, however, proceeding to those particulars, it is necessary to say a very few words of the horses indigenous to Scotland and Ireland. SCOTCH AND IRISH HORSES. 31 CHAPTER VIII. THE INDIGENOUS HORSES OF SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. In Scotland, a small race of horses has existed from time im- memorial, remarkable for their symmetry of form and docility of disposition, and known by the name of Galloways. So much esteemed were these little horses in former times, ’that it became necessary for the Scottish monarchs to restrict their exportation. Tradition says that these horses are of Spanish origin, and that they originally sprung from Spanish horses which swam ashore from some of the ships composing the redoubted Spanish armada, which were wrecked upon the western coast of Scotland. In the islands and northern counties of Scotland is also to be met with a small, rough, hardy race, scarcely exceeding a large dog in size, and called Shelties. With the exception of the head, which is generally somewhat too large, these little creatures are most symmetrically formed, being, indeed, almost miniatures oi the Arabian. THE SHETLAND PONY. Most Shelties present some objectionable points about the head — in some instances almost amounting to deformity. Ireland also possesses an indigenous breed of horses ; some say several, but we are disposed to imagine that but one breed is proper- ly entitled to be regarded as primitive, the others being merely 32 HORSES. variations resulting from crosses, and subsequent neglect. These horses are of small size, but of good form, very strong in proportion to their stature, active, and of excellent constitution. These were popularly called Hobbies; they were formerly in much esteem, both in their native country and in England, and so great was the mania for possessing them, which at one time existed almost uni- versally throughout the British Islands, that their name became afterwards proverbially applied to every object on which an indi- vidual placed inordinate affection. “ He is on his hobby,” is an expression too familiar to require the reader to be more than re- minded of it. Many of the old writers speak in complimentary terms of these little horses, and bear testimony to the high degree of estimation in which they were formerly held. Both Strutt and Campion have recorded their value in their works, as witness the following pas- sages : — “ Horses they have of pace easie, in running wonderful swift. Therefore they make of them great store, as wherein at times of need they repose a great piece of safetie.” “ I heard it verified by honorable to honorable, that a nobleman offered, and was refused, for one such horse, an hundred kyne, five townlands, and an eery of hawks yearly, during seven years.” It has been asserted that the climate of Ireland is too moist to be favorable to the breed of horses. The only reply that we can give to this as- sertion is a practical one — look to these “ hobbies,” the indigenous breed of the country, ere we possessed the advantage of crossing from English or foreign stocks, so highly valued everywhere ; look at the performances of more modern Irish racers and hunters. In the month of October, a.d. 1*741, a Mr. Wilde undertook to ride 127 miles in nine hours ; he performed it in six hours and twenty- one minutes, riding ten horses, making due all wance for mounting, dismounting and refreshment. This took place at the Curragh meeting (Kildare) of that year. The following redounds more to the credit of the horse than to that of the inhuman rider : Two Irish grooms were drinking at the door of a public-house, one having with him for exercise a favorite hunter of his master’s ; the trifling bet of a glass of whiskey was made that the horse would not clear a neigh boring wall. The drunken brute at once accepted the wager, and turning the horse, put him standing at the wall, the height considerably exceeding seven feet. The poor horse, not having* imbibed the same maddening: stimulant as his master, re- fused the leap. The groom immediately wheeled him round, can- SCOTCH AND IRISH HORSES. 83 tered him a short distance, so as to obtain a run, ard then putting the poor animal at speed, once more faced him at the wall. The noble creature, too full of spirit to refuse a second time, rose his best — alas ! the height of the wall far exceeded the powers of any horse unfurnished with w ; ngs, and the generous animal forfeited his life to his courage. His forefeet striking the summit, he grounded on the other side, both forelegs were broken in the fall, and he was shot. It is principally as high leapers that the Irish horses are renown- ed, and in this class of performance we believe they are unrivalled, nor is their style of leaping that of an ordinary horse, taking a moderate elevation in “ a fly ” as a horse in training will take the bar in a riding-school. The Irish horse leaps with a single bound, all his form collected together, rests lightly for half a second upon the summit of the obstacle, and springs as lightly down. The leap of the Irish horse resembles as closely as possible that of the deer, and the elevation they will clear in this manner frequently equals the height of their heads. Until a recent date, the Irish horse was valued almost exclusively as a hunter, and for steeple- chases ; but events in the racing world have since shown that on the turf he is as little to be despised as after hounds. The per- formances of Harkaway, The Baron, Foigh-a-ballagh, and a host of others, evincing first-rate speed, are sufficient to remove any slur that might ever have been attempted to be cast upon the racing qualities of the Irish horse. It is not, however, to be denied, that the Irish horse occasionally possesses some peculiarities of shape which might displease an English eye ; amongst others may be enumerated a certain degree of angularity or raggedness of form, and in many a tendency to too great thickness and shortness in the forehand. No writer, however opposed to the admission of anything perfect coming out of Ireland, has attempted to refuse to the Irish blood-horse the attributes of immense power, proportioned to his bulk, of a happy combination of spirit and fire, with, for the most part, mildness and docility, courage and gentleness. The Irish bfood-horse may, indeed, fearlessly vie with those of any country in the world. 2 * 34 HORSES. CHAPTER IX. THE RACER. OUR PRESENT BREEDS, AND HINTS AS TO MANAGEMENT. It is now fit that we should glance, somewhat in detail, at the different breeds of horses at present in use throughout the United Kingdom. Probably the best subdivision of these breeds that we could adopt is one founded upon the several uses to which each breed is most properly allotted : — For racing, hunting, road-riding, draught, general agricultural purposes, &c. By following this method, we shall be enabled to enumerate and describe each im- portant breed seriatim . The Racer of these islands, from having been so frequently crossed with, nay, chiefly formed from, the Arab and Barb, bears a very considerable family-likeness to these animals ; but he is superior to them in stature, in stride, and in performance. The Racer should carry a high and lofty head, with bright and cour- ageous eye, small ear, expanded nostril, arched neck, convex on the upper surface, hut not presenting any curve underneath ; some- times the neck presents an appearance precisely the reverse of this, usually in mares • this is by many declared to he a sign of very high blood ; it is called “ ewe-necked.” In my opinion, hov, - ever, it is less a sign of blood than a proof of the animal’s progeni- tors having been related within too close degrees of affinity — a cir- cumstance that should, when possible, be avoided. A Racer must THE KACEli. 35 be a blood horse. The meaning of this term is as follows : — The Arab is supposed to be the purest and least adulterated of breeds, and to be the most faithful representative extant of the original horse ; the criterion of blood is, therefore, the being able to trace a horse’s pedigree to an Asiatic progenitor. Thorough-bred and blood are synonymous terms. It does occasionally, though rarely, happen that a horse is perfectly formed, although not thorough- bred ; when such is the case, the horse, notwithstanding his form, is usually deficient in speed, and, however excellent for other pur- poses, is useless as a Racer ; it also occasionally happens that a thorough-bred horse is defective in some of the running points of form. In order, therefore, to constitute a Racer, we must have a combination of blood and form — an ill-formed horse cannot run ; and none but a blood horse can race at speed to the end of a long course, and live. There has been much controversy on this sub- ject; but I think I have, in a few words, rendered the actual facte sufficiently clear and intelligible. ECLIPSE. It is not, perhaps, generally known, that the common expression applied by jockeys to a well-formed horse which cannot race, “ he wants heart,” is literally and anatomically true. The heart of a Racer must be large, and the cavity of the chest capacious. The lungs also must be large, and play freely. The heart of Eclipse, who, next to Flying Childers, was the fastest horse that ever ran, was of a singularly large size, weighing upwards of fourteen 86 HORSES. pounds. The expression, “broke his heart” is also, in many cases, literally correct, that viscus being not unfrequently burst or rup- tured when the poor animal is pushed to over and undue exertion. To return, however. The neck must be gracefully set on, and the shoulder must be lengthened, oblique, and lie well back ; a lofty lore-quarter denotes relationship to the Barb, that race being re- markable for presenting this feature. The Godolphin Barb, indeed (sometimes erroneously called the Arabian), possessed this feature to an extraordinary degree. The quarters should be ample and muscular ; the fore-legs straight and fine, but with sufficient bone ; the hinder legs well bent, and the pasterns long and springy. Much strength in little compass, provided that compass is not too little to admit of adequate stretch, or stride, constitutes the acme of perfection in a Racer. FLYING CHILDERS. The British Racer has long held a first place in the estimation of the equestrians of Europe. Some are fond of asserting that our horses are degenerating in excellence, and in proof, recapitulate the performances of some oi our coursers of former days. I deny the correctness of the infer- ence, and would rather suggest that our horses have so much progressed in excellence, that feats, once deemed extraordinary, are now regarded as common-place, and scarcely talked of. Thorough- bred horses are now, in consequence of the great general improve- THE HUNTER. 37 ment, more equal in point of speed, and fewer individual per- formances occur to excite wonder. On one point, however, before leaving the subject of the Racer, I would take this opportunity of expressing my unqualified opinion — that the abominable practice of running horses at too early an age, which is at present fast, creeping into fashion, is but too certain to produce early founder- ing and rapid degeneracy of stock. THE HUNTER. The Hunter, in a country abounding with hedges, stone walls, and heavy-plowed lands, should be bred with a view to greater power than is requisite in the Racer, and length of stride is, there- fore, less essential to his form than barrel. Let his legs and pas- terns be rather short than otherwise ; an Arabian would speedily founder in a run with hounds across one of the most level of Bri- tish counties. Clumsiness is not, however, a necessary concomi- tant of power. Let the Hunter have as much strength as possi- ble, without weight ; sufficient courage, without wild, tameless fire ; good wind, free breath, a free gallop, but, at the same tin the value of a cross with the Chinese variety of hog, and most oi their best breeds bear evidence of having, more or less, relation- ship to that animal. The most remarkable French breeds are, those of Poitou, the Pays d’Auge, Perigord, Champagne, and Boulogne 28 HOGS. The Poitou has a long and rather bulky head, with pendulous and somewhat coarse ears — an elongated body, broad and strong feet, and lar^e bones ; its hair and bristles are harsh. That of the Pays d’Auge has a smaller head, with a sharp muzzle, narrow and pointed ears, long body, broad and strong limbs, but small bone — hair coarse, scanty in quantity, and of a white color. The Perigord swine are generally black — a very short and lumpy neck, with a broad and compact carcass. Those of Champagne are of considera- ble size, long-bodied and flat-sided, with a broad pendant ear. Those of Boulogne are related to the English breeds. Their color is usually white. They are of a large size, have a large broad ear, and are quick fatteners. It is to these swine that we are in- debted for the celebrated Boulogne sausages. CHAPTER V. POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. I would caution the reader against being led away by mere name, in his selection of a hog. A hog may be called a Berkshire , or a Suffolk , or any other breed most in estimation, and yet may, in reality, possess none of this valuable blood. The only sure mode by which the buyer will be able to avoid imposition is, to make name always secondary to points. If you find a hog pos- sessed of such points of form as are calculated to ensure early maturity, and facility of taking flesh, you need care little what it has seemed good to the seller to call him ; and remember that no name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities to which I have alluded*/ The true Berkshire — that possessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan varieties — comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any other. The chief points which characterize such a hog are the following : — In the first place, suffi- cient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of body as will en- sure a sufficient lateral expansion. Let the loin and breast be broad. The breadth of the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and a consequent free and healthy circulation, essen- tial to the thriving or fattening of any animal. The bone should be small, and the joints fine — nothing is more indicative of high breeding than this ; and the legs should be no longer than, when POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. 29 full fat. would just prevent the animal’s belly from trailing upon the* ground. The leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and we require no more of it than is absolutely necessary, for the sup- port of the rest. See that the feet be firm and sound ; that the toes lie well together, and press straightly upon the ground ; as, also, that the claws are even, upright, and healthy. Many say that the form of the head is of little or no consequence, and that a good hog may have an ugly head ; but I regard the head of all animals as one of the very principal points in which pure or im- pure breeding will be the most obviously indicated. A high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at maturity, to take flesh earlier, and with greater facility, and, altogether, to turn out more profitably, than one of questionable or impure stock ; and, such being the case, I consider that the head of the hog is, by no means, a point to be overlooked by the purchaser. The de- scription of head most likely to promise, or rather to be the con- comitant of, high breeding, is one not carrying heavy bone, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a too elongated snout — the snout should be short, and the forehead rather convex, curving up- wards ; and the ear should be, while pendulous, inclining somewhat forward, and, at the same time, light and thin. Nor should the buyer pass over even the carnage of a pig. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, reject him, on suspicion of ill health, if not of some concealed disorder actually existing, or just about to break forth ; and there cannot be a more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a fat hog for slaughter, or a sow heavy with young, have not much sprightliness of deport- ment. Nor is color altogether to be lost sight of. In the case of hogs, I would prefer those colors which are characteristic of our most esteemed breeds. If the hair be scant, I would look for black, as denoting connection with the Neapolitan ; but if too bare of hair, I would be disposed to apprehend too intimate alliance with that variety, and a consequent want of hardihood, that, however unim- portant if pork be the object, renders such animals hazardous speculations as stores, from their extreme susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, and not too sn all, I would like them, as exhibiting connection with the Chinese. If light or sandy, or red with black marks, I would recognize our favorite Berkshire ; and so on, with reference to every possible variety of hue. These observations may appear trivial ; but they are the 30 HOGS. most important I have yet made, and the pig buyer will find his account in attending to them. CHAPTER VI. HOUSES AND PIGGERIES. An enclosure, proportionate to the number of swine which you intend to keep, and, if possible, so managed as to admit of extend- ing the accommodation, will be found the best for general purposes. It should be provided with a range of sheds, so situated as to be thoroughly sheltered from wind and weather, paved at the bottom, and sloping outwards. Relative to the paramount necessity of cleanliness and dryness, let both enclosure and sheds possess the means of being kept so. In order to keep the sheds, which are designed as sleeping places, in a dry and clean state, an inclination outwards is necessary : a shallow drain should run along the whole of their extent, in order to receive whatever wet flows down the inclined plane of the sleeping huts ; and provision should also be made for. this drain to carry off all offensive matters beyond the precincts of the piggery. The ground, on which the piggery is established, should likewise be divided into two parts, by a drain, which should run through it ; and towards this drain each section should slope. This the main drain should be carried beyond the fold, and fall into a large tank or pit formed for that purpose. The object in view is to keep the pig-fold and styes in a clean and dry state, and to preserve the valuable liquid manure , which comes from the animals you keep. Some will probably inquire whether it would not be better to suffer the moisture to soak into earth or straw, or other substances on the jloor of the enclosure, and then to clear all away periodi- cally, than to drain off the liquid into a tank. By drawing off the liquid you add to the cleanliness of your swine, and, in propor- tion, to their health and capacity for thriving ; and the collection of the liquid manure into tanks is less troublesome than the re- moval of substances, saturated with it, from the floor of the fold, would be. The sties should be so constructed as to acknit of being closed up altogether, when desirable ; for swine, even the hardiest breeds. HOUSES AND PIGGEK1ES. 31 are susceptible of cold, and if exposed to it in severe weather, it will materially retard their fattening. The sty should be kept con- stantly supplied with clean straw. The refuse carted into the tank, will, in the form of manure, more than repay the value of the straw. It lias been asserted, that swine do not thrive, if kept to- gether upon the same ground in considerable numbers ; this asser- tion rests on a want of ventilation and cleanliness. As to troughs , let them be of stone or cast metal ; — if of wood, the pigs will soon gnaw them to pieces ; — and let them be kept A, B. front ; C, C, rear for pens ; 5, 5, pens with alley between ; v, v, v, v, vats on level with pens: 1, safety valve ; 2, Steam pipe; 3, supply barrel to boiler ; 6, boiler ; /, furnace ; jd, platform partly over boiler; 4, chimney; f, drain ; te, water-cistern ; g, door to cellar ; s : s, stairs ; d, d , doors ; 6, 6, scuttles to cellar ; y. ?y, yards to pens. 32 HOGS. clean. Before each feeding, a pail of water should be dashed into the trough : this may be deemed troublesome, but it will confei yolden returns on those who attend to it. A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and should be freely furnished. Some recommend this to be effected by having a stream brought through the piggery ; and undoubtedly, when this can be managed, it answers better than any thing else. Swine are dirty feeders, and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or pail, and thus polluting with mud and dirt whatever may be given to them. One of the advantages, therefore, derivable from the stream of running water being brought through the fold is, its being, by its run- ning, kept constantly clean and wholesome. If, therefore, you are unable to procure this advantage, it will be desirable to present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the drinker to get his feet into it. The water should be renewed twice daily. I have hitherto been describing a piggery capable of contain- ing a large number ; a greater proportional profit will be realized by keeping a number of swine than a few. It may happen, however, that want of capital, or of inclination to embark in swine-feeding as an actual speculation, may induce many to prefer keeping a small number of pigs, or even perhaps one or two. in which case such accommodations as I have been describing would be more than superfluous. In this case, a single hut, well sheltered from wind and rain, and built with a due regard to com- fort, to warmth, with a little court surrounding its door, in which the tenant may feed, obey the calls of nature, and disport himselfi or bask in the sunshine, will be found to answer ; a small stone trough, or a wooden one, bound with iron, to preserve it from being gnawed to pieces, will complete the necessary furniture. The trough will serve alternately for food and drink. Even, however, when this limited accommodation is resorted to, a strict attention to cleanliness is no less necessary than when operations are carried on, on the most extensive scale. Both the floor of the hut and that of the little court should be paved, and should incline out- wards ; along the lowest side should be a drain, with a sufficient declination, and so contrived as to communicate with your dung- tank. The farther the manure-heap, or tank, from the dwelling, the better : vegetable matter, in progress of decomposition, give? rise to pestilential vapors, or miasmata. BREEDING, REARING AND FEEDING. 33 When the weather is fine, a few hours’ liberty will serve the health and the condition of your hog, and a little grazing would be all the better. Should you be desirous of breeding, and keep a sow for that purpose, you must, if you have a second hog, pro- vide a second sty, for the sow will require a separate apartment when heavy in pig, and when giving suck. This may be easily effected by building it against that which you have already erected, thus saving the trouble of raising more walls than are absolutely necessary ; and it need not have a court attached it, should it be inconvenient for you to have one, as the best accommodation can- be given up to the breeding sow, and your pigs will do well enough with a single apartment, if not too confined, and have sufficient ventilation ; and if you permit them the advantage of taking the air for a few hours daily. The extensive feeder should have a boiler of large size, properly fitted up, and an apparatus for steam- ing, as some vegetables are cooked in this mode more advan- tageously than by boiling. The poor man can use a pot as a sub- stitute for a boiler, remembering in every case to clean it before using. Food should be presented to swine in a warm state — neither too hot nor too cold. A sty should be about seven or eight feet square, and the court about ten feet. The second sty need not be more than six feet square, and does not absolutely require a court. CHAPTER VII. BREEDING, REARING, AND FEEDING. In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more atten- tion and consideration are necessary than people generally imagine. It is as easy, with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an inferior breed ; and the former is infinitely more remunerative, in proportion to outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be. In selecting the parents of your future stock, you must bear in mind the precise objects you may have in view, whether the rearing for pork, or bacon ; and whether you desire to meet the earliest market, and thus realize a certain profit, with the least possible outlay of monev, or loss of time ; or whether you mean 2 * 34 HOGS. to be contented to await a heavier, although somewhat protracted return. If bacon, and the late market be your object, you will do well to select the large and heavy varieties, taking care that the breed has the character of being possessed of those qualities most likely to ensure a heavy return, viz : growth , and facility of taking fat, relatively possessed by each. To that description I refer my reader. If your object be to produce pork, you will find your account in the smaller varieties ; such as arrive with greatest rapidity at ma- turity, and which are likely to produce the most delicate flesh. In producing pork, it is not advisable that it should be too fat, without a corresponding proportion of lean ; and, on this account, rather take a cross-breed sow than a pure Chinese stock, from which the over-fattening results might most naturally be apprehended. The Berkshire, crossed with Chinese, is about the best porker I can mention. In every case, whether your object be pork or bacon, the points to be looked for are, — in the Sow, a small, lively head, a broad and deep chest, round ribs, capacious barrel, a haunch, falling almost to the hough, deep and broad loin, ample hips, and considerable length of body in proportion to its height. One qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the first point to which the attention should be directed, viz.: smallness of bone. Let the Boar be less in size than the sow, shorter and more compact in form, with a raised and brawny neck, lively eye, small head, firm, hard flesh, and his neck well furnished with bristles, — in other respects, look for the same points as I have described in reference to the sow. Breeding within too close degrees of con- sanguinity, or, breeding in and in, is calculated to produce degene- racy in size, and also to impair fertility ; it is therefore to be avoided, although some breeders maintain that a first cross does no harm, but, on the contrary, that it produces offspring which are disposed to arrive earlier at maturity, and take fat with greater facility. This may in some instances be the case ; it is so with horned cattle, but as far as swine are concerned, it is not my own experience. Differences of opinion exist as to the precise age of boar and sow, at which breeding is most advisa ble. They will, if permitted, breed at the early age of six or seven months ; but this is a prac- tice not to be recommended. My advice is, to let the sow be, at least, one year old, and the boar, at - least , eighteen months ; but, BREEDING, REARING AND FEEDING. 85 if the former have attained her second year, and the latter his third, a vigorous and numerous offspring are more likely to result The boar and sow retain their ability to breed for about five years, that is, until the former is upwards of eight years old, and the latter seven. I do not recommend using a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow after she has passed her fourth, unless she have prove proved a peculiarly valuable breeder ; in which case, she might be suffered to produce two or three more litters. When you are done with the services of the boar, have him emasculated — an operation that can be performed with perfect safety at any age, — fatten or sell him. When it is no longer desirable to breed from the sow, kill her. Before doing so, it is a good plan to put her to the boar, as she takes fat afterwards more rapidly than she otherwise would. If a sow be of a stock characterized by an unusual tendency to take fat, it is well to breed from her at an unusually early age, — say eight or nine months ; for this tendency to fat, in a breeding sow, is highly objectionable, as conducing to danger in parturition. Let her have the boar a couple of days after pigging, and let her breed as frequently as she is capable of doing. This will effectually check the tendency to fat ; and, after having taken a few litters from her, you will find the rapidity with which, should you desire her for the butcher, she will take flesh, quite extraordinary. In the case of such a sow, do not give the boar before putting her up to fatten. Feed the breeding boar well ; keep him in high condition, but not fat : the sow, on the other hand, should be kept somewhat low, until after conception, when the quantity and quality of her food should be gradually increased. The best times for breeding swine are, the months of March, and July or August. A litter obtained later than August has much to contend with, and seldom proves profitable ; some, indeed, state that when such an occur- rence does take place, whether from accident or neglect, the litter is not worth keeping. It is little use, however, to throw any thing away. Should the reader at any time have a late litter, let him leave them with the sow ; feed both her and them with warm and stimulating food, and he will thus have excellent pork, with which to meet the market, when that article is at once scarce and dear, and consequently profitable. By following this system of manage- ment, he will not only turn his late fitter to account, but actually 36 HOGS. realize almost as good a profit as if it had been produced at a more favorable season. The period of gestation in the sow varies ; the most u&ual period during which she carries her young, is four lunar months, or six- teen weeks, or about one hundred and thirteen days. M. Teissier, of Paris, a gentleman who paid much attention to this subject, in connexion not merely with swine, but other animals, states that it varies from one hundred and nine to one hundred and forty-three days ; he formed his calculation from the attentive observation of twenty-five sows. The sow produces from eight to thirteen young ones at a litter, sometimes even more. Extraordinary fecundity, is, however, not desirable, for a sow cannot give nourishment to more young than she has teats for, and, as the number of teats is twelve, when a thirteenth one is littered, he does not fare very well. The sufferer on these occasions is of course the smallest and weakest ; a too numerous litter are all indeed generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or never prove profitable ; a litter not exceeding ten will, usually, be found to turn out most advantageously. On ac- count of the discrepancy subsisting between the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that you may equalize the number to be suckled by each. The sow seldom recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it have been in- troduced among the others during her absence, and have lain for' half an hour or so amongst her own offspring in their sty. While the sow is carrying her young, feed her abundantly, and increase the quantity until parturition approaches within a week or so, when it is as well to diminish both the quantity and quality. While she is giving suck you cannot feed too well. You may wean the young at eight weeks old, and should remove them for that purpose from the sow ; feed them well, frequently, abun- dantly, but not to leaving , and on moist, nutritious food, and pay particular attention to their lodgment — a warm, dry, comfortable bed is of fully as much consequence as feeding, if not even of more. Should the sow exhibit any tendency to devour her young, or should she have done so on a former occasion, strap up her mouth for the first three or four days, only releasing it to ad- mit of her taking her meals. Some sows are apt to lie upon, and crush their young. This may be best avoided by not keeping the sow too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many young upon BREEDING, REARING AND FEEDING. 3 / her. Let the straw forming tlie bed also be short, and not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and the sow unconsciously over-lie them in that condition. The young pigs should be gradually fed before permanently weaning them ; and for first food, nothing is so good as milk, which may be succeeded by ordinary dairy wash, thickened with oat or barley meal, or fine pollard ; this is better scalded, or, better still, boiled. To the sow, some dry food should be given once daily, which might consist of peas, beans, Swedish turnips, car- rots, parsnips, or the like, either well boiled, or raw ; but I prefer ihe food to be always boiled, or, what is still better* steamed Some wean the pigs within a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at once to the boar. Under certain circumstances, this may be found advantageous ; but I think that the best mode of manage- ment is to turn the boar into the hog-yard, about a week after parturition, at which time it is proper to remove the sows for a few hours daily from their young, and let them accept his over- tures when they please. It does not injure either the sow or her young if she take the boar while suckling, but some sows will not do so until the drying of their milk. Castration and Spaying should be only performed on such as you intend to keep, as you do not know what a purchaser’s wishes on the subject might be. It is, of course, unnecessary for me to give any directions as to the mode of performing this ope- ration, as no amateur should attempt it, and men who make the practice their means of livelihood, are, in every district, not diffi- cult to be got at, or exorbitant in their terms. The sow is, if de- sirable, to be spayed while suckling ; the boar, as I have already stated, may be castrated at any age with perfect safety. At weaning time, Ring the young pigs. This operation must be a painful one, but scarcely so much so as the little sufferers would seem to indicate. Ringing is, however, absolutely neces- sary, unless the cartilage of the nose be cut away , a practice re- sorted to in substitution for it in some parts of England ; the lat- ter practice is, however, far more cruel than ringing, and its efficacy is by many stated to be at the best questionable. After about five weeks’ high and careful feeding subsequent to weaning, the young pigs may be put up for stores, porkers, &c., according to your views respecting them. Very young pigs, im- mediately after being weaned, if fed on the refuse of a dairy, will be brought up for delicious pork in five or six weeks ; for the last S8 HOGS. week, prior to killing, the addition of grains or bruised corn will impart a degree of firmness to the flesh, that is considered an im- provement. This is called “ dairy-fed pork,” and it never fails to fetch an enhanced price, thereby amply remunerating its producer. Hogs designed for pork should not be fattened to the same extent as those designed for bacon. I am aware that it will be vain for me to request the reader not to do so, as fat produces weight — weight, profit — and profit is the object of the feeder. But to those who feed for domestic consumption, I urge the sugges- tion, and they will find their account in following it. Porkers should be suffered to run at large. Grazing, or the run of a wood in which roots or nuts may be met with, is calculated in an emi- nent degree to improve the quality of their flesh. It will be ne- cessary to give the hogs regular meals, independent of what they can thus cater for themselves ; and the hours for so doing should be in the morning, before they are let out, and in the evening, before they are returned to their sty. Too many swine should net be kept in one sty ; and if one become an object of persecution to the rest, he should be withdrawn. The introduction of strangers should likewise be avoided. Bacon hogs fatten best by themselves ; they need no liberty ; and it is only necessary to keep the sty dry and clean, and to feed abundantly, in order to prepare them for the knife. In order to fatten a hog, his comforts must in every respect be attended to. Those who make pork-feeding a business, and consequently keep a number of these animals, should so manage as to be enabled to provide for their maintenance and fattening from the produce of their crops. They should therefore raise the potato, beans, peas, barley, buckwheat, flax, parsnips, carrots, cabbage, lettuce, Lu- cerne, Italian rye-grass, clover, rape, chicory, and vetches. Nor are we to forget the important articles, mangold and Swedish tur- nips ; the latter especially, as being an article that sad necessity has recently, for the first time, brought into the full degree of no- tice it has always deserved ; — and an article that is now found to be no less valuable for human food than it is admitted to be for the food of cattle. The best possible mode of feeding hogs is with a n ixture of two or more of the roots or plants enumerated, well stean ed, and a lit- tle meal or bran added, or, instead of meal or bran, add brewer’s grains, wash, half malted barley, pollard, &c., — let these be well- boiled and given moderately cool, and in a moist state. BREEDING, REARING AND FEEDING. 39 The advantages derivable from the use of hay-tea in ntorefeed- ing hogs was, I think, for the first time demonstrated to the pub- lic, some years ago, by Mr. Saunders, of Stroud, in Gloucester- shire. Mr. Saunders was induced to try this diet with hogs, from an observation of its efficacy in weaning calves ; his experiments were attended with the most unqualified success. The use of flax-seed, as an addition to the other food for fatten- ing swine, has been recommended, but is found not to answer nearly so well in the crude state as previously kiln-dried, and well crushed, so as to crack the seed, otherwise the animal will pass a large proportion of the seed in a whole state ; the whole seed acts as a purgative and diuretic, which will be opposed to the secretion of fat. To prepare the seed for food, steep them for twelve hours in water, which may be poured on them in a tepid state, but not at boilings heat ; and, prior to giving the mess, add as much luke- warm wash as will bring it to the consistence of gruel. This wash may be produced from brewer’s grains, or simply from mangold or Swedish turnips, well boiled and mashed, and given with the water in which they have been boiled : the addition of a propor- tion of bran improves the mess, and when one has it, it should not be omitted. The adoption of hay-tea as the vehicle for mixing these ingre- dients, will be found also advantageous. Do not boil the flax seed — boiling will produce a coarse, tough and not very digestible mass ; but steeping, on the contrary, furnishes a rich and nutri- tious jelly. Linseed cake is a good substitute for the seed, and is to be given in a proportion of fourteen pounds, for seventeen or eighteen pounds of ground seed. Neither should be given, ex- cept in combination with a large proportion of other substances, as they are of a very greasy nature, and are apt to impart a rank flavor to flesh, if given in an unmixed state, and are actually more efficacious in combination. If you have plenty of meal, the ad- dition of a little to the daily feeds, will be found to tell well, espe- cially towards the close of fattening, a few weeks previous to transferring your stock to the butcher. The refuse of mills form a very valuable item in swine food, when mixed with such boiled roots as I have enumerated ; — as starch sounds, the refuse from the manufacture of that article ; also the fibrous refuse remaining from the manufacture of potato starch. Swine are frequently kept by butchers, and are then fed princi- pally upon the garlage of the shambles, — as entrails, the paunch 40 HOGS. es, lights, and the viscera of sheep and cattle, as well as the blooq. Swine are, like their human owners, omnivorous, and few articles come amiss to them. It must, nevertheless, be confessed, that the flesh of hogs fed on animal food is rank both in smell and taste, and readily distinguishable from that produced from a vegetable diet. I am not unnecessarily prejudiced, and it is on the merits of the case alone that I condemn butcher-fed pork. Pork butchers, resident in large towns, are very apt to feed chiefly on offal of all sorts, including that arising from the hogs daily slain and dressed for the market. There is yet another description of feeding : I allude to the feeding of swine in knackers’ yards. The animals are kept in con- siderable numbers, and are fed wholly upon the refuse of dead horses — chiefly the entrails, the carcass being in too great demand among those who keep dogs, to permit of it being unnecessarily wasted. Nor are these horses always fresh , the swine revelling in corruption , and disputing with the maggot the possession of a mass of liquid putrefaction. And are we to say nothing of the number of horses who die of glanders, farcy, or some similarly frightfully contagious and incurable disorder ? How can we be certain that this is not one of the many sources whence occasionally spring ap- parently causeless pestilences, or malignant epidemics? While such a practice is tolerated, with what caution should we not pur- chase bacon or pork, lest we should thus eat at second-hand of sub- stances so revolting to the feelings, so dangerous to individual and public health. Chandler’s Greaves are likewise objectionable as food for swine, unless given in comparatively small quantities, and mixed with bran, meal, and boiled roots. If fed wholly on either greaves, or oil-cake, or flax-seed, the flesh becomes loose, unsubstantial, and carriony ; and gives out a flavor resembling that of rancid oil. Hogs that have been fed chiefly on corn, alternated with the ve- getable diet already described, produce pork nearly equal in deli- cacy of flavor, whiteness of color, and consequent value, to that well-known, delicious article, dairy pork. Indian Corn is most useful in feeding and in fattening pigs ; it should be employed in conjunction with oat or barley meal, or some other equally nutri- tious matter. Respecting the quality of food, vast numbers of bacon hogs are almost invariably fed upon potatoes; but however apparently sat- isfactory may be their weight and condition, yet when slaughtered BREEDING, REARING AND FEEIING. 41 immediately, or before having several weeks of substantial food, to harden their flesh, they are always "found inferior to corn-fed. pork and bacon, the fat having a tallowy appearance, of an insipid taste, and shrinking for want of firmness ; whereas, when boiled, it should be transparently hard, with a tinge of pink in its color, the flavor should be good, and the meat should swell in the pot. Po- tatoes, therefore, though fine food for stores, should never be used alone as sustenance in the flitting of bacon hogs ; for, in proportion to the quantity employed, it will render the flesh, and consequent- ly the price, inferior to that of hogs which have been properly fed. They are, however, frequently employed, "when steamed, in con- junction with either tail, or stained barley, coarsely ground ; and farmers who grow potatoes for the market may thus profitably dis- pose of the chats along with their unmarketable corn : but those persons who wish to acquire a reputation for producing fine ba- con, should never use anything for fatting but hard meat, together with skim-milk, if it can be procured. When swine are not of very large size, and it is desirable to raise pork rather than bacon, a very economical mode of feeding may be advantageously employed : — it consists of equal parts of boiled Swedish turnips and bran. If it be desirable to render the accumulation of fat more rapid, let Indian meal be substituted for the bran, and, in flax-growing countries, the seed prepared as al- ready directed. A hog WASHED WEEKLY WITH SOAP AND A BRUSH will be found to thrive, and put up flesh in a ratio of at least five to three, in comparison to a pig not so treated. This fact has been well tried, there can be no possible question about its correctness, and the duty is not a very difficult matter to perform, for the swine, as soon as they discover the real character of the operation, are far from being disposed to object, and after a couple of washings, submit with the best grace imaginable. Beware not to Surfeit your hogs. It is quite possible to give too much even to them; and to produce disease by over-feeding. Many examples of great weights, produced by judicious feeding and management, are upon record. Mr. Crockford’s Suffolk hog. at two years old, weighed 980 lbs. ; but I scarcely think it could have been true Suffolk , that being a small breed. Mr. Ivory’s Shropshire hog weighed fourteen hundred, when killed and dressed , and there was, a short time since, a specimen of the improved Irish brwd of hog exhibited in Dublin, at the Portobello Gardens, which C 42 HOGS. weighed upwards of twelve hundred weight; this, when killed, would have amounted to soniething over half a ton. In conclusion, observe caution in conjunction with the directions already given relative to feeding. I. Avoid foul feeding. II. Do not omit adding salt in moderate quantities to the mess given : you will find your account in attending to this. III. Feed at regular intervals. IV. Cleanse the troughs previous to feeding. V. Do not over-feed ; give only as much as will be consumed at the meal. VI. Vary your bill of fare. Variety will create, or, at all events, increase appetite, and it is further most conducive to health ; let your vaiiations be guided by the state of the dung cast : this should be of medium consistence, and of a greyish-brown color ; if hard , increase the quantity of bran and succulent roots ; if too liquid, diminish, or dispense with bran, and let the mess be firm- er; if you. can, add a portion of corn, that which is injured, and thus rendered unfit for other purposes, will be found to answer well. VII. Feed your stock separately, in classes, according to their relative conditions ; keep sows in young by themselves ; stores by themselves ; and bacon hogs and porkers by themselves. It is not advisable to keep your stores too high in flesh, for high feeding is calculated , to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon, loosely , and not too abundantly, until they have attained their full stature ; you can then bring them into the highest possible condition in an inconceivably short space of time. VIII. Do NOT REGRET T&E LOSS OR SCARCITY OF POTATOES SO far as swine-feeding is concerned. Its loss has been the means of stimulating inquiry and producing experiment, which has resulted in the discovery that many other superior vegetables have been hi- therto neglected and foolishly passed aside. IX. Do NOT NEGLECT TO KEEP YOUR SWINE CLEAN, DRY, AND warm. These are essentials , and not a whit less imperative than feeding, for an inferior description of food will, by their aid, suc- ceed far better than the highest feeding will without them ; and suffer me to reiterate the benefit derivable from washing your hogs ; this will repay your trouble manyfold. X. Watch the markets. — Sell when you see a reasonable TIME REQUISITE FOR FEEDING FAT, ETC. 43 profit before you. Many and many a man lias swamped himself by giving way to covetousness, and by desiring to realize an un- usual amount of gain : recollect how very fluctuating arc the mar- kets, and that a certain gain is far better than the risk of loss. CHAPTER VHI. TIME REQUISITE FOR FEEDING FAT QUANTITY OF FOOD AND PROPORTIONATE INCREASE OF WEIGHT IN A GIVEN TIME. This will, of course, vary very considerably, according to the weight, age, breed, and condition of the store when first put up, as well as the description of food' on which, up to that period, the animal has been fed. The same observations are applicable to the quantity of food required for the production of fat. If a young store, five or six weeks may be sufficient ; if older, six or eight ; and if of the mature age, intended for a perfect bacon hog, of that moderate degree of size and fatness which is preferred for the general consumption of the middle classes, from twelve to fourteen. A bacon hog, if intended to be thoroughly fattened for farm use, should, however, be of a large breed, and brought to such a state as not to be able to rise without difficulty, and will, perhaps, require five or six months, or even more, to bring him to that condition. This, however, supposes him to be completely fat ; to ascertain which with perfect accuracy, he ought to be weighed every week during the latter part of the process ; for although his appetite will gradually fall off as he increases in fat, yet the flesh which he will acquire will also diminish, until at last it will not -pay for his food, and he should then be immediately slaughtered. Thus the increase of flesh in a hog put up to be fat- tened, and regularly weighed, was, on the following dates : — Oct. 10 stone. 36 lbs. 7 24 41 5 . 38 lbs. gain. Nov. 7 45 7 . . 34 do. 21 47 2 .. 11 do. Dec. 5 48 7 . . 13 do. 22 48 6 . . 1 lb. loss- 44 HOGS. CHAPTER IX. DISEASES OF SWINE. In order to prescribe, with any reasonable hopes of success, for any animal, a knowledge of that animal’s anatomy, physiology, and habits when in health, are indispensable, and an intimate ac- quaintance with the characters of the substances employed as re- medies. I would not recommend you to place much confidence in books published by quacks, and purporting to contain infallible specifics for the several diseases to which live stock are liable. Veterinary text-books, written by competent persons, are very dif- ferent things. A host of honorable names stand upon record, od the face of their publications, in proof of the correctness of my assertion. By diligent study of these books, farmers might, I have little doubt, eventually arrive at a very respectable share of veteri- nary knowledge ; acquire a tolerable idea of the internal structure of the several inhabitants of the farm-yard, and of their physiolo- gy ; by practical observation they would become able to detect the presence of disease from the symptoms present, and be then able to adopt a course of treatment as might be suggested in the books they possessed. Under these circumstances, apply, if possible, to a regular veterinary surgeon. Swine are by no means the most tractable of patients. It is anything but an easy matter to compel them to swallow' anything to which their appetite does not incite them, and hence, ‘ pre- vention’ will be found ‘ better than cure.’ Cleanliness is, in my opinion, the great point to be insisted upon in swine man- agement ; if this, and warmth, be duly attended to, the animal will not, save in one case, perhaps in a hundred, become affected with any ailment. As, however, even under the most careful system of manage- ment, an occasional disappointment may occur, the reader is fur- nished with the following brief view of the principal complaints, by w'hich some are, under the most unfavorable circumstances , liable to be attacked, and the plainest effectual mode of sanatory treat- ment, in such cases, to be adopted. The principal diseases to which swine are liable are : — 1, Fever; 2, Leprosy ; 3, Murrain ; 4, Measles ; 5, Jaundice ; 6, Foul skin ; Mange ; 8, Staggers ; 9, Cracklings ; 10, “ Rati lie,’’ or swelling DISEASES OF SWINE. 45 of the spleen; 11, Indigestion, or Surfeit; 12, Lethargy; 13, Heav.ngs ; 14, “Diarrhoea;” 15, Quinsy; 16, Tumors ; 17, Catarrh. All which dangerous, and often fatal, maladies may be pre- vented from occurring by the simple attention to cleanliness al- ready recommended, with judicious feeding. A hog can be reliev- ed by bleeding, when such an operation will effect relief, whether he like to submit or nc^ ; but it is very questionable whether he can be compelled to swallow medicines without his perfect consent and concurrence; these, therefore, will best be administered by stratagem, and the hog’s appetite is the only assailable point he has. I. Fever. — The symptoms are, redness of the eyes, dryness and heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally ; appetite gone, or very defective, and the presence, usually, of a very violent thirst. Of course, no symptom can be regarded as individually indicative of the presence of any particular disease ; these, which I have named, might, individually, indicate the presence of many other disorders, nay, of no disorder at all, but collectively, they point to the presence of fever as their origin. Let the animal, as soon as possible after the appearance of these symptoms, be bled, by cutting the veins at the back of his ears. The pressure of the finger raises the vein, and you can then punc- ture it with a lancet. If the bleeding from this channel be not sufficiently copious, you must cut off a portion of his tail ; and after bleeding let him be warmly housed, but, at the same time, while protected from cold and draughts, let the sty be well and thoroughly ventilated, and its inmate supplied with a constant suc- cession of fresh air. The bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity of food to admit of your making it the vehicle for administering such internal remedies as may seem ad- visable. The best vehicle is bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly, when once he loses his appetite, that no depletive medicines are in general necessary or suitable ; the fever will usually be found to yield to the bleeding, and your only ob- ject need be the support of the animal’s strength, by small portions of nourishing food, administered frequently. Do not, however, at any time suffer your patient to eat as much as bis inclination might prompt ; the moment he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer it again until 46 HOGS. after a lapse of from three to four hours. It is a singular fact, that as the hog surpasses every other animal in the facility with which he acquires fat, he likewise surpasses all others in the rapidity with which his strength becomes prostrated when once his appetite de- serts him. The French veterinarian practice recommends the ad- dition of peppermint to the bread and broth. If the animal be not disgusted by the smell, it may be added ; and if the bowels be confined, the addition of castor and linseed oil, in equal quanti- ties, and in the proportion of two to six ounces, according to the size of the hog, should not be omitted. If you find yourself unable to restore the animal’s appetite, the case is nearly hopeless, and you may regard its return as one of the most infallible symptoms of returning convalescence. It is, however, possible to administer medicine to the pig by force ; al- though, for my own part, I cannot say that I have ever found it practicable. There is a description of fever that frequently occurs as an epizootic. It often attacks the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and the best-looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and promptitude absolutely astonishing ; for in the space of twelve hours, I have sometimes seen a whole piggery suc- cumb : at other times its progress is much slower ; the symptoms are less intense and less alarming ; and the veterinary surgeon, employed at the commencement of the attack, may promise him- self some success. The Causes of the Disease are, in the majority of cases, the bad sties in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. The food which the pigs meet with and devour are the remains of mouldy bread and fruit, especially those of peas and lentils — the fermentation and decomposition of which farina- ceous substances, and especially the bran which is too frequently given to them, and the prolonged action of which determine the most serious in the whole economy. In addition to this, is the constant lying on the dung heap, whence is exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas ; also, where they remain far too long, on the muddy or arid ground, or are too long exposed to the rigor of the season. As soon as a pig is attacked with disease, he should be sepa- rated from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulat- ing ointment be applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. Frictions of vinegar should be applied to die dorsal DISEASES OF SWINE. 47 and lumbar region. The drinks should be emollient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and with aromatic fumigation about the belly. If the fever now appears to be losing ground, which may be ascertained by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries that were before heard, by a respiration less laborious, by the absence of convulsions, and by the non-appear- ance of blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of recovery. We may then be content to administer, every second hour, the drinks and the lavements already prescribed, and to give the patient his proper allowance of white water, with ground barley and rye. When, however, instead of these fortunate results, the symptoms are redoubling in intensity, it will be best to destroy the animal ; for it is rare that, after a certain period, there is much or any chance of recovery. Bleeding, practised at the ear or tail, is seldom of much avail, but occasionally produces considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid diathesis. II. Leprosy. — The symptoms of this complaint usually com- mence with the formation of a small tumor in the eye, followed by genera] prostration of spirits ; the head is held down ; the whole frame inclines towards the ground : universal languor succeeds ; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in flesh ; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. The flesh of a leprous pig is said to possess most pernicious qualities, and to be wholly unfit for human food. If the animal be killed in the very first stage of the disease, however, the affection is only superficial, the flesh nothing the worse, but rather improved in tenderness, and indeed, not to be distinguished from that of a perfectly sound animal. The cause of this disease is want of cleanliness, absence of fresh air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. The obvious cure therefore is — first, bleed ; clean out the sty daily ; wash the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or potash has been added ; supply him with a clean bed ; keep him dry and comfortable ; let him have gentle exercise and plenty of fresh air ; limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness ; give bran with wash, in which you may add, for an averaged sized hog, say one of 160lbs. weight, a tablespoon full of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a sixpence, daily. A few grains of powdered antimony may also be given with effect. ^ III. Murrain. — Resembles leprosy in its symptoms, with the 48 HOGS. addition of staggering, shortness of breath, discharge of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth. The treatment should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic have been recommended to be administered in cases of murrain. Garlic is an antiseptic, and as, in all those febrile diseases, there exists a more or less degree of disposition to putre- faction, it is not improbable that it may be found useful. IV. Measles. — This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. The symptoms are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, depression of spirits, decline, or total departure of the appetite, small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the skin. These last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, and distension of the fibre so as to give an appearance similar to that which might be produced by puncturing the flesh. Suffer the animal to fast, in the first instance, for twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian ; wash the animal, cleanse the sty, and change the bedding ; give at every feeding, say thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. It is to dirt, combined with a common fault, too little thought of, viz. giving the steamed food or wash to the hogs at too high a temperature, that this disease is generally to be attributed. It is a troublesome malady to eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal. V. Jaundice. — Symptoms, yellowness of the white of the eye, a similar hue extending to the lips, with sometimes, but not inva- riably, swelling of the under part of the jaw. Bleed behind the ear, diminish the quantity of food, and give a smart aperient every second day. Aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined with colocynth ; the dose will vary with the size of the animal. VI. Foul Skin. — A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to cleanliness, and a washing with solution of chloride of lime, but if it have been neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant character, scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear, and the disease rapidly passes into VII. Mange. — If the foul hide, already described, had been properly attended to, and the remedies necessary for its removal applied in sufficient time, this very troublesome disorder would not have supervened. Mange is supposed, by most medical men, to DISEASES OF SWINE. 49 owe existence to the presence of a minute insect, called acar,M or “ mange-fly,” a minute creature, which burrows be- neath the cuticle, and, in its progress through the skin, occasions much irritation and annoyance. Others, again, do not conceive the affection sty-led mange to be thus produced, but refer it to a diseased state of the blood, which, as is usually the case, eventually conveys its morbid influences to the superficial tissues. Much has been, and still might be said on both sides of the question, but such a discussion is scarcely suitable to the pages of a popular work. I he Symptoms of the disease are sufliciently well known consisting of scabs, blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustule^ on different parts of the body. If neglected, these symp- toms will become aggravated ; the disease will rapidly spread ov r the entire surface of the skin, and if suffered to proceed uoon its course, unchecked, it will ere long produce deep-seated ulcem, and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the poor affected animal becomes one mass of corruption. The Causes of Mange have been differently stated; some re- ferring them to too high, and others to too low a diet The cause K to be looked for m dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding ; hot-feedino- alone would perhaps, be more likely to produce mjfe than manae but Art would unquestionably produce the latter disease, eZ ff unaided by the concomitant error of liot-feeding;. Wdl aad P ro P erl y ke Pb will occasionally become affected with this, as well as with other disorders, from ^contagion. Ttotof TV* T re - eaS , lly P ro P a g ated by contact than mange. The introduction of a single affected pig into your establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores, and, probably fur- nish you with a three months’ hospital experience. Do nctflie^- tore introduce any foul-skinned pigs into your piggery, in fact it would be a very safe proceeding, to wash every new ourchase with am TL S e teo°h,° f T** VT This frratl t tr ° UbIe ,’ when, apphed as a preventive, is surely pr!-- whw' de n f t b ° th tr ° UW< ? and ’ perha P s ’ disappointment wnen you are compelled to resort to it to cure. and not n? ^ T 7 ^ a man S e of modera te virulence, adopted, 9 9 ' 46 beSt mode of treatment to be bJ; *b e ani “al from snout to tail, leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. J llt hlm mt0 a dr T and clean sty, which is so built and 3 50 HOGS. situated as to comman A a constant supply of fresh dir, without, at the same time, being exposed to cold or draught ; let him have a bed of clean, fresh straw. 8. Reduce his food, both in quality and in quantity ; let boiled or steamed roots, with buttermilk, or dairy wash, supply the place of half-fermented brewer’s grains, house wash, or any other de- scription of feeding calculated to prove of a heating or inflamma- tory character. It is, of course, scarcely necessary to add, that those who have been feeding their swine on horseflesh , or chandler’s greaves, cannot be surprised at the occurrence of the disease ; let them, at all events, desist from that rank and nasty mode of feed- ing, and turn to such as has been indicated. 4. Let your patient fast for five or six hours, and then, give to a hog of average size — epsom salts, 2oz. in a warm bran wash. This quantity is, of course, to be increased or diminished, as the size may require. The above would suffice for a hog of 160lbs. It should be previously mixed with a pint of warm Water. This should be added to about half a gallon of warm bran wash. It will act as a gentle purgative. 5. Give in every meal afterwards — of flour of sulphur, one tablespoon ; of nitre, as much as will cover a sixpence, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the disease. When you perceive the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery sores to fade, you may pronounce your patient cured. But before that pleasing result will make its appearance, you will perceive an apparent increase of violence in all the symptoms — the last effort of the expiring malady, as it were, ere it finally yields to your care and skill. 6. There are, however, some very obstinate cases of mange oc- casionally to be met with, which will not so readily be subdued. When the above mode of treatment has been put in practice for fourteen days, without effecting a cure, prepare the following : Train oil, one pint ; oil of tar, two drachms ; spirits of turpentine, two drachms ; naphtha, one drachm ; with flour of sulphur, as much as will form the above into the consistence of a thick paste. Rub the animal, previously washed, with this mixture — let no por- tion of the hide escape you. Keep the hog dry and warm after this application, and suffer it to remain on his skin for three entire v*vs. On the fourth day, wash him once more with soft soap, deling a small quantity of soda to the water. Dry the animal well afterwards, and suffer him to remain as he is, having agai» DISEASES OF SWINE. 51 changed his bedding, for a day or so : continue the sulphur and nitre as before. I have never known any case of mange, however obstinate, that would not, sooner or later, give way before this mode of treatment. V. Your patient being convalescent, white-wash the sty ; fumi- gate it, by placing a little chloride of lime in a cup, or other ves- sel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the absence of vitriol, however, boiling water will answer nearly as well. Finally, all mercurial applications are, as much as possible, to be avoided ; but, above every thing, avoid the use of ointments composed of hellebore, corrosive sublimate, or tobacco-water, or, in short, any poisonous ingredient whatever ; very few cures have ever been effected by the use of these so called remedies, but very many deaths have resulted from their adoption. VIII. Staggers, caused by excess of blood to the head ; bleed freely from behind the ears, and purge. IX. Crackings will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, es- pecially about the root of the ears and tail, and at the flanks. These are not at all to be confounded with mange, never resulting from anything but exposure to extremes of temperature, without the suffering animal being able to avail himself of such protec- tions as, in a state of nature, instinct would have induced him tc adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in the heats of summer, if the hog be exposed to a hot sun for any length of time, with- out the advantage of a marsh or pool in which to lave his parched limbs and half scorched carcass. Anoint the cracked parts twice or thrice a day with tar and lard, well melted up together. X. Ratille, or Swelling of the Spleen. — The symptom most positively indicative of this disease, is the circumstance of the affected animal leaning towards one side, cringing, as it were, from internal pain, and bending towards the ground. The cause of the obstruction on which the disease depends is over-feeding, permit- ting the hog’s indulging its appetite to the utmost extent that glut- tony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach admit of; a very short perseverance in this mode of management will produce this, as well as other maladies, deriving their origin from a de- praved condition of the secretions and obstruction of the excretory ducts. On first perceiving the complaint, clear out the alimentary canal by means of a strong aperient. If you think you can manage it, you may administer this forcibly, by having the mouth kept ojen 52 HOGS. by two cords, thal attached to the upper jaw being thrown across a joist, and drawn just so tight as to compel the patient to sup- port himself on the extremities of his fore-toes ; or allow the ani- mal to fast for from four to five hours, he will then take a little sweet wash or broth, and in it you may mingle a dose of Epsom salts, proportioned to his bulk. This will generally effect the de- sired end of a copious evacuation, and the action of this medicine on the watery secretions will further relieve the existing diseased state of the spleen. Many recommend bleeding ; and if the affec- tion have continued for any length of time, it should be resorted to at once ; when the disease is, however, discovered ere it has at- tained any considerable head, the aperient will suffice. The French veterinarians recommend the expressed juice of the leaves and tops of wormword and liverwort to be given, half a pint for a dose. The decoction of these plants produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in doses of from half a pint to a pint and a-half, according to the size, age, &c., of the patient. Scammony and rhubarb, mixed up in a bran mash, or with In- dian meal, may be given with advantage the following day, or equal portions of bluepill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed into a bolus with butter, and the animal, having been kept fasting the previous night, will probably swallow it ; if he will not do so, let his fast continue for a couple of hours longer; Lower the animal’s diet, and keep him on reduced fare, with exer- cise, and if you can manage it, grazing , until the malady has quite passed away ; if you then wish to fatten, remember to do so gradually ; be cautious of at once restoring the patient to full diet. XI. Surfeit. — Another name for indigestion ; the symptoms are such as might be expected — panting, loss of appetite, swelling of the region about the stomach, ughout this country, and is found more immediately in the vicinity of human habitations than either of the other species. It is pursued by our sportsmen with more pleasure than the red fox, because it does not immediately for- sake its haunts and run for miles in one direction, but, after various doublings, is generally killed near the place whence it first started. The gray fox, like all the species we described, exhibits con- siderable differences of color at different ages and in different states of pelage. The length of the head and body is about twenty-four, and of the tail eleven inches. The general color of the animal is grizzly, becoming gradually darker from the fore shoulders to the posterior parts of the back, produced by the intermixture of ful- vous hairs with those constituting the mass of the pelage, whicli are thus colored ; near the body the hair is rather plumbeous, then yellowish, then white, and then uniformly tipped with lustrous black. The front, from the top of the head to the edge of the orbits, is gray, while the rest of the face, from the internal angle of the eye to within half an inch of the ext emity of the snout, is blackish ; at the extremity on each side of the granulated black tip of the nose it is of a yellowish white. A fine line of black tipped hairs extends upwards and outwards, from half an inch be- low the internal angle of the eyes until it is intersected by a simi- lar black line about half an inch beyond the external angle of the eye, thus forming a very acute triangle, whose base is on the side of the face. This blackish gray triangle, joined to the peculiar sharpness of the face, and the line produced by the black whiskers on the sides of the. nose, singularly increase the appearance of sly- ness and cunning expressed in the physiognomy of this animal. 30 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. The face below this triangle is white, and the latter color is con tinued semicircularly upon the upper part of the throat. The under jaw is blackish, this color extending along the line of the mouth, and passing about half an inch beyond the junction of the lips at the angle. The inner surface of the ears is clothed with short light yellowish hair ; their tips on the outside are blackish gray, and the whole of the rest of their posterior surface is yellow which color descends encircling the neck, and is the only color on the anterior parts, with the exception of a white spot on the breast. The inferior parts of the body are white, tinted slightly in some individuals with faint reddish brown. The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur on the upper side is pale yellow, slightly tipped with black ; the under part •> are rust colored, and the end entirely black. The most common method of destroying foxes is by hounds and the gun. If near his burrow, to avoid the dogs, he will take to the earth, and has then to be dug out ; he will sometimes ascend an inclined tree, and is then to be shot or the tree felled, when the dogs will dispatch him. He may be taken by traps and snares, but of these he is very wary. The most easy means are poi- soned meats, prepared and used as pointed out for the destruc- tion of wolves. Wolves. — There are several varieties of wolves, viz. : — The Common Wolf, — the Prairie or Barking Wolf, — the Dusky Wolf — and the Black Wolf. The common, prairie, and black ones are those only which are pests of the farm. In all new set- tlements, and in the prairie region of our country, these species are dangerous enemies to the domestic animals of the farmer. The Common Wolf. — When the aboriginal Americans first gave place to European adventurers, and the forests which had flourished for ages undisturbed, began to fall before the unsparing axe, the vicinity of the settler’s lonely cabin resounded with the nightly howlings of wolves, attracted by the refuse provision usu- ally to be found there, or by a disposition to prey upon the domestic animals. During winter, when food was most difficult to be procured, packs of these famished and ferocious creatures were ever at hand, to run down and destroy any domestic animal found wandering beyond the enclosures, which their individual or com- bined efforts could overcome, and the boldest house-dog could not venture far from the door of his master without incurring the risk ol being killed and devoured. The common wolf was then to be QUADRUPEDS. 31 found in considerable numbers throughout a great extent, if not the whole of North America ; at present it is only known as a re- sident of the remote wooded and mountainous districts where man has just commenced to fix his abode. The common wolf of America is considered to be the same species as the wolf of Europe, and in regard to habits and man- ners, gives every evidence of such an identity. Like all the wild animals of the dog kind, they unite in packs to hunt down animals which individually they could not master, and during their sexual season, engage in the most furious combats with each other for the possession of the females. The common wolf is possessed of great strength and fierceness, and is what is generally called a cruel animal, tearing the throat of his victim, drinking its blood, and rending it open for the purpose of devouring its entrails. The great strength of its jaws enables the wolf to carry off with facility an animal nearly as large as itself, and makes its bite exceedingly severe and dangerous. Aged or wounded animals, as well as the hinds and fawns of the deer, sheep, lambs, calves and pigs, are killed by these wolves, and the horse is said to be the only domestic animal which can resist them with success. They gorge with much greediness upon all sorts of carrion, which they can discover at great distances ; and where such provision is to be obtained in great plenty, they become very fat and lose their ferocity to a singular degree. When this wolf has been caught in a trap, and is approached by man, it is remarked to be exceedingly cowardly, and occasion- ally suffers itself to be beaten without offering the slightest resist- ance. If a dog be set upon a wolf thus captured, the assault is patiently endured so long as his master is present ; but as soon as the wolf is freed from the restraint imposed by the presence of his captor, he springs upon and throttles the dog, which, if not speed- ily assisted, pays the forfeit of his presumption and temerity with his life. The voice of this wolf is a prolonged and melancholy howl, which, when uttered by numerous individuals at once, is dis- cordant and frightful. The period of gestation, &c., in this species is in every respect analogous to that of the common dog. Animals exposed to so much suffering from hunger, we may readily believe, are in no way exclusive in their preference of food, and these wolves may be said to feed on every creature they can master, or on the remains of any animal left by the natives. The common wolf is about four feet and a half in length, 83 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. Meludlrg the tail, which is rather more than a foot long. The height, before, is two feet three inches ; behind, it is two feet four inches. The tail is bushy and bending downwards, having upon it hairs upwards of five inches in length. The general color of this wolf is reddish brown, intermixed with ferruginous and black ; but a great variety is to be observed in the coloring of the wolf, as found in the northern, middle, and southern regions, exhibiting gradations from grizzly white to pure black. The Prairie or Barking Wolf. — This wolf frequents tha prairies or natural meadows of the west, where troops or packs containing a considerable number of individuals are frequently seen following in the train of a herd of buffalo or deer, for the pur- pose of preying on such as may die from disease, or in conse- quence of wounds inflicted by the hunters. At night they also approach the encampments of travelers, whom they sometimes follow for the sake of the carcasses of animals which are relin- quished, and by their discordant howlings, close to the tents, effec- tually banish sleep from those who are unaccustomed to their noise. According to Say’s observation they are more numerous than any of the other wolves which are found in North America. The barking wolf closely resembles the domestic dog of the In- dians in appearance, and is remarkably active and intelligent. Like the common wolf, the individuals of this species frequently unite to run down deer, or a buffalo calf which has been separated from the herd, though it requires the fullest exercise of all their speed, sagacity and strength, to succeed in this chase. They are very often exposed to great distress from want of food, and in this state of famine are under the necessity of filling their stomachs with wild plums, or other fruits no less indigestible, in order to allay in some degree the inordinate sensations of hunger. This wolf barks in such a manner as to resemble the domestic dog very distinctly ; the first two or three notes are not to be dis- tinguished from those produced by a small tenier, but differs from that of the dog by adding to these sounds a lengthened scream. The barking wolf is about three feet and a-half in length, of which the tail forms thirteen and a-half inches, exclusive of the hair at its extremity. The ears are four inches long from the top of the head, and the distance from the anterior canthus of the eye to the end of the snout is three inches and three-fourths. The general color of the barking wolf is cinerious, or gray inter- mingled with black, and dull fulvous or cinnamon above. The QUADRUPEDS. 33 THE BLACK WOLF. The American Black Wolf. — The American black wolf, al- though less common than the other varieties, is considered more dangerous and ferocious, sometimes making sad havoc among sheep and lambs. It is found more or less abundant throughout the wooded districts of the Canadas, the northern states, and of the entire Alleghany range, to their termination in Georgia. The length of this animal is about five feet eight inches, of which the tail occupies one foot eight inches ; the height at the fore shoulders about two feet three inches, and the girth of the body about two feet seven inches. The general color of the body is brownish-black, somewhat mottled with darker shades; the belly much lighter, with a broad stripe of black, undefined at the edges, running up the breast; the back blackish, very slightly mottled with white, caused by the intermixture of different hairs ; the body is covered with a soft, thick down, light gray at the roots, 3 * hair is of a dusky lead color at base, of a dull cinnamon in the middle of its length, and gray or black at tip, being of greater length along the middle of the back and other parts of the body. The ears are erect and rounded at tip, having the hair on the back part of a cinnamon color, and dark plumbeous at base, while that on the inside is gray. u THE PESTS OF THE FARM. and brownisL gray at the end ; besides this fur, there is likewise a longer hair •v.hich is the general color of the animal ; this hair on the back is white at the roots, then black, then pure white, then black again at the tip, giving a speckled appearance to the back. The tail is large and bushy ; the hair long, loose, and nearly black, as also is the throat and breast. The feet and legs are black ; the hair on the front of the legs close, bristly, and shining. The head is black with the face covered with short, close hair ; the nose pointed, small, and black ; the ears short, pointed, and upright. The black wolf is much stronger than a dog of the same size, and his mode of biting is very different from that of a dog. In- stead of retaining his hold, like a dog, when he seizes his enemy, he bites by repeated snaps, given, however, with great force, often lacerating the flesh a foot or more to each jerk. Like all carnivo- rous animals, his thirst for blood is irresistible, and he often kills his victim without devouring the carcass, drinking the blood, the only part agreeable to his palate. When pressed with hunger, he destroys every other creature he can master, and it is believed that, during the year, he consumes at least thirty times his own weight of animal food, which, in cultivated countries, renders his injurious character more apparent, from the large number of do- mestic animals he necessarily must slay. In winter,, when the ground is covered with snow, and he finds his prey to be scarce in his natural haunts, he becomes exceedingly bold, intrudes into the sheep-folds and pig T sties, and even into villages or populous towns, in quest of food. The ordinary method of capturing wolves is in winter, by means of a steel trap. It has been found, however, that the most success- ful method of destroying them is, to drug small sausages with strychnine, or nux vomica, and hang them on the boughs of trees, at such a height, that the wolf must leap to obtain them. Under these circumstances the animal swallows the bait at once, and has not time to find out that it contains any suspicious admixture, which he often does, if the poison be applied to the carcasses of sheep, horses, &c. Another mode of poisoning them is this : The kernels of nux vomica are grated or powdered, then mixed up with three or four times their bulk of fat or grease, and honey (wolves are very fond of the latter), and made into balls about as large as a hen’s egg. These are placed in the woods, covered with a piece of flesh or tripe, and some offal is hung on a tree near the spot, to QUADRUPEDS. 36 attract the wolves by its scent. The poison once taken is sure to prove fatal, before the animals can proceed many rods. The common and the black wolf are usually destroyed in two ways. When annoyed by them the farmers frequently unite, and by a general battue destroy them. This is effected, by forming about the observed retreats of the wolf, a large circle of two or three miles in diameter. The hunters gradually close in on the point of hiding, and hedge the wolf in, when he is easily de- stroyed. A frequent means of destruction is a deep pit. This is dug so deep as to prevent the wolf from jumping out, once he is in. The pit is baited with a dead sheep or animal or carrion. The wolf jumps down for his prey, gorges himself, and then seeks to escape, but in vain. His bowlings soon inform the farmer or hunter of his imprisonment, when the pit is visited and the pri- soner killed. The prairie wolf is too sagacious to be caught by traps. He may be poisoned like the other varieties. He is frequently shot. Occupying the open prairie he is good game for the grayhound, and is often chased by him. Once the grayhound sights him, if in the open prairie, the wolf must be near the cover of a wood, or he has not the least chance of an escape. Being small, a brace of grayhounds soon dispatch him. He may be taken in pits, but is very shy of them. The Woodchuck. — This animal is the arctomys monax or mar- mot. Among the country people it bears the name of woodchuck and ground-hog, the latter being expressive of its habits of bur- rowing and peculiar voracity. The woodchuck is the cause of great injury, especially to the farmers engaged in the cultivation of clover, as their numbers be- come very considerable, and the quantity of herbage they consume is really surprising. They are more capable of doing mischief from the circumstance of their extreme vigilance and acute sense of hearing, as well as from the security afforded them by their ex- tensive subterranean dwellings. When about to make an inroad upon a clover-field, all the woodchucks resident in the vicinity quietly and cautiously steal toward the spot, being favored in their march by their gray color, which is not easily distinguished. While the main body are actively engaged in cropping the clover-heads and gorging theii ample cheek-pouches, one or more individuals remain at some dis S6 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. tance in the rear as sentinels. These watchmen sit erect, with their fore-paws hold close to their breast, and their heads slightly inclined to catch every sound which may move the air. Their ex- treme sensibility of ear enables them to distinguish the approach of an enemy long before he is sufficiently near to be dangerous, and the instant the sentinel takes alarm he gives a clear shrill whistle, which immediately disperses the troop in every direction, and they speedily take refuge in their deepest caves. The time at which such incursions are made is generally about mid-day, when THE WOODCHUCK. taey are less liable to be interrupted than at any other period, either by human or brute enemies. The habitations of the woodchuck are formed by burrowing into banks, the sides of hills, or other similar situations, by which the access of water is prevented. In forming the burrow, where the ground is soft, the fore-paws are the principal agents ; the strength of the animal’s fore limbs is very great. Where the soil is hard and compact, the long cutting teeth are very freely and effi- ciently employed, and we have been surprised to see large stones and lumps of hardened clay dug out in this way. The burrows extend to great distances under ground, and ter- minate in various chambers, according to the number of inhabit- ants. In these, very comfortable beds are made by the wood- chuck, of dry leaves, grass, or any soft dry rubbish to be collected. It is really surprising to see the vast quantity of such material an individual will cram into his mouth to carry off for this purpose. He firsts grasps with the teeth as much as he possibly can ; then sitting erect, with both fore-paws he stuffs the mass projecting on each side deeper into the mouth, and having arranged it satisfac- torily, takes up successive portions, which are treated in like man- QUADRUPEDS. 37 ner ; during the whole time the head is moved up and down to aid in filling* the mouth to the very utmost. This is repeated until every fragment at hand is collected, and the whole transferred to the sleeping apartment, into which the woodchuck retires towards the decline of the day, and remains there until the morning is far advanced. At some seasons of the year the woodchuck is seen out on moonlight nights at a considerable distance from the bur- row, either in search of better pasture or looking for a mate ; on such occasions, when attacked by a dog, the woodchuck makes battle, and when the individual is full-grown, his bite is very se- vere. The teeth of the dog give him vast superiority in the com- bat, as when once he seizes, he is sure of the hold until the parts bitten are torn through, while the woodchuck can merely pinch his foreteeth together, and must renew his attempts very frequent- ly. The fight is also soon ended by the dog seizing the wood- chuck by the small of the back, and crushing the spine so as to disable his antagonist effectually. The woodchuck is to be destroyed by dogs. The most of farm dogs are very fond of pursuing them. If the woodchuck escape to his hole, the dog will readily dig him out. But a speedier way is to smoke his hole, and drive him out, when the dog readily catches and destroys him. He is easily shot, and may be handily taken in traps. The Raccoon. — There are few parts of the American continent in which the Racoon has not, at some period, been found native, from the borders of Nootka Sound to the forests of Mexico, and still more southern regions. Were we to form an opinion of this animal’s character solely from external appearances, the mingled expression of sagacity and innocence exhibited in his aspect, his personal neatness and gentle movements, might all incline us to believe that he possessed a guileless and placable disposition. But in this, as in most other cases, where judgments are formed without sufficient examination, we should be in error, and find, that to the capricious mischievous- ness of the monkey, the racoon adds a blood-thirsty and vindictive spirit, peculiarly his own. In the wild state, this sanguinary appe- tite frequently leads to his own destruction, which his nocturnal habits might otherwise avert ; but as he slaughters the tenants of the poultry-yard with indiscriminate ferocity, the vengeance of the plundered farmer speedily retaliates on him the death so liberally dealt among the feathered victims. This destructive propensity of 38 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. Che raccoon is more remarkable, when we observe that his teeth are not unsuited for eating fruits. When he destroys wild or domes- ticated birds, he puts to death a great number without consuming any part of them, except the head, or the blood which is sucked from the neck. Being peculiarly fond of sweet substances, the raccoon is occa- sionally very destructive to plantations of sugar cane, and of Indian corn. While the ear of the Indian corn is still young, soft and tender, “ in the milk,” it is very sweet, and is then eagerly sought by the raccoons ; troops of them frequently enter fields of maize, and in one night commit extensive depredations, both by the quantity of grain they consume, and from the number of stalks they break down by their weight. The raccoon is an excellent climber, and his strong sharp claws effectually secure him from being shaken off the branches of trees. In fact, so tenaciously does this animal hold to any surface upon which it can make an impression with its claws, that it requires a considerable exertion of a man’s strength to drag him off ; and as long as even a single foot remains attached, he continues to cling with great force. The conical form of the head, and the very pointed and flexible character of the muzzle or snout, are of great importance in aiding the raccoon to examine every vacuity and crevice to which he gains access ; nor does he neglect any opportunity of using his natural advantages, but explores every nook and cranny, with the most persevering diligence and attention, greedily feeding on spi- ders, worms, or other insects which are discovered by the scrutiny. Where the opening is too small to give admittance to his nose, he employs his fore-paws, and shifts his position or turns his paws sidewise, in order to facilitate their introduction and effect his pur- pose. This disposition to feed on the grubs or larvae of insects must render this animal of considerable utility in forest lands, in consequence of the great numbers of injurious and destructive in- sects he consumes. He is also said to catch frogs with consider- able address, by slily creeping up, and then springing on them, so as to grasp them with both paws. The size of the raccoon varies with the age and sex of the indi- vidual. A full grown male may be stated to have the body a foot, or a few inches more, in length ; the highest part of the back is about a foot from the ground, while the highest part of the shoulder is ten inches The head is about five, and the tail rather QUADRUPEDS. 39 more than eight inches long. The female is larger than the male in every respect, at least such is the fact in relation to the raccoons now in my possession, which, however, have not yet attained their full growth. They are of the same age, and the female is strongly distinguished from the male by the black markings on all parts ox the body being more purely black, and the fur and hair longer, thicker, and more glossy than that of the male ; these peculiarities, in addition to her greater size, uniformly lead strangers to suppose this individual to be the male, instead of the female. The pelage of the male is not only less purely black at the extremities of the hairs, but there is a much greater intermixture of fawn-colored hair than in the female, giving more of a rusty appearance to the whole surface of his body. A young raccoon of thirty days old is about the size of a common cat of a year old, though the greater length of its legs and the bushiness of its pelage, make it at first sight appear much larger. The general color of the body is a blackish gray, which is paler on the under part of the body, and has over considerable part of the neck, back and sides, some fawn or light rust-colored hair in- termixed. The general gray color is owing to the manner in which the hairs are alternately ringed with black and dingy white. The tail is very thickly covered with hair, and is marked by five or six black rings round it, on a yellowish white ground. The head, which is about five inches long, is very triangular, and from its pointed snout reminds us of the aspect of the fox : the snout terminates in a smooth and shining black membrane, through which the nostrils open, having the slit to rise slightly at the sides. The nose is prolonged considerably beyond the upper jaw, and this, together with its great flexibility, gives the animal great advantages in exploring little crevices and crannies for in- sects, n red squirrel is, perhaps, more remarkable for its neatness and beauty than any of its kindred species, which, in habits and manners, it closely resembles. It is between seven and eight inches long, having a tail five inches in length. Its whiskers are very long and black ; the superior parts of the body are of a reddish brown color, varying in intensity, and shaded with black. On the inferior parts the general color is a tarnished or yellowish white ; the under part of the head and front of the fore limbs are reddish brown, like the back ; the insides of the thighs are colored like the belly ; on each flank there is a distinctly marked black line, separating the colors of the back and belly. The tail is of a reddish brown color, and is very beautiful. The red squirrel is a great pest in orchards. He will frequently destroy a hundred pears in a day to get the seeds, which alone he eats. Tire Ground Squirrel (commonfy called the Chipmunk, Haeky or Hackee, Ground, or Striped Squirrel). — Few persons have traveled without becoming acquainted with this pretty ani- mal, which, though very different in its general appearance from its kindred tenanting the lofty forest-trees, still approaches to them so closely in personal beauty and activity, as always to command the attention of the most incidental observer. This squirrel is most generally seen scudding along the lower rails of the common zig-zag or “ Virginia” fences, which afford him at once a pleasant and secure path, as in a few turns he finds a safe hiding-place behind the projecting angles, or enters his bur- row undiscovered. When no fence is near, or his retreat is cut oft’, after having been out in search of food, he becomes exceedingly alarmed, and runs up the nearest tree, uttering a very shrill cry or whistle, indicative of his distress, and it is in this situation that he is most frequently made captive by his persecuting enemies, the mischievous school-boys. The ground squirrel makes his burrow generally near the roots of trees, along the course of fences and old walls, or in banks ad- jacent to forests, whence he obtains his principal supplies of food. The burrows frequently extend to very considerable distances, having several galleries or lateral excavations, in which provisions are stored for winter use. The burrow has always two openings, which are usually far distant from each other ; it very rarely hap- pens that the animal is dug out, unless it be accidentally during the winter season. 48 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. The ground squirrel is rather more than five inches in length, from the nose to the root of the tail ; the last is about two inches and a half long. The general color of the head and upper parts of the body is reddish brown, all the hairs on these parts being gray at base. The eyelids are whitish, and from the external angle of each eye a black line runs towards the ear, while on each cheek there is a reddish brown line. The short rounded ears are covered with fine hairs, which are on the outside of a reddish brown color, and within of a whitish gray. The upper part of the neck, shoulders, and base of the hair on the back, are of a gray brown, mingled with whitish. On the back there are five longitudinal black bands, which are at their posterior parts bordered slightly with red. The middle one begins at the back of the head, the two lateral ones on the shoulders ; they all terminate at the rump, whose color is reddish. On each side two white separate the lateral black bands. The lower part of the flanks and sides of the neck are of a paler red ; the exterior of the fore feet is of a grayish yellow ; the thighs and hind feet are red above. The upper lip, the chin, throat, oelly, and internal face of the limbs are of a dirty brown. The tail is reddish at its base, blackish below, and has an edging of black. The ground squirrel is sadly injurious to corn or grain fields, just planted or sown, when the fields are near woods. The squir- rel digs up the grain, and renders planting or sowing again ne- cessary. The gun is the main means for the destruction of the various squirrels. RATS, MICE, AND THEIR KIND. We have hitherto been discussing subjects, presenting rather a doubtful aspect, as affording the possibility of the query arising as to the positive or actual title which they hold to rank amongst the “Pests” of “the Farm.” The present article is designed to em- brace an inquiry into the character of a class of animals relative to which no possible mistake can exist, — a class of animals whose dep- redations are universally felt — animals noxious to all, and possessed of no single redeeming quality which can elicit the defence of any one advocate. As to extermination meaning extirpation , that is an end that, even with the greatest assiduity on the part of man, it would be next to hopeless to expect to arrive at ; none will question QUADRUPEDS. 49 the right which man, as the heaven-appointed lord of the creation, possesses to protect his property from the inroads of the invaders, and to check, by every means within his power, the extension of any race of animals, who, if they are to live, must live to his detriment, upon the fruit of his labor. Of all four-footed vermin, perhaps, rats and mice, with their varieties, are the greatest foes to the agri- culturist, nay, to man generally. It is, in short, but a choice be- tween their extermination and his ; for if suffered to increase in numbers, unchecked, the time would not be far distant when the entire globe would but suffice to furnish food for their rapacious appetites, to the exclusion of the human race, created by our Divine Maker himself its legitimate sovereign and lord. Sentimental theorists need not fear the extinction of this troublesome tribe ; let us proceed with all our vigor — let us call into exercise every re source of human cunning, and we shall still find ourselves, to a great extent, baffled by these diminutive marauders, who, despite of all our efforts, continue to thrive, to multiply, to grow fat upon the products of our toil. The utmost that we can effect is to deci- mate their ranks ; we may diminish their numbers, but extirpate them — never ! I am far from blaming the poor creatures for their predatory habits. I am fully aware, that in following them, they do but follow certain instincts implanted for wise purposes in their natures, and which, when the earth was yet scantily peopled, and artificial culture comparatively unknown, must have conduced greatly to utility. So it was at creation — so it has been. But many tribes of animals were then created by the Almighty with a view to so many special purposes. According as man advances in knowledge and consequent improvement, so does the necessity for the intervention of brutal aid decrease, until at length what was at first a blessing, will if suffered to remain, become a pest. So it was with the Rat. In earlier ages, when man had no settled habita- tion, but roved to and fro upon the earth, killing, eating, and wast- ing, the aid of such animals, as scavengers , was most necessary, in order to maintain the atmosphere in such a pure and healthful con- dition as was necessary for his support. As cultivation of the soil commenced and progressed, and as the nomadic habits to which I allude ceased, so did the necessity cease for these animals to exist in their wonted numbers. We may, therefore, legitimately con- clude, I think, that when it becomes, as it has become, a positive battle between the rats and man for the produce of the ground, and when that produce owes its existence to the labor of the latter, that 3 50 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. ho possesses every legitimate right to exterminate, if he can, his vermin foes, root and branch, and to cry, with the clearest of con- sciences, “ War — war to the — ” trap ! There are three descriptions of Rat generally known as a nui- sance to the farmer or merchant : the common Brown or Norway Rat, the indigenous Black Rat, and the Water Rat. The last men- tioned is seldom a true rat ; for what is usually known as Water Hat is not a rat at all, but an animal of an allied genus, properly to be called Vole. The common Brown Rat sometimes also presents Al- bino characters, that is to say, it is occasionally to be found of a white color, with red eyes. It is not my intention, neither would it suit the purpose of the present work, to enter at any length into the natural history of these animals ; a brief description will there- fore suffice. THE COMMON BROWN RAT. The most formidable is the common Brown Rat ( mus decunxmm ), an animal for whose importation we are indebted to the Norwegians, and which has now almost wholly extirpated our indigenous va- riety, the Black Rat (mus rattus). These animals require no de- scription ; — very little to our satisfaction, we are too well acquainted with their appearance. The Black Rat is smaller than the now common variety ; its color is a slaty blue, sometimes a jet black, and its tail is longer and more scaly than that of its Norwegian conqueror. The White Rat is rare, and is merely an accidental variety of the Brown. These animals are all equally mischievous, and resemble each other in their habits, so that the same mode of destruction will answer for all. Various plans for the destruction of rats have been suggested, but I confess that I am not & little surprised that the adoption of some effectual means should be so little general as it is ; for I am prepared to assert that were all who QUADRUPEDS. 51 suffer from the ravages of these pests to apply themselves energeti- cally to the task of getting rid of them, they would — not, certainly, be wholly exterminated, but would become so reduced in numbers as to be no longer formidable — cease, in short, to occupy a position among the “ Pests of the Farm.” There are two methods by which rats can be effectually destroyed — traps and poison. Some writers have recommended the former ; others have been in favor of the latter. My own experi- ence induces me to state, that neither is to be adopted to the exclu- sion of the other, both being equally good under certain circum- stances ; it must, however, be admitted, that trapping is only suited to instances where the vermin are few in number ; where they swarm, wholesale measures must be resorted to, and the trapping of indi- viduals would be idle and useless. When traps are to be em- ployed a small steel spring-trap, similar to that which I have de- scribed when treating of the wild cat, &c., but of course much smaller, is that to be preferred. It must be washed after each cap- ture, and the person who sets it should disguise the natural odor of his person, by using a little malt, impregnated slightly with a mixture of equal parts of the oils of rhodium and caraway. The proportions are 1 part of the mixed oils to 5,000 parts of malt. A por- tion of this should be rubbed between the hands at each manipulation ; this is one of the great secrets of profession- al rat-catchers. The above is one of the most attractive baits for rats that can be used, and may be either employed in baiting traps, or in acting as a vehicle for using poison. There is another very good description of trap, already described, open at both ends, the doors closing on the J rats running upon a bridge in the middle. We have endeavored to explain the construction of this accompanying wood-cuts, the two first of 62 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. which represent the parts of the trap in a detached state — the third as it appears when set. There is also a very sim- ple description of trap, which any rustic can make, and which, in the absence of bet- ter, may be used with effect : it consists of a long box, open at one end, having the sides grooved to admit a sliding door. The better to enable the reader to understand the construc- tion of this trap, we subjoin the accompanying wood-cut : A — Represents the en- trance. B — An upright , supporting a horizontal beam, attached at C to a string fastened to a bit of meat, which, passing between the two wires represented in the wood-cut, is thus held in that position. D — Is the door, formed of heavy material, and running freely in grooves. When the horizontal beam is drawn downwards, the bit of meat placed between the wires at C, the door D rises, and the trap is set. The rat, entering at D, bites the meat at C ; the weight of the door, no longer restrained, brings it suddenly down, and the animal is trapped. There can- not be a better trap than this, when the nuisance is confined to a few solitary rats ; but, as it only catches one at a time, it is com- paratively useless where these pests exist in any number : the fact is, that poison is then the only method to be relied on. There are many objections to the use of poison ; amongst others, the obvious one of the danger of poultry, dogs, or other animals, eating the fatal mess, and falling victims to their error. To obviate this and other objections, I shall show how the desired end can be attained by means of a substance fatal to the rats alone — the basis of that substance is phosphorus. “ The following recipe for the destruction of rats has been com- QUADRUPEDS. 53 municated by Dr. Ure to the Council of the English Agricultural Society, and is highly recommended as the best known means of getting rid of these most obnoxious and destructive vermin. It has been tried by several intelligent persons, and found perfectly effectual. Melt hog’s lard in a bottle plunged in water, heated to about 150 degrees of Fahrenheit; introduce into it half an ounce of phosphorus for every pound of lard ; then add a pint of proof- spirit or whiskey ; cork the bottle firmly after its contents have been heated to 150 degrees, taking it at the same time out of the water, and agitate smartly till the phosphorus becomes uniformly diffused, forming a milky-looking liquid. This liquid, being cooled, will afford a white compound of phosphorus and lard, from which the spirit spontaneously separates, and may be poured off to be used again, for none of it enters into the combination, but it merely serves to comminute the phosphorus, and diffuse it in very fine particles through the lard. This compound, on being warmed very gently, may be poured out into a mixture of wheat flour and sugar incorporated therewith, and then flavored with oil of rhodium, or not, at pleasure. The flavor may be varied with oil of aniseed, tried with a view of checking them, it is thought that 90 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. “ the careful and systematic use of lime will obviate, in a great de- gree, the danger which has been experienced ” from this insect From this and other statements in favor of the use of lime, there is good reason to hope that it will effectually protect plants from the various kinds of flea-beetles, if dusted over them, when wet with dew, in proper season. Watering plants with alkaline solutions, it is said, will kill the insects without injuring the plants. The solu- tion may be made by dissolving one pound of hard soap in twelve gallons of the soap-suds left after washing. This mixture should be applied twice a day with a water-pot. Kollar very highly rec- ommends watering or wetting the leaves of plants with an infusion or tea of wormwood, which prevents the flea-beetles from touching them. Perhaps a decoction of walnut-leaves might be equally ser- viceable. Great numbers of the beetles may be caught by the skil- ful use of a deep bag-net of muslin, which should be swept over the plants infested by the beetles, after which the latter may be easily destroyed. This net cannot be used with safety to catch the in- sects on very young plants, on account of the risk of bruising or breaking their tender leaves. Potato Fly. — Occasionally potato-vines are very much infested by two or three kinds of Cantharides, or blistering flies, swarms of w T hich attack and destroy the leaves during midsummer. One of these kinds has thereby obtained the name of the potato-fly. It is the Cantharis vittata , or striped Cantharis. It is of a dull tawny yellow or light yellowish red color above, with two black spots on the head, and two black stripes on the thorax and on each of the wing-covers. The under-side of the body, the legs, and the an- tennae are black, and covered with a grayish down. Its length is from five to six tenths of an inch. The thorax is very much nar- rowed before, and the wing-covers are long and narrow, and cover the whole of the back. The striped Cantharis is comparatively rare in New England ; but in the Middle States it often appears in great numbers, and does much mischief in potato-fields and gardens, eat- ing up not only the leaves of the potato, but those of many other vegetables. Another kind of blistering fly is the ash-colored Cantharis. When the insect is rubbed, the ash-colored substance comes off, leaving the surface black. It begins to appear in gardens about the twentieth of June, and is very fond of the leaves of the English bean, which it sometimes entirely destroys. It is also occasionally found in considerable numbers on potato-vines ; and it has repeat- IK SECTS. 91 edly appeared in great profusion upon the honey-locust, which has been entirely stripped of foliage by these voracious insects. In the night, and in rainy weather, they descend from the plants, and burrow in the ground, or under leaves and tufts of grass. Thither also they retire for shelter during the heat of the day, being most actively engaged in eating in the morning and evening. About the first of August they go into the ground and lay their eggs, and these are hatched in the course of one month. The larvae are slen- der, somewhat flattened grubs, of a yellowish color, banded with black, with a small reddish head, and six legs. These grubs are very active in their motions, and appear to live upon fine roots in the ground. About the middle of August, and during the rest of this and the following month, a jet-black Cantharis may be seen on potato- vines, and also on the blossoms and leaves of various kinds of golden-rod, particularly the tall golden-rod ( Solidago altissima ), which seems to be its favorite food. In some places it is as plen- tiful in potato fields as the striped and the margined Cantharis, and by its serious ravages has often excited attention. These three kinds, in fact, are often confounded under the common name of po- tato-flies. These insects are taken, in considerable quantities, by brushing or shaking them from the potato-vines into a broad tin pan, from which they are emptied into a covered pail containing a little water in it, which, by wetting their wings, prevents their flying out when the pail is uncovered. The same method may be employed for taking the other kinds of Cantharides, when they become troublesome and destructive from their numbers ; or they may be caught by gently sweeping the plants they frequent with a deep muslin bag-net. They should be killed by throwing them into scalding water, for one or two minutes, after which they may be spread out on sheets of paper to dry, and may be made profit- able by selling them to the apothecaries for medical use. Grasshoppers and Locusts. — Most grasshoppers are of a green color, and are furnished with wings and wing-covers, the latter fre- quently resembling the leaves of trees, upon which, indeed, many of these insects pass the greater part of their lives. Their leaf-like form and green color evidently seem to have been designed for the better concealment of these insects. They commit their eggs to the earth, dropping them into holes made for this purpose by their piercers. They lay a large number of eggs at a time, and cover them with a kind of varnish, which, when dry, forms a thin film 92 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. that completely encloses them. Their egg’s are laid in the au umn, and usually arc not hatched till the following spring. They are nocturnal insects, or at least more active by night than by day. When taken between the fingers, they emit from their mouths a considerable quantity of dark-colored fluid, as do also the locusts or diurnal grasshoppers. They devour the leaves of trees, and of other plants, and lead a solitary life, or at least do not associate and mi- grate from place to place in great swarms, like some of the crickets and the locusts. Locusts. — The various insects included under the name of locusts nearly all agree in having their wing-covers rather long and narrow, and placed obliquely along the sides of the body, meeting, and even overlapping for a short distance, at their upper edges, which to- gether form a ridge on the back like a sloping roof. Their antennae are much shorter than those of most grasshoppers, and do not taper towards the end, but are nearly of equal thickness at both extremities. Their feet have really only three joints ; but as the under-side of the first joint is marked by one or two cross lines, the feet, when seen only from below, seem to be four or five jointed. Although the ravages of locusts in America are not followed by such serious consequences as in the Eastern continent, yet they are sufficiently formidable to have attracted attention, and not unfre- quently have these insects laid waste considerable tracts, and oc- casioned no little loss to the cultivator of the soil. Our salt-marshes, which are accounted among the most productive and valuable ot our natural meadows, are frequented by great numbers of the small red-legged species ( Acrydium femur-rubrurn), intermingled occa- sionally with some larger kinds. These, in certain seasons, almost entirely consume the grass of these marshes, from whence they then take their course to the uplands, devouring, in their way, grass, corn, and vegetables, till checked by the early frosts, or by the close of the natural term of their existence. When a scanty crop of Hay has been gathered from the grounds which these puny pests have ravaged, it becomes so tainted with the putrescent bodies of the dead locusts contained in it, that it is rejected by horses and cattle. In this country locusts are not distinguished from grass- hoppers, and are generally, though incorrectly, comprehended un- der the same name, or under that of flying grasshoppers. They are, however, if we make allowance for their inferior size, quite as voracious and injurious to vegetation during the young or larva and pupa states, when they are not provided wLh wings, as they are INSECTS. 93 when fully grown. During dry seasons, they often appear in great multitudes, and are the greedy destroyers of the half-parched her- bage. In many parts of the United States these locusts appear in myriads, and their devastations in dry seasons ,are horrible. The locusts may be taken by means of a piece of stout cloth, carried by four persons, two of whom draw it rapidly along, so that the edge may sweep over the surface of the soil, and the two others hold up the cloth behind at an angle of forty-five degrees. This contrivance seems to operate somewhat like a horse-rake, in gathering the in- sects into winrows or heaps, from which they are speedily trans ferred to large sacks. When these insects are very prevalent, it will be advisable to mow the grass early, so as to secure a crop be- fore it has suffered much loss. The time for doing this will be de- termined by the period when the most destructive species come to maturity during the latter part of July. If then, the meadows are mowed about the first of July, the locusts, being at that time small and not provided with wings, will be unable to migrate, and will consequently perish on the ground for the want of food, while a tolerable crop of hay will be secured, and the marshes will suffer less from the insects during the following summer. This, like all other preventive measures, must be generally adopted, in order to prove effectual ; for it will avail a farmer but little to take preven- tive measures on his own land, if his neighbors, who are equally exposed and interested, neglect to do the same. Many birds de- vour them, particularly our domestic fowls, which eat great num- bers of grasshoppers, locusts, and even crickets. Young turkeys, if allowed to go at large during the summer, derive nearly the whole of their subsistence from these insects. The great increase of these and other noxious insects may fairly be attributed to the extermi- nating war which has wantonly been waged upon our insect-eating birds, and we may expect the evil to increase unless these little friends of the farmer are protected, or left undisturbed to multiply, and follow their natural habits. Meanwhile, some advantage may be derived from encouraging the breed of our domestic fowls. A flock of young chickens or turkeys, if suffered to go at large in a garden, while the mother is confined within their sight and hear- ing, under a suitable crate or cage, will devour great numbers of destructive insects ; and our farmers should be urged to pay more attention than heretofore to the rearing of chickens, young turkeys, and ducks, with a view to the benefits to be derived from their de- struction of insects. I 91 TIIE PESTS OF THE FARM. Plant Lice. —The Aphidians, in which group we include the insects commonly known by the name of plant-lice, differ remark- ably from all the foregoing in their appearance, their formation, and 4heir manner of increase. Their bodies are very soft, and usually more or less oval. Aphides , or plant-lice as they are usually called, are among the most extraordinary of insects. They are found upon almost all parts of plants, the roots, stems, young shoots, buds, and leaves, and there is scarcely a plant which does not harbor one or two kinds peculiar to itself. They are, moreover, exceedingly prolific, for one individual, in five generations, may become the progenitor of nearly six thousand millions of descendants. It often happens that the succulent extremities and stems of plants will, in an in- credibly short space of time, become completely coated with a liv- ing mass of these little lice. These are usually wingless, consisting of the young and of the females only ; for winged individuals aj> pear only at particular seasons, usually in the autumn, but some- times in the spring, and these are small males and larger females. After pairing, the latter lay their eggs upon or near the leaf-buds of the plant upon which they live, and, together with the males, soon afterwards perish. The winged plant-lice provide for a succession of their race by stocking the plants with eggs in the autumn. These are hatched in due time in the spring, and the young lice immediately begin to pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rapidly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state, it is found that the brdbd, without a single exception, consists wholly of fe- males, which are wingless, but are in a condition immediately to continue their kind. Their young, however, are not hatched from eggs, but are produced alive, and each female may be the mother of fifteen or twenty young lice in the course of a single day. The plant-lice of this second generation are also wingless females, which grow up and have their young in due time ; and thus brood after brood is produced, even to the seventh generation or more, without the appearance or intervention, throughout the whole season, of a single male. This extraordinary kind of propagation ends in the autumn with the birth of a brood of males and females, which in due time acquire wings and pair ; eggs are then laid by these fe- males, and with the death of these winged individuals, which soon follows, the racejbecomes extinct for the season. The peach-tree suffers very much from the attacks of plant-ILe* INSECTS. 95 which live under the leaves, causing them by their punctures to become thickened, to curl, or form hollows beneath, and corre- sponding crispy and reddish swellings above, and finally to perish and drop off prematurely. The depredations of these lice is one of the causes, if not the only cause of the peculiar malady affecting the peach-tree in the early part of summer, and called the blight. Plant-lice produce a blight of apple-trees occasionally. The injuries occasioned by plant-lice are much greater than would at first be expected from the small size and extreme weakness of the insects ; but these make up by their numbers what they want in strength individually, and thus become formidable enemies to vegetation. By their punctures, and the quantity of sap which they draw from the leaves, the functions of these important organs are deranged or interrupted, the food of the plant, which is there elab- orated to nourish the stem and mature the fruit, is withdrawn, before it can reach its proper destination, or is contaminated and left in a state unfitted to supply the wants of vegetation. Plants are differently affected by these insects. Some wither and cease to grow, their leaves and stems put on a sickly appearance, and soon die from exhaustion. Others, though not killed, are greatly impeded in their growth, and their tender parts, which are attacked, become stunted, curled, or warped. The punctures of these lice seem to poison some plants, and affect others in a most singular manner, producing warts or swellings, which are sometimes solid and sometimes hollow, and contain in their interior a swarm of lice, the descendants of a single individual, whose punctures were the original cause of the tumor. When trees are infected, scrape off all the rough bark of the in- fected trees, and make them perfectly clean and smooth early in the spring ; then rub the trunk and limbs with a stiff brush wet with a solution of potash as hereafter recommended for the destruc- tion of bark-lice ; after which remove the sods and earth around the bottom of the trunk, and with the scraper, brush, and alkaline liquor cleanse that part as far as the roots can conveniently be un- covered. The earth and sods should immediately be carried away, fresh loam should be placed around the roots, and all cracks and wounds should be filled with grafting cement or clay mortar. Small limbs and extremities of branches, if infected, and beyond reach of the applications, should be cut off and burned. This insect is mischievous and destructive to well grown and riper mg grass plants ; its minute character has allowed it to escape- 96 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. the notice of the farmers generally, until recently, when its ravages on grass fields, reserved for hay, have exhibited their depreda- tions, brown spots or areas, the herbage having been destroyed by these voracious creatures ; these minute insects are countless in number, and need the observance and study of every carefu. farmer. Bark-Lice. — These insects vary very much in form ; some of them are oval and slightly convex scales, and others have the shape of a muscle ; some are quite convex, and either formed like a boat turned bottom upwards, or are kidney shaped, or globular. They live mostly on the bark of the stems of plants, some however, are habitually found upon leaves, and some on roots. Early in the spring the bark-lice are found apparently torpid, situated longitu- dinally in regard to the branch, the head upwards, and sticking by their flattened inferior surface closely to the bark. On attempting to remove them they are generally crushed, and there issues from the body a dark colored fluid. By pricking them with a pin, they can be made to quit their hold. A little later the body is more swelled, an 1, on carefully raising it with a knife, numerous oblong eggs will be discovered beneath it, and the insect appears dried up and dead, and only its outer skin remains, which forms a convex cover to its future progeny. Under this protecting shield the young are hatched, and, on the approach of warm weather, make their escape at the lower end of the shield, which is either slightly < 1 vated or notched at this part. They then move with consider- able activity, and disperse themselves over the young shoots o leaves. These young lice insert their beaks into the bark or leaves, and draw from the cellular substance the sap that nourishes them. Young apple trees, and the extremities of the limbs of older trees are very much subject to the attacks of a small species of bark- louse. The limbs and smooth parts of the trunks are sometimes completely covered with these insects, and present a very singularly wrinkled and rough appearance from the bodies which are crowded closely together. In the winter these insects are torpid, and appa- rently dead. These insects have now become extremely common, and infest our nurseries and young trees to a very great extent. The best application for the destruction of the lice is a wash made of two parts of soft soap and eight of water, with which is to be mixed lime enough to bring it to the consistence of thick white- wash. This is to be put upon the trunks and limbs of the trees with a brush, and as high as practicable, so as to cover the whole INSECTS. 97 surface, and fill all the cracks in the bark. The proper time for washing over the trees is in the early part of June, when the in- sects are young and tender. These insects may also be killed by using in the same way a solution of two pounds of potash in seven quarts of water, or a pickle consisting of a quart of common salt in two gallons of water. Peach Tree Borer. — The pernicious borer, which, during many years past, has proved very destructive to peach-trees throughout the United States, is a species of uEgeria , named exitiosa, or the de- structive. The eggs, from which these borers are hatched, are de- posited, in the course of the summer, upon the trunk of the tree near the root ; the borers penetrate the bark, and devour the inner bark and sap-wood. The seat of their operations is known by the castings and gum which issue from the holes in the tree. When these borers are nearly one year old, they make their cocoons either under the bark of the trunk or of the root, or in the earth and gum contiguous to the base of the trees ; soon afterwards they are trans- formed to chrysalids, and finally come forth in the winged state, and lay the eggs for another generation of borers. The last trans- formation takes place from June to October. Hence borers, of all sizes, will be found in the trees throughout the year, although it seems to be necessary that all of them, whether more or less ad- vanced, should pass through one winter before they appear in the winged state. As a remedy remove the earth around the base of the tree, crush and destroy the cocoons and borers which may be found in it, and under the bark, cover the wounded parts with common clay composition or mortar, and surround the trunk with a strip of sheathing-paper eight or nine inches wide, which should extend two inches below the level of the soil, and be secured with strings of matting above. Fresh mortar should then be placed around the root, so as to confine the paper and prevent access beneath it, and the remaining cavity may be filled with new or unexhausted loam. This operation should be performed in the spring or during the month of June. In the winter the strings may be removed, and in the following spring the trees should again be examined for any borers that may have escaped search before, and the protecting ap- plications should be renewed. 5 98 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. CATERPILLARS. Yellow Bear Caterpillar. — Of all the hairy caterpillars fre- quenting our gardens, there are none so common and troublesome in the Northern States as that called the yellow be'ar by Harris. Like most of its genus it is a very general feeder, devouring almost all kinds of herbaceous plants, with equal relish, from the broad- leaved plantain at the door-side, the peas, beans, and even the flowers of the garden, and the corn and coarse grasses of the fields, to the leaves of the vine, the currant, and the gooseberry, which it does not refuse when pressed by hunger. This kind of caterpillar varies very much in its colors ; it is perhaps most often of a pale yellow or straw color, with a black line along each side of the body, and a transverse line of the same color between each of the seg- ments or rings, and it is covered with long pale yellow hairs. Others are often seen of a rusty or brownish yellow color, with the same black lines on the sides and between the rings, and they are clothed with foxy red or light brown hairs. The head and ends of the feet are ochre-yellow, and the under-side of the body is blackish in all the varieties. They are to be found of different ages and sizes from the first of June till October. When hilly grown they are about two inches long, and then creep into some convenient place of shelter, make their cocoons, in which they remain in the chrysalis state during the winter, and are changed to moths in the months of May or June following. Some of the first broods of these caterpillars appear to come to their growth early in summer, and are transformed to moths by the end of July or the beginning of August, at which time I have repeatedly taken them in the winged state ; but the greater part pass through their last change in June. The moth is familiarly known by the name of the white miller, and is often seen about houses. Its scientific name is Arc- tic! Virginka. It is white, with a black point on the middle of the fore-wings, and two black dots on the hind-wings, one on the mid- dle and the other near the posterior angle, much more distinct on the under than on the upper side ; there is a row of black dots on the top of the back, another on each side, and between these a lon- gitudinal deep yellow stripe ; the hips and thighs of tbo fore-legs are also ochre-yellow. It expands from one inch and a ): al-f to two inches. Pick off the caterpillars from day to day and crush them, and do not spare “ the pretty white millers,” frequently found on the fences, or on the plants, laying their golden yellow eggs. INSECTS. 99 The Salt-marsh Caterpillar, an insect by far too well known on our sea-board, and now getting to be common in the interior, closely resembles the yellow bear in some of its varieties. These appear toward the end of June, and grow rapidly from that time till the first of August. During this month they come to their full size, and begin to run, as the phrase is, or retreat from the marshes, and disperse through the adjacent uplands, often committing very extensive ravages in their progress. Corn-fields, gardens, and even the rank weeds by the way-side afford them temporary nourish- ment while wandering in search of a place of security from the tide and weather. They conceal themselves in walls, under stones, in hay-stacks and mows, in wood-piles, and in any other places in their way, which will afford them the proper degree of shelter during the winter. Here they make their coarse hairy cocoons, and change to chrysalids, in which form they remain till the following summer, and are transformed to moths in the month of June. In those cases where, from any cause, the caterpillars, when arrived at ma- turity, have been unable to leave the marshes, they conceal them- selves beneath the stubble, and there make their cocoons. Such, for the most part, is the course and duration of the lives of these insects in the Northern States ; but in the Middle and Southern States two broods are brought to perfection annually ; and even here some of them run through their course sooner, and produce a second brood of caterpillars in the same season. The full-grown caterpillar measures one inch and three quarters or more in length. It is clothed with long hairs, which are sometimes black and some- times brown on the back and forepart of the body, and of a lighter brown color on the sides. The hairs grow in spreading clusters from warts, which are of a yellowish color in this species. The body, when stripped of the hairs, is yellow, shaded at the sides with black, and there is a blackish line extending along the top of the back. The breathing-holes are white, and very distinct even through the hairs. These caterpillars, when feeding on the marshes, are sometimes overtaken by the tide, and when escape becomes im possible, they roll themselves up in a circular form, and abandon themselves to their fate. The hairs on their bodies seem to have a repelling power, and prevent the water from wetting their skins, so that they float on the surface, and are often carried by the waves to distant places, where they are thrown on shore, and left in win- rows with the wash of the sea. After a little time most of them recover from their half-drowned condition, and begin their depre- 100 the: pests of the farm. dations anew. In this way these insects seem to have spread from the places where they first appeared to others at a considerable distance. In order to lessen the ravages of the salt-marsh caterpillars, and to secure a fair crop of hay when these insects abound, the marshes should be mowed early in July, at which time the caterpillars are small and feeble, and being unable to wander far, will die before the crop is gathered in. In defence of early mowing, it may be said that it is the only way by which the grass may be saved in those meadows where the caterpillars have multiplied to any ex- tent ; and, if the practice is followed generally, and continued du- ring several years in succession, it will do much towards extermi- •nating these destructive insects. By the practice of late mowing, where the caterpillars abound, a great loss in the crop will be sus- tained, immense numbers of caterpillars and grasshoppers will be left to grow to maturity and disperse upon the uplands, by which means the evil will go on increasing from year to year ; or they will be brought in with the hay to perish in our barns and stacks, where their dead bodies will prove offensive to the cattle, and occa- sion a waste of fodder. To get rid of “ the old fog ” or stubble, which becomes much thicker and longer in consequence of early mowing, the marshes should be burnt over in March. The roots of the grass will not be injured by burning the stubble, on the con- trary they will be "fertilized by the ashes ; while great numbers of young grasshoppers, cocoons of caterpillars, and various kinds of destructive insects, with their eggs, concealed in the stubble, will be destroyed by the fire. In the Province of New Brunswick, the benefit arising from burning the stubble has long been proved. Of the caterpillars which devour the leaves of trees, the most common and destructive are the little caterpillars known by the name of fall web-worms, whose large webs, sometimes extending over entire branches with their leaves, may be seen on our native elms, and also on apple and other fruit trees, in the latter part of summer. The eggs, from which these caterpillars proceed, are laid by the parent moth in a cluster upon a leaf near the extremity of a branch ; they are hatched from the last of June till the middle of August, some broods being early and others late, and the young caterpillars immediately begin to provide a si elter for themselves, by covering the upper side of the leaf with a web, which is the result of the united labors of the whole brood. They feed in com- pany beneath this web, devouring only the upper skin and pulpy INSECTS. 101 portion of the leaf, leaving the veins and lower skin of the leaf un- touched. As they increase in size, they enlarge their web, carry- ing it over the next lower leaves, all the upper and pulpy parts of which are eaten in the same way, and thus they continue to work downwards, till finally the web covers a large portion of the branch, with its dry, brown, and filmy foliage, reduced to this unseemly condition by these little spoilers. These catei pillars when fully- grown, measure rather more than one inch in length ; their bodies are slender and are very thinly clothed with hairs of a grayish color, intermingled with a few which are black. The general color of the body is greenish yellow dotted with black ; there is a broad black- ish stripe along the top of the back, and a bright yellow stripe on each side. The warts, from which the thin bundles of spreading, silky hairs proceed, are black on the back, and rust-yellow or orange on the sides. The head and feet are black. Towards the end of August and during the month of September they leave the trees, disperse, and wander about, eating such plants as happen to lie in their course, till they have found suitable places for shelter and con- cealment where they make their thin and almost transparent co- coons, composed of a slight web of silk intermingled with a few hairs. They remain in the cocoons in the chrysalis state through the winter, and are transformed to moths in the months of June and July. These moths are white, and without spots; the fore- thighs are tawny-yellow, and the feet blackish. Their wings ex- pand from one inch and a quarter to one inch and three eighths. Their antennae and feelers do not differ essentially from those of the majority of the Arctians, the former in the males being doubly feathered beneath, and those of the females having two rows of mi- nute teeth on the under-side. The only time in which we can at- tempt to exterminate these destructive insects with any prospect of success, is when they are young and just beginning to make their webs on the trees. So soon, then, as the webs begin to appear on the extremities of the branches, they should be stripped off, with the few leaves which they cover, and the caterpillars contained therein, at one grasp, and should be crushed under foot. Apple-Tree Caterpillars. — During the months of July and August, there may be found on apple-trees and rose-bushes little slender caterpillars of a bright yellow color, sparingly clothed with long and fine yellow hairs on the sides of the body, and having four short and thick brusli-like yellowish tufts on the back, that is on the fourth and three following rings, two long black plumes or 102 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. pencils extending forwards from the first ring, and a single plu late on the top of the eleventh ring. The head, and the two little re- tractile warts on the ninth and tenth rings are coral red ; there is a narrow black or brownish stripe along the top of the back, and a wider dusky stripe on each side of the body. These pretty cat- erpillars do not ordinarily herd together, but sometimes our apple- trees are much infested by them. When they have done eating, they spin their cocoons on the leaves, or on the branches or trunks of the trees, or on fences in the vicinity. The chrysalis is not only beset with little hairs or down, but has three oval clusters of branny scales on the back. In about eleven days after the change to the chrysalis is effected, the last transformation follows, and the insects come forth in the adult state, the females wingless, and the males with large ashen-gray wings, crossed by wavy darker bands on the upper pair, on which, moreover, is a small black spot near the tip, and a minute white crescent near the outer hind angle. The body of the male is small and slender, with a row of little tufts along the back, and the wings expand one inch and three eighths. The females are of a lighter gray color than the males, their bodies are very thick, and of an oblong oval shape, and, though seemingly wingless, upon close examination two little scales, or stinted wing- lets, can be discovered on each shoulder. These females lay their eggs upon the top of their cocoons, and cover them with a large quantity of frothy matter, which on drying becomes white and brittle. Different broods of these insects appear at various times in the course of the summer, but the greater number come to matu- rity and lay their eggs in the latter part of August, and the begin- ning of September ; and these eggs are not hatched till the follow- ing summer. The name of this moth is Orgyia leucostigma, the white-marked Orgyia or tussock-moth. In Hovey’s Gardener’s Magazine Mr. Ives states, that on passing through an apple orchard in February, he “ perceived nearly all the trees speckled with occa- sional dead leaves, adhering so firmly to the branches as to require considerable force to dislodge them. Each le*»f covered a small patch of from one to two hundred eggs, united together, as well as to the leaf, by a gummy and silken fibre, peculiar to the moth.” In March he “visited the same orchard, and, as an experiment, cleared three trees, from which he took twenty-one bunches of eggs. The remainder of the trees he left untouched until the tenth of May, when he fo'iqd the caterpillars were hatched from the eggs, and had commenced their slow but sure ravages. He watched them from INSECTS. 103 time to time, until many t ranches had been spoiled of their leaves, and in the autumn were entirely destitute of fruit ; while the three trees, which had been stripped of the eggs, were flush with foliage, each limb, without exception, ripening its fruit.” These pertinent remarks point out the nature and extent of the evil, and suggest the proper remedy to be used against the ravages of these insects. Lackey Caterpillar. — There is a kind of caterpillars that swarm in the unpruned nurseries and neglected orchards of the slovenly husbandman, and hang their many-coated webs upon the wild cherry trees that are suffered to spring up unchecked by the way-side and encroach upon the borders of our pastures and fields. The eggs from which they are hatched, are placed around the ends of the branches, forming a wide kind of ring or bracelet, consisting of three or four hundred eggs, in the form of short cylinders standing on their ends close together, and covered with a thick coat of brownish water-proof varnish. The caterpillars come forth, with the unfold- ing of the leaves of the apple and cherry tree, during the latter part of April or the beginning of May. The first signs of their activity appear in the formation of a little angular web or tent, somewhat resembling a spider’s web, stretched between the forks of the branches a little below the cluster of eggs. Under the shel- ter of these tents, in making which they all work together, the caterpillars remain concealed at all times when not engaged in eat- ing. In crawling from twig to twig and from leaf to leaf, they spin from their mouths a slender silken thread, which is a clue to conduct them back to their tents ; and as they go forth and return in files, one after another, their pathways in time become well car- peted with silk, which serves to render their footing secure during their frequent and periodical journeys in various directions, to and from their common habitation. As they increase in age and size, they enlarge their tent, surrounding it, from time to time, with new layers or webs, till, at length, it acquires a diameter of eight or ten inches. They come out together at certain stated hours to eat, and all retire at once when their regular meals are finished ; during bad weather, however, they fast, and do not Venture from their shelter. These caterpillars are of a kind called lackeys. When fully grown they measure about two inches in length. Their heads are black ; extending along the top of the back, from one end to the other, is a whitish line, on each side of which, on a yellow ground, are numerous short and fine crinkled black lines, that, lower down, become mingled together, and form a broad longitu 104 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. dinal black stripe, or rather a row of long black spots, one on each ring, in the middle of each of which is a small blue spot ; below this is a narrow wavy yellow line, and lower still the sides are va- riegated with fine intermingled black and yellow lines, which are lost at last in the general dusky color of the under-side of the body; on the top of the eleventh ring is a small blackish and hairy wart, and the whole body is very sparingly clothed with short and soft hairs, rather thicker and longer upon the sides than elsewhere. From the first to the middle of June they begin to leave the trees upon which they have hitherto lived in company, separate from each other, wander about awhile, and finally get into some crevice or other place of shelter, and make their cocoons. These are of a regular long oval form, composed of a thin and very loosely woven web of silk, the meshes of which are filled with a thin paste, that on drying is changed to a yellow powder, like flour of sulphur in appearance. Some of the caterpillars, either from weakness or some other cause, do not leave their nests with the rest of the swarm, but make their cocoons there, and when the webs are opened these cocoons may be seen intermixed with a mass of blackish grains, like gunpowder, excreted by the caterpillars during their stay. From fourteen to seventeen days after the insect has made its cocoon and changed to a chrysalis, it bursts its chrysalis skin, forces its way through the wet and softened end of its cocoon, and appears in the winged or miller form. The moth of the lackey-caterpillar is of a rusty or reddish brown color, more or less mingled with gray on the middle and base of the fore-wings, which, besides, are crossed by two oblique, straight, dirty white lines. It expands from one inch and a quarter, to one inch and a half, or a little more. The moths appear in great num- bers in July, flying about and often entering houses by night. At this time they lay their eggs, selecting the wild cherry, in prefer- ence to all other trees, for this purpose, and, next to these, apple- trees. These insects, because they are the most common and most abundant in all parts of our country, and have obtained such noto- riety that in common language they are almost exclusively known among us by the name of the caterpillars, are the worst enemies o* the orchard. Where proper attention has not been paid to the destruction of them, they prevail to such an extent as almost en- tirely to strip the apple and cherry trees of their foliage, by their attacks continued during the seven weeks of their life in the cater- pillar form. The trees, in those orchards and gardens where they INSECTS. 105 have been suffered to breed for a succession of years, become pre- maturely old, in consequence of the efforts they are obliged to make to repair, at an unseasonable time, the loss of their foliage, and are rendered unfruitful, and consequently unprofitable. But this is not all ; these pernicious insects spread in every direction, from the trees of the careless and indolent, to those of their more careful and industrious neighbors, whose labors are thereby greatly increased, and have to be followed up year after year, without any prospect of permanent relief. Many methods and receipts for the destruction of these insects have been published and recommended, but have failed to exter- minate, them, and indeed have done but little to lessen their num- bers. The great difficulty is the neglect to do any thing, till after the caterpillars have covered the trees with their nests. Then the labors of the sluggard commence, and one tree, let his receipt be ever so perfect and powerful, will cost him as much time and labor as ten trees would have required three weeks sooner. The means to be employed may be stated under three heads. The first is, the collection and destruction of the eggs. These should be sought for in the winter and the early part of spring, when there are no leaves on the trees. They are easily discovered at this time, and may be removed with the thumb-nail and fore-finger. Nurseries and the lower limbs of large trees may thus be entirely cleared of the clus- ters of eggs during a few visits made at the proper season. If a liberal bounty for the collection of the eggs were to be offered, and continued for the space of ten years, these destructive caterpillars would be nearly exterminated at the end of that time. Under the second head are to be mentioned the most approved plans for de- stroying the caterpillars after they are hatched, and have begun to make their nests or tents. It is well known that the caterpillars come out to feed twice during the day-time, namely, in the fore- noon and afternoon, and that they rarely leave their nests before nine in the morning, and return to them again at noon. During the early part of the season, while the nests are small, and the cat- erpillars young and tender, and at those hours when the insects are gathered together within their common habitation, they may be effectually destroyed by crushing them by hand in the nests. A brush, somewhat like a bottle-brush, fixed to a long handle, a dried mullein head and its stalk fastened to a pole, will be useful to remove the nests, with the caterpillars contained therein, from those branches which are too high to be reached by hand. In* 106 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. stead of the brush, we may use, with nearly equal success, a small mop or sponge, dipped as often as necessary into a pailful of refuse 6oap-suds, strong white-wash, or cheap oil. The mop should be thrust into the nest and turned round a little, so as to wet the cat- erpillars with the liquid, which will kill every one that it touches. These means, to be effectual, .nould be employed during the proper hours, that is, early in the morning, at mid-day, or at night, and as soon in the spring as the caterpillars begin to make their nests ; and they should be repeated as often at least, as once a week, till the insects leave the trees. Early attention and perseverance in the use of these remedies will, in time, save the farmer hundreds of dollars, and abundance of mortification and disappointment, be- sides rewarding him with the grateful sight of the verdant’ foliage, snowy blossoms, and rich fruits of his orchard in their proper sea- sons. Under the third head, declare war against these caterpillars, a war of extermination, to be waged annually during the month of May and the beginning of June. Let every able-bodied citizen, who is the owner of an apple or cherry tree, cultivated or wild, within our borders, open the campaign in May, and give battle to the common enemy. If every man is prompt to do his duty, the enemy will be completely conquered. Locust-Tree Borers. — The locust-tree, Robinia pseibdacacia, is preyed upon by three different kinds of wood-eaters or borers, whose unchecked ravages seem to threaten the entire destruction and ex- termination of this valuable tree within this part of the United States. One of these borers is a little reddish caterpillar, whose operations are confined to the small branches and to very young trees, in the pith of which it lives ; and by its irritation it causes the twig to swell around the part attacked. These swellings, being spongy and also perforated by the caterpillar, are weaker than the rest of the stem, which therefore easily breaks off at these places. The second kind of borer of the locust-tree is larger than the foregoing, is a grub, and not a caterpillar, which finally turns to the beetle named Clytus pictus , the painted Clytus. In the month of September these beetles gather on the locust-trees. Having paired, the female creeps over the bark, searching the crevices with her antennae, and dropping therein her snow-white eggs, in clusters of seven or eight together, and at intervals of five or six minutes, till her whole stock is safely stored. The eggs are soon hatched, and the grubs immediately burrow into the bark, devouring the soft inner substance that suffices for their nourishment till the approach INSECTS. 107 of winter, during which they remain at rest in a torpid state. In the spring they bore through the sap-wood, more or less deeply into the trunk, the general course of their winding and irregular pas- sages being in an upward direction from the place of their entrance. For a time they cast their chips out of their holes as fast as they are made, but after a while the passage becomes clogged and the burrow more or less filled with the coarse and fibrous fragments ot wood, to get rid of which the grubs are often obliged to open new holes through the bark. ' The seat of their operations is known by the oozing of the sap and the dropping of the saw-dust from the holes. The bark around the part attacked begins to swell, and in a few years the trunks and limbs will become disfigured and weak- ened by large porous tumors, caused by the efforts of the trees to repair the injuries they have suffered. The grubs attain their full size by the twentieth of July, soon become pupae, and are changed to beetles and leave the trees early in September. Thus the exist- ence of this species is limited to one year. White-washing, and covering the trunks of the trees with graft- ing composition, may prevent the female from depositing her eggs upon them ; but this practice cannot be carried to any great extent in plantations or large nurseries of the trees. Perhaps it will be useful to head or cut down young trees to the ground, with the view of destroying the grubs contained in them, as well as to pro- mote a more vigorous growth. Much evil might be prevented by employing children to collect the beetles while in the act of provi- ding for the continuation of their kind. A common black bottle, containing a little water, would be a suitable vessel to receive the beetles as fast as they were gathered, and should be emptied into the fire in order to destroy the insects. The gathering should be begun as soon as the beetles first appear, and should be continued as long as any are found on the trees, and furthermore should be made a general business for several years in succession. I have no doubt, should this be done, that, by devoting one hour every day to this object, we may, in the course of a few years, rid ourselves of this destructive insect. The third of the wood-eaters, to which the locust-tree is exposed, though less common than the others, and not so universally de- structive to the tree as the painted Clytus, is a very much larger borer, and is occasionally productive of great injury, especially to full-grown and old trees, for which it appears to have a preference. It is a true caterpillar, belonging to the tribe of moths under con- 108 THE PESTS OF THE FARM. ^deration, is reddish above, and white beneath, with the head and top of the first ring brown and shelly, and there are a few short hairs arising from minute warts thinly scattered over the surface of the body. When fully grown, it measures two inches and a half, or more, in length, and is nearly as thick as the end of the little finger. These caterpillars bore the tree in various directions, but for the most part obliquely upwards and downwards through the solid wood, enlarging the holes as they increase in size, and con- tinuing them through the bark to the outside of the trunk. Before transforming, they line these passages with a web of silk, and, re- tiring to some distance from the orifice, they spin around their bodies a closer web, or cocoon, within which they assume the chry- salis form. The chrysalis measures one inch and a half or two inches in length, is of an amber color, changing to brown on the forepart of the body ; and, on the upper side of each abdominal ring, are two transverse rows of tooth-like projections. By the help of these, the insect, when ready for its last transformation, works its way to the mouth of its burrow, where it remains while the chrysalis skin is rent, upon which it comes forth on the trunk of the tree a winged moth. In this its perfected state, it is of a gray color ; the fore-wings are thickly covered with dusky netted lines and irregular spots, the hind-wings are more uniformly dusky, and the shoulder-covers are edged with black on the inside. It expands about three inches. The male, which is much smaller, and has been mistaken for another species, is much darker than the female, from which it differs also in having a large ochre-yellow spot on the hind-wings, contiguous to their posterior margin. Professor Peck, who first made public the history of this insect, named it Cossus Rcbinice , the Cossus of the locust-tree. It is supposed by Professor Peck to remain three years in the caterpillar state. The moth comes forth about the middle of July. Our fruit-trees seem to be peculiarly subject to the ravages of in- sects, probably because the native trees of the forest, which origi- nally yielded the insects an abundance of food, have been destroyed to a great extent, and their places supplied only partially By orch- ards, gardens, and nurseries. Numerous as are the kinds of cater- pillars now found on cultivated trees, some are far more abundant than others, and therefore more often fall under our observation, and come to be better known. Such, for instance, are certain gre- garious caterpillars that swarm on the apple, cherry, and plum-trees towards the end of summer, stripping whole branches of their INSECTS. 109 leaves, and not unfrequently despoiling our rose-bushes and thorn- hedges also. These caterpillars are of two kinds, very different in appearance, but alike in habits and destructive propensities. The first of these may be called the red-humped, a name that will pro- bably bring these insects to the remembrance of those persons who have ever observed them. Different broods make their appearance at various times during August and September. The eggs, from which they proceed, are laid, in the course of the month of July, in clusters on the under-side of a leaf, generally near the end of a branch. When first hatched they eat only the substance of the under-side of the leaf, leaving the skin of the upper-side and all the veins untouched ; but as they grow larger and stronger they de- vour whole leaves from the point to the stalk, and go from leaf to leaf down the twigs and branches. The young caterpillars are lighter colored than the old ones, which are yellowish- brown, paler on the sides, and longitudinally striped with slender black lines ; the head is red ; on the top of the fourth ring there is a bunch or hump, also of a red color ; along the back are several short black prickles ; and the hinder extremity tapers somewhat, and is always elevated at an angle with the rest of the body, when the insect is not crawling. The full-grown caterpillars measure one inch and a quarter, or rather more, in length. The rest close together on the twigs, when not eating, and sometimes entirely cover the small twigs and ends of the branches. The early broods come to their growth and leave the trees by the middle of August, and the others between this time and the latter part of September. All the cat- erpillars of the same brood descend at one time, and disappear in the night. They conceal themselves under leaves, or just beneath the surface of the soil, and make their cocoons. They remain a long time in their cocoons before changing to chrysalids, and are transformed to moths towards the end of June or the beginning of July. Mr. Abbot states that in Georgia these insects breed twice a year, the first broods making their cocoons towards the end of May, and appearing in the winged form fifteen days afterwards. This, a Notodonta, is a neat and trim looking moth, and is of a light brown color ; the fore-wings are dark brown along the inner margin, and more or less tinged with gray before ; there is a dark brown dot near the middle, a spot of the same color near each an gle, a very small triangular whitish spot near the shoulders, and several dark brown longitudinal streaks on the outer hind margin ; the hind-wings of the male are brownish or dirty white, with a no THE PESTS OF THE FARM. brown spot on the inner hind angle ; those of the other sex are dusky brown ; the body is light brown, with the thorax rathei darker. The wings expand from one inch to one inch and three- eighths. The second kind grow to a greater size, are longer in coming to their growth, their swarms are more numerous, and consequently they do much more injury than the red-humped kind. Entire branches of the apple-trees are frequently stripped of their leaves by them, and are loaded with these caterpillars in thickly crowded swarms. The eggs from which they are hatched will be found in patches, of about a hundred together, fastened to the under-side of leaves near the ends of the twigs. Some of them begin to be hatched about the twentieth of July, and new broods make their appearance in succession for the space of a month or more. At first they eat only the under-side and pulpy part of the leaves, leaving the upper-side and veins untouched ; but afterwards they consume the whole of the leaves except their stems. These cater- pillars are sparingly covered with soft whitish hairs ; the young ones are brown, and striped with white ; but as they grow older, their colors become darker every time they cast their skins. They come to their full size in about five weeks or a little more, and then measure from an inch and three quarters to two inches and a quar- ter in extent. The head is large, and of a black color ; the body is nearly cylindrical, with a spot on the top of the first ring and the legs dull orange-yellow, a black stripe along the top of the back, and three of the same color alternating with four yellow stripes on each side. The posture of these caterpillars, when at rest, is v