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TRAMWAYS 
 
 THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 Just Published. Second Edition, Enlarged. Small 8vo. 700 pages. 
 Bound in flexible leather. Price gs. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S 
 POCKET-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 TABLES, FORMULAE, RULES, AND DATA. 
 
 A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. 
 
 ; Summary of Contents. 
 
 jMathematical Tables—Measurement of Surfaces and Solids— I 
 English Weights and Measures—French Metric Weights and 
 Measures — Foreign Weights and Measures — Moneys — Specific j 
 Gravity, Weight and Volume—Manufactured Metals — Steel 
 Pipes—Bolts and Nuts—Sundry Articles in Wrought and Cast 
 I Iron, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Zinc—Strength of Materials— 
 Strength of Timber—Strength of Cast Iron—Strength of Wrought 1 
 Iron—Strength of Steel—Tensile Strength of Copper, Lead, } 
 etc.—Resistance of Stones and other Building Materials— | 
 
 Riveted Joints in Boiler Plates—Boiler Shells—Wire Ropes and | 
 Hemp Ropes—Chains and Chain Cables—Framing—Hardness of | 
 I Metals, Alloys and Stones—Labour of Animals—Mechanical j 
 Principles—Gravity and Fall of Bodies—Accelerating and Re¬ 
 tarding Forces—Mill Gearing, Shafting, etc.—Transmission of i 
 Motive Power—Heat—Combustion : Fuels—Warming, Ventilation, ! 
 Cooking Stoves—Steam—Steam Fngines and Boilers—Railways— | 
 
 Tramways—Steam Ships—Pumping Steam Fngines and Pumps— | 
 Coal Gas, Gas PIngines, etc.—Air in Motion—Compressed Air— ; 
 Hot Air Fngines — W^ater Power — Speed of Cutting Tools— i 
 Colours—Flectrical Fngineering. 
 
 “Mr. Clark manifests what is an innate perception of what is 
 likely to be useful in a pocket-book, and he is really unrivalled in the art 
 of condensation. Very frequently we find the information on a given 
 subject is supplied by giving a summary description of an experiment, 
 and a statement of the results obtained. It is very difficult to hit upon 
 any mechanical engineering subject concerning which this work supplies 
 no information, and the excellent index at the end adds to its utility. In 
 one word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which 
 the engineer will be saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet more 
 wearisome hunt through various text-books and treatises, and, as such, 
 we can heartily recommend it to our readers.”— The Engineer. 
 
 London; Crosby Lockwood & Son, 7, Stationers’ Hall Court. 
 
r 
 
 TRAMWAYS 
 
 » • 
 
 THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF THE SYSTEM, WITH 
 ACCOUNTS OF THE VARIOUS MODES OF TRACTION [INCLUDING 
 HORSE-POWER, STEAM, HEATED-WATER, AND COMPRESSED-A/R 
 LOCOMOTIVES, CABLE TRACTION, AND ELECTRIC TRACTION) 
 
 A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIETIES OF ROLLING STOCK 
 AND AMPLE DETAILS OF COST AND 
 WORKING EXPENSES 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE 
 
 TRAMWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 BY 
 
 D. KINNEAR CLARK, C.E. 
 
 M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E. 
 
 HONORARY MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS 
 AUTHOR OF “railway MACHINERY,” “THE STEAM ENGINE,” “ THE MECHANICAL 
 engineer’s POCKET BOOK,” ETC. ETC. 
 
 ^.etonb |U-EritEn anb ^Swallji ^itlargeb' 
 
 WITH UPWARDS OF FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 LONDON 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 7 , STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUEGATE HILL 
 
 1894 
 

 Cl, 
 
 
 
 o- 
 
 LOXDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 CITY ROAD 
 
G-S A -t- '(L. 
 
 y 
 
 ri 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Y^LJNOVS',^ 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 I 
 
 By the rapid development of Tramways during the 
 j. sixteen years that have elapsed since the first edition 
 
 j of this work appeared, much experience has been 
 
 gained, and much improvement made in construction. 
 In view of the employment of mechanical traction upon 
 a large number of tramways, the attention of engineers 
 
 r 
 
 has been largely directed to increasing the strength of 
 the way, for the purpose of carrying engines of the 
 weight necessary for hauling power, as well as for 
 , adhesion. In the result, so far, metal ways, with girder- 
 
 rails and simple connections, are the kind of structure 
 at which we have arrived—on the principle, it may be 
 supposed, of “ the survival of the fittest.’' But we still 
 await a settlement of the question of the best means of 
 traction. 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 To record analytically the progress that has been 
 made in the design and construction of tramways, and 
 in modes of traction by mechanical power—including 
 cable traction, electric traction, and other motors—is 
 one of the principal aims of the present volume. As in 
 the first edition, so in the second, the work has been 
 written with special reference to the Tramways of the 
 United Kingdom, with incidental notices of work on 
 the Continent and in America. A glance at the Table 
 of Contents will be sufficient to disclose the extent to 
 which an attempt has thus been made to cover the 
 ground necessary for a comprehensive survey of the 
 history and progress of tramways. 
 
 In addition to engineering matters, the accounts of 
 various English tramways, and the capital cost and 
 working expenditure of some of the undertakings, have 
 been submitted to analysis. The propriety and desir¬ 
 ability of uniformity of accounts, which is now enforced 
 by the Board of Trade, was first recognised by the North 
 Metropolitan Tramway Company. The beneficial effects 
 of uniformity and lucidity of accounts are indisputable, 
 not only for the instruction and satisfaction of investors, 
 but for the guidance of promoters of kindred under¬ 
 takings. 
 
 In regard to the statistical information given in the 
 present volume, it should be mentioned that—the re- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Vll 
 
 vision of the work for a new edition having occupied 
 my attention over a considerable length of time, owing 
 to other engagements—the details of particular under¬ 
 takings have not in every case been brought down to 
 the date of the last returns; but it is believed that in 
 all cases the information given will be found such as 
 to indicate with sufficient precision the points to which 
 the attention of persons investigating the subject of 
 tramways should be directed, and the quarters in which 
 further inquiry may be usefully made. 
 
 In the Appendix, besides other matters of interest, 
 there will be found a full abstract of the provisions of 
 the Tramways Act, 1870 ; some account of the separate 
 Parliamentary Enactments relating to Scotland and 
 Ireland; the full text of the Board of Trade Rules for 
 the guidance of promoters of tramway undertakings; 
 and a full report of the judgment given by the House of 
 Lords (July 30, 1894) on the question (arising under 
 Section 43 of the Act of 1870) of the basis on which the 
 value of tramway undertakings purchased by Local 
 Authorities should be assessed. The various forms of 
 Byelaws and Regulations affecting tramways, which 
 have been issued by the Board of Trade, are also given. 
 
 In conclusion, I may express the hope—not only in 
 regard to tramways properly so called, but also in 
 respect of other forms of light railways, the introduction 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 of which in country districts is now anticipated in the 
 near future—that this new and enlarged edition of a 
 work which has been so favourably received may be 
 found of continued service to all engaged in the promo¬ 
 tion, or construction, or management of such under¬ 
 takings. 
 
 In carrying out the revision, I have availed myself of 
 the best sources of information, including the Proceed¬ 
 ings of the Institution of Civil Engineers and of the 
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Tramway 
 Returns issued by the Board of Trade, and numerous 
 official documents of the several companies whose lines 
 are described or referred to ; and I have to acknow¬ 
 ledge with hearty thanks the assistance kindly rendered 
 me in many quarters (some of wTich are indicated in 
 the text) in furnishing needful particulars* of informa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 D. K. Clark. 
 
 8, Buckingham Street, Adelthi, 
 
 London : Septernher, 1894. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Tramways have been developed by dint of sheer hard 
 work and persistency, and they are now an accepted 
 means of transport, urban and suburban, sanctioned by 
 experience, approved and adopted by the public. 
 
 Unassuming and unobtrusive as they are, tramways 
 have been the subject of a wide range of experience. 
 By failures, engineers have discovered what would not 
 do ; and, as practical philosophers, they have, by induc¬ 
 tion, arrived at the conditions of efficiency. There exists 
 a sentiment, which is somewhat prevalent, that tramway 
 engineering is but a humble branch of the profession. 
 The sentiment, born of self-complacency, is delusive. 
 To tramways, it is true. Titanic arches, Acherontian 
 tunnels, and Cyclopean engines, do not appertain. 
 Nevertheless, tramwa3^s cost half as much as railways, 
 and the}^ earn more money by the mile; they have in¬ 
 volved as much blundering as railways; like railways, 
 
X 
 
 PREFA CE. 
 
 they have exhausted reputations, and they have cost 
 more than railways for working expenses. 
 
 The object of this book is mainly to place before engi¬ 
 neers, capitalists, and financiers, a succinct analysis of 
 the past practice and the present achievements in tram¬ 
 ways in the United Kingdom, as works of engineering, 
 and as money-making concerns. I have been materially 
 aided in this work by the engineers of tramways, who 
 have kindly placed their plans and specifications at my 
 service ; and by the secretaries and managers, who have 
 supplied me with copies of their accounts. 
 
 I believe the results of these analyses will be found of 
 essential service, in showing how the capital has been 
 laid out, how the daily expenses are incurred, and in 
 what directions economy of expenditure is to be effected. 
 
 Tramways will not take their fitting place in the sys¬ 
 tems of transport in the United Kingdom, until mecha¬ 
 nical power is established in substitution for the power 
 of horses. The employment of horse-power in the dire 
 work of starting and dragging the ponderous cars in 
 vogue is an element of barbarism, germane, it may be, 
 to the primitive habits of oriental life, but very much 
 out of place in a civilised country. 
 
 D. K. Clark. 
 
 8, Buckingham Street, Adelphi, 
 
 London : March, 1878. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWA YS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Early timber tramways—Cast-iron tram-rails—Tramways in the 
 United States—Cast-iron rail, by iSIr. C. L. Light—Philadelphia 
 step-rail—New York step-rail—Tramways in Buenos Ayres—iMr. 
 
 G. F. Train’s tramways in England : at Birkenhead, in London, 
 
 in the Potteries—Mr. Haworth’s tramway in Salford . . . i—15 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I^IODERN TRAMWAYS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 The first Liverpool tramway—The crescent rail, by !Mr. J. Noble 
 —Act of Parliament for the Liverpool Tramways—Gauge of way 
 —Construction—Gradients — North Metropolitan Tramways— 
 
 London Tramways—London Street Tramways—Length of tram¬ 
 ways in the Metropolis ........ 16—22 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 STA TISTICS OF TRAMWA YS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 Number of Acts of Parliament obtained, 1868 to 1890—Total 
 length of tramways in the United Kingdom at June 30, 1890— 
 Gross receipts and expenses—Capital costs, receipts, and expenses, 
 and working stock of tramways in the United Kingdom, 1878—90 
 —Summary of Tramways in London ..... 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAM¬ 
 WAYS . 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE LONDON TRAMWAYS 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE LONDON STREET TRAMWAYS 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 23—51 
 
 52-59 
 
 60—66 
 
 67—72 
 
 73—77 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL 
 TRAMWAYS COMPANY. 
 
 CHAPTER VIE 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE GLASGOW TRAMWAY AND 
 OMNIBUS COMPANY. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE EDINBURGH STREET TRAM¬ 
 WAYS . 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE ABERDEEN DISTRICT TRAM¬ 
 WAYS . 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PROPERTY, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE BLACKPOOL ELECTRIC TRAM¬ 
 WAY . 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 • • • 
 
 Xlll 
 
 PAGES 
 
 78-85 
 
 86 —go 
 
 gi—96 
 
 97—99 
 
 100—IO[ 
 
 THE LONDON GENERAL OMNIBUS COMPANY . 
 
 • T02—109 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TRAMWAYS IN THE METROPOLIS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Construction of tramways under the first contract—Adaptation 
 
 of the gauge for railway waggons—Details of cost . . . no—117 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LARSEN’S FASTENING—LONDON STREET TRAM¬ 
 WAYS—BELFAST TRAMWAYS .... 118—121 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE NORTH METROPOLITAN 
 TRAMWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LONDON AND LONDON 
 STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 London Tramways : Quantities and cost of the Aldred-Spiel- 
 mann Way (1879, 1880)—Quantities and cost of Gowan’s Girder 
 Railway—London Street Tramways ..... 130—134 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH LONDON TRAM¬ 
 WAYS .T35—139 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIVERPOOL TRAM¬ 
 WAYS. 
 
 Reconstruction on Mr. Deacon’s system—Mr. Dunscombe’s 
 modifications—Quantities and cost of reconstructed lines as laid 
 by Mr. Dunscombe ......... 140—161 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 DUBLIN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Mr. Hopkins’s improved side-fastening—Construction and cost 
 
 of the Dublin Tramways ........ 162—165 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS, 1870—73 . 166-174 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS, 1874—75 
 —SYSTEM OF MESSRS. JOHNSTONE AND 
 RANKINE.175 — 183 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS — JOHN¬ 
 STONE’S AND RANKINE’S MORE RECENT 
 SYSTEM OF WAY, 1879 —WEAR OF RAILS . 184—194 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE VALE OF CLYDE TRAMWAYS .... 195—200 
 
 [Chapters XII . to XIV. deal with various 
 Ways having Wood Substructure.'] 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 BELOE’S system : — SOUTHPORT TRAMWAYS — 
 
 WIRRAL TRAMWAYS.201—206 
 
 CHAPTER XIH. 
 
 MACKIESON’S SYSTEM:—DUNDEE STREET TRAM¬ 
 WAYS .207-214 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MACRAE’S SYSTEM :—EDINBURGH STREET TRAM¬ 
 
 WAYS 
 
 215—226 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XVII 
 
 [CNAP 7 EES XV. TO XXIV. DEAL WITH VARIOUS 
 Ways HAVING Metal Substructure.^ 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 KINCAID’S IRON WAY 
 
 PAGES 
 
 . 227—245 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 barker’s system : — MANCHESTER CORPORA¬ 
 TION TRAMWAYS, 1877 .246-253 
 
 CHAPTER XVH. 
 
 t 
 
 DOWSON’S iron WAY . . . . 
 
 CHAPTER XVHI. 
 
 WINBY AND LEVICK’S SYSTEM . 
 
 • 255-257 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 WILSON’S SYSTE:M : — SOUTHAMPTON STREET 
 
 TRAMWAYS, 1878 .258—260 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 DUGDALE’S system :—HUDDERSFIELD CORPORA¬ 
 TION TRAMWAYS fiNNER CIRCLE), 1881 . 261—265 
 
 b 
 
XVlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 PAGES 
 
 BRUNTON’S system : — CITY OF OXFORD AND 
 
 DISTRICT TRAMWAYS.266—268 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 VIGNOLES’ SYSTEM:—NORTH LONDON SUBUR¬ 
 BAN TRAMWAYS—NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE 
 TRAMWAYS.269-271 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 TRUSWELL’S system :—DEWSBURY, BATLEY, AND 
 BIRSTAL TRAMWAYS : BIRSTAL AND GO- 
 MERSAL EXTENSION. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 KERR’S SYSTEMS. 
 
 First System, Ipswich Tramways (1880)—Woolwich and Plum- 
 stead Tramway (1881)—Second system, Alford and Sutton Tram¬ 
 ways—Third system, Bucharest Tramway; Madrid Tramway . 275—279 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SPECIAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Glasgow Harbour Tramway—Belfast Harbour Tramway—Guin¬ 
 ness’ Brewery (Dublin) Tramways—Tramway in Horwich Loco¬ 
 motive Works—Edge’s Way.280—295 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY—ON FOREIGN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 » 
 
 Paris—Lille—Brussels—Antwerp—Liege—Ghent —Constanti¬ 
 nople—Moscow—Leipzig—Cassel—Lisbon—Wellington, N. Z. 
 
 —Buenos Ayres—Monte Video—Cockburn-Muir’s Iron Way— 
 Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (De Feral’s Iron Way)—City of 
 Buenos Ayres Tramways—Buenos Ayres Grand National Tram¬ 
 way—La Plata Tramway—American practice .... 296—329 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE GIRDER RAIL ........ 330—339 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION 
 OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 340—353 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 TRAMWAY CA 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTICE OF TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Original tram-car, New York—Weight of cars constructed by 
 the Starbuck Car and Waggon Company—Great strain on tram¬ 
 way cars—The fiction of “ dead-weight ” .... 354—359 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 INSIDE - AND - OUTSIDE PASSENGER - CAR, CON¬ 
 STRUCTED BY THE METROPOLITAN RAIL¬ 
 WAY CARRIAGE AND WAGGON COMPANY . 360—368 
 
 b 2 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 INSIDE-PASSENGER CAR, CONSTRUCTED BY THE 
 
 STARBUCK CAR AND WAGGON COMPANY . 369—370 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER-CAR FOR STEAM 
 TRACTION, CONSTRUCTED BY THE FALCON 
 ENGINE AND CAR WORKS, LOUGHBOROUGH 371—375 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RADIAL-AXLE PASSENGER-CAR, BY MR. JAMES 
 
 CLEMINSON.376—377 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FRENCH TRAMCARS. 
 
 Winter car, by M. Francq—Summer car, by M. Francq—Cars 
 
 by the CompagnU Genh-ale des Omnibus .... 378—380 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 EADE’S REVERSIBLE CAR.381—382 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 BEARING-SPRINGS. WHEELS. ROAD AND RAIL 
 
 WAGONS AVITH FLANGELESS WHEELS . . 383—397 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 RESISTANCE TO TRACTION ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Experiments of H. P. Holt, Hemy Hughes, M. Tresca—Holt’s 
 tram-car starting-gear—Experiments of E. Perrett, A. AV. 
 
 AATight, J. A. AVright, and H. Conradi.398—408 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XXI 
 
 PART V. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 PAGES 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE APPLICATION OF 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Lalta—Grice & Long—Train — Todd’s steam-locomotive— 
 
 Todd’s hot-water steam-car—Lamm’s ammoniacal-gas car— 
 
 Lamm’s hot-water locomotive—Hot-water locomotive on the 
 East New York and Canartio line—Baxter’s steam-car—Gran¬ 
 tham’s steam-car—Perkins’ tramway-locomotive on the Belgian 
 Street railway—Three-cylinder steam-locomotive, by the Societe 
 Metallurgique, Belgium—Kohl’s locomotive at Copenhagen— 
 
 Smith & Mygind’s locomotive at Copenhagen—Bede’s hot- 
 water steam-car in Belgium—Baldwin steam-car—Cost of run¬ 
 ning horse-cars in Philadelphia—Ransom’s steam-car . . 409—436 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CURRENT PRACTICE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF 
 STEAM POWER. 
 
 Menyweather’s earlier tramway engines—Their three classes ot 
 locomotives—Latest condensing tramway locomotive—Their 
 locomotives at Rouen, Birstal and Dewsbmy, and Stoke-upon- 
 Trent — Hughes’ tramway locomotives — Locomotives of the 
 Falcon Eneine and Car Works—Kitson & Co.’s locomotive— 
 Willdnson’s wonn-geared condensing tramway locomotive — 
 Geoghegan’s locomotive at Guinness’s brewery—Aspinall’s 
 shunting engines at Honvich locomotive works—Perrett’s steam- 
 car—Brown’s steam-car—Rowan’s double-bogie steam-car— 
 Comparative working elements for horse-power and steam- 
 power . 437 —491 
 
XXll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 CALCULATION OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVE POWER ON 
 
 TRAMWAYS.492—501 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIRELESS TRAMWAY LOCOMOTIVES . 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 COMPRESSED-AIR LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS . 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CABLE TRACTION. 
 
 Method and piinciple of working—Cable tramways in San 
 Erancisco and Chicago—Highgate-hill tramway—Edinburgh 
 northern cable tramways—Birmingham cable tramway—Mat- 
 lock cable tramway—Brixton cable route of the London tram- 
 
 .525—557 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELECTRIC POWER AS APPLIED TO TRAMWAYS . 558—565 
 
CONTENTS. xxiii 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 EARLY ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS — BESSBROOK 
 
 AND NEWRY TRAMWAY.566—577 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS BIRMINGHAM, BLACK¬ 
 POOL, GUERNSEY.57S-584 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY . . . 585—597 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CONTINENTAL ELECTRICAL RAILWAYS — FLOR¬ 
 ENCE AND FIESOLE RAILWAY .... 598—604, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY .... 605-614. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ROUNDHAY (LEEDS) ELECTRIC TRAMAVAY . 615-626' 
 
XXIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE (DARLASTON) ELECTRIC 
 
 TRAMWAY 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC RAII.ROAD 641—650 
 
 PART VIL 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. 
 
 OIL MOTOR . 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 .651—654 
 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COMPRESSED GAS MOTOR.655—657 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SUMMARY RExMARKS ON MECHANICAL MOTORS . 658—662 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 POINTS AND CROSSINGS . 
 
 • 663—664 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXV 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 A. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY AND OFFICIAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 I.—Tramways Act (1870). II.—Board of Trade Rules. III.— 
 Forms of Byelaws and Regulations issued by the Board of 
 Trade: (i) For a Local Authority; (ii) For a Company; (hi) 
 With respect to the Use of Steam Power ; (iv) With respect to 
 Electric Traction. IV.—Parhamentary Enactments as to Scot¬ 
 land and Ireland. V.—Terms of Purchase of Tramways by 
 Local Authorities (Judgment of the House of Lords) 
 
 B. 
 
 CAPITAL COSTS, RECEIPTS, EXPENSES, AND 
 WORKING STOCK OF TRAMWAYS IN THE 
 UNITED KINGDOM FOR THE YEARS ENDING 
 30TH June, 1891, 1892, 1893 . . . . 
 
 c. 
 
 TOTAL 'WORKING EXPENDITURE ON ALL THE 
 TRAMWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM FOR 
 THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1893 . 
 
 D. 
 
 MILEAGE LENGTH OF STREET RAILAVAYS IN THE 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, WITH CAR 
 STOCK, 1892 AND 1893. 
 
 E. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN STREET TRAMWAYS 
 INTO EUROPE. BY CHARLES BURN, C.E. . 
 
 PAGES 
 
 6^5—727 
 
 728 
 
 729 
 
 730, 731 
 
 732—734 
 
XXVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 F. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 TRAMWAYS IN GERMANY : A COMPARISON BE¬ 
 TWEEN THE COST OF HORSE-TRACTION AND 
 ELECTRIC-TRACTION. 735—737 
 
 G. 
 
 GAS MOTORS FOR TRAMWAYS. By A. KEMPER, 
 
 Dessau. 738—740 
 
 H. 
 
 LIST OF ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS IN EUROPEAN 
 
 COUNTRIES. By ROBERT HAMMOND . . . 741—742 
 
 INDEX 
 
 • 743—758 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Early Timber Tramways. 2 
 
 2. Do. DO. WITH DOUBLE RaILS .... 2 
 
 3. Cast-iron Tram-rails, by the Colebrookedale Iron Com¬ 
 
 pany .4 
 
 4 to 9. New York Tram-rails.6, 7 
 
 10. Cast-iron Rail, Boston, U.S., by Mr. C. L. Light . . 8 
 
 11. Philadelphia Step-rail.9 
 
 12. 13. Philadelphia Tramways .lO' 
 
 14. New York Step-rail .ii 
 
 15, 16. Mr. G. F. Train’s Tramway at Birkenhead . . -13 
 
 17. Crescent Rail, by Mr. J. Noble.16 
 
 18. Early Liyerpool Rail.18 
 
 19 to 21. First Liverpool Tramway.19, 20 
 
 22. North Metropolitan Tramway and London Tramways : 
 
 First Lines.. . .111 
 
 23. Pimlico, Peckham, and Greenwich Section of London 
 
 Tramways.112 
 
 24. Section of Rail, London Tramways.113 
 
 25. Larsen’s Side-fastening.118 
 
 26. Do. DO. FOR THE London Street Tramways . 119 
 
 27. London Street Tramways: Section of Way (1871) . . 120 
 
 28. Belfast Tramways : Section of Rail, avith Larsen’s 
 
 Fastening .12a 
 
 29. North Metropolitan Tramways : jSIethod of Re-construc¬ 
 
 tion .122 
 
 30. 31. Do. DO. Page’s System .... 125 
 
 32. Do. DO. Page’s Way . . . .125 
 
XXVlll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 33. London Tramways : Aldred-Spielmann Way 
 
 34. Do. DO. Aldred-Spielmann Rail 
 
 35. Gowan’s Girder Rail. 
 
 36. London Traaiways : Gowan s Way . 
 
 37. South London Traaiways : Meakins’ Way . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 132 
 
 133 
 135 
 
 0 Q 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Meakins’ Rail .... 
 
 135 
 
 39 , 
 
 40. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Old and New Rail Joints 
 
 136 
 
 41. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail and Fish 
 
 
 
 Plates 
 
 
 • •••••* 
 
 139 
 
 42. 
 
 Liverpool Traaiways : 
 
 Inner Circle, Rail and Fastenings 
 
 141 
 
 43 - 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Inner Circle Rail 
 
 141 
 
 44 - 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Central Grooved Rail 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AND Fastenings .... 
 
 145 
 
 45 - 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Central Grooved Rail 
 
 145 
 
 46 1048. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Deacon’s Way, as laid by Mr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dunscoaibe. 
 
 15 ^ 
 
 49. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail, Sleeper, and Jaw, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deacon’s Way .... 
 
 152 
 
 50- 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Deacon’s Rail. 
 
 152 
 
 51, 
 
 52. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Alternative Fastening, Deacon’s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Way. 
 
 157 
 
 53 * 
 
 Dublin Traaiways : Section of Rail and Sleeper 
 
 162 
 
 54 - 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. Section of Double Way 
 
 163 
 
 55 - 
 
 Glasgow Corporation 
 
 Traaiways (First System) : Section 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shoaving Systeai of Construction 
 
 167 
 
 56. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 (Johnstones and Rankine’s Sy.steai), 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Section of Rail .... 
 
 I// 
 
 57. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail and Sleepers 
 
 178 
 
 58. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Plan of Sleepers .... 
 
 179 
 
 59 to 63 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Sections of Rails . . . 184, 
 
 185 
 
 64. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Rail and Sleeper of Johnstones 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AND Rankine’s Way 
 
 186 
 
 65, 
 
 66. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Johnstones and Rankine’s Way . 
 
 187 
 
 ■67. 
 
 Vale of Clyde Traaiways : Section of Rail 
 
 196 
 
 68, 
 
 69. 
 
 Dundee 
 
 Traaiways 
 
 : Sleeper of Mackieson’s AVay 
 
 212 
 
 70. 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Sleeper 
 
 213 
 
 71 - 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail .... 
 
 213 
 
 y 2 . 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Traaiways 
 
 : Macrae’s Way. 
 
 224 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXIX 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 73, 74. Edinburgh and Aberdeen Tramways : Plan and Cross- 
 
 section OF Double Line of Way.225. 
 
 75 to 77. Kincaid’s Iron Way, as Patented , . . 227, 228 
 
 78, 79. Bristol Tramways : Section of Rail and Fastenings 231 
 
 80. Salford Corporation Tramways : Kincaid’s System, ar¬ 
 
 ranged BY Mr. a. M. Fowler 235 
 
 81. Do. DO. Plan of Chair.236 
 
 82. Do. DO. Section of Rail .... 236 
 
 83. 84. Bristol Tramways : Kincaid’s Way.238 
 
 85. Do. DO. Section of Rail .... 239- 
 
 86, 87. Salford Tramways : Sections of Rail and Chair of 
 
 Kincaid’s Way, as laid by Mr. Jacob . . .241 
 
 88. Manchester Corporation Tramways : Section of Rail 
 
 AND Sleeper .... 247 
 
 89. Do. do. Section of Barker’s Rail . . 248 
 
 90. Rusholme Tramways : Shaw’s Way.252 
 
 91. Do. DO. Rail and Sleeper .... 252 
 
 92. Madras Tramways : Dowson’s Iron AVay .... 254 
 
 93. Nottingham and District Tramways : Winby and Le- 
 
 vick’s Way .... 255, 
 
 94. Do. DO. Rail and Baseplate . . 256' 
 
 95. 96. Southampton Street Tramways : Wilson’s Way . . 258 
 
 97. Do. DO. Section of Rail . 259' 
 
 98. Do. DO. Section of Chair . 259' 
 
 99. Dugdale’s Way, Huddersfield.261 
 
 100. Do. Section of Rail.262 
 
 101. Do. Bearer.262 
 
 102. Huddersfield Corporation Tramways: Cross-section of 
 
 AVay . . . 264 
 
 103. Do. DO. Section of Rails and 
 
 Fastenings . . 265 
 
 104. Brunton’s Way, Oxford: Rail and Fastening. . . 266 
 
 105. 106. Do. DO. Section and Plan . . . 267 
 
 107, 108. ViGNOLEs’ AVay, Tottenham, and Stoke-upon-Trent . 269 
 
 109. Do. DO. Rail and Fastening . . . 270 
 
 110. Truswell’s Way, Birstal.. 272 
 
 111. Do. Rail.273 
 
 112. Kerr’s Way, Ipswich, and AVoolwich.275. 
 
XXX 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 FIG. PACK 
 
 113. Kerr’s Way, Rail and Sleeper.276 
 
 114. Alford and Sutton Steam Tramways (Kerr) ; Section of 
 
 H Rail, Sleeper, AND Fastening . 278 
 
 115- 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Sleeper and Fastening . 
 
 00 
 
 II6. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Cross-section of Way 
 
 278 
 
 II7. 
 
 Bucharest (and Madrid) Tramways (Kerr) : Cross-section 
 
 
 
 
 
 OF Way. 
 
 279 
 
 II8. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail and Fastening 
 
 279 
 
 119. 
 
 Glasgow Harbour Tramway : System of Messrs. Ransome, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deas, and Napier .... 
 
 280 
 
 120. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail .... 
 
 281 
 
 I 2 I. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 System of Messrs. Ransome, Deas, 
 
 
 
 
 
 AND Napier for Lighter Traffic 
 
 282 
 
 122. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Cross-section of AVay 
 
 283 
 
 123. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Chair. 
 
 284 
 
 124. 
 
 Belfast Harbour Tramway : Lizars’ System 
 
 288 
 
 125. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Salmond’s System 
 
 288 
 
 126. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 System adopted for Short 
 
 
 Curves .... 289 
 
 127, 128. Guinness’s Brewery Tramways, Dublin : Sections of 
 
 Rails.290 
 
 129. Do. DO. Way.291 
 
 130, 131. Do. DO. Sections of Rails . . . 292 
 
 132 to 134. Harwich Locomotive Works (Lancashire and 
 
 Yorkshire Railway) : Rail and Fastenings . 293 
 
 135. Edge’s Way : Section of Rail and Wheel . . . . 294 
 
 136. Do. Side View of Wheel. 294 
 
 137. Paris Tramways (Loubat’s Tramway) : Section of Rail 
 
 
 
 
 AND Sleeper .... 
 
 296 
 
 138. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Loubat’s Rail . 
 
 296 
 
 139, 140. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Sections of Rails 
 
 297 
 
 I4I. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Rail and Fastening 
 
 298 
 
 142, 143. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Sections of Rails 
 
 300 
 
 144, 145. Versailles Tramway : Sections of Rails, &c., by M. 
 
 Francq.302 
 
 146. Do. DO. Section of Rail . . . 302 
 
 147. Lille Tramways: Section of Rails and Chair for Pas¬ 
 
 senger Traffic. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 148. Lille Tramways : Section showing Arrangement of Rails 
 
 FOR Railway Waggons .... 
 149 to 159. Brussels Tramways : Sections of Rails 
 
 160. Constantinople Tramways 
 
 161. Do. DO. 
 
 • 304 
 
 306, 307 
 
 • 309 
 
 162. 
 
 Section of Rail . 
 
 Section of Half-width of 
 Street and Way . 
 
 Do. DO. Section of Narrow Street, 
 
 WITH Single Line of Way 
 
 163. Moscow Tramways: Section of Way .... 
 
 164. Do. DO. Section of Rail and Fish-Joint 
 
 165. 166. Leipzig Tramways : Sections of Rail . 
 
 167. Cassel Tramways : Sections of Rail and Wheel-Tyre 
 
 168. Wellington (N.Z.) City Tramways : Section of Rail 
 16910171. Buenos Ayres Tramways: Livesey’s Steel Rail 
 
 System . . 315,316 
 
 172. Do. DO. Livesey’s Iron Rail 
 
 System 
 
 173 to 175. Cockburn-Muir’s Iron Way. 
 
 176. De Feral’s Iron Way. 
 
 309 
 
 309 
 
 311 
 
 311 
 
 312 
 
 313 
 
 314 
 
 • 317 
 319, 320 
 
 • 325 
 
 177, 178. Buenos Ayres Tramways: Sections of Rails and 
 
 326 
 
 Fastenings. 
 
 179. Buenos Ayres Grand National Tramway: Section of 
 
 Rail and Joint. 
 
 180. La Plata Tramways : Section of Rail and Fastening . 
 
 181. Section of High Girder Rail, Philadelphia Type . 
 
 182. Section of Burn’s Girder Rail. 
 
 183. Section of Legrand’s Girder Rail. 
 
 184 to 226. Sections of Steel Girder Rails (Dick, Kerr & Co.) 
 
 336, 337 
 
 328 
 
 329 
 
 329 
 
 330 
 
 331 
 
 227. Type of Girder Rail Tramway (Mr. Kincaid) : Section 
 
 OF Rail and Fastenings . 338 
 
 228. Do. DO. Cross-section of Way . . 338 
 
 229. Original Tramcar, New York (1831).354 
 
 230 to 235. (Plate I.) Passenger Tramcar, by the Metropolitan 
 
 Railway Carriage and Waggon Company 360 
 
 236 to 238. Do. DO. Wheels and Axle . . 362, 363 
 
 239, 240. Do. DO. Axle-Box. 363 
 
 241, 242. Do. DO. Disc Car-AVheel and Axle . 367 
 
XXXll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 243 to 247. (Plate II.) Passenger Tramcar, by the Starbuck Car 
 
 Company ..... facing 370 
 
 248. Section of Wheel-tyre of the Starbuck Car . . . 369 
 
 249, 250. (Plate III.) Passenger Car for Steam Traction, by the 
 
 Falcon Engine and Car AVorks facing 372 
 251 to 253. Elevation, Plan, and End View of Bogie of the 
 
 SAME Car ......... 373, 
 
 254. Radial-axle Passenger Tramcar, by Mr. James Clemin- 
 
 SON. 
 
 255, 256. (Plate IV.) French Passenger Car . . . facing 
 
 257. Composite Springs, with India Rubber Cushions . 
 
 258 to 261. Miller & Co.’s Car Wheels. 
 
 374 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 / / 
 380 
 
 386 
 
 387 
 
 388 
 
 403 > 
 
 262 to 264. Do. DO. Sections of Rims .... 
 
 265, 266. Do. DO. Steam Tramway Car and Engine 
 
 Disc AVheel ... . 389 
 
 267, 268. Do. DO. AVheel, Axle, &c., combined View 390 
 
 269, 270. Do. DO. Axle-guard and Box . . . 391 
 
 271. Handyside Car AVheel.391 
 
 272, 273. Bessbrook and Newry Tramway: Flangeless AVheels 
 
 AND Way .392, 393 
 
 274 to 276. Road-and-Rail AVheel Tramway AVaggon 394, 395, 396 
 277. Traction Experiments : Section of Tyre of Trial Car, 
 
 AND OF Rail, at Leeds. 
 
 278 to 280. Holt’s Tramway Starting Gear . 
 
 281. Steam Locomotive, by Mr. L. J. Todd (1871) . 
 
 282, 283. Fireless Steam Car, by Mr. L. J. Todd (1875) 
 
 284. Ammoniacal-gas Car, by Dr. Lamm (1871) 
 
 285. Fireless Locomotive, by Dr. Lamm (1872) 
 
 286. Steam Car, by Mr. Baxter (1872) . 
 
 287. Steam Car, by Mr. John Grantham (1872) 
 
 288. Do. DO. (1876) 
 
 289. 290. Perkins’s Condensing Locomotive: Ele.ation 
 
 Transverse Section. 
 
 291 to 294. Tramway Locomotive, by Merryweather & Sons, 
 
 FOR THE Dewsbury, Batley, and Birstal Tram¬ 
 way, IN Section and Plan .447 to 450 
 
 295. Tramway Locomotive, by Merryweather & Sons, for the 
 
 Stoke-on-Trent and District Tramways , . *455 
 
 399 
 404 
 
 411 
 
 412 
 
 413 
 
 414 
 418 
 418 
 421 
 
 AND 
 
 424, 425 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxiii 
 
 FIG. PACK 
 
 296. Tramway Locomotivk, by Hughes’s Locomotive Company, 
 
 FOR THE Southern Tramways of Paris , . . 459 
 
 297. Hughes’s Tramway Locomotive, Feedwater Heater . , 460 
 
 298. Tramway Locomotive, by Kitson & Co., for the Birming¬ 
 
 ham Central Tramways.469 
 
 299 to 301. Guinness’s Brewery (Dublin) Tramway Locomotive 474 
 
 302. Do. do. Tramway Locomotive, by Mr. Geoghegan . 475 
 
 303. Horwich Locomotive Works Tramway Shunting Engine, 
 
 by Mr. Aspinall.477 
 
 304. 305. Bissell Bogie Steam Car, by Mr. E. Perrett . 479, 480 
 306. Steam Car, by :Mr. E. Perrett, for the Dublin and 
 
 Lucan Tramway.481 
 
 307 to 309. Double Bogie Steam Car, by Mr. A. Brown . 484, 485 
 
 310. Tramway Locomotive, by ]Messrs. R. & W. Hawthorn . 488 
 
 311. Double Bogip: Steam Car, by Mr. W. R. Rowan . , 489 
 
 312. 313. Francq & Mesnard’s Fireless Locomotive . . . 512 
 
 314. Cable Tramways, San Francisco : Section of Way, Tube, 
 
 and Gripper.530 
 
 315. Do. DO. Disposition OF Tube, Dummy Car AND Gripper 531 
 
 316. Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways: Gradient of 
 
 
 
 Trinity Route . 
 
 • 533 
 
 317. Do. 
 
 - DO. 
 
 Gradient of Stockbridge Route 534 
 
 318, 319. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Sections of Way . 
 
 • 535 
 
 320, 321. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Details of Pulleys, &c. 
 
 • 536, 537 
 
 322, 323. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Terminal Pits and Diverting 
 
 
 
 Pulleys 
 
 • 538, 539 
 
 324. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Details of Gripper 
 
 . 540 
 
 325. Birmingham 
 
 Cable 
 
 Tramway : Plan of Terminus 
 
 • 543 
 
 326. - Do. 
 
 . DO. 
 
 .Terminal Pulley and Pit 
 
 • • 544 
 
 327 to 329. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Pulleys and Pulley Pit at Hockley 
 
 
 
 
 545 , 546 
 
 330. . Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Enginp: House and Tensional Gear 547 
 
 331, 332. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Engine and Driving Gear 
 
 • 548, 549 
 
 333 - 
 
 . DO. 
 
 Rope-driving Pullpw 
 
 • 550 
 
 334. , . Do. 
 
 . DO. 
 
 Type Section of AVay 
 
 • 550 
 
 335, 336. Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Details of Gripper 
 
 • ,552 
 
 337 to 339. (Plates 
 
 V., VI.) 
 
 Cable Route of the London 
 
 Tram- 
 
 WAYS : Elevations and Plan of Streatham Depot facing 
 
 c 
 
XXXIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 fig: page 
 
 340. Electric Traction (Overhead Conductor System) : Rela¬ 
 
 tion OF THE Cars to the Circuit.562 
 
 341. Bessbrook and Newry Electrical Tramway: Passenger 
 
 Cars.569 
 
 342. City and South London Railway : Transverse Section of 
 
 Tunnei.586 
 
 343. . Do. DO. Boiler-house and Engine-house at Gene¬ 
 
 rator Station ...... 587 
 
 344. Do. DO. Sectional View of Locomotive, showing 
 
 Motors. 590 
 
 345. Do. DO. Perspective View of Locomotive . -591 
 
 347. Florence and Fiesole Electric Railway: Section of 
 
 Bgiler ........... 600 
 
 346. (Plate 
 
 VII.) 
 
 Florence 
 
 AND Fiesole Electric Railway : 
 
 
 » Plan of Electric Works at St. Gervasio 
 
 facing 
 
 600 
 
 00 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Engine and Dynamo 
 
 • ? 9 
 
 600 
 
 349- 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 .Suspension of Columns . 
 
 * t 5 
 
 600 
 
 350 - " 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Elevation of Car . 
 
 • 9 9 
 
 600 
 
 551 - 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Plan of Car 
 
 • 9 9 
 
 600 
 
 352 , 353- 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Trolley Pole 
 
 • • 
 
 601 
 
 354 . 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Gearing of the Motor . 
 
 . 
 
 602 
 
 355- 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Regulator of Car . 
 
 • • 
 
 602 
 
 356. Liverpool Overhead Railway : Section of Conductor 
 
 Crossing .606 
 
 357. Do. Do. Bogie with Armature, Transverse Section 607 
 
 358,359. (Plate VIII.) Do. do. Elevation and Plan of Gene¬ 
 rating Station . . facing 608 
 
 360, 361. Do. Do. Elevation and Plan of Bogie, with , 
 
 Armature.612 
 
 362. Thomson-Houston System: Diagram Showing Electric 
 
 Connections of the Rails. 617 
 
 363. Pole used for Overhead Installation . . . .618 
 
 364. (Plate IX.) Thomson-Houston System, of Trolley-Wire 
 
 ' .Suspension . , facing .618 
 
 '365. Do. Do. Details .619 
 
 366. Section of Top of Steel Pole. 619 
 
 367, 368. “Frogs” for Diverting Trolley Wheels . . . 620 
 
 369. Single-Reduction Motor for Car . . . /. . 620 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 no. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 621 
 
 621 
 
 622 
 
 623 
 
 370. Single-Reduction Motor, Detaii.s .... 
 
 371. Rheostat for Regulating Speed .... 
 
 372. Controller-stand. 
 
 373. Trolley. 
 
 374. Sketch Plan of Station and Car Shed of Roundhay 
 
 t • 
 
 Electric Tramway . . . '. . . 624 
 
 375. Thomson-Houston Dynamc'.625 
 
 376, 377 - Mr. Dickinson's System of Electric Traction : 
 
 Switch, in Plan and Section.631 
 
 378, 379. Pole for Overhead Installation, with Details .. 632 
 
 380. Single-reduction ]Motors for Cars : Elevation . . 633 
 
 381. Do. DO. Plan . . . 633 
 
 382. Car in Section, Showing Trolley-Conductor . . . 635 
 
 383. 384. Details of Trolley Pole and Standard . . . 636 
 
 385, 386. Do. Trolley Pole.637 
 
 387. Plan of Car, Showing Various Positions of Trolley Pole 639 
 
 388. Location of the Neversink Mountain Electric Railroad 642 
 
 389. 390. (Plate X.) Plan, Elevation, and Right-side VIE^Y 
 
 OF the Turbine Plant of the Neversink Mountain 
 Railroad ........ facing 644 
 
 391. (Plate XI.) Arrangement of the AViring of the Neversink 
 
 JNIountain Electric Railroad .... facing 644 
 
 392,393. (Plate XII.) Points AND Crossings : Passing-place 
 
 
 
 
 AND Triangle Junction . facing 
 
 664 
 
 394 ^ 395 * 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 .Single and Double Crossover Road ,, 
 
 664 
 
 396. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Section of Open Point . . ,, 
 
 664 
 
 397 , 398. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Miller’s Movable Chilled Points ,, 
 
 664 
 
 399. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Miller’s Chilled Crossing for 
 
 
 
 
 
 Junction with Channel 
 
 
 
 
 
 AND Rail ... ,, 
 
 664 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Miller’s Chilled Crossing for 
 
 
 
 
 
 Connection with Girder 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rail .... ,, 
 
 664 
 
 401 to 403 
 
 . Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Built-up Fixp:d Points . . ■ 
 
 664 
 
 404, 405. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Cross-Sections of Built-up Fixed 
 
 
 
 
 
 Points .... ,, 
 
 664 
 
 406,407 . 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 Movable Points m^de up from Rail ,, 
 
 664 
 
 408. 
 
 Do. 
 
 DO. 
 
 DO. Built-up Crossing . . ,, 
 
 664 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 FACING 
 
 PLATE , I-AGE 
 
 I. (Figs. 230 to 235). IXSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER CAR, BY 
 THE Metropolitan Railway Carriage and Waggon 
 Company. 360 
 
 II. (Figs. 243 to 247). Inside Passenger Car, by the .Starbuck 
 
 Car and Waggon Company. 370 
 
 III. (Figs. 249, 250). Inside-and-Outside Passenger Car, for 
 
 Steam Traction, by the Falcon Engine and Car Works 372 
 
 IV. (P'igs. 255, 256). Inside-and-Outside Passenger Car of the 
 
 CoMPAGNiE Generate des Omnibus, of Paris . . 380 
 
 V. (Figs. 337, 338). Brixton Cable Route of the London 
 Tramways : Sectional and Front Elevation of 
 
 Streatham Depot. 554 
 
 VI. (Fig. 339). Do. DO. Plan of the Streatham Depot . 554 
 
 VII. (Figs. 346, 348 to 351). Florence and Fiesole Electrical 
 
 Railway : Plan of AVorks at St. Gervasio ; Plans 
 AND Elevations of Engine and Dynamo and Car . 600 
 
 VIII. (F'igs. 358, 359). Liverpool Overhead Railway : Eleva¬ 
 
 tion AND Plan of Generating Station . . . 608 
 
 IX. (Fig. 364). Thomson-Houston System of Trolley AVire 
 
 Suspension. 618 
 
 X. (Figs 389, 390). The Neversink Mountain Electric 
 Railroad : Plan, Elevation, and Right-side View 
 
 OF THE Turbine Plant.644 
 
 ^ • 
 
 XL (FAg. 391). Do. DO. Arrangement of the AATring . 644 
 XII. (F'igs. 392 to* 408). Points and Crossings .... 664 
 
TRAM WAYS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS of TRAMWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 A TRAM, according to Nuttall, is the shaft ot a cart or a carriage. 
 It is also a local name lor a coal-wagon, whence is derived the 
 compound word “tramway” or “ tramroad ”—a road laid with 
 narrow tracks of wood, stone, or iron, for trams or wagons. 
 
 In France, tramways were officially known as “ horse railways ” 
 {z'oies ferrks a traction de clievaux). By the public they were 
 known as “ American railways ” {chemms de fer Americains, or 
 simply IAmericain). Finally, the English word “ tramway ” has 
 become universally adopted in France. 
 
 A tramway, in the modern sense of the word, is a street railway, 
 or a road railway, forming part of the roadway; such that the 
 traffic of the street or the road, unaffected by the tramway, is free 
 to circulate. It follows, as the principal condition of such free 
 circulation, that the surface of the rails, whilst they are adapted fcr 
 carrying flanged wheels, should be at the level of the carriage-way. 
 
 Tramways, for facilitating heavy continuous traffic, were, as may 
 be imagined, more desirable in the days of no roads, or bad roads, 
 
2 
 
 ORJGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 than they are even now. They were laid, more than two hundred 
 years ago, in the mineral districts of England, when coal was 
 rapidly supplanting wood as fuel, for the conveyance of coal to 
 the sea-coast for shipment. The difficulty of keeping the roads in 
 repair—leading from coal-mines—may easily be conceived. Some¬ 
 thing of the condition of roads in the ante-macadam period may be 
 witnessed to-day in the earth-roads of Egypt. These, after a heavy 
 fall of rain, become seas of mud, and constitute formidable impedi¬ 
 ments to circulation, instead of facilitating it. Our forefathers were 
 
 Fig. I. Early timber tramways. Scale, A -. 
 
 led to lay planks or timbers at the bottoms of the ruts, as a better 
 contrivance than filling in stones. The inconvenience of the 
 ruts, again, led to placing planks or rails of timber on the level 
 surface. In 1676, tramways consisted of rails of timber laid “ from 
 the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel.” 
 
 The rails, originally, were formed of scantlings of good sound oak, 
 and were connected by sills or cross-timbers of the same material, 
 pinned together with oak trenails, as shown in Fig. i. The rails 
 
 Fig. 2. Early limber tramways, with double rails. Scale, offi. 
 
 were 4 inches deep and 4 or 5 inches wide, laid parallel, 3 or 4 feet 
 apart, in lengths of 6 feet. The cross-sleepers were 6 feet long 
 by 4 or 5 inches deep and 5 inches wide, laid about 2 feet apart 
 between centres. The rapid abrasion and wear of the rails, in 
 consequence of the coarse construction of the wheels and the wear 
 of the sleepers by the action of the horses’ feet, led to the placing 
 of an additional rail, Fig. 2, upon the first rail. This second rai -1 
 
EARLY TIMBER TRAMWAYS. 
 
 3 
 
 became the wearing piece, and could be renewed with facility ; 
 whilst the increased depth afforded by .it admitted of the covering 
 of the sleepers by the soil, and their protection from the horses’ 
 feet. The wearing rails were of hard wood—beech or sycamore— 
 6 feet long by from 4 to 6 inches deep. The under rails of the 
 double way, at first made of oak, were subsequently made of fir. 
 
 It became a common practice to nail down bars of wrought iron 
 on the surface of the ascending inclines of the road, where the 
 draught was increased, in consequence of the greater wear of the 
 timber. These bars, or rails, were about 2 inches wide, and J inch 
 thick, and fastened to the wood rails by nails having countersunk 
 heads. But the iron bars, not being stiff enough, were consider¬ 
 ably bent when the trucks were loaded, and the resistance, accord¬ 
 ing to Mr. Wood, was reduced but slightly below that of a well- 
 constructed double wooden railway. 
 
 Nevertheless, a marked improvement in the performance ot the 
 draught horses followed upon the establishment of the tramway. 
 The regular load of coals for one horse, on the common road, 
 amounted to 8 bolls or 17 cwt., whilst, upon the tramway, the 
 horse could regularly take a load of 19 bolls or 42 cwt. of coal. 
 
 Cast iron was first tried incidentally, as a material for rails, in 
 1767, by the Coalbrookedale Iron Company, who determined to 
 protect their oak rails with cast iron, not altogether as a necessary 
 expedient of improvement, says Mr. Hornblower, writing in 1809, 
 “ but in part as a well-digested measure of economy in support of 
 their trade. From some adventitious circumstances, the price of 
 pigs became very low: and their works being of great extent, in 
 order to keep the furnaces in, they thought it would be the best 
 means of stocking their pigs to lay them on the wooden railways, 
 as it would help to pay the interest by reducing the repairs of the 
 rails ; and if iron should take any sudden rise, there was nothing 
 to do but to take them up and to send them away as pigs.” * 
 
 The iron rails were cast in lengths of 5 feet, 4 inches wide, and 
 inches thick, as in Fig. 3, formed with three holes, through 
 
 * Observations by Mr. Hornblower, in the Appendix to the Third 
 Report of the Committee on Highways, 1809. 
 
4 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF IRA AIWA VS, 
 
 which they were fastened to the oak rails ; “ and very complete it 
 was, both in design and in execution.” 
 
 The tramway was developed into the railway by the employment 
 of flange rails and edge rails of cast iron and of wrought iron, 
 designedly elevated above the surface of the ground, upon new 
 tracks laid out specifically for the formation of railways. But a 
 
 Fig. 3. Cast-iron tram-rails, by the Colebrookedale Iron Company. 
 
 Scale 2^. 
 
 reaction set in when it was found that railways wanted the 
 needful adaptability to follow out the subordinate lines of traffic 
 which occupied roads and streets. The convenient and unpre¬ 
 tentious tramway was revived, and laid in streets and common 
 roads, for the conveyance of passengers on the omnibus system. 
 The revivals have, for th« most part, been, like the primitive 
 tramways, worked by horses. Nevertheless, in view of the success 
 
FIRST AMERICAN TRAMIVAYS, 
 
 5 
 
 of the tramway system, as a mechanical fact, it may be expected 
 that mechanical power will be generally substituted for horses. 
 
 The modern tramway was first employed in the United States, 
 where it was urgently wanted, in consequence of the inferior con¬ 
 dition of the streets and roads of the large cities. The first 
 American tramway was the New York and Haarlem line, of which 
 the first section, laid in the main thoroughfares to a gauge of 
 4 feet 8|- inches, was opened in 1832. But it was unpopular, 
 and was for a time suppressed. Tramways, nevertheless, were 
 revived in the same city about the year 1852 by the instru¬ 
 mentality of M. Loiibat, a French engineer, who recommended 
 and laid down a tramway, consisting of rolled wrought-iron rails, 
 laid upon wooden sleepers. The rails were constructed with a 
 groove in the upper surface to guide the wheels of the cars, 
 which were made with flanges, like those of railway carriages and 
 wagons."^ 
 
 Tramways were rapidly multiplied in New York, which owes 
 much of its development to the tramways, the traffic upon which was 
 of much more importance than that of the light wheeled vehicles 
 used for ordinary circulation. Otherwise, the rails, which were 
 formed with wide, gulf-like grooves, would not have been tolerated 
 in the streets. The tramway afforded incalculable advantages, 
 and it became an indispensable feature in the principal cities of 
 the United States. The long distances to be traversed, the 
 generally bad condition of the streets and roads, and the com¬ 
 parative scarcity of other vehicles, formed a combination of 
 circumstances which forced the tramway-car into general use by 
 all classes. 
 
 Habits were formed, and the irregularities of rails and roads 
 were of less importance than they had been felt to be in Britain. 
 The annexed sectional illustrations. Figs. 4 to 9, show the fearless 
 manner in which the New York tram-rails were proportioned, 
 combining obnoxious grooves with massive sections. An unso¬ 
 phisticated observer, struck by the proportions of these rails with 
 
 * The rails laid by M. Loubat, in Paris, hereafter noticed, were 
 similar to those laid by him in America. 
 
6 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 the portentous grooves, described them as “ rails which have 
 a sort of iron gutter attached to each on their inside edge.” 
 
 Mr. Charles L. Light, an English engineer, properly conceiving 
 
 New York Tram-Rails. Scale, full size. 
 
 LIG. 6 . New York, Second Avenue. 
 
 * Letter of Mr. Longley, quoted by Mr. Beresford Hope, in his 
 evidence before the Select Committee on Tramways, 1872. Mr. Peel, 
 
EARLY NEW YORK 7RAJ/-RA/LS. 
 
 •7 
 
 / 
 
 that the great groove, or “gutter,” in the New York rails was a 
 great nuisance, devised and laid, in 1856—57, a less incommodious 
 
 Nf.w York TRA:\r-R afi s. Scale, ^ full size. 
 
 a member of the Committee, struck by the originality of the notion of 
 a “gutter” alongside the rail, naturally inquired of Mr. Hope,— 
 
 “ In comparing the New York system with that adopted in London, 
 you spoke of an iron gutter as being a feature of the system ? ” 
 
 A 92 S. “My correspondent is Mr. Longley, son of the late Arch- 
 
8 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TR All JR A VS. 
 
 tram-rail in the streets of Boston, U.S., in which the depth of the 
 groove was limited to ^ inch, whilst the inner side of the groove 
 was carried up with a flat slope, so formed that mud or small stones 
 could be the more easily pushed away by the flanges of the car 
 wheels. The groove was not so deep, and not so damaging to the 
 wheels ot ordinary vehicles, as the grooves of the New York rails. 
 
 Fig. io. Cast-iron rail, Boston, U.S., by Mr. C. L. Light. Scale L 
 
 bishop, who is very well known, and who happened to be in New York 
 last year. I do not know whether you wish to challenge the social 
 condition of my New York correspondent ? ” 
 
 “ Not by any means. But, as I understand, the iron gutter is not 
 at all used in the English system ? ” 
 
 Ans. “ I do not suppose that any witness has contended that it is.” 
 “ But when you say that the New York system is characterized by 
 iron gutters, and is therefore disadvantageous to the public, what is 
 the inference you wish the Committee to draw ? ” 
 
 Ans. “ That the New York system has one more element of incon¬ 
 venience in it than the English system.” 
 
 As Mr. Hope himself said in his next answer, such sort of evidence 
 is “a mere red-herring, very unfair and very untrue.” Of such is 
 history made. 
 
 Here is another bit of Mr. Hope’s evidence: ‘‘Omnibuses, dan¬ 
 gerous and disagreeable as they are, move in and out; while a 
 tramway cannot move in and out. . . . Mr. Train ran one of his 
 lines, and had a station for his omnibuses under my window, and 
 the noise, and the hallooing, and the row that went on was a great 
 inconvenience, certainly.” Such evidence was unanswerable. 
 
PHILADELPHIA STEP-RAIL. 
 
 9 
 
 'The rails, Fig. lo, were of cast iron, in lengths of 6 feet and 8 feet, 
 weighing 75 lbs. per yard. The ends of the rails were formed 
 with dowels and cores placed diagonally, which, being interlocked, 
 were designed to maintain the ends of the lengths of rail at one 
 level. These rails, after several years’ working, were replaced by 
 rails of wrought iron. 
 
 In order to mitigate the inconveniences of the New York sections 
 of tram-rail, a different sort -of rail, Fig. ii, from which the 
 groove was banished, though a ridge remained, was introduced 
 in Philadelphia, and laid in Fifth and Sixth Streets, where it gave 
 satisfaction. It consisted of a flat plate, 5 inches wide, formed 
 with a raised ledge or step at one edge, standing J inch above 
 the surface of the plate, without any groove. The plate was 
 
 formed wiih a ledge or fillet at each side below, let into corre¬ 
 sponding rebates in the upper corners of the sleepers, which were 
 of wood. The weight was 46 lbs. per yard. The gauge was fixed 
 at 5 feet 2 inches between the ledges to suit the wheels of ordinary 
 vehicles, which could run on the lower flat surfaces. The type of 
 tramway thus settled for Philadelphia in 1855, is shown in Figs. 
 12 and 13. 
 
 'Fhe rails were laid on longitudinal sleepers of yellow pine, 
 5 inches wide and 7 inches deep, bolted down upon transverse 
 sleepers, 6 inches wide and 5 inches deep, with iron knees to 
 maintain the rails in gauge. 
 
 Following the principle of the Philadelphia rail, but adopting a 
 greater width—8 inches—a similar rail, Fig. 14, was introduced 
 
lO 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 in New York iwevioiis to i860. It was better adapted for taking 
 the wheels of ordinary vehicles, which varied considerably in 
 
 Figs. 12 and 13. Philadelphia Tramways. Scale tjT. 
 
 gauge, whilst new vehicles of the ordinary kinds were made to fit 
 the tramway. 
 
 But the wide tram-plate or step-rail incurs the objection that it 
 does not afford a good foothold tor horses, whether harnessed to 
 tramcars or to ordinary vehicles. There is, besides, the general 
 
XUlf^ YOJi/C STEP-RAIL. 
 
 I I 
 
 objection to the step form of the surface, in which, though the 
 rise may never exceed an inch, the elevation is sufficient to cause 
 a considerable degree of inconvenience to vehicles crossing the 
 rails in an oblique direction in straining the wheels and the axles. 
 The step-rail possesses, on the contrary, the advantage over the 
 grooved rail that the flange of the car-wheel is always free, as 
 there is no groove for the lodgment of obstructive pebbles and 
 mud, whilst there is nothing to seize the wheels of ordinary 
 vehicles. 
 
 The step-rail is in general use in the principal cities of the 
 United States, where probably there is less of the light cab and 
 omnibus traffic than what prevails in English cities and towns 
 exposed to the action of the obnoxious step. 
 
 Tramways have been widely extended in the chief cities of the 
 Union. The gauge of tramways adopted, for the most part, in the 
 United States is 4 feet 8d inches. 
 
 The tramway system of Buenos Ayres, the principal city of the 
 Argentine Republic, is a conspicuous example of the beneficial 
 adoption of tramways in towns. There were, in 1872, in opera¬ 
 tion or in course of construction about 70 miles of tramway in 
 that city, a greater mileage probably in proportion to the size of 
 the place—which contains 200,000 inhabitants—than has been 
 laid in any other city in the world. The extraordinary develop¬ 
 ment of the system there is attributable m a great measure to the 
 comfort, the cheapness, and the rapidity of tramway locomotion 
 
12 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 compared with the previously existing means of conveyance in 
 carriages or omnibuses over a very rough kind of paving. The 
 city is built, like the towns and cities of the United States, in 
 square blocks, the streets being straight, parallel, and at right 
 angles. Almost every street has its line of tramway, laid for 
 the most part on Livesey’s system, afterwards described. The 
 principal lines are known as the City, the Billinghurst (now the 
 Argentine), the Lacroze, the National, the Mendez, and the 
 Southern Tramways. One particular feature which added to the 
 cost of working these tramways was the necessity, some years ago, 
 for having ‘‘ trumpeters ”—men on horseback who ride in advance 
 of the cars each blowing a trumpet—to warn off carts and other 
 vehicles from the track, as well as to prevent collisions at the 
 intersections of the streets, and, further, to assist in dragging out 
 of the way any heavily laden or broken-down vehicle obstructing 
 the line,^' 
 
 The modern tramway was introduced in England by Mr. G. F. 
 Train, who, in 1857, made proposals for laying tramways on the 
 system originated in Philadelphia in some of the Metropolitan 
 thoroughfares and in a few provincial towns. Mr. Train asso¬ 
 ciated with himself Mr. James Samuel, C.E., but they failed in 
 their object of obtaining an Act of Parliament, which was applied 
 for in 1858, mainly through the opposition of Sir Benjamin Hall, 
 Chief Commissioner of Works. “ It was utterly impossible,” he 
 said, that the iron rails or plates upon which the carriages were 
 to run could be laid on macadamised roads, for instance, with a 
 certainty of always being kept on precisely the same level as the 
 road ; and carriages running diagonally against the plate would 
 be subjected to have their wheels torn off, and most serious acci¬ 
 dents would result whatever precautions might be taken. Even 
 the weather would at times effect this.”! 
 
 “ Sir Benjamin Hall,” said Mr. Train, did not meet the argu¬ 
 ments of Mr. Samuel except by prejudice. Arguing against facts 
 
 * Engineering, May 17, 1872, page 332. 
 
 t Observer, February 21, 1858. 
 
TRAIN'S TRAMJVAY AT BIRNEiXHEAD. 
 
 is difficult, and over-riding stubborn truths impossible.” Sir 
 Benjamin, nevertheless, was proved to be in the right. 
 
 In default of better authority, Mr. Train, in March, i860, 
 applied for, and in May of the same year obtained, permission 
 from the Commissioners of Birkenhead to lay down his tramway 
 in this town. In April he patented his system. 
 
 “ The egg,” Mr. Train said, “ will shortly be chipped in this 
 
 country under my patent, at great cost and labour, and I shall 
 endeavour to prevent my chicken (as is too frequently the case 
 with valuable inventions) from becoming somebody else’s hen.” 
 
 So, the first of his lines was laid in the macadamised roads of 
 Birkenhead, and was opened on August 30, i860, within five 
 months after the application for leave was made. It is illus¬ 
 trated by Figs. 15 and 16. It has rolled wrought-iron step-rails, 
 
 Fig. 16. Mr. G. F. Train’s tramway at Birkenhead : Section of rail. 
 
 Scale 
 
 weighing about 50 lbs. per yard, laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8T inches. 
 The rails were 6 inches wide and -nrths of an inch thick in the 
 sole, with a step rising f inch above the sole, and a fillet at 
 each edge on the lower side. They were bedded on and spiked 
 to longitudinal timber sleepers, 6 inches wide and 8 inches deep, 
 which were let into and rested on transverse sleepers, and were 
 spiked to them with one iron knee to each. 
 
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 14 
 
 Short lines, similarly, were, by the permission ot the local 
 authorities, laid down in London by Mr. Train and his friends 
 in 1861 ; in Bnyswater Road, between the Marble Arch and 
 Netting Hill Gate; in Westminster, from the Palace Hotel to 
 Victoria Station; and in Kennington Road, from Westminster 
 Bridge to Kennington Park. In 1863 aline i|-miles in length 
 was laid by Mr. Train and opened in the Potteries District for 
 the Staffordshire Potteries Street Railway Company, between 
 Burslem and Hanley. 
 
 After a brief experience of the inconvenience of the step-rail, 
 Mr. Train’s lines laid in London were removed, whilst the Birken¬ 
 head Tramway and the Potteries Tramway were only saved from 
 extinction by the timely substitution of flat grooved rails for the 
 step-rails. The grooves in the new rails were sufficiently roomy 
 to afford free play for the flanges of the wheels, at the same time 
 that they were sufficiently narrow to prevent the wheels of common 
 road vehicles from entering them. 
 
 Our streets and roads being in comparatively good condition, 
 with cabs and omnibuses in common use, great numbers of which 
 were available for general circulation at reasonable fares, the need 
 for tramway accommodation was less urgent in England than else¬ 
 where. The advocates of tramways, discouraged by the sensa¬ 
 tional failures, retired for a time. Mr. Beresford Hope said, I 
 have often been button-holed in society about it, and I should 
 say that the general population of London look upon the exten¬ 
 sion of tramways with dislike and apprehension.” 
 
 In fine, the career of the step-rail tramway was ended. How¬ 
 ever it may have been tolerated in America, it was hated in 
 England; and only after an interval of some years—in 1865 and 
 1866—was the movement for the construction of tramways 
 revived. 
 
 It may be noted that, obviating the vice of the step-rail, 
 flat rails were laid in Salford, on Mr. John Haworth’s system, 
 about the year 1862, consisting of two parallel lines of smooth 
 iron plates, 44 inches wide and 4 inch thick, and a central grooved 
 rail, similar in section to an inverted bridge rail. These rails 
 
y/A JJ ^OR Til ’ 6 ' TR A MWA 1 \ 
 
 15 
 
 were laid upon and screwed down to longitudinal timber sleepers, 
 and finished flush with the surface of the pavement. Whilst 
 the wheels of the vehicle rolled freely over the tram-plates a 
 small guide-wheel, having a central flange, ran upon the central 
 rail. The guide-wheel was hung from the front ot the ordinary 
 omnibus, and was raised or depressed at will by the driver. This 
 triple-rail system, known as the “on-and-off” system, was in 
 operation for upwards of eight years ; but it was too weak, inso¬ 
 much as it worked loose at the joints, and the ends occasionally 
 opened up, making dangerous footing for the horses. Besides, it 
 was open to the objection of slipperiness, and eventually the 
 episodical tramway was removed, 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 MODERN TRAMWAYS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 In November, 1865, a show piece of tramway, six yards in 
 length, was laid in Castle Street, Liverpool, with the crescent rail, 
 3 inches wide, weighing 18 lbs. per yard, imported from America, 
 laid as in Fig. 17, on which great expectations were based. The 
 crescent rail, which was certainly flat enough and unassuming 
 
 Fig. 17. Crescent rail, by Mr. J. Noble. Scale L 
 
 enough, had been employed in the construction ot tramways in the 
 United States, and, as it lay perfectly level with the pavement of 
 the street, it was hailed by its admirers as a satisfactory solution of 
 the problem of a non-obstructive street railway. The rails were 
 laid and screwed down to longitudinal bearers, which rested on 
 cross-sleepers. A small groove, or slot opening, was left in the 
 
THE FIRST LIVERPOOL TRAMWAY. 
 
 17 
 
 pavement to clear the flanges of the wheels. The provision thus 
 made for clearing wheel flanges was insufficient, and it was neces¬ 
 sary in practice to employ special appliances for sweeping the 
 groove clear of obstructive matter, whilst the tractional resistance 
 must have frequently been excessive. Besides, the unprotected 
 edges of the paving were liable to breakage. The system was 
 finally abandoned, though it formed part of the original scheme of 
 the Liverpool tramways; and the sample line did good service in 
 allaying the apprehensions of the timid, and in silencing the 
 objections of the fastidious. The sample piece was removed after 
 it had laid four years in Castle Street. 
 
 The type of rail finally adopted for the first Liverpool tramways 
 was formed with a flat level surface, having a narrow groove to 
 receive and guide the wheel flanges. 
 
 In 1866 and 1867 application was made to Parliament for 
 power to construct a system of tramways in Liverpool, for which 
 an Act was obtained in 1868. This was the first English system 
 of tramways for passenger traffic that was authorised by Act ot 
 Parliament. The works were constructed by Messrs. Fisher and 
 Parrish, of New York, under Mr. George Hopkins as engineer-in¬ 
 chief, and were commenced in May, 1869. The south line, from 
 the Exchange to Dingle, 3 miles 560 yards in length, was opened 
 on November i, 1869. The north line, from Old Haymarket to 
 Spillow Lane and Whitechapel Street, 2 miles 700 yards long, was 
 opened on September i, 1870 ; and the line on Aigburth Road, 
 which has since been removed, i mile 260 yards long, was opened 
 a year later, on September i, 1871. Thus the total authorised 
 length of tramway, or of streets traversed by tramways, amounted 
 to 6 miles 1,520 yards, and it was constructed in the course of about 
 two years and three months. The length constructed was about 
 5|- miles in length, thus ;— 
 
 Miles. Yards. 
 
 Single line ...... 2 820 
 
 Double line . . . • -3 630 
 
 Total ... .5 1,450 
 
 C 
 
i8 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The system was like a Catherine wheel : it consisted of an inner 
 circle a mile and quarter long, from which two lines flew off. The 
 inner circle is always worked in one direction, and then the 
 carriages shoot off to the north. There are now (1891) about 28^ 
 miles of tramway in Liverpool. 
 
 The gauge of the Liverpool tramways was determined to be 
 4 feet Sh inches—the same as the national railway gauge. But 
 it was not fixed at that width with any view to a possible 
 communication with railways. As a matter of fact railway 
 wagons cannot be run over the ordinary groove rails of tramways 
 laid to the railway gauge. The gauge of 4 feet 8b inches was 
 introduced in the Act because, when the promoters first applied to 
 Parliament, they were obliged to apply as for a “ railway,” since 
 
 Fig. 18. Early Liverpool rail. Scale |. 
 
 the word tramway !’ was not to be found in the standing orders, 
 and they were under the necessity of accepting the only gauge 
 allowed for railways. 
 
 The form of the rails adopted in the original construction of 
 the Liverpool tramways was, as before stated, of a flat grooved 
 section, such as had been found to answer satisfactorily at Birken¬ 
 head, though narrower, weighing 40 lbs. per yard, about i inch in 
 thickness and having a sectional area of about 4 square inches. Rails 
 of similar but larger section were afterwards employed, weighing 
 45 lbs. per yard, shown in Fig. 18. The rail was little else than a flat 
 bar, having a narrow and shallow groove in its upper surface, with a 
 fillet on the lower side and bedded on a longitudinal sleeper. The 
 rail was 4 inches wide and if inches in thickness. The groove was 
 formed with sloping sides, and was f inch in depth, with a width of 
 
THE FIRST LIVERPOOL TRAMWA Y. 
 
 19 
 
 He-- 
 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 iS' . 
 
 j_u 
 
 I inch at the bottom and double this width at the 
 rail. The tread, or rolling surface for the wheels, 
 about 2 inches, when of course, the 
 inner edge of the tread was at the 
 half-width of the rail; whilst the 
 ledge forming the other side of the 
 groove was about ^ inch wide at 
 the surface, and was corrugated 
 transversely with a view to prevent¬ 
 ing slipperiness for horses. The 
 rails were bedded on timber sleepers 
 4 inches wide and 6 inches in 
 depth, and were fished with ^-inch 
 wrought-iron plates, 12 inches long 
 and 4 inches wide, applied below 
 the joint, let flush into the upper 
 side of the sleeper as shown in Fig. 
 
 20. The joint was fixed with four 
 vertical spikes, two to each rail, 
 driven through the rails at the 
 bottom of the groove, and the fish¬ 
 plate, into the sleeper. The rails 
 were also spiked at intervals to the 
 sleepers. The heads of the spikes 
 were countersunk, and let into the 
 rails to finish flush with the bottom 
 of the groove. The combined 
 sleeper and rail thus presented, for 
 the most part, a vertical surface at 
 each side, against which paving 
 stones could be closely and evenly 
 jointed. The construction of the way 
 is shown in cross section by Fig. 19. 
 
 To render the way independent for 
 
 support, on uncertain or unbroken ground, the 
 
 excavated to a depth of 14^ inches for the whole 
 
 c 2 
 
 
 ri-J 
 
 W 
 
 V X 
 
 surface of the 
 had a width ot 
 
 roadway was 
 [width, and a 
 
20 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 continuous bed of lime concrete, 7 inches thick, was laid for the 
 whole width of the track, as a foundation, upon which the sleepers 
 were placed. The interspaces between the sleepers were filled up 
 with concrete to the right level for supporting 4 inch cubes. The 
 sleepers were laid in and spiked to cast-iron clip-chairs (Figs. 20, 
 21), which were placed about 4 feet apart longitudinally and rested 
 
 Fig. 20. First Liverpool tramway. Section of 1 ail and sleeper, showing 
 cast-iron chair and fish-joint. Scale 
 
 
 Fig. 21 . First Liverpool tramway:—Cast-iron chair for longitudinal 
 sleepers, and cross tie-bar. Scale 
 
 direct on, a concrete foundation. The gauge of the rails was fixed by 
 bar-iron cross-ties, inches deep by f inch thick, the ends of which 
 were dovetailed into grooves cast in the inner side of the chairs. 
 The chairs were 6 wide inches at the joints of the sleepers, and 
 3 inches intermediately. The roadway was nearly all of macadam, 
 and the materials for the concrete were taken from the macadam 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 2 1 
 
 which was lifted to make room for the lime, riddled, cleaned, and 
 mixed with blue lias lime ; whilst the whole of the surface between 
 the rails, and for a width of i8 inches beyond the outer sides of 
 the rails, was paved with Welsh granite sets: 4-inch cubes between 
 the rails, and sets of 6 inches in depth for the outer 18-inch 
 spaces. The outer width, 18 inches, was provided in the Act, and 
 it defined the marginal boundaries of the breadth of roadway to be 
 maintained by the tramway company. That width was, and is 
 now accepted as a fair compromise; and, says Mr. J. Morris, 
 “ it does fairly represent the extent of possible injury even which 
 the tramway can do to the road, and it is accepted universally 
 on the Continent, and almost universally in America, and is the 
 recognised standard.” * 
 
 The 18-inch margin is both necessary and sufficient for main¬ 
 taining the stability of the line, when it is laid in a non-paved or 
 macadamised street, and for affording a foothold for the tram- 
 horses when they traverse the rails. I remember,” says Mr. 
 Hopkins, “ that our first bills were introduced with 9 inches only 
 outside the rails, but the width was increased to 18 inches in 
 Committee.” t 
 
 Where the lines of tramway were double, in Liverpool, they 
 were laid at a clear distance apart of four feet between the rails, 
 giving a “ four-foot,” corresponding to the “ six-foot ” of rail¬ 
 ways. 
 
 The gradients of the Liverpool lines of tramway are various. 
 Liverpool is a very hilly town. The maximum gradient is i 
 in 19. 
 
 The practice initiated at Liverpool has ruled the general dis¬ 
 positions of tramways in other parts of the country. 
 
 In 1869, the North Metropolitan Tramways Company was 
 authorised to lay tramways on the Whitechapel, Mile End, and 
 Bow Roads; and in 1870 they were empowered to lay extensions 
 to Aldgate, at the West-end, and to Stratford, Leytonstone, and 
 Bromley, at the East-end. In 1871, they obtained additional 
 
 * Report of the Select Committee on Tramways Bill, 1870. 
 
 t Ibid. 
 
22 
 
 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF TRAMfVAYS. 
 
 powers to lay tramways in the North and East of London, which 
 made a total of 30^ miles of tramway authorised to that Company. 
 Now, in 1891, there is a length of 4i| miles of way. 
 
 In 1869, also. Acts were passed for the construction of the 
 Kennington, Brixton, and Clapham routes, from Westminster 
 Road, by the Metropolitan Street Tramway Company; and the 
 routes from Pimlico, by Vauxhall, to Greenwich, by the Pimlico, 
 Peckham, and Greenwich Tramway Company. These two Com¬ 
 panies were, by their Acts, empowered to construct and work 
 tramways in nearly all the main metropolitan thoroughfares on 
 the south side of the Thames, comprising 25 miles of streets. 
 They were amalgamated, in the end of 1870, as the London 
 Tramways Company. In 1891, 21J miles of way were open. 
 
 In 1870, the London Street Tramways Company were authorised 
 to lay tramways on the north side of London, from Lower Hol¬ 
 loway to the south end of the Hampstead Road, and from 
 Kentish Town to King’s Cross. In 1891, 13I- miles of way were 
 open. 
 
 In the beginning of 1873, 42 miles of tramway had been opened 
 in the streets of the Metropolis ; the length was increased to 61 
 miles in 1876, and to 130 miles in 1891. 
 
PART II. 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 Under the stimulus afforded by the rapid spread and successful 
 
 operation of 
 
 the 
 
 several systems 
 
 at work, Acts were 
 
 applied for 
 
 and obtained, 
 
 authorising the laying of tramways in 
 
 manv cities 
 
 and towns in 
 
 the 
 
 provinces :— 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of Tramwaj- 
 
 
 No. of Tramway 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Acts passed. 
 
 V ear. 
 
 Acts passed. 
 
 1868. 
 
 
 . I 
 
 1881. 
 
 .32 
 
 1869. 
 
 
 . 3 
 
 1882. 
 
 . 43 
 
 1870. 
 
 
 .II 
 
 1883. 
 
 .25 
 
 1871. 
 
 
 .II 
 
 1884. 
 
 .30 
 
 1872. 
 
 
 .13 
 
 i88s. 
 
 .21 
 
 1873. 
 
 
 .22 
 
 1886. 
 
 .19 
 
 1874. 
 
 
 . 8 
 
 1887. 
 
 .19 
 
 1875. 
 
 
 .14 
 
 1888. 
 
 .20 
 
 1876. 
 
 
 . 9 
 
 1889. 
 
 .18 
 
 1877 . 
 
 1878 . 
 
 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 1890. 
 
 . 2 
 
 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 
 .31 
 
 23 years. Total .. . .439 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 . 39 
 
 
 
 These columns show a period of increasing activity in tramway 
 legislation, culminating in 1880—82, followed by a period of 
 decreasing activity. In 1890, only two Acts were passed. 
 
 The total lengths of streets and roads traversed by tramways in 
 the United Kingdom, at June 30, 1890, were as follows :— 
 
24 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 K.in gdoni. 
 
 Len 
 
 ! 
 
 gth of tramway open. | 
 
 
 Double line. 
 
 Single line. 
 
 Total. 1 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland 
 
 Miles. 
 
 62*81 
 
 38*00 
 
 Miles. 
 
 438-15 
 
 21*59 
 
 73'31 
 
 Miles. ! 
 
 752-55 ! 
 
 84*40 1 
 
 111*31 ' 
 
 Totals 
 
 415*21 
 
 533-05 
 
 948*26 
 
 The capital expenditure on tramways at June 30,1890, amounted 
 to about 13I- millions sterling, distributed as follows :— 
 
 Capital ex¬ 
 penditure on 
 
 June 30, 1890. i lines and 
 
 Total ex¬ 
 penditure on 
 
 Length 
 
 open for traffic. 
 
 ! 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 works open 
 for traffic. 
 
 capital 
 
 account. 
 
 Double. 
 
 Single. 
 
 Total. 
 
 under¬ 
 
 takings. 
 
 1 
 
 Tramways belonging to 1 £ 
 
 c 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 Local Authorities . ‘ 2,152,392 
 
 2,911,419 
 
 146*00 
 
 97-75 
 
 243-75 
 
 29 
 
 Tramways belonging to 
 others . . . 8,215,125 
 
 10,824,350 
 
 269*21 
 
 435-30 
 
 704-51 
 
 1 
 
 129 
 
 Total, United Kingdom 10,367,517 
 
 13.735.769 
 
 415*21 
 
 533-05 
 
 948*26 
 
 158 
 
 The capital expended on lines and works open for traffic is at 
 the rate of about 0,580 per mile. The total expenditure on 
 capital account is as follows for the three kingdoms sepa¬ 
 rately :— 
 
 June 30, 1890. 
 
 Total capital 
 expenditure. 
 
 Expenditure ; 
 
 per mile open. 
 
 j 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S i 
 
 ti 1 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 11,136,027 
 
 14,800 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 1,366,938 
 
 16,200 
 
 Ireland ..... 
 
 1,232,804 
 
 11,100 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 13.735.769 
 
 14,500 
 
 Showing an average total expenditure of ;£'i4,500 per mile of 
 tramways open. The greater cost per mile for Scotland arises 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS, 
 
 25 
 
 from the greater proportion of double line to single line than in 
 the other countries ; and the less cost per mile for Ireland arises 
 from the less proportion of double line. 
 
 The working stock at June 30, 1890, was as follows :— 
 
 27,719 horses, or . . . . pe7'mile open 29'27 
 
 575 locomotives .... ,, ’61 
 
 28,294 horses and locomotives . ,, 29-88 
 
 3,801 cars ..... ,, 4-01 
 
 Horses and locomotives . . . per car 7-44 
 
 The number of miles run by cars during the year ending June 
 30, 1890, amounted to 65,174,955 miles; and, taking the mean 
 number of cars for the year at 3,723, the mileage run per car 
 averages 17,506 car-miles for the year, or 48 miles per car per day, 
 allowing 365 working days in the year; against 44 in the year 
 1879—So. 
 
 Taking, again, the average number of horses for the year, at 
 27,390 horses, or 13,695 pairs; and of locomotives at 557 ; these 
 give together 14,252 pairs of horses and locomotives, running 
 4,573 miles in the year, per pair of horses and per engine, or 12-5 
 miles per day, against ii miles in the year 1879—So. A slight 
 abatement in the average is due on account of one-horse cars 
 employed. 
 
 The gross receipts for the year ending June 30, 1890, amounted 
 to p^3,214,743, and the expenses to ^2,402,800, or 75 per 
 cent., leaving the net receipts ;,^8i 1,943. Taking the capital 
 expenditure for the year on lines and works open at ;^io,327,5i7, 
 the proportions of earnings and expenses are as follows. The 
 proportions for the year to June 30, 1880, are added for com¬ 
 parison :— 
 
 
 Year to June 30, 1890. 
 
 Year to 
 
 June 30, 1880. 
 
 Gross receipts 
 
 31-1 per cent, of capital expenditure 
 
 26-9 per cent. 
 
 Expenses 
 
 23*3 
 
 22-3 „ 
 
 Net receipts . 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 
 
 46 ,, 
 
26 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 In Table No. i, annexed, are given in summary the capital cost, 
 receipts, expenses, and working stock of tramways in the United 
 Kingdom for the years ending June 30, 1878, 1882, 1884, 1886, 
 1888, 1889, and 1890. 
 
 In Table 2 are given, for each tramway, the capital expenditure, 
 and the lengths authorised and open at June 30, 1890. 
 
 In Table 3 are given the receipts, working expenditure, and stock 
 of horses, locomotives, and cars for each tramway, at June 30, 
 1890, with number of passengers, and car-miles run. 
 
 The contents of these three tables are derived from the Tra;n- 
 ways Return^ 1890. 
 
 In Table 4 is given the working expenditure on the whole of 
 the tramways of the United Kingdom, for the year ending June 
 30, 1890, abstracted from Table 3, with the percentage proportions 
 in parts of the total expenditure. The corresponding expenditure 
 for the year ending June 30, 1880, are added for comparison. 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS, 
 
 27 
 
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 HI XO O' 0 CO M 0 
 
 0 00 O' M 00 
 
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 fN. -rr Cv M M ro CO 
 
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 2'53 
 
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 Number of 
 horses 
 belonging 
 to the 
 companies. 
 
 OVM CMCOVO Gvm 
 
 ^ vO 0 CO i>-vO 00 
 
 CM C-N. 1- ro (Ov cOvO 
 
 0 VCT CO C-N. O' 0 «— HI 
 
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 CJvX) HI r^ XO C>* t-N, 
 
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 Length of 
 lines open 
 for public 
 traffic. 
 
 ^ r^•rt•CMVOvOCO CO 
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 s 
 
 CO Th 0 CO O' M 
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 Similar particulars for the 3'ears ending 30th June, 1891, 1892, 1893, will be found in Appendix B (p. 728). 
 
Table No. 2.—Capital Expenditure, and Lengths of Tramways authorised and open 
 
 IN the United Kingdom, at June 30, 1890. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 28 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 
 
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 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 tH 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 tH 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 f 
 
 0 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 PN- 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ) 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 p>. 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 r>» 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 p>. 
 
 p>. 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 w 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
GENERAL STA TJSTICS 
 
 29 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 - 1 “ 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 10 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 “ 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 CM 
 
 xo 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 c- 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 CNl 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 •M 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 r>x 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 xo 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - ■" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 10 --o 0 ^ 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CM 
 
 'O 
 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 -I* 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 0 “ >-< 1 ^ H 
 
 TT 
 
 . 
 
 10 
 
 lO 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 t-x. 
 
 VO 
 
 
 'X 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 10 w 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 xn 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 •0* 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 xo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 r>^ CM CN 
 
 M 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 (-• 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 -t- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 CC 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 Tj- M 0 
 
 \n 
 
 
 10 
 
 . 
 
 VO 
 
 NO 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 XO 
 
 •d 
 
 CO 
 
 . 
 
 l^x-x 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 0- 0 0 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 d* 
 
 « 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 » 
 
 ON 
 
 \0 c 0 m 
 
 •r 
 
 
 
 rx. 
 
 
 rxx 
 
 xo 
 
 xn 
 
 VO 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 ON 
 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 r>» 
 
 0- CM 
 
 
 
 uo 
 
 CM 
 
 (N 
 
 xo 
 
 CO 
 
 X/: 
 
 
 xo 
 
 IH 
 
 CC; 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 ■rt- 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 0 “ 
 
 M 
 
 GO 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 l>x 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 xo 
 
 0 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 10 -0 QNO 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 c-i 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 vO 
 
 0- 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Tj* ^ 1^ 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 XO 
 
 
 
 \n 
 
 r>. 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 “ 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 vr- M M 0 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 XO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 r-x. 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 •-- t-v ON vn 
 
 M 
 
 10 
 
 XTj 
 
 CO 
 
 lO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 d* 
 
 - 1 - 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
 On 
 
 00 
 
 
 0 
 
 O" 
 
 d- CM 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 XO 
 
 0- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 (-> 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 -j- 0 0 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 XO 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 10 d 
 
 CO ON 
 Tj-vO 
 
 0 00 r>> ON On 
 CO rx^ — 0 CM 
 co^ C CO COvO 
 
 0 "dco rxv 0 
 
 0 VO CM M ro M 
 
 0 d XO rh CM CM 
 
 0 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 XO 
 
 0 
 
 oc^ 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 0 
 
 •-< ON rC >-• rC 
 
 go' CO d CO 0 cm 
 
 00 
 
 t-x. 
 
 J' 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 xn 
 
 00 
 
 <N 
 
 o ^ 
 
 CM 
 
 fO 
 
 vo" 
 
 CO 
 
 l-x-N 
 
 0 
 
 O' 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 u 
 
 -i- 
 
 00" 
 
 CN 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 CNP 
 
 CO 
 
 XO . . ; . 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 • • • \o ^ 
 
 : : : * 7 , 
 
 M 
 
 : 
 
 : 
 
 -1- 
 
 CM 
 
 qv 
 
 
 1,029 
 
 ture 
 
 lied. 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 rr 
 
 XO 
 
 : 
 
 2 go 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 . 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 lO ^ 
 
 M 
 
 CJ' ov ro ^ 0 
 ro 0 0 00 
 w LO 10 ro 
 
 M 
 
 So 
 
 : : 12 ^ ! 
 
 • • ^ xo • 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 gT 
 
 s 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 t-x. 
 
 CO 
 
 -r 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 CO- 
 
 M 
 
 C /3 d 
 
 3 r- 
 
 ,2 3 
 
 > . a. 
 
 CU 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 c /3 
 
 <1; 
 
 00 
 
 y ■ 
 
 VO 
 
 
 : 
 
 CO 
 
 z 
 
 br 
 
 
 XO 
 
 
 0 r>. 
 
 
 0 
 
 XO 
 
 XO 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 3 X 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 
 'O 
 
 
 
 
 . 00 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 
 •O’ 
 
 
 r'^ 0 ^ 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 ■^16 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 S 2 
 
 
 ■- 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 rC CO 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 U -4 . 
 
 ^ ^ .* 3 . 
 
 .3 c 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 '/) 
 
 
 '-bo 
 
 :‘2 
 
 o 
 
 GO o 
 , 00 CM 
 . On CO 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 OJ 
 
 O— ^ a 
 
 g| 3 
 
 V-) 
 
 O" 
 
 t>. 
 
 ^ w 
 
 o ^ 
 
 X r: 
 yr V- 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 C /3 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 0 
 
 : 0 : 
 
 : 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 l-A 
 
 t-x- 
 
 CO 
 
 , cc • 
 
 On 
 
 
 • - 4 -^ 
 
 
 0- 
 
 M 
 
 !-i 
 
 
 CM 
 
 •’J 
 
 
 CN4 
 
 
 <N 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 0- ON x;t -0 Ov 
 
 0 -i- XOVO CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 -r 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 XO 
 
 O' 
 
 CM CO « 0 d 
 
 0 vO OnOO ♦ 
 
 r-x. 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 XO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 xo 
 
 0 00 CO d CM 
 
 0 -^i-vo c-xmo 1 
 
 t-x* 
 
 -r 
 
 0 
 
 vo" 
 
 0 
 
 XO 
 
 VO 
 
 : "2 
 
 00 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 CM^ 
 
 hi* 
 
 0000 hT 
 
 00 CO ‘H -4 d 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 xo 
 
 CO 
 
 XO 
 
 hh 
 
 
 -? 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 hH 
 
 XO *0 
 
 r-K M 
 
 
 
 XO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O' 
 
 0 
 
 Vm 
 
 ci 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 cu 
 
 u 
 
 o . 
 
 2 
 
 Cu 
 
 u 4 - 
 --0 
 
 C 
 
 fj 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 c/) . 
 
 cn 
 
 T 3 C 
 C 
 
 r5 Hjci 
 
 §" 
 O ^ 
 
 •*-> '-H- 
 
 "o ^ 
 cc 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 cs 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 c/: 
 
 • *T 3 
 
 a w c 
 
 o-£ 
 
 ^ GO ^ 
 
 ^ -d 4 :: 
 2 ^ rt ^ ci — 
 O ^ 1 - ^ •.-. ^ 
 
 cc cc 
 
 d 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 d. 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 'd 
 
 i-i 
 
 ..o 
 
 •d 
 
 c 
 
 c 3 
 
 E.!2 
 
 til 
 
 I—I 
 
 o; c 
 u o 
 O 
 
 'T 3 
 
 C 
 
 d 
 
 fi 
 
 •d 
 
 a 
 
 *n 
 
 • 4 -t 
 
 C/) 
 
 Q 
 
 CO 
 
 4 r 
 
 016 
 
 C <x 3 
 
 u 
 
 ' o 
 
 -M 
 
 ./) 
 
 'd 
 
 ^3 2 ^ 
 
 f i O O w 
 
 ^ o 3 ^ 
 
 : 4 -^ . c CU 
 
 • V) 'd c /3 O 
 coc/5 ,3CCO <-<U 
 
 Io3 ’•'“c^*'"^ 3.3 520 
 Hlci 3 u ’ ” a. '^1'^ - fC O 
 
 00 o o^i.00 5 -n 
 
 '•-> ^ ,+j '"3 'I-* '■^'d ,' 
 
 tn '^ £ '-^ I?^ rn c ' 
 
 co'C ^ :3 'I- s 'w> ti 
 
 CC CQ CG u 
 
 C /3 
 
 W >0 
 
 d cn X 
 
 i2 c o 
 
 CTi 
 
 -HKN 
 
 : 00 
 
 
 ,-iG-a 
 
 bjo 
 
 CG ' 
 
 St: 
 
 1" CTj 
 
 CJ 
 
 c ., 
 d .3 
 
 C /3 r-j C /3 J 
 
 3 — 3 f 
 
 .- < 1 , .- 
 
 ^I 0 i 43 p 4 i:i [ 
 
 00 V* 00 * 
 
 H|C« 
 
 J cc 
 
 u 
 
 - ^ ^ _ o 
 
 . ^ O M -|- « • I 1 • 
 
 'd ^1 ■^C/3 O 0-C/3tij C/3 >•*-. 
 
 • (1/ ^ 00^ 
 
 ^ HH ■i“_3 d 
 
 CJ O CJ 
 
 lO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 or 
 
 .00 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 On 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 •-40 
 
 OCJ 
 
 
 vO 
 
 
 U 
 
 UN 
 
 
 Oj 
 
 0 
 
 ro 
 
 C 30 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 t-x. 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 O' 
 
 CO 
 
 C 30 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 >H 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 hH 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 hH 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 xo 
 
 1 
 
 f'J 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 ( 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ! 
 
 0 
 
 } 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 r-x. 
 
 I-X.. 
 
 00 
 
 C-x. 
 
 r-x» 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 fxx. 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 rr 
 
 GO 
 
Table No. 2.— ENGLAND AND WALES {continued). 
 
 30 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 
 -4 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 'G'o 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 MD 
 
 fO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 4 -A 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 d 
 
 ■+ 
 
 M 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 NO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM ' 
 
 0 ) 
 
 .4 r^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 00 
 
 NO 
 
 •rt 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 <0 
 
 
 <0 
 
 "55 aj 
 
 y 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 rO 
 
 , 
 
 
 c c 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 3 
 
 fO 
 
 M 
 
 
 '1- 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 N 
 
 0 
 
 4 r^ 
 
 
 r>* 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 fO 
 
 
 
 iio d 
 
 'u 
 
 fO 
 
 M 
 
 
 -rj- 
 
 <0 
 
 <N 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 •rj- 
 
 
 M 
 
 d c 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 Od 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 rN. 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 CN 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 
 o'" 
 
 
 fO 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 rn 
 
 <0 
 
 r*x 
 
 
 
 
 rO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 fn 
 
 rO 
 
 
 ■0 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 q; 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Cvj 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 NO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 NO 
 
 <0 
 
 be aj 
 
 -g 
 
 \n 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 •r}- 
 
 CM 
 
 
 M 
 
 NO 
 
 
 NO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 c 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 3 
 
 fO 
 
 H 
 
 CN 
 
 'i- 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 <0 
 
 fO 
 
 
 rt* 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 _q; 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 NO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 to 
 
 <■0 
 
 ON 
 
 fN. 
 
 -Q d 
 
 u ^ 
 
 10 
 
 M 
 
 in 
 
 
 fO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 to 
 
 rr 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 3 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c — 
 
 Q 
 
 a ^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 On 
 
 
 '-0 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 
 tn 
 
 <0 
 
 00 
 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 C's 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 <0 
 
 r 3 
 
 ^ c^ 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 rO 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 lO 
 
 CM 
 
 c> 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 fO 
 
 
 NO 
 
 NO 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 lO 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 rj" 
 
 <0 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 <0 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 •.{jpung 
 
 ven. 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 fO 
 
 
 • 
 
 ’ 
 
 M 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 CO 
 
 sum 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 '.{jB^uaui 
 
 'Sc 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 'O 
 
 uo 
 
 HH 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 fO 
 
 m • 
 3 
 
 bn . 
 
 0 
 
 p. 
 
 E 
 
 
 to 
 
 Ni> 
 
 ^0 
 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 d VO 
 
 
 ON 
 
 -■BTIJ-BJ 
 
 cT 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Tt- 
 
 ’ 
 
 
 
 
 C (D 
 — Tl 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 CO 
 
 pu-B ppSa^ 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 no ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 u 
 
 
 NO 
 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 IT) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ,0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 C U 
 
 0 nj 
 
 CJ 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 \o 
 
 c 4 
 
 ON 
 
 w 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0- 
 
 St-H 
 
 d 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 GO 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 0 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 c /3 
 
 n 3 
 
 43 
 
 (J 
 
 
 
 •sauiSua 9 ai; 
 -OtUOOOI UQ 
 
 , ^ 
 S 3 X 
 ^ 0 
 
 0 
 
 CVJ 
 
 NO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 : 
 
 0 
 
 rn 
 
 \o 
 
 
 ; 
 
 i 
 
 ': 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 evT 
 
 : 
 
 : 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 a* 
 
 o 
 
 bjO 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 Ji 
 
 O) 
 
 c/) 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 OJ 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 'a 
 
 d 
 
 U 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 Cm 
 
 u 
 
 •uoipna^suoj 
 
 C /3 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 JO 0 sano 3 
 
 S53 : 
 
 <v 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 : 
 
 . ON 
 
 . CM 
 
 ui sb^aoM 
 
 ‘ 
 
 
 
 
 cC 
 
 pUB SOUIJ UQ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 b/) 
 
 c 
 
 rj 
 
 0 ) 
 
 d 
 
 fl 
 
 dJS ^ 
 
 St s. 
 
 ™ > O 
 
 ^3 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 rn 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 • • 
 
 m 
 
 rC 
 
 rC 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 cT 
 
 • * 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 rJ- 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o' 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 GO 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 Ur 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 rj 
 
 a; 
 
 bi3 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 bJ 5 
 
 U *- r 
 
 o 
 
 ^ u 
 
 O 0 ) 
 
 d 3 
 
 d 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 O Oi 
 
 _a 
 
 cd o 
 
 nj o 
 
 o d 
 
 O u 
 O O 
 
 ^ j- 
 
 D 
 
 * ct 
 
 O'— 
 
 d o 
 
 nJ 
 
 PQ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 u 
 
 rj 
 
 • d 
 
 c/) 
 
 d 
 
 u 
 
 .s 
 
 % 
 
 c /3 
 
 bo 
 
 4 ) 
 
 bo 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 vd 
 
 ^ d 
 ^ o 
 
 'Sal 
 
 c'2 e’'^^'.OhW 
 
 U r-( ^ d *.0 . oai’ 
 
 3 ^ o 00 ^ VO ovo-uPh^- 
 
 ^ U 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 .5 7 ) 
 
 # 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 • bo 
 
 3 
 
 (D 
 
 • 4 -j 
 
 d 
 
 bo 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 c/} # J 
 
 ““ 
 
 - HiCi 
 
 o 
 
 ’C 
 
 c/3 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 cT 
 
 0 ) ’ 
 
 ^ •-'H.'C ♦ — —' —I ^ ^ rH|C\ 
 
 u CO .E o .3 C3 >-.00 
 
 > 
 
 u 
 
 1 ) 
 
 c/> 3 o ^ 
 
 U ^ I*-*. dJ ' O Q 
 
 u-^ 3 f 03 '^ 3 ^ • 
 
 G Q G Q Q G M 
 
 0 ) 
 
 d ’-i- ^ c 
 
 fO_2 d 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 rC « 
 
 (A -e 
 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 
 • 
 
 C/3 
 
 U 
 
 0 
 
 (A 
 
 0 flj 
 
 t/i 
 
 rJ 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 c/3 
 
 -C 
 
 r! 
 
 d 
 
 £ 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 0 
 
 U 
 
 'H*' u 
 
 
 a 
 
 0 
 
 43 
 
 HiCM 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 >. 
 
 c 0 
 
 m4 0 2; 
 '33 ^ 
 
 
 c/3 
 
 0 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 3 
 
 . “ a 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 ^ J d 
 
 CO 
 
 <4>> 
 
 ci 
 
 
 _o 
 
 ^ 0 
 
 ffi 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 C3 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 d 
 
 (j 
 
 o .i 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 . ... 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 10 
 
 CN 
 
 Ow 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 JN 
 
 00 
 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 d 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 c /3 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 r>. 
 
 i 
 
 Tt- 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 CN 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 rN 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 l-J 
 
 M 
 
 1 -^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 uw 
 
 M 
 
GEXERAL STATISTICS 
 
 31 
 
 
 NH 
 
 NM 
 
 r>H 
 
 Ov 
 
 to 
 
 •>4 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O' 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 •:r 
 
 to 
 
 
 vO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 ; 
 
 <0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 . 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 , 
 
 vu 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 -f 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 O" 
 
 • 
 
 GO 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 * 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 rO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 <0 
 
 
 
 fO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 GO 
 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 rv 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 <■0 
 
 to 
 
 . 
 
 CO 
 
 iTi 
 
 CM 
 
 . 
 
 
 0 “ 
 
 . 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 . 
 
 VO 
 
 fO 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cv 
 
 rO 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 vO 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 to 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 vu 
 
 to 
 
 -r 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 - 
 
 C^ 
 
 CM 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 c>» 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 oc 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 ♦H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 )H 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 GO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 r^ 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 
 VO 
 
 Cv 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 r>. 
 
 O* 
 
 O" 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 !>. 
 
 VO 
 
 
 to 
 
 rn 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 <0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 C-N. 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 cc 
 
 0 
 
 •rj- 
 
 
 to 
 
 <0 
 
 fO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 M 
 
 •'O 
 
 00 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 rO 
 
 
 cv 
 
 oc 
 
 Cn. 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CV 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 ■0 
 
 
 V«./ 
 
 
 n~ 
 
 
 rO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 o* 
 
 
 O' 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 fO 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 vO 
 
 ov 
 
 rO 
 
 •O 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 c>v 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 •o 
 
 0 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 to 
 
 T 
 
 
 to 
 
 vO 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 tN. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 rH 
 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 '-. 
 
 0 
 
 
 ro 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 r>^ 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 OV 
 
 OV 
 
 OV 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 r*>. 
 
 0 
 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 Ov 
 
 to 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O" 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 r>* 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 OV 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 C^ 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r*^ 
 
 -1- 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 
 •O 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 r's. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 *0 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 
 rO 
 
 
 <0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 rO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ♦H 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 IH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 10 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 w 
 
 O’. 
 
 'w/ 
 
 
 Ov 
 
 -3 
 
 
 -P 
 
 vM 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 r>s, 
 
 OV 
 
 l'^ 
 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 OV 
 
 00 
 
 cc : 
 
 
 
 
 l''^ 
 
 • 
 
 0 “ 
 
 Ov 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 I * 
 
 : 0 
 
 VO 
 
 VO : : 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 . • 
 
 to 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tf- 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 CvT 
 
 "-r 
 
 •rt" 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 C>^ 
 
 ov 
 
 : co^ 
 
 CM 
 
 OC 
 
 cc 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 c^ : 
 
 CO 
 
 O" 
 
 vo^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^.M 
 
 00 
 
 vN 
 
 CM 
 
 ~T 
 
 OV 
 
 : to 
 
 to 
 
 c 
 
 'V 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 0^ 
 
 to 
 
 ov 
 
 to 
 
 o' 
 
 H 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 vo'' 
 
 given. 
 
 Q 
 
 0 
 
 
 w 
 
 vv 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ,. ^ 
 
 M-/ 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 ■ 0- </) 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 <0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 00 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 O" 
 
 CO 
 
 <0v 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 ov 0 
 
 r^co 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 * 
 
 : GO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 M t 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 : 0 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 C/i 
 
 OvvO 
 
 OV 
 
 • 
 
 rO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ”*■ 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 rj- 
 
 ’ CM 
 
 
 
 ’u 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 •'t' 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 *' j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 \ 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 cO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 (/} 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 cm"' 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 cc^ 
 
 <0 
 
 : 
 
 
 0 
 
 O' 
 
 O" 
 
 vo 
 
 ov 
 
 c>. 
 
 .0^ 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 VD 
 
 vo 
 
 : 
 
 CV 
 
 CM 
 
 N 
 
 0 
 
 r>. 
 
 CO 
 
 c> 
 
 : 
 
 M 
 
 OV 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 tH 
 
 CO 
 
 Ov 
 
 CM 
 
 : ; 
 
 Ov 
 
 00 
 
 qv 
 
 dv 
 
 ov 
 
 O" 
 
 M 
 
 dv 
 
 0 
 
 ; 
 
 Detail 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 . 
 
 . OV 
 
 
 
 
 ■r^ 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 vo 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • CO 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 to 
 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 f 
 
 
 r>s 
 
 0 
 
 OV 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 vo 
 
 0 
 
 
 r>^ 
 
 to 
 
 p>. 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 fv. 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 C>s 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 to 
 
 vo 
 
 0 
 
 
 ov 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 . CO 
 
 GO 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 • 
 
 ►- 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 ♦ to 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 to 
 
 <d 
 
 • CM 
 
 to 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 rC 
 
 00" 
 
 cc' 
 
 cT 
 
 cC 
 
 
 1 
 
 t-H 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 ov 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 OP 
 
 
 Cv 
 
 
 ov 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ■if- 
 
 
 
 
 
 'O 
 
 
 
 ♦ 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t£ 
 
 
 0 
 
 ■ 4 -i 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 U 
 
 n 3 
 
 ••"£/) . M 
 
 J -lOJ— W HH 
 
 ;* o-S ?^-=« 
 
 (/) 
 
 (/) 
 
 i/J 
 
 s 
 
 d ^ 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 c'a 3 c -55 c 
 v'~ ^ 
 
 — ^ a, Micu u 
 
 ri r^P T^P rol^ 
 
 ffi 1! rd Ld uJ 
 
 ^ O « cSS 
 ^ -*j c 
 
 >» 
 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 c ^ £ Hoj o ® ^ ^ c 
 
 — bo S 00 -i:;--' 0-- fc--- . ,•- 
 
 ^ HIM- U „ _ 
 
 « 00 tn ^ di 
 
 cu 
 
 , - c^ * *" O ■ ^ o’’ 1^ 
 
 Hl«^ _CH , hjCfHiCjU rHiCi, -. l-flCT ni HlOi 
 
 C 00 ■_'00 LJ 00 J-. 
 
 rt 
 
 CJ1^ 
 
 00 ^ CO 
 —'c -w J2 *5 J2 -w « jj 
 n 3 ^ ^ o; . 
 
 L J J .J J 
 
 # 
 
 . w .ii 
 
 . 5 ^ 
 
 t /3 
 
 C VD C 
 
 o ^j'o 
 u ^ u 
 P rO P 
 
 1 j 13 
 
 o 3 
 
 i-H 
 
 O 
 
 Oi 
 
 •n “’ 
 
 C /5 U C 
 
 c 
 
 O H|C« 
 O OG 
 
 w . 
 c 
 
 }h 
 
 (U 
 
 • • ^ 
 
 . a 
 
 t /5 P .— 
 
 • •. a ^ .n 
 
 * r^ld 
 
 ^ c 00 c > 4.: 
 
 '53.0. 
 
 ccii'acti'O 3 
 
 ^ o§ ^gQ 
 
 lJ J uJ 
 
 
 i'>. 
 
 O' 
 
 ‘ c; 
 
 «• j 
 
 
 
 O' 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 uO 
 
 ,, 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 r>. 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 ov 
 
 Ov 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 Ov 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 Ov 
 
 GO 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 GO 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 OV 
 
 1 
 
 vo 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 OV 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Ov 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 Cf) 
 
 r>H 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 r>» 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 vO 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 GO 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
Table No. 2.—KNGLANIJ AND WALES {contmued). 
 
 32 
 
 S2'A77STICS OF TFAMPFAYS. 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 J 0 O' 0 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 rd 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 c^O 
 
 ; 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 J 3 ro m 00 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 * 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 •S“ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 C M CM CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 _a CM m 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 -h 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -r 
 
 
 
 
 Tr ai 
 
 \o m . 
 
 rO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 c .c 
 
 3 rj“ ro O' 
 
 CM 
 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 - 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rO q 3 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 'd 
 
 
 
 
 3 C 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 ;:z 
 
 C 30 M 00 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 rj- 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 C CM M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 1. 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 rr 
 
 VO 
 
 a 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM - 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 rO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 ■4—» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 r,; I/O 0 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 <0 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 'S- 
 
 bi} 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 3 ^ CM fO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 . 
 
 — -f CM r>. iTi 
 
 
 
 M- 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 M- 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 Cv 
 
 
 
 0 “ 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 ngl 
 
 line, 
 
 C* to ^ VO 
 
 0 <-0 CM CO 
 
 rO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 vb 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 ’O 
 
 ro 
 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 TT 
 
 M 
 
 c-O 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 'O 
 
 CO 
 
 i ? 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 lO 
 
 O* 
 
 CM 
 
 ' 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 C 
 
 cl 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 0 ►-» 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 r- CM M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “T ^ Kl 
 
 i'>. 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 c> 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 \o 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO >0 
 
 
 ”t* 
 
 <0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 rj 
 
 M GO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 r>N O' 
 
 
 OC 
 
 M 
 
 rn 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 ro ^ 0 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 c> 
 
 
 CO 0 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ro VO CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 o> 
 
 
 VO CO 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 <rO HI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 •saupung 
 
 , . 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 r>-» 
 
 
 
 
 O' 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 : : <^ : 
 
 1 
 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 
 : CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rP 
 
 
 
 
 •Aai?:^u^iu 
 
 o' w io 
 
 «o 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 O'- 
 
 <0 
 
 
 CG 
 
 VO 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 r>. 
 
 0 • 
 
 00 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM G>. 
 
 : 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 pun iBSaq" 
 
 ^ O' rn <0 
 
 
 
 
 
 fO 
 
 
 «o 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 
 
 *0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 rt 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 : : 
 
 ^10 o^ 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 : 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 
 • 
 
 * 00" 
 
 : 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 cm"* 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 •S 0 Ulx>U 9 0 Ai; 
 - 01 U 030 [ UQ 
 
 N? : i : : 
 
 0 
 
 CM*' 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 : • 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 "S, 
 
 
 
 c /5 
 
 <0 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 - <L» 
 
 ro 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 “ 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 S’ in 
 
 b 
 
 ^ ''O 11 
 
 ^ 0" VO 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 t ^ 
 
 * M 
 
 : 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 OC 
 
 CM*' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uoi:)anj;suoo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO 0 SJnoo 
 
 ^ : i : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 UIS’JfJOM 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 pu-R ssuiy uo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 ^ 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 t'- 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO lO 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 Ln. 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 On 
 
 ine<? 
 
 and 
 
 ork 
 
 pen 
 
 vO 0 N _ 
 
 S 5 A : 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO^ 
 
 M 
 
 VO^ 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO O*' 
 
 : 
 
 00" 
 
 
 vq 
 
 •A~ 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 M 0 <N 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 MO oi 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 — iS 0 
 
 rO CM »H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • = 5 ^ • § c • 
 
 rd 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 03 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 •M 
 
 
 in 
 
 nb 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 ai 
 
 
 
 tj 2 E? 
 
 0 GJ 0 K» 
 
 0 
 
 a> ^ 5 
 
 • 7 * '“ • 
 
 •2 ft ^ J 9 
 
 be d 'd 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 •M 
 
 O) 
 
 66 
 
 G S 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 u 
 
 rt 
 
 0 
 
 P 3 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 C 
 
 io 
 
 1 
 
 «/5 
 
 3 
 
 £4 
 
 u 
 
 • 
 
 G 
 
 tij 
 
 U 
 
 0 
 
 
 •—> 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 £ 
 
 c 3 
 
 u 
 
 gauge. 
 
 
 TJ's 0 
 .3 w ni 
 
 C "TJ aj ai 
 
 reet 
 
 IS. 
 
 r Ca 
 rs Co 
 ins. 
 r Cor 
 
 s. 
 
 r, Mi 
 rict* 
 
 • 
 
 ins. 
 
 d 
 
 -f • 
 
 c; 
 
 0 
 
 . 0 
 
 in 'rA 
 
 </) 
 
 t /5 G 
 
 in 
 
 upon 
 
 ion 
 
 rt 
 
 • 3 -i 
 
 V? 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 s. 
 
 agnel 
 
 h 4 
 
 .-3 
 
 in **-» 
 3 Cj 
 
 in 
 
 -4^ 
 
 c/) 
 
 3 
 
 0 . 
 
 0 
 
 D 
 
 f s 
 
 CZ 
 
 
 rt aj 
 
 rH Cfl TO ^ 
 
 'O'C U 
 
 (U 0 -wfH 
 
 rd ^ 
 
 ^ p ^ 
 
 ^.30 0 C 0 M-» 
 
 coo « 
 
 e'+- c /- c'*- c c 
 0 '^■'5 d 
 
 • M Q 
 
 VO^ 
 
 • to 
 
 cO*^ 
 
 •n 
 
 ton 
 
 rtW-2 •" 
 
 CO C Hlcr w 
 
 0^0 
 
 bTJ.d^ rtrfwd ^. 5 P-i 
 
 ^ TO ftie 0 0 -o 4-1 
 
 xJ-S /J 0 aj ft^J ft 0 
 
 — dVr > 0 ^>< 4 - >•- 
 
 C 3 r \ K*V- 
 
 rt“JD'c 3 *(ljW iDro 0 ^ 04 -> 
 
 3 ft. 6 i 
 ewion He 
 4 ft. 8.3 in 
 orthanipt 
 3 ft. 6 ins 
 
 
 
 j ^ b? S 
 
 VH 
 
 
 
 
 7 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 /?: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v> 
 
 0 <0 CM C 
 
 CM 
 
 
 l'>v 
 
 0 
 
 -P 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 -T- 
 
 OC 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 L, • 
 
 00 00 00 0 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 cc 
 
 O' 
 
 
 CO 
 
 rv. 
 
 
 cx: 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 00 00 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 aj 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 GO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 'fi 
 
 ^ r a 
 
 •-I •-• MM 
 
 
 
 ■M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 b 0 
 rt u S 
 <a •- ? rt 
 
 i ' II 
 
 0 r>. lo VO 
 
 1 
 
 fO 
 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 rv. 
 
 1 
 
 On 
 
 1 
 
 •0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 rd d 
 
 00 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 r>>. 
 
 oO 
 
 r>> 
 
 00 
 
 L>. 
 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 00 00 00 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 OC 
 
 
 OC' 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 GO 
 
 
 GO 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 33 
 
 fO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 rf 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 P” 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 Ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 -t* 
 
 o 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 Gv H 
 
 rt- 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 
 • 
 
 "" 1 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 fn 
 
 • 
 
 
 rO 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 lO HI 
 
 H 
 
 Th 
 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 r>s 
 
 VO 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 ON 
 
 O' 
 
 Ov 
 
 r>* 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 M M 
 
 OO 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 LO 
 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO H 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 rr 
 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
 
 Ht 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Ov 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 r>s 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 tJ- 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 M M 
 
 O' 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 in 
 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 VO HI 
 
 M 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 VO 
 
 a\ 
 
 o 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 in 
 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 
 . 
 
 in 
 
 
 CO 
 
 . 
 
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 ! 
 
 
 rj- 
 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 in 
 
 
 CM 
 
 39 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
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 H 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
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 o 
 
 o 
 
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 <J 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 'O 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 oc 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 vO OO 
 
 
 OO 
 
 O' 
 
 m 
 
 
 VO 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 c>. 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 C3N 
 
 HI 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO CO O M 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 in 
 
 HI 
 
 *n 
 
 
 
 
 Tj- 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 m M 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 
 HI ^ m o 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 oT 
 
 cC 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 (>r 
 
 ON 
 
 M 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 O' 
 
 vo"^ cm' 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 vcT 
 
 o O 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 in 
 
 ' Ti- 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 in 
 
 CM 
 
 OV Hi OvqO 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 H 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •-I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 c:^ 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 O" 
 
 Cv 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 1 00 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 VO 
 
 "Tf 
 
 O 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 •rr 
 
 CO 
 
 
 I'-v 
 
 o 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 o 
 
 'd 
 
 • no 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 (D 
 
 -!i .ij h 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 C>N 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 
 1 
 
 /b « nj 
 
 P -4^ 
 
 • 
 
 • M 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 • 
 
 • T 
 
 : CM 
 
 CO 
 
 Tt* 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 cT 
 
 cT 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 cT 
 
 'ft 
 
 ft 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 hT 
 
 CO 
 
 * 
 
 
 ■ oo" 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 
 : 
 
 • • 
 
 CO 
 
 rr 
 
 CO 
 
 : c 
 
 I CM 
 
 tC 
 
 o 
 
 ’ 
 
 
 c> 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 1 H 
 
 * 
 
 • • 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 * VO 
 
 ■ c? 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Q 
 
 
 
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 o 
 
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 Ov 
 
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 1 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 1 : 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cj 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 GV 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
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 o 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -r 
 
 
 m 
 
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 CM 
 
 rj- 
 
 • 
 
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 o 
 
 • 
 
 d 
 
 1 : 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ; <n 
 
 :vo 
 
 
 Hj- 
 
 CM 
 
 • 
 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 -t-i 
 
 CU 
 
 1 
 
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 • • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 • rh 
 
 HI 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A c'o 
 
 O 
 
 Qj 
 
 t--. 
 
 r>v 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 t>x 
 
 ON 
 
 
 OO 
 
 m 
 
 HI 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 CJN 
 
 OO 
 
 m 
 
 OO 
 
 Tf 
 
 
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 o 
 
 
 HI 
 
 CM 
 
 
 o 
 
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 in 
 
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 • 
 
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 H 
 
 
 OO 
 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 m ' 
 
 Tt- 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
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 , * • 
 
 
 NO >o 
 
 NO 
 
 NO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 <”<> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O oo 
 
 VO 
 
 in *H 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 moo 
 
 ON 
 
 VO cm" 
 
 s 
 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
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 m 
 
 CM 
 
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 H 
 
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 H 
 
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 o 
 P , 
 
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 M CO ^ CO 
 
 Ih^ U 
 
 O O 
 
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 C 
 
 H • 
 
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 :aQ 
 
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 13 
 
 c/3 
 
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 4-a 
 
 jc/5 
 
 }-■ 
 
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 n3 . 
 C 
 
 ?( 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 }-• 
 
 o 
 
 fe: 
 
 Q 
 
 C c/3 c/; 
 
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 'g) 3 !?s' 
 
 -.9 rt 
 
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 ^ O 
 
 a, 
 
 Lh 
 
 O 
 
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 .'S) 
 
 ^ -1 3 
 ^ n o 
 
 da 
 
 O 
 
 P • 
 
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 9 ^ 9 ->j ■ 
 Hi 
 
 66 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 <D 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 c /3 
 
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 5l2 ^ o Hi« 
 
 .5^ 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 66 
 
 ^'66 
 
 O 
 
 o| 
 
 •CQ ^ 
 
 c /3 
 
 •S^ - 
 
 ■ 
 
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 CTj 
 
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 ^ ..^'^ gii 6 - 
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 0 
 
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 'T 
 
 H|« +J 
 
 ON 3 
 
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 9 
 
 t-> 
 
 o 
 
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 CO 
 
 o 
 
 s/ 2 cj • 
 
 ca a o • 
 
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 C/3 O rt 
 
 .9Uo3- . 
 ^ P > ,*-> c 
 
 # 
 
 13 
 
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 Cj 
 
 fi 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
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 P 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
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 d 
 
 o 
 
 ; a 
 
 p 
 
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 d 
 
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 Q. 
 
 u 
 
 u V) O 
 
 2.9 o cu S 
 
 0 ’-'lil'd HOi 
 
 r- OO rpj GO OO 
 
 Ti- £ pH 0 Tt- q '*■ 
 
 Cb 
 
 ai ad rf) (/) 
 
 rn 
 
 rx 
 
 o 
 
 NO 
 
 t>l. 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 oo 
 
 CN 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 CN 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 O' 
 
 1 
 
 C?N 
 
 1 
 
 (DN 
 
 1 
 
 oo 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 r>- 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 >N 
 
 r>> 
 
 OO 
 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 
 Mi 4 
 
 t -4 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 ON 
 
 oo 
 
 
 NU 
 
 \ 
 
 u 
 
 
 >0 
 
 <■0 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 
 CDN 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 oo 
 
 1 
 
 OO 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 CDN 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 r>% 
 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 GO 
 
 OO 
 
 M 
 
 oo 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
Table No. 2.— ENGLAND AND WALES {continued). 
 
 34 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 G 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 bjO 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 h-] 
 
 
 -G XT) 
 
 rO 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 ►H 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 ON 
 
 G 
 
 CJ CM 
 
 • 
 
 XT) 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 G <N 
 
 xn 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 CM 
 
 G" 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 rG 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 0 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 O' 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 <M 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 
 fc/i 
 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 O" 
 
 rr 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 G" 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 c c 
 
 d 
 
 10 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 N 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 ITj- 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O" 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CM 
 
 -i- 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 rQ (U 
 
 CJ CM 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 M 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 •- 
 
 r- 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ON 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 pG 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 00 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 O" 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 ON 
 
 G 
 
 CJ CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 •rt- 
 
 C^ 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 G CM 
 
 VO 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 -C 00 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 bxi 0 
 
 CJ 
 
 10 
 
 •0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 G“ 
 
 CO 
 
 r». 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 G" 
 
 CM 
 
 .a -2 
 
 G 
 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 G" 
 
 VO 
 
 G" 
 
 G“ 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f—^ • 
 
 pG 
 
 00 
 
 OV 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 •H- 
 
 GO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CJ CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 G" 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 s.s 
 
 d 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 IH 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 •e 
 
 n ^ 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 
 0 
 
 M- 
 
 ON 
 
 rr 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 \o 
 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 lO 
 
 ro 
 
 
 0 
 
 G* 
 
 M 
 
 0 CO 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 * 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 CJN 
 
 O' d- 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 f ..cd' 
 S 3 CM 
 
 00 
 
 , 
 
 0 
 
 xn 
 
 00 
 
 ON cd 
 
 H 
 
 tS 
 
 G" 
 
 CO 
 
 vd 
 
 cS 
 
 00 
 
 •4-> 
 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 M 
 
 t''. 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 00 
 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 On 
 
 t's. 
 
 u« 
 
 
 CM 
 
 -r 
 
 u 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 OV 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 -hoo 
 
 00 
 
 
 G- 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 •ssupung 
 
 fO 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 xn, 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CM 00 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 On 
 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 d' 
 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 tH 
 
 CM*' 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 cT 
 
 • 
 
 vd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 0 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 On ^ 
 
 CO 0 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 M4 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 S3 : 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 r>* H 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 G- 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ♦ 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 —h 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 rC 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 cT 
 
 pUB [TjS 35 [ 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 »H 
 
 ON 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 h-( 
 
 
 
 o\ 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 G" 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 rO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 C u 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 : G 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 Or 1 
 
 S 3 : 
 
 G- 
 
 • 
 
 CM*' 
 
 CO 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 
 H 
 
 cC 
 
 id 
 
 • 
 
 cd 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 •sauiijua 9 AH 
 
 S 3 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 CM 
 
 -0UI030I UQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 c^T 
 
 rG 
 
 b£) 
 
 G 
 
 0) 
 
 V3 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 nD 
 
 G 
 
 <u 
 
 o. 
 
 X 
 
 o 
 
 a. 
 
 rtj 
 
 CJ 
 
 OS 
 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O' 
 
 'O 
 
 lO 
 
 cT 
 
 o 
 
 a^ 
 
 o 
 
 CNJ 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 xn 
 
 00 
 
 \n 
 
 ♦uononj^suoD 
 JO 0SjnoD 
 ui s:5[JOAv 
 pUB S9Up UQ 
 
 S3 
 
 ro 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 O' 
 
 PH 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 GO 
 
 On 
 
 lines 
 
 and 
 
 works 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 r>» 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 00 
 
 rf 
 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ■rj- 
 
 CO 
 
 (D 
 
 S3 VO 
 
 o' 
 
 
 cd 
 
 H 
 
 
 cC • 
 
 o’ 
 
 M 
 
 
 O" 
 
 0 
 
 cS 
 
 w 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 r>. 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 H-h 
 
 IH 
 
 H 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 00 
 
 •TJ 
 
 G 
 
 o3 
 
 Oj 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 ci 
 
 .S TJ 
 
 o ^ u 
 O 9 O 
 
 03 =1 O 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 G (D 
 
 O 
 
 fci; 
 
 G 
 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 Cu 
 
 G 
 
 CO 
 
 S « 
 
 W in 
 CO ^ 
 
 Zj O M-i 
 G G O 
 G 
 
 ,0* 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 4-> 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 G ::z 
 
 rH 
 
 s DO « o 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 to 
 
 <D 
 
 G 
 
 'S c 
 
 n .5 , 
 
 S°°7oo^o0(-loo g^oo (/: ^ 
 
 J - 4_> f—I .4J 4 
 
 D.”- 
 
 o3 
 
 U5 
 
 "^2 
 
 >•5.2 c 
 
 Oh'-^ d'" =3 ^ d d ^ d ^ d ■ ■ 
 c/5 ry5 - - - - 
 
 .a 
 
 in 
 
 o 
 
 c/5 
 
 o 
 
 c/5 
 
 c/5 c/5 
 
 T3 
 
 G 
 
 -M 
 
 CO 
 
 rC 
 
 G 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 G 
 
 CO -*-» 
 
 n3 W 
 o 
 
 ^t3 _to 
 
 25 
 
 C/5 2 
 
 . C 
 
 C/5j 
 
 to ^ 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 .15 
 
 CO G 
 C G 
 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 N 
 
 G 
 
 • W 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 CO 
 
 (D 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 to 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 G 
 
 O 
 
 u v; ^ CO G 
 • k. V c ^ G O ^■*‘. 
 VO u •'- 'Jj I 
 
 4 J > 00 g 00 o u 
 o "^-S 
 
 c/5 c/5 r/5 
 
 £ od 
 
 rt 
 
 Ih 
 
 o 
 
 e- . 
 
 o 
 
 _^ w y w t/5 
 
 c 'cd d (d 
 
 d •- d •" « •'- 
 
 , ct 3 cd r—iioj I—'Id 
 
 ^ 'j; 00 00 (u 00 
 
 ^4) .0 • “> • 
 
 ^TdctiddcS 54:2 
 c c . 
 
 3 
 
 r/5 
 
 r/) 
 
 d- ^ d- 
 
 C/5 
 
 I- ,Jd 
 
 rt o 
 pH > 
 
 U 
 
 G g o 
 
 05 ^ 
 ^ CO 
 
 & G 
 
 VO 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 0- 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 ON 
 
 On 
 
 On 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 'm 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 IH 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 IH 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 j 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 I'H. 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 b4 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS, 
 
 35 
 
 vO 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 Ov 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 o* 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 tv. 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 r>» 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 p- 
 
 ♦O 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 GO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 0“ 
 
 CO 
 
 Ov 
 
 CM 
 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 1 
 
 rj- 
 
 0“ 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 CM 
 
 h*^ 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 rh 
 
 •p- 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 p- 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 1-^ 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 P- 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 •rf 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CN 
 
 O’ 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 p“ 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 P" 
 
 oo 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 p* 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 rx» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 OO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 t-X 
 
 rx. 
 
 OO 
 
 rh 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 •p" 
 
 CO 
 
 ■p" 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 ILj 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 Ni- 
 
 "rt 
 
 P- 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 Cv 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 
 VO 
 
 H 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 ■P- 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 Ov 
 
 
 o 
 
 ITJ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 GO 
 
 vXj 
 
 VO 
 
 CNJ 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 rx 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 oo 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 O' 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 ON 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tQ 
 
 ■rt“ 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 1—> 
 
 VO 
 
 c 
 
 On 
 
 O 
 
 O' 
 
 k- 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 eM 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 p" 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 uu 
 
 o 
 
 C' 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 M o 
 
 lO 
 
 o' 
 
 (M H 
 
 <N 
 
 O 
 
 vo" 
 
 rO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 O- CM 
 
 ^ VO 
 O- 
 
 ro GO 
 CO ON 
 
 (Jv Td- 
 
 ON O 
 VO O 
 lO ON 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 k- 
 
 VO 
 
 ON 
 
 l-x 
 
 O 
 
 CM 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^x 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 vrj 
 
 CM 
 
 
 O 
 
 O' 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 I'x 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 OV 
 
 M 
 
 kH 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 cT 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 be 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 • P 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 VO 
 
 p 
 
 O’ 
 
 Ktj 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 § s 
 
 a 
 
 ;3 
 
 0“ 
 
 \n 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 cT 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 O" 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 O’ 
 
 : VO 
 
 o 
 
 
 On 
 
 cT 
 
 CM*' 
 
 cT 
 
 
 cT 
 
 cT 
 
 o- 
 
 iri' 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 lO 
 
 ON 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
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 o 
 
 o 
 
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 o 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 lO 
 
 o" 
 
 lO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 vD 
 
 «o 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 cT 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 rx. 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 VO 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 Cx, 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 O’ 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 oo 
 
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 Cx. 
 
 lO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 O 
 
 tH 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 O' 
 
 o 
 
 
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 CO*' 
 
 d\ 
 
 On 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 Cx 
 
 cT 
 
 H 
 
 (5 
 
 
 Cx 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 z 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 I o 
 
 vO 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Pm 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 o" 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 Pm 
 
 B 
 
 p 
 
 1-1 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 00^ 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 lO 
 
 vO 
 
 VO 
 
 rp 
 
 CO 
 
 OO 
 
 w 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 tA 
 
 P 
 
 d 
 
 O 
 
 pq 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 ) ^ 
 
 Tj 
 
 u 
 
 ci 
 
 o 
 
 PQ 
 
 p 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 .k-l 
 
 * 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 Pm 
 
 O"". 
 
 ‘cp O 
 
 r2 
 
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 O P 
 
 o 
 
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 w >v ^ O 
 
 j.5 D.S<^-Si3.S 
 
 ) . M-J 1 * O ij jj ij j_> jj O 4^ P • ' 
 
 ) ^ C M-t > ^-^ tr, '-(-I tn ^ t/3 ^ - 
 
 . 0 ) ^ o u oj 
 
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 JdU • 9 
 
 . nj ^ c 
 d 
 
 •S rt 
 
 i-O 
 
 o 
 
 c/} 
 
 Tj 
 
 P 
 
 rt 
 
 vu ^ ^ vi./ «H- ^ w- 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 rt • « 
 CO*^ W 
 
 tL'^ 
 
 U 
 
 
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 P 
 
 O 
 
 -M 
 
 - tn 2^ tn 
 
 H«0.E 5 S C? 
 
 ^ oo JJ o S 
 
 HiN^ • - . HN ■!-> 
 
 oo U 'I ■!-> r-* °0 1-H OO li ^ 
 
 4-3 > ,4-> > U 
 
 & 
 
 S' ^ 
 
 O ^ 
 
 -I-* c 
 
 in 
 
 ai 
 
 V2 
 
 'Td fl 
 C nj 
 . oj <U 
 cn 
 
 ■" C rrt S 
 ^ 0^.0 
 
 > s 
 
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 • 
 
 rP 
 
 4 -^ 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 CA) 
 
 np 
 
 o 
 
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 t/) rt ^ CO 
 
 ■« ^.s 
 
 VO 9 VO O 
 CJ J 4-> 
 
 4-3**M-i ^ 
 C4H S M-3 O 
 
 -P C/3 _^ CJ 
 
 CO O P l-< 
 
 OCd O 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 -M 
 
 cn 
 
 D 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 *Td 
 
 P 
 
 rt 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 1 0 ^ 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
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 CO^ CO p 
 
 ^ S-i 
 
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 CO o ^ 
 
 CJ 
 
 nP 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 To 
 
 p 
 
 W 
 
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 4-3 
 
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 tx 
 
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 1 —( 
 
 VO 
 
 oO 
 
 OO 
 
 lx 
 
 tx 
 
 OO 
 
 ON 
 
 (O' 
 
 CO 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 OO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ►4 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 Tt- 
 
 1 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 ! 
 
 VO 
 
 1 
 
 ON 
 
 rx 
 
 OO 
 
 tx 
 
 tx 
 
 tx 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 tx 
 
 OO. 
 
 CO 
 
 CC 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 t -4 
 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 •p" 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 r«>. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 tx 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 k< 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 tx 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 I 
 
 w 
 
 ! 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 tx 
 
 tx 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 k4 
 
 oo 
 
 
 D 2 
 
Table No. 2 [continued], —SCOTLAND. 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 M On 
 
 to 
 
 Tj" 
 
 ['>. VO 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CJN 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 i/'i 
 
 »H 
 
 rj- 
 
 M \0 
 
 rr 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 ■ 4 ~> 
 
 0 
 
 . ON 
 
 \n CM 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 0 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 tJ- 
 
 00 
 
 <D 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 00 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 C''s 
 
 n* 
 
 0 
 
 Q J 
 
 C' 
 
 
 
 rp fO 
 
 VO 
 
 N 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 03 
 
 ■auil ajSuic; 
 
 u 
 
 . 
 
 M 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 b /3 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rO CM 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 0 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 O' 
 
 HI 
 
 10 
 
 t-q 
 
 
 » pP 10 
 
 VO ^ 
 
 VO 
 
 
 Tj- 10 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 • 9 UIJ syqnorr 
 
 <j 
 
 . H 
 
 CO CM 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 ON CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
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 M 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 1 « 
 
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 10 
 
 
 CM 
 
 l>s 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 lO 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 rP 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 ON 
 
 lO 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 M CO 
 
 <N 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 r-. 
 
 bo 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 (£0 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 CO CO 
 
 O' 
 
 rt- 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 *0 
 
 
 t-r 
 
 VO 0 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 <U 
 
 CO 
 
 • 9 uif gjJSuto; 
 
 u 
 
 • 
 
 w 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 0 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 HI 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 ‘u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 
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 VO 
 
 M 
 
 M r?- 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
 rS UO 
 
 \D to 
 
 VO 
 
 
 VO o. 
 
 HI 
 
 VO 
 
 
 rh 
 
 
 HI 
 
 <1 
 
 • 9 UIJ 9 ^qno(j 
 
 . H 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 0 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM ON TT 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 CM 10 *H 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 CO O' ON 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 VO CO M 
 
 HI 
 
 
 r>N 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ri- ro 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 vO 
 
 CM 
 
 On 
 
 ON 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 00 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 d CJN 
 
 M 
 
 C> 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 
 vd 
 
 
 
 CM CO 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 ^ On CO 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 CM 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 J-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 On 
 
 CO 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 -f 
 
 <-r> 
 
 ON 
 
 M 
 
 0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O' 
 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 •S 9 i-ipung 
 
 » ^ 
 
 : r/> 
 
 CO 
 
 
 • • HI 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 S 5 
 
 
 •-r 
 
 
 * ’ CO 
 
 ' 
 
 M 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 rf 
 
 
 
 
 ctJ 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 4 -> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •Aj'Byuatu 
 
 •/-. 
 
 0 <u 
 
 r>. 
 
 M 
 
 ON r>. 
 
 vO 
 
 0 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 -T'-rt 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 VO C'N 
 
 10 
 
 
 HI 
 
 
 CM 
 
 —r 
 
 
 -Biiauj 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 ; - <0 
 
 M CO 
 
 
 CvT 
 
 ON * CO 
 
 CM 
 
 cT 
 
 
 CO 
 
 vd 
 
 
 pUH JHS 9 q; 
 
 
 0 
 
 C 3 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 a; 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 C'>. 
 
 0 vO 
 
 
 0 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 
 C S 2 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 ro M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 HI 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 : VO lo 
 
 • 
 
 ON 
 
 HI 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 ■ cT ( 3 . 
 
 cm" 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 « 
 
 dJ 
 
 u 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 IH 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 CM CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ON 
 
 
 •S 9 UtSu 9 9 Ai; 
 
 S 5 : 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 : 00 0 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 * • • 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 
 ‘B. 
 
 -OUIODOy UQ 
 
 10 G 
 c 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • • • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 vd 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 ct 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 0 (J 
 
 
 
 i/*) 
 
 
 r^N. 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 10 
 
 t'x 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 0 
 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 : ” >> 
 
 N C 
 
 vo" 
 
 
 :oo : 
 
 ; 
 
 rj- 
 
 H 
 
 t>. 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 HI 
 
 M 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 nj 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 J 3 
 
 
 Cb 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 •uoijDnjysuoD 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO 9 Sjnoo 
 
 UI SqJOAY 
 
 ^ : 
 
 0 
 
 i |o 
 
 ': 
 
 : 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 : 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 : 
 
 
 pUT? S 9 UIJ UQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM n" 
 
 ON 
 
 GO 
 
 CO M 
 
 VO 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 ro 
 
 CO VO CO 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 0 Cv, 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 -+* 
 
 
 
 
 fO 
 
 rv. w CO 
 
 O' 
 
 
 l-^i. VO 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 0 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ^ S S 
 
 » pv 
 
 S 3 ^ 
 
 00 "Ji- m 
 
 M 
 
 c> 
 
 VO • HI 
 
 <> 
 
 VO 
 
 vd 
 
 
 tC 
 
 cd 
 
 
 O-S nj g 9 ^ 
 
 ' 5 J* M CO 
 
 M 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 
 ON ro 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 n 
 
 cS 
 
 #s 
 
 >> 
 
 nj 
 
 e 
 
 nj 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 ^2; 
 
 o 
 
 bz) 
 
 3 
 
 rt 
 
 ^ u 5 ^ 
 
 o a; o > 
 *—vIQ O 
 u 
 
 'rt d o o. 
 
 0 ^^-> Cl. 
 
 (fl cS 
 
 S? S? 
 
 aj a> w 
 
 nj'^ 
 
 ^ to .V ^ 
 
 u 
 
 ^ O -u (_, 
 ^ ^ to “ 
 1 ^ O t-f-t 
 
 * ^S° 
 
 -4-> 
 
 *n 
 
 -*-» 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 Q QQ 
 
 S r<|CJ 
 
 c 
 
 .D •>*■ s 
 
 Q 
 
 ai 
 u 
 
 _..-^ 
 
 o 
 
 CU 
 -*-s ^ 
 d) u_. 
 O O 
 
 u 
 
 <u 
 
 X 
 
 o 
 
 (D 
 
 c/) O ^ 
 
 >5 ^ CO C/] CO ^ 
 
 • TlJ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 ■4-» 
 
 C$ 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 a> 
 
 cl 
 
 5 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 PL, 
 
 nd 
 
 ■TD 
 
 oj 
 
 O 
 
 pq 
 
 -(/)' 
 
 — oi O to 5 
 
 •iiiMja .2 rd .S d.2L).2 ^ 
 
 ^HIO. > .DIM > Ml... (J 
 
 .4is°Od^o'^o''- 
 
 -1-5'“ -u bjjjj ir; S ^ in 
 
 ^cit; c^H tocii tot+c « Q 
 
 L 3 -^23 rh bfl ti ’6 'rt d- O 
 
 M M o 0 0 0 CL, 2;^ 
 
 o 00 >, 
 
 ^ ^ _ .0 23 .W-JI rt 
 
 ^0*^0 £OOcti>. ‘'■to 
 
 c fe^ccL,^ o. (u 
 
 P- vi-'-<c!3 2dc 
 
 <0 
 
 bo 
 
 "m 
 
 PQ 
 
 'TJ 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 bo C 
 C rt 
 
 rf) 
 
 * 
 
 to ^ * 
 c ^ to 
 
 .5 >,a 
 
 ^u'T' 
 
 . eol.# 
 
 ^ o . 
 
 'rt 
 
 t> 
 
 « iso's 
 
 0 .i: P ri 
 
 P. 
 
 > 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 VO 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 r>^ 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 C 50 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 I 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 O" 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 r>H 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 r>. 
 
 t>^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 C'N. 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 rs. 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 37 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 
 04 O 
 
 OO 
 
 00 
 
 
 to 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 rx 
 
 00 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 VO 
 
 ^x 
 
 nO 
 
 rx 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 
 rx 
 
 VO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 04 
 
 
 1 CO 
 
 xn 
 
 VO 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 <N 
 
 CO 
 
 tH 
 
 H 
 
 H CO 
 
 HI 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 Tf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ON 
 
 o 
 
 Ox 
 
 
 VO ^X 
 
 OO 
 
 M 
 
 Ni-» 
 
 IH 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 rx ^ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 04 
 
 H 
 
 VO 
 
 NO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 VO 
 
 to CM 
 
 CM 
 
 ON 
 
 H 
 
 
 1 CO 
 
 XT) 
 
 VO 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 0 rO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
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 to 
 
 
 
 
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 to 
 
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 0 
 
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 0 
 
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 H 
 
 rx 
 
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 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 rx 
 
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 ON 
 
 
 
 
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 to 
 
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 to 
 
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38 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Table No. 3.—Receipts, Working Expenditure, and Stock of Tram- 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Working 
 
 Name of tramway. 
 
 Gross 
 
 receipts. 
 
 IMaintenance 
 
 of way and 
 
 works. 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 powder. 
 
 Animal power. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 engines. 
 
 Renewals, &c., 
 
 of horses. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 expenses. 
 
 
 L 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Accrington Corporation 
 
 12,887 
 
 1,880 
 
 3,638 
 
 • • • 
 
 2,228 
 
 
 596 
 
 1,433 
 
 Haslingden Extension. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alford and Sutton 
 
 — 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 yclosed. 
 
 Compa 
 
 ny in 1 
 
 iquidati 
 
 on. 
 
 — 
 
 Barrow-in-Furness 
 
 5 > 56 i 
 
 165 
 
 1,689 
 
 . • . 
 
 263 
 
 444 
 
 36 
 
 708 
 
 Barton, Eccles, Winton, and 
 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 yleased. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 inclu 
 
 ded in S 
 
 afford C 
 
 orpora- 
 
 Monton Local Board, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bath. 
 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 —i. 
 
 — 
 
 Birkdale and Stockport 
 
 2,751 
 
 86 
 
 »« • 
 
 « • • 
 
 4 4 4 
 
 29 
 
 173 
 
 1,329 
 
 Birkenhead .... 
 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Birmingham and Aston 
 
 23,596 
 
 1,423 
 
 3,300 
 
 603 
 
 3,469 
 
 85 
 
 984 
 
 2,151 
 
 Birmingham Corporation 
 (portion). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Birmingham and Midland . 
 
 20,97^ 
 
 1,383 
 
 4,678 
 
 ». • 
 
 1,946 
 
 
 612 
 
 1,490 
 
 Birmingham Corporation 
 (portion). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Birmingham Central 
 
 74,584 
 
 6,4c 2 
 
 20,245 
 
 ... 
 
 7,074 
 
 
 1,744 
 
 7,694 
 
 33,419 
 
 304 
 
 Cable 
 
 haulage 
 
 20,217 
 
 
 i,i8i 
 
 1,281 
 
 3,944 
 
 Birmingham Corporation 
 
 25,212 
 
 148 
 
 4,877 
 
 • •• 
 
 1,843 
 
 4 4 4 
 
 747 
 
 2,349 
 
 (portion). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 133,215 
 
 6,854 
 
 25,122 
 
 20,217 
 
 8,917 
 
 i,i8i 
 
 3,772 
 
 13,987 
 
 Birmingham Corporation 
 
 — 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 yleased. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 inclu 
 
 ded ill “ 
 
 Birming 
 
 ham and 
 
 Blackburn and Over Darwen 
 
 9,601 
 
 953 
 
 . . 
 
 t • • 
 
 1,267 
 
 444 
 
 165 
 
 2,420 
 
 Blackburn Corporation 
 
 15,424 
 
 483 
 
 1,709 
 
 3,035 
 
 521 
 
 188 
 
 314 
 
 4,062 
 
 Blackpool Corporation 
 
 6,569 
 
 178 
 
 312 
 
 
 99 
 
 314 
 
 
 1,183 
 
 Bolton and Suburban . 
 
 20,867 
 
 
 • • 
 
 9,159 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 650 
 
 3,362 
 
 Bootle. 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 yleased. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 inclu 
 
 ded in “ 
 
 Liverpo 
 
 ol Cor- 
 
 Bradford and Shelf 
 
 — 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 y leased 
 
 to Brad 
 
 ford a 
 
 nd Shelf 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 ys Com- 
 
 Bradford Corporation . 
 
 29,328 
 
 219 
 
 11,604 
 
 2,438 
 
 900 
 
 355 
 
 392 
 
 IjOCC 
 
 / 
 
 Bradford and Shelf . 
 
 11,426 
 
 « . 
 
 1,803 
 
 • • • 
 
 919 
 
 444 
 
 44 * 
 
 3,045 J 
 
 Brentford and District. 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - ( 
 
 Brighton and Shoreham (for¬ 
 merly Brighton District). 
 
 368 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 183 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . 74 
 
 Bristol. 
 
 -- 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 Burnley and District 
 
 12,857 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,798 
 
 • • • 
 
 1,372 
 
 444 
 
 315 
 
 ‘ 3,346 
 
 Bury, Rochdale, and Oldham 
 
 35,471 
 
 2,178 
 
 14,901 
 
 • • • 
 
 5,006 
 
 444 
 
 945 
 
 4,843 
 
 Oldham Borough (portion' 
 
 
 
 Cambridge Street. 
 
 3,754 
 
 523 
 
 • •« 
 
 4 • 4 
 
 . 4 * 
 
 263 
 
 183 
 
 1,315 
 
 Cardiff. 
 
 42,541 
 
 769 
 
 • • • 
 
 15,626 
 
 4 4 4 
 
 1,860 
 
 2,340 
 
 12,349 
 
 Cardiff District & Penarth 
 Harbour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cardiff District and Penarth 
 
 — 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 y worke 
 
 d by Pro 
 
 vincia 
 
 1 Tramw 
 
 ays Com 
 
 pany. 
 
 Harbour, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cbesham, Boxmoor, and 
 
 — 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn for tr 
 
 affic. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 Hemel Hempstead. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chester. 
 
 6,340 
 
 117 
 
 ... 
 
 1,705 
 
 ... 
 
 347 
 
 484 
 
 1,205 
 
if 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 WAYS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 189O. 
 
 AND WALES. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 I 
 
 —1 0 
 
 1 ^ (U 
 
 5 S .0 
 
 . 1 
 
 0 
 
 Working stock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <3 c 
 
 rt <u 
 
 § § 
 tc 
 
 -*-» If' 
 
 0 
 
 t of offices 
 ibles, and 
 sheds. 
 
 tes, taxes, 
 nd tolls. 
 
 npensatioi 
 ■ personal 
 injury. 
 
 c 
 
 r 3 C 
 <D 
 
 rt E 
 
 •4) •-! 
 
 Sundry. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Net 
 
 receipts. 
 
 rmoer ot j 
 
 gers conv( 
 
 uding seas 
 
 position ti 
 
 holders.! 
 
 imber of n: 
 
 run by car 
 
 umber of 
 
 horses. 
 
 umber of 
 
 comotive 
 
 ngines. 
 
 umber of 
 
 cars. 
 
 
 Vh rj 
 
 Q S 
 
 a ^ 
 
 <U OT 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 
 2; §'0 a 
 
 c/) C 0 
 
 tjT- cj 
 
 
 21 
 
 2i.2 
 
 2; 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 1,235 
 
 289 
 
 1C 
 
 88 
 
 ... 
 
 11,887 
 
 I,OOC 
 
 1,778,634 
 
 251,451 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 
 313 
 
 
 341 
 
 
 139 
 
 I8I 
 
 3,835 
 
 1.726 
 
 1,096,200 
 
 153,318 
 
 __ 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 tion R 
 
 eturn. 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 50 
 
 12 
 
 ... 
 
 60 
 
 24 
 
 1,868 
 
 883 
 
 303,00c 
 
 57,742 
 
 30 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Cars, 
 
 Cars, 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 877 
 
 121 
 
 626 
 
 107 
 
 141 
 
 347 
 
 14,234 
 
 9,362 } 
 
 3,828,15c 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 332,976 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 > 20 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 166,287 
 
 29,607 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 550 
 
 804 < 
 
 ded in 
 prev. 
 
 h 179 
 
 90 
 
 552 
 
 12,28^1 
 
 8,690 
 
 4,783,394 
 
 312,105 
 
 ... 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 col. 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 / 
 
 3,651 
 
 giQ 
 
 714 
 
 255 
 
 «* • 
 
 
 13,794,864 
 
 1,169,883 
 
 
 70 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 1,651 ( 
 
 893 
 
 75 
 
 56 
 
 112 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 4,123,127 
 
 796,591 
 
 432 
 
 ... 
 
 50 
 
 i 
 
 14,543 
 
 1,023 
 
 169 
 
 125 
 
 82 
 
 *. • 
 
 ... 
 
 4,261,050 
 
 459,806 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 4,543 
 
 1,651 
 
 5,567 
 
 1,163 
 
 895 
 
 449 
 
 94,318 
 
 38,897 
 
 22,182,041 
 
 2,426,280 
 
 432 
 
 70 
 
 134 
 
 Aston 
 
 “Bi 
 
 rming 
 
 ham a 
 
 nd Mi 
 
 dland, 
 
 ” and “ 
 
 Birming 
 
 bam Cent 
 
 ral,” Retu 
 
 rns. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 573 
 
 95 
 
 199 
 
 616 
 
 56 
 
 286 
 
 6,630 
 
 2,071 
 
 1,197,292 
 
 158,077 
 
 ”85 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 
 565 
 
 323 
 
 . 302 
 
 320 
 
 30 
 
 700 
 
 12,552 
 
 2,872 
 
 2,423,020 
 
 359,913 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 
 435 
 
 50 
 
 241 
 
 224 
 
 27 
 
 73 
 
 3,136 
 
 3,433 
 
 838,599 
 
 95,368 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 
 240 
 
 700 
 
 360 
 
 100 
 
 ... 
 
 • . • 
 
 15,571 
 
 5,296 
 
 2,524,527 
 
 431,430 
 
 320 
 
 ... 
 
 36 
 
 porali 
 
 on”R 
 
 eturn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 pany, 
 
 Limit 
 
 ed. F 
 
 or tra 
 
 ffic, se 
 
 ^ “ Br 
 
 adlord 
 
 Corpora 
 
 tion ” Re 
 
 turn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 730 
 
 31 
 
 750 
 
 2,00c 
 
 II 
 
 530 
 
 20,960 
 
 8,368 
 
 4,692,480 
 
 562,560 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ded in 
 prev. 
 
 . 
 
 52c 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 303 
 
 6,590 
 
 4,836 
 
 2,590,040 
 
 170,819 
 
 ... 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 
 COl. 
 
 / - 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 265 
 
 103 
 
 43,611 
 
 6,700 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 528 
 
 70 
 
 303 
 
 466 
 
 14 
 
 
 9,582 
 
 3,275 
 
 1,507,831 
 
 196,109 
 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 
 1,208 
 
 376 
 
 773 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 674 
 
 30,918 
 
 4,553 
 
 .4,992,300 
 
 858,541 
 
 ... 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 
 221 
 
 17 
 
 91 
 
 
 ... 
 
 108 
 
 2,721 
 
 1,033 
 
 578,014 
 
 89,780 
 
 21 
 
 . . 
 
 6 
 
 
 200 
 
 2,072 
 
 ... 
 
 139 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 35,355 
 
 7,186 
 
 9,583,917 
 
 970,017 
 
 439 
 
 ... 
 
 47 
 
 Traffic 
 
 inclu 
 
 ded in 
 
 “ Car 
 
 diff” 
 
 Retur 
 
 n. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 362 
 
 
 234 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 157 
 
 4,623 
 
 1,717 
 
 563,728 
 
 207,563 
 
 71 
 
 ... 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
40 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS 
 
 Table No. 3.—ENGLAND 
 
 
 
 Working 
 
 Name of tramway. 
 
 Gross 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Maintenance 
 
 of way and 
 
 works. 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 power. 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 <0 
 
 & 
 
 0 
 
 p. 
 
 3 
 
 'S 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 engines. 
 
 Renewals, &c., 
 
 of horses. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 expenses. 
 
 1 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Chesterfield . . . . 
 
 — 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coventry and District . 
 
 3,441 
 
 146 
 
 1,427 
 
 . . • 
 
 526 
 
 ... 
 
 142 
 
 360 
 
 Croydon (formerly Croydon 
 
 9,369 
 
 358 
 
 • •• 
 
 2,495 
 
 ... 
 
 304 
 
 289 
 
 3,472 
 
 and Norwood), 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Derby . . . . . 
 
 10,73s 
 
 • . . 
 
 
 4,069 
 
 • •. 
 
 1 , 0 C 0 
 
 563 
 
 3,046 
 
 Dewsbury, Batley, & Birstal 
 
 6,iic 
 
 682 
 
 1,177 
 
 30 
 
 561 
 
 ... 
 
 300 
 
 800 
 
 Drypool and Marfleet . 
 
 2,883 
 
 112 
 
 1,411 
 n for tra 
 
 280 
 
 
 24 
 
 484 
 
 Dudley and Kingswinford . 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 ffic. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Dudley and Stourbridge 
 
 9,371 
 
 408 
 
 2,007 
 
 ... 
 
 1,014 
 
 ved. 
 
 ... 
 
 228 
 
 958 
 
 Dudley, Sedgley, & AVolver- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 hampton, 
 
 Exeter. 
 
 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. 
 
 
 
 
 Flamborough Head 
 F’lkestone,Sandgate &Hytho 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 — 
 
 • • • 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 
 Gateshead and District 
 
 9,825 
 
 700 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1,100 
 
 } 
 
 ... s 
 
 ded un¬ 
 der En- 
 
 / 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 gines. 
 
 ) 
 
 Gloucester . . . . 
 
 2,867 
 
 71 
 
 ... 
 
 877 
 
 ... 
 
 172 
 
 56 
 
 1,122 
 
 Gosport, Alverstoke, & Burj 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Cross. 
 
 Gravesend, Rosherville, and 
 
 1,911 
 
 53 
 
 
 852 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 429 
 
 Northfleet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Grimsby. 
 
 6,05 = 
 
 89 
 
 . . . 
 
 1,755 
 
 
 268 
 
 196 
 
 1,139 
 
 Harrow Road & Paddington 
 
 9,526 
 
 20 
 
 . . . 
 
 3,159 
 
 
 204 
 
 102 
 
 3.600 
 
 Hartlepools . . . . 
 
 1,595 
 
 70 
 
 205 
 
 . . . 
 
 213 
 
 • • • 
 
 67 
 
 806 
 
 Highgate Hill 
 
 
 — 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. 
 
 — 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Huddersfield Corporation . 
 
 15,804 
 
 1,746 
 
 4,201 
 
 ... 
 
 1,803 
 
 
 840 
 
 1,487 
 
 Hull Street . . . . 
 
 13,649 
 
 2,205 
 
 ... 
 
 3,972 
 
 ... 
 
 81 
 
 .759 
 
 4,770 
 
 Ipswich . 
 
 2,141 
 
 32 
 
 ... 
 
 735 
 
 . .. 
 
 233 
 
 104 
 
 8c6 
 
 Keighley . . . . 
 
 1,833 
 
 • »• 
 
 . . . 
 
 823 
 
 • . . 
 
 56 
 
 41 
 
 660 
 
 Lancaster and District 
 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Lea Bridge, Leyton, & Wal- 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 thamstow. 
 
 Leamington and Warwick . 
 
 5,567 
 
 640 
 
 ... 
 
 2,408 
 
 ( 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 250 
 
 A 
 
 274 
 
 399 
 
 Leeds . 
 
 48,432 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 8,138 
 
 9,723 < 
 
 ded in 
 Cal. 2. 
 
 r 1,375 
 
 3,637 
 
 6,345 
 
 Leeds Corporation 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Leicester . . . . 
 
 31,615 
 
 2,170 
 
 11,823 
 
 ... 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,217 
 
 7,855 
 
 Lincoln . . . . . 
 
 2,012 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 438 
 
 . . . 
 
 53 
 
 75 
 
 569 
 
 Lincolnshire . . . . 
 
 Liverpool Corporation . 
 
 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 
 
 
 Bootle Corporation . 
 Walton Local Board 
 
 1 
 
 275,912 
 
 1,253 
 
 
 100,077 
 
 
 13,286 
 
 15,076 
 
 48,707 
 
 AVavertree Local Board . 
 AVest Derby Local Board 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Llanelly. . . : . 
 
 982 
 
 Worked 
 
 in conn 
 
 ection w 
 
 ith an 
 
 other bu 
 
 siness, a 
 
 nd can 
 
 London . . . . . 
 
 300,220 
 
 22,142 
 
 • . * 
 
 89,418 
 
 . . . 
 
 13,550 
 
 7,687 
 
 69,703 
 
 London, Camberwell, & Dul- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 wich. 
 
 London Southern . 
 
 14.746 
 
 516 
 
 
 5,512 
 
 
 640 
 
 499 
 
 4,503 
 
 London Street 
 
 126,442 
 
 6,708 
 
 ... 
 
 40,126 
 
 
 4,984 
 
 3,401 
 
 38,369 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS, 
 
 41 
 
 ANjJ wales {continued). 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 1 
 
 {/) 
 
 Working stock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Si 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Direction and 
 management. 
 
 Rent of offices 
 stables, and 
 sheds. 
 
 Rates, taxes, 
 and tolls. 
 
 Compensation 
 for personal 
 injury. 
 
 Legal and 
 parliamentary 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Net 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Number of p 
 
 sengers conv( 
 
 (including seas 
 
 Composition ti 
 
 holders). 
 
 Number of m 
 
 run by car; 
 
 Number of 
 
 horses. 
 
 Number of 
 
 locomotive 
 
 engines. 
 
 Number of 
 
 cars. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 482 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 220 
 
 3,401 
 
 40 
 
 343,322 
 
 87,760 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 261 
 
 ... 
 
 148 
 
 49 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 7,376 
 
 1,993 
 
 1,403,714 
 
 246,719 
 
 95 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 496 
 
 185 
 
 233 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 55 
 
 9,647 
 
 1,091 
 
 2,454,625 
 
 250,382 
 
 98 
 
 • •• 
 
 18 
 
 200 
 
 60 
 
 324 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 4,1.34 
 
 1,976 
 
 1,322,000 
 
 145,200 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 182 
 
 77 
 
 89 
 
 79 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 2,833 
 
 50 
 
 922,560 
 
 155,861 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 250 
 
 — 
 
 345 
 
 727 
 
 216 
 
 302 
 
 6,455 
 
 2,916 
 
 2,161,734 
 
 121,767 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 470 
 
 375 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 7,945 
 
 1,880 
 
 1,831,598 
 
 187,104 
 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 
 ( 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 73 j 
 
 ded in 
 prev. 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 42 
 
 2,523 
 
 344 
 
 656,437 
 
 136,614 
 
 32 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 . 
 
 ( 
 
 col. 
 
 ; 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 -- - 
 
 ... 
 
 no 
 
 78 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 1,593 
 
 318 
 
 302,521 
 
 48,281 
 
 10 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 549 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 » • • 
 
 ... 
 
 3,996 
 
 2,059 
 
 1,008,697 
 
 220,140 
 
 216,675 
 
 55 
 
 • • . 
 
 13 
 
 456 
 
 170 
 
 J41 
 
 • •• 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 7,852 
 
 1,674 
 
 1,684,74c 
 
 122 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 123 
 
 ... 
 
 64 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1,548 
 
 47 
 
 319,485 
 
 35,971 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 528 
 
 154 
 
 377 
 
 180 
 
 
 248 
 
 11,564 
 
 4,24c 
 
 2,493,280 
 
 213,546 
 
 ... 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 187 
 
 24 
 
 581 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 12,608 
 
 1,041 
 
 3,119,075 
 
 426,269 
 
 156 
 
 ... 
 
 31 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 
 
 73 
 
 2,117 
 
 24 
 
 240,406 
 
 85,000 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 13 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 78 
 
 1,751 
 
 82 
 
 414,57c 
 
 53,044 
 
 37 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 150 
 
 71 
 
 115 
 
 .. • 
 
 2 
 
 313 
 
 4,622 
 
 945 
 
 753,031 
 
 105,576 
 
 52 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 850 
 
 608 
 
 879 
 
 ... 
 
 131 
 
 965 
 
 35,491 
 
 12,941 
 
 7,554,666 
 
 857,642 
 
 298 
 
 23 
 
 68 
 
 1,054 
 
 145 
 
 391 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 26,673 
 
 4,942 
 
 7,095,046 
 
 792,590 
 
 299 
 
 
 43 
 
 78 
 
 ... 
 
 in 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 1,372 
 
 640 
 
 318,680 
 
 47,028 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cars, 
 
 Cars, 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 3,085 
 
 2,233 
 
 6,285 
 
 697 
 
 902 
 
 1,617 
 
 193,218 
 
 82,694 ( 
 
 25,249,441 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 3,869,303 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 )3,i99 
 
 ... 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8,544,989 
 
 1,672,008 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 not be 
 
 stated 
 
 • • • 
 
 . • • 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . • • 
 
 ... 
 
 235,881 
 
 40,489 
 
 10 
 
 • .. 
 
 5 
 
 5.717 
 
 4,951 
 
 4,133 
 
 1,593 
 
 1,298 
 
 3,510 
 
 223,702 
 
 76,518 
 
 60,534,994 
 
 6,816,031 
 
 3,211 
 
 — 
 
 287 
 
 357 
 
 457 
 
 
 133 
 
 
 
 12,617 
 
 2,129 
 
 2,420,720 
 
 454,151 
 
 170 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 1,500 
 
 4,794 
 
 ... 
 
 1,199 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 iot,o8i 
 
 25,361 
 
 23,976,706 
 
 2,449,436 
 
 1,127 
 
 
 124 
 
42 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Table No. 3.—ENGLAND 
 
 Name of tramway. 
 
 Manchester Carriage and 
 Tramway Company. 
 
 Manchester Corp. (part) 
 IMoss Side Local Board 
 Newton Heath Local Bd. 
 Oldham Borough (part) 
 Withington Local Board 
 Manchester Corporation 
 IManchester, Middleton, and 
 District 
 
 ^liddlesborough & Stockton 
 
 !Morecambe . 
 
 IMoss Side Local Board 
 Neath and District 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne Corp 
 Newport and Parkhurst 
 Newport (IMon.) 
 
 Newport Pagnell & District 
 Newton Heath Local Board 
 Northampton Street 
 North London 
 
 North Metropolitan 
 
 North Shields & Tynemouth 
 District 
 
 North Staffordshire 
 Nottingham and District 
 Oldham, Ashton-under-Lyne 
 and Hyde District. 
 Oldham Boro’ (Corporation) 
 Oxford (City of) and District 
 Plymouth 
 Plymouth, Stonehouse, and 
 Devonport. 
 
 Pontypridd&RhonddaValIey 
 Portsmouth (Boro’ of) Kings¬ 
 ton, Fratton, and Southsea. 
 Portsmouth Street 
 Borough of Portsmouth,&c. 
 Preston Corporation and 
 Fulwood Local Board. 
 Reading . . . . 
 
 Rossendale Valley 
 
 St. Helens and District 
 
 Salford Corporation 
 
 Manchester Corporation 
 (portion) 
 
 Barton, &c.. Local Board. 
 
 Working 
 
 Gross 
 
 receipts. 
 
 iMaintenance 
 
 of way and 
 
 works. 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 power. 
 
 Animal power. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 engines. 
 
 Renewals, Jkc., 
 
 of horses. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 expenses. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 262,339 
 
 3,249 
 
 
 73,494 
 
 
 17,435 
 
 9,812 
 
 66,429 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 ys lease 
 
 d. Traffi 
 
 c includ 
 
 ed chi 
 
 efly in “ 
 
 Manche 
 
 ster Car 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 5,543 
 
 360 
 
 1,816 
 
 1,341 
 
 ... 
 
 95 
 
 136 
 
 402 
 
 2,648 
 
 20 
 
 
 860 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 430 
 
 Traffic i 
 
 ncluded 
 
 in “ Ma 
 
 ncheste 
 
 r Carr 
 
 iageand 
 
 Tramw 
 
 ays Com 
 
 30,474 
 
 590 
 
 ... 
 
 11,550 
 
 ... 
 
 1,174 
 
 1,537 
 
 4,020 
 
 4,498 
 
 226 
 
 ... 
 
 869 
 
 ... 
 
 123 
 
 307 
 
 1,083 
 
 Traffic i 
 
 ncluded 
 
 in “ Ma 
 
 ncheste 
 
 r Carr 
 
 iageand 
 
 Tramw 
 
 ays Com 
 
 6,178 
 
 81 
 
 ... 
 
 1,506 
 
 ... 
 
 353 
 
 196 
 
 1,177 
 
 17,250 
 
 1,079 
 
 5,170 
 
 114 
 
 1,309 
 
 ... 
 
 49 
 
 6,383 
 
 405,292 
 
 35,479 
 
 1,380 
 
 110,997 
 
 
 19,505 
 
 10,578 
 
 84,860 
 
 Lineonl 
 
 y re-ope 
 
 ned on i 
 
 2 th June 
 
 , 1890. 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 17,927 
 
 677 
 
 1,777 
 
 39 
 
 492 
 
 
 168 
 
 5,418 
 
 24,508 
 
 610 
 
 ... 
 
 14,151 
 
 
 963 
 
 825 
 
 3,537 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Traffic i 
 
 ncluded 
 
 partly in 
 
 “ Burv, 
 
 Roch 
 
 dale, an 
 
 d Oldha 
 
 m ” Ret 
 
 9,349 
 
 921 
 
 ... 
 
 2,256 
 
 ... 
 
 205 
 
 ... 
 
 2,078 
 
 14,2x5 
 
 316 
 
 ... 
 
 4,985 
 
 ... 
 
 373 
 
 712 
 
 2,357 
 
 No retu 
 
 rn recei 
 
 ved. Co 
 
 mpany i 
 
 n liqui 
 
 dation. 
 
 — 
 
 . 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 y worke 
 
 d in con 
 
 junction 
 
 with t 
 
 he Ports 
 
 mouth S 
 
 treet Tr 
 
 43,099 
 
 1,846 
 
 ... 
 
 16,342 
 
 ... 
 
 1,167 
 
 2,949 
 
 12,63 
 
 10,521 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 5,072 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 366 
 
 1,949 
 
 5,020 
 
 426 
 
 ... 
 
 1,781 
 
 
 199 
 
 323 
 
 390 
 
 6,077 
 
 . . . 
 
 816 
 
 ... 
 
 265 
 
 
 30 
 
 1,655 
 
 3,045 
 
 250 
 
 400 
 
 390 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 16 
 
 270 
 
 69,014 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 20,686 
 
 ... 
 
 4,907 
 
 2,655 
 
 19,002 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS, 
 
 43 
 
 AND WALES [continued). 
 
 Expendicure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U t 
 
 . *d ^ 'S 
 
 
 Working stock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J, cj c ^ 
 rt 0 0 u 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'd • 
 
 « c 
 
 s s 
 
 0 0 
 
 U nj 
 
 t of offices, 
 ibles, and 
 sheds. 
 
 W 
 
 0 • 
 
 X M 
 
 0 
 
 #s-M 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 -M a 
 
 Compensation 
 for personal 
 injury. 
 
 c ^ 
 a c 
 
 a g 
 
 Sundry. 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 Net 
 
 receipts. 
 
 
 urnber of p 
 
 igers conve 
 
 uding seas 
 
 position ti 
 
 holders.) 
 
 amber of m 
 
 run by car: 
 
 umber of 
 
 horses. 
 
 umber of 
 
 comotive 
 
 mgines. 
 
 umber of 
 
 cars. 
 
 .t! c3 
 
 Q S 
 
 c ™ 
 
 0 (/) 
 
 •A 
 
 rt 
 
 Oi 
 
 rt 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 7 a S u 6 
 <n 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 :2: 
 
 0 - 
 
 2 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 30,602,160 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,319 
 
 2,424 
 
 4,502 
 
 1,655 
 
 537 
 
 3,965 
 
 188,821 
 
 73,518 
 
 6,181,440 
 
 2,796 
 
 
 303 
 
 riage 
 
 and T 
 
 ramw 
 
 ays C 
 
 o.’s” 
 
 Retur 
 
 n, but p 
 
 artly in 
 
 
 “ Salford 
 
 Corporati 
 
 on”R 
 
 eturn. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cars, 
 
 Cars, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 753,399 
 
 114,163 
 
 
 
 
 446 
 
 2C 
 
 157 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 31 
 
 4,804 
 
 739' 
 
 
 Ferry 
 
 steamers. 
 
 Ferry 
 
 steamers, 
 
 33,820 
 
 j 27 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 342,912 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 
 10 
 
 171 
 
 1,776 
 
 872 
 
 627,072 
 
 32,300 
 
 31 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 pany’s 
 
 ” Ret 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 —— 
 
 888 
 
 246 
 
 1,063 
 
 112 
 
 25 
 
 3,992 
 
 25,197 
 
 5-277 
 
 3,717,136 
 
 606,046 
 
 278 
 
 ... 
 
 30 
 
 180 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 106 
 
 3,057 
 
 1,441 
 
 1,030,320 
 
 115,000 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 pany’s 
 
 » Ret 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 504 
 
 • • • 
 
 54 
 
 . .. 
 
 ..» 
 
 175 
 
 4,046 
 
 2,132 
 
 1,248,748 
 
 131,464 
 
 58 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 636 
 
 76 
 
 623 
 
 874 
 
 226 
 
 64 
 
 i6,6oc 
 
 64 
 
 I 
 
 1,777,709 
 
 246,227 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 [ 
 
 Inclu- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,392 
 
 3,285 
 
 10,605 
 
 7,166 
 
 ded in 
 prev. 
 
 /1,185 
 
 294,432 
 
 110,860 
 
 69,715,528 
 
 7,196,900 
 
 3,346 
 
 ... 
 
 342 
 
 
 
 
 
 col. 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 • « • 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1.015 
 
 26 
 
 257 
 
 320 
 
 50 
 
 ... 
 
 10,23c 
 
 7,688 
 
 2,999,586 
 
 281,934 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 884 
 
 _ 
 
 561 
 
 28 
 
 II6 
 
 _ 
 
 21,495 
 
 3,013 
 
 3,766,007 
 
 635,774 
 
 270 
 
 I 
 
 34 
 
 urn, a 
 
 nd pa 
 
 rtly in 
 
 “Ma 
 
 nches 
 
 ter Ca 
 
 rriage a 
 
 ndTram 
 
 ways Com 
 
 pany’s ”R 
 
 eturn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 450 
 
 60 
 
 107 
 
 . . . 
 
 53 
 
 601 
 
 6,731 
 
 2,61 
 
 8 
 
 1,930,415 
 
 230,089 
 
 ... 
 
 83 
 
 14 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ... 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 200 
 
 1,406 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 10,357 
 
 3,858 
 
 2,237,901 
 
 207,862 
 
 ... 
 
 121 
 
 24 
 
 amwa 
 
 ys. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 200 
 
 1,926 
 
 ... 
 
 46 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 37,112 
 
 5,987 
 
 6,608,817 
 
 1,259,337 
 
 400 
 
 ... 
 
 75 
 
 200 
 
 65 
 
 149 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 55 
 
 7,856 
 
 2,665 
 
 1,936,392 
 
 258,432 
 
 no 
 
 ... 
 
 31 
 
 433 
 
 25 
 
 133 
 
 
 ... 
 
 24 
 
 3,734 
 
 1,286 
 
 788,437 
 
 121,348 
 
 40 
 
 • . . 
 
 15 
 
 529 
 
 73 
 
 133 
 
 404 
 
 . • • 
 
 49 
 
 3.954 
 
 2,123 
 
 984,738 
 
 137,398 
 
 . . . 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 Hor. bars, 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 103 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 605 
 
 2,123 
 
 922 
 
 362,924 j 
 
 21,000 
 Stm. cars. 
 
 ( '' 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 34,559 
 
 ; 
 
 787 
 
 
 82 
 
 2,293 
 
 68i 
 
 1,267 
 
 352 
 
 114 
 
 i,ii6 
 
 53,074 
 
 15,940 
 
 8,128,080 
 
 1,079,390 
 
 
44 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS 
 
 Table No. 3.—ENGLAND 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Working 
 
 
 Name of tramway. 
 
 Gross 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Maintenance 
 of way and 
 
 works. 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 power. 
 
 Animal power. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 engines. 
 
 1 
 
 Renewals, &c. 
 
 of horses. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 expenses. 
 
 
 Sheffield Corporation . 
 
 39,202 
 
 £ 
 
 4,774 
 
 
 14,346 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1,825 
 
 £ 
 
 L150 
 
 £ 
 
 3,520 
 
 Shipley. 
 
 i» 39 i 
 
 no 
 
 
 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 1,247 
 
 Southampton Street 
 
 13,732 
 
 No re 
 
 645 
 
 ... 
 
 3,763 
 
 ... 
 
 310 
 
 847 
 
 5,549 
 
 South Eastern Metropolitan 
 
 turn rec 
 
 eived. 
 
 — 
 
 ■— 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 South Gosforth 
 
 9,736 
 
 109 
 
 • • . 
 
 4,000 
 
 . •. 
 
 235 
 
 220 
 
 1,570 
 
 South London 
 
 74,063 
 
 4,194 
 
 .. . 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3,764 
 
 4,373 
 
 19,937 
 
 Southport . . . , 
 
 io,ogo 
 
 583 
 
 . . • 
 
 2,361 
 
 ... 
 
 288 
 
 247 
 
 1,413 
 
 South Shields Corporation . 
 
 ',.6,2 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 2,318 
 
 603 
 
 .. • 
 
 299 
 
 413 
 
 802 
 
 South Staffordshire (formerly 
 
 22,293 
 
 1,656 
 
 4,971 
 
 3,293 
 
 ... 
 
 864 
 
 5,620 
 
 South Staffordshire and 
 Birmingham District). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 658 
 
 
 
 Southwark and Deptford 
 
 24,474 
 
 1,013 
 
 ... 
 
 5,410 
 
 ... 
 
 1,718 
 
 8,840 
 
 Stockport and Hazel Grove 
 
 1,047 
 
 • • . 
 
 ... 
 
 228 
 
 ... 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 224 
 
 Stockton-on-Tees and Dist. 
 
 5,252 
 
 109 
 
 360 
 
 801 
 
 270 
 
 137 
 
 54 
 
 2,375 
 
 Sunderland (Company’s) 
 
 15,184 
 
 1,282 
 
 4,476 
 
 , 584 
 
 d in “ S 
 
 1,156 
 
 1,269 
 
 Sunderland (Corporation) . 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. 'L' 
 
 raffic in 
 
 elude 
 
 underla 
 
 nd(Com 
 
 Swansea . . . . 
 
 22,027 
 
 1,194 
 
 1,074 
 
 4,975 
 
 657 
 
 548 
 
 732 
 
 2,557 
 
 Wallasey . . . . 
 
 4,944 
 
 168 
 
 . . • 
 
 1,282 
 
 
 361 
 
 240 
 
 1,264 
 
 Walton-on-the-Hill Local 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. T 
 
 raffic in 
 
 clu de 
 
 din “Li 
 
 verpool 
 
 Corpor 
 
 Board 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wantage .... 
 
 1,787 
 
 58 
 
 ... 
 
 
 200 
 
 ... 
 
 18 
 
 860 
 
 Wavertree Local Board 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. T 
 
 raffic in 
 
 clu de 
 
 din “Li 
 
 verpool 
 
 Corpo 
 
 r 
 
 West Derby Local Board . 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. T 
 
 raffic in 
 
 clud e 
 
 d in “ Li 
 
 verpool 
 
 Corpor 
 
 West Metropolitan 
 
 26,917 
 
 3,343 
 
 . .. 
 
 6,429 
 
 ... 
 
 781 
 
 786 
 
 8,440 
 
 Weston-super-Mare, Cleve- 
 
 Not 0 
 
 pen for 
 
 tiaffic. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 don, and Portishead 
 Wigan . ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,828 
 
 608 
 
 2,354 
 
 16 
 
 876 
 
 . . . 
 
 233 
 
 553 
 
 Wirral. 
 
 5,780 
 
 337 
 
 
 1,294 
 
 . . . 
 
 381 
 
 179 
 
 1,48 
 
 8 
 
 Wisbech and Upwell (Great 
 
 2,301 
 
 314 
 
 685 
 
 
 242 
 
 • • • 
 
 1,048 
 
 450 < 
 
 
 Eastern Railway Com¬ 
 pany) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Withington Local Board 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. T 
 
 raffic in 
 
 clu d e 
 
 din“M 
 
 anchest 
 
 er Can 
 
 i 
 
 Wolverhampton . 
 
 10,508 
 
 526 
 
 ... 
 
 3,258 
 
 ... 
 
 465 
 
 332 
 
 924 
 
 Wolverton and Stony Strat¬ 
 ford 
 
 Wolverton and Stony Strat- 
 
 2,042 
 
 362 
 
 725 
 
 150 
 
 322 
 
 ••• 
 
 136 
 
 469 
 
 Tram 
 
 ways le 
 
 ased. T 
 
 raffic in 
 
 clu d e 
 
 din“W 
 
 olverton 
 
 and Sto 
 
 ford. (Deanshanger Ex¬ 
 tension) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AVoolwich and South East 
 
 14,968 
 
 485 
 
 
 3,847 
 
 ... 
 
 702 
 
 445 
 
 5,050 
 
 London 
 
 
 
 
 
 AVorcester . . . . 
 
 No R 
 
 eturn re 
 
 ceived. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -- 
 
 
 AVrexham . . . . 
 
 856 
 
 72 
 
 ... 
 
 240 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 205 
 
 Yarmouth and Gorleston 
 
 5,290 
 
 376 
 
 • • • 
 
 1,804 
 
 ... 
 
 100 
 
 82 
 
 951 
 
 York. 
 
 3,600 
 
 95 
 
 ... 
 
 1,086 
 
 
 ... 
 
 70 
 
 1,129 
 
 Total, England and Wales 
 
 2 - 573.535 
 
 130,119 
 
 110,654 
 
 660,387! 40,350 
 
 102,114 
 
 93,609 
 
 552,79 
 
 3 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 45 
 
 AND WALES {conchided). 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U X 
 
 e /3 
 
 Working stock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 0 u 
 
 <V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rp . 
 
 
 
 
 Direction and 
 management. 
 
 Rent of offices 
 stables, and 
 sheds. 
 
 Rates, taxes, 
 and tolls. 
 
 Compensation 
 for personal 
 injury. 
 
 Legal and 
 parliamentarj\ 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 in 
 
 Total. 
 
 Net 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Number of p 
 sengers conve 
 
 (including seas 
 
 composition ti( 
 
 holders.) 
 
 Number of m 
 
 run by cars 
 
 Number of 
 
 horses. 
 
 Number of 
 
 locomotive 
 
 engines. 
 
 Number of 
 
 cars. 
 
 £, 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 362 
 
 1,495 
 
 • t. 
 
 13 
 
 304 
 
 28,789 
 
 10,413 
 
 Loss, 
 
 6,185,576 
 
 691,810 
 
 316 
 
 ... 
 
 46 
 
 193 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 «. « 
 
 207 
 
 56 
 
 2,008 
 
 617 
 
 331,372 
 
 61,571 
 
 26 
 
 • •• 
 
 5 
 
 475 
 
 360 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 11,955 
 
 1,777 
 
 1,678,021 
 
 297,220 
 
 140 
 
 ... 
 
 26 
 
 350 
 
 250 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 200 
 
 172 
 
 7,236 
 
 2,500 
 
 1,061,270 
 
 196,000 
 
 100 
 
 ... 
 
 11 
 
 1,655 
 
 954 
 
 657 
 
 913 
 
 205 
 
 26,995 
 
 63,647 
 
 10,416 
 
 16,154,451 
 
 1,767,314 
 
 785 
 
 . . « 
 
 86 
 
 476 
 
 59 
 
 224 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 194 
 
 5,845 
 
 4,245 
 
 1,145,117 
 
 179,347 
 
 67 
 
 • •• 
 
 23 
 
 323 
 
 16 
 
 100 
 
 503 
 
 ■ . « 
 
 226 
 
 5,000 
 
 632 
 
 1,242,325 
 
 184,529 
 
 59 
 
 • • » 
 
 8 
 
 1,460 
 
 114 
 
 550 
 
 ... 
 
 97 
 
 722 
 
 19,950 
 
 2,343 
 
 3,276,284 
 
 395,758 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 889 
 
 201 
 
 258 
 
 337 
 
 161 
 
 260 
 
 19,745 
 
 4,729 
 
 5,602,415 
 
 530,434 
 
 217 
 
 . a • 
 
 32 
 
 ... 
 
 24 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 61 
 
 563 
 
 484 
 
 123,767 
 
 14,996 
 
 44 
 
 . . • 
 
 6 
 
 144 
 
 67 
 
 121 
 
 113 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 4,554 
 
 698 
 
 1,037,156 
 
 151,543 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 730 
 
 25 
 
 229 
 
 2 
 
 « . 
 
 132 
 
 9,885 
 
 5,299 
 
 2,607,986 
 
 274,657 
 
 iio 
 
 • •• 
 
 33 
 
 pany) 
 
 Ret 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1,035 
 
 353 
 
 1,075 
 
 19 
 
 323 
 
 279 
 
 14,821 
 
 7,206 
 
 2,611,513 
 
 360,416 
 
 119 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 300 
 
 ” Ret 
 
 121 
 
 ... 
 
 29 
 
 336 
 
 4,101 
 
 843 
 
 609,544 
 
 145,784 
 
 46 
 
 
 5 
 
 ation 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 . 25 
 
 ” Ret 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 i,i8i 
 
 606 
 
 30,463 
 
 10,955 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 ation 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 . - 
 
 
 
 ation 
 
 ” Ret 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 724 
 
 300 
 
 509 
 
 284 
 
 44 
 
 
 21,640 
 
 5,277 
 
 4,456,660 
 
 659,107 
 
 246 
 
 . 
 
 48 
 
 310 
 
 
 369 
 
 435 
 
 300 
 
 139 
 
 6,193 
 
 1,635 
 
 1,245,896 
 
 139,360 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 457 
 
 ... 
 
 203 
 
 ... 
 
 43 
 
 252 
 
 4,634 
 
 1,146 
 
 765,752 
 
 169,508 
 
 47 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 0 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .b rt S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •2 e 2 
 
 >... 
 
 77 
 
 . • • 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 2,824 
 
 Loss, 
 
 523 
 
 102,422 
 
 27,418 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 ^ c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 s § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^.2 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age a' 
 
 ad Tr 
 
 amwa 
 
 yCom 
 
 oanv’ 
 
 s”Re 
 
 turn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 600 
 
 195 
 
 399 
 
 33 
 
 13 
 
 180 
 
 6,925 
 
 3,583 
 
 1,327,825 
 
 204,597 
 
 86 
 
 . . . 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loss, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 236 
 
 31 
 
 58 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 363 
 
 2,846 
 
 804 
 
 229,602 
 
 41,865 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 ny Sti 
 
 atford 
 
 ” Ret 
 
 urn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 844 
 
 95 
 
 181 
 
 i6t 
 
 ... 
 
 Ill 
 
 11,920 
 
 3,048 
 
 2,481,196 
 
 321,435 
 
 156 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 —— 
 
 
 634 
 
 222 
 
 60,423 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 ■ 
 
 3 
 
 268 
 
 54 
 
 146 
 
 
 9 
 
 233 
 
 4,023 
 
 1,267 
 
 859,927 
 
 114,210 
 
 50 
 
 .. . 
 
 9 
 
 136 
 
 96 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 48 
 
 2,660 
 
 940 
 
 814,620 
 
 121,007 
 
 37 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 65,107 
 
 36,616 
 
 51,901 
 
 24,905 
 
 6,957 
 
 56,932 
 
 1,932,444 
 
 641,091 
 
 418,399,936 
 
 53,367,578 
 
 21,681 
 
 534 
 
 3,030 
 
46 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Table No. 3 [continued ).— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W orking 
 
 Name of iramway. 
 
 Gross 
 
 receipts. 
 
 INIaintenance 
 
 of way and 
 
 works. 
 
 Locomotive. 
 
 power. 
 
 Animal 
 
 power. 
 
 1 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 engines. 
 
 Renewals, 8cc., 
 
 of horses. 
 
 Repairs and 
 
 renewals of 
 
 cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 expenses. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Aberdeen District. 
 
 16,376 
 
 623 
 
 ... 
 
 5,730 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 722 
 
 628 
 
 3,558 
 
 Dundee Street (Commis¬ 
 sioners of Police) 
 
 i 5>969 
 
 1,042 
 
 2,376 
 
 
 1,275 
 
 422 
 
 4,094 
 
 Edinburgh Northern . 
 
 9,797 
 
 1,637 
 
 959 
 
 (Cable.) 
 
 664 
 
 Inclu¬ 
 ded in 
 first 
 col. 
 
 • • • 
 
 Inclu¬ 
 ded in 
 first 
 col. 
 
 2,170 
 
 Edinburgh Street . 
 
 103,470 
 
 6,371 
 
 ... 
 
 31,820 
 
 . .. 
 
 4,361 
 
 3,833 
 
 13,914 
 
 Glasgow and Ibrox 
 
 i,i6i 
 
 92 
 
 . . . 
 
 361 
 
 ... 
 
 56 
 
 103 
 
 367 
 
 Glasgow Corporation 
 
 241,186 
 
 1,582 
 
 ... 
 
 91,507 
 
 ... 
 
 19,140 
 
 5,718 
 
 32,829 
 
 Greenock and Port Glasgow 
 
 3,733 
 
 
 . . * 
 
 . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 24 
 
 2,360 
 
 Greenock Street (Board of 
 Police) . . • . 
 
 Return. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 include 
 
 din “V 
 
 ale of 
 
 Clyde ” 
 
 returns. 
 
 Paisley . . . . . 
 
 2,911 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 046 
 
 • *• 
 
 99 
 
 80 
 
 903 
 
 Rothesay . . . . 
 
 3,305 
 
 I 2 I 
 
 . . . 
 
 643 
 
 • •• 
 
 97 
 
 87 
 
 653 
 
 Stirling and Bridge of Allan 
 
 2,724 
 
 205 
 
 . . . 
 
 1,123 
 
 1,899 
 
 . .. 
 
 . • . 
 
 138 
 
 295 
 
 Vale of Clyde 
 
 Greenock Street 
 
 16,718 
 
 613 
 
 2,503 
 
 2,113 
 
 256 
 
 Inclu¬ 
 ded with 
 engines. 
 
 L 433 
 
 Total Scotland . 
 
 417,350 
 
 12,286 
 
 5,838 
 
 134,693 
 
 3,338 
 
 24,431 
 
 11,335 
 
 62,576 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Belfast Street 
 
 71,942 
 
 1,717 
 
 
 22,404 
 
 
 1,803 
 
 2,532 
 
 19,470 
 
 Sj^denham District . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blackrock and Kingstown . 
 
 2,043 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 674 ••• 
 
 126 
 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 Blessington and Poulaphuca 
 
 — 
 
 Not ope 
 
 n for tra 
 
 ffic. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 Castlederg ScVictoria Bridge 
 
 1,996 
 
 198 
 
 343 
 
 ... 
 
 
 . . 
 
 15 
 
 427 
 
 Cavehill and Whitewell 
 
 2,332 
 
 233 
 
 649 
 
 • . 
 
 790 
 
 
 
 220 
 
 Dublin and Blessington 
 
 4,761 
 
 6^ 
 
 1,831 
 
 ... 
 
 219 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 525 
 
 Dublin and Lucan 
 
 4,836 
 
 418 
 
 956 
 
 ... 
 
 570 
 
 • •• 
 
 185 
 
 660 
 
 Lucan, Leixlip,&Celbridge 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dublin Southern District 
 
 7,340 
 
 674 
 
 . • . 
 
 3,110 
 
 ... 
 
 446 
 
 796 
 
 1,061 
 
 Dublin United 
 
 123,182 
 
 19,791 
 
 ... 
 
 32,321 
 
 365 
 
 • . . 
 
 5,129 
 
 5,233 
 
 22,210 
 
 Galway and Balt Hill . 
 
 1-453 
 
 47 
 
 ... 
 
 »• . 
 
 81 
 
 422 
 
 Giant’s Causeway, Port- 
 
 2,140 
 
 183 
 
 792 
 
 305 
 
 ... 
 
 60 
 
 284 
 
 rush, and Bush Valley 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lucan, Leixlip & Celbridge 
 
 Worked 
 
 by “ Du 
 
 blin and 
 
 Lucan S 
 
 team 
 
 Tramwa 
 
 V Comp 
 
 y.,” and 
 
 Portstewarc . . . . 
 
 684 
 
 3 
 
 354 
 
 • • 4 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 27 
 
 68 
 
 Sydenham District (Belfast). 
 
 Tramw 
 
 ay work 
 
 edby “B 
 
 el fast St 
 
 reet T 
 
 ramway 
 
 Compa 
 
 ny,” and 
 
 Warrenpoint and Rostrevor 
 
 1,149 
 
 36 
 
 272 
 
 ... 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 257 
 
 Total Ireland 
 
 223,858 
 
 23,925 
 
 4.925 
 
 59,146 
 
 1,954 
 
 7,540 
 
 9,015 
 
 46,417 
 
 Total United Kingdom 
 
 3,214,743 
 
 166,330 
 
 121,417 
 
 854,226 
 
 45,692 
 
 134,085 
 
 113,959 
 
 661,786 
 
GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 47 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Net 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Number of pas¬ 
 sengers conveyed 
 (including season or 
 
 composition ticket- 
 
 holders.) 
 
 Number of miles 
 
 run by cars. 
 
 Working stock. 
 
 1 
 
 Direction and 
 management. 
 
 Rent of offices, 
 stables, and 
 sheds. 
 
 Rates, taxes, 
 and tolls. 
 
 Compensation 
 for personal 
 injuries. 
 
 Legal and 
 parliamentary. 
 
 i 
 
 Sundry. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number of 
 
 horses. 
 
 Number of 
 locomotive 
 
 engines. 
 
 Number of 
 
 cars. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 465 
 
 78 
 
 243 
 
 ... 
 
 
 282 
 
 11,701 
 
 4,675 
 
 3,092,310 
 
 339,352 
 
 176 
 
 . .. 
 
 19 
 
 466 
 
 ... 
 
 344 
 
 208 
 
 19 
 
 1,627 
 
 12,501 
 
 3,468 
 
 Cars, 
 
 Cars, 
 
 77 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,347,130 
 
 224,354 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 ’Buses, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 430,911 
 
 74,510 
 
 
 
 
 1,039 
 
 •.. 
 
 135 
 
 «.« 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 6,60;^ 
 
 3,193 
 
 1,990,228 
 
 160,489 
 
 ... 
 
 Cable 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trac- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 2,060 
 
 877 
 
 2,620 
 
 356 
 
 465 
 
 2,271 
 
 68,948 
 
 34,522 
 
 14,829,782 
 
 1,501,253 
 
 992 
 
 ... 
 
 76 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 II 
 
 ... 
 
 • . 
 
 ... 
 
 1,127 
 
 34 
 
 278,720 
 
 46,950 
 
 12 
 
 . . . 
 
 4 
 
 3,159 
 
 ... 
 
 6,844 
 
 1,585 
 
 400 
 
 13,241 
 
 176,005 
 
 65,181 
 
 47,709,791 
 
 4 , 333,957 
 
 2,687 
 
 ... 
 
 233 
 
 _ 
 
 125 
 
 15 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 30 
 
 2,576 
 
 1,157 
 
 618,46c 
 
 86,991 
 
 60 
 
 _ 
 
 11 
 
 38 
 
 go 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 2,234 
 
 677 
 
 545,365 
 
 77,100 
 
 33 
 
 
 6 
 
 167 
 
 50 
 
 156 
 
 4 
 
 ... 
 
 72 
 
 2,050 
 
 1,255 
 
 422,985 
 
 75,438 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 109 
 
 ... 
 
 131 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 153 
 
 2 , t 56 
 
 568 
 
 303,808 
 
 47,144 
 
 24 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 712 
 
 298 
 
 519 
 
 41 
 
 130 
 
 74 
 
 10,591 
 
 6,127 
 
 3,439,055 
 
 267,897 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 8,285 
 
 1,583 
 
 11,064 
 
 2,207 
 
 1,025 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 296,493 
 
 120,857 
 
 76,008,545 
 
 7,235,435 
 
 4,126 
 
 19 
 
 423 
 
 1,000 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 ... 
 
 76 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 49,783 
 
 22,159 
 
 13,732,858 
 
 1,635,354 
 
 690 
 
 • . • 
 
 87 
 
 104 
 
 48 
 
 85 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 90 
 
 1,983 
 
 60 
 
 269,787 
 
 66,083 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 ... 
 
 57 
 
 
 ... 
 
 78 
 
 1,388 
 
 608 
 
 30,579 
 
 17,728 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 132 
 
 ... 
 
 25 
 
 2,165 
 
 167 
 
 210,141 
 
 35,625 
 
 . . . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 415 
 
 88 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 358 
 
 4,179 
 
 582 
 
 133,575 
 
 83,153 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 201 
 
 26 
 
 63 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 225 
 
 3,311 
 
 1,525 
 
 222,438 
 
 59,978 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 496 
 
 30 
 
 153 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 6,850 
 
 490 
 
 678,986 
 
 180,884 
 
 81 
 
 ... 
 
 28 
 
 2,96s 
 
 782 
 
 4,454 
 
 625 
 
 1,201 
 
 5,104 
 
 99,818 
 
 23,364 
 
 16,293,109 
 
 2,398,682 
 
 1,090 
 
 
 151 
 
 71 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 78 
 
 1,172 
 
 281 
 
 192,399 
 
 47,120 
 
 14 
 
 . . . 
 
 7 
 
 171 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1,822 
 
 318 
 
 63,947 
 
 80 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 traffic 
 
 includ 
 
 ed in 
 
 that C 
 
 ompa 
 
 ny’s r 
 
 eturn. 
 
 _ 
 
 --- 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . 
 
 523 
 
 161 
 
 63,912 
 
 16,308 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 traffic 
 
 includ 
 
 ed in 
 
 that C 
 
 ompa 
 
 ny’s r 
 
 eturn. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 161 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 869 
 
 280 
 
 69,116 
 
 30,947 
 
 8 
 
 ... 
 
 9 
 
 5,894 
 
 1,879 
 
 5,022 
 
 860 
 
 1,25c 
 
 6,027 
 
 173,863 
 
 49,095 
 
 31,960,847 
 
 4,571,942 
 
 1,912 
 
 22 
 
 348 
 
 79,286 
 
 40,078 
 
 67,987 
 
 1 
 
 27,972 
 
 9,241 
 
 80,741 
 
 2,402,800 
 
 811,943 
 
 526,369.328 
 
 65,174,955 
 
 27,719 
 
 575 
 
 3,801 
 
48 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Table No. 4.—Total Working Expenditure on all the 
 Tramways of the United Kingdom for the Years 
 ENDING June 30, 1890, and June 30, 1880.* 
 
 For year ending June 30. 
 
 
 1890. 
 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 Items. 
 
 Working 
 
 expendi¬ 
 
 ture. 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 open. 
 
 Percent, 
 of total 
 expendi¬ 
 ture. 
 
 Working 
 
 expendi¬ 
 
 ture. 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 open. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total 
 expendi¬ 
 ture. 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 JMaintenance of way and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 works . 
 
 166,330 
 
 176 
 
 6 ‘93 
 
 65,466 
 
 178 
 
 5-88 
 
 Locomotive power . 
 
 121,417 
 
 129 
 
 5-06 
 
 3,189 
 
 501,506 
 
 9 
 
 •29 
 
 Horsing, or animal power 
 
 854,226 
 
 903 
 
 35’59 
 
 1,363 
 
 45‘o5 
 
 Repair and renewal of 
 
 
 
 
 
 engines . 
 
 45,692 
 
 49 
 
 I'90 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Repair and renewal of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cars . 
 
 113,959 
 
 no 
 
 4'75 
 
 48,947 
 
 133 
 
 4-40 
 
 Renewal of horses . 
 
 134,085 
 
 143 
 
 5'59 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 
 661,786 
 
 702 
 
 27'57 
 
 299,121 
 
 813 
 
 26’87 
 
 Direction and manage- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ment. 
 
 79,286 
 
 84 
 
 3’30 
 
 43,109 
 
 117 
 
 3-88 
 
 Rent of tramways (offices. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stables, and sheds) 
 
 40,078 
 
 42 
 
 
 40,525 
 
 no 
 
 3 ’64 
 
 Rates, taxes, and turn- 
 
 
 
 
 
 pike tolls. 
 
 67,987 
 
 72 
 
 2-83 
 
 39,782 
 
 108 
 
 3'57 
 
 Compensation for per- 
 
 
 i'o6 
 
 
 
 soual ini'ury . 
 
 27,972 
 
 29 
 
 10,245 
 
 28 
 
 '92 
 
 Legal and parliamentary 
 
 9,241 
 
 10 
 
 •38 
 
 15,853 
 
 43 
 
 1-42 
 
 Sundry. 
 
 80,741 
 
 86 
 
 3’36 
 
 45,351 
 
 123 
 
 4-07 
 
 Totals . 
 
 2,402,800 
 
 2,535 
 
 ICO’OO 
 
 1,113,094 
 
 3,024 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 In 1869—71 the North Metropolitan and the tramways consti¬ 
 tuting the London Tramways Company were authorised to lay 
 various lines in the north, south, and east of London. In the 
 beginning of 1873 a total length of 42 miles of tramway had 
 been opened in the streets of the metropolis ; the length was 
 increased to 61 miles in 1876, and to 120 miles in 1891. 
 
 Acts were applied for and obtained, authorising the construction 
 of tramways in many cities and towns in the provinces ; and at 
 June 30, 1892, the lengths of line open for public traffic were:— 
 
 Miles open, 
 
 June 30, 1892. 
 
 England and Wales ...... 750 
 
 Scotland ........ 84 
 
 Ireland . . . . . . . . 112 
 
 United Kingdom ..... 946 
 
 * For the Total Working Expenditure for the year ending June 
 30, 1893, see Appendix C (p. 729). 
 
METROPOLITAN TRAFFIC. 
 
 49 
 
 Nearly i,ooo miles, or an average oi 43 miles per year for twenty- 
 two years. From this remarkable expansion of tramway lines to 
 meet the wants of the public, one is prepared to find that tramway 
 conveyance has been correspondingly developed. It has been 
 estimated that in London alone 200,000,000 of tramway pas¬ 
 sengers were conveyed in the year 1891. The relative importance 
 of this volume of traffic is indicated by the following gross 
 totals:— 
 
 Metropolitan Traffic Passengers, 1891. 
 
 Railway passengers 
 Omnibus ,, 
 
 Tramway ,, . . 
 
 Cab and steamer passengers 
 
 327 millions. 
 200 ,, 
 
 200 ,, 
 
 50 
 
 Total 
 
 777 millions. 
 
 Showing that upwards of one-fourth of the whole metropolitan 
 passenger traffic was conveyed by tramways : a traffic which has 
 sprung into existence in the course of about twenty years. 
 
 Nevertheless, there are signs of an abatement of the expansion 
 of traffic in the tramway systems of the country, taken together, 
 in the following returns for the years 1891 and 1892 :— 
 
 Year endin<j .... 
 
 June 30, 1891. 
 
 June 30, 1892. 
 
 Increase 
 
 or 
 
 decrease. 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Total capital expended . 
 
 ;^I4,162,650 
 
 ;^T3,87o,234 
 
 — 
 
 2*0 
 
 Length of line open for public 
 
 
 
 
 
 traffic..... 
 
 963 miles 
 
 946 miles 
 
 — 
 
 1-8 
 
 Number of horses . 
 
 29,012 
 
 29,699 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 Number of locomotives . 
 
 579 
 
 534 
 
 — 
 
 7*8 
 
 Number of cars 
 
 4,067 
 
 4,020 
 
 — 
 
 I'l 
 
 Total number of passengers 
 
 
 
 
 carried .... 
 
 565,621,478 
 
 581,678,546 
 
 + 
 
 2'9 
 
 Number of miles run by cars . 
 
 67,934,004 
 
 70,018,365 
 
 + 
 
 3-0 
 
 Gross receipts 
 
 ;^ 3 , 429,686 
 
 ;^ 3 » 53 G 43 i 
 
 + 
 
 3*0 
 
 Working expenses 
 
 ;^ 2 , 630,929 
 
 ;^ 2 , 853,356 
 
 + 
 
 8-4 
 
 Do. per cent, of gross receipts 
 
 76-5 
 
 8o‘8 
 
 
 
 Net receipts .... 
 
 £ 79^>577 
 
 ;^678,o75 
 
 — 
 
 15-0 ^ 
 
 Do. per cent, of gross receipts 
 
 i 
 
 23'5 
 
 I9’2 
 
 
 1 
 
 __1 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 STATISTICS OT TRAMWAYS. 
 
 In this statement it appears that though the car mileage run, 
 the number of passengers, and the gross receipts in the year 
 ended June 30, 1892, were greater than in the previous year, 
 yet there was a reduction of the net receipts. There was actually 
 a decrease of 17 miles in the length of line open for public traffic. 
 The number of horses is somewhat larger, but locomotives are 
 fewer by forty-five and cars by forty-seven. The amount of 
 capital has also shrunk : by transfer of old undertakings to new 
 with reduced capital. 
 
 The tramways of London taken together supply instances 01 
 very various lengths and costs. They embrace a total length of 
 over 130 miles, of which 127J miles were open for traftic at June 
 30, 1891, as detailed in the following Table, No. 5:— 
 
Table No. 5.—Summary of Tramways in London Comparaiive Lengths, Capital, and 
 
 Receipts, for the Year ending June 30, 1891. 
 
 TRAMJFAYS IN LONDON, 51 
 
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 per mile 
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 About to be amalgamated. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, Sf WORKING EXPENDITURE 
 OF THE NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The North Metropolitan Tramways is the largest system in the 
 United Kingdom, 49 miles in length ; next in order of length 
 being the Bury system, 33! miles, the Dublin United, about 33 
 miles, and the Glasgow Corporation, about 30I miles in length. 
 The receipts are one-fifteenth of the total receipts for the tram¬ 
 ways of the United Kingdom. The North Metropolitan was 
 opened on May 9, 1870. The horse power was hired from the 
 London General Omnibus Company. The sum of 6fd. per mile 
 run by cars was paid for horse hire, which included the cost for 
 maintenance, wear and tear, and renewal of horses, wages of 
 keepers, rent of stables, and harness. In short, as Mr. Hopkins, 
 the engineer to the Company, briefly put it, the horses were 
 brought to the cars, harnessed, and worked for 6|d. per mile run. 
 This contract was terminated at the end of June, 1878, when the 
 Tramway Company commenced to work the traffic with a stock 
 of horses of their own. Under the contract each car on duty 
 generally performed 70 miles-run per day, and required an active 
 stud of eleven horses, of which five pairs were on duty with the 
 car daily, leaving one spare horse. By the terms of the contract 
 each pair of horses was not to work less than 14 miles nor more 
 than 16 miles in one day. For five pairs of horses the mileage 
 traversed was from 70 to 75 miles per day, or, for 5^^ pairs of 
 horses, i2f miles per pair per day. Horses were put to the work 
 at five years of age, and the “ life ” of a horse on tramway work. 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 53 
 
 according to Mr. A. G. Church, who was Secretary and Manager 
 of the Omnibus Company, was four years. 
 
 The state of the total capital expenditure at the ends of the 
 three years 1889, 1890, and 1891 was as follows, showing an 
 expenditure at the rate of upwards of ;£31,000 per mile open :— 
 
 Capital Expenditure, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles 1 Lands, 
 
 open at ' buildings, 
 Dec. 31. way, &c. 
 
 Working 
 
 stock. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total per 
 mile open. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 L 
 
 41 1,127,153 
 
 41 1,174,711 
 
 49 1,213,014 
 
 £ 
 
 60,550 
 
 62,830 
 
 66,430 
 
 116,085 
 124,791 
 133.032 
 
 £ 
 
 1,304,686 
 
 1.362,332 
 
 1,412,476 
 
 31.821 
 
 33.227 
 
 31.388 
 
 In October, 1891, the purchase of the North London Tram¬ 
 ways by the North Metropolitan Company was sanctioned by the 
 shareholders, so bringing up the working length of the system 
 from 41 miles to 49 miles. 
 
 The way, 49 miles in length, was double line, with the excep¬ 
 tion of 4^ miles of single way, at the end of 1891. 
 
 The return of working stock, as at December 31, 1891, was as 
 follows:— 
 
 Rolling Stock and Horses, December 31, 1891. 
 
 Fully equipped street cars to carry 52 passengers each 
 
 >> >> 5 ^ 
 
 ,» >) 4 ^ ’ ’ 
 
 >) ’ > 4 *^ ’ > 
 
 yi ,, , > 
 
 Omnibuses to carry 26 passengers each 
 
 Carts, traps, vans, and trolleys ..... 
 
 Water-carts ........ 
 
 Forage vans ........ 
 
 Brakes ......... 
 
 Horse conveyances ..... 
 
 • 35 
 
 • 4 
 
 . 271 
 
 . 62 
 
 • 4 
 
 - 376 
 
 12 
 
 . 64 
 
 • 25 
 
 10 
 2 
 2 
 
 Total rolling stock . 
 
 491 
 
 Horses 
 
 3^587 
 
54 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 It appears that much the greatest number of the cars—72 per 
 cent.—were constructed to carry 46 passengers each. Next in 
 numerical order are the cars for holding 40 passengers— 16^ per 
 cent. 
 
 The number of cars per mile open was 7'67. 
 
 The numbers of cars in good order and under repair in the 
 three years 1889—91 were as follows :— 
 
 Cars in 1889-91. 
 
 Y ear. 
 
 In good order 
 at Dec. 31. 
 
 LTnder repair j 
 
 at Dec. 31. 
 
 Total to 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 1889 
 
 322 
 
 20 
 
 342 
 
 1890 
 
 336 
 
 16 
 
 352 
 
 1891 
 
 355 
 
 21 
 
 376 
 
 Averages 
 
 338, or 947 % 
 
 19^0^5-3% 1 
 
 357 
 
 1 
 
 Ten years earlier 88 per cent, of the existing stock at that time 
 were in good order, and 12 per cent, were under repair. Twenty 
 cars were purchased at the rate of ;£i5o each. 
 
 The stock of horses required to work the traffic numbered 3,587 
 at December 31, 1891 ; or at the rate of 73*20 horses per mile 
 open. The disposition of the horses was as follows :— 
 
 Horses at the Ends of the last Six Half-years to 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 End of 
 half-)fear. 
 
 In good 
 condition. 
 
 Sick. 
 
 Lame 
 
 ! 
 
 Total. 
 
 Died in 
 ^-year. 
 
 Sold in 
 .Pyear. 
 
 To¬ 
 
 gether. 
 
 June, 1889 
 
 3>027 
 
 21 
 
 lOI 
 
 3.149 ! 
 
 I 18 
 
 123 
 
 241 
 
 Dec., 1889 
 
 2,963 
 
 58 
 
 ^05 
 
 3,126 
 
 1 176 
 
 II5 
 
 291 
 
 June, 1890 
 
 3.239 
 
 24 
 
 83 
 
 3.346 
 
 1 156 
 
 134 
 
 290 
 
 1 Dec., 1890 
 
 3.147 
 
 97 
 
 III 
 
 3.355 
 
 , 214 
 
 109 
 
 323 
 
 ' June, 1891 
 
 3.444 
 
 60 
 
 86 
 
 3.590 
 
 243 
 
 69 
 
 312 
 
 Dec., 1891 
 
 3.386 
 
 59 
 
 142 
 
 3-587 
 
 315 
 
 95 
 
 410 
 
 Averages 
 
 3.201 
 
 53 
 
 105 
 
 3.359 
 
 204 
 
 107 
 
 3II 
 
 It is seen that of the average total number of horses, 95*3 per 
 cent, were in good condition, and 4*7 per cent, disabled : say, in 
 round numbers, 95 per cent, and 5 per cent, respectively. 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN IRA A/If A VS. 
 
 55 
 
 With respect to renewals of horses it may be taken, for purposes 
 of calculation, that the horses provided for the augmentation of the 
 stock in the course of the three years, from 3,149 to 3,587, by 438 
 horses, lived through this short period; and on this assumption 
 the total deaths and sales of horses, as shown in the statement, 
 1,867 in number, are to be charged to the normal number of 
 horses, 3,149. They make 59 per cent, of this number for three 
 years’ work, or 20 per cent, per year. At this rate the stock is 
 entirely replaced in the course of five years, indicating that the 
 working life of the stock is five years. Four hundred and seven 
 horses were purchased at the average rate of ;£s6 los. each. 
 
 The miles run by cars, the receipts, and the number of passen¬ 
 gers are stated in the following tablets :— 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, Passengers, in the Three Years 
 
 1889—1891. 
 
 1 Year. 
 
 JMiles run 
 by cars. 
 
 Receipts 
 from traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per cent, j 
 of capital ' 
 expended. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 7,101,107 
 
 7,366,668 
 
 7.523,879 
 
 380,497 
 
 399.699 
 
 414.3I3 
 
 £ 
 
 12,716 
 
 14,986 
 
 16,515 
 
 393.213 
 
 414,685 
 
 430,828 
 
 Per cent. 1 
 30-1 
 
 30-4 ’ 
 
 30-5 1 
 
 Year. 
 
 ' Average length 
 of way open 
 
 Receipts 
 per average 
 mile open. 
 
 Receipts 
 per mile per 
 week. 
 
 Receipts 
 per car. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 
 I Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 T 
 
 
 d. ; 
 
 1889 
 
 41 
 
 9,280 
 
 178-5 
 
 I.II3 
 
 12-85 
 
 1890 
 
 41 
 
 9.749 
 
 187-5 
 
 1.136 
 
 M'l ! 
 
 1891 
 
 45 
 
 9.207 
 
 177-00 
 
 1,102 
 
 i3’i5 1 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of Passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 passenger. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 66,458,568 
 
 72,061,532 
 
 75.323.550 
 
 194.323 
 
 204,720 
 
 200,329 
 
 9*4 
 
 9-8 
 
 10-05 
 
 £ 
 
 380,497 
 
 399.699 
 
 414.313 
 
 d. 
 
 274 
 
 2-64 
 
 2-64 
 
 % 
 
56 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMJFAYS. 
 
 The working expenditure for the three years 1889—91 is given 
 in the annexed tablet. The last two columns are added to show 
 the several expenses in parts of the total expenditure in 1891, with 
 the costs per mile run by cars for each item. 
 
 Working Expenditure, 1889—gi. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1891. 
 Propor¬ 
 tional parts 
 of total 
 expendi¬ 
 ture. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Expendi¬ 
 ture per 
 mile run. 
 
 Direct Expenditure. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Running expenses: — 
 
 130,226 
 
 
 160,244 
 
 46*34 
 
 4*85 
 
 Horsing 
 
 137,250 
 
 Wages of drivers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and pole-shifters 
 
 3 L 374 
 
 34.780 
 
 38,004 
 
 12-56 
 
 1*21 
 
 Repair of cars 
 
 10732 
 
 10,114 
 
 10,545 
 
 3*55 
 
 3 o 
 
 Maintenance of way 
 
 25,172 
 
 29,369 
 
 25,090 
 
 8*50 
 
 •80 
 
 Traffic charges 
 
 49 >23 9 
 
 53.861 
 
 60,046 
 
 17*95 
 
 i-gi 
 
 General charges . 
 
 9,021 
 
 9.440 
 
 11.367 
 
 3*59 
 
 *36 
 
 Rent 
 
 2,916 
 
 3 .Ill 
 
 2,852 
 
 •84 
 
 -09 
 
 Direct 
 
 258,680 
 
 277,925 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 1—1 
 
 -f- 
 
 00 
 
 93*33 
 
 9*55 
 
 Contingent Expenditure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rates and taxes 
 
 10,609 
 
 10,933 
 
 13,179 
 
 3*94 
 
 *42 
 
 Licenses and excise 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 duties . 
 
 1,235 
 
 970 
 
 983 
 
 ’29 
 
 *03 
 
 ; Compensation and 
 
 
 
 8,504 
 
 
 
 i law charges . 
 
 9 . 79 ^ 
 
 7.951 
 
 2*44 
 
 *27 
 
 Contingent 
 
 18,635 
 
 19-854 
 
 22,666 
 
 6-67 
 
 •72 
 
 Total Expenditure . 
 
 277,315 
 
 ^ 97,779 
 
 330,814 i 
 
 100-00 
 
 10-27 
 
 Do. per mile open . 
 
 6,764 
 
 7.263 
 
 7,351 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Do. per mile run . 
 
 d. 
 
 9*39 
 
 d. 
 
 8-34 
 
 d. 
 
 10*37 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Do. per cent, of re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ceipts . 
 
 70*567o 
 
 7i*797o 
 
 .76*007^ 
 
 ] 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 The comparatively high rate of expenditure in 1891 was due to 
 the rise in the price of forage, increase of wages, and unfavourable 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAM!PAYS. 
 
 57 
 
 weather. The running expenses for the last half-year are detailed 
 as follows :— 
 
 Running Expenses, Half-year December, 1891. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 Maize . 
 
 8,928^ quarters @ 28 
 
 Id 
 
 12,549 
 
 
 
 Oats . 
 
 16,695 
 
 @ 17 
 
 10! 
 
 14,906 
 
 
 
 Beans . 
 
 B243 
 
 @ 34 
 
 04 
 
 2,140 
 
 
 
 Bran . 
 
 1,230 cwts. 
 
 @ 5 
 
 9 
 
 354 
 
 
 
 Peas . 
 
 2,604!- quarters @ 32 
 
 od 
 
 4.173 
 
 
 
 Hay 
 
 2,829!^ loads 
 
 @ 66 
 
 o 3 
 
 9.346 
 
 
 
 Straw . 
 
 810!- ,, 
 
 @34 
 
 
 1,408 
 
 
 
 Moss litter . 
 
 • • • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 1.339 
 
 
 
 Sundries 
 
 • • . 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 
 
 Barging 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 637 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 
 
 
 
 47.003 
 
 = 
 
 2'89d. 
 
 Stable wages and expenses 
 
 . 
 
 
 16,481 
 
 = 
 
 I'Ol 
 
 Granary wages and expenses 
 
 • 
 
 
 2.943 
 
 = 
 
 o-i8 
 
 Repairs to harness 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 
 1,448 
 
 = 
 
 0'09 
 
 Shoeing 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 3.123 
 
 = 
 
 0-19 
 
 Horse depreciation and renewal . 
 
 . 
 
 
 14,209 
 
 = 
 
 0-87 
 
 Electric haulage . 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 
 879 
 
 = 
 
 o ‘05 
 
 
 
 
 
 86,088 
 
 
 5 ' 3 i 
 
 Drivers and pole-shifters’ wages 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 21,013 
 
 = 
 
 I'29 
 
 
 
 
 
 107,101 
 
 = 
 
 6'6o 
 
 The item of horse depreciation and renewal is constituted in 
 this way:—The loss on 315 deaths was 11,683, less the amount 
 received for carcases, ^£’474; say, 1,209. The loss on 95 
 cast horses sold was ^£3,52$, less ;£'523 the ‘‘scrap value,” the 
 net amount received for the same, leaving ;£’3,ooo. The sum of 
 the losses is ^£14,209 for 410 horses. 
 
 The receipts for manure during the half-year were ;^5i2, and 
 deducting this sum from the cost for forage, leaving ^{^46,491, the 
 horsing expenses per horse are as follows, taking for divisor the 
 mean of the numbers of horses at June 30 and December 31, 1891, 
 say, 3,589 horses ;— 
 
58 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Horsing Expenses per Horse per Week in Half-year 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 Half-year ending 
 Dec. 31st, i8qi. 
 
 Per week. 
 
 Provender . . . ... 
 
 Stable wages and expenses .... 
 Granary ,, ,,.... 
 
 Repairs to harness . . . . 
 
 Shoeing.. . 
 
 Loss by depreciation and renewals 
 
 Total actual cost 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1219 I 
 
 4 I I 10 
 
 0164 
 
 087 
 
 0 17 5 
 
 3 19 2 
 
 s. d. 
 
 9 II^ 
 
 3 6 
 
 lh 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 0 
 
 23 12 5 
 
 18 I 
 
 Showing that the cost for horsing was upwards of ^^23 in the half- 
 year, or ;z{^47 in the year, per horse, or i8s. per week per horse. 
 
 With respect to the cost for repair and maintenance of cars, 
 particulars of which with mileage-run are subjoined, it appears 
 that the average annual mileage-run is, say, 20,000 miles per 
 car, or 57 miles per day; and that the average annual cost for 
 maintenance and repair is about £^'^0 per car, or •34d., say ^d., 
 per mile run. 
 
 Mileage-run and Repair of Cars, 1889 -91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 cars. 
 
 Miles run bj' cars. 
 
 Cost for repairs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 car. 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day 
 of 365- 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 Cars. 
 
 338 
 
 347 
 
 366 
 
 Miles. 
 
 7,101,107 
 
 7,366,668 
 
 7.523.879 
 
 Allies. 
 
 21,009 
 
 21,229 
 
 20,557 
 
 IMiles. 
 
 57’55 
 
 58*16 
 
 56-32 
 
 £ 
 
 10,732 
 
 10,114 
 
 10,545 
 
 31*38 
 
 28*73 
 
 28*04 
 
 Pence. 
 
 •36 
 
 *33 
 
 *33 
 
 Averages 
 
 20,930 
 
 57*34 
 
 
 29*38 
 
 *34 
 
 With respect to maintenance of way, of which particulars of cost 
 are given in the annexed tablet, the way has been and is in course 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 59 
 
 of reconstruction with steel girder rails, and these expenses are 
 taken as fairly measuring the cost for maintenance and renewal in 
 })erpetuity. 
 
 Maintenance and Renewal of Way, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 length open. 
 
 Cost for maintenance and renewal of way. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 of way. 
 
 Per sq. yard 
 
 of way.’*'-' 
 
 Per mile run 
 by cars. 
 
 
 !Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 41 
 
 25,172 
 
 614 
 
 1475 
 
 •85 
 
 1890 
 
 41 
 
 29,369 
 
 716 
 
 17*18 
 
 •94 
 
 1891 
 
 45 
 
 25,090 
 
 558 
 
 13*39 
 
 *80 
 
 Averages. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 bzg 
 
 15*11 
 
 •86 
 
 * Allowing 10,000 square yards per lineal mile. 
 
 It thus appears that the cost for maintenance and renewal 
 averages, say, per mile per year, or i5d. per square yard of 
 
 way, or ‘Sdd. or ^d. per mile run by cars. 
 
 The Barking Road section of the tramways has been worked 
 since the middle of 1889 by electric traction, under a contract 
 made with the General Electric Power and Traction Company, 
 who work the line at a charge of 44d. per mile run, in which the 
 wages of drivers are included. The Barking Road section is a 
 short single line of way, with loops, requiring only a low mileage- 
 run with a small number of cars. It does not offer such facilities 
 for economy of working as would be available on a longer line. 
 P>en so, the given rate is less than the average cost per mile for 
 horse traction. At the end of 1889 the electric cars had run 
 34,366 miles, having carried 469,095 passengers. In the year 
 1890 they ran 77,841 miles, and in 1891 they ran 76,398 miles. 
 l"hey ceased running in 1892. There were five electric cars, 
 which ran 300 miles daily, or 60 miles per car, with one change of 
 accumulators. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The London Tramways were opened in 1871. The horsing 
 was done by the Company themselves, except the horse power for 
 the Brixton and Clapham lines, and for other services, which was 
 supplied by the London General Omnibus Company until the 
 middle of 1873, when the Tramway Company proceeded to horse 
 the whole of the traffic themselves. 
 
 The amounts of capital expenditure are stated for the three 
 years 1889—1891, as follows :— 
 
 Capital Expenditure, 1889—91. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Miles open 
 at December 
 
 31 - 
 
 Capital expenditure at December 31. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile, 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ i 
 
 1889 
 
 2lf 
 
 593.364 
 
 27,448 
 
 1890 
 
 2 . 2 \ 
 
 636,580 
 
 28,610 
 
 1891 
 
 22f 
 
 735.364 
 
 32,502 
 
 The details of the adjusted expenditure on capital account at 
 December 31, 1891, are as follows :— 
 
 Capital Expenditure 
 
 AT December 31, 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 Tramways opened for traffic 
 
 334.360 or 
 
 14.778 
 
 Property and buildings 
 
 208,378 ,, 
 
 9,210 
 
 Rolling stock 
 
 54.200 ,, 
 
 2,396 
 
LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 6l 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 Horses and mules 
 
 ii 7>334 
 
 or 
 
 5.185 
 
 Machinery and plant 
 
 16,130 
 
 J > 
 
 713 
 
 Harness and equipments . 
 
 3>765 
 
 y y 
 
 166 
 
 Office furniture .... 
 
 644 
 
 y y 
 
 29 
 
 Advertising plant 
 
 551 
 
 y y 
 
 24 
 
 
 735.362 
 
 y y 
 
 32,501 
 
 The stock of cars and omnibuses was as follows, showing that 
 the one-horse cars were not increased in number, whilst the number 
 of pair-horse cars was increased about 30 per cent. :— 
 
 Cars and Omnibuses. 
 
 At 
 
 Pair-horse 
 
 cars. 
 
 One-horse 
 
 cars. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 June, 1889 . 
 
 201 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 254 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 206 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 259 
 
 June, 1890 . 
 
 230 
 
 25 
 
 37 
 
 292 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 233 
 
 25 
 
 37 
 
 295 
 
 June, 1891 . 
 
 238 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 301 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 258 
 
 25 
 
 37 
 
 320 
 
 Horses and Mules. 
 
 At 
 
 Horses and 
 mules. 
 
 Added during 
 half-year. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Unfit for 
 work. 
 
 June, 1889 . 
 
 2,706 
 
 307 
 
 195 
 
 42 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 2,840 
 
 351 
 
 217 
 
 73 
 
 June, 1890 . 
 
 3.21I 
 
 611 
 
 240 
 
 98 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 3.226 
 
 301 
 
 286 
 
 132 
 
 June, 1891 . 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 
 3.287 
 
 312 
 
 251 
 
 84 
 
 3.451 
 
 392 
 
 228 
 
 71 
 
 Average 
 
 3.120 
 
 379 
 
 236 
 
 82 
 
 On the basis of a stock of 2,706 horses and mules in June, 
 1889, as explained in the preceding chapter, it appears that 236 
 
62 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 per half-year, or 472 per year, were sold and renewed out of 
 “ additions,” and the average life thus indicated was (2,706 -J- 
 472 =) 57 years. 
 
 The miles run by cars, the receipts, and the numbers of pas¬ 
 sengers, are subjoined :— 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers, 1889—91. 
 
 Year, 
 
 Miles run 
 by cars. 
 
 Receipts 
 from traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of capital 
 expended. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 6,468,224 
 
 7^248,591 
 
 7 > 755.898 
 
 280,418 
 
 312,098 
 
 312,767 
 
 £ 
 
 3,036 
 
 4,364 
 
 4,819 
 
 £ 
 
 283,454 
 
 316,462 
 
 317,586 
 
 per cent. 
 
 48-9 
 
 5 i ’4 
 
 48-6 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 length of 
 way open. 
 
 ’ Receipts per 
 average mile 
 open. 
 
 Per mile 
 per week. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 Miles. 
 
 2 of 
 
 7 T 
 
 0 0 -I- 
 
 -^16 
 
 £ 
 
 13,743 
 
 14,415 
 
 14,154 
 
 £ 
 
 264-3 
 
 277-2 
 
 272-2 
 
 1,105 
 
 1,078 
 
 1,023 
 
 d. 
 
 10-36 
 
 10-45 
 
 977 
 
 1891 
 
 Receipts per car on duty (average 303) = ^1,032. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers.! 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per pas¬ 
 senger. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 57,787,921 
 
 62,584,016 
 
 63,588,485 
 
 225,294 
 
 213,232 
 
 204,793 
 
 8-96 
 
 8-48 
 
 8-16 
 
 £ 
 
 280,418 
 
 312,098 
 
 312,767 
 
 £ 
 
 I -16 
 
 1-19 
 
 I-IQ 
 
 '' \ 
 
 \ 
 
 1891 
 
 1 
 
 Number of passengers per car running (av. 303) = 209,863 
 Do. per car per day of 365 = 575 
 
L ON DON TRAM IVA VS. 
 
 63 
 
 The working expenditure for the three years 1889-91, here 
 annexed, is given according to the classification of accounts 
 followed by the tramway company. The statement is here followed 
 by abstracts of the horsing expenses and the traffic expenses. The 
 wages of drivers and pole-shifters are charged as traffic expenses, 
 not running expenses, as is done by the North Metropolitan 
 Company. 
 
 NVorking Expenditure, 1889—91. 
 
 Items. 
 
 i88g. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1891. 
 Propor¬ 
 tional 
 parts of 
 total ex¬ 
 pendi¬ 
 ture. 
 
 1891. 
 Expen¬ 
 diture 
 per mile 
 run. j 
 
 Horsing expenses . 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 103,222 
 
 116,037 
 
 133.058 
 
 50-39 
 
 4-09 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 
 71,264 
 
 80,791 
 
 90,929 
 
 3476 
 
 2-09 ; 
 
 General expenses . 
 
 7,861 
 
 6,096 
 
 7.116 
 
 2‘66 
 
 -24 
 
 Rates on way 
 
 1,681 
 
 2.057 
 
 2,044 
 
 •78 
 
 '07 
 
 Repairs and renewals . 
 
 30.949 
 
 1,656 
 
 30,283 
 
 29.438 
 
 10-99 
 
 •^6 
 
 Income tax . 
 
 1,626 
 
 1.658 
 
 •42 
 
 ‘05 
 
 Totals 
 
 216,633 
 
 236,890 
 
 264,243 
 
 100-00 
 
 7*44 ’ 
 
 Do. per mile open 
 
 10,503 
 
 10,796 
 
 11,804 
 
 — 
 
 — ( 
 
 Do. per mile run . 
 
 8 • 02 ^ 7 . 
 
 
 S'oyd. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Do. per cent, of receipts 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 827 o 
 
 — 
 
 
 Horsing Expenses, Half-year, December, 1891. 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 Maize . 
 
 10,058^ 
 
 quarters 29 
 
 0 
 
 14.711 
 
 Oats 
 
 8,966 
 
 ? J 
 
 @ 21 
 
 I of 
 
 9,810 
 
 Beans 
 
 72 
 
 y y 
 
 @35 
 
 3 ? 
 
 127 
 
 Peas 
 
 919 
 
 y y 
 
 @ 34 
 
 o 4 
 
 1.565 
 
 Lentils 
 
 i.533t 
 
 y y 
 
 @ 29 
 
 2 
 
 2,239 
 
 Bran 
 
 3.507? 
 
 cwts. 
 
 @ 5 
 
 J 4 
 
 927 
 
 Hay and clover . 
 
 3.635? 
 
 loads 
 
 @ 63 
 
 5? 
 
 11.538 
 
 Straw 
 
 393 * 
 
 y y 
 
 @ 32 
 
 5 ? 
 
 639 
 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 
 , 
 
 .2^41,556 
 
64 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 £ 
 
 Brought forward . 
 
 4 L 556 
 
 
 
 Sawdust . . 48,851 sacks @ lo^d. 
 
 2,164 
 
 
 
 Sundries ....... 
 
 409 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per mile 
 
 
 44,129 
 
 = 
 
 2-576 
 
 Granary wages ...... 
 
 1,187 
 
 = 
 
 •06 
 
 Horsekeeper’s wages ..... 
 
 i 3 > 7 o 8 
 
 = 
 
 •80 
 
 Shoeing ....... 
 
 00 
 
 = 
 
 •17 
 
 Veterinar}'- attendance .... 
 
 491 
 
 = 
 
 •02 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of stables. 
 
 2,305 
 
 = 
 
 •16 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of granary 
 
 250 
 
 = 
 
 •01 
 
 Repairs to stables ..... 
 
 127 
 
 = 
 
 •qi 
 
 Sundry stable expenses .... 
 
 434 
 
 = 
 
 •02 
 
 Horse renewal ...... 
 
 4,456 
 
 = 
 
 *25 
 
 
 69,845 
 
 = 
 
 4.07 
 
 Less manure ...... 
 
 139 
 
 = 
 
 •01 
 
 
 69,706 
 
 = 
 
 4-06 
 
 Horsing Expenses per Horse per Week, Half-year 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 Half-year 
 Dec. 31, 
 
 ending 
 
 1891. 
 
 Per week. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Provender ...... 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Granary wages ..... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Horsekeeper’s wages.... 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Oi 
 
 Shoeing ...... 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 Veterinary attendance 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 I? 
 
 Rent, rates, and taxes of stables 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of granary 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Ow 
 
 Repairs to stables .... 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 oi 
 
 Sundry stable expenses 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 Horse renewal ..... 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Less manure ..... 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 92 
 
 0 
 
 oi^ 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 15 
 
 
LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 65 
 
 Traffic Expenses, Half-year December, 1891. 
 
 Drivers’ and conductors’ wages 
 Pole-turners and pointsmen 
 Traffic superintendence , . I 
 
 Timekeepers’ wages . 
 
 Rents, rates and taxes of car-sheds, 
 and offices .... 
 Car lighting and oiling 
 Car washing .... 
 
 workshops. 
 
 Track cleaning ....... 
 
 Tickets ........ 
 
 Traffic, stationery, printing, waybills, &c. . 
 Traffic manager, cashiers, clerks, punch foremen, 
 cash collectors, &c. . . . . . 
 
 Ticket check ....... 
 
 Salt and sand ....... 
 
 Punch royalty ....... 
 
 Police licenses and excise . . . . . 
 
 Compensation ....... 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 L 
 
 34.533 
 
 or 
 
 pence. 
 
 2’04 
 
 794 
 
 j y 
 
 •04 
 
 575 
 
 > r 
 
 •03 
 
 429 
 
 yy 
 
 '02 
 
 2.193 
 
 ) y 
 
 •IS 
 
 ■ 275 
 
 y y 
 
 *01 
 
 D 975 
 
 y y 
 
 •12 
 
 696 
 
 y y 
 
 •04 
 
 607 
 
 y y 
 
 •03 
 
 284 
 
 y y 
 
 •01 
 
 2,060 
 
 y y 
 
 •12 
 
 719 
 
 y y 
 
 •04 
 
 705 
 
 y y 
 
 •04 
 
 500 
 
 y y 
 
 •03 
 
 496 
 
 y y 
 
 •02 
 
 1.497 
 
 y y 
 
 •08 
 
 48,338 ,, 2-82 
 
 Repairs and Renewals, 1889—qi. 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Permanent way 
 
 12,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 12,000 ' 
 
 Rolling stock 
 
 9,268 
 
 7,684 
 
 6,451 : 
 
 Leases renewal fund 
 
 2,750 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 • Property and buildings 
 
 2,409 
 
 2,201 
 
 1,852 
 
 Machinery, 20°/^ per annum 
 
 
 
 on expenditure . 
 
 2,330 
 
 2,909 
 
 3.539 
 
 Harness and equipments. 
 
 
 
 50% on expenditure . 
 
 2,018 
 
 2,292 
 
 2,402 
 
 Office furniture, 10% on ex- 
 
 
 
 penditure .... 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 Advertising plant, 20% on 
 
 
 
 
 expenditure 
 
 109 
 
 131 
 
 124 
 
 Total .... 
 
 Do. per mile run . 
 
 30,951 
 
 Pence 
 
 ri4 
 
 30,282 
 
 Pence 
 
 I '00 
 
 29,436 
 
 Pence 
 
 •95 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Maintenance of Way, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 length open. 
 
 Cost for maintenance of way. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per mile 
 of way. 
 
 Per square yard 
 of way.* 
 
 Per mile run 
 by cars. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 20| 
 
 5.769 
 
 279 
 
 6-99 
 
 *22 
 
 1890 
 
 21I# 
 
 1 
 
 9,402 
 
 428 
 
 10-15 
 
 •31 
 
 1891 
 
 22/5 
 
 15,296 
 
 682 
 
 16-36 
 
 •48 
 
 * Allowing 10,000 square yards per lineal mile. 
 
 Mileage run and Repair of Cars, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 number 
 of cars. 
 
 Miles run by cars. 
 
 Cost for repairs. 
 
 N umber. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per car 
 per day 
 of 3^5- 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 256^ 
 
 2935 
 
 6,468,224 
 
 7,248,591 
 
 7,855,898 
 
 25,217 
 
 24 699 
 25,300 
 
 69-07 
 
 67-66 
 
 69-31 
 
 £ 
 
 9,267 
 
 7,683 
 
 6,451 
 
 36-12 
 
 26-14 
 
 20-76 
 
 Pence. 
 
 •34 
 
 •25 
 
 •19 
 
 Average 
 
 25,072 
 
 68-68 
 
 — 
 
 2 y'oj 
 
 •26 
 
 The Bill lodged by the Company for the right to employ 
 mechanical power by cable traction on the line between Kenning- 
 ton Cross and Telford Avenue, received Royal Assent in 1890. 
 The line has recently (March, 1393), been opened for traffic. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDT 
 TURE OF THE LONDON STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 These tramways were first opened in December, 1871, with 
 4I miles of way. The length of way open at December 31, 1891, 
 was 13! miles. 
 
 The horsing power was hired from the London General Omnibus 
 Company, from the time of opening until April, 1875, when the 
 Tramway Company acquired their own horses and worked the 
 line themselves. 
 
 The total capital expenditure at the end of the three years, 
 1889—91, was as follows (for a length of 13 J miles—about 
 ^40,000 per mile) :— 
 
 Capital Expenditure, 1889—91. 
 
 Y ear. 
 
 Miles 
 open at 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 Lands, 
 buildings, 
 way, &c. 
 
 Rolling 
 
 stock. 
 
 Machinery, 
 harness, &c. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total per 
 mile open. 
 
 
 
 £> 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1889 
 
 13 ? 
 
 362,168 
 
 24,681 
 
 2,837 
 
 39.535 
 
 429,221 
 
 39.928 
 
 1890 
 
 i 3 t 
 
 364.748 
 
 25.539 
 
 2,627 
 
 40.561 
 
 433.475 
 
 40.323 
 
 1891 
 
 i 3 t 
 
 364,966 
 
 25,882 
 
 2,380 
 
 42,248 
 
 435.476 
 
 40,509 
 
 It is notable that the capital expended per mile, on the three 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 London companies just dealt with, vary in amount in some 
 proportion inversely as the total lengths of way, thus;— 
 
 North Metropolitan 
 
 London 
 
 London Street 
 
 Length of way. 
 
 49 miles 
 
 y 9 
 
 Cost per mile. 
 
 ^31^388 
 
 32,501 
 
 40,509 
 
 Miles Run, Receipts, Passengers, in the Three Years 
 
 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run by 
 cars. 
 
 Receipts from 
 traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of capital. 
 
 1889 
 
 2,392,027 
 
 119,498 
 
 £ 
 
 1,031 
 
 120,529 
 
 28 
 
 1890 
 
 2,454-354 
 
 127,705 
 
 1,442 
 
 129,147 
 
 30 
 
 1891 
 
 2,492,929 
 
 130,624 
 
 1,522 
 
 132,146 
 
 3OY 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average length 
 of way open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 average mile 
 open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile open 
 per week. 
 
 Receipts 
 per car. 
 
 Receipts 
 per mile 
 run. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 i 3 t 
 
 9,096 
 
 174-9 
 
 1,138 
 
 12-09 
 
 1890 
 
 i 3 t 
 
 9-767 
 
 187-8 
 
 1,171 
 
 12-65 
 
 1891 
 
 i 3 t 
 
 9-973 
 
 191-8 
 
 1,146 
 
 12-72 
 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 \ ear. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 
 
 
 run. 
 
 
 passenger. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 22,720,062 
 
 216,381 
 
 9-4 
 
 119-498 
 
 1-26 
 
 1890 
 
 24,507,126 
 
 224,836 
 
 9-9 
 
 127,705 
 
 1-25 
 
 1891 
 
 24,310,829 
 
 213,253 
 
 9-7 ' 
 
 130,624 
 
 1-28 
 
 i 
 
LONDON STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 69 
 
 Working Expenditure 1889—91. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 Items of Expenditure. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total 
 
 expenditure. 
 
 1 Per 
 mile 
 
 1 run. 
 
 Direct Expenditure. 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 / 0 
 
 1 
 
 ! Pence. 
 
 Horsing . 
 
 43,628 
 
 45,090 
 
 50,025 
 
 44-93 
 
 5-02 
 
 Wages of drivers 
 and pole-shifters . 
 
 12,025 
 
 12,845 
 
 13,152 
 
 11-82 
 
 I '33 
 
 Repairs of cars 
 
 3,589 
 
 3,829 
 
 3,747 
 
 3*37 
 
 -38 
 
 „ of buildings 
 
 566 
 
 568 
 
 600 
 
 -54 
 
 •06 
 
 Maintenance of way 
 
 6,175 
 
 7,282 
 
 7,607 
 
 6-90 
 
 '77 
 
 Traffic 
 
 16,981 
 
 18,311 
 
 20,347 
 
 18-28 
 
 2-04 
 
 General charges 
 
 6,219 
 
 6,311 
 
 6,271 
 
 5-63 
 
 •63 
 
 Rent, rates, and 
 taxes (on buildings) 
 
 2,225 
 
 2,578 
 
 2,760 
 
 2-48 
 
 •26 
 
 Total direct. 
 
 96,408 
 
 97,334 
 
 104,589 
 
 93-95 
 
 10-49 
 
 Contingent Expenditure. 
 
 Income tax and rates 
 (on permanentway) 
 gas and water 
 
 3,900 
 
 3,943 
 
 4,651 
 
 4-18 
 
 '44 
 
 Licenses and excise 
 duties . 
 
 413 
 
 359 
 
 349 
 
 *31 
 
 •03 
 
 Compensation , 
 
 1,143 
 
 1,220 
 
 884 
 
 -80 
 
 •08 
 
 Legal and parlia¬ 
 mentary 
 
 819 
 
 710 
 
 846 
 
 -76 
 
 -08 
 
 Total contingent . 
 
 1 
 
 6,275 
 
 6,232 
 
 6,730 
 
 6-05 
 
 '65 
 
 Total Expenditure 
 
 102,683 
 
 103,566 
 
 111,319 
 
 100-00 
 
 11-14 
 
 Per mile open . 
 
 9,552 
 
 9,634 
 
 10,355 ' 
 
 
 
 
 d . 
 
 d. 
 
 d. ^ 
 
 
 
 Per mile run . 
 
 10-25 
 
 10-12 
 
 10-68 : 
 
 
 
 Per cent, of receipts 
 
 857o 
 
 80% 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
70 
 
 STATISTICS OF TF AM WAYS. 
 
 Horses at the Ends of the last six Half-years to 
 
 December 31, 1891. 
 
 End of half-year. 
 
 Number of 
 horses. 
 
 Sold and 
 died. 
 
 Added. 
 
 1 
 
 June, 1889 .... 
 
 1,110 
 
 55 
 
 120 
 
 Dec., ,, .... 
 
 June, 1890 .... 
 
 1,104 
 
 67 
 
 61 1 
 
 LI43 
 
 85 
 
 124 1 
 
 Dec., ,, .... 
 
 LI32 
 
 68 
 
 57 
 
 June, 1891 .... 
 
 LI59 
 
 62 
 
 89 
 
 Dec., ., .... 
 
 LI77 
 
 75 
 
 93 
 
 Averages 
 
 i.I 37 
 
 69 
 
 91 
 
 Running Expenses Half-year December, 1891. 
 
 Maize 
 
 • • • 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 4425 
 
 s. 
 
 @ 27 
 
 d. 
 
 11 
 
 £ 
 
 6,171 
 
 Oats 
 
 • • * 
 
 4>302 
 
 @ 18 
 
 / 
 
 3 > 99 ^ 
 
 Beans 
 
 • • • 
 
 150 
 
 @ 33 
 
 6 
 
 251 
 
 Peas 
 
 • • 1 
 
 307 
 
 @ 32 
 
 9 
 
 503 
 
 Hay 
 
 • • » 
 
 Loads. 
 
 L293 
 
 @ 65 
 
 6 
 
 4>235 
 
 Straw 
 
 • • • 
 
 62 
 
 @ 33 
 
 11 
 
 105 
 
 Bran 
 
 • • • 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 196 
 
 ® 5 
 
 
 58 
 
 Moss litter 
 
 • • • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 . 489 
 
 Tares, oatmeal. 
 
 and sundries 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 . 246 
 
 Barging and cartage 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 473 
 
 Less manure 
 
 Stable foremen, horsekeepers, leader boys, 
 watchmen, and general wages . 
 
 Granary wages and expenses 
 Miscellaneous stable expenses 
 Repairs to machinery ..... 
 Veterinary service ...... 
 
 Repairs to harness. 
 
 Shoeing.. 
 
 Horse renewals. 
 
 16,522 
 
 95 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 d. 
 
 16,427 
 
 = 3-16 
 
 5.078 
 
 = ’96 
 
 521 
 
 = *09 
 
 39 
 
 = ‘01 
 
 42 
 
 = *01 
 
 145 
 
 = -03 
 
 574 
 
 = *09 
 
 998 
 
 = -18 
 
 2,410 
 
 = ‘43 
 
 26,234 = 4-96 
 
LONDON STREET TRAMWAYS, 
 
 71 
 
 Horsing Expenses per Horse per Week in Half-year, 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 H al f-year endin >. 
 Dec. 3i8t, 1891. 
 
 Per week. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s.- 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Provender. 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 9 i 
 
 Stable foremen, horsekeepers, leader 
 boys, watchmen, and general wages 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Granary wages and expenses . 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Miscellaneous stable expenses . 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 Repairs to machinery 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 Jl 
 
 4 
 
 Veterinary service .... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 Repairs to harness .... 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 4 ^ 
 
 Shoeing. 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Horse renewals. 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 Total actual cost 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 Mileage Run and Repairs of Cars, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 number ot 
 cars. 
 
 Miles run by cars. 
 
 Cost for repairs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 
 
 car. 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 run. 
 
 j' 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day of 
 
 365. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 Car-. 
 
 105 
 
 109 
 
 II4 
 
 Miles. 
 
 2,392,027 
 
 2,454.354 
 
 2,492,929 
 
 Miles. 
 
 22,781 
 
 22,517 
 
 21,868 
 
 Miles. 
 
 62*13 
 
 61*67 
 
 59-88 
 
 3.589 
 
 3.829 
 
 3.748 
 
 £ 
 
 33*13 
 
 35*12 
 
 32-87 
 
 Peni 
 
 *35 i 
 
 *37 
 
 *36 
 
 Averages . 
 
 22,392 
 
 61*23 
 
 — 
 
 33*71 
 
 •36 
 
72 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Maintenance and Renewal of Way, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year, 
 
 Average 
 length open.' 
 
 Cost for maintenance of way. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile of 
 way. 
 
 Per square 
 vard ot way.* 
 
 Per mile run 
 by cars. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 I3¥ 
 
 6,175 
 
 551 
 
 13-2 
 
 •62 
 
 1890 
 
 
 7,282 
 
 677 
 
 i6'2 
 
 •71 
 
 1891 
 
 13? 
 
 7,687 
 
 713 
 
 i7'i 
 
 74 
 
 * Allowing- 10,000 square yards per lineal mile. 
 
 The tramways in the Caledonian Road were reconstructed with 
 steel girder rails in 1889—90. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The through routes of these tramways were opened in the course of 
 1884. The subjoined statistics relate to the years 1889 to 1891 :—■ 
 
 Capital Expenditure, 1889 —1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 4 -> 
 
 n M 
 
 1/ <0 
 
 • 
 
 0 0 
 
 aQ 
 
 Lands, build¬ 
 ings, way, &c. 
 
 Rolling stock. 
 
 Preliminary and 
 Parliamentary 
 expenses. 
 
 Machinery 
 and plant. 
 
 Harness and 
 equipments. 
 
 Office 
 
 furniture. 
 
 Advertising 
 
 plant. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total 
 
 per 
 
 mile 
 
 open. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 1889 
 
 12 
 
 303,979 
 
 14,280 
 
 20,188 
 
 1,856 
 
 965 
 
 100 
 
 188 
 
 22,195 
 
 363,751 
 
 22,198 
 
 1890 
 
 12 t'o 
 
 308,363 
 
 13,860 
 
 20,188 
 
 1,812 
 
 948 
 
 108 
 
 150 
 
 21,793 
 
 367,222 
 
 28,467 
 
 1891 
 
 1 0 
 
 ’ ^ 10 
 
 328,667 
 
 14,280 
 
 
 1,793 
 
 I,no 
 
 100 
 
 96 
 
 21,160 
 
 367,206 
 
 28,466 
 
 Rolling Stock and Horses, 1889—1891. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 i8qi. 
 
 Cars ..... 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 Omnibuses .... 
 
 16 
 
 I ^ 
 
 16 
 
 ' 
 
 102 
 
 99 
 
 102 
 
 Horses 
 
 772 
 
 758 
 
 736 
 
74 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Horses at the Ends of the Last Six Half-years to 
 
 December 31, 1891. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 number. 
 
 Added. 
 
 Sold and 
 died. 
 
 Sick. 
 
 Lame. 
 
 June,1889 
 
 764 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 Dec., ,, 
 
 772 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 June, 1890 
 
 785 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 Dec., ,, 
 
 758 
 
 49 
 
 76 
 
 
 19 
 
 June, 1891 
 
 788 
 
 132 
 
 102 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 Dec., ,, 
 
 736 
 
 48 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Averages . 
 
 767 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, Passengers, in the three Years 
 
 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run. 
 
 Receipts 
 from traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 capital. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 L738,333 
 
 L757»885 
 
 1,746,074 
 
 7LI32 
 
 73,822 
 
 75,490 
 
 £ 
 
 819 
 
 999 
 
 1,178 
 
 71,951 
 
 74,821 
 
 76,668 
 
 1978 7 . 
 20-37 L 
 20-88 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Receipts per 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Receipts 
 per mile run 
 
 Year. 
 
 length of way 
 
 average 
 
 per mile 
 
 per car and 
 
 
 open. 
 
 mile open. 
 
 per week. 
 
 omnibus. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 P> nee. 
 
 1889 
 
 12“^ 
 
 5.677 
 
 109 
 
 705 
 
 9'93 
 
 1890 
 
 T 9 9- 
 
 5,800 
 
 111-5 
 
 756 
 
 10-23 
 
 1891 
 
 I 2-^ 
 
 5.943 
 
 H4’3 
 
 751 
 
 10-54 
 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 
 Receipts from I 
 
 passensrers. ] 
 
 Year. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 vehicle. 
 
 Per vehicle 
 per day of 
 
 365. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 passenger. 
 
 1889 
 
 15,671,679 
 
 1.53,644 
 
 421 
 
 9-01 
 
 71,951 
 
 Pence. 
 
 I'lO 
 
 1890 
 
 16,314,910 
 
 166,817 
 
 457 
 
 9-26 
 
 74,821 
 
 1*10 
 
 1891 
 
 16,666,858 
 
 163,302 
 
 447 
 
 9*54 
 
 76,668 
 
 I-II 
 
SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 75 
 
 The mileage-run and earnings in 1889 are given separately for 
 main-line cars, cross-line cars and omnibuses, and one-horse cars, 
 as shown in the following tablet:— 
 
 Miles run, and Earnings by Cars and Omnibuses 
 
 SEPARATELY, 1889. 
 
 Vehicles. 
 
 Miles run. 
 
 Earnings. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Main-line cars .... 
 Cross-line cars and omnibuses. 
 One-horse cars.... 
 
 Total .... 
 
 1,248,691 
 
 39 T 599 
 95 >043 
 
 53,348 
 
 15,945 
 
 1,839 
 
 Pence. 
 
 I0'24 
 
 970 
 
 4-64 
 
 1.738,333 
 
 71,132 
 
 io'i6 
 
 Reduced to pair-horse mileage by calculating every two miles 
 run by a one-horse vehicle as being equal to one mile run by a 
 pair-horse vehicle. 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 1,690,812 
 
 71,132 
 
 loqi 
 
 Working Expenditure, 1889—1891. 
 
 Items. 
 
 1889. 
 
 i8go. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Propor¬ 
 tional parts 
 of total ex¬ 
 penditure. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Expendi¬ 
 
 ture 
 
 per mile 
 run. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Horsing expenses 
 
 29,715 
 
 30,020 
 
 36,619 
 
 50-91 
 
 5-05 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 
 21,324 
 
 23,649 
 
 24,028 
 
 33 HO 
 
 3-25 
 
 General expenditure . 
 
 1,644 
 
 2,217 
 
 1,702 
 
 2-36 
 
 •24 
 
 Rates on permanent wa\ 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 • . 
 
 Repairs and renewals . 
 
 10,268 
 
 11,383 
 
 9,542 
 
 13-33 
 
 1-32 
 
 Total expenditure . 
 
 62,963 
 
 67,280 
 
 71,901 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 9*86 1 
 
 Do. per mile open 
 
 4,881 
 
 Pence. 
 
 5,215 
 
 Pence. 
 
 5,573 
 
 Pence. 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 Do. per mile run . 
 
 8-86 
 
 9-23 
 
 9’86 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Do. per cent, of receipts 
 
 88-4 7 o 
 
 90% 
 
 92 "4 7 o 
 
 
 
76 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Horsing Expenses, Half-year, 
 
 December, 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 Qrs. Bushls. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 Maize 
 
 . 2,427 5 @ 30 
 
 9 
 
 3.733 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 . 3.467 0 @ 20 
 
 11 
 
 3.629 
 
 
 Beans 
 
 27 7 @ 38 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 Loads. Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 Clover 
 
 249 13 @ 64 
 
 10 
 
 809 
 
 
 
 Cwts. Qrs. 
 
 
 
 
 Bran 
 
 550 2 @ 6 
 
 0 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 (t)rs. Bus. 
 
 
 
 
 Peas 
 
 100 0 @ 36 
 
 6 
 
 183 
 
 
 
 Cwts. Qrs. 
 
 
 
 
 Oatmeal . 
 
 34 2 @ 14 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Lds. Trs. 
 
 
 
 
 Hay .... 
 
 488 33 @ 57 
 
 5 
 
 1.405 
 
 
 Straw 
 
 241 6 @ 32 
 
 0 
 
 385 
 
 
 
 Tons. Cvvt. 
 
 
 
 
 Moss Litter 
 
 219 5 @ 24 
 
 6 
 
 269 
 
 
 Sundries . 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • 
 
 . 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per mile run 
 
 
 
 
 10,736 
 
 = 2 • 94 (^. 
 
 Granary wages 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 296 
 
 = 'oS 
 
 Horsekeepers’ wages 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 2,869 
 
 = -81 
 
 Shoeing . 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 711 
 
 = -18 
 
 Veterinary attendance 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 150 
 
 = -04 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of stables 
 
 
 690 
 
 = -18 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of granary 
 
 
 46 
 
 = *01 
 
 Sundry stable expenses 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 125 
 
 = *03 
 
 Horse renewal. 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 3,061 
 
 = -89 
 
 
 
 
 00 1 
 ! 
 
 = 5-16 
 
 Horsing Expenses 
 
 PER Horse per 
 
 week 
 
 IN Half-year, 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 Half-year ending 
 Dec. 31, 1891. 
 
 Per week. 
 
 Provender .... 
 
 s d. 
 
 13 18 10 
 
 s. d. 
 
 10 9 
 
 Granary wages 
 
 Horsekeeper’s wages 
 
 079 
 
 0 3 i i 
 
 3 14 9 
 
 2 gi ! 
 
 Shoeing ..... 
 
 0 18 5 
 
 0 84 
 
 Veterinary attendance 
 
 0 3 10 
 
 0 if 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of stables 
 
 0 17 II 
 
 0 8i • 
 
 Rent, rates and taxes of granary 
 Sundry stable expenses . 
 
 0 12 
 
 0 o|- 
 
 033 
 
 0 i 4 
 
 Horse renewal 
 
 3 19 4 
 
 3 oi 
 
 Total actual cost . 
 
 24 5 3 
 
 18 7 1 
 
SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 77 
 
 Repairs and Renewals, Half-year, December, 1891. 
 
 Permanent way 
 Rolling stock , 
 
 Leases renewal fund 
 Property and buildings 
 Machinery 
 
 Harness and equipments 
 Advertising plant 
 
 Miles run, and Repairs of Cars, 1889—1891. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2,000 
 
 = -52 
 
 1,476 
 
 - -40 
 
 300 
 
 = -06 
 
 524 
 
 - -14 
 
 95 
 
 = ’02 
 
 409 
 
 = *08 
 
 24 
 
 = *01 
 
 4,828 
 
 = 1-23 
 
 1—1891. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 
 number 
 
 of 
 
 vehicles. 
 
 Miles run. 
 
 
 Cost for repairs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per vehicle. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 i 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day 
 of 365- 
 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 d. 
 
 i 88 q 
 
 lOI^ 
 
 L738.333 
 
 17,126 
 
 46*9 
 
 10,268 
 
 lOI’I 
 
 1*40 
 
 1890 
 
 99 
 
 L757.885 
 
 17^758 
 
 48-6 
 
 11.383 
 
 115 
 
 i‘5i 
 
 1891 
 
 102 
 
 1,746,074 
 
 17,118 
 
 46'8 
 
 9.542 
 
 93*5 
 
 1-32 
 
 Maintenance of Way, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 length open. 
 
 Cost for maintenance of wa}’. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per mile 
 of way. 
 
 Per sq. yard 
 of way.* 
 
 Per mile run 
 
 I j' cars. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1—1 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 I2'9 
 
 4,000 
 
 310 
 
 7'44 
 
 '55 
 
 1890 
 
 I2’9 
 
 5,600 
 
 434 
 
 io'4i 
 
 •78 
 
 1891 
 
 I2’9 
 
 4,000 
 
 310 
 
 7'44 
 
 '54 
 
 Allowing 10,000 square yards per lineal mile. 
 
 The original Meakins way continues in use; but the Barker way 
 has been nearly all replaced by steel girder rails. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL 
 TRAMWAYS COMPANY. 
 
 The operations of this Company are conducted on the four 
 systems of haulage:—by direct steam power, horse power, cable 
 power, and electric power; and they afford an opportunity of 
 directly comparing the motive powers. 
 
 The Bristol Road line was reconstructed and adapted in 1890 
 for electric haulage. 
 
 STEAM DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, Passengers, in the Two Years 
 
 1890, 1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 IMiles run bj' 
 cars. 
 
 Receipts from 
 traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 i 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 ■ 1890 
 
 1,169,883 
 
 73.760 
 
 824 
 
 74.584 
 
 i 5’38 
 
 1891 
 
 1 
 
 1,184,401 
 
 76,454 
 
 884 
 
 77.338 
 
 i 5’64 
 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. | 
 
 X i^ar. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per passenger. 1 
 
 i8go 
 
 13,797,864 
 
 I i'8o 
 
 £ 
 
 73,760 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1*26 
 
 1891 
 
 14,242,827 
 
 I 2 ‘ 0 I 
 
 76,454 
 
 1*28 
 
BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 79 
 
 The working expenditure for the two years 1890 and 1891 is 
 given in the following table. The percentages of the several 
 expenses in parts of the whole expenditure in 1891 are given in 
 the second last column. 
 
 Working Expenditure for the Two Years 1890, 1891. 
 
 
 
 
 1S91. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1890. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total 
 
 expenditure. 
 
 Per mile 
 ruQ. 
 
 Engines 
 
 Car repairs 
 
 Traffic expenses. 
 Permanent way 
 and buildings . 
 General charges. 
 
 £ 
 
 27G19 
 
 ^ 74 -^ 
 
 7,694 
 
 6,402 
 
 4,926 
 
 Pence. 
 
 5‘6o 
 
 •^6 
 
 1-58 
 
 1*31 
 
 roi 
 
 31,464 
 
 i,6ii 
 
 8,294 
 
 7,640 
 
 5,209 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 58-03 
 
 2*97 
 
 15-29 
 
 14-10 
 
 9-61 
 
 Pence. 
 
 6-38 
 
 *33 
 
 1*68 
 
 1*55 
 
 1*05 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 48,085 
 
 9-86 
 
 54,218 
 
 100*00 
 
 10-99 
 
 Do. per cent, of 
 receipts . 
 
 64 7 o 
 
 — 
 
 70% 
 
 — 
 
 —• 
 
 The engine power, it is shown, monopolises nearly onc-half ot 
 the whole working expenditure. The expenditure on engine 
 power is given in detail in the following tablet:— 
 
 Details of the Working Expenditure for Engine 
 
 Power for 1890, 1891. 
 
 
 1890. 
 
 i8gr. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 1 
 
 Wages 
 
 Fuel . 
 
 Water and gas . 
 Stores. 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Repairs 
 
 £ 
 
 9,925 
 
 7,428 
 
 1,093 
 
 1,406 
 
 392 
 
 7 >o 74 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2*04 
 
 1*52 
 
 *22 
 
 *29 
 
 •08 
 
 1*45 
 
 10,191 
 
 9,357 
 
 1,069 
 
 1,721 
 
 340 
 
 8,786 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2-06 
 
 1-90 
 
 *22 
 
 •35 
 
 •07 
 
 1*78 
 
 Total . 
 
 27,318 
 
 5-60 
 
 31,464 
 
 6*38 
 
8o 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 HORSE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, Passengers, in the Two Years 
 
 1890, 1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 IMiles run. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Tramway.s. 
 
 Sundny receipts. 
 
 By cars.. 
 
 By omni¬ 
 buses. 
 
 Receipts 
 
 from 
 
 traffic. 
 
 Receipts 
 per mile 
 run. 
 
 Receipts Receipt.' 
 from 'per mile 
 traffic. I run. 
 
 Total 
 
 Do. per 
 mile run. 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 J 3 E 93 I 
 
 131,528 
 
 664,660 
 
 506,196 
 
 £ 
 
 27,380 
 
 23.507 
 
 Pence. 
 
 9-94 
 
 II-I3 
 
 £ Pence. 
 
 5,222 1 9*46 
 5,049 9-24 
 
 £ 
 
 827 
 
 721 
 
 Pence. 
 
 •24 
 
 •25 
 
 
 Total number of 
 
 Passengers per 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Year. 
 
 passengers. 
 
 mile 
 
 run. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Trams. 
 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Omni¬ 
 
 buses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 1890 
 
 1,068,861 
 
 3,054,266 
 
 8-1 
 
 4-6 
 
 27,380 
 
 Pence. 
 
 9-8 
 
 5,222 
 
 Pence. 
 
 9‘5 
 
 1891 
 
 1,114,388 
 
 2,638,028 
 
 8-5 
 
 5*1 
 
 23.507 
 
 11 -I 
 
 5.049 
 
 9*2 
 
 Working Expenditure for the Years 1890, 1891. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 
 tPqi. 
 
 
 1 
 
 j 
 
 iSgo. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total ex¬ 
 penditure. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Horses, including \ 
 Forage and wages ( 
 
 21,398 
 
 6-45 
 
 19,461 
 
 74-86 
 
 7'33 
 
 Vehicle repairs 
 
 1,281 
 
 •39 
 
 1,426 
 
 5-48 
 
 •54 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 Way and build- 
 
 3.944 
 
 i’i9 
 
 3.360 
 
 12-93 
 
 1-26 
 
 ings . 
 
 304 
 
 •09 
 
 362 
 
 1-40 
 
 •14 
 
 General charges . 
 
 1,647 
 
 •49 
 
 1.392 
 
 5-33 
 
 •52 
 
 Total expenditure . 
 
 28,547 
 
 8*61 
 
 26,001 
 
 100 00 
 
 979 
 
 Do. per cent, of 
 
 
 
 91% 
 
 
 
 receipts 
 
 88 7 o 
 
 "■ ■“ 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 — 
 
BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 8l 
 
 Details of the Working Expenditure for Horse 
 
 Power in 1890, 1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Wages .... 
 Forage and bedding 
 Veterinary and shoeing . 
 Water and gas 
 
 Harness repairs 
 
 Stable utensils . 
 
 Sundries .... 
 Renewals .... 
 
 7,211 
 
 11,144 
 
 1,026 
 
 163 
 
 402 
 
 I4I 
 
 129 
 
 I, 181 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2"I7 
 
 3 '36 
 
 ■31 
 
 •05 
 
 *12 
 
 •04 
 
 •04 
 
 •36 
 
 6,479 
 
 9.273 
 
 1,052 
 
 166 
 
 424 
 
 II6 
 
 199 
 
 I.I5I 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2*44 
 
 372 
 
 •40 
 
 •06 
 
 •16 
 
 •04 
 
 *08 
 
 ■43 
 
 Total . 
 
 21,397 
 
 6*45 
 
 19,460 
 
 7*33 
 
 CABLE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, Passengers, in the Two Years 
 
 1890, 1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run. 
 
 Receipts from 
 traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1890 
 
 459,806 
 
 25,048 
 
 164 
 
 25,212 
 
 13*16 
 
 1891 
 
 522,876 
 
 27,781 
 
 180 
 
 27,961 
 
 i 3 ‘ 5 i 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 1890 
 
 4,261,050 
 
 9*40 
 
 25,048 
 
 Pence. 
 
 13*2 
 
 1891 
 
 5.241.362 
 
 10*01 
 
 27,781 
 
 12*7 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Working Expenditure in the Two Years 1890, 1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 expend. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Haulage 
 
 Cables and machinery 
 Car repairs . 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 Permanent way and 
 buildings . 
 
 General charges. 
 
 4,876 
 
 L843 
 
 747 
 
 2,349 
 
 148 
 
 L717 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2'55 
 
 •96 
 
 '39 
 
 I ‘22 
 
 •08 
 
 *90 
 
 £ 
 
 5,242 
 
 2,078 
 
 1,811 
 2,820 
 
 279 
 
 1,565 
 
 Per cent. 
 38’00 
 15-07 
 13-12 
 20-45 
 
 2-02 
 
 II'34 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2-41 
 
 •95 
 
 -83 
 
 1-30 
 
 •13 
 
 -71 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 11,680 
 
 6’IO 
 
 13,795 
 
 100-00 
 
 6'33 
 
 Do. percent, of receipts 
 
 48% 
 
 — 
 
 50 7 „ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 « 
 
 Details of the Working Expenditure for Cable Power 
 
 IN 1890, 1891. 
 
 
 1890. 
 
 M 
 
 o^ 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Wages 
 
 Fuel . 
 
 Stores . 
 
 Water and gas . 
 Sundries 
 
 2,819 
 
 1,264 
 
 574 
 
 131 
 
 89 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1-47 
 
 -66 
 
 -30 
 
 -07 
 
 '05 
 
 3,181 
 
 1,446 
 
 /)0I 
 
 152 
 
 62 
 
 Pence. 
 
 I -46 
 *66 
 •19 
 •07 
 •03 
 
 Total . 
 
 bo 
 
 2'55 
 
 5,242 
 
 2-41 
 
 ELECTRIC DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers for 1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run by 
 
 Receipts from 
 
 Sundry 
 
 Total 
 
 Receipts per 
 
 cars. 
 
 traffic. 
 
 receipts. 
 
 receipts. 
 
 mile run. 
 
 1891 
 
 138,396 
 
 00 
 
 76 
 
 CO 
 
 Pence. 
 
 15-18 
 
BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 83 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per passenger. 
 
 1891 
 
 i,i 44 Yi 8 
 
 8-54 
 
 00 
 
 Pence. 
 
 i-8i 
 
 Working Expenditure for the Year 1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, of total 
 expenditure. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Electric haulage . 
 
 2,971 
 
 52-01 
 
 5-15 
 
 Machinery . 
 
 168 
 
 2-96 
 
 *29 
 
 Car repairs . 
 
 1T13 
 
 19*12 
 
 I ‘93 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 
 772 
 
 13*46 
 
 I ‘34 
 
 Permanent way and 
 
 
 
 
 buildings . 
 
 78 
 
 173 
 
 •14 
 
 General Charges . 
 
 609 
 
 10-72 
 
 1-05 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 9-90 
 
 Do. per cent, of receipts 
 
 65 7 o 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Details of the Working Expenditure for Electric 
 
 Power, 1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Wages .... 
 
 1,502 
 
 2*60 
 
 Fuel ..... 
 
 956 
 
 1*66 
 
 Stores .... 
 
 420 
 
 73 
 
 Water and lighting . 
 
 39 
 
 *07 
 
 Sundries .... 
 
 54 
 
 *09 
 
 Total 
 
 2,971 
 
 5*15 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE FOUR DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers, for Two Years, 
 
 1890, 1891. 
 
 Year ending 
 June 30. 
 
 ]\Iiles run. 
 
 Passengers 
 
 carried. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 2,426,280 
 
 2,483.397 
 
 22,182,041 
 
 24,381,323 
 
 £ 
 
 131,409 
 
 141,448 
 
 ,6 
 
 1,806 
 
 1,860 
 
 133,215 
 
 143,308 
 
 Year. 
 
 Length open."’ 
 
 Receipts per mile 
 open. 
 
 Per mile per week. 
 
 1890 
 
 JNIiles. 
 
 T 
 
 
 2479 
 
 5,373 
 
 103*3 
 
 1891 
 
 2479 
 
 5,781 
 
 III *2 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of 
 
 passeng-ers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per passenger. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1890 
 
 22,182,041 
 
 9*1 
 
 133,215 
 
 I ’39 
 
 1891 
 
 24,381,323 
 
 9*8 
 
 143,308 
 
 1.40 
 
 Passengers, Receipts, Expenses, in 1890, 1891. 
 
 
 Passengers carried. 
 
 Total receipts. 
 
 Working 
 
 expenses. 
 
 Net profit. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 i8go. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Steam . 
 Horse . 
 Cable 
 Electric. 
 
 13,797,864 
 
 4,123,127 
 
 4,261,050 
 
 14,242,827 
 
 3,752,416 
 
 5,241,362 
 
 1,144,718 
 
 T 
 
 74,583 
 
 33,419 
 
 25,212 
 
 £ 
 
 77,338 
 
 29,277 
 
 27,961 
 
 8,732 
 
 T 
 
 48,084 
 
 28,573 
 
 11,681 
 
 £ 
 
 54,219 
 
 26,002 
 
 13,975 
 
 5,711 
 
 T 
 
 26,499 
 
 7.417 
 
 11.417 
 
 £ 
 
 23,119 
 
 3,275 
 
 14,166 
 
 3,021 
 
BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL TRAMWAYS, 
 
 85 
 
 Receipts, Expenses, and Profit or Loss, per Mile, 
 
 1890 TO 1893. 
 
 Year 1890—gr (June 30). 
 
 !Miles run by 
 cars and omni¬ 
 buses (horse 
 department). 
 
 Average 
 receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 Expenses per 
 mile run. 
 
 Net profit 
 per mile run, 
 
 Steam 
 
 Horse . 
 
 Cable , 
 
 Electric 
 
 1,184,101 
 
 637^24 
 
 522,876 
 
 138,396 
 
 Pence. 
 
 15-67 
 
 11 -02 
 12-83 
 
 15-15 
 
 Pence. 
 
 10-99 
 
 9-79 
 
 6-33 
 
 9-90 
 
 Pence. 
 
 4- 68 
 
 1-23 
 
 6-50 
 
 5- 25 
 
 Averages 
 
 - ' IV67 
 
 ! 1 ^ 
 
 9-25 
 
 4-46 
 
 Yecir 1891—92 (June 30). 
 
 ]\Iiles run by 
 cars and omni¬ 
 buses (horse 
 department). 
 
 Average 
 receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 Expenses 
 per mile run. 
 
 Net profit 
 per mile run. 
 
 Steam 
 
 Horse . 
 
 Cable . 
 
 Electric 
 
 1,212,624 
 
 634^551 
 
 621,210 
 
 188,760 
 
 Pence. 
 
 15-96 
 
 11-20 
 
 12-20 
 
 13-25 
 
 Pence. 
 
 12-03 
 
 9-96 
 
 6-18 
 
 15-39 
 
 Pence. 
 
 3-93 
 
 1- 24 
 
 6-02 
 
 2- 14 (loss) 
 
 Averages 
 
 
 13-15 
 
 10-89 
 
 2-26 
 
 Year 1892—93 (June 30). 
 
 Miles run by 
 cars and omni¬ 
 buses (horse 
 department). 
 
 Average 
 receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 Expenses 
 per mile run. 
 
 Net profit 
 per mile run. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Horse . 
 
 Cable . 
 
 Electric 
 
 1,225,996 
 
 647,652 
 
 641,161' 
 
 140,993 
 
 Pence. 
 
 15- 99 
 
 10-93 
 
 12-69 
 
 16- 38 
 
 Pence. 
 
 11-22 
 
 10-12 
 
 6-52 
 
 16*55 
 
 Pence. 
 
 4-77 
 
 -81 
 
 6-37 
 
 •17 (loss) 
 
 Averages 
 
 — 
 
 13-99 
 
 11-05 
 
 2-94 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OE THE GLASGOW TRAMWAY AND 
 OMNIBUS COMPANY. 
 
 At December 31, 1880, the property of the Company stood at 
 ^£’348,224, including the value of 1,836 horses and mules, 178 
 cars, and 22 omnibuses. The length open for traffic was 19*89 
 miles. The miles run in the year 1880 were 2,785,562; the 
 receipts were 55,074 from car traffic, from omnibus 
 
 traffic, and from sundry sources 6,339, amounting together to 
 ^^167,400, or 14*47 pence per mile run. The expenditure, irre¬ 
 spective of reserves, depreciation, and Corporation charges, 
 amounted to 62*4 per cent, of the receipts, or pd. per mile run. 
 
 The actual working capital, after allowing for depreciation, was 
 stated to be as follows at December 31, in the three years 
 1889—91. 
 
 Actual Working Capital Expended, 1889—91. 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Office furniture 
 
 335 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 Cars .... 
 
 (233) 29,960 
 
 (230) 23,000 
 
 (230)77,250 
 
 Omnibuses . 
 
 (30) 2,100 
 
 (30) 1,800 
 
 (24) 960 
 
 Horses and mules 
 
 (2768) 67,816 
 
 (2881) 65,783 
 
 (3149) 68,753 
 
 Plant, machinery, &c. . 
 
 13728 
 
 11,746 
 
 12,905 
 
 Harness, stable imple¬ 
 ments, &c. 
 
 5.783 
 
 5.205 
 
 4,018 
 
 Heritable property 
 
 181,229 
 
 172,167 
 
 167.347 
 
 Totals 
 
 £ 2 gS,gsi 
 
 ;!^ 28 o,OOI 
 
 .^271,483 
 
GLASGOW TRAMWAYS. 
 
 87 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run. 
 
 Receipts from 
 traffic. 
 
 Sundry- 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Per day 
 
 of 365- 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 £ 
 
 1889 
 
 4,388,019 
 
 227,663 
 
 8,772 
 
 236,435 
 
 12-93 
 
 648 
 
 1890 
 
 4,481,825 
 
 251.545 
 
 8,130 
 
 259.675 
 
 13-91 
 
 711 
 
 1891 
 
 not given 
 
 271.715 
 
 8,059 
 
 279.774 
 
 “ 
 
 766 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average length open. 
 
 Receipts per average 
 mile open. 
 
 Receipts per mile 
 per week. 
 
 
 iMiles chains 
 
 £ 
 
 
 1889 
 
 30 17 
 
 7,866 
 
 151-4 
 
 1890 
 
 30 17 
 
 9.054 
 
 174*2 i 
 
 1891 
 
 30 17 
 
 9,260 
 
 178-1 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day of 
 
 365. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 passenger. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 45,812,940 
 
 50,237,996 
 
 52,208,605 
 
 125,514 
 
 137.665 
 
 143.037 
 
 10- 44 
 
 11- 20 
 
 £ 
 
 227,665 
 
 251.545 
 271.715 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1-19 
 
 1*20 
 
 1-24 
 
 The receipts for the last half-year 1891 are here given in detail, 
 as a sample :— 
 
 Traffic Receipts— 
 
 Cars, omnibuses, cab and carriage hiring, and 
 
 mails ........ 2^140,874 
 
 Sundry Receipts — 
 
 Manure ...... 
 
 i^i.322 
 
 Parcels carriage to suburbs 
 
 301 
 
 Advertising on cars, omnibuses, &c. 
 
 1,521 
 
 Discounts and abatements 
 
 402 
 
 Transfer fees ..... 
 
 22 
 
 Rents ...... 
 
 565 
 
 4>i33 
 
 Total 
 
 ;^i45>007 
 
88 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Sunday traffic for one year is given as follows ;— 
 
 Sunday Traffic. 
 
 
 Half-yer 
 
 December 31, 1888. 
 
 ir ending 
 
 June 30, 1889. 
 
 Miles run on Sundays 
 
 Do. week days 
 
 Gross receipts on Sundays^. 
 
 Do. do. per mile run 
 
 Passengers carried on Sundays . 
 
 123,815 
 2,353^520 
 ;^6,225 4s. 2d. 
 i2‘o 68 pence. 
 1,223,677 
 
 119.345 
 
 2.053,244 
 
 ;^6,245 IIS. lod. 
 
 i 2‘056 pence. 
 
 1,256,485 
 
 Working Expenditure for Three Years, 1889—1891. 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 o^ 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 Proportional 
 part of total 
 expenses,1891 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Traffic expenses . 
 
 123,389 
 
 131.759 
 
 149,696 
 
 64-98 
 
 General expenses 
 
 16,635 
 
 15,579 
 
 14,457 
 
 6-33 
 
 Repairs and renewals . 
 
 27.304 
 
 30,973 
 
 35,136 
 
 15-76 
 
 Corporation charges . 
 
 30,193 
 
 30,048 
 
 29,608 
 
 12-93 
 
 Total expenditure . 
 
 ;^^ 97 . 52 i 
 
 ;^ 2 o 8,359 
 
 ^228,897 
 
 100-00 
 
 The form of the accounts does not give the means of determin¬ 
 ing the horsing and the traffic expenses separately. These are 
 combined under one heading—Traffic Expenses—the details of 
 which, with those of general expenses, repairs and renewals, are 
 subjoined for the sample half-year ending December 31, 1891 :— 
 
GLASGOW TRAMWAYS. 
 
 89 
 
 Traffic Expenses for the Half-year ending 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 Provender and litter ..... 
 
 £ 
 
 41,204 
 
 Proportion 
 of total. 
 Per cent. 
 
 = 50‘33 
 
 Wages and maintenance, and interest for 
 Ibrox line ...... 
 
 33.874 
 
 = 4i‘38 
 
 Shoeing. 
 
 2,604 
 
 = 3'i8 
 
 Veterinary ....... 
 
 97 
 
 = ‘12 
 
 Lighting ....... 
 
 274 
 
 '33 
 
 Ticket check ...... 
 
 860 
 
 ro5 
 
 Police, licenses, and excise 
 
 185 
 
 _ -22 
 
 Washing and cleaning . . . . 
 
 884 
 
 = 1*11 
 
 Gas and water-rates . . . . . 
 
 506 
 
 - -61 
 
 Oil, waste, salt, and sand . . . . 
 
 255 
 
 = '31 
 
 Uniforms. 
 
 1,112 
 
 = I '36 
 
 Total 
 
 ;z^ 8 i ,855 
 
 = lOO'OO 
 
 General Expenditure for Half-year ending 
 
 December, 1891. 
 
 Salaries . . . . . 
 
 Directors’ fees .... 
 
 Audit fees. 
 
 Rents and feu duties 
 Rates and taxes 
 Compensation . . . . 
 
 Law costs . ... . 
 
 Insurance . . . . . 
 
 Miscellaneous . . . 
 
 Printing, stationery, &c. . 
 Discount on tickets . 
 
 Interest . 
 
 Total 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Proportion 
 of total. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1,238 
 
 = 
 
 17'43 
 
 300 
 
 = 
 
 4’22 
 
 42 
 
 = 
 
 •58 
 
 852 
 
 
 11-99 
 
 2,356 
 
 = 
 
 33' i 6 
 
 460 
 
 r= 
 
 6*47 
 
 132 
 
 = 
 
 1-85 
 
 843 
 
 = 
 
 11-86 
 
 168 
 
 = 
 
 2-36 
 
 187 
 
 
 2-63 
 
 237 
 
 = 
 
 3'33 
 
 293 
 
 = 
 
 4-12 
 
 .^7.108 
 
 = 
 
 100-00 
 
90 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Cost for Repairs and Renewals for Half-year 
 ENDING December, 1891. 
 
 Horses . 
 
 • « • 
 
 7.595 
 
 Proportion 
 of total. 
 
 Amount written olf to 
 
 reduce the 
 
 
 stock price to £2\ 
 
 • • • 
 
 2,624 ^ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 
 -- 10,219 
 
 = 58-93 
 
 Harness . 
 
 • * • 
 
 1,420 
 
 = 8-i8 
 
 Rolling" stock 
 
 • 
 
 4,428 
 
 = 25-52 
 
 Machinery 
 
 • • • 
 
 502* 
 
 = 2-92 
 
 Buildings 
 
 
 772 
 
 = 4’45 
 
 
 Total 
 
 • ;^i 7 . 34 i 
 
 = 100-00 
 
 Corporation Charges for Half-year ending 
 
 December 
 
 31, 1891. 
 
 Proportion 
 of total. 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest on outlay, &c. . 
 
 6,301 
 
 = 42*45 
 
 Sinking fund . , . . 
 
 • 3.429 
 
 = 23-11 
 
 Mileage rate .... 
 
 1,381 
 
 = 9-30 
 
 Renewal of tramways 
 
 . 3,728 
 
 = 25-14 
 
 Total 
 
 .^14.839 
 
 = 100'00 
 
 The average cost for provender consumed by each stud of 
 10 horses for the years 1889—91, including straw and moss for 
 litter (less amount received for manure), and wages of carters and 
 others engaged in connection with the provender department, 
 was as follows :— 
 
 Half-year. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 June, 1889 . .... 
 
 99 8 
 
 0 
 
 December, 1889 ..... 
 
 106 10 
 
 8 
 
 June, 1890 ...... 
 
 98 14 
 
 6 
 
 December, 1890 ..... 
 
 104 II 
 
 I 
 
 June, 1891 ...... 
 
 108 19 
 
 11 
 
 December, 1891 ..... 
 
 127 15 
 
 7 
 
 Average for six months 
 
 107 13 
 
 Ih 
 
 ,, per horse, for six months 
 
 10 15 
 
 4 i 
 
 ,, ,, for one year . 
 
 21 10 
 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE EDINBURGH STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The tramways of the city of Edinburgh have been constructed 
 and worked under very considerable difficulties, municipal and 
 physical. Laid upon long and severe gradients, these tram¬ 
 ways are more difficult to work than any other tramway system in 
 the United Kingdom. The horse-power was supplied by contract 
 during the first few years, in the course of which the contractor 
 raised his terms, insomuch that on one section the Company paid 
 him the abnormal sum of tenpence per mile run—not unreasonable. 
 For though the Company anticipated that not more than three 
 horses would be required to work the system at any point, it was 
 found that for working on the steepest gradients—on Leith Walk, 
 North Bridge, and Portobello Road—four horses were required. 
 
 In 1874, the Company terminated the contract for horse power, 
 acquired all the horses belonging to the contractor, and com¬ 
 menced to horse the lines themselves. The price paid for the 
 horses, at a valuation, was only £ 22 > per horse. The horses were 
 not suited for the service, and it was not till the year 1876 
 that the horses thus acquired at a valuation were replaced 
 by others suited to the work. On some of the gradients the 
 labour is excessive, and the horses are very sorely tried. From 
 the gradients in Leith Walk, averaging i in 32—of which the 
 maximum gradient is i in 14—the horses are shifted every few 
 months to another and easier section, on which there is no steeper 
 gradient than i in 25. They begin to recover strength after having 
 been worked for some time on the easier gradients, and they are 
 
92 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 again placed on the severer inclines. “ But for such a rotation ot 
 duty, the horses,” said Dr. Wood, the chairman of the Company, 
 would not last at all. As it was, they lasted a shorter time,” he 
 believed, “ than in most other towns, and it was extremely difficult 
 to keep them in condition.” 
 
 The average cost for horse power in the year 1876, worked by 
 the Company, amounted to 7|d. per mile run by cars, which is 
 probably the highest rate of cost in this country for tramway work. 
 Naturally, the number of miles run per horse is less in Edinburgh 
 than elsewhere. It amounts only to 5*80 miles per day of 313 in 
 the year. 
 
 The miles run during the two years ending June 30, 1880, 
 were 1,592,679 miles. The total receipts amounted tO;£i23,669, 
 or at the rate of ^89 per mile per week, and 187 per mile run. 
 The horsing expenses were at the rate of 8d. per mile run. The 
 cost for maintenance of way and works amounted to ;£^6,576, or 
 to ;£245 per mile open per year, or about id. per mile run. But, 
 for the last year alone, to June 30, 1880, the expenditure on the 
 way amounted to ^ 4 , 101 , or per mile, or i'22d. per mile 
 
 run. This excessive expenditure was incurred in renewing the 
 way in Princes Street, Leith Street, Catherine Street, Leith Walk, 
 and Great Junction Street, Leith, after having been open for 
 eight or nine yeais. 
 
 Here follow particulars of capital, working expenditure, receipts, 
 •See., for the three years 1889—1891 :— 
 
 Capital Expenditure for Three Years i88g—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 IMiles 
 open at 
 Dec.31. 
 
 Preliminary, 
 parlianientary, 
 and law expenses. 
 
 Land tramways 
 and equipments. 
 
 Buildings, &c. 
 
 Cars, carriages, 
 &c. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total 
 
 per 
 
 mile 
 
 open. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1889 
 
 18J 
 
 4 L 525 
 
 215.667 
 
 86,010 
 
 12.671. 
 
 1,303 
 
 34,847 
 
 392,023 
 
 20,441 
 
 1890 
 
 18.^ 
 
 41-525 
 
 215,667 
 
 84,822 
 
 13,330 
 
 1,133 
 
 38,270 
 
 394-747 
 
 21,989 
 
 1891 
 
 i8i 
 
 41,525 
 
 218,472 
 
 84,880 
 
 13,976 
 
 1,285 
 
 42,502 
 
 397,640 
 
 21,848 
 
EDINBURGH TRAMWAYS. 
 
 93 
 
 Cars, Horses, etc., at December 31, 1889—1891. 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 M 
 
 ON 1 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 Close cars .... 
 
 63 
 
 63 
 
 65 
 
 Canopy cars .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Open cars. .... 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Omnibuses „ . . . 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Tourists coaches . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Total rolling stock . 
 
 87 
 
 89 
 
 94 
 
 Horses ..... 
 
 895 
 
 981 
 
 958 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers, 1889—1891. 
 
 \ ear. 
 
 Allies run 
 by cars. 
 
 Miles run 
 by omni¬ 
 buses and 
 coaches. 
 
 Total miles 
 run. 
 
 Receipts 
 
 from 
 
 traffic. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 of 
 
 capital. 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1,396,904 
 
 1,661,656 
 
 C.603,497 
 
 86,739 
 
 60,073 
 
 64,950 
 
 1,483,643 
 
 1,721,729 
 
 1,668,447 
 
 £ 
 
 96,316 
 
 113,708 
 
 103,017 
 
 £ 
 
 5,656 
 
 5,265 
 
 4,808 
 
 101.972 
 
 118.973 
 107,825 
 
 Percent. 
 
 26’02 
 
 30’12 
 
 27*13 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average length 
 of way open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 average mile 
 open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile per week. 
 
 Receipts 
 per mile run. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 i 81 
 
 5,603 
 
 1077 
 
 16*4 
 
 1890 
 
 18^ 
 
 6,537 
 
 125*7 
 
 16*5 
 
 1891 
 
 i8i 
 
 5,935 
 
 114*1 
 
 15-5 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 Receipts from 
 passengers. 
 
 With cars. 
 
 With 
 
 omni¬ 
 
 buses. 
 
 With 
 
 coaches. 
 
 With 
 
 work¬ 
 men’s cars 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 run. 
 
 j Per 
 'total, [pass¬ 
 enger 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 13,603,441 
 
 16,507,488 
 
 15,081,704 
 
 166,419 
 
 ^36,297 
 
 247 H 35 
 
 264,525 
 
 180,490 
 
 120,372 
 
 14,197,735 
 
 16,728,682 
 
 15,404,310 
 
 9‘57 
 
 974 
 
 975 
 
 ,6 
 
 96,316 
 
 113,708 
 
 103,017 
 
 d. 
 
 1*62 
 
 1*63 
 
 1*61 
 
 322,606 
 
94 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Working Expenditure, 1889—1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1891. 
 
 Propor¬ 
 tional parts 
 of total ex¬ 
 penditure. 
 
 1891. 
 Expendi¬ 
 ture per 
 total 
 
 mile run. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Working expenses . 
 
 15,160 
 
 20,275 
 
 19,108 
 
 24-09 
 
 2-74 
 
 Horsing expenses . 
 
 37>957 
 
 42,120 
 
 42,892 
 
 54*25 
 
 6-16 
 
 Car, omnibus and 
 carriage repairs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and renewals 
 
 3-797 
 
 4-572 
 
 3-989 
 
 5-01 
 
 -56 
 
 Maintenance of way 
 
 4,869 
 
 4-673 
 
 4-597 
 
 5*74 
 
 -66 
 
 General charges 
 
 7,148 
 
 8-237 
 
 8,697 
 
 10-91 
 
 1-24 
 
 Total expenditure . 
 
 68,931 
 
 <0 
 
 bo 
 
 79 283 
 
 100-00 
 
 11-36 
 
 Total expenditure 
 per mile open 
 
 3-78^ 
 
 4-388 
 
 4-356 
 
 
 
 Do. per total mile 
 run 
 
 Pence, 
 
 II'I 4 
 
 Pence. 
 
 11*13 
 
 Pence. 
 
 11-36 
 
 
 
 Do. per cent, of re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ceipts . 
 
 67*55 
 
 67 'I 4 
 
 74*48 
 
 
 
 The “working ” expenses include the wages of drivers and trace- 
 boys or pole-shifters. The horsing expenses are, of course, by so 
 much reduced, and they cannot be directly compared with the 
 earlier costs for horsing. 
 
 Horsing Expenses for Half-year ending December, 1891. 
 
 Provender and litter . 
 
 Stable wages and expenses 
 Harness .... 
 Horse-shoeing . 
 
 Stable and machinery repairs 
 Renewal of horses 
 
 Total 
 
 Per total mile run. 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 14,222 
 
 = 4*03 
 
 . 3-650 
 
 = I -03 
 
 295 
 
 = -08 
 
 986 
 
 = -28 
 
 220 
 
 = *07 
 
 2,229 
 
 = -63 
 
 , 21,602 
 
 = 6-12 
 
EDINBURGH 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 Q5 
 
 Horsing Expenses per Horse per Week for Half-year 
 
 ENDING December, 1891. 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 Provender and litter . 
 
 Stable wages and expenses 
 Harness .... 
 Horse-shoeing . 
 
 Stable and machinery repairs 
 Renewal of horses 
 
 Total 
 
 Per horse. 
 
 Per horse 
 per week. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 9 h 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 Horse Renewals in 1889—91. 
 
 
 In stock. 
 
 Added. 
 
 Renewed. 
 
 June, 1889 
 
 892 
 
 30 
 
 98 
 
 Dec., 1889 
 
 895 
 
 3 
 
 91 
 
 June, 1890 
 
 1032 
 
 137 
 
 . . 
 
 Dec., 1890 
 
 981 
 
 . - 
 
 58 
 
 June, 1891 
 
 950 
 
 
 79 
 
 Dec., 1891 
 
 958 
 
 8 
 
 91 
 
 Averages . 
 
 951 
 
 30 
 
 69 
 
 Mileage run and Repairs of Cars, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 
 IMiles run. 
 
 Cost for repairs of 
 cars, omnibuses, 
 and carriages. 
 
 By cars. 
 
 By omnibuses 
 
 and coaches, | Total. 
 
 &c. 
 
 i 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 vehi¬ 
 
 cle. 
 
 Per 
 
 total 
 
 miles 
 
 run. 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Omni 
 
 buses, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 car. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per 
 
 vehi¬ 
 
 cle. 
 
 Total for 
 cars, &c. 
 
 IIS 
 
 0 
 
 1889 
 
 i8go 
 
 1891 
 
 72 * 
 
 76} 
 
 80 
 
 142 
 
 12^ 
 
 122 
 
 hides. 
 
 L 3 Q 6,904 
 
 1,661,656 
 
 1,603,497 
 
 Miles. 
 
 19,267 
 
 21,721 
 
 20,043 
 
 Miles. 
 
 86,739 
 
 60,073 
 
 64,950 
 
 Miles. 
 
 5,982 
 
 4,806 
 
 5,156 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1,483,643 
 
 1,721,729 
 
 1,608,447 
 
 Miles. 
 
 4,065 
 
 4,717 
 
 4,571 
 
 £ 
 
 3,797 
 
 4,572 
 
 3,989 
 
 £ 
 43‘7 
 5 i ‘3 
 40'8 
 
 Pence 
 
 •61 
 
 ■63 
 
 ■56 
 
96 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Maintenance of Way, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 length open. 
 
 
 Cost for maintenance of way. 
 
 t 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile of 
 way. 
 
 Per sq. yard 
 of way.* 
 
 Per mile run 
 by cars. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 
 4,869 
 
 267 
 
 6’42 
 
 77 
 
 1890 
 
 
 4.673 
 
 256 
 
 6*14 
 
 •65 
 
 1891 
 
 
 4.597 
 
 264 
 
 6-33 
 
 •66 
 
 * Allowing 10,000 sq. yards for lineal mile. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CAPITAL, RECEIPTS, AND WORKING EXPENDI¬ 
 TURE OF THE ABERDEEN DISTRICT TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Capital Expenditure, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Length 
 
 open. 
 
 Build¬ 
 
 ings. 
 
 Way. 
 
 Cars and 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Harness 
 carts, &c 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile 
 open. 
 
 1889 
 
 m. 
 
 ch. 
 
 € 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 .6 
 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 8,335 
 
 39,201 
 
 2,670 
 
 3.024 
 
 383 
 
 53.613 
 
 5,924 
 
 1890 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 8,689 
 
 39,201 
 
 2,410 
 
 2,460 
 
 368 
 
 54,128 
 
 5,981 
 
 1891 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9^043 
 
 39^285 
 
 2,660 
 
 3.700 
 
 430 
 
 55,118 
 
 6,090 
 
 Number of Horses, 1889—1891. 
 
 June 30, 1889 ...... 165 
 
 Dec. 31, 1889 ...... 161 
 
 June 30, 1890.176 
 
 Dec. 31, 1890 . . . . . . 173 
 
 June 30, 1891 ...... 184 
 
 Dec. 31, 1891 ...... 185 
 
 Receipts and Passengers, 1889—1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Sundry 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Total 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of capital. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1889 
 
 15,345 
 
 712 
 
 16,057 
 
 30-0 
 
 1890 
 
 16,637 
 
 722 
 
 17,359 
 
 32-1 
 
 1891 
 
 17,368 
 
 771 
 
 18,139 
 
 33'0 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Length open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile per week. 
 
 
 Aliles. 
 
 chains. 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 E 774 
 
 68*23 
 
 1890 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1,918 
 
 7376 
 
 1891 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 2,004 
 
 77-07 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 passengers. 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day of 365. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per passenger. 
 
 1889 
 
 3,023,932 
 
 8,284 
 
 £ 
 
 15,345 
 
 Pence. 
 
 I- 2 I 
 
 1890 
 
 3,271,507 
 
 8,963 
 
 16,637 
 
 1-22 
 
 1891 
 
 3,430,449 
 
 9,396 
 
 17,368 
 
 1-22 
 
 Working Expenditure, 1889—1891. 
 
 
 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Proportional 
 part of total 
 expenditure. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Working expenses, 
 including wages of 
 conductors,drivers, 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 3,432 
 
 3,511 
 
 3,777 
 
 28-74 
 
 Horsing expenses . 
 
 5,445 
 
 5-905 
 
 6,921 
 
 52-66 
 
 Repairs . . 
 
 909 
 
 850 
 
 922 
 
 7-02 
 
 General expenses . 
 
 1,269 
 
 1—1 
 
 00 
 
 1,522 
 
 11-58 
 
 Total expenditure . 
 
 11,055 
 
 11,553 
 
 13,142 
 
 100-00 
 
 Do. per mile open. 
 
 r, 2 i I 
 
 1,276 
 
 1,452 
 
 •— 
 
 Do. per cent, of 
 
 
 
 
 receipts. 
 
 68-84 
 
 66-55 
 
 72-45 
 
 — 
 
ABERDEEN TRAMWA VS. 
 
 99 
 
 Horsing Expenses, Half-year ending December 31, 1891. 
 
 Item. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per horse per 
 half-year. 
 
 Per horse per 
 week. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Forage 
 
 2,903 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 Condiment . 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 o| 
 
 Coals .... 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 Stable furnishings 
 
 31 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 Horse-shoeing . 
 
 217 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 10 ^ 
 
 Stable wages 
 
 567 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 i 
 
 « 
 
 3,749 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 7 t 
 
 Repairs, Half-year ending December 31, 1891. 
 
 Repairs to 
 
 harness 
 
 £ 
 
 53 
 
 Proportion of 
 total. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 = ii'68 
 
 ? ? 
 
 cars . 
 
 . 244 
 
 = 5374 
 
 7 7 
 
 buses . 
 
 11 
 
 = 2-42 
 
 7 7 
 
 buildings 
 
 37 
 
 = 8*15 
 
 7 7 
 
 implements . 
 
 9 
 
 = I’98 
 
 7 7 
 
 permanent way . 
 
 100 
 
 = 22’03 
 
 Total 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • 454 
 
 = 100-00 
 
 Maintenance of Way, 1889—91. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Length open. 
 
 Maintenance of way. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per mile of way. 
 
 Per square yard 
 of way."^ 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1889 
 
 9 io 
 
 188 
 
 20-7 
 
 ‘49 1 
 
 1890 
 
 9 M) 
 
 257 
 
 28-3 
 
 •68 
 
 1891 
 
 92^0 
 
 238 
 
 26-2 
 
 •62 1 
 
 Allowing 10,000 sq. yards per lineal mile. 
 
 H 2 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 PROPERTY, RECEIPTS, AND 
 WORKING EXPENDITURE OF THE BLACKPOOL 
 
 ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 Property belonging to the Company, October 31, 1891. 
 
 Tram shed ...... 
 
 . 2,566 
 
 Engines, generators, motors, &c. 
 
 • 3 >343 
 
 Centre channel and electrical fittings . 
 
 • 8,435 
 
 12 cars, turntable, and traverser 
 
 • 2,157 
 
 Miscellaneous capital expenses . 
 
 641 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Miles run, Receipts, and Passengers, for Years 
 
 1890, 1891. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles run by cars. 
 
 Traffic 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Adver¬ 
 
 tising. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 1 
 
 Total receipts. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 1890 
 
 92,000 
 
 6,281 
 
 183 
 
 27 
 
 6,491 
 
 1891 
 
 98,000 
 
 7>038 
 
 203 
 
 
 7,241 
 
 Year. 
 
 Length 
 
 open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile open. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile per week. 
 
 Receipts per car. 
 
 Receipts per 
 mile run. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1890 
 
 2 
 
 3 > 245'5 
 
 62-4 
 
 649-1 
 
 16-38 
 
 1891 
 
 2 
 
 3,620-5 
 
 69-6 
 
 603-4 
 
 17-23 
 
BLACKPOOL TRAMWAY. 
 
 101 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Number of passengers. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Receipts from passengers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per ( ar per 
 day of 365. 
 
 Per mile ' 
 
 run. 1 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 Perpassenger.' 
 
 1890 
 
 812,299 
 
 81,229 
 
 223 
 
 8’82 
 
 6,281 
 
 Pence. 
 
 I’84 
 
 1891 
 
 933.652 
 
 77,804 
 
 212 
 
 9’52 
 
 7.038 
 
 r8i 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number 
 of cars. 
 
 Miles run by cars, | 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per day of 365. 
 
 Per car. 
 
 Per car per day 
 of 365- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. ’ 
 
 1890 
 
 10 
 
 92,000 
 
 252 
 
 9,200 
 
 25*2 
 
 1891 
 
 12 
 
 98,000 
 
 268 
 
 8,166 
 
 22-3 
 
 Working Expenditure, 1890, 1891. 
 
 
 
 
 1891. 1 
 
 Items. 
 
 1890.’ 
 
 1891. 
 
 Propor¬ 
 tion of 
 total. 
 
 1 
 
 Per 
 
 mile 
 
 run. 
 
 Repairing centre channel (labour and 
 
 
 L 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 
 
 
 materials) . . . • 
 
 126 
 
 145 
 
 3*47 
 
 *35 ^ 
 
 Electrical fittings (repairing arma- 
 
 
 
 tures, &c.) ..... 
 
 170 
 
 192 
 
 4'57 
 
 *48 
 
 Wheels for cars, chain, cast bosses and 
 
 
 cog rims, &c. ..... 
 
 147 
 
 135 
 
 3-22 
 
 *33 
 
 Plumbers’ work at water connections. 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. . . . . • • • • 
 
 23 
 
 78 
 
 1*88 
 
 -19 
 
 Repairing roadway for Corporation, be- 
 
 
 
 tween rails and i8 ins. outside thereof 
 
 113 
 
 1—1 
 
 00 
 
 4 ‘ 5 i 
 
 *47 
 
 Wages of drivers, conductors, checkers. 
 
 engineers, stokers, &c. 
 
 1,778 
 
 1,331 
 
 34*14 
 
 3*28 
 
 Coal, coke, oil, cotton waste, &c. 
 
 281 
 
 291 
 
 6*92 
 
 •71 
 
 General charges ..... 
 
 1,994 
 
 1,830 
 
 41*29 
 
 4*44 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 4,032 
 
 4,191 
 
 100-00 
 
 10-25 : 
 
 Do. per cent, of receipts 
 
 64*18 
 
 59 ' 9 i 
 
 — 
 
 — , 
 
 Do. per mile open 
 
 2,016 
 
 Pence. 
 
 2,095 
 
 Pence. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Do. per mile run .... 
 
 10*51 
 
 10-25 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 LONDON GENERAL OMNLBUS COMPANY. 
 
 The management and experience of the London General Omni¬ 
 bus Company having been long-continued and successful, it will 
 be well, in the first place, to epitomise some of the results of their 
 experience, drawn from their half-yearly reports. 
 
 In 1875—76, a considerable proportion of the business of the 
 Company consisted in supplying horse-power to the North 
 Metropolitan Tramways Company. It is not possible, therefore, 
 to deduce from the accounts the net cost for omnibus service. The 
 following epitome contains all that can usefully be abstracted for 
 comparison with the accounts of tramway companies :— 
 
 Capital Account, Traffic, Receipts and Expenditure, 
 
 1875, 1876. 
 
 Capital in property, leases, and buildings 
 
 1875- 
 
 73,808 
 
 CO 
 
 • 0 
 
 Stock-in-trade—omnibuses, horses, harness, 
 
 
 goodwill, and appurtenances 
 
 522,116 
 
 521,540 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 • ;^ 595>924 
 
 ;^ 595 G 48 
 
 Omnibuses :— 
 
 
 w k 
 
 Miles run ....... 
 
 Average number of omnibuses on daily 
 
 11,619,606 
 
 11,806,956 
 
 duty on week days .... 
 
 564 
 
 568 
 
 Ditto on Sundays ..... 
 
 460 
 
 470 
 
 Ditto for seven days a week 
 
 530 
 
 554 
 
 Miles run per omnibus on duty per year . 
 
 21,130 
 
 21,320 
 
 Number of passengers carried by omnibuses 
 
 49,720,038 
 
 51,157,946 
 
 Ditto per mile run. 
 
 4'28 
 
 4'33 
 
 Average number of horses 
 
 7 > 9 i 3 
 
 7^893 
 
LONDON GENERAL OMNIBUS COMPANY. 
 
 103 
 
 Receipts :— 
 
 1875- 
 
 1876. 
 
 Ordinary omnibus traffic and hire 
 
 537 >905 
 
 544.056 
 
 Horsing tramway cars .... 
 
 106,194 
 
 100,573 
 
 Manure and advertising .... 
 
 9447 
 
 9,012 
 
 Total Receipts 
 
 .^653,546 
 
 4^653,641 
 
 Receipts per cent, of capital in property at 
 the end of the year .... 
 
 Receipts from omnibus traffic per omnibus 
 
 109-6% 
 
 109*8 % 
 
 on duty ...... 
 
 ;^978 
 
 4'982 
 
 Ditto per day (365) ..... 
 
 .^1474 
 
 ^4491 
 
 Ditto per omnibus per day 
 
 £2 13s. 7d. 
 
 £2 13s. 6id. 
 
 Ditto per mile run ..... 
 
 11 *1 id. 
 
 I i-05d. 
 
 Ditto per passenger ..... 
 
 2-bod. 
 
 2 * 55 d. 
 
 Average Working Expenditure for two years, 1875—76. 
 
 Miles run per year, 11,713,281. 
 
 
 Direct expenditure :— 
 
 Horsing, including renewal of horses 
 
 Per year. 
 
 
 (7,903 horses). 
 
 ^404,618 
 
 
 Ditto per horse ...... 
 
 
 
 Maintenance of omnibuses and aprons . 
 Ditto ditto per omnibus on duty, 552 
 
 7^29,431 
 
 4 ’ 53*3 
 
 Ditto ditto per mile run .... 
 Traffic charges, including wages of drivers 
 
 
 o’bod. 
 
 and conductors ..... 
 
 ;^ii5»883 
 
 
 General charges, including rents 
 
 ^27,410 
 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 .4577442 
 
 
 Contingent expenditure :— 
 
 
 
 Rates and taxes ..... 
 
 4 ' 2,776 
 
 
 Excise duties and licenses 
 
 4 ‘ 2,586 
 
 
 Compensation and law charges connected 
 
 Per mile run. 
 
 therewith ...... 
 
 ;^3,620 or 
 
 • 047 d. 
 
 
 ^8,982 
 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 4586,324 
 
 
104 
 
 STATISTICS OF IF AM WAVS. 
 
 The numbers of new omnibuses that were constructed as re¬ 
 newals of omnibus stock in the course of two years was as 
 follows :— 
 
 Half-year ending June, 1875 
 
 . ' 9 
 
 Ditto December, 1875 
 
 . TI 
 
 Ditto June, 1876 . . . . 
 
 . 14 
 
 Ditto December, 1876 . 
 
 • 13 
 
 New omnibuses in two years 
 
 • 47 
 
 The mileage run by omnibuses during the 
 
 same period amounted 
 
 to 23,426,562 miles, equivalent to 498,440 miles per omnibus 
 replaced. The life of an omnibus was therefore deducible, in 
 round numbers, as 500,000 miles. Again, the average annual 
 number of miles run per omnibus on daily duty was 21,225 miles. 
 If it be taken at 21,000, a round number, the average life in years 
 of the omnibuses, supposing that they were on duty every day con¬ 
 tinuously, would be twenty-four years. But, necessarily, they are otf 
 duty for repairs from time to time; and though the accounts did 
 not show how many surplus omnibuses there were in stock, it may 
 be assumed, for present purposes, that 80 per cent, of the whole 
 number was on daily duty, and 20 per cent., or a fourth more, was 
 in reserve and under repair. Adding, correspondingly, a fourth to 
 the number of years above found, thirty years is arrived at as the 
 actual life in time of an omnibus. 
 
 The length of the lives of the horses contrasts unpleasantly with 
 the length of life of the omnibuses. The average total number of 
 horses and the number of carcases and living horses sold when 
 unfit for duty, during the years 1875-76, were as follows:— 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average total 
 number of horses. 
 
 Number 
 
 sold. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total. 
 
 1875 
 
 7.913 
 
 1,889 
 
 23*9 per cent. 
 
 1876 
 
 7.893 
 
 1.774 
 
 22*5 
 
 Average 
 
 s . 7,903 
 
 1,832 
 
 23'2 
 
 showing that upwards of 23 per cent, of the stock of horses were 
 
LONDON GENERAL OMNIBUS COMPANY. 
 
 105 
 
 old, and, of course, replaced per year. From these data it follows 
 that the whole of the stock of horses was renewed in 
 
 TOO 
 
 2^2 = 4-31 years; 
 
 and that thus the life of an omnibus horse was 4'31 years; varying 
 from 4*2 years in 1875 to 4*44 years in 1876. 
 
 Mr. A. G. Church, the late general manager and secretary of the 
 Company, stated, on an extended basis of experience, that the life ot 
 a horse varied from four years to four and a half years in the service; 
 four years on tramway service, and four and a half years on omnibus 
 service. The shorter life of the tramway horse was easily accounted 
 for by the greater effort required to start a tramway car, in conse¬ 
 quence of the greater mass, rigidity, and weight, compared with the 
 condition of an omnibus; together with the greater frequency of 
 the stoppages to which the tramcar is subject, arising from the 
 greater number of passengers carried by the car, and from the num¬ 
 ber of stoppages incurred in addition by the occasional blockage 
 of the tramway by other vehicles. The frequently repeated efforts 
 required of the horses to start the cars tell disastrously upon their 
 condition; for, although the resistance to a tramcar on a tramway 
 is much less per ton than the resistance to an omnibus on a com¬ 
 mon road, yet the effort of traction required to start a tramcar is 
 much greater than that for an omnibus. The greater frequency ot 
 the stoppages of the tramcar for passengers than of the omnibus 
 was proved by the greater number of passengers per mile run by 
 the car, which amounted to about 7^ passengers per mile run on 
 the North Metropolitan Tramways—worked by the Omnibus Com¬ 
 pany—and to only 4'3o passengers per mile run by the omnibus. It 
 is very probable, taking into account extra stoppages by the car 
 and by the omnibus, that the former was stopped and started at 
 least twice as frequently as the latter. 
 
 There is a significance in the correspondence between the num¬ 
 ber of horses sold and replaced, and the receipts from omnibus 
 traffic and the horsing of tramway-cars in the two years 1875 
 
106 STATISTICS OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 1876. Thus, in 1876 the receipts from omnibus traffic were about 
 ^6,000 greater, and those from tramways were about the same 
 amount less than in 1875. The easement was made apparent in 
 the smaller number of horses sold in 1876 : it was 1,774 as against 
 1,889 sold in the previous year. 
 
 The proportional number of carcases and living horses sold 
 during the year ending June 30th, 1876, were:— 
 
 1,208 carcases or 65 per cent. 
 
 676 living horses or 35 ,, 
 
 1,884 sold 
 
 100 
 
 
 showing that two-thirds of the horses that were sold either died or 
 were worn out in the service, and that a third were sold as only fit 
 for agricultural work—too weak, or affected with bent knees. 
 From the results of more extended data, Mr. Church stated that 
 the proportion of carcases and living horses sold were about 60 per . 
 cent, and 40 per cent. The horses were purchased at about the 
 age of five years for about each, and they were sold when 
 
 worn out for ;£'9 or ;2Cio. For agricultural service they fetched 
 on re-sale sometimes as much as ^16, ^17, or ;£'i8. 
 
 The horses were fed almost entirely with maize; oats as a staple 
 of food had been abandoned. The following were the quantities 
 and the costs of provender for the half-year ending December 31, 
 1876, including the cost of preparation, cartage, lighterage and 
 expenses at the depots :— 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1,419 oats . 
 
 49,179 maize 
 921 beans 
 3,197 bran 
 
 Loads. 
 
 4,399 hay and clover . 
 8,618 straw 
 
 Sundry and grass farm 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 @139 
 
 ,,182 
 
 ,,287 
 
 ,, O II I 
 ,,666 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,685 18 5 
 69>3 i 7 13 6 
 2,237 7 9 
 1,769 19 7 
 
 27,828 II II 
 19,947 I 6 
 141 17 o 
 
 122,928 9 8 
 
LONDON GENERAL OMNIBUS COMPANY. 
 
 107 
 
 The weight of the grain consumed was as follows :— 
 
 > 
 
 Tons. 
 
 cvvts. 
 
 qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Oats, 1,419 quarters 
 
 192 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Maize, 49,179 ,, . 
 
 • 10,538 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 Beans, 921 ,, 
 
 205 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Total weight 
 
 • 10,936 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 The average cost for provender consumed by each stud, includ¬ 
 ing the expenses in connection with the provender department, 
 was ^174. 
 
 It appears from the foregoing statements that the total cost for 
 maintenance and renewal of horses was 4s. per year per horse, 
 or about per week. 
 
 The reports of the Omnibus Company for the past three or four 
 years (writing in 1878) comment upon the deplorable state of 
 the main thoroughfares in the eastern, southern, and northern parts 
 of the metropolis, which were destructive of the wheels, springs, and 
 under-carriages of ordinary vehicles. The cost for wheels alone 
 for the Company’s omnibuses increased from ^9 los. per omnibus 
 per year to ;£i5 per year since the introduction of tramways. 
 Valuable horses have constantly been injured by straining and 
 slipping on the rails.” 
 
 Coming now to the operations of the Company in more recent 
 years—the two years ending June 30, 1890-91—the working 
 capital expenditure was as follows :—• 
 
 Capital Expenditure at June 30, 1891. 
 
 Land, buildings, and leaseholds . . 100,159 
 
 Omnibuses, horses, harness, &c. . . 580,661 
 
 Gas and water fittings .... 3.908 
 
 Stable fittings and stores . . . 6,553 
 
 Office furniture and fixtures . . . 1,016 
 
 Total.^692,297 
 
io8 
 
 STATISTICS OF TBAMWAYS. 
 
 On June 30, 1891, there were 9,796 horses ; the average price 
 paid during the half-year was is. lod. per horse; 797 car¬ 
 
 cases and 440 living horses were sold. 
 
 The gross receipts in the half-year, with other particulars, were 
 as follows :— 
 
 Ordinary omnibus traffic and private hire . . 318,295 
 
 Advertising in and upon omnibuses . . . 7,290 
 
 Manure . . . . . . . . 1,194 
 
 Total.. . 326,779 
 
 1891. 
 
 The number of passengers carried by omnibuses was . 53,843,477 
 
 The average number of omnibuses working on week 
 
 days .......... 860 
 
 Ditto on Sundays ........ 735 
 
 Ditto receipts for passengers per omnibus per week was £ 1 ^ i6s. od. 
 Ditto fare per passenger ...... i-42d. 
 
 Ditto earnings per mile run ...... 8*49d. 
 
 Total number of miles run ...... 9,001,330 
 
 Working Expenditure, Half-year ending June 30, 1891. 
 
 Per mi’ ^ 
 
 General expenses 
 
 Traffic ditto:— 
 
 
 £ 
 
 18,611 
 
 run. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 •49 
 
 Road .... 
 Yard .... 
 Maintenance ditto :— 
 
 • 85,652 \ 
 
 34 T 29 ) 
 
 119,781 
 
 3 'i 9 
 
 Horse stock ... 
 
 . 175,686 
 
 
 
 Omnibus ditto 
 
 21,200 
 
 
 
 Aprons .... 
 
 Harness and stable utensils 
 
 656 
 
 6,189 
 
 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 
 
 569 
 
 
 
 Yard stock .... 
 
 639 
 
 
 
 Stables, offices, &:c. . 
 
 3^679 
 
 209,419 
 
 5*58 
 
 Total 
 
 
 347^811 
 
 9'i6 
 
LONDON GENERAL OMNLBUS COMPANY. 
 
 109 
 
 Provender, Including Cost of Preparation, Cartage, 
 Lighterage, and Depot Expenses for Half-year 
 
 ENDING June 30, 1891. 
 
 Quarters. s. d. £ 
 
 16,173 oats . . . at I o o 16,171 
 
 7,244 beans and peas . ,, i 14 4 12,431 
 
 48,016 maize . . .,.177 66,277 
 
 3,576 bran . . .,.09 ii^ 1,780 
 
 Loads. 
 
 4,956 mixture . . ,,340 15,852 
 
 4,210 straw . . I 14 li 7,185 
 
 Sundry ...... 332 
 
 Total. ;^i20,028 
 
 According to Mr. C. T. Bray, each omnibus is allowed from 
 10 to II horses a day. To keep it running for from 12 to 14 hours 
 5 pairs of horses are worked, leaving i rest horse at the yard. On 
 Sundays, only 4 pairs are working. There are, in all, about 
 10,000 horses. The average daily mileage run is 14 miles. The 
 average life is from 4L to 5J years. Two horses are sold for every 
 one that dies, or is killed. It is a hard life; the mischief is the 
 continuous and frequent starting. It is the strain in setting a 
 heavy omnibus in motion that tells. The omnibus weighs 33 cwt. 
 When full inside and out there are 27 persons in and on the 
 omnibus, besides the driver and conductor, making an average of 
 about 3J tons. As to accidents, very few horses are seriously 
 damaged by falling on slippery pavements, of which asphalte is 
 the worst. 
 
PART III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1 . 
 
 TRAMWAYS IN THE AIETROPOLIS. 
 
 Systems of tramway like those of Liverpool were adopted in the 
 construction of the earlier portions of the tramways which were laid 
 in London, under Mr. George Hopkins, as engineer, comprising 
 the greater part of the North Metropolitan Tramways, of which the 
 first section, from Whitechapel to Bow, was opened in May, 1870 ; 
 and the original Metropolitan Street Tramways (now a part of the 
 system of the London Tramways Company), 5^ miles long, from 
 Westminster Bridge to Brixton Church, Stock well, Clapham 
 Common, and Brixton Hill, also opened in 1870. The rails were 
 of the form and section of the Liverpool rail, 4 inches wide, and 
 if inches thick, weighing 45 lbs. per yard. The system of 
 construction, shown in Fig. 22, was similar to that at Liverpool. 
 The stone pavement, or the macadam of the street, was taken out 
 for a width sufficient for a double line, or a single line of tramway, 
 as the case might be, including a clear space, 2 feet wide, beyond 
 the outermost rails ; and for a depth of about 9 inches, which was 
 the depth of ordinary setts in the metropolis. In the open 
 ground thus exposed, longitudinal trenches, about 9 inches deep 
 and 16 inches wide, were excavated, corresponding to the position 
 of the rails and the longitudinal sleepers by which they were to be 
 
TRAMWAYS JN THE METROPOLIS, 
 
 I I I 
 
 supported. These trenches were filled with concrete made with 
 Portland cement, or with hydraulic lime, mixed with river ballast, 
 and made up to the level of the excavated ground, to form longi¬ 
 tudinal foundations for the rails. The sleepers, 4 inches wide and 
 6 inches deep, were laid in cast-iron clip chairs, by means of 
 which, with bar-iron cross-ties, dove-tailed at the ends, the gauge 
 was maintained. The rails were spiked to the sleepers by vertical 
 spikes through the grooves, with countersunk heads, and the 
 structure was levelled up by concrete, packed under the sleepers, 
 to form a foundation for the paving stones, and these were bedded 
 on a layer of sand, and grouted and rammed. 
 
 The dove-tail tie-bars proved to be of little use ; they were 
 lialde to rust away, and were wanting in precision, for unless the 
 
 Fig. 22. North Metiopolitan Tramway and London Tramways. 
 
 First lines. Scale ijb- 
 
 dove-tailings had been tightly and exactly fitted so that the chairs 
 would have been prevented from shifting either inwards or out¬ 
 wards, the transverse connection was not sufficient to maintain 
 the rails, when the support afforded by the pavement was removed 
 or impaired. Besides, tie-bars placed between the paving sets are 
 in the way, and interfere with the convenience for paving. Again, 
 tie-bars laid in dove-tails in brackets, like those just described, 
 work gradually to the surface, and even above the level of the 
 paving. In such a contingency they are removed, which is the 
 best thing to be done. 
 
 Moreover, the flat rail and the vertical spike or bolt fastening 
 make a defective combination. It is scarcely necessary to say 
 that, at best, the form of the flat rail combined the maximum of 
 material with the minimum of strength and stiffness, whilst the 
 
I 12 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 vertical spike fastening, though it is simple, and appears at first 
 sight to have been happily devised, is deficient in strength and in 
 durability, and contributes nearly nothing towards the union of 
 the rail with the sleeper. The rail, especially at the joints, is 
 liable to spring, and the spikes with their shallow countersunk 
 heads and limited bearing surface, are liable to yield and to wear. 
 The spikes in consequence are gradually loosened, and the heads 
 are lifted, and torn or broken off. The spike heads are further 
 exposed to damage from the wheel flanges, which, like the rail, 
 become worn, ground in the groove, and occasionally split the rail. 
 
 Wherever there is vertical movement, of course an entry for 
 water is made, pumping action ensues, and rain water ultimately 
 sinks through the spikeholes and by the sides of the rails, and 
 
 Fig. 23. Pimlico, Peckham, and Greenwich section of London 
 
 Tramways. Scale, tj-q. 
 
 rises to the surface laden with sand and other detritus. The rails 
 and sleepers are gradually undermined, the sleepers are deformed 
 by blows, and the vertical instability is by so much increased. 
 
 With a view to ameliorate the difficulties of the vertical fastening, 
 as well as to provide an iron tie of a substantial character in place 
 of the delicate dove-tails, Mr. Joseph Kincaid, as engineer, 
 employed transverse sleepers in the construction of the Pimlico, 
 Peckham, and Greenwich section of the London Tramways, 
 opened in August, 1871. Transverse sleepers. Fig. 23, were 
 placed in the bottom of the excavation, to afford an increase of 
 bearing surface on the ground and to receive the longitudinal 
 sleepers which were placed upon them. The transverse sleepers, 
 which were placed at intervals of 5 feet or 6 feet, also afforded a 
 substantial means of tying longitudinal sleepers to the gauge. 
 Instead of attachments in tension, like those of the dove-tailed 
 
TRAMWAYS IN THE METROPOLIS. 
 
 1^3 
 
 bars, cast-iron brackets, two to each cross-sleeper, were employed 
 as abutments, one bracket outside each longitudinal sleeper. The 
 brackets were spiked to the longitudinal sleepers near to their 
 lower surfaces, whilst they were extended up the sides of the 
 sleepers, to afford a direct, or at least nearly direct, resistance to 
 centrifugal stress. By this combination, the indirectness of the 
 sleeper as opposed to lateral stress above, was liberally compen¬ 
 sated by the general stiffness of the structure. 
 
 An additional fillet was applied to the under surface of the rail. 
 Fig. 24, at the outside, sothat now the rail was formed with two 
 fillets, one at each side, that it might be more firmly bedded on 
 the sleeper than the rail having only one fillet. It was found 
 necessary not only to provide, by the inside fillet, the means of 
 
 Fig. 24. London Tramways. Section of rail. Scale 
 
 resistance to the lateral stress of the cars through the flanges of 
 their wheels, but, likewise, means of opposing the lateral action 
 of cross strokes from the wheels of common road vehicles, which 
 traversed the road in all directions. Hence the addition of the 
 second fillet, at the outer side of the rails. The longitudinal 
 sleepers were carefully rebated to receive the rails, which were 
 fixed to them, as before, with vertical spikes through the groove. 
 The adoption of the double fillet, though, in fact, a reversion to 
 old-established American practice, constituted an intelligent ad¬ 
 vance in English practice with the grooved rail. 
 
 The wearing surface of the rail was slightly rounded trans¬ 
 versely, having about iV inch rise, by which the thickness was 
 increased to lAr inches, though the motive for rounding is not 
 
 I 
 
114 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 obvious. The groove was made wider than before: il inches 
 at the surface; and it was rounded at the bottom to a circular 
 form, thus at the same time strengthening the rail by the 
 substitution of a round for a flat contour for the grooves, and 
 facilitating the dislodging of detritus. The splay of the outer side 
 of the groove was, at the same time, slightly greater than in the 
 previous rail. The new rail was 4 inches wide, had a sectional 
 area of 4! square inches, and weighed 48 lbs. per yard. 
 
 For laying in the foundation, the surface of the roadway was 
 removed, and the ground was excavated to a depth of from 
 12 inches to 14 inches, to receive the cross-sleepers. After the 
 longitudinal sleepers were laid and fixed, with the rails complete, 
 they were brought up to the required level by concrete packing 
 below the cross-sleepers; then the whole space was filled with 
 lime concrete to a height necessary for receiving the pavement of 
 stone or of asphalte, whichever was to be laid, for, in some parts 
 of the way, asphalte was used instead of granite for paving. For 
 asphalte, the concrete was required to be brought up higher than 
 for stone, since it was only from inches to 2 inches deep, whilst 
 stone was 6 or 7 inches deep; and the total cost of construction 
 was greater for asphalte. Much was hoped for from asphalte as 
 a pavement for tramways. Experience has not confirmed such 
 expectations. Asphalte pavement breaks away at the borders 
 next the rails, as well as at the outside, and it must be admitted 
 that as a foothold for horses, in starting the cars, it has been a 
 dead failure. 
 
 Mr. Huntingdon * gives particulars of the contractor’s charge 
 for constructing the way of the London Tramways. They maybe 
 taken as approximate actual costs for tramways in London. The 
 gauge of the way is 4 feet 8^- inches ; the interspace between the 
 lines is 4 feet. The rails were fixed with |-inch staples on the 
 kyanised longitudinal sleepers, 21 feet long, with four transverse 
 sleepers, bolted with |-inch bolts and nuts to the gauge. The fish- 
 
 * Proceedings of the Institntio?i of Cruil Engineers, vol. 50, 
 1877, page 28, in the discussion of Mr. Robinson Souttar’s Paper on 
 
 Street Tramways.” 
 
TRAMWAYS IN THE METROPOLIS. 
 
 115 
 
 plates at the joints were 9 inches long and f inch thick/let into 
 the longitudinal sleepers. The sleepers were bedded in Portland 
 cement concrete, 6 inches deep, upon which the paving was laid. 
 
 London Tramways—Single Line. 
 
 Rails, 50 lbs. per yard, ties, spikes, bolts, staples, fishes, &c., 
 rails at;^io los. delivered ...... 
 
 Timber creosoted and shaped ...... 
 
 Fixing and laying, including crossings . . . . . 
 
 Maintenance for one year ...... . 
 
 Contingencies, cartage, lights, watching, waste, and cutting 
 Risk and profit, 10 per cent. ....... 
 
 Total 
 
 Per yaid. 
 s. d. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 I O 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 b 
 
 17 o 
 
 1,760 yards at 17s. =^1,496, say ^1,500 per mile. 
 
 The cost for paving with granite stones, 7 inches deep, for a 
 double road, with concrete bottom, was as follows :— 
 
 Double Line. 
 
 Per square yard. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Granite paving sets, 7 inches deep, tramways 18 feet wide, 
 
 materials and labour . . . . . . .110 
 
 Concrete, averaging 6 inches deep, including excavation and 
 
 removal of road ........16 
 
 Contingencies, grouting, carting, watching, removing materials 
 
 and sanding .........10 
 
 Maintenance for one year . . . . . . .03 
 
 Risk and profit, 10. per cent . . . . . . .13 
 
 Total . . 15 o 
 
 1,760 yards x 60 yards x 15s. =^7,920, say ^^8,000 per mile. 
 
 The cost for paving, single line, is half the above-given amount, 
 or ^4,000 ; and the total cost of the tramway is made up thus :— 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 I l6 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 Way . 
 Paving 
 
 ;^i>500 
 
 4,000 
 
 Per mile, single line . ^5 j500 
 
 Or ^11,000 per mile, double line. 
 
 Extra works, crossings, and sidings are not included in these 
 estimates. 
 
 Mr. Kincaid, having in the Peckham Tramway proved the 
 advantage of the cross-sleeper as a useful element in a timber 
 structure, employed it in the construction of the first section of the 
 Leeds Tramways—the line to Headingley—which was opened in 
 October, 1872. The gauge was 4 feet 8^ inches. The ground 
 was excavated to a depth of inches—the depth of the rail plus 
 that of the longitudinal sleepers—for the whole width of the way ; 
 and trenches about 9 inches wide were cut in the excavated 
 bottom, and filled with concrete, flush with the bottom, to carry 
 the sleepers. The cross-sleepers, 6 inches wide and 4 inches 
 deep, were laid in the concrete of the transverse trenches about 
 3 feet apart, flush with the surface; and thus a continuous level 
 foundation was formed for the longitudinal sleepers and the rails. 
 The longitudinals, 4 inches wide and 6 inches deep, were fixed to 
 the transverse sleepers by cast-iron brackets, one on each side ot 
 each longitudinal sleeper, spiked to both timbers. The rails, 
 weighing 47I- lbs. per yard, were flat grooved, 4 inches wide and 
 
 inches thick, with -two ^-inch square fillets on the underside, 
 let into the sleepers; they were spiked through the groove to the 
 sleepers. A bedding of furnace ash or clinkers, 2 1 inches thick, 
 was laid over the bottom, on which paving sets 5 inches deep 
 were laid. 
 
 On this system, an economy of excavation, as well as an 
 economy of concrete, was effected, by employing concrete for the 
 support of the sleepers exclusively. By the interposition of a bed 
 of ashes laid uniformly over the whole surface, it was designed 
 that the pavement should rest equally over the sleepers and the 
 direct excavated surface. 
 
TRAMWAYS IN THE ME'TROPOLIS. 
 
 II 7 
 
 Inclines and Curves on Tramways in London. 
 
 The steepest gradient of considerable length on the North 
 Metropolitan system is one in the City Road, of about one in 
 forty, on the approach to the Angel at Islington. There are 
 short pieces at the crossings of canal bridges of about one in 
 twenty-five. The curves are 40 feet radius; with reverse curves 
 of 50 feet radius. 
 
 On the London Street Tramways the gradients are easy, except¬ 
 ing a short piece of one in twenty-three. The quickest curves 
 have a radius of 30 feet. 
 
 On the London Tramways the prevailing gradient is one in 
 fifty, but there are gradients of one in thirty. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LARSEN'S FASTENING—LONDON STREET 
 TRAMWAYS—BELFAST TRAMWAYS. 
 
 But a method of fastening the rail to the sleeper was wanted 
 which would be free from the defects of the vertical spike,—a 
 method the barbarity of which was only rivalled by its simplicity. 
 Mr. Jorgen Daniel Larsen supplied the want, by substituting 
 lateral fastenings for vertical spikes, a system which was patented 
 
 by him in February, 1871, and is repre¬ 
 sented in Fig. 25. 
 
 “ The vertical or upright side of the rail,” 
 he says, ‘intended to be fastened to a 
 sleeper, is so made as to extend in the 
 manner of a flange or flanges below the 
 upper surface of the sleeper (longitudinal), 
 either on one or both sides of the sleeper. 
 An aperture is made in each flange, so as 
 to be a short distance below the upper 
 surface of the sleeper, when the rail is 
 placed thereon. To fix the rail to the 
 sleeper, a bent metal piece or half staple is 
 inserted into the hole in the flange and 
 driven home, and is also fixed to the 
 vertical side of the sleeper. The part of the metal piece or half 
 staple inserted into the hole may be of various forms, and may be 
 so long as to go through the sleeper and to enter also a corres¬ 
 ponding hole in the other vertical side of the rail extended as a 
 flange. The metal piece may be of such form as to pass through 
 at once two or more holes in the same flange.” 
 
 Fig. 25. Side fastening. 
 By Mr. J. D. Larsen. 
 
 Scale |. 
 
LARSEiV'S FASTEAIiXG—LOXDON STREET TRAMWA YS. I 19 
 
 In the Larsen rail two important advantages are combined. By 
 the flanges it is virtually increased in depth and in stiffness verti¬ 
 cally and laterally ; and the fastenings, as applied at the sides, are 
 not only removed from interference of the wheel flanges, but are so 
 placed as greatly to strengthen the attachment of the rail to the 
 sleeper; for it is apparent that the wide base of attachment 
 afforded by the lateral flanges creates a leverage of resistance to 
 lateral stress twice as great as the leverage derived from a central 
 vertical spike. There is yet another advantage, that by means of 
 the flanges the sleeper may be more firmly embraced by the 
 flanged rail than it can possibly be by the shallow filleted rail. 
 
 Although, incidentally, the strength of the Larsen rail was 
 increased by the addition of the flanges, it does not appear that 
 vertical strength was, in his earliest designs, made a point in ques¬ 
 tion by the designer; for there is only sufficient depth of flange, 
 I inch, to afford room for the fastenings. In point of absolute 
 transverse strength, Larsen’s rail had already been anticipated by 
 Livesey’s rail, patented in 1869, which is described, and which 
 was formed with a flange each side of considerable depth. Mr. 
 Larsen should, nevertheless, be credited with the merit of intro¬ 
 ducing the flange rail into practice in England, as well as the 
 method of the side fastening. 
 
 In the construction of the London Street Tramways, under the 
 charge of Mr. Larsen, the first portion of which 
 was opened in November, 1871, he designed 
 and made the first application of lateral fasten¬ 
 ings for tram-rails (Fig. 26), upon the results of 
 which his patent was based. In this, his first 
 trial, the rails were 4 inches wide, and weighed 
 
 60 lbs. per yard. They were double flanged, ^ 
 
 ^ ^ 0 7 lastenmg for the 
 
 and were fixed upon longitudinal sleepers, London Street 
 6 inches deep, by means of side fastenings, ramways. 
 which consisted of three pieces at each side :—a strap 3^ inches 
 long, f of an inch wide, and f inch thick, the two spikes driven 
 horizontally into the sleeper, through a hole at each end of 
 the strap, the upper spike passing also through a hole made 
 
120 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 in the flange of the rail. The excavation for the foundation 
 was carried down to a level of 4 inches below the underside of 
 the sleepers, for the whole width of the way. An even bed of 
 concrete, 4 inches thick, was laid upon the bottom, and the longi- 
 
 FiG. 27. London Street Tramways. Scale ;jh-. 
 
 tudinal sleepers were laid directly upon it. The timbers were 
 placed in cast-iron chairs at the joints, and the gauge was fixed 
 by means of flat bar-iron ties, split and kneed both ways at the 
 ends, and fixed to the sleepers by bolts or spikes as shown. A 
 2-inch layer of sand or of gravel was distributed over the concrete 
 
 surface, to form a bed for the paving, which 
 was laid and grouted in the usual manner. 
 (See Fig. 27.) 
 
 In this his first employment of side- 
 fastenings, Mr. Larsen substituted three 
 pieces for the vertical spike. Not oblivious 
 of the disadvantage of multiplying the 
 number of pieces in the fastening, he 
 reduced them in his patent to two in 
 number, as has already been described; 
 and in his next operation, the construction 
 of the Belfast Tramways, he employed the 
 fastening in two pieces, as patented. The 
 works of these tramways were commenced 
 early in 1872, and the first section was 
 opened in the autumn of the same year. 
 The construction of the Belfast Tramways is illustrated by Fig. 
 28. It consists of longitudinal sleepers laid upon cross-sleepers 
 enclosed in concrete, the rails being laid on the longitudinal 
 sleepers. The gauge of the way is 5 feet 3 inches. The inter¬ 
 mediate space between the two lines of rails of a double line is 
 4 feet; the breadth of paving at the outer sides of the rails is 
 
 Fig. 28. Belfast Tram¬ 
 ways. Section of rail 
 with Larsen’s fasten¬ 
 ing. Scale T 
 
LARSEN'S FASTENING—BELFAST TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 1 2 I 
 
 2 feet; the tread of the rails is 1inches wide, and the total width 
 of the tramway for a double line is constituted as follows :— 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In 
 
 Two lines, 5 feet 3 inches gauge 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Intermediate space . . , . , 
 
 . 4 
 
 0 
 
 Two outside breadths of 2 feet each . 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Four widths of tread if inches . 
 
 0 
 
 7 l 
 
 19 i-i 
 
 The ground was excavated to a uniform depth of 1inches 
 below the permanent surface, for the whole width of the tramway, 
 double or single. Cross-sleepers of wood, 4 inches deep by 
 
 6 inches wide, and 7 feet in length, were laid on the bottom of the 
 excavation at interv'als of 5 feet between centres, and the longi¬ 
 tudinal sleepers, 3^ inches wide, and 6 inches deep, were laid and 
 fixed by cast-iron brackets, weighing 5 lbs. each. There was but 
 one bracket at each intersection, placed alternately at the inside 
 and the outside of the longitudinal sleeper; fixed by four spikes 
 to each bracket. 
 
 The rails weigh about 62 lbs. per yard; they are 3^ inches wide 
 and inches thick; the side flanges are inches deep, and 
 To inch thick at the edge, making the total depth of the rail 2I 
 inches. The tread is inches wide, the groove is inches 
 wide and if inch deep, and the outer ledge is ^ inch thick at the 
 edge. The side fastening of the rail to the sleeper is of two 
 pieces :—an iron plate or strap, f inch thick, having a spike 
 welded to it at the upper end, which passes through the flange 01 
 the rail, and a hole near the lower end, through which a large 
 spike is driven nearly through the sleeper. The fastenings were 
 applied alternately to each side of the rail at short intervals. 
 
 After the sleepers and rails were accurately adjusted and packed 
 below the cross-sleepers, the spaces between the cross-sleepers, 
 and the whole area above them on each side of the longitudinal 
 sleepers, were filled solid with concrete to a total height of about 
 
 7 inches above the floor of the excavation, suited for the laying of 
 the paving, which consisted of 4 inches granite cubes with a 
 
 layer of sand. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE NORTH 
 METROPOLITAN TRAMWATS. 
 
 In the work of reconstructing the North Metropolitan Tramways 
 in 1877, Mr. Hopkins abandoned the cast-iron chairs or clips 
 with the dove-tailed cross tie-bars for connecting the tails, and 
 substituted a tie-bar, Fig. 29, of the same scantling as before, 
 formed with a |-inch bolt at each end, which was passed through 
 
 F:g. 29. North Metropolitan Tramways ;—-Method of Reconstruction. 
 
 Scale T 
 
 each longitudinal sleeper, and screwed up with a shallow nut 
 outside. The tie-bar was brought up with a square shoulder on a 
 washer, to the inside of each sleeper; the nut was only d inch 
 thick in order to minimise the projection, and consequent 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 123 
 
 interference with the paving at the other side of the sleeper. 
 The existing foundation was partly renewed by the excavation, 
 under each sleeper, of a shallow trough in the concrete, inches 
 deep and 6 or 7 inches wide. This trough was filled with fine 
 concrete in which the longitudinal sleepers were embedded to 
 the depth of i inch. The sleepers were 4 inches wide and 5 inches 
 deep, rebated to fix the rails. They were bedded at their joints 
 on plates of fir, 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick, let into 
 
 the foundation. The rails were of steel, weighing 60 lbs. per 
 
 yard. They were of the box type, 3I inches wide at the 
 surface, 2^ inches deep over the flanges, and i ro inches thick. 
 They resembled in section the Vale of Clyde rail; they had the 
 same total depth, but they were not so thick as the other rail. 
 
 The groove was inches wide and f inch deep, having only 
 
 Ve inch of metal below the groove. The tread was 2 inches wide, 
 and was very slightly rounded ; the flanges were f inch thick at 
 the edge. Each rail of 24 feet in length was fastened by 25 
 staples, placed at a pitch of 2 feet 7 inches at each side, except 
 those at the ends, where there were two pairs of staples, of which 
 one pair was distant inches from the end of the rail, and the 
 second pair was 3 inches farther off. 
 
 This mode of reconstruction was followed until the end of 1880, 
 when 18 miles of single way had been reconstructed. In some 
 places a longitudinal plank, ii inches wide by inches thick, 
 was laid below the sleeper and spiked to it, in order to prevent 
 sinkage of the adjoining paving sets by partially supporting them. 
 The spikes consisted of 3^-inch nails driven down from the sides 
 diagonally. In 1880, a length of 3 miles of new line had been 
 laid with the plank base, and about 2 miles of old line had been 
 reconstructed with it. The work of reconstructing old lines on this 
 system was done principally in Liverpool Road, Islington, and the 
 new lines were laid in Dalston Lane and Graham Road, Dalston, 
 and on the line through Victoria Park to its northern terminus. 
 The work gave satisfaction, excepting at a few places where the 
 paving sets were not of a suitable depth, or where the traffic was 
 admitted over the work before the grouting was sufficiently set. 
 
124 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TR A AIWA VS. 
 
 The employment of the plank base in reconstruction involved 
 the breaking up of much of the concrete foundation, which on 
 the North Metropolitan system generally is very hard. The cost 
 of breaking up actually exceeded the cost of making everything 
 good with Portland cement. 
 
 The rails, again, were reduced to a width of 3! inches, mostly 
 by reducing the thickness of the guard flange, for it was ascer¬ 
 tained that guards of the thickness of ^ inch or even slightly less 
 than this, are worn down by the ordinary vehicular traffic at nearly 
 the same rate as that at which the head of the rail was worn by the 
 ordinary traffic and the car traffic combined. Such equality of wear 
 has its importance, for it has frequently become necessary to recon¬ 
 struct lines of way having f-inch guards several years earlier than 
 would have been necessary had the tread not worn down much more 
 rapidly than the guard. The slight rounding of the tread of the 
 new rails has not been found to serve any useful purpose, and has 
 therefore been abandoned, and the tread has been made square. 
 The groove was reduced to a width of iiV inches at the surface, 
 which was believed to be the minimum width that was practicable, 
 having proper regard to the resistance of the car and the work ot 
 the horses. 
 
 But, the box-rail laid with longitudinal sleepers, though as 
 good as most other systems, and probably better than any of 
 these, was wanting in permanency, and in any case was un¬ 
 suited for mechanical tractors. Short lengths of other systems 
 were laid down for trial. The metal system of Winby and 
 Levick was tried experimentally, a length of 80 yards of single 
 line having been laid early iii 1879in Upper Street, Islington. It 
 was, and continued to be (1880), in good order. 
 
 A trial length of 15 yards of toughened glass sleepers, 4 inches 
 by 6 inches deep, to the same section as the rebated fir sleepers, 
 was laid in High Street, Stratford, about the middle of 1879, and 
 covered with the ordinary box-rail. Whilst the new material 
 seemed to be fully capable of supporting the road without failure 
 by crushing, it was broken into short segments, some pieces being 
 not more than 6 inches in length, and the fractures were nearly 
 
XORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 125 
 
 vertical. As the level of the rails was not affected by the fractur¬ 
 ing, the sleepers were allowed to remain where they were. The 
 rails were fastened to the sleepers by means of straps passed under 
 these. The straps worked loose and were not a success. 
 
 Figs. 30 and 31. Page’s System, North Metropolitan Tramways. Scale 0 ^-. 
 
 The system of Mr. William Page was finally selected for the 
 renewals and extensions of the system, and a length of renewal on 
 this system was commenced to be laid at the end of 1880. It 
 was designed also for the extension at Leytonstone. The system, 
 Figs. 30 and 31, consisted of a 
 steel rail,Fig. 32, weighing 42 lbs. 
 per yard, grooved on the under¬ 
 side, to fit on and be supported 
 by wrought-iron standards, which 
 rested upon and were pinned to 
 a continuous longitudinal iron 
 plate or sleeper, laid on a bed of 
 concrete. The tread of the rail 
 was perfectly flat, and had a width 
 of inches, the groove is i\\- 
 inches wide, and the flange or 
 guard is T inch wide, making Fig. 32. Page’s Way, North Metro- 
 together a width at the surface of politan Tramway. Scale T 
 
 3-iV inches. The groove was f inch in depth, and the sides were 
 sloped equally. The depth of the rail was 2^ inches. The 
 
126 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 groove at the lower side was inches deep to give bearing verti¬ 
 cally and laterally on the supports, the flanges forming the groove 
 being iV inch thick at the edge. The standards are of an inverted 
 T section, 5^ inches high, 3f inches wide at the base, and of a 
 length of 12 inches, except at the joints, where they are 14 inches 
 long. The thickness of the web is f inch, and the foot averages 
 the same. The head is ^ inch thick, tapering upwards to f inch 
 in a height of if inches. The standards are placed 12 inches 
 clear apart; the rails are secured to the standards by means of 
 plain round pins passed right through the taper bearings, four at 
 each joint and one at each intermediate standard. The pinholes 
 are so arranged that the driving of the pins draws the rail down 
 into close contact with the standard and makes a tight bearing. 
 The longitudinal base plate is 7 inches wide and inch thick ; 
 the standards are each fastened to it by one fdnch pin with double 
 cotters. 
 
 The total height of the way thus constructed was 7 inches. It is 
 bedded on a foundation of concrete 6 inches deep, composed of 
 one part of blue lias lime and six or seven parts of ballast. The 
 width ot the bearing of the permanent way on the concrete 
 obviated the necessity for using Portland cement. 
 
 Gauge-ties of wrought-iron bars 2 inches by pg- inch thick, 
 secured to the standards, were placed at intervals of 20 feet. They 
 were thickened at the ends to a thickness of dinch and were notched. 
 Through the web of each of the two standards to be tied a hole 
 2 inches long horizontally and f inch deep is made. Through 
 the two holes the tie is inserted and then turned a quarter round 
 to a vertical position edgewise. Thus placed the tie holds the 
 two standards firmly, and it comes between two courses of paving 
 sets by which it is maintained in position. But as the permanent 
 way is solidly constructed, and the base plate is embedded in 
 the concrete, it was considered that the ties were scarcely 
 necessary, and they were therefore to be discontinued. 
 
 The paving used was 6 inches in depth, chiefly of Guernsey 
 granite. The sets were bedded on a layer of fine gravel, and 
 were rammed perfectly flush with the rails. The sets laid next 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 \2"l 
 
 the rails were prevented from sinking by the base-plates of the 
 way, which extended laterally about two inches under the paving. 
 To compensate for the slight variations in the depth of the sets, as 
 well as to prevent the disintegration of the grouting in the joints 
 of the paving, which would result if the sets were in direct contact 
 with the elastic iron base-plates, the depth of the permanent way was 
 made sufficient to admit of ^ inch or f inch thickness of bedding 
 below the sets over the plates. 
 
 The rails, as before stated, weighed 42 lbs. per yard, and the 
 base-plates 22 lbs. per yard. The joint standards weighed 
 13I lbs. each^ and the intermediate standards iif lbs. each. The 
 cotter-bolts weighed one ton per mile, and the cotter-pins for the 
 rails \ ton per mile; the cross-ties weighed 26 cwt. per mile. 
 
 In proceeding with the work of reconstruction and renewal, 
 after the way was lifted, a thin stratum, an inch or so in thickness, 
 was picked off the old concrete bed, where it was in good condition, 
 and the vacancy was made good under the base-plate with fine 
 concrete. Where the old concrete was in bad condition it was 
 entirely removed. The parts of the iron way were put together 
 in the excavated space, propped on temporary packing of wood 
 or other material, so that the base-plate was sufficiently elevated 
 above the floor of the excavated space to admit of the holding- 
 down bolts being inserted. When the whole of the metal work 
 was erected it was lifted bodily into its permanent position by 
 means of levers, and was temporarily repacked up with blocks 6 feet 
 or 8 feet apart. The new concrete was then deposited and packed 
 under the base-plate. When it was stiff enough to bear the weight 
 of the way—which it usually became in the course of an hour or 
 two—the temporary packing was removed, and its place was filled 
 with concrete. The space between the rails was filled in with 
 concrete to the proper level required for the support of the paving. 
 
 In packing the rails with concrete it was put in from one 
 side only, and shovel-packed from that side, and the packing 
 was continued until it was driven out in a full body at the 
 other side of the rail. When the clear space below the base¬ 
 plate to be packed up was but one or two inches deep, it was 
 
128 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAJMWAYS. 
 
 especially needful that the packing should be accomplished as 
 above described, otherwise it might frequently have happened that 
 the concrete only advanced an inch or so under the base-plate at 
 each edge, leaving the interior unsupported. 
 
 The granite sets on the North Metropolitan Tramways vary in 
 depth from 4 inches on some routes to 9 inches on others. On 
 most of the lines 6-inch sets are used. They are laid over a layer 
 of gravel or shingle, from an inch to inches in thickness, which 
 is compressed by the ramming of the pavement to a thickness 
 of from ^ inch to f inch. Frequently a little dry lime is mixed 
 with the bedding. With respect to the width of the pavement 
 laid by the Tramway Company, the local and the road authorities 
 generally succeed in enforcing claims on the Tramway Company, 
 before Parliamentary Committees, by which it is compelled to 
 have a greater width than the usual and sufficient allowance 
 of 18 inches outside of the way. 
 
 The cost of Mr. Page’s system of tramways, taken as new, is 
 here given, followed by the cost for reconstruction :— 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Single Line, of Page’s 
 System. North Metropolitan Tramways, March, 1881. 
 
 C s. d. 
 
 Breaking up macadam road and excavat¬ 
 ing to depth of 12^ inches and removing 
 
 surplus, 4,981 square yards . . . @ is. 249 i o 
 
 Blue lias lime concrete, 6 inches deep, 
 
 4,981 square yards . . . . . ,, is. qd. 435 17 o 
 
 Steel rails, 42 lbs. per yard, 66 tons. 
 
 Wrought-iron bearers, 12 inches long, 
 
 4,752 @ Ilf lbs. each, 24 tons 18 cwts. 
 
 2 qrs. 4 lbs. 
 
 Wrought-iron joint bearers 14 inches long, 
 
 528 @ 13! lbs. each, 3 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 3 qrs. 8 lbs. 
 
 Wrought-iron plates, 22 lbs. per yard, 
 
 34 tons, II cwt. I qr. 16 lbs. 
 
 Total, 128 tons 14 cwt. 3 qrs. . . „ 5s. 1,062 i 9 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 • ;^L 746 19 9 
 
NORTH METROPOLITAN TRAMWAYS, 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 £. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 • • 
 
 1,746 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 VVrought-iron ties, 264 @ ii lbs. each, 
 
 
 
 
 
 I ton 5 cwt. 3 qrs. 20 lbs. 
 
 @ lOS. 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 Cotter bolts and keys (5,280), i ton . 
 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Rail pins (7,862), ton. 
 
 ,, los. 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Laying, watching and lighting, 1,760 3'’ards 
 
 ,, 2 S. 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost, exclusive of paving . 
 
 
 L 955 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 Paving, say 6 inches by 4 inches, granite 
 
 
 
 
 
 sets, laid and grouted, 4,688 yards 
 
 „ IIS. 
 
 2,728 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Total ...... 
 
 
 ;^ 4>684 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Renewal and Reconstruction of Way on 
 
 Page’s 
 
 
 System, 1881. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Take up paving next rails and defective 
 
 
 
 
 
 parts, say half total area, 2,344 square 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards . 
 
 @ 6d. 
 
 58 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 New steel rails, 66 tons 
 
 
 
 
 
 New bearers, say 10 per cent, of original 
 
 
 
 
 
 quantit)’-, 3 tons 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total, 69 tons ..... 
 
 M 5s. 
 
 569 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Rail pins, ^ ton ...... 
 
 ,, ^13 los. 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Laying new rails, lighting and watching 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,760 yards ...... 
 
 ,, IS. 
 
 88 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Necessary dressing and relaying paving 
 
 
 
 
 
 with 20 percent, new stone,2,344yards . 
 
 ,, 6s. 
 
 703 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Credit old rails, &c., say .... 
 
 
 179 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost, including paving 
 
 
 1,246 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 The North Metropolitan Tramways are now (1892), and have 
 recently been, in course of entirely new reconstruction, in which 
 all other systems of way on these tramways have been superseded 
 and replaced by the steel girder rail. 
 
 K 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LONDON AND 
 LONDON STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 London Tramways. 
 
 The way of the London Tramways was renewed in 1879—80, 
 with the Aldred-Spielmann rail, illustrated by Figs. 33 and 34. 
 The two half-rails, Fig. 34, which are of steel, are laid so as to 
 
 P'lG. 33. The Aldred-Spielmann AVay, London Tramways. Scale H- 
 
 Fig. 34. The Aldred-Spielmann Rail, London Tramways. Scale L 
 
 break joint in the chairs, and are fixed in position by a wooden 
 key. The bearing-rail takes a square bearing on the raised seat 
 
LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 I31 
 
 at the bottom of the opening of the chair, and by its inclined 
 surface of contact it holds the guard rail in place. Each half-rail 
 is 21 feet in length; it weighs 32 lbs. per yard; making for 
 the whole rail 64 lbs. per yard. The tread of the rail is i d inches 
 wide, the groove is i inch wide and i inch deep, and the guard is 
 ^ inch wide at the surface ; making the whole width 3I inches. 
 The rail is 3f inches in depth. The chairs are hollow castings, 
 combining strength and comparative lightness, though weighing 
 37^ lbs. each—in consideration of the double function of holding 
 the half-rails together and the maintenance of the break-joints ot 
 the two halves with each other. They give a bearing for the rails 
 4 inches long, and as they are placed at 3 feet apart between centres, 
 the net space between the chairs is reduced to 2 feet 8 inches. 
 The chairs are screwed down on transverse timber sleepers, 
 4^ inches deep, 9 inches wide and 6 feet 6 inches long. The 
 height of the chair is 7^- inches, by which room is provided for 
 4-inch or 5-inch sets, clear of the spike heads. Added to the 
 depth of sleeper, 4 inches, and i ^ inch more to the bottom of the 
 excavation, the total depth of the excavation amounts to 13 inches. 
 below the level of the rail. A bed of Portland cement concrete, 
 8^ inches deep, is brought up from the bottom of the excavations, 
 enveloping the sleepers. A ^-inch layer of sand is spread over 
 the surface, and 4-inch cubes are laid as paving. 
 
 The following is the cost for one mile of the Aldred-Spielmann 
 double way. The rails cost ^5 5s. od. per ton in 1879, and 
 17s. 6d. per ton in 1880 ; average, say, per ton ; chairs, 
 ^4 per ton ; screws, ^15 per ton :— 
 
 Quantities and Cost per Mile, Double Line, of the 
 Aldred-Spielmann Way—London Tramways, 1879— i88o. 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Steel rails, 64 lbs. per yard, 200 tons . . @ £(:> 1,200 o o 
 
 Cast-iron chairs, 116 tons . . • • 464 o o 
 
 Screws, 5 tons.. . 4^5 75 ^ o 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 K 2 
 
 iiL739 o o 
 
132 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 Brought forward . 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 £ 
 
 I 739 
 
 S. 
 
 0 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 Sleepers, 3,520 ..... 
 
 * 
 
 @ IS. lod. 
 
 322 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Keys, 7,040, per thousand . 
 
 • 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Concrete, 2,100 cubic yards 
 
 . 
 
 ,, 13s. 
 
 T365 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Sand, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 • 
 
 ,, 6d. 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, &c., 9,973 square } ards . 
 
 • 
 
 ,, IS. 
 
 498 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 Laying, watching and lighting, 1,760 lineal 
 yards ....... 
 
 ,, qs. 
 
 352 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost per mile double line, exclusive of 
 
 paving. 4»342 9 o 
 
 Do. do. single line, do. do. . . . .^2,171 4 6 
 
 There are now (1892) six different sections of rails in the ways, 
 comprising a light section and a heavy section of the Aldred- 
 
 Spielmann rail, the Rymney or box rail, the Gowans girder rail, a 
 rail laid in chairs, of a deck beam section, and a girder rail of 
 recent sections. The Gowans way was laid in 1879, in the 
 Brixton Road, for a length of miles. This rail. Fig. 35, which 
 was patented in 1878, is a modification of the girder rail, in 
 which the lower flange is wider at the outer side, under the 
 tread, than at the inner side. Openings are made through the 
 web of the rad at short intervals, in order to lighten the rail. 
 
L ONDON TRAMIVA YS. 
 
 133 
 
 and to admit of the bonding of concrete packing of the rails. 
 This system was laid experimentally in Edinburgh in 1877—78. 
 It has also been laid in Dundee, Manchester, Sunderland, and 
 London. 
 
 The Gowans rails are of steel, rolled in lengths of 27 feet, 
 and they weigh 85 lbs. per yard. They are 7 inches in depth, 
 and the base is 7 inches wide, placed eccentrically to the web, 
 for the reasons already explained. The tread is iiV inches 
 wide, the groove is i inch wide, and the guard-flange is lyV inches 
 wide ; making together a width of 3 inches. The web is 
 fully f inch thick at the central part, tapering to a thickness of 
 fully Te- inch at the upper and lower parts. The base is f inch 
 thick near the web, and tapers in thickness to ^ inch at the edges. 
 The rails are fished with plates weighing 18 lbs. per pair. Each 
 
 Fig. 36. Gowans Way, London Tramways. Scale t.^-. 
 
 rail is laid direct on a longitudinal bed of concrete 15 inches wide 
 and 6 inches deep, as shown in Fig. 36. Between and outside 
 the longitudinal beds of concrete and the rails, a bed of concrete 
 
 6 inches deep is laid for the entire width of the excavation, to 
 support the paving. It is laid on the floor of the excavated 
 space, 10^ inches below the surface, such that above the concrete 
 there is depth for a T-inch layer of sand and 4-inch paving cubes. 
 'Fhe bases of the longitudinal beds of concrete are 13 inches 
 below the surface, comprising 6 inches for the concrete and 
 
 7 inches for the rail. The wide bed of concrete overlaps the 
 longitudinal beds by a depth of 2^ inches, and to this extent the 
 rails are embedded in it and secured to the gauge; though it is 
 difficult to perceive in what way the openings in the webs of the 
 rails peculiar to Mr. Gowans’ system are utilised, for, whilst the 
 ostensible purpose of the openings, called ‘‘ quatrefoils,” though 
 in reality trefoils, is to permit of the bonding of concrete through 
 
134 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 the rail, the concrete scarcely reaches above the lower sides of the 
 openings. On a ^-inch layer of sand, 4-inch paving cubes are 
 laid, flush with the rails. 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Double Line, of Cowans 
 Girder Railway—London Tramways, 1879. 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 d. 
 
 Steel rails, 85 lbs. per yard. 
 
 267 tons 
 
 @ ^8 los. 
 
 2,270 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Fish plates, 6 tons 6 cwt. . 
 
 . 
 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts and nuts, i ton 8 cwt. 
 
 • • • 
 
 .. .^20 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Concrete, 1,866 cubic yards 
 
 • • • 
 
 ,, 13s. 
 
 1,212 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Sand, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 • e • 
 
 ,, 6d. 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, &c., 9,973 square yards . 
 
 ,. lid. 
 
 457 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Laying, watching and lightir 
 
 g 1,760 lineal 
 
 
 
 
 
 3^ards .... 
 
 • * « 
 
 ,, 4s. 
 
 352 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cost of way, per mile. 
 
 double line 
 
 • • • 
 
 4.414 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Do. do. single line 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 2,207 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 The London Street Tramways. 
 
 These tramways were laid originally on the Larsen system of way. 
 The way has been to a great extent (1892) replaced by girder rails 
 weighing 90 lbs per yard. The girder rail has also been laid on 
 all new lines for the last seven or eight years. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH LONDON 
 
 TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Meakins’ system of way, Fig. 37, as originally adopted for the 
 Southwark and Deptford Tramways, under the direction of Mr. W. 
 
 Fig. 37. Meakins Way, Southwark, Battersea. Scale 
 
 Shelford, the engineer; and for the South London Tramways, in the 
 Battersea District, under the 
 direction of Mr. A. J. D. Cameron, 
 the engineer, was arranged by Mr. 
 
 John Dixon, the contractor for 
 both of these works. The gauge 
 of the ways is 4 feet 34 inches. 
 
 The rail, Fig. 38, is composite, 
 consisting of a steel rail, having a 
 central web, weighing 5 2 lbs. per 
 yard, riveted to and between two 
 angle-irons, weighing each 30 lbs. 
 per yard, making together a com¬ 
 pound rail weighing 112 lbs. 
 per yard, of a total height of 
 8 inches. The angle irons, rolled 
 with comparative facility, are 3 inches by 6 inches high, and 
 I inch thick, and forming a base 64 inches in width. The rail is 
 
 Fig. 38. Meakins Way, Southwark, 
 Battersea.—Rail. Scale J. 
 
136 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 iJ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 r=:= = 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 -L 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 J_ 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 -2 
 
 <D 
 
 O 
 
 in 
 
 i/j 
 
 .s 
 
 ’o 
 
 cS 
 
 Ph 
 
 H 
 
 5^ tn 
 
 ^ s 
 
 O C! 
 ^ O 
 ■XJ 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 c 
 
 c 3 
 
 CN 
 
 c« 
 
 O 
 
 HH 
 
 4^ inches deep, the head being- 
 2 indies deep, and -A- inch in 
 thickness. The tread of the 
 rail is inches wide, the 
 groove is -fe inch wide and 
 4 inch deep, and the guard 
 flange is -pe- inch wide; making 
 together a width at the surface 
 of 2^ inches. The guard flange, 
 it should be noted, is lower 
 than the tread. The rail is 
 joined to the angle-irons with 
 f-inch rivets, at 6 inches of 
 pitch ; and the angle-irons are 
 riveted together at intervals of 
 two feet, except at the junction 
 of two lengths, where the rivets 
 are only six inches apart. The 
 rails are 24 feet in length, and 
 break joint with the angle- 
 irons to the extent of 2 inches; 
 and are thus held in line. They 
 are also fished with flat plates 
 and four bolts and nuts (see 
 old joint. Fig. 39). 
 
 The rails are held to gauge 
 by wrought-iron tie-rods, 
 inches by ^ inch thick, three 
 to each length of rail, notched 
 at the ends, passed through 
 horizontal slots in the heads 
 of the rails, and turned into a 
 vertical position so as to hold 
 the rails in gauge. 
 
 The foundation consists of 
 a bed of Portland cement con- 
 
SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 137 
 
 Crete, 11 inches deep and 11 feet wide, comprising an allowance for 
 pavement of 3 feet outside the rails, on each side. The concrete 
 is composed of six measures of Thames ballast to a 2-inch ring 
 gauge, and one measure of Portland cement. The rails are laid 
 on the foundation and duly gauged, when a i-inch layer of fine 
 concrete, composed of three parts of Thames ballast to a Tinch 
 ring gauge to one part of Portland cement, is deposited on the 
 foundation concrete, enveloping and fixing the rails in place. At 
 the same time the rails are filled flush at the sides with fine 
 concrete. The excavation for this work is required to be 19 inches 
 deep and 11 feet wide. 
 
 The work is covered in with granite paving, 7 inches deep, in 
 4-inch courses, bedded on the fine concrete, to finish at a level 
 ^ inch above the rails. The paving is grouted with a mixture of 
 blue Lias lime and coarse sand in the proportion of one to one, 
 and is blinded with fine coarse ballast. The hardest sets are laid 
 next the rails. 
 
 The following are particulars of the cost per mile, single line, of 
 the way, laid for a width of 11 feet:— 
 
 Quantities and Cost per Mile, Single Line, of Meakins 
 Way—South London Tramways, 1880. 
 
 Rails 112 lbs. per yard, 176 tons; tie-bars 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 and fishes, 5.} tons ; laid complete, 1,760 
 lineal yards ...... 
 
 @ 
 
 26s. 
 
 2,288 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, lifting and carting away, 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inches deep, ii feet wide, 3.406 cubic 
 3'ards ....... 
 
 > J 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 4^5 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Concrete, 12 inches deep, ii feet wide. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,151 cubic 5mrds ..... 
 
 J J 
 
 13s. 
 
 1,398 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Watching and lighting .... 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way .... 
 
 
 
 4,141 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Paving, II feet wide, 6,453 square yards . 
 
 
 14s. 
 
 4-517 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way and paving . 
 
 
 
 /8,66o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 For the usual width of paving, 8 feet, for a single line, the cost 
 
138 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 for excavation and concrete is reduced by os. 6d., making 
 
 the cost of the way ;£3,659 17s. 6d. per mile, single line ; for the 
 pavement ;£3,o8o; making together ;£6,739 ^ 7 ^. 6d. 
 
 The cost per mile of single way, as in 1892, is given by 
 Mr. Gurdon L. Stephenson, the engineer of the tramways, as 
 follows :—■ 
 
 Estimate—Girder Rail for 7-iNCH Paving, 1892. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Rails, 112 lbs. per yard=i76 tons per 
 mile ; fishes and bolts, 12^ tons per mile 
 
 (no tie-rods): 1,760 lineal yards . . @ i6s. 6d. 1,452 o o 
 
 Excavation, lifting and carting away, 19 
 inches deep, ii feet wide, 3,406 cubic 
 
 yards 3^- 5^*^ ^8 o 
 
 Concrete, 12 inches deep, ii feet wide, 
 
 2,151 cubic yards . . . . . 13s. i>398 3 o 
 
 Watching and lighting .... 30 o o 
 
 Total for the way .... 
 
 Paving, II feet wide, 6,453 square yards . ,, 12s. 
 
 3.391 I o 
 
 3,871 16 o 
 
 Total for the way and paving, per 
 mile, single line . . . . 
 
 £7,262 17 o 
 
 The Meakins rail was at best a pioneer rail, built up, as the 
 rail-makers were not prepared with suitable machinery for rolling 
 large rails in one piece. It was proved by experience that the 
 old joint, shown in Fig. 39, was the weakest point of the rail. It 
 became impossible, after a time, to keep the joints tight; and Mr. 
 Stephenson adopted new joints, as shown in Fig. 40, made 
 with a pair of angle fish plates, 3 feet long, riveted to the rails 
 with six rivets, or bolted with six -|-inch bolts and nuts, where 
 riveting was not allowable. With these fittings, the screw- 
 threads having been burred, the joints keep quite tight, and do 
 not require screwing up from time to time. The whole of the 
 
SOUTH LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 139 
 
 Meakins rail that was laid, about ten miles of single line, continues 
 in use. 
 
 A portion of the way was laid 
 on the Barker system. It is now in 
 course of replacement by the girder 
 rail. 
 
 In April, 1892, making together 
 about twelve street miles, there were 
 about four miles of the Meakins way, 
 one mile of the Barker way, and 
 seven miles of the girder way. 
 
 In adopting the girder rail in 
 1877, Mr. Stephenson, failing to get 
 what he required in England, had 
 recourse to the Phoenix Works at 
 Rurhort, where he succeeded in 
 rails of section No. i, 
 rolled, which he adapted 
 
 getting 
 
 cr 
 
 Fig. 41. South London Tram¬ 
 ways : Section of Rail and 
 Fish-plates. 
 
 Scale j. 
 
 Fig. 4 B 
 
 to 7-inch paving. No. 2 section he adopted for 6-inch paving. 
 
 Total height of rail 
 Width of base 
 Do. head 
 Do. rolling face . 
 Thickness of web 
 Average thickness of foot 
 Weight per yard . 
 
 Xo. I. No. 2. 
 
 8 
 
 inches 
 
 7 
 
 inches 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 y * 
 
 3? 
 
 y t 
 
 3? 
 
 y y 
 
 i| 
 
 y • 
 
 If 
 
 y y 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 y y 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 5 y 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 "r 
 
 i 
 
 16 
 
 y y 
 
 112 lbs. 90 lbs. 
 
 Unusually large fish-plates are employed for the girder rail: 
 2 feet in length, about f inch thick, weighing 61 lbs. and 40 lbs. 
 per pair respectively. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIVERPOOL 
 
 TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Liverpool Tramways were reconstructed in 1877—78,011 the 
 system of Mr. George F. Deacon, the borough engineer, who 
 prepared the plans and specifications for the works, and under 
 whose superintendence they were constructed. They comprised 
 the inner circle and a section traversing Lime Street and Renshaw 
 Street, making a total length of 3,170 yards, after having been in 
 operation, as originally constructed, for a period of six or seven 
 years. This renewed length cost for maintenance, in 1879, 
 01 ' ^24 per mile. The original lines then in course of 
 reconstruction had more recently cost for maintenance from 
 to ^500 per mile. 
 
 Inner Circle. 
 
 The leading feature of Mr. Deacon’s system, illustrated by Figs. 
 42 and 43, is the method of fastening the rail to the longitudinal 
 sleeper and the foundation of concrete, by means of a central 
 bolt. The fastening is suitable for a side-groove or a central- 
 groove rail; but in Liverpool the central groove has been adopted. 
 The width of exposed metal surface is thereby reduced to a 
 minimum, whilst the whole area not occupied by the groove 
 being utilised as a tread, the total width of tread or rolling surface 
 is greater than that of the ordinary grooved rail. 
 
 In order at once to place the pavement and the rails on the 
 same foundation, and to render the whole surface uniform, the 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 141 
 
 streets of the inner circle have been entirely repaved, and provided 
 with new foundations of concrete for their whole width of carriage¬ 
 way, simultaneously with the laying of the tramways. The old 
 foundations of the tramways and the streets were entirely 
 
 Fig. 42. Liverpool Tramways : 
 Inner Circle Rail and Fasten¬ 
 ings. Scale T 
 
 Fig. 43. Liverpool Tramways: Section 
 of Inner Circle Rail. Scale I-. 
 
 taken out, and the excavation cleared to a depth of 14^ inches 
 below the permanent surface of the street. On the bottom, a 
 foundation of concrete, made with Portland cement, 7 inches 
 -deep, was laid for the whole width of the street, and finished with 
 a smooth surface. The concrete was left alone to set and 
 
142 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 harden, for eight days at least, before any paving was laid. The 
 longitudinal sleepers on which the rails were laid, were of Memel, 
 Dantzic, or Riga red pine, 5^ inches deep and 3d inches wide. 
 For straight lengths, they were of either of two lengths, 24 feet 
 2 inches or 18 feet i^- inches. For curves they were in lengths of 
 6 feet f inch, sawn from the solid wood to the required curvature. 
 The upper surface of the sleeper was moulded to the form of the rail. 
 Openings were cut into the sleeper, from the upper face and one of 
 the sides, to receive the fastenings. All the sleepers were creosoted 
 with not less than i o lbs. of creosote oil per cubic foot of timber. 
 The sleepers were placed in position when the concrete became 
 perfectly finn, and after the nuts had been placed on the holding- 
 down bolts. 
 
 The rails are of Bessemer steel, weighing 61 lbs. per yard, 
 rolled in lengths of 24 feet 2 inches with ten per cent. 21 feet or 
 17 feet in length, and making up pieces of shorter lengths. They 
 are 3d inches wide and 3d inches deep over the flanges. The 
 groove is in the middle of the upper surface, i inch wide and 
 dd inch deep, formed into a semicircle at the bottom. The upper 
 bearing surfaces at the sides of the groove are each inches wide ; 
 together 2d inches. Some allowance, Mr. Deacon admits, must 
 be made for defective gauging of wheels and rails; but he is ot 
 opinion that even d Il'ich is ample width of groove. The thick¬ 
 ness of the rail, measured from the surface is if inches. Under 
 the groove the thickness is reduced to a half, or dd inches ; but, 
 as the depth of the groove is twice as great as the depth of the 
 wheel flanges, the rail cannot be worn at that point. The flanges 
 depend if inches below the head; they are of great strength, 
 being f- inch thick near the edges, and thickening upwards. The 
 test applied to the rails was the fall ot a weight of 20 cwt, through 
 a height of 12 feet, upon the middle of a rail laid on supports, on 
 a span of 5 feet. If the rail be cracked by this test, the other 
 rails, made from the same charge, are liable to be rejected. The 
 rails were also tested by chemical analysis. Such as were found to 
 contain less than 0*30 per cent., or more than 0*45 per cent, of 
 carbon, were liable to be rejected. 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWA YS. 
 
 143 
 
 The rails were coated at the under side with thick coal tar, 
 preparatory to being laid in position on the sleepers. They are 
 fastened by means of a central |-inch bolt, of adjustable length, 
 formed with an eye at the upper end, which embraces a -|-inch 
 round-iron cross pin, passed horizontally through |-inch round 
 holes in the flanges of the rail. The bolt passes down through 
 the sleeper, and nearly through the stratum of concrete, and is 
 formed with a head at the lower end, which takes a bearing upon 
 a round cast-iron plate or washer, 6 inches in diameter, which, 
 with the lower portion of the bolt, is imbedded in the concrete. 
 The bolt is parted above the concrete, within the body of the 
 sleeper, and the parted ends are united by a right-anddeft-handed 
 double nut, affording the means of solidly screwing down the 
 rail upon the sleeper, and both together to the foundation. When 
 the screwing down is completed, the side opening is covered by a 
 sheet of canvas, coated with red lead. A holding-down bolt is 
 applied at a distance of 8 inches from the end of every rail, and 
 intermediately at intervals of about 3 feet 2 inches. The holding- 
 down bolts are placed in position before the washers are bedded, 
 and each bolt is enveloped in a cast-iron thimble, which is with¬ 
 drawn after the concrete is set. In laying the washers, a framed 
 template is used, from which the bolts are hung in their proper 
 positions. The wrought iron was to be capable of bearing a 
 tensile stress of twenty-one tons per square inch. The cast iron 
 was to be of such strength that a bar i inch square, 3 feet 6 inches 
 long, should not break with a weight less than 850 lbs. applied at 
 the middle, on a span of 3 feet. 
 
 The paving sets are from 7 to 7^ inches deep, laid on a 4 -inch 
 layer of sand; except the sets next the rail, which consist of the 
 most durable stone, the hardest granite, or cross-grained trap. 
 These are carefully hammer-dressed in such a manner that their 
 edges touch the sides of the rails, and that they touch each other 
 at their surfaces near the rails; so that the upper surfaces of the 
 paving sets next the rails are practically continuous. Mr. Deacon 
 considered that, by this means, the rate of wear and loss of level of 
 pavement next the rails would be reduced to a minimum, and that 
 
144 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAAIWAYS. 
 
 the inconvenience of hollows or differences of level between the rails 
 and the pavement would be obviated. The sets next the rails are 
 bedded on cement instead of sand ; they are alternately wholes and 
 halves, and, as they are accurately gauged in all directions, they 
 can be drawn and replaced by similar sets without disturbing the 
 surrounding pavement. The sets are from 5 to 7 inches long, 
 and are of such thickness that four sets, chosen at random and 
 placed side by side, may measure not more than 14 inches across 
 all the stones. The sets are laid as closely as is consistent with 
 the straightness of the courses. The joints are then filled with 
 clean dry gravel, from Te' inch to f inch in diameter, which is 
 shaken down by the ramming of the sets. This process is repeated 
 until the joints are filled with gravel, and the sets no longer shake 
 under the rammer. The joints are finally run up with a boiling 
 mixture of pitch and creosote, by which the smallest crevice or 
 interstice is completely occupied, and the joint is made watertight. 
 
 The whole length of the inner circle has been reconstructed 
 
 o 
 
 and opened for traffic. The ordinary cars run upon the new 
 line with greater ease, it has been reported, than upon the original 
 portions of the line. As the ordinary car wheels wore out, they 
 were replaced by central flange wheels, having a tread on each 
 side of the flange. Until the whole of the lines were reconstructed, 
 the central-flange wheels ran upon both the side-grooved and the 
 central-grooved rails. 
 
 Branch Lines. 
 
 The general principle adopted in the construction of the inner 
 circle of tramways, by which uniformity of foundation and of pave¬ 
 ment was insured, and by which the rail was firmly secured to the 
 foundation, was maintained in the modified design. Figs. 44 and 45, 
 proposed for the branch lines, which are thus described :—- 
 
 Throughout the inner circle, paving sets from 7 to 74 inches 
 deep have been employed; but these dimensions exceed by 
 I inch the depth of paving sets generally adopted in Liverpool, 
 for all streets except those of the very heaviest traffic. If rails 
 of the same section as that of the rails laid on the inner circle 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMIVA YS, 
 
 145 
 
 were employed for the shallower paving, it would be difficult to 
 reduce the depth of the sleepers by i inch, without unduly cutting 
 away the sleeper at each bolt. For this reason, and also with a 
 view to the arrangement of the fastenings, so that the rail might 
 either be fastened down or removed without disturbing any sets. 
 
 Fig. 44. Liverpool Tramways : 
 Section of Central Grooved 
 Rail and Fastenings. Scale 5. 
 
 Scale \, 
 
 the cast-iron washers differ from those of the inner circle, in 
 having a larger hollow to receive the head of the bolt, and having 
 the bolt hole half an inch larger than the bolt. Before the concrete 
 was laid, the level of the washer was fixed by a slate, placed 
 underneath it, or by a stone, or a brick, by which the washer 
 was supported. While the concrete was being foimed abo\e the 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 washer, the thimble remained round the bolt, and was withdrawn 
 when the concrete was set. The vertical holes through the sleepers, 
 also, were half an inch larger than the bolts. The upper end of 
 the bolt was screwed into a covered nut of phosphor bronze, which 
 was sunk into the rail, through the bottom of the groove, and made 
 a tight fit therein with red lead. The bolt, where it passed 
 through the rail, was also a good fit. As the bolt was free to move 
 in the concrete, vertically or laterally, with the rail, the joint was 
 free from liability to dislocation by vibration or weight of traffic. 
 
 In the fastenings, shown in Fig. 44, the cast-iron washer 
 projects upwards so that its upper side is flush with the concrete. 
 The concrete could therefore be finished off without interference 
 with any such projecting parts. The concrete between the jaws 
 was afterwards scraped out, and the head of the bolt was inserted. 
 When the sleeper was laid, a mixture of boiling pitch and creosote 
 oil was run into the groove to fill the hole in the sleeper and the 
 space between the jaws. This asphalte was plastic when set; and, 
 whilst it prevented the bolt from turning, it allowed it to vibrate with 
 the rail. The w^asher is rectangular in section, 3 inches long by 
 6 inches crosswise of the rail. With such a fastening, it is said 
 that the tramway can be laid with facility, and as there is a liberty 
 of 3 inches one way, and | inch another way, for setting the bolt 
 head between the jaws, no special degree of nicety is required in 
 setting the bolt. The fastenings are now under the heaviest 
 traffic in Liverpool. 
 
 The rail. Fig. 45, is of steel and weighs 42 lbs. per yard. It is 
 made of the T section, having the central groove and the central web. 
 It is 3 inches wide and 2^ inches deep. The nut is screwed up by 
 means of a four-pronged key, and Mr. Deacon’s experiments show 
 that one man can readily draw down the rails with a pressure of 
 from two to three tons at each fastening. The depth of the rail and 
 sleeper together amounts to 6 inches, which is also the depth of 
 the paving sets. For country or suburban lines a perfectly firm 
 tramway may be constructed on this principle by merely laying 
 each line of sleepers on a foundation of concrete 9 inches or 
 18 inches wide. In Canada, where timber is plentiful, a line of 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWA YS. 
 
 147 
 
 tramways has been proposed, on the principle of the line now 
 described, without any foundations of concrete, but with longi¬ 
 tudinal foundations, consisting of timber sleepers laid flat on their 
 sides, to support the grooved sleepers and the rails. 
 
 It has been found in the experience that has been had hitherto 
 of Mr. Deacon’s system of fastenings, that neither cross-sleepers nor 
 cross-ties are necessary. Under the heavy trafflc of the principal 
 streets of Liverpool the gauge has been maintained. 
 
 Although Mr. Deacon recommended the application of the 
 central groove for tramways which are not connected with side- 
 groove lines, yet the principle of the rails and fastenings which he 
 has adopted may, with equal facility, be employed for the side- 
 groove rails. 
 
 The annexed table. No. 40, contains particulars of the cost of 
 construction of tramways on Mr. Deacon’s systems, for four kinds of 
 way, illustrated. The third and fourth are two lighter and less costly 
 forms, on the same leading principle of construction as the second 
 design. The rails weigh only 35 lbs. per yard, and are absolutely 
 stronger than many rails of older forms and greater weight. 
 
 The cost of the stone pavements of Liverpool, exclusive of 
 concrete foundation, comprising the stone sets, a layer of sand,, 
 and grouting of gravel and asphalte—is about 9s. per square yard, 
 when the sets are 6 inches deep, and 6s. 6d. when the sets are 
 4 inches deep. The costs per yard forward, and per mile, two- 
 18-inch breadths outside the rails, are as follows :— 
 
 Per yard forward. Per mile. 
 
 Single line. 
 
 For sets 6 inches deep 
 Do. 4 >) 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d.. 
 
 . 126 1,804 C) O 
 
 . o 16 3 1430 O O 
 
 Crossings and Points. 
 
 Throughout the reconstructed lines the crossings are formed by 
 bevelling the ends of one of the lines of rails, and cutting a groove 
 across the other line of rails. The fixed points are of chilled cast- 
 iron, and those which are movable have shear-steel tongues. In 
 the ordinary side-grooved points the tread of the wheel travels for 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 some distance only on the thin edge of the point, and so rapidly 
 wears it down. When the point is thus worn the wheel sinks and 
 runs below the level of the rail; and, in passing over the point 
 from the branch to the main line, it has to remount on the main 
 line rail, an operation by which an inclined plane is gradually 
 worn into the surface of the rail. This evil, it is thought, is to a 
 great extent obviated by the use of the central flanged wheels 
 employed to run upon Mr. Deacon’s rails, for one of the treads 
 of the wheel has always a bearing upon the tread of the rail. In 
 order still further to increase the width of bearing surface, the 
 width of the groove at or near the point is reduced as much as is 
 practicable; and the wheel, in running over the point from the 
 branch line, arrives in a much shorter distance upon the tread of 
 the main-line rail. With the same object in view—the preserva¬ 
 tion of continuity of bearing surface—the depth of the groove at 
 and near the joint is made the same as the projection of the 
 wheel flange. 
 
 For the subsequent work of reconstruction or renewals, under 
 the direction of Mr. Clement Dunscombe, the city engineer, Mr. 
 Deacon’s system was adopted by him, subject to modifications 
 with respect to the fastenings and the employment of sleepers of 
 cast-iron. In a report to the City Council Mr. Duncombe laid 
 down the leading conditions for the best system of tramway as 
 follows :— 
 
 1. The rail and sleeper are fastened down to the concrete 
 foundations by means of suitable fastenings. 
 
 2. The sleepers are practically continuous. 
 
 3. The rail can be replaced or tightened up without disturbing 
 the paving. 
 
 4. The sleepers present a true vertical face, free from all pro¬ 
 jections, so as to admit of close paving on each side of the rail. 
 
 On a solid foundation, with durable pavement, of which the 
 sets next the rails are specially dressed and accurately gauged, 
 such a system, he adds, possesses all the elements for a good 
 tramway. Whilst the inner circle was laid with Mr. Deacon’s H 
 rail, as it may be called, with fastenings worked from the side 
 
'Iable No. 40 .—Liverpool Tramways :—Deacon’s Tramways, with Compensating Fastening. 
 
 Quantities and appioximate cost per yard forward, single line (exclusive of pa\ing). 
 
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 Note to Table. The cost for paving, in sets 6 inches deep, comprising the 18 -inch breadths outside the rails, is £1 2S. 6 d. per N’ard forward, or 
 
 4 ^ 1,804 per mile. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 150 
 
 (see Fig. 42), an experimental length of 12 yards of single line, 
 of the T section, ‘‘the central grooved rail,” fixed by “jaw 
 washers,” was laid in Lord Street, at its junction with South John 
 Street, in November, 1877, and has been in use since that time. 
 At this point the heaviest cross-traffic over the tramway exists, 
 exceeding 2h millions of tons per annum, besides an exceptionally 
 large longitudinal traffic, in which loads of seven tons, on four- 
 wheeled trucks, are common, with occasional loads of 12 tons.'‘‘ 
 On January 15, 1881, a rail of each kind of way was taken up at 
 the given place in Lord Street, and the condition of the rails, 
 sleepers, and fastenings, after three years’ work, was found satis¬ 
 factory. During that interval, all that was required to maintain 
 the rolling surface in good condition was the occasional tightening 
 of the rails, especially at the joints. Mr. Dunscombe hence con¬ 
 cluded that rails—the T rails—which could be tightened or 
 replaced from the surface, were preferable to those—the H rails— 
 which necessitated the removal of the pavement in order to gain 
 access to the fastenings. For this reason he selected the T section 
 for further construction ; and also as affording the maximum degree 
 of strength, in combination with the minimum quantity of metal. 
 He also adopted continuous sleepers of cast iron, of special design, 
 in preference to timber sleepers, in order to insure a valuable asset, as 
 a perfect substructure, when the lease of the tramways to the Tram¬ 
 way Company shall expire on December 31st, 1896. The general 
 design and construction are shown in Figs. 46, 47, 48, and 49. 
 
 The specification for the reconstruction and extension of the 
 Liverpool Tramways provided that the existing carriage ways were 
 to be excavated to a depth averaging 14^ inches below the 
 finished surface, for the Whitechapel and the Pierhead routes, and 
 12 J inches for the remaining routes. Beds of concrete were to 
 be laid respectively 7 inches and 6 inches deep, and carefully 
 floated to the contour. The concrete was to be composed of 
 
 * See Mr. G. F. Deacon’s paper on “ Street Carriage-way Pave¬ 
 ments,” in the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil 
 E7igineers, 1879, vol. Iviii., p. i, for an instructive notice of the 
 street traffic of Liverpool. 
 
LIVERPOOL IRAJlirVA YS. 
 
 151 
 
 5 parts by measure of perfectly clean river or sea gravel, 5 parts of 
 broken hard stones, and i part of Portland cement. The cement 
 was to bear successfully the following tests :— 
 
 Fig. 46. Deacon’s Way, as laid by Mr. Dunscombe, Liverpool. Scale 
 
 Fig. 47. Deacon’s Way, as laid by Mr. Dunscombe, Liverpool. Scale 
 
 1. It is not to leave a residue exceeding ten per cent, when 
 sifted through a No. 50 gauge wire sieve. 
 
 2. Samples gauged with water are, within twenty-four hours, to 
 
 Fig. 48. Deacon’s Way, as laid by Mr. Dunscombe, Liverpool.—Paving. 
 
 Scale -df. 
 
 be immersed in still water, until they are seven days old, when 
 they are to resist a tensile stress of at least 800 lbs. on the 
 sectional area of 2^ square inches. 
 
 3. Slow-setting cement is not to be firm within three hours, and 
 quick-setting cement is to be firm within half an hour. The test 
 for firmness is that of resistance to the finger nail. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 152 
 
 On consolidated bottoms—hard-pitched or otherwise—a bed 
 of bituminous concrete may be laid instead of cement concrete. 
 Clean, dry, hard, broken stone, or foundry slag, in pieces not 
 larger than 3 inches, is to be laid, and well rolled and filled 
 up with boiled pitch and creosote oil. The surface is to be 
 covered with fine broken stone or gravel, and well rolled. Where 
 the depth is insufficient for holding down the rail, the ground 
 
 Fig. 49. Deacon's Way, as Fig. 50. Deacon’s Rail, 
 
 laid by Mr. Dunscombe, Liverpool. Scale 
 
 Liverpool. Section of Rail, 
 
 Sleeper, and Jaw. Scale i. 
 
 below the rail is to be removed for a width of 9 inches on each side 
 of the rail, to the requisite depth, and the space is to be filled with 
 concrete. 
 
 The paving for the whole width extending 18 inches outside the 
 rails, is to be of granite or syenite sets, 7 J inches deep, 3t inches 
 wide, and from 5 to 8 inches in length, for the Whitechapel and 
 Pierhead routes ; for the remaining routes, 6^ inches deep, 3-J inches 
 wide, and from 5 to 7 inches long. To be laid on a -^--inch 
 layer of fine gravel. The sets of syenite, next the rails, are to be 
 finely dressed at the sides abutting the rails, so as to touch them 
 approximately at all points; the upper edge is to touch the rail 
 for its entire width, and the base of the set is to bear, at its 
 extreme ends, on the bedding. The sets next the rail are to be 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 153 
 
 gauged so that they touch in the joints at right angles to the rail 
 for a length of at least 2 inches from the rail. 
 
 The rails are of Bessemer steel, weighing 40 lbs. per yard, of 
 T section. Fig. 50, with a central groove, i inch wide, and treads 
 each I inch wide and \ inch thick, making a total width of 
 3 inches. The rail is 2^ inches in depth, and the web or body 
 of the rail is inches thick at the lower part. The length of 
 ordinary rails are to be 27 feet 8f inches and 21 feet 8| inches. 
 But a proportion of the whole quantity of rails, not exceeding 
 seven per cent, are to be 24 feet inches, 18 feet 8| inches, and 
 15 feet 8f inches in length. Curved rails are to be bent while hot 
 to true curves. The rail is drilled vertically for the holding-down 
 bolts, at distances of three feet between the centres of the holes; 
 except at the ends, where the centres of the terminal holes are 
 4f inches from the ends of the rail. 
 
 The limits of the composition of the steel are to be as follows :— 
 
 Phosphorus, not above .... • 10 per cent. 
 
 Carbon from *25 to *45, average . • ’35 >> 
 
 Manganese, not exceeding . , . i-oo ,, 
 
 There is not to be any more silica in the steel than is necessary 
 for working it. 
 
 The rails are tested chemically for the percentages of carbon, 
 phosphorus, manganese, silica, 8 zc. For this purpose, examples 
 are taken from each converter charge, consisting of 2 ounces of 
 borings. The mechanical tests and the results of the tests are as 
 follows:— 
 
 1. The drop test: a weight of 20 cwt. to fall from a height of 
 10 feet upon the centre of a rail supported on bearings 3 feet apart, 
 without fracture. The average deflection for twenty-two tests of 
 pieces of rail, consisting of crop ends from 4^ feet to 5b feet in 
 length, was for nine drilled rails, 9I- inches, and for twenty undrilled 
 rails, 8|- inches. In this case the holes for the drilled rails were 
 placed directly on the bearings. 
 
 2. Tensile test: pieces cut from rails to have a tensile strength 
 of from 28 to 31 tons per square inch, with an elongation of 20 
 
154 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 per cent, in a length of 64 inches. The average breaking weight 
 for three tests was 284 tons per square inch, and the elongation 
 20 per cent. 
 
 3. Hot bending tests : strips heated to a cherry-red heat to 
 bend double round a curve of which the diameter shall not exceed 
 three times the thickness of the piece tested. Results of three 
 tests satisfactory. 
 
 4. Cold bending tests : samples of rails to be bent double when 
 cold, to a radius of 6 inches, having the groove inside the curve. 
 Results of two tests satisfactory. 
 
 5. Deflection test: rails supported upon bearings 3 feet apart, 
 and loaded at the centre, to have an elastic limit of 7 tons of 
 load. For seven tests the greatest elastic limit was 10 tons, the 
 least 5 tons (rejected); the average, 74 tons. 
 
 In another series of tests, designed to ascertain the difference of 
 deflection when a drilled hole was placed at the middle of the 
 space between the supports, the following results of tests were 
 obtained :—with ist, a drilled rail 10 feet long, the drilled holes 
 being placed on the supports; 2nd, another part of the same 
 rail as No. i, having a drilled hole at the centre between the 
 supports ; 3rd, the first experiment repeated with a piece of another 
 rail 10 feet long; 4th, with a piece of the same rail, the second 
 experiment repeated. The loads were applied gradually by means 
 of a steam lever machine, at the middle, between the supports :— 
 
 Load. 
 
 
 ist rail. 
 
 2nd 
 
 rail. 
 
 3rd rail, j 
 
 4th rail. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 55 
 
 Deflection 
 
 5 
 
 
 • ) 
 
 1 0 
 
 
 .5 
 
 0 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 • « 
 
 ( 
 
 Permanent set 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 6) 
 
 Deflection 
 
 *> 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 (> 
 
 • • 
 
 f> 
 
 .> 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 6 
 
 • V 
 
 \ 
 
 Permanent set 
 
 
 0 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-2 
 
 7 ) 
 
 Deflection 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 • • 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 • • 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Permanent set 
 
 
 0 
 
 • • 
 
 1 
 
 *4 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 « • 
 
 9 
 
 A .1 
 
 8) 
 
 Deflection 
 
 9 
 
 o “2 
 
 
 broke 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 r> 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 { 
 
 Permanent set 
 
 
 JL 
 
 
 
 
 1 A 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 9 ) 
 
 Deflection 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 • • 
 
 • ■ 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 \ 
 
 Permanent set 
 
 
 :5 
 
 0 2 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 155 
 
 These results show that the stiffness of rails within their elastic 
 ranges was not materially affected by the presence of drilled holes. 
 Two pieces of rail, ^ inch square, tested for tensile strength, broke 
 each with a load of ipf tons, equivalent to 50 tons per square 
 inch, with an elongation of 16 per cent, in 6|- inches. 
 
 The sleepers are of tough cast iron, containing not less than 
 one-sixth of good foundry scrap. They weigh 90 lbs. per yard, 
 and are of a trough-like section. They are 5 feet iif inches in 
 length, except at junctions, where they are 3 feet inches long, 
 and at curves 2 feet 111 inches. They are made with transverse 
 ribs, and the recesses are overarched, within the casting. They are 
 filled to the level of the under side of the rail^itli Portland- 
 cement concrete ; and the recesses are protoffmd by a coating of 
 Dr. Angus Smith’s solution—pitch and creo^te oil—while heated 
 to a temperature of 320° Fahr. 
 
 Special sleepers are laid at the ends of the points, and elsewhere 
 where required. Besides giving a bearing for fhe rails they occupy 
 the angular space formed at the points, where they are roughened 
 at the surface. They are 3 feet in length and are cast of the best 
 cold-blast iron, chilled for a depth of at least f inch. 
 
 The points are 9 feet long, and are either fixed or movable. 
 Fixed points are laid where the traffic is in one direction only, and 
 also on trailing points. They are of cold-blast iron and chilled. 
 Movable points are laid for branches, having a movable tongue 
 of tough cast steel, pinned to the stock by means of a cylinder- 
 conical-headed bolt and nut of phosphor bronze, and controlled 
 at the other end by means of a steel pin, passed through the point. 
 Both the steel switch and its bed are planed. The point castings 
 are 3 inches wide at the narrow end, and 6 inches at the broad 
 end; cast hollow, and filled with Portland cement concrete flush 
 with their lower sides. 
 
 Crossings are of cold-blast iron, made with sleepers for the two 
 rails at each end, with solid angular spaces roughened. The 
 exposed surfaces are chilled. The crossings are cast hollow and 
 filled with concrete. 
 
 For the cast-iron sleepers, test-bars i inch square and 42 inches 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 156 
 
 long, are to support a load of not less than 800 lbs. placed mid¬ 
 way between supports 3 feet apart For the points and crossings, 
 like test-bars are to support not less than 850 lbs. at the centre 
 for a clear interval of five minutes. Of 340 test-bars for sleepers, 
 the transverse resistance was from 804 lbs. to 1,150 lbs.; and 
 averaged 845 lbs. ; and the deflection was from f inch to inches, 
 averaging -ff inch. Of 55 test bars for points and crossings, 
 the transverse resistance was from 950 lbs. to 1,220 lbs. and 
 averaged 986 lbs. 
 
 The rails are fastened to the sleepers by means of cylinder 
 conical-headed No. 6 phosphor bronze inch bolts, and wrought 
 iron collar nuts. The bolts, coated with red lead, are passed 
 through holes drilled to gauge centrally through the rails and 
 through holes drilled in the upper part of cast-iron holding-down 
 jaws, which are solidly embedded in the foundation of concrete. 
 The collar nuts, of the best rivet iron, take a bearing within the 
 jaws ; and, when screwed up, they pull down the rail and sleeper 
 together to the foundation. To preserve them from oxidation 
 the recess in which they are lodged is filled with plastic pitch. By 
 means of the slot or groove cut across the head of the bolt, it may 
 afterwards be tightened up with a suitable driver from the surface; 
 and while the nut is held firmly in its plastic envelope, the envelope 
 is sufficiently elastic to admit of slight compensatory movements 
 of the bolt from above, under heavy traffic from above. The 
 bolts are screwed with twelve threads to an inch. 
 
 The bolts and nuts were then tested, to the extent of i per 
 cent, of samples, by screwing the nuts home, suspending the bolts 
 by their necks in a closely fitting socket, and hanging a load of 
 3 tons from the nut for fifteen minutes. During this interval the 
 bolt was turned once round in the nut as often as might be required. 
 After the bolt was released and unscrewed, if any indications were 
 visible of stripping of the thread of either the bolt or the nut, or of 
 the collapse of the neck of the bolt, or of any other defect, the 
 fastenings were rejected. Fifteen bolts out of 385 thus tested were 
 broken. 
 
 The test load of 3 tons for the bolts and nuts was determined 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWA VS. 
 
 157 
 
 by the following process :—An experimental f-inch wrought-iron 
 bolt, screwed with 14 threads to the inch, and cupheaded, was 
 suspended by a cylindrical gun-metal nut, i inch in diameter and 
 inches in length, from a horizontal bar. The nut was turned 
 round from the top by means of a cross-headed key, of which the 
 head was 16 inches long, by a strong workman. On the cup head, 
 at the lower end, a circular disc was placed, loaded with heavy 
 weights until the workman became unable to turn the nut from 
 the top by means of the key. The limiting weight was found to 
 be 2^ tons nearly. The test load was therefore fixed at 3 tons : 
 a greater strain than would ever, in practice, be put upon the 
 fastenings. 
 
 Figs. 51 and 52. Deacon’s Way, Liverpool. 
 
 Alternative Fastening. Scale 
 
 A proposed modification of the fastenings now employed is 
 shown in Figs. 51 and 52. The bolt is reduced from 6^ inches to 
 2^ inches in length, and is fitted with a wrought-iron socket bolt, 
 with a nut and collar head. 
 
 The way is laid as follows :—On the floor of the excavation 
 <6-inch cubes of concrete are laid at intervals and levelled for the 
 support of the sleepers. The rails are laid on the sleepers, the 
 bolts are inserted, and jaws are attached. A washer ^ inch thick 
 is temporarily inserted between the top of the jaw and the crown 
 •of the arch in the sleeper. The rails having been placed to gauge, 
 the foundation of concrete is laid in ; well packed under the 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAM WAYS. 
 
 158 
 
 sleepers by means of steel rammers. When the concrete has set, 
 the bolts are withdrawn, that the temporary washers may be 
 removed, and replaced and screwed up from above. The rails are 
 thus drawn down to the foundation, under a pressure estimated at 
 3 tons for each bolt, the recesses are then filled with plastic pitch, 
 and the work is ready for the paving. 
 
 The contract prices (April, 1881) for material delivered 
 upon the respective works, and upon which the nett cost of the 
 Liverpool tramways has been based, were as follows ;— 
 
 Bessemer steel rails 
 
 • • • • 
 
 £ s. 
 
 8 15 
 
 d. 
 
 0 per ton. 
 
 Castings, straight 
 
 • • • • 
 
 5 H 
 
 0 
 
 curved 
 
 • • • • 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 Holding-down jaws, &:c. . 
 
 • • • * 
 
 5 H 
 
 0 
 
 Special sleepers, points and crossings (cold-blast 
 iron) chilled on exposed surface, inclusive of all 
 patterns. 
 
 9 5 
 
 0 
 
 Collar-headed nuts . 
 
 • 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 per cwt. 
 
 Phosphor-bronze bolts 
 
 • • • • 
 
 9 17 
 
 6 „ 
 
 Syenite sets, inches wide, 
 
 5 to 7 inches long 
 
 inches deep, and 
 
 • • • • 
 
 I 9 
 
 0 per ton. 
 
 Do. per square yard, as laid , 
 
 • • • » 
 
 0 8 
 
 8 „ 
 
 Broken stone for concrete 
 
 . • • • 
 
 0 5 
 
 6 „ 
 
 Do. per cubic yard of concrete 
 
 • 
 
 0 4 
 
 9 V 
 
 Portland cement (Corporation standard) 
 
 I 19 
 
 6 „ 
 
 Do. per cubic yard of concrete 
 
 • • * • 
 
 0 5 
 
 9 - 
 
 Dee gravel .... 
 
 • • • 
 
 0 5 
 
 6 
 
 Do. per cubic yard of concrete 
 
 • • * • 
 
 0 5 
 
 9 
 
 Shingle for filling joints of pavin 
 
 cr 
 
 c> • 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 „ 
 
 Do. per square yard of paving 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 0 
 
 T -1 
 
 2 >» 
 
 Pitch. 
 
 • • • • 
 
 I 6 
 
 6 „ 
 
 Creosote oil ... . 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 0 
 
 2|pergal. 
 
 Wages :— 
 
 Ordinary platela3’’ers , 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 per day. 
 
 Leading .... 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 ,, 
 
 Foremen .... 
 
 . rs. 6d and 8 s. 6d. ,, 
 
 Labourers .... 
 
 • • • • 
 
 3 
 
 10 „ 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWA YS. 
 
 159 
 
 Wages— co 7 itinued. 
 
 Paviors (outside tramway limits) piece-work* per square yard. 
 
 Do. (inside do.) qd. per square yard. 
 
 Masons.056 per day. 
 
 Set dressers, day-work. 060,, 
 
 Do. piece-work. Various prices which are regulated according to 
 special class of sets required, and vary from 7s. 6d. to i6s. per ton. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 8 15 
 
 0 
 
 550 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 14 
 
 0 
 
 806 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5 H 
 
 0 
 
 94 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 9 10 
 
 0 
 
 130 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 0 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 4 
 
 2 
 
 380 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 Quantities and Costs (Contract Prices) per Mile, Single 
 Line, of Deacon’s System, as laid by Mr. Dunscombe in 
 Reconstruction and Extension, Liverpool Corporation 
 Tramways, 1880—81. 
 
 Bessemer steel rails, drilled complete, 
 
 40 lbs. per yard, 62*85 tons . . @ 
 
 Cast-iron sleepers, covered with non- 
 corrosive covering complete, 90 lbs. 
 per yard, 141*42 yards 
 Cast-iron holding-down jaws, do. 16*50 
 
 tons. 
 
 Phosphor bronze bolts, 13^ cwt. 
 
 Wrought-iron nuts, i8§ cwt. 
 
 E.xcavation, 12^ inches deep, including 
 carting and tipping, 1,825 cubic yds. 
 
 Portland cement concrete, 7 inches 
 deep, including labour of mixing and 
 spreading, and finishing to an even 
 surface, for paving, 988^ cubic yds. ,, 018 6 
 
 Laying, comprising all labour and 
 materials for filling sleepers with 
 concrete, filling recesses with pitch ; 
 and all platelaying in connection 
 with jaws, sleepers, rails, and fasten¬ 
 ings, 1,760 lineal yards . . ,,,016 
 
 Paving ; syenite set paving, 3^ inches 
 by 6j inches, including all labour 
 and materials, 4,400 square yards . ,, on 2 
 
 Total for way and paving , . 
 
 * These prices include all labour from the formation of the upper 
 surface of the concrete. 
 
 914 7 o 
 
 132 o o 
 3.052 2 7 
 
 2,456 o o 
 2 7 
 
i6o 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 A tramway similar in construction, for light traffic on suburban 
 lines, was designed by Mr. Dunscombe, with Bessemer steel 
 rails of 30 lbs. per yard, and cast-iron sleepers of 60 lbs. 
 per yard :— 
 
 Per mile, single line. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Rails, 47 ‘i 5 tons .... 
 
 . @ 8 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 412 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Sleepers, 94*29 tons 
 
 • >> 5 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 537 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Jaws, 11'00 tons .... 
 
 • M 5 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts, 6*87 cwt. .... 
 
 • >» 9 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Nuts, 23'60 cwt. .... 
 
 . ,, 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Laying 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 . ,, 0 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 no 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 234 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Foundation and paving . 
 
 • • 
 
 • 
 
 
 . 2,200 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for way and 
 
 paving . 
 
 • 
 
 
 • ;^3434 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 The comparative cost of timber sleepers and cast-iron sleepers 
 may thus be stated :— 
 
 Per lineal yard, Per lineal 
 
 single line. mile, 
 
 s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Sleepers of cast iron, 90 lbs. per lineal 
 
 yard, @ ^5 14s. per ton ... 9-2 806 13 4 
 
 Sleepers of best Baltic red pine, 6 inches 
 by 3 inches, shaped to pattern, and 
 
 creosoted, @ 5s. 6d. per cubic foot . 4 363 o o 
 
 Difference in favour of timber 
 
 sleepers per lineal mile .... ;^443 13 4 
 
 The experience for the last ten years (1892) of the Lyver system 
 of tramways as laid in Liverpool appears to show that the economy 
 of maintenance anticipated by the inventors has been justified. 
 During the decade the traffic has been enormous; and the wear and 
 tear of the lines is materially influenced by the traffic ever flowing 
 to and from the docks. 
 
 On the basis of 100,000 tons of traffic per annum on one rail, 
 the wear has been about *015 inch, equal to ’0086 of the original 
 weight: 40 lbs. per lineal yard. Of course .the rails have varied 
 
LIVERPOOL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 l6l 
 
 in their wear according to the particular conditions of their 
 locality. 
 
 The cost of maintenance over the 47.V miles was under i per 
 cent, per annum, on the basis of a cost of ^{^6,000 per mile. This 
 price is for a first-class permanent way on concrete foundations 
 into which the rails are secured. 
 
 A lighter and cheaper form has been designed for and success¬ 
 fully used in country places where there is no concrete bottom 
 or foundation, or Avhere the employment of concrete is to be 
 reduced to a minimum. In this case, the rail is secured to a 
 troughed girder sleeper, and the cost of a lo-lb. steel rail, sleeper, 
 and fastening would not exceed ;£i,5oo per mile. 
 
 Another modification of the Lyver system consists in its applica¬ 
 tion to dock railways on which locomotives are used. 
 
 The advantages of a channeled rail in towns instead of the 
 ordinary form of railway track is obvious as regards its non¬ 
 interruption of ordinary traffic, non-disturbance of road level, and 
 ability to relay without disturbing the roadway. Too great stress 
 cannot, it is thought, be laid on the last point. 
 
 M 
 
A 
 
 CHAPTER VIE 
 DUBLIN TRAAIWA FS. 
 
 The superiority of the Larsen rail—as a rail with side fastenings— 
 to the rails with vertical spike fastenings, was established by the 
 experience acquired of its capabilities on the London Street 
 Tramways, though in these, as in the Belfast tramways, subse¬ 
 quently constructed, the system of side fastening was but imper¬ 
 fectly developed. Mr. Hopkins improved the system of the side 
 
 fastener by substituting for the fastener in 
 two or three pieces, a solid staple, or “ dog,” 
 in one piece, which he employed in the con¬ 
 struction of the Dublin tramways, of which 
 he was the engineer, and the works for 
 which were commenced in October, 1871. 
 The design of the tramway was very simple: 
 four rails laid on four longitudinal sleepers, 
 bedded in four longitudinal trenches of 
 concrete ; similar to the first system adopted 
 by Mr. Hopkins for tramways in London. 
 The rail, shown in section. Fig. 53, weighed 
 53 lbs. per yard ; it is 4 inches wide ; but 
 
 ^\vays^:*—S^cbon ofTrii is thinner than the grooved rail of 
 
 and sleeper, showing earlier design it is deeper, and shows clearly 
 Scale^ fastening. ^ distribution of material than in these 
 
 rails; better even than the Belfast rail. 
 
 .. 
 
 ^ 1' •' ifr' . "/ ■ '■ ' '' 
 
 '1 . .’'X.'*' 
 
 ....i,.-' 
 
 .. 
 
 which was of later construction, and designed by Mr. Larsen. 
 I he rolling surface of the Dublin rail is 2 inches wide; the 
 groove is inches wide and -H- inch deep, with a flat floor; 
 
 / 
 
DUBLIN TRAMWAYS, 
 
 1^3 
 
 
 ■T ■ Is-'; 
 
 
 i^;= 
 
 
 the ledge is § inch thick at the surface. The rails were fixed 
 upon longitudinal fir sleepers 4 inches wide and 6 
 inches deep, in lengths of from 18 to 25 feet, and 
 rebated to receive the rails. The rails were pressed 
 down and solidly bedded by means of screw- 
 cramps. In this position they were fixed to the 
 sleepers by means of staples in one piece, made 
 of 3-inch round iron, the lower ends of which 
 were barbed. A section of the rail and sleeper 
 thus fixed together is shown‘in Fig. 53. The 
 staples were applied at intervals of 3 feet on each 
 side of every rail, and there was one on each side 
 of the rail at a distance of about 4 inches from 
 each end. At curves in the line, if not severe, 
 the sleepers were in some instances sawn half 
 through the outer side at intervals, and wedges ^ 
 were driven into the cuts until the sleeper took 
 the required curvature. At sharp curves, the 
 sleepers in short lengths were sawn to the re¬ 
 quired curvature. The ends of the rails were 
 stayed with wrought-iron plates, 7 inches long, 
 iV inch thick, and 2^ inches wide, let into recesses 
 adzed off the sleeper. The intention in applying 
 these plates was to maintain the ends of the rails 
 at the same level. 
 
 A general section of both lines for a double way 
 is given in Fig. 54. The rails of each line are 
 placed to a gauge of 5 feet 3 inches, which is the 
 railway gauge of Ireland, though railway waggons 
 cannot be run on the tramway. There is a clear 
 4-foot space between the two lines of way, and 
 there are the customary 18-inch breadths outside 
 the outer rails. The working edge of the groove 
 is at the middle of the width of the rail, or two 
 inches from each edge; and the total width of roadway occupied 
 by the double line of tramways is made up as follows ;— 
 
 o 
 
 tin 
 
 M 2 
 
 54. Dublin Tramways :—Section of the double way. Scale 
 
164 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Two lines, 5 feet 3 inches gauge 
 Intermediate space . 
 
 Four half-widths of rail 
 
 Two breadths of paving outside 
 
 Ft. In 
 
 10 6 
 
 4 o 
 0 8 
 
 3 0 
 
 Total 
 
 18 2 
 
 making a total width of 18 feet 2 inches. Four trenches were 
 cut in the tracks of the rails, to a depth of 18 inches below the 
 level of the roadway, to a width averaging about 2 feet, whilst the 
 intervening surface was excavated to a depth of ii inches. The 
 excavated space was filled with concrete to a level of about 
 74 inches below the surface, forming a level bed for the sleepers. 
 The concrete was made with blue lias lime, or with Portland 
 cement. The ends of the sleepers were laid in cast-iron chairs, 
 like those of the Liverpool line, page 20, which fitted them tightly 
 and were fixed to them at the outer side by two nails, one to each 
 end of the sleeper. The inner sides were formed with dovetail 
 and slots, to receive the ends of a tie-bar at each point. Inter¬ 
 mediate ties of flat iron were placed at intervals of about seven 
 feet; they were split at the ends, and formed with right and left 
 knees in the manner shown in Fig. 51, page 157, by which they 
 were nailed or spiked to the sleepers. A bed of sand i inch thick 
 was laid on the concrete to receive the paving, which consisted of 
 granite sets, 6 inches deep. The transverse joints of the paving, 
 I inch wide, were filled with small gravel or shingle, which was 
 rammed into the joints, after which the paving was beaten with 
 ordinary rammers. 
 
 The following is a statement of the quantities with the approxi¬ 
 mate actual cost, for one mile of double way:— 
 
 Dublin Tramways—Quantities and Approximate Cost for 
 One Mile of Double Way, 1871—72. 
 
 Excavation 
 
 Concrete 
 
 3,500 cubic yards @ 2s, 
 1,400 ,, ,, 6s. 
 
 £ d. 
 
 350 o o 
 420 o o 
 
 Carried forward . 
 
 ^■770 0 o 
 
DUBLIN TRAMWAYS, 
 
 
 I 
 
 ^5 
 
 Dublin T ram ways— cotitinued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 € 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 Broug 
 
 ht forward 
 
 • • • 
 
 770 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Sand and shingle 
 
 400 tons 
 
 ® 3s. 
 
 60 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Sleepers 
 
 3,520 cubic feet 
 
 ,, 2s. 6d. 
 
 440 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Rails, wrought iron . | 
 
 7,040 lineal yards 
 190 tons 
 
 1 
 
 2,280 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Chairs, cast iron 
 
 tons 
 
 
 66 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Nails 
 
 1 
 
 ‘2 
 
 >> 2^24 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cushions . 
 
 Staples, 14,080 at 350 
 
 0'6o „ 
 
 i^io 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 lbs. per 1,000 . 
 
 
 ,, ^26 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Tie-bars 
 
 Laying rails, single 
 
 
 2i6 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 line 
 
 3,520 lineal yards 
 
 ,, IS. 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cost of way 
 
 • * • 
 
 • • • 
 
 4.043 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Paving 
 
 9,973 square yards 
 
 @ 5s. 6d. 
 
 2,742 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Carting away debris 
 
 
 • • • 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Watching and lighting 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Management and contingencies . 
 
 • 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total approximate cost per mile of double way . 
 
 7.105 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 
 do. 
 
 single way . 
 
 3.552 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 The first portion of the lines was opened between St. Stephen’s 
 Green and Rathgar, 2^ miles, on February i, 1872. The tram¬ 
 ways were fully opened to a length of 16 miles early in 1874. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 1870—73. 
 
 An Act of Parliament was passed in 1870 for the construction of 
 the Glasgow Street Tramways by a private company. The powers 
 conferred by the Act were, in the same year, transferred to the 
 Corporation of Glasgow, by whom, accordingly, the tramways of 
 Glasgow have been constructed. 
 
 In designing the first tramway, the engineers, Messrs. John- 
 stones & Rankine, developed the employment of the transverse 
 sleeper for giving bearing surface and for strength. They adopted 
 a modified form of the old flat-grooved rail in combination with 
 longitudinal and transverse sleepers and bituminous concrete, and 
 produced a structure which surpassed all others that had previously 
 been laid for tramways, for strength and solidity. The system of 
 construction is illustrated by Fig. 55. It was adopted for the first 
 contract, which was entered into in 1871. The first portion of the 
 line under the contract was 2 miles 300 yards, and was opened in 
 August, 1872. By the end of the year 1872, 9 miles of tramway 
 were completed and opened, and the whole of the tramways 
 executed under the first contract, passing over 9I miles of streets, 
 were completed in June, 1873. 
 
 In designing the rail a single broad fillet, on the lower side, 
 under the groove, was substituted for the pair of lateral fillets 
 employed in other rails made at that time. The fillet was let into 
 the longitudinal sleepers, and, besides providing the needful 
 lateral resistance at either side, it aided in strengthening the rail at 
 the weakest part of the section—under the groove—whilst it 
 afforded a deeper bearing for the countersunk heads of the vertical 
 bolts employed for fixing the rail to the sleeper. The longi- 
 
O'LASGOJr CORPORATIOX TRAMWAYS. 167 
 
 tudinal sleepers rested in cast-iron chairs, formed with broad soles, 
 spiked to transverse wood sleepers laid in concrete. The bolt, 
 having a slotted head, was screwed into a nut with a washer at 
 the underside of the longitudinal sleeper, and a hasp was applied 
 to prevent the nut from turning when the bolt was required to be 
 tightened up. But the hasp was abandoned after the construction 
 of the first section. 
 
 Tlie works under this contract were as follows, for double 
 
 way, except i,iio yards, or about two-thirds of a mile, which 
 was single way :— 
 
 Miles. Yards. 
 
 No. I Tramway :—Whiteinch, via Particle and Tron- 
 gate, to Bridgetown . . . . . . 5 128 
 
 No. 2 Tramway:—Great Western Road, via Sauchie- 
 hall Street, Renfield Street, Jamaica Street, to Port 
 Eglinton ......... 3 967 
 
 No. 3 Tramway:—Junction of the ist and 2nd tram¬ 
 ways, via Derby Street ...... i 78 
 
 (9§ miles). 9 Di 73 
 
 The gauge of the way, according to the Act of 1870, was 
 require to be equal to the railway gauge, 4 feet inches. But 
 
i68 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 a new element was introduced by the Act passed in 1871 for the 
 Vale of Clyde Tramways, according to which their lines were to 
 be constructed for the transit of railway rolling stock ; and it was 
 further provided that the Corporation should, if they thought fit, 
 construct the Glasgow tramways to the same gauge as that of the 
 Vale of Clyde lines, to secure a uniformity of gauge throughout 
 the Glasgow district. It behoved the authorities, therefore, to 
 look in advance, and while the contract for the first portion of the 
 tramway was being drawn up, in 1871, it occurred to the engineers 
 that, in order to give passage to railway waggons, the Vale of Clyde 
 lines, and, therefore, also those of the Corporation, if the gauges 
 were to be uniform, must be less than the normal standard gauge; 
 for, what is strange at first sight, the gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches in 
 the grooved rail does not answer for railway waggons. The 
 reason becomes apparent when it is considered that the groove is 
 not wide enough to clear the backs of the tyres. These are 
 never less than 4 feet 5^ inches apart, a width which is 3 inches 
 less than the normal gauge, equivalent to inches at each rail. 
 But, as the width of the groove in the tramrail is commonly 
 limited to inches, or at the most to ij inches, the flanges of 
 waggons obviously could not enter at all. 
 
 A correspondence was therefore instituted by Messrs. John- 
 stones & Rankine, in September, 1871, with a view to the estab¬ 
 lishment of a uniform gauge at the outset, as a standard for all 
 the tramways in process of construction, or to be constructed, in 
 or near Glasgow ; such that, whilst the gauge would be continuous 
 throughout the whole number of the group, it would be adapted 
 for the transit of railway vehicles. Messrs. Johnstones & 
 Rankine proposed to contract the gauge from the ordinary width 
 by I of an inch to 4 feet 7f inches, maintaining the minimum 
 width of groove already adopted by them, inches. By this 
 compromise they would shift inwards the inner sides of the grooves 
 of the two rails for each line to the distance apart of 4 feet 
 7f inches, minus twice inches, or to 4 feet inches. In this 
 way the line would be adapted to receive railway waggons with a 
 total lateral clearance of ^ inch between the backs of the tyres and 
 
O'LASGOIP^ CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 
 
 i6g 
 
 the inner edges of the grooves. It was apparent, nevertheless, that 
 the i^-inch groove would be just wide enough to receive the 
 flanges of railway waggons, which were of the same width, or 
 thickness—i:f inches. But the wedging which would have, in 
 consequence, to take place if the wheels were to run on their 
 treads or rolling surfaces, was obviated by the shallowness of the 
 groove of the Glasgow rail, the depth being only f inch; for it 
 followed that the wheels would run on their flanges, which, being 
 more than f inch deep, would touch the bottom of the groove, and 
 so prevent the wheel settling down and wedging itself into the rail. 
 
 Mr. Hopkins, as engineer for the Vale of Clyde Tramway, 
 assented to the proposition for securing uniformity of gauge, and, 
 in the first instance, recommended a gauge of 4 feet 7^ inches. 
 For the purpose of settling the choice of these two widths Messrs. 
 Johnstones & Rankine made arrangements for, and conducted 
 experimental trials with, a short 'line of tramway laid to a gauge 
 of 4 feet 7|- inches, with the rails of the Glasgow tramways, and 
 at the charge of the Corporation, within the station of the 
 Glasgow and South Western Railway. Mr. Hopkins and others 
 assisted at the trials, which took place on October 24, 1871. 
 Railway waggons were run over the piece of tramway in a manner 
 which was quite satisfactory; and the results of the trials led to 
 the adoption, by general consent, of the gauge of 4 feet 7f inches 
 for all the tramways of the Glasgow district. 
 
 The total width of the tramway, for a double line, amounted 
 to 16 feet 10^ inches, constituted as follows:— 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 9 
 
 3 III 
 o 
 
 3 o 
 
 Width of gauge, 4 feet 7f inches, x 2 . 
 
 Width of interspace between lines of way 
 
 Four widths of rolling surface of rails, inches, x 4 
 
 Two outer margins of pavement, 18 inches, x 2 . 
 
 Total width 
 
 16 lO.V 
 
 For a single line the total width is 7 feet ii^ inches. 
 
 The excavation for the tramways was made to a uniform depth 
 of 76^ inches below the surface of the street. For the whole width 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 1 70 
 
 a bed of bituminous concrete, 4 inches thick, was laid over the 
 whole of the excavated bottom. The concrete consisted of slag 
 fresh from the furnaces, thoroughly dry, broken to a 2-inch ring 
 gauge, and British bitumen made from pure coal-tar pitch. The 
 bitumen was to be used at the boiling point and mixed in the 
 proportion of 31 lbs. per cubic foot of slag. The transverse 
 sleepers were laid on a concrete bed, and after the longitudinal 
 sleepers and rails had been correctly laid and adjusted the spaces 
 between the cross-sleepers were made up with concrete of the 
 same composition, flush with the upper surface of the sleepers. A 
 half-inch stratum of bitumen was floated over this new level. 
 Concrete was also packed under the longitudinal beams in the 
 intervals between the chairs. 
 
 The rails, Fig. 55, weighed 60 lbs. per yard; they were 4 inches 
 wide, and i| inches thick, at the tread. The rolling surface was 
 14 inches wide, the groove was ij inches wade and f inch deep, 
 formed semicircularly at the bottom, and the inner flange was 
 \ inch thick, and corrugated at the upper surface. The rolling 
 surface wns slightly rounded transversely ; the fillet on the under¬ 
 side wns I inch deep, and so increased the total depth of the 
 rail to 2 inches. The rails were rolled to 24 feet in length, except 
 5 per cent, of the total quantity, which wns of shorter lengths, not 
 less than 14 feet. The bolt-holes in the grooves were | inch in 
 diameter, countersunk to a diameter of i inch. The rails were 
 to be made from piles of selected puddle-bars of mine iron, to 
 produce a hard granular rolling surface, and w'ere to be of tough 
 fibrous iron at the underside. They wxre bolted to the sleepers with 
 f-inch bolts, of which there were eight to each rail of 24 feet long. 
 
 A portion of the points and crossings w^ere to be of cast iron, 
 
 2 inches thick, and others of wrought iron, i^- inches thick, cor¬ 
 rugated at the surface. The chairs were of cast iron. 
 
 Three-eighths inch fish-plates, 12 inches long, w^ere placed 
 under the ends of the rails. 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers were of American wdiite oak, 4 inches 
 wade and 6 inches deep, secured to the chairs by |-inch oak pins. 
 The transverse sleepers w^ere of Baltic timber, 4 inches deep. 
 
GLASGOIV CORPORATION 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 171 
 
 7 inches wide at the joints of the longitudinal sleepers, and 6 inches 
 wide intermediately. All the timber was creosoted with 8 pounds 
 of creosote per cubic foot of timber. 
 
 The interspaces, together with a breadth of 18 inches on each 
 side of the way, were to be paved with granite from Furness 
 quarry or Bonawe quarry. The stones were to range from 4 inches 
 to 7 inches deep, as might be required, and to be laid on a bed 
 of sand of from i inch to inches deep, laid on the bituminous 
 coating. The stones were to be jointed for q inches on each side 
 of each rail with British bitumen, the remainder with lime grout. 
 The surface of the pavement was formed with a natural slope of 
 i inch in one foot from the centre line. 
 
 The use of bitumen for the joints was abandoned, as on expe¬ 
 riment it was found that the bitumen ran and spread beyond the 
 specified width and under some of the stones, and the design 
 could not profitably be carried out. 
 
 The contractor was to maintain the whole of the work for six 
 months after completion, and to replace all rails failing within 
 12 months. He could re-use, after re-dressing, the paving stones 
 interfered with, so far as they were suitable for the work. 
 
 The total cost of construction of the tramway under the first 
 contract was as follows :— 
 
 I 
 
 Glasgow Corporation Tramways.—Cost. 
 
 1872—73- 
 
 Length, 
 single line. 
 
 Total cost. 
 
 Cost per 
 lineal yard. 
 
 Cost per 
 mile, 
 
 single line. 
 
 1 
 
 Charge for 
 mainten¬ 
 ance for six 
 months. 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 
 
 
 7; 
 
 No. I. 1st piece 
 
 8,281 
 
 27,850 
 
 3*363 
 
 5.919 
 
 30 ! 
 
 ,, 2nd „ 
 
 6,286 
 
 16,144 
 
 2-568 
 
 4,519 
 
 100 1 
 
 3i‘d ,, 
 
 2,920 
 
 6,258 
 
 2-143 
 
 3,772 
 
 20 1 
 
 ! 
 
 No. I . 
 
 17,487 
 
 50,252 
 
 2-873 
 
 5,058 
 
 150 i 
 
 1 ,, 2 . 
 
 12,234 
 
 30,835 
 
 2-521 
 
 4,437 
 
 20 
 
 3 • 
 
 3,195 
 
 7,442 
 
 2-329 
 
 4,100 
 
 10 i 
 
 1 
 
 Totals . 
 
 32,916 
 
 88,529 
 
 2-689 
 
 4,733 
 
 180 j 
 
172 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The variations in the cost per yard and per mile for the different 
 pieces arise chiefly from the item of paving. In the first piece of 
 No. I Tramway, the roadway was of macadam, and the tramway 
 was laid with entirely new paving ; whilst in the third piece the 
 roadway was paved throughout, and the old stones were re-dressed 
 and used for the tramway. In the other pieces the roadway was 
 partly of macadam and partly of paving. The items of cost for 
 paving, included in the above totals, were respectively as fol¬ 
 lows :— 
 
 Glasgow Corporation Tramways.—Cost of Paving. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 Cost of paving. 
 
 Cost per lineal 
 yard, single line. 
 
 Cost per mile, 
 single line. 
 
 No. I. ist piece . 
 
 £ 
 
 A) 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 12,370 
 
 1-494 
 
 2,629 
 
 , M 2nd ,, . 
 
 4 A 95 
 
 0-667 
 
 G175 
 
 609 
 
 3rd ,, . 
 
 1,010 
 
 0-346 
 
 No. I . . 
 
 I 7 G 75 
 
 1-005 
 
 1,769 
 
 ,, 2 . 
 
 8,476 
 
 0-693 
 
 1,220 
 
 j > 3 • 
 
 1,697 
 
 0*531 
 
 935 
 
 Totals for paving 
 
 27,748 
 
 0-843 
 
 1,484 
 
 Do. for tramways proper 
 
 60,781 
 
 I -846 
 
 3.249 
 
 Total whole cost . 
 
 88,529 
 
 2-689 
 
 4.733 
 
 From these data it appears that the average cost of construction 
 per mile of double way was :— 
 
 For the tramway proper £6,4gS per mile, or 69 per cent. 
 
 For paving . . . 2,968 ,, 31 ,, 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 100 
 
GLASGOIV CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 173 
 
 Schedule of Prices for First Contract, 1872—73. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Excavating macadam and removing the 
 
 same for double line . . . .070 per lineal yard. 
 
 Ditto for single line . . . . .036 ,, 
 
 Lifting causeway, and excavating stuff 
 
 and removing the same for double line .050 ,, 
 
 Ditto for single line . . . . .026 ,, 
 
 Furnishing, laying and completing bitu¬ 
 minous concrete under transverse 
 sleepers for double line . . . . o 14 2 ,, 
 
 Ditto for single line . . . . .068 ,, 
 
 Furnishing, laying and completing bitu¬ 
 minous concrete upon the preceding 
 layer to inch below paving stones, 6 
 inches deep, or to from i to inches 
 below paving stones 7 inches deep for 
 
 double line ...... 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 Ditto for single line ..... 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Rails laid complete ..... 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 0 per ton. 
 
 Chairs ,, 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts and nuts 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Fish-plates ,, 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Washers ...... 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Spikes „ ..... 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 oi 
 
 Cast-iron points and crossings laid com¬ 
 
 
 
 
 plete . 
 
 / 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Wrought-iron ditto ..... 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Transverse sleepers, creosoted and laid 
 
 
 
 
 complete— 
 
 
 
 
 Joint ...... 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 each. 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 ,, 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers, ditto 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4^ per lineal yard 
 
 Ditto laid, not creosoted .... 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 -4 J > 
 
 Allowance for extra width of longitudinal 
 
 beams at points and crossings . .300 per set. 
 
 Oak pins, 5^ inches long, f inch diameter i o 0 per 1,000. 
 Filling all bolt, spike, and pin holes with 
 Archangel tar, per lineal yard of single 
 line ........ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o’343 per lin. yd. 
 
174 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Schedule of Prices {continued). 
 
 Furnishing and laying sand i j inches deep 
 under stones :— 
 
 Double line . . . . . 
 
 Single line ..... 
 Furnishing and laying paving stones, 
 jointing and grouting the same :— 
 
 4 inches deep, new stones— 
 
 Double line . . . . . 
 
 Single line . . . . . 
 
 6 inches deep, new stones — 
 
 Double line . . . . . 
 
 Single line . . . . 
 
 £ s. cl. 
 
 009 per lineal yd. 
 004^ 
 
 250 
 
 126 
 
 2 19 o 
 196 
 
 The liberal development of solidity exemplified in the con 
 struction of the first contracts for the Glasgow Corporation Tram¬ 
 ways were extended likewise to the subsequent contracts. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS, 1874—75.— 
 SYSTEM OF Messrs. JOHNSTONES RANKINE. 
 
 Following up the line of construction adopted in the first 
 contract for tramways, in 1872, the engineers of the Glas¬ 
 gow Corporation Tramways, Messrs. Johnstones & Rankine, 
 introduced several modifications of their earlier designs in the 
 tramways more recently constructed, in 1874—75. In the course 
 of the construction of the tramways, the work was gradually 
 changed from that described for the first contract, to that which is 
 now to be described, illustrated by Figs. 57 and 58. 
 
 The changes consisted of, first, the substitution of the flanged 
 rail, or box-rail, for the flat rail, to admit of side fastenings. 
 
 Second, the use of a thinner layer of sand under the paving 
 stones. 
 
 Third, the abandonment of the lower stage of concrete ; that is, 
 the concrete under the sleepers. 
 
 Fourth, the employment of lime concrete, instead of bituminous 
 concrete. 
 
 Fifth, the grouting of the whole of the paving with bitumen, 
 instead of lime. 
 
 The ways were laid to a gauge of 4 feet 7inches, with an inter¬ 
 space of 3 feet inches between the two lines, whilst the paving 
 was extended for a width of 18 inches at each outer side. The 
 total width for a double line was made up thus :— 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TR A MINA VS. 
 
 176 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Two widths of gauge .... 
 
 • 9 3 h 
 
 Interspace ...... 
 
 • 3 iG 
 
 Two strips of pavement 
 
 • 3 0 
 
 Four half-widths of rail (G ^ 4 =) 
 
 . 0 /h 
 
 
 16 loi 
 
 For a single line the total width is 7 feet ii^ inches. 
 
 The steepest gradients of the tramways in Glasgow lie in 
 Renlield Street. Going northwards from St. Vincent Street to 
 Cowcaddens, the gradients are as follows :— 
 
 Yards. 
 
 I in 27 for 96 
 
 I ,, 21 „ II3 
 
 I ,, 26 „ 52 
 
 I M 43 22 
 
 Yards. 
 
 I in 81 for 88 
 I ,, 20 „ 215 
 
 Total I ,, 21 ,, 586 
 
 The gradients in Great Western Road, west of Kelvin Bridge, 
 Hillhead, are as follows :— 
 
 Yards. Yards. 
 
 I in 37 for 85 I in 41 for 85 
 
 I ,, 27 „ no ; - — — 
 
 I M 30 „ 37 Total I ,, 33 „ 415 
 
 I 33 98 
 
 For a double line, the roadway was ' excavated to a width of 
 1 7 feet, and, for a single line, to a width of 8 feet; to a uniform 
 depth of 12-1 inches below the intended level of the rails. The 
 excavated surface was cleared of all refuse, sludge, loose or soft 
 material, before the concrete and the sleepers were laid. 
 
 The rails were of wrought iron, and weighed 60 lbs. per yard ; 
 they were rolled in lengths of 24 feet, with about 5 per cent, of 
 the total quantity in shorter lengths. In the character of the 
 section, they are nearly the same as are laid in the Vale of Clyde 
 Tramways. They are inches wide, and iiV inches thick; the 
 rolling surface, which is slightly rounded, is inches wide, the 
 groove is inches wide, and the flange at the inside is f inch 
 
GLASGOIV CORPORAl'ION TRAiMlVAVS. 
 
 177 
 
 wide. The groove is formed with a flat floor, and is only inch 
 deep, leaving a f-inch thickness of metal below it. The lower 
 side flanges are fully f inch thick and if inches deep, thus making 
 a total depth of 2ft inches. Comparing this, the new rail, with 
 the old rail. Fig. 55, page 167,’whilst the weights of the rails are 
 both 60 lbs. per yard, there is a better distribution of metal in the 
 new rail; for whilst it is -A- inch thinner, it is, with the flanges, 
 Te" inch deeper than the first rail. Again, by the comparative 
 flatness and shallowness of the groove, the new rail, though 
 thinner, retains a sufficient thickness under the groove, which is 
 the weakest part in grooved rails. 
 
 Fig. 56. Glasgow Corporation Tramways;—Section of Rail. Scale 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers, or beams, are of Baltic red timber, 
 4 inches wide and 6 inches deep, rebated at each side for the 
 lower flanges of the rail, and not less than 24 feet in length. The 
 joints of the beams are cut square. At curves the beams are 
 sawn to the radius, and where the radius is less than 80 feet the 
 beams might be reduced to 14 feet. The rails were drawn close 
 to the longitudinal beams by means of a powerful cramp, and each 
 rail of 24 feet in length was secured to the beam with side- 
 fastenings, or staples, at each side alternately, and at a pitch of 
 about 13I- inches on each side. Each joint of the rails is fished 
 with an iron plate 8 inches long, 3 inches wide, and f inch thick. 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 let flush into the upper surface of the beam, and the end of each 
 rail is fixed to the beam by two pairs of staples. Each 24 feet 
 rail is fastened to the beams by a total of twenty staples. The 
 staples are of Lowmoor iron and are in section f inch by | inch; 
 they have a total length of 8 inches, and are forged with two 
 bends, of which the upper bend is chisel pointed, and passes 
 through holes punched in the flange of the rails. The lower end 
 is jagged. 
 
 The transverse sleepers are of Baltic red timber, 8 feet long 
 
 Fig. 57. Glasgow Corporation Tramways :—Section of Rail and Sleepers, 
 
 with fastenings. Scale 
 
 and 4 inches deep. The sleepers at the joints are 7 inches wide 
 and the intermediate sleepers are 6 inches wide. A joint sleeper 
 is laid under each joint of the longitudinal beams; and at each 
 joint of the rails, two intermediate sleepers are placed, at a distance 
 apart, between centres, of not more than 2 feet. At other places 
 the distance apart of intermediate sleepers is not more than 3 feet 
 8 inches between centres. Spike holes are bored through the 
 sleepers. 
 
G LAS GO IV CORPORATJOy TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 179 
 
 All the timber was creosoted to the extent of 10 lbs. of creosote 
 per cubic foot. 
 
 The longitudinal beams rest in solid cast-iron chairs, 4 inches 
 wide between the flanges, 6 inches wide for the joints of the 
 beams, and 4 inches wide intermediately. The sole of each chair 
 is 9|- inches long, and rests on the transverse sleeper, which is 
 dressed to receive it. The sole is if inches thick, and the flanges 
 taper from i inch thick at the base to ^ inch at the upper edge. 
 The joint chairs weigh 21 lbs. each, and the intermediate chairs 
 
 Fig. 58. Glasgow Corporation Tramways :—Plan of Sleepers. 
 
 Scale 2^-. 
 
 14 lbs. each. The chairs are fastened to the sleepers by f-inch 
 wrought-iron spikes, 4 inches long, with cup heads, and tapered 
 for h inch of length to f at the ends. The longitudinal beams 
 are fixed in the chairs by t-ii^ch compressed oak pins, driven 
 through the flanges of the chairs, and through holes bored in the 
 beams ; the ends of the pins are sawn off flush with the flanges. 
 
 After the sleepers, beams, and rails were accurately laid and 
 adjusted on the bottom of the excavation, the sleepers were packed 
 underneath with fine concrete, composed as follows :— 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Measures 
 
 Whinstone shivers, broken to a |-inch gauge • • • 3 
 
 Sand.. .3 
 
 Orchard Roman cement.. . i 
 
 Arden lime.. . i 
 
 8 
 
 The spaces between the sleepers were filled to the level of the 
 upper surface of the sleepers by a concrete as follows :— 
 
 Measures 
 
 Whinstone metal, to a 2-inch gauge, perfectly free from 
 
 mud, clay, and dirt ....... 6 
 
 Sand ........... I 
 
 Orchard Roman cement ....... i 
 
 Arden lime.. . . i 
 
 9 
 
 Upon this bed of concrete, and over the sleepers, a stratum of 
 fine concrete was laid to such a thickness as to bring up the level 
 to \ inch below the paving sets. When the sets were 6^ inches 
 deep, the thickness of the stratum was about inches. Upon a 
 ^-inch layer of clean sharp sand, the paving was bedded. The 
 new paving was to be of granite from the Furness or Bonawe 
 quarries, or, in the option of the Corporation, of Aberdeen granite. 
 It was actually selected and wholly obtained from the Furness 
 and Bonawe quarries. The stones were to be 3 to 4 inches wide, 
 6 to 7 inches deep, and 6 to 12 inches in length. They were set 
 in straight and parallel courses across the lines of tramways, 
 abutting closely on the rails, and the sets overlying the chairs 
 were cut to suit them. The surface of the pavement was laid to a 
 slope of \ inch per foot transversely, from the centre line of the 
 way. It was grouted with a mixture of British bitumen, manu¬ 
 factured from pure coal-tar pitch, and pitch oil having a specific 
 gravity of ’95. Oil was to be used in sufficient proportions to 
 produce a plastic grout. The grout was run in hot, and the joints 
 were completely filled with it. 
 
 The points and crossings are of cast iron, chilled at the upper 
 side to a depth of at least f inch. 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 
 
 l8l 
 
 The improvements in economy and in efficiency, realised in the 
 second system of way, compared to the first system, are very 
 clearly brought out by a comparison of the illustrations. The 
 4-inch substratum of concrete was dispensed with, for it was found 
 that the bottoms, as excavated, were sufficiently firm and solid to 
 support the cross sleepers. In this way, economy in excavation 
 also was effected, for the depth of material excavated was reduced 
 by 4 inches, from i6b inches to 12^ inches. 
 
 In both the earlier and the later designs, provision was made 
 for rendering the work watertight, but differently. For, in the 
 first construction, the water-proofing, consisting of the bituminous 
 concrete, was laid at the foundation, and, in the second, it was 
 laid at the surface of the road, consisting of the bituminous grout 
 paving. 
 
 The adoption, in the later construction, of a thinner layer of 
 sand for paving—^ inch instead of inches—was clearly bene¬ 
 ficial ; it made a steadier pavement, which could be kept better 
 up to the rails, and which demonstrated the advantages of the 
 good foundation. 
 
 Finally, the most important improvement consisted in the sub¬ 
 stitution of the flange rail or box-rail, with side fastenings, for the 
 flat grooved rail with a vertical bolt fastening. 
 
 Glasgow Corporation Tramways.—Schedule of Prices. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Lifting causeway, excavating and removing 
 
 stuff from paved road— 
 Double line . 
 Single ,, . 
 
 040 per lineal yard. 
 020 ,, 
 
 9 9 
 
 Ditto, from macadamised roads— 
 
 Double line . 
 Single ,, . 
 
 040 
 
 020 
 
 Furnishing and laying coarse and also fine 
 
 concrete— 
 
 Double line . 
 Single ,, . 
 
 on 6 
 
 059 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 182 
 
 Glasgow Corporation Tramways {continued). 
 
 Carting, bending, and laying rails 
 
 com- 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 plete— 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 per lineal yard. 
 
 Single ,, . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 j y 
 
 Chairs, laid complete 
 
 • • 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 per ton. 
 
 Joint plates, ditto 
 
 • 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Spikes, ditto .... 
 
 • 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Rail fastenings, ditto 
 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Chilled cast-iron switches, ditto 
 
 • 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 each. 
 
 Ditto crossings, ditto 
 
 Transverse sleepers, creosoted and 
 
 laid— 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Intermediate 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 y y 
 
 Joint .... 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 y y 
 
 Longitudinal beams, creosoted and laid . 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 per lineal yard. 
 
 Oak pins . . . . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 oi 
 
 each. 
 
 Furnishing and laying sand— 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 per lineal yard. 
 
 Single ,, . 
 
 Redressing and relaying paving stones— 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 i 
 
 L 
 
 1 y y 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Single . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 New paving laid complete— 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • • 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Single ,, . 
 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 y y 
 
 Pitch-grouting the pavement — 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Single ,, . 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
 Extra excavation 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 per cubic yard. 
 
 Ditto concrete .... 
 
 • • 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 yy 
 
 Aberdeen granite for pavement —■ 
 
 Double line . 
 
 • • 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 per lineal yard. 
 
 Single „ . . 
 
 • • 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 y y 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 
 
 183 
 
 Quantities and Cost per Mile, Single Line, of the 
 Glasgow Corporation Tramways (Second 
 System of Way), 1874—75. 
 
 Work and materials. 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 Per lineal yard. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Quantit)'. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Way. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 Excavation . 
 
 1,694 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 •96 cub. yds. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Concrete 
 
 63 0 5 > ) > 
 
 506 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 '36 ,, ,, 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 Sleepers 
 
 3,862 ,, ft. 
 
 247 
 
 TO 
 
 0 
 
 2'20 ,, ft. 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 of 
 
 Chairs . 
 
 20’62 tons 
 
 161 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 26J lbs. 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 Spikes . 
 
 2,356 lbs. 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 1*34 „ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 *^4 
 
 Trenails—oak 
 
 3^28 ,, 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 Rails . 
 
 94*3 tons 
 
 990 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 120 lbs. 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Joint plates . 
 
 1,099 lbs. 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 '6^ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 of 
 
 Staples 
 
 11,440 ,, 
 
 224 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 6-5 ,, 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6i 
 
 Totals . 
 
 
 2,337 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Pavement. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Sand . 
 
 1,760 lin. yds. 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I lin. yd. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 i 
 
 New paving' stones 
 
 4 j 594 ^ 4 * ’> 
 
 2,508 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2'61 sq. yds. 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Pitch grouting 
 
 1,760 lin. ,, 
 
 528 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I lin. yd. 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Total 
 
 
 3,069 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 • • 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 Summary. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Way . 
 
 • • 
 
 2,337 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 • • 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Pavement 
 
 • • 
 
 3,069 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 • • 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 Total cost 
 
 
 5,406 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS, — MESSRS. 
 JOHNSTONES Sf RANKINE'S MORE RECENT 
 SYSTEM OF WAY, 1879 —WEAR OF RAILS. 
 
 It was apparent, nevertheless, with the prospect of the future 
 employment of steam power for traction, and the attendant heavy 
 rolling loads, that something better could be devised than the 
 longitudinal timber beam and the box rail, a subject which had 
 for a long period engaged the attention of the engineers. The 
 Vale of Clyde Tramways, the construction of which is described 
 in the next chapter, having longitudinal and side fastenings, have 
 not withstood the steam haulage by engines. The ends of the 
 rails were driven down into the timber, and the side fastenings 
 worked loose. 
 
 Preparatory to deciding on the material—iron or steel—for the 
 
 Fig. 59. Original Section of Rails, Glasgow. 
 
 rails of the new system of way designed for haulage by mechanical 
 power, the results of the comparative wear and tear of iron rails 
 and steel rails under like circumstances, were investigated by the 
 
GLASGOJV CORPORATION TRAMIVAYS, 185 
 
 engineers, Messrs. Jolmstones & Rankine. Two rails, of the 
 earliest section, one of iron and one of steel, laid in Paisley Road, 
 within a few yards of each other; and two rails, one of iron and 
 
 Fjg. 60. Iron Rail, laid December, 1872. Worn Section. 
 
 Fig. 61. Steel Rail, laid December, 1872. Worn Section, 
 
 Fig. 62. Iron Rail, laid May, 1873. Worn Section. 
 
 Fig. 63. Steel Rail, laid May, 1873. Worn Section, 
 
 Figs. 59—63. Original and Worn Sections of Rails, Glasgow 
 Corporation Tramways. Scale 
 
 one of steel, laid in Argyll Street, were weighed when they were 
 laid and when they were taken up. The original and the worn 
 sections are illustrated by Figs. 59 and 63. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 186 
 
 Paisley Road:— 
 
 Iron rail, laid Dec., 1872. 
 
 lifted May, 1879. 
 
 Weight 480 lbs. 
 Do. 436 lbs. 
 
 Loss 44 lbs. 
 
 Steel rail, laid Dec., 1872. 
 
 lifted May, 1879. 
 
 Weight 480 lbs. 
 Do. 436^ lbs. 
 
 Loss 43^^ lbs. 
 
 Argyll Street:— 
 
 Iron rail, laid May, 1873. 
 
 lifted May, 1879. 
 
 Weight 480 lbs. 
 
 Do. 441 lbs. 
 
 Loss 39 lbs. 
 
 Steel rail, laid May, 1873. 
 
 lifted May, 1879. 
 
 Weight 480 lbs. 
 Do. 447 lbs. 
 
 Loss 33 lbs. 
 
 The loss of weight in the iron 
 
 rails averages 41^ 
 
 lbs. ; and in 
 
 Pig. 64. Johnstones & Rankine’s Way, Glasgow. 
 —Rail and Sleeper. Scale j. 
 
 the steel rails 38^ lbs. But in the individual case of Paisley Road 
 the wears were equal. 
 
 These results are remarkable, and in a sense disappointing, 
 showing an unexpected degree of mediocrity in the steel rails ; 
 though the wear of the rails was more nearly uniform than that of 
 the iron rails. 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 187 
 
 Steel was adopted for the material of the rails of the new lines; 
 and the girder form for the section of the rails, as shown in 
 Fig. 64. They were rolled by the Steel Company of Scotland, 
 in lengths of 24 feet. The lip, or guard flange, is rolled out nearly 
 square with the web, and is then turned upwards to form the groove. 
 There was some difficulty and cause of trouble in perfecting the 
 rolls. The greatest difficulty lay in maintaining the bottom flanges 
 of the rails in their entirety for the whole width. The more nearly 
 the mass of metal in the upper part of the rail balances that in 
 the lower part the better for the work of rolling and the distribu¬ 
 tion of the metal. The friction in rolling tends to withdraw the 
 thin sole plate from the extremities of the grooves in the rolls, 
 and so to produce a sole of uneven width. That tendency is more 
 
 Figs. 65, 66. Jolinstones & Ranldne’s Way, Glasgow. 
 
 powerful at and near the ends of the rails than in intermediate 
 positions. In consequence, the rails require a good deal of 
 trimming, and considerable allowance is made in the blooms for 
 waste ends. Nevertheless, the rails can be rolled, if necessary, in 
 clear lengths of 30 feet. 
 
 The construction of the new way is shown in Figs. 65 and 66. 
 The rails are laid on and spiked to transverse timber sleepers, 
 without the intervention of longitudinal timber sleepers. The 
 ground is excavated for a depth of only lob inches below the 
 surface of the road, for a minimum width of formation of 17 feet for 
 a double line, and 8 feet for a single line. The transverse sleepers 
 are of Baltic timber, 6 inches wide by 4 inches deep and 8 feet in 
 length, creosoted to the extent of 10 lbs. of creosote per cubic foot 
 
i88 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 of timber. They are laid on the floor of the excavation, on the 
 system already shown in Fig. 58, page 179, one at each side of the 
 joint of the rails, at 15 inches from the joint to the centre of the 
 sleeper. The intermediate sleepers are laid at a pitch of 3 feet 
 
 1 of inches between centres; making seven sleepers to each 24 feet 
 length of single line. They are bedded on and packed with fine 
 concrete. 
 
 The rails are of Bessemer steel, of which the ultimate tensile 
 resistance is 30 tons per square inch. The tread of the rail is 
 if inches wide, the groove is if inches wide at the surface, and the 
 guard flange is f inch thick, making altogether 3f inches of width. 
 The rail is 6d inches high, and the base is 5^^ inches wide. The 
 base is f inch thick at the edge, and expands to iV inch thick 
 near the middle. The vertical web is ^ inch thick and tapers to 
 f inch thick to the head. With these dimensions the rails weigh 
 79 lbs. per yard. They are rolled in lengths of 24 feet, with a 
 proportion of about 5 per cent, in lengths of 20 feet. The rails 
 are fish-jointed. In the web of each rail, at each end, 2 oval 
 fish-bolt holes are punched, If inch deep and i inch long, respec¬ 
 tively 3 inches and 9 inches from the end. The fishplates are 
 
 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and f inch thick : they weigh 7 lbs. each. 
 The bolts and nuts are of B. B. iron, f inch diameter, with semi- 
 spherical heads and square nuts. The design of the fishplates is 
 opposed to that of current practice. The plates lie flat against 
 the web of the rail, but do not take a bearing either above or 
 below on the head or the base. The rails, it is contended, bedded 
 direct on the concrete, are immovably held by the bituminous 
 grouting; and the fishplates were applied rather with a view to 
 keeping the ends of contiguous rails true to each other, until the 
 work was completed. 
 
 The rails were laid to a gauge of 4 feet 7f inches : a gauge the 
 origin of which has already been explained, page 168. The sole 
 of each rail is brought close to the sleepers, to which each 24 feet 
 rail is secured by 14 dogheaded spikes. Half-inch holes are 
 bored entirely through the sleepers for the reception of the spikes. 
 The spikes are of B. B. iron and are inch square; they are 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAM WAVS. 189 
 
 4 inches long under the head, and taper to d inch thick at the point 
 for a length of f inch. The projection of the head is i inch from 
 the stem of the spike. 
 
 After the sleepers have been packed, and the rails laid to proper 
 line and level, the space excavated is filled between the sleepers, 
 flush with them. The road metal from the material excavated, 
 when used for making concrete, is carefully screened and cleaned. 
 This, as well as new metal used, is broken to a 2-inch gauge. 
 The concrete is composed of 5 measures of metal, 2 of sharp 
 sand, and i of Portland cement, weighing not less than 115 lbs. 
 per straked imperial bushel. The cement is required to be so 
 finely ground that at least four-fifths of it can pass through a sieve 
 of 2,500 meshes per square inch, or 50 meshes per lineal inch, 
 and to be such that after being mixed neat in a mould and 
 immersed in water for seven days, it resists, without breaking, a 
 tensile force ol 300 lbs. per square inch. The surface of the con¬ 
 crete filling is smoothed off with a layer of fine concrete composed 
 of 4 parts of fine clean whinstone shivers, i part of sand, and 
 I part of Portland cement. This fine concrete is laid upon the 
 sleepers where the paving stones are of such depth that room for 
 it is left under them. The finished surface is to be not more than 
 ^ inch below the lower surface of the paving stones. The rails 
 are thoroughly underpacked with concrete, so that they rest 
 throughout on the concrete, not having any hollow or vacant 
 spaces. All concrete is carefully mixed when dry, and afterwards 
 watered and turned over at least twice on hard clean boards. 
 
 A layer of clean sharp sand, not less than ^ inch thick, is spread 
 over the concrete, on which the paving is set. The joints of the 
 paving are kept free of sand, and no more sand is used than is 
 requisite for bedding the stones. 
 
 The paving extends for a width of 18 inches outside the outer 
 rails, and is laid also between the rails. The paving for the double 
 line of tramway, excluding the breadth occupied by the rails, is 
 15 feet 9 inches in width; and for a single line it is 7 feet 4^ inches 
 in width. The new paving is of the granite of the Furness or 
 Bonawe quarries, or of first-class close-grained Aberdeen granite. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 190 
 
 When old paving is restored new stcnes are laid next the rails. 
 The paving sets are all 6 inches in depth, from 6 inches to 12 inches 
 long, and from 3 inches to 4 inches in breadth. The paving 
 is laid in straight and parallel courses, to a uniform lateral slope 
 of d inch vertical to each foot horizontal, or at the rate of i in 48, 
 flush with the rails. The stones are set close to each other, break 
 bond for at least one-third of their length, butt truly and hard 
 against the rail, and laid as much as is practicable so that the dog- 
 spikes come between courses. But, when necessary, the stones 
 are properly cut, so that they shall not rock on the spikes or other 
 material. 
 
 After the paving is laid and thoroughly beaten, all the joints — 
 next the rails as well as between the sets—are completely grouted 
 with a mixture of best British bitumen, and pitch oil. The bitu¬ 
 men is manufactured from pure coal-tar pitch; the oil has a specific 
 gravity of ’950. Each boilerful of grout is tested by suddenly 
 cooling a portion of the grout in water; after being so cooled the 
 grout should be plastic, and should not break by bending. The 
 grout is boiling hot when used. 
 
 In constructing the tramway over Albert Bridge the sleepers 
 were only 2 inches deep, when the full depth of excavation could 
 not be allowed. The rails were bedded in fine concrete. 
 
 The contractor maintained the whole of the works, materials, 
 and lines of tramways, for twelve months after the several dates of 
 opening for traffic. 
 
 Schedule of Prices for Contract No. 7, September, 1879. 
 
 Excavating and removing stuff from macadamised 
 
 Double 
 
 line. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Single 
 
 line. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 roads, per lineal yard ...... 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 Concrete complete, per lineal yard 
 
 Carting, bending, and laying rails and fishplates 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 complete, per lineal yard . ... 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 Bolts and nuts for fishplates, per cwt. . 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Spikes per cwt. 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Switches, laid complete, per pair .... 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION 2R AM WAVS. 
 
 igi 
 
 Schedule of Prices icoiiimued). 
 
 Complete rail crossings of cut rails, each 
 
 Creosoting and laying sleepers, each 
 
 Sand, per lineal yard ...... 
 
 New 6-inch stone paving, per lineal yard 
 Lifting, redressing, and relaying old paving sets, 
 per lineal yard ....... 
 
 Pitch grouting, per lineal yard . . . . 
 
 Double 
 
 line. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 20 O 
 
 O 10 
 O 6 
 
 44 o 
 
 8 o 
 8 6 
 
 Additional prices for extra work. 
 
 Extra excavation, per cubic yard ...... 
 
 Do. concrete, „ „. 
 
 New 4-inch cubes of Furness granite for double line, per 
 
 lineal yard. 
 
 New 4-inch cubes of Aberdeen granite for double line, per 
 
 lineal yard. 
 
 New 6-inch cubes of Aberdeen granite for double line, per 
 lineal yard .......... 
 
 Pitch grouting 4-inch cubes for double line, per lineal yard 
 
 Single 
 
 line. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 20 O 
 
 O 10 
 
 O 3 
 
 22 O 
 
 4 o 
 4 3 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 6 
 
 10 3 
 
 35 6 
 
 37 8 
 
 48 o 
 8 o 
 
 On the rates contained in the foregoing schedule the extensions 
 have been constructed. The quantities and costs per lineal yard 
 and per mile of double line are given as follows. For the sake of 
 comparison the corresponding details are here given for Contract 
 No. I, made in September, 1871. 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 Quantities and Costs of the Glasgow Corporation 
 
 Tramways. 
 
 Contract No. i, Se-pternher, 1871. lit macadamised roads, with 
 
 new paving. 
 
 Double Line. 
 
 Excavation ...... 
 
 Concrete ....... 
 
 Iron rails, 60 lbs. per yard, laid complete, 
 
 £g gs. per ton. 
 
 Chairs, laid complete, ^4 los. per ton 
 Bolts and nuts, fixed complete, 330s. per ton 
 Fish-plates, fixed complete, 205s. ,, . 
 
 Washers, fixed complete, 240s. ,, , 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 616 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 2,596 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 
 L- 77 I 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 187 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 58 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4 i 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
192 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Quantities and Costs ( continued ). 
 
 Double Line. 
 
 Per lin 
 
 s. 
 
 eal yard. Per mile, 
 
 d. £ s. d. 
 
 Spikes, fixed complete', 192s. 6d. per ton . 
 Sleepers, creosoted and laid, 2s. 6d. to 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 03 ,cll ••••••• 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 396 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Longitudinal beams ..... 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 836 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Oak pins, 20s. per 1,000 .... 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Tarring bolt holes, &c. .... 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Total for way 
 
 74 
 
 
 6,559 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 Ss-iid #••••••• 
 
 New 6-inch paving stones, including 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 66 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 grouting ...... 
 
 59 
 
 0 
 
 5,192 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for pavement . 
 
 59 
 
 9 
 
 5,258 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for way and pavement complete 
 
 134 
 
 3 i 
 
 ;^“,8i7 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 Co 7 itract No. 7, Se^ptember, 1879. In macadantised roads with 
 
 Item Paving. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Double Line. lineal yard. Per mile 
 
 s. a. £ 3. 
 
 • 
 
 d„ 
 
 Excavation ...... 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 205 
 
 6 
 
 8: 
 
 Concrete ....... 
 
 Carting, bending, and laying rails and 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 fish-plates ...... 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 146 13 
 
 4 
 
 Steel rails, 79 lbs. per yard, ;^8 los. perton ) 
 
 26 
 
 J 
 
 2,295 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Fish-plates, 14 lbs. per pair, los. ,, f 
 
 
 
 Bolts and nuts, ^10 los. per ton 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Spikes, ;^io per ton. 
 
 Sleepers, is. ii^d. each . . . . } 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 432 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 Creosoting and laying sleepers, lod. each. ^ 
 
 4 
 
 Total for way 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 * - 
 
 33 .nd 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 New 6-inch paving sets .... 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 3,872 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Pitch grouting for do. .... 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for pavement .... 
 
 53 
 
 0 
 
 ;^ 4,664 
 
 0 
 
 0. 
 
 Total for way and pavement, complete 
 
 95 
 
 2 
 
 i^ 8,374 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 
 
 193 
 
 The price of the sleepers, is. iiM. each, delivered at the creo- 
 soting works, was, it may be noted, above their market value. It is 
 an adjusted price, covering undelivered timber contracted for in 
 1873—74> when the market value of timber was high. 
 
 Irrespective of difference of rates, due to the state of the markets, 
 it appears generally, in comparing the costs for the earliest and 
 latest ways, that the comparative saving by the adoption of the 
 new system is effected, for the most part, in the items of excavation 
 and concrete, in which together the reduction amounts to ^^2,420. 
 Add to this ^£’409, the reduction of cost for the way proper, and 
 the sum, ^2,82g, is the whole difference in cost in favour ot 
 the new way. The shallower and simpler structure of the new 
 way has been rendered available by the employment of the 
 stronger concrete, made with Portland cement. 
 
 Thus it is that Messrs. Johnstones & Rankine have logically 
 matured an excellent system of tramway: having, by successive 
 stages, reduced the quantity of excavation, concrete, and timber; 
 simplified the design, increased the strength and durability of the 
 work, and minimised the cost of construction. 
 
 In March, 1881, four miles of way had been laid in Glasgow,. 
 on the new girder system, the first portion of which had been 
 opened one year previously. Now, in 1892, over nine miles have- 
 been constructed, the last portion having been completed in 1887. 
 Practically, there has not been made any alteration of the system,, 
 excepting that the width of the fish-plates has been augmented so 
 as to occupy the whole depth of the web of the rail. 
 
 The cost of the lines constructed between 1882 and 1887 varied 
 from ^7,000 to p£8,ooo per mile of double line. The prices of 
 rails and fish-plates have varied considerably, those used in 1882 
 costing 5s. per ton, and those used in relation to the two suc¬ 
 ceeding contracts, extending from 1885 onwards, ^£5 17s. 6d. and 
 ;£7 respectively for rails and fish-plates. 
 
 The prices for sleepers, including creosoting and laying, was 
 reduced in 1882 to 2s. id. each, and thereafter to is. 6d. 
 
 The whole length of tramways in Glasgow and suburbs belong¬ 
 ing to the Corporation is 31 miles of double line, the total cost ot 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF 7RAMIVAYS. 
 
 which, including that of the relative Acts, has been ;^345,ooo. 
 The lessees find the necessary equipment for their working. 
 
 It was not till the beginning of 1886 that any of the tramways 
 required renewal, their life on the busiest streets having thus been 
 14 years. Up to September last about 15 miles of double line 
 had been renewed. In relaying the tramways the substructure is 
 not interfered with. The rail, longitudinal beam, and chair, are 
 lifted and removed entirely. The new or girder rail, of similar 
 type to that used here since 1880, is designed to correspond in 
 depth and come in place of these. It is thus laid on the old 
 transverse sleeper and spiked to it as in the case of new tramways. 
 The paving is taken up so as to restore it to the same level, and 
 after redressing is relaid. The sleepers are, it is stated, all in 
 good condition, having suffered little deterioration during the 
 14 years or so they have been laid. 
 
 As for the cost for renewal, it has naturally varied, being partly 
 controlled by the importance of the street, the work having some¬ 
 times to be done during the night, involving the construction of 
 cross-overs within short distances. The preparation of new paving 
 stones is also an uncertain quantity, varying from 10 per cent, to 
 33 per cent., and in some cases even exceeding that. The average 
 cost of renewal of a double line of tramway is from ;^4,ooo to 
 ^£’4,500, less the value of old material, which amounts to about 
 ^350 per mile. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE VALE OF CLYDE TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Act for the Vale of Clyde Tramways was passed in 1871. 
 They consisted of two sections—from Park House Toll, Glasgow, 
 to Paisley, Johnstone, and Govan ; and from Port Glasgow to 
 Greenock and Gourock. As before remarked, the Vale of Clyde 
 line, between Glasgow and Govan, was, by the Act, to be 
 constructed so as to admit of railway vehicles being passed over 
 it : in fact, to carry loaded coal waggons from the Govan Railway 
 Station to the ship-building yards on the route. It was laid to 
 the gauge, 4 feet 7! inches, which was adopted by general consent 
 for the tramways of the Glasgow District, as already noticed, 
 and had been applied to the Glasgow Corporation Tramways. 
 
 The first piece of the upper section of the Vale of Clyde Tram¬ 
 ways—from Park House Toll, Glasgow, to Govan—was constructed 
 by the Corporation of Glasgow, under Mr. Hopkins as the 
 engineer. The construction was commenced in July, 1872, and 
 the line was opened for traffic on the i6th December, 1872. A 
 portion of the lower section—between Greenock and Gourock— 
 miles in length, was opened in July, 1873. The remainder of 
 the lower section, 3 miles in length, was constructed by, and 
 leased from, the Corporation of Greenock. The lengths of line 
 
 now open are as follows— 
 
 
 Glasgow and Govan . 
 
 . 25 miles double line. 
 
 Greenock and Gourock 
 
 * • 4 ^ j» >’ 
 
 Total 
 
 ♦ • ^4 ? > ? > 
 
 
 0 2 
 
196 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Govan rail, Fig. 67, is of steel, and weighs 60 pounds 
 per yard. The distribution of the material in the rail is less 
 effective for resisting vertical stress than in the Dublin rail; but 
 the thicker section was specially adopted for the transport of rail¬ 
 way waggons, besides providing a more massive tread; the section 
 also provided greater thickness under the groove—the weakest 
 point. 
 
 The rail is nominally 4 inches wide. It is, in fact, inches 
 wide at the surface, widening downwards to 4 inches at the edges 
 of the flanges to facilitate the manufacture. The total depth is 
 21 inches. The tread, or rolling surface, is inches wide, slightly 
 
 rounded, with a rise of iV in^ch. The groove is inches wide,, 
 
 with sloping sides and a flat floor, and is only inch deep, 
 adapted by its wideness and shallowness to receive the flanges of 
 the wheels of railway waggons, which, being at least one inch in 
 depth, of course take a bearing on the floor of the groove. “ It 
 was rather a violent thing to think of doing,” says Mr. Hopkins, 
 in his evidence before the Select Committee of 1877, “but the 
 obligation was upon us, and it was the only way we could possibly 
 hit upon, because, if we made the groove in the rail wide enough 
 to receive the ordinary tyre of a railway carriage, it would be too 
 wide for the ordinary traffic of a street.” The ledge at the inner 
 side of the rail is f inch wide at the surface. 
 
VALE OF CLYDE TRAMWAYS. 
 
 197 
 
 The rails were rolled to a length of 24 feet, with 5 per cent, of 
 the total quantity as shorter lengths. 
 
 The system of construction consisted of rails laid on longitu¬ 
 dinal sleepers, bedded on a foundation of concrete laid the whole 
 width of the way. 
 
 The lines of way, where the way is double, are placed at a 
 distance of three feet apart between the rails. Including the 
 usual outside breadths of 18 inches of pavement, the width of the 
 tramway is made up as follows :—■ 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 Two lines of way, 4 feet 7f inches gauge . . • 9 
 
 Interspace between lines .......30 
 
 Two breadths of pavement, 18 inches . . . .30 
 
 Four widths of rolling surfaces of rails, i| inches x 4 = o 7^ 
 
 Total width . . . . . . 15 ii 
 
 In a single line the total width amounts to 8 feet oj inch. 
 
 The roadway was excavated for the full width of the tramway— 
 16 feet for a double line—to a uniform depth of 13 inches below 
 the permanent surface. At junctions and crossings, where cross¬ 
 sleepers were laid, the depth was increased to 17 inches, to make 
 room for the sleepers. At places where the excavated bottom was 
 not firm or solid, deeper excavations were made, and filled with 
 hard materials or with concrete. A foundation of concrete laid 
 with Portland cement was laid, 6 inches thick, in the bottom for 
 the whole of the width. The concrete was of the following pro¬ 
 portions :— 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Portland cement . . . . i 
 
 Ballast ...... 7 
 
 8 
 
 The cement was to be of the best quality, weighing at least 
 no lbs. per striked bushel, and of such a fineness that 40 per 
 cent, of it would pass through a hair sieve of 50 gauge. It was 
 to support a tensile stress of 200 lbs. per square inch, one week 
 after having been gauged neat, and kept immersed in water. 
 
igS. CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The ballast was to be clean and sharp, in the proportion of 
 6 parts of gravel, broken stone, or screened macadam, to 2 of 
 clean sharp sand. 
 
 The ground was, in dry weather, to be well watered before the 
 concrete was filled in. 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers were of best Memel timbers, 6 inches 
 deep, 4 inches wide, sawn true and square, in lengths of not less 
 than 20 feet, rebated to fit the rails. They were laid on the founda¬ 
 tion of concrete. On curves having less than a radius of 200 feet, 
 the sleepers could be of shorter lengths, and were sawn to suit the 
 curves. Cross-sleepers of the same timber, 6 inches wide and 
 4 inches deep, at least 7 feet in length, were laid under the longi¬ 
 tudinals to support them, at intervals not exceeding 4 feet between 
 centres, at the points and crossings. A foundation of concrete, 
 6 inches thick, was laid for the support of the cross-sleepers. The 
 timber was to be charged with creosote oil, having a specific 
 gravity not exceeding o'95, to the extent of 10 lbs. of oil per cubic 
 foot of timber. 
 
 The rails were so laid that they extended to the right and left 
 of the joints of the sleepers. For curves of less than 200 chains 
 radius, the rails were to be bent to a true curve by the proper 
 machine. Swaging, or bending by blows, was not permitted. Be¬ 
 fore the paving was laid, the rails were straightened and surfaced. 
 The rails and sleepers were forced together by means of cramps, 
 before the fastenings were driven. The cramps were used for each 
 hole, and were screwed up as near the fastenings as possible. 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers were laid in pairs, and the ends were 
 cut true and square. As in the Liverpool line, they were tied 
 together except where cross-sleepers were used, at every joint and 
 at intervals of from 4 to 5 feet, with wrought-iron tie-bars, 2 inches 
 deep X t inch thick, having dovetailed ends, made of best mer¬ 
 chant iron. These were let into dovetailed grooves, in cast-iron 
 clip chairs, fitted tightly upon the longitudinal sleepers, and nailed 
 to them with f-inch nails, 2\ inches long. The cross-sleepers 
 used at the joints and crossings are united to, and act as ties for, 
 the longitudinal sleepers, by two pairs of cast-iron brackets, each 
 
VALE OF CLYDE TRAMWAYS. 
 
 199 
 
 longitudinal sleeper being lodged between the brackets, and 
 fixed to them with 4-inch spikes, 3f inches long, chisel-pointed, 
 and round headed, four spikes for each bracket. The joints of 
 the rails are supported by joint-plates of best merchant wrought 
 iron, f inch thick, 3 inches wide, and 8 inches long, rounded at 
 the angles, and let flush into the longitudinal sleepers. 
 
 The fastenings for the rails were double-kneed staples, having 
 8 inches of total length, made of iron f inch thick, and f inch 
 wide. The upper part, to pass through holes in the flanges of the 
 rail, was forged round and chisel-pointed; the lower part was 
 jagged, and was driven into the sleepers. Each rail of 24 feet was 
 fastened with 23 staples, applied to each side alternately; two 
 pairs of them were applied to the end of each rail. 
 
 The staples and the other fastenings employed in the chairs, 
 brackets, points, &:c., were made of Lowmoor iron. 
 
 After the rails and the sleepers were secured to each other, they 
 were raised to the proper level by means of folding wedges, and 
 were truly surfaced and straightened. They were closely and com¬ 
 pletely packed with concrete underneath, over the whole surface. 
 The concrete was finer and stronger than that which was employed 
 for the formation, and was of the following composition :— 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Portland cement . . . . i 
 
 Clean coarse sand .... 4 
 
 5 
 
 The points and crossings were of cast iron, of which the 
 whole of the upper surfaces were chilled to a depth of at least 
 f inch. Movable tongues were of cast steel. 
 
 The whole of the spaces between the rails, with the 18-inch 
 breadths at the outer sides, were paved with the best whinstone 
 causeway sets, from 3^ inches to 4 inches wide, and 6 inches deep, 
 laid on a bed ot good clean sharp sand, i inch thick. All the sets 
 were to be dressed true and square and free from cracks, chips, 
 round or broken angles, or hollows on the sides. The paving was 
 laid in straight parallel courses across the way, bordered at each 
 
200 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 side by a longitudinal course of sets 3 inches wide, upon which the 
 macadam of the common roadway abutted. Where the stones 
 came in contact with the chairs and the brackets, they were to be 
 carefully cut with a chisel by a mason to fit the work—not to be 
 broken with a hammer. 
 
 The sides of the roads next the tramways were made up with 
 broken granite or whinstone. The paving was well rammed, and 
 the joints were partly filled with coarse dry gravel, run with best 
 British asphalte, and covered with sand. The upper surface of the 
 paving finished flush with the surface of the rails. 
 
[chapters XII. TO XIV. DEAL WITH VARIOUS WAYS 
 HAVING WOOD SUBSTRUCTURE.] 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 BELOKS SYSTEM.—SOUTHPORT TRAMWAYS .— 
 
 WIRRAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Southport Tramways, opened in 1873, of which Mr. Charles 
 
 H. Beloe was engineer, consist of a single line 4 miles in length, 
 
 laid with flanged or box iron rails, fastened to longitudinal sleepers 
 
 laid on transverse sleepers in concrete, to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ 
 
 inches. The ground was excavated for a width of 8 feet, to a depth 
 
 « 
 
 of 12^ inches below the surface of the roadway. A foundation of 
 concrete, 3 inches thick, was laid over the whole of the bottom. 
 
 The concrete was composed as follows :— 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Broken stone ...... 
 
 • . 3 
 
 Coarse sand, or fine gravel 
 
 I 
 
 Blue lias lime...... 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 Upon this base, cross-sleepers of pitch pine, 6 inches wide and 
 3 inches deep, were laid at intervals of 6 feet between centres. 
 Longitudinal sleepers, of the same timber, 3 inches wide and 
 6 inches deep, were laid upon and let i inch into the cross-sleepers, 
 to which they were secured with four staples at each intersection. 
 
202 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 At the joints of the longitudinal sleepers, cast-iron brackets are 
 employed to fasten them by spikes to the cross-sleepers. 
 
 Southport Tramways Quantities and Costs for one 
 
 Mile, Single Way, 1873. 
 
 Excavation, 8 feet wide :— 
 
 Macadam, 3 inches deep, 4,693^ square yards 
 2^d. •*•••••. 
 Below foundation of roads, 95 inches deep, 
 1,238 cubic yards @ IS. . . . . 
 
 Bottom of excavation levelled, 4,693 square 
 yards @ |d. 
 
 Concrete, 8 inches deep (1,043 cubic yards), 
 deduct for sleepers, 52 cubic yards, 991 
 cubic yards @ IS. . . . . . . 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. 
 
 48 17 8| 
 
 61 18 o 
 
 9 15 6^ 
 
 - 120 II 
 
 445 19 
 
 d. 
 
 v> 
 
 o 
 
 Timber:— 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers, pitch pine, 6 inches x 
 3 inches, 21 feet lengths, 10,560 lineal feet 
 
 @ 5d.. 220 o 
 
 Cross-sleepers, notched, at 6 feet intervals, 7 
 
 feet long x 880 = 6,160 lineal feet @ 5d. . 128 6 
 
 Iron rails, 21 feet long, 1,760 x 2 = 3,520yards, 
 at 40 lbs. per yard, say 63 tons @ ;^i3 , 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 - 348 6 8 
 819 o o 
 
 Staples:— 
 
 Short, 4 at every joint, 2,008 @4 oz., 4^ cwt. 
 
 @ 243.580 
 
 Long, 4 at every 
 joint . . 2,008 
 
 Long, 4 at every 
 yard of way . 7,040 
 
 9,048 @ 4^ oz., 23 cwt. @ 24s. 27 12 o 
 
 Twisted, 4 at every cross-sleeper, except at 
 longitudinal joints,—880 cross-sleepers, less 
 251 joints, 629 X 4 = 2,516 @ 5 oz., 7 cwt. 
 
 @ 24s. . . . . . . . .880 
 
 -41 8 o 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 • 4 II 
 
SOUTHPORT TRAMWAYS. 
 
 203 
 
 Southport Tramways {co7iHnued). 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Brackets, double, 2 at each longitudinal joint; 
 
 502 joints X 2 = 1,004 @ 5 lbs. 6 ozs., 48^ 
 cwt. ® 14s. ....... 
 
 Oak trenails, 6 to each longitudinal joint, 502 
 joints X 6 = 3,012 @ per 1,000 
 Fish-plates, 502 @ 5*86 lbs., 26^ cwt, @ 13s. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 B 775 4 II 
 
 33 15 8 
 
 1800 
 17 I 3 
 
 1,844 I i^ 
 
 Excavation and Materials for Tramwav. 
 
 Paving, 4,400 square yards : — 
 
 Granite sets @ 6s. 2d. per sq. yd. 
 
 Paving @ qd. per sq. yd. 
 
 Grout @ 6d. per sq. yd. . 
 
 Sand @ ^d. per sq. yd. . 
 
 Making good between new and old pavement, 
 
 1,760 Imeal yards @ 6d. .... 
 
 Labour, laying tramway, 1,760 lineal yards @ 
 
 IS. lod.161 6 
 
 Labour, cutting beds for fish-plates, 502 beds 
 
 ® 4d.87 
 
 N 4,400 sq. yas. ® 7s. 04a, 
 
 Carting: — 
 
 Tons. Cwt. 
 
 Rails and fish-plates . . . 64 65- 
 
 Brackets ...... 2 8j 
 
 Staples ...... I 15 
 
 Trenails ...... 01 
 
 Timber ...... 38 5 
 
 Granite sets ..... 782 o 
 
 1,544 II 
 
 44 o 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 — 169 14 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Total weight, say 889 tons ® is. 6d. 
 Watching, lighting, and contingencies . 
 
 66 13 6 
 
 say 100 0 o 
 
 Total cost 
 
 Net cost 
 
 Say;^ 3»730 per mile. 
 
 3,769 I o 
 
 say 41 o o 
 3,728 I o 
 
 Credit:— 
 Old materials , 
 
204 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The rails, weighing 40 lbs. per yard, are 3 inches wide, and 
 14 inches thick; and, with the side-flanges, are 2\ inches deep. 
 The width was limited to 3 inches, as it was thought that a rail of 
 this width would offer less interference with ordinary traffic than a 
 rail of the usual width, 4 mches ; besides, it costs less in first outlay. 
 The rails are secured to the longitudinals by staples, at intervals 
 of 3 feet on each side of the rails. The joints are secured by two 
 pairs of staples, at the end of each rail. A wrought-iron fish¬ 
 plate, 15 inches by 2\ inches, and inch thick, is placed at the 
 joints. 
 
 After the rails and sleepers were adjusted to the street levels, 
 the space around the cross-sleepers, and for 2 inches above them, 
 was filled with concrete, which was brought to a level 4^ inches 
 below the surface level. The cross-sleepers thus became enveloped 
 in a mass of concrete, 8 inches deep. Upon a Uinch bed of sand, 
 4-inch cubical sets were laid, as pavement, and grouted. 
 
 The Wirral Tramway (Birkenhead, Tranmere, Rock Ferry, and 
 New Ferry) is a single line, 3 miles in length, including sidings. 
 It was constructed to the designs of Mr. Beloe, as engineer, and 
 was opened in 1877. design of this line, 4 feet 8^ inches in 
 
 gauge, the engineer materially simplified the construction compared 
 with that of the Southport line. The rails are box rails, laid on 
 longitudinal sleepers bedded in concrete, and connected by tie-bars. 
 In the choice of this system of construction, in which tie-bars 
 were substituted for cross-sleepers, the engineer was influenced by 
 a desire to leave the already existing foundation undisturbed. 
 The foundation consisted of a stratum of rock-pitching, or rough 
 stones, laid in by hand, 10 inches in depth, and if cross-sleepers 
 had been laid, the pitching would have been broken into to such 
 an extent as to have seriously weakened the foundation. But, 
 though the cost was considerably reduced by the use of tie-bars 
 instead of cross-sleepers, the engineer has regretted that he did 
 not take out the old pitching, and lay a foundation of concrete for 
 the whole width of the tramway.''' ' 
 
 * Froceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 1 ., 
 page 41. 
 
WIRRAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 205 
 
 WiRRAL Tramway Quantities and Costs for one Mile, 
 
 Single Way, 187;. 
 
 £ s. d. s. d. 
 
 Excavation, 8 feet wide : — 
 
 Macadam, 3 inches deep, 4,693 square yards 
 
 @ 6d.118 o o 
 
 Below foundations of roads, 668 cubic yards 
 
 @ 4s. . . . . . . . . 134 o o 
 
 Levelling bottom, 4,693 square yards @ id. . 20 0 o 
 
 -272 
 
 Concrete, 440 cubic yards @ 9s. . , . 198 
 
 Timber, 2,000 cubic feet @ 2s. 6d. . . . 250 
 
 Iron rails @ 52 lbs. per yard, 84 tons 6 cwt. @ 
 
 ^8 los. ....... 717 
 
 Staples, 15 Cwt. @ 2s. 6d. 17 
 
 Chairs, 4 tons 16 cwt. @ ^6 .... 29 
 
 Fish-plates, i ton ii cwt. @^9 ... 14 
 
 Tie-rods, 5 tons 2 cwt. @^14 .... 71 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 o o 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 1,568 o o 
 
 Excavation and Materials for Tramways. 
 
 Paving:— 
 
 Granite sets, 759 tons @ ;^i 8s. 6d. . . 1,082 o o 
 
 Laying, grout and sand, 4,300 square yards 
 @ IS. 8fd. ....... 372 o o 
 
 -1,454 o o 
 
 Making good between old and new pavement, 
 
 1,760 lineal yards @ 5d. .... 37 0 o 
 
 Labour, laying tramway, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 @ 2s. 6d. ....... 220 0 o 
 
 Carting :— 
 
 'I ons. Cwt. 
 
 Rails and fish-plates . . . 85 17 
 
 Chairs ...... 4 16 
 
 Staples ...... 15 
 
 Tie-rods ...... 52 
 
 Timber.30 12 
 
 Granite sets ..... 759 o 
 
 Total weight, say 886 tons @ 2s. . 89 o 0 
 
 Total . . . o 0 
 
206 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The rails are of steel, and are wider and heavier than the 
 Southport rails; they are 4 inches wide, weight 52 lbs. per yard, 
 and are rolled to lengths of 21 feet. They are if inches thick, 
 with side flanges if-inch deep, making the total depth 2-^6 inches. 
 In improving upon the Southport rail, Mr. Beloe observed that 
 the latter was not possessed of sufficient stiffness. The rails are 
 bedded on longitudinal sleepers, 4 inches wide and 6 inches deep, 
 and are fastened to them by wrought-iron side staples, ten to each 
 rail, 6 feet apart at each side, except near the joints of the rails, 
 where they are closer to each other. 
 
 The ends of the sleepers are lodged in cast-iron chairs, 9 inches 
 long, tied together transversely by two f-inch tie-rods, which take 
 a bearing by collars on the inner sides of the chairs, and pass 
 through the chairs and the sleepers, and are fastened by nuts 
 outside. The sleepers are likewise tied by three intermediate 
 tie-rods passed through and screwed up outside. 
 
 The ground was excavated to a uniform dej^th of yf inches 
 below the permanent surface; two longitudinal trenches in addi¬ 
 tion, 12 inches wide and 3 inches deep, were excavated under 
 the sleepers, where the total depth amounted to about lof inches. 
 When the raife and sleepers were adjusted in their places, the 
 whole of the bottom of the excavation, as well as the trenches 
 under the sleepers, were filled with concrete to a height of 
 3 inches above the bottom, thus embedding the sleepers to a depth 
 of 3 inches, and leaving 4f inches for paving. The paving con¬ 
 sists of 4-inch cubes bedded on a f-inch layer of sand. 
 
CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 MACKIESON'S SYSTEM.—DUNDEE STREET 
 
 TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Commissioners of Police of Dundee contracted in April, 
 1877, for the construction of 2,346 yards, or miles, of tramway, 
 double line, to the design of their engineer, Mr. W. Mackieson, 
 which was completed in July, 1877. The line passes between 
 Dalhousie Terrace and the General Post Office, along Perth Road, 
 Nethergate, Reform Street, and into Euclid Crescent. 
 
 According to the system of construction, which is similar to Mr. 
 Hopkins’ plan of 1873, flanged rails are laid on longitudinal beams 
 or sleepers, which rest on a bed of concrete, and they are set to 
 gauge by transverse tie-rods, dovetailed into cast-iron chairs. 
 The surface is paved. Two sections of rails and sleepers are 
 employed, smaller and larger, of which the lighter section is laid 
 in the contracts—comprising a length of 1,562 yards—between 
 Dalhousie Terrace and South Tay Street, and the heavier scantling 
 is laid thence to the Post Office—a length of 784 yards—the busiest 
 part of the route. 
 
 The lines are laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, with a clear 
 interspace of 4 feet between the rails. The rolling surfaces of the 
 rails are, for the larger scantling, inches wide ; and the paving 
 is laid outside the lines for a width of 18 inches at each side. The 
 total width for the double line of way is 17 feet ^ inch, thus:— 
 
 Two lines, 4 feet 8^ inches gauge 
 
 1 interspace .... 
 
 2 breadths, of 18 inches 
 
 4 rolling surfaces (ig inch x 4) 
 
 Et. Ins. 
 
 9 5 
 
 . 4 o 
 
 3 o 
 
 
 ft 
 
208 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 The gradients of the lines are as follows, commencing at the 
 Post Office :—■ 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 I in 100 for a length of 
 
 68 
 
 
 I in 
 
 133 
 
 for a length of 65 
 
 I ,, 451 
 
 167 
 
 
 I M 
 
 47 
 
 
 98 
 
 I ,, 100 ,, 
 
 200 
 
 
 I ,, 
 
 77 
 
 ? ) 
 
 67 
 
 I ,, 210 
 
 234 
 
 
 I ,, 
 
 133 
 
 J ? 
 
 88 
 
 I ,, 50 
 
 67 
 
 
 I 
 
 34 
 
 > y 
 
 166 
 
 I „ 36 
 
 48 
 
 
 I ,, 
 
 50 
 
 y y 
 
 131 
 
 I 31 
 
 228 
 
 
 I M 
 
 121 
 
 9 y 
 
 263 
 
 I „ 47 
 
 99 
 
 
 I ,, 
 
 250 
 
 9 9 
 
 126 
 
 I ,, 117 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 I ,, 674 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,346 
 
 The gradients do not 
 
 all fall 
 
 the 
 
 same way. 
 
 There is a 
 
 difference of level of 76 feet between the two extremities of the 
 tramway—the Post Office being at the lower end. 
 
 The roadway was excavated, for the way of 60-pound rails, for 
 a uniform depth of about 14 inches—exactly 13! inches—below the 
 permanent level of the road, for the whole width of the tramway. 
 The bottom was cleared of soft or otherwise unsuitable material, 
 and levelled and beaten so as to secure a solid and uniform bottom. 
 Upon the bottom was laid, for the whole width, a foundation of 
 concrete, 6 inches thick, well pounded with a heavy beater. The 
 
 composition of the concrete was as follows :— 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Whinstone metal to a 2-inch gauge, screened with a 5-inch 
 
 sieve.2 
 
 Gravel, crushed whinstone, or broken bricks, to a i-inch 
 gauge .......... 2 
 
 Clean, sharp river sand ....... 2 
 
 Portland cement ......... i 
 
 7 
 
 To support the longitudinal sleepers strips of cement mortar, 
 composed of two parts of sand and one part of Portland cement, 
 are laid on the concrete, i inch thick and 7 inches wide, increased 
 to 9 inches wide at the chairs. 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers are of red wood, from Riga, Memel, 
 or St. Petersburg, 4 inches wide, 5 inches deep, rebated for the 
 60-pound rail; and 3^ inches by 5^ inches for the 34-pound rail. 
 
DUNDEE STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 209 
 
 They are at least 21 feet in length for the straight parts ; and bent 
 or sawn to curves, in lengths of from 12 feet to 18 feet. The 
 whole of the timber is creosoted to the extent of 10 pounds of 
 creosote per cubic foot. The ends of the sleepers are square- 
 jointed, and rest on cast-iron chairs, 6 inches long, placed at inter¬ 
 vals of from 4 feet to 5 feet. The chairs are nailed to the sleepers 
 with |-inch chair nails, 2 k inches long, having chisel points and 
 cup heads. Transverse tie-rods of wrought iron, 2 inches by | inch 
 thick, are dovetailed into the chairs. 
 
 The rails are of wrought iron ; the lighter and heavier rails 
 weigh respectively 34 lbs. and 60 lbs. per yard. They are rolled in 
 lengths of 21 feet, except 5 per cent, of the total number, which 
 maybe of shorter lengths, but not less than 12 feet long. The 
 60-lb. rails have a width of 4 inches and a thickness of if inches; 
 they are 2f inches deep over the flanges, these being if inches 
 deep, and averaging f inch thick. The groove is i A- inches wide 
 and f inch deep, made with a flat floor, similarly to the Vale of 
 Clyde and the Glasgow rails. The rolling surface of the rail is 
 
 I f inches wide ; the outer flange is if ii^ch wide, and corrugated 
 at the upper surfaces. The 34-lb. rail is 3^ inches wide, and i inch 
 thick : the groove is f inch deep, and the thickness of metal under 
 the groove is f inch. The total depth of the rail is ifs- inches. 
 The rails are fixed to the sleepers by side fastenings or staples of 
 Lowmoor iron, as shown, of which there are 21 for each 21 feet rail. 
 
 The points and crossings are of chilled cast iron, 2 inches thick, 
 corrugated in correspondence with the rail. 
 
 The new pavement consists of Pitrodie whinstone sets, from 
 3 inches to 4 inches thick, 7 inches deep, and from 6 inches to 
 
 II inches in length, with a granite margin averaging 6 inches wide, 
 on each side of the rails, for the entire length of the tramway. Old 
 paving sets, when re-dressed, were not to exceed 4k inches in 
 thickness, and were not to be less than 6P inches in depth. The 
 pavement was set on a 2-inch bed of coarse Earn sand, and laid 
 
 hard to hard ” ; it stands, as finished, f inch above the level ot 
 the rails, leaving a residual thickness of f inch of sand. The 
 finished surface slopes on each side of the centre line of the 
 
 p 
 
2 10 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 tramway at the rate of at least i inch per foot horizontally. The 
 pavement is grouted with a composition of i part of ground 
 Charleston lime, slaked, and 2 parts of sharp sand; and the 
 surface is blinded with a layer of coarse river sand. 
 
 The works were maintained by the contractor for twelve months 
 after being opened for traffic; except the rails, which were main¬ 
 tained good for two years. 
 
 Payments were made monthly on the work done, 10 per cent, 
 being reserved as security, i-o-ths of which was paid at the end ot 
 twelve months, and i-jths two years after completion. 
 
 The works were constructed according to the annexed schedule 
 of prices :— 
 
 Dundee Street Tramways. Schedule of Prices, 1887. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Lifting and laying aside road metal, in¬ 
 cluding sets in crossings . . .00 6 per square yard. 
 
 Lifting, laying aside, and redressing old 
 
 sets . . . . . . .01 
 
 Excavation deposited in the pool at Mag¬ 
 dalen Green, including dressing surface 
 
 for concrete.02 
 
 Portland cement concrete, 6 inches thick i 2 
 Ditto mortar, i inch thick . . . .01 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers of red wood (Baltic) 
 
 4 inches by 5 inches in 21-foot lengths, 
 checked for rails, fish-plates, nuts and 
 chairs, charged with creosote and bed¬ 
 ded—one sleeper . . . . .01 
 
 Ditto in lengths of from 18 feet to 12 feet, 
 
 6x5 inches, cut to radius, and pre¬ 
 pared as above.02 
 
 Cast-iron chairs, weighing ii lbs. each, 
 
 bedded ..... .07 
 
 Wrought-iron fish-plates, 2’3 lbs. each, 
 
 punched for bolts . . . . . o 12 
 
 Wrought-iron tie rods, 11-2 lbs. each . o 12 
 Wrought-iron‘staples for side fastening . 0 17 
 
 Iron rails, 60 lbs. per yard, punched for 
 side fastenings, secured to sleepers 
 (^9 i6s. per ton).05 
 
 0 
 
 
 6 per cubic yard. 
 6 
 
 o per square yard. 
 
 6 per lineal yard. 
 
 o 
 
 } 9 
 
 o per cwt. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 > 
 9 > 
 9 9 
 
 3 per lineal yard. 
 
DUNDEE STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 211 
 
 Dundee Street Tramways {continued). 
 
 Iron rails, 34 lbs. per yard, prepared as 
 above {£12 7s. per ton) 
 
 Iron rails at crossings and curves, bent to 
 the required radii all together 
 Cast-iron points and crossings, secured to 
 sleepers, including patterns . 
 
 Paving with whinstone sets, from Pitrodie 
 quarry, bedded on sand 
 Ditto with redressed sets, bedded on sand 
 Grouting joints of pavement 
 Blinding pavement with sand . 
 
 Adjusting and reinstating macadamised 
 roads and crossings, alongside the tram¬ 
 ways, between paved margins and chan¬ 
 nels, with the old materials 
 Maintenance of work for twelve months for 
 
 £ 
 
 d. 
 
 039 per lineal yard. 
 
 050 
 
 
 I 10 o per cwt. 
 
 090 per square yard. 
 
 010 
 
 006 
 
 001 
 
 002 per lineal yard. 
 
 each of the three sections 
 
 Cost for ioo Yards, Single Line, 
 
 . 20 0 0 
 
 WITH 60 LB. 
 
 > > 
 
 Rail, 1877. 
 
 Work and materials. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Rates. 
 
 
 Amounts. 
 
 Lifting and laying aside road 
 
 Square yds. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 7; 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 metal. 
 
 283 
 
 Cubic yds. 
 
 0 0 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 Excavation in road metal 
 
 87 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Concrete .... 
 
 Square yds. 
 
 I 2 
 
 6 
 
 52 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Cement mortar 
 
 . 34 
 
 Lineal yds. 
 
 0 I 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers . * . 
 
 200 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 0 I 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cast-iron chairs 
 
 13 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 0 
 
 Tie-rods .... 
 
 6-6 
 
 0 12 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Staples ..... 
 
 2 
 
 0 17 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Chair nails .... 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Yards. 
 
 0 17 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Rails, 60 lbs. per yard . 
 
 200 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 0 5 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Fish plates .... 
 
 o'6 
 
 Square yds. 
 
 0 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Whinstone sets 
 
 161 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 
 
 72 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 Granite sets (margins) . 
 
 IOO 
 
 0 13 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
2 I 2 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The cost of the way, exclusive of pavement, amounted to 
 ;£’i5i for 100 yards, equivalent to ;£’i los. 2id. per lineal yard of 
 single line, or to ;£‘2,658 per lineal mile. The cost for paving was 
 7s. 6d. per lineal yard, or ^^2,420 per mile. For way and paving 
 together, the cost is mile, single line, or ;£^io,i56 per 
 
 mile, double line. But, with certain compensations, together with 
 the using up of such old paving stones as were serviceable, the 
 total cost was expected not to exceed ^13,300 for miles of 
 double way, being at the rate of ;£g,g'JS mile. 
 
 Besides the lines above noticed, new lines have been constructed 
 and opened. The line between Dundee and Lochee, consisting 
 of I mile 1,140 yards of double line, and i mile 5 yards of 
 single line, making together about 2f miles, was constructed on 
 Go wans’ system, and completed in December, 1879. The line 
 
 Figs. 68 and 69. Mackieson’s Way, Dundee,—Sleeper. Scale 2^. 
 
 from the Post Office to Stobswell, with a branch to Baxter Park, 
 consisting of 1,304 yards of double line, and 1,614 yards of single 
 line, together about if miles, was completed in June, 1880. The 
 Stobswell line was constructed with solid rolled girder rails, and 
 the branch to Baxter Park, comprising 847 yards as single line, 
 was constructed on Mr. William Mackieson’s system. 
 
 The rails, formed with a lower dovetail web, rest upon and are 
 keyed down to long cast-iron sleepers, like open framing, com¬ 
 prising upper and lower horizontal members connected by upright 
 standards at intervals. 
 
 The cast-iron sleepers. Figs. 68 and 69, are of great length—3 feet 
 11 inches. They are laid in line under each rail, i inch apart. 
 They stand 6 inches high, and are made with shallow ribs on the 
 
DUNDEE STREET TRAMWAYS, 
 
 213 
 
 underside to give lateral hold on the substratum. Each sleeper is 
 made with four standards, placed at 12 inches apart, between 
 centres, to support the rail bed, forming substantially an open 
 girder, on which the rail is laid. The sole is ii^ inches wide, and 
 is generally | inch thick, made with openings in the space between 
 the standards; the rail bed is 3 inches wide and inches deep, 
 and the standards are 3 inches by i inch thick in section. 
 
 The rails. Fig. 71, weighing 36 lbs. per yard, are 3 inches wide, 
 comprising the tread, i|- inches wide, the groove lA inches wide 
 at the surface, and the guard flange, iuch wide. The rail is ii^ 
 inches deep above the sleeper, and its total depth, comprising 
 the lower web or dovetail, is 2i\- inches. It is keyed to the 
 sleeper by wrought-iron keys, which are 4 inches long by inches 
 deep, and average f inch in thickness. These are tapered in 
 
 Fig. 70. Mackieson’s Way, Dundee. 
 —Section of Sleeper. Scale 
 
 Fig. 71. Mackieson’s Way, Dundee.. 
 —Section of Rail. Scale 
 
 thickness, and are driven into place horizontally, being introduced 
 through long slots cut through the floor of the working groove of 
 the rail. With this mode of fastening, the rails can be lifted when 
 required, without causing any disturbance of the sleepers or the 
 paving. The unoccupied portions of the slots are filled with 
 elastic British bitumen. The rails were rolled in lengths of 20 feet, 
 24 feet, and 28 feet. 
 
 A foundation of concrete, in a layer 6 inches deep, is laid for 
 the whole width of the way, and the outer paving pertaining to it. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 2 14 
 
 The sleepers are bedded in this layer, so that the soles become 
 flush with the upper surface. The concrete is composed of 4 parts 
 of whinstone metal, to a 2-inch ring-gauge, 2 parts of sharp sand, 
 and T part of Portland cement weighing 112 lbs. per bushel. The 
 open spaces in the. sleepers, under the rail bed, are packed with 
 fine cement, composed of i part of Portland cement, 2 parts of 
 sand, and 2 parts of metal broken to a i-inch ring gauge. On 
 this bed a layer of coarse Earn sand, from ^ inch to i inch thick, 
 is laid, to receive the paving sets, wdrich are of whinstone, 6 inches 
 deep. The sets next the rails are laid hard against them, bedded 
 on a layer of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion of i to 
 2. The paving is grouted with pitch-bitumen, manufactured from 
 pitch, coal tar, and creosote oil, in the proportion of 80 gallons ot 
 tar and 20 gallons of creosote to i ton of pitch. 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Single Line, of Mackieson's 
 System—Dundee Street Tramways, 1880. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Steel rails, 36 lbs. per yard, 56|- tons 
 
 @ 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 536 15 
 
 0 
 
 Wrought-iron keys, 19I cwt. . 
 
 > > 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 25 7 
 
 0 
 
 Cast-iron sleepers, 141J tons . 
 
 > > 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 990 10 
 
 0 
 
 Lifting and carting away macadam, 522 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cubic yards ...... 
 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 34 16 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, <Sz:c., 1,108 cubic yards 
 
 > ) 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 87 14 
 
 4 
 
 Concrete, 6 inches thick, 782 cubic yards 
 
 J t 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 566 19 
 
 0 
 
 Laying tramway, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 > > 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 190 13 
 
 4 
 
 Royalty, per mile .... 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 « 
 
 75 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 ^^2,507 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Paving, &c., 2,836 square yards 
 
 @ 0 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 968 19 
 
 4 
 
 Ditto on cement and sand next rails. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,564 square yards . . . . 
 
 ,, 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 547 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Bitumen, &c., 4,400 square yards . 
 
 ,, 0 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 275 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for paving 
 
 ♦ 
 
 
 • 
 
 ;^b 79 i 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Total for way and paving . 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 ;^ 4.299 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MACRAE'S SYSTEM.—EDINBURGH STREET 
 
 TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Edinburgh Street Tramways, of which Mr. John Macrae was 
 the first engineer, were constructed in 1871—75, on the system of 
 the flat groove rail, laid on longitudinal sleepers, on a bed of 
 concrete. The several sections of the line were opened at various 
 dates from 1871—75, as follows:— 
 
 OpeneJ. 
 
 Section. 
 
 Double line. 
 
 Single line. 
 
 Total length 
 of streets. 
 
 Oct., 1871 
 
 Haymarket and Leith 
 
 miles 
 
 3 
 
 yards 
 
 1,200 
 
 miles yards 
 
 0 320 
 
 miles 
 
 3 
 
 yards 
 
 1,520 
 
 Apr., 1872 
 
 Powburn and New¬ 
 ington . 
 
 I 
 
 1,630 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1,630 
 
 Nov., 1872 
 
 Morningside and 
 Grange . 
 
 3 
 
 880 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 880 
 
 Dec., 187.^ 
 
 Newhaven Branch . 
 
 0 
 
 350 
 
 0 
 
 1,270 
 
 0 
 
 1,620 
 
 May, 1875 
 
 Portobello line . 
 
 0 
 
 770 
 
 2 
 
 L 590 
 
 3 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 L3IO 
 
 3 
 
 1,420 
 
 ^'3 
 
 970 
 
 The gauge of the way is 4 feet 8^ inches. The way is laid in 
 the middle of the street. For double lines of way the lines are 
 9 feet apart between centres, and the total width is 17 feet, contri¬ 
 buted thus:— 
 
 For a double line :—• 
 
 Distance apart of centre lines of ways 
 Two half-widths of gauge . 
 
 Two rolling widths of rail (if x 2 =) 
 Two breadths of 18 inches of paving . 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 9 o 
 4 
 
 o 3 i 
 3 o 
 
 17 
 
 o 
 
2i6 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 For a single line : — 
 
 Width of gauge . . . . . 
 
 Two half-widths of rail 
 
 Two breadths of i8 inches of paving . 
 
 Ft. In. 
 4 81 
 o 
 
 3 o 
 
 8 o 
 
 The gradients of the Edinburgh Street Tramways are unusually 
 severe. The gradients on Leith Walk, which is the worst section^ 
 are as follows, commencing at the head of the incline, on the level 
 of Prince’s Street:— 
 
 Average 
 
 Gradient. 
 
 
 J,f*ngth in 5’ards. 
 
 I in 22 
 
 . 
 
 u-) 
 
 0 
 
 1—1 
 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 I ,, 14 
 
 
 43 
 
 I ,, 50 
 
 
 . 151 
 
 I ,, 24 
 
 
 • 137 
 
 I ,, 20 
 
 
 no 
 
 I ,, 24 
 
 
 71 
 
 I ,, 23 
 
 
 54 
 
 I ,, 29 
 
 
 166 
 
 I .. 35 
 
 
 272 
 
 I ,, 42 
 
 
 100 
 
 I ,, 52 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 I 43 
 
 
 218 
 
 I ,, 38 
 
 
 . 139 
 
 I in 32 
 
 Total length . 1,870 yards. 
 
 
 
 or I mile i lo yards. 
 
 The radius of the curve on the incline at the head of Leith 
 Walk is 47 feet 8 inches, measured to the innermost rail. 
 
 The incline on the North Bridge is i in 17 for a length of 184 
 yards. 
 
 The average inclination on the Portobello Road is i in 30 for 
 1,500 yards. The steepest incline is i in 24 for 200 yards. 
 
 The following are particulars of construction and cost of works 
 recently constructed on the Portobello Branch. The contract was 
 let in July, 1874. 
 
 The contractor lifted the existing pavement or causeway, and 
 
EDINBURGH STREET TRAMWAYS. ZIJ 
 
 at those portions of the street where the causeway bed was bad, or 
 which was macadamised, the ground was excavated to a uniform 
 depth, reckoned at about 13d inches below the intended perma¬ 
 nent surface, for a width of 17 feet for a double line, and 8 feet 
 for a single line. The actual depth of excavation was less than 
 13d inches, for the level of the renewed roadway was raised 
 considerably. 
 
 A firm bottom was provided for the concrete. The normal 
 thickness of the bed of concrete laid on the bottom of the excava¬ 
 tion was 6 inches; a greater thickness was laid where it was 
 necessary; but where the macadam of the existing macadamised 
 roads was firm enough to form a foundation for the sleeper and 
 the pavement, the surface was dressed and finished, when exca¬ 
 vated, to a uniform level, to receive a thin coat of concrete. The 
 concrete was carefully beaten, and the surface formed parallel to 
 the surface of the street. The composition was as follows :— 
 
 ^Measures. 
 
 Best Arden lime ....... 2 
 
 Clean whinstone, broken to a size that will pass 
 
 through a 2-inch ring ..... 4 
 
 d-inch Fisherrow or whinstone gravel . . . i 
 
 7 
 
 The sleepers are of red Baltic fir, from Riga, or of pitch pine, 
 4 inches wide and 5 inches deep, rebated at the upper corners to 
 receive the fillets of the rails. The joints of the sleepers rest in 
 cast-iron chairs, 6 inches long, the soles of which are let in the 
 lower sides of the sleepers to present a flush surface to the con¬ 
 crete bed. The sleepers were creosoted with the best creosote, to 
 the extent of 10 lbs. per cubic foot of timber, under a pressure of 
 200 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 The sleepers are tied to gauge, at intervals not exceeding 6 feet, 
 by tie-bars of Avrought iron, 2 inches by f inch thick, kneed 
 reversely at the ends, and fixed to each sleeper by a t-inch bolt, 
 nut and washer. The rails are fixed to the sleepers by f-inch bolts, 
 nuts, and washer plates at the lower side. The bolts are counter- 
 
2 i 8 construction of tramways. 
 
 sunk, and are recessed in the head for a screw-key. All bolt 
 holes in the wood were filled with Archangel tar at boiling-point, 
 before the bolts were driven. The sleepers are bedded on a -j-inch 
 layer of firm concrete, composed as follows :—• 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Portland cement . . . . . i 
 Fisherrow gravel . . . . .3 
 
 4 
 
 mixed and tempered with mortar. 
 
 The rails are of wrought iron, rolled from large piles of the best 
 puddled bars, so arranged that the lower portion of each rail is 
 fibrous, and the rolling surface and upper portion of fine granular 
 iron. The weight is 52 lbs. per yard. The rail is 4 inches wide, 
 and id inches thick, having two fillets on the under side, one at 
 each corner, f inch square. At the upper side, the outer or rolling 
 surface is if inches wide, and the groove is if inches wide; the 
 inner ledge is i inch wide, and is deeply corrugated, having 18 cor¬ 
 rugations per lineal foot. The depth of the groove is f inch, 
 leaving a thickness of f inch under the groove. The width of the 
 groove at the bottom is -H- inch, and the splay of the sides of the 
 groove is the greater towards the inner side of the rail. The 
 standard length of the rail is 21 feet, or 7 yards, but a number not 
 exceeding 5 per cent, of the whole quantity might be of less length, 
 in whole numbers, of ev’en feet, none of them less than 12 feet 
 long. The variation of length allowed was f inch. The rails 
 are fixed to the sleepers by f-inch bolts at 2-feet centres, except 
 at each end, where the rail is fixed by two bolts at qd-inch centres, 
 of which the extreme bolt is iF inches from the end of the rail. 
 The bolt-holes are made through the bottom of the groove, and 
 the heads of the bolts when screwed home are flush with the 
 bottom of the groove. 
 
 The ends of the rails are connected by wrought-iron fish-plates, 
 15 inches long, 3 inches wide, and f inch thick—one plate at each 
 junction let flush into the sleeper—fixed by the four bolts already 
 mentioned. The holes in the plates are formed oval, being f inch 
 
EDINBURGH STREET TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 2 ig 
 
 wide and ^ inch long, to allow for slight irregularities. The weight 
 of a fish-plate is 7 lbs. 
 
 The points and crossings are of chilled cast iron or other 
 materials. 
 
 A thin layer of clean sharp sand, or ^ inch Fisherrow or whin- 
 stone gravel, may be spread over the concrete as a packing under 
 the stones, to make up for inequalities of surface. But the 
 stones rest direct upon the concrete where the packing was not 
 required. 
 
 The causeway or pavement was laid over all the surface between 
 the rails, and for a breadth of 18 inches upon each side, beyond 
 the outermost rails. The sets are 3 inches wide, 7 inches deep, 
 and of 10 inches average length, except such as are required to 
 match the neighbouring pavement. They are of new granite or 
 of new whinstone rock, from Westfield, Drumbowie, or Barnton 
 quarries. They are laid dry, hard to hard, or in contact, and 
 grouted with a mixture of equal parts of Portland cement and 
 ^-inch Fisherrow gravel, and finished with a thin coating of fine 
 gravel. For the purposes of measurement the width of pave¬ 
 ment for a single line of way is taken at 7 feet 4 inches; and 
 for a double line 15 feet 8 inches, exclusive of the width of the 
 rails. 
 
 The tramway was maintained by the contractor in good order 
 for twelve months after the date of completion. The manufac¬ 
 turer of the rails was to take back and allow a deduction for any 
 rails failing within two years from the date of manufacture. Pay¬ 
 ments, subject to deductions for penalties or damages, were to be 
 made monthly to the extent of 90 per cent, of the value of the 
 work done. The balance was to be paid at the end of six months 
 after the date of completion. 
 
 The contract prices for work done in the construction of the 
 Portobello section in 1874—75, were as follows, together with the 
 schedule of prices for alterations, additions, deductions, or extra 
 work :— 
 
220 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Edinburgh Street Tramways—Cost for the Construction 
 OF THE PORTOBELLO SECTION, 1874—75. 
 
 From end of existing lines to East end of TVaterloo Place. 
 
 Lifting and laying aside present causeway, dress¬ 
 ing surface of same; providing and laying 
 bed of concrete; all materials for permanent 
 way ; new granite causeway blocks, grouted with 
 cement, and coated with fine gravel, and finish¬ 
 ing tramways complete, as specified — 
 
 Double line, 27 lineal yards . . . @ 162 o o 
 
 Single line, 130 ,, ... ,,^3 390 0 o 
 
 From East end of Waterloo Place to Portobello. 
 
 Excavatingmacadam,anddressing surface of same; 
 providing and laying bottom bed of concrete, all 
 materials for permanent .way; new whinstone 
 causeway blocks, grouted with cement, and 
 coated with fine gravel, and finishing tramways 
 complete, as specified—■ 
 
 Double line, 633 lineal yards . . . @ 5s. 
 
 Single line, 5,070 ,, . . @ £2 12s. 6d. 
 
 Providing and laying complete, points and cross¬ 
 ings for 17 single line junctions, including extra 
 for laying permanent way . . . @ £20 
 
 Restoring gas and water pipes interfered with, or 
 other works injured, and lighting, watching, and 
 temporary fencing ...... 
 
 Preparing estimates, schedules of prices, &c., @ i 
 per cent. ........ 
 
 3>323 5 o 
 13,302 15 o 
 
 340 o o 
 
 175 o o 
 
 Total cost ....... i7>699 o o 
 
 Maintaining the whole of the works for twelve 
 
 months after being opened for traffic . . . 250 o o 
 
 Total cost, including one year’s maintenance ;^i7,949 0 o 
 
EDINBURGH STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 22 1 
 
 Edinburgh Street Tramways { continued ). 
 
 The costs, not including points and crossings, may 
 be abstracted as follows— 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S, 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 660 yards 
 
 of double line 
 
 3485 
 
 5 
 
 0 or 
 
 9,294 per mile. 
 
 5,200 „ 
 
 of single ,, 
 
 13,698 
 
 15 
 
 0 ,, 
 
 4>637 ,, 
 
 5,860 „ 
 
 (3*33 
 
 17,184 
 
 0 
 
 0 ,, 
 
 5,160 ,, 
 
 6,520 ,, 
 
 (37® >> ) (Equivalent 
 
 length 
 
 of 
 
 single 
 
 
 line, cost 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 • • 
 
 4.644 
 
 Schedule of Prices. 
 
 Excavating macadam to the depth re¬ 
 quired for causeway and concrete, and 
 dressing surface ..... 
 
 Excavating the depth required for con¬ 
 crete, where present causeway is to be 
 lifted ....... 
 
 Dressing and clearing surface of concrete 
 where the existing concrete bed is 
 allowed to remain .... 
 
 Providing and laying new bottom bed of 
 lime concrete, 6 inches thick, as speci¬ 
 fied ....... 
 
 Do., do., substituting cement for Arden 
 lime ....... 
 
 Providing and laying fine bed of cement 
 concrete, from 2 to 3 inches thick, as 
 specified to be under sleepers 
 
 Do., do., substituting Arden lime for 
 cement ...... 
 
 Cement grouting as specified . 
 
 Grouting with Arden lime . . . 
 
 Lifting and laying aside present cause¬ 
 way blocks ...... 
 
 Lifting present causeway blocks, dressing 
 and relaying them, including grouting 
 with cement, and coating of fine gravel 
 as specified ...... 
 
 £ d, 
 
 0 2 0 per square yard. 
 
 010 
 
 010 
 
 030 
 
 036 
 
 010 per lineal yard. 
 009 
 
 016 per square yard. 
 
 013 
 
22 2 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Schedule of Prices { co 7 itimied ). 
 
 Providing and laying new granite blocks, 
 including grouting with cement, and 
 coating of fine gravel as specified 
 Providing and laying new whinstone 
 blocks, including grouting with cement 
 and coating of fine gravel as specified . 
 Wrought-iron tramway rails as specified . 
 Cast-iron chairs for ends of sleepers 
 Bar-iron tie-rods, 2 x f inch . 
 
 Bolts and nuts for fixing rails to sleepers 
 Ordinary bolts and nuts .... 
 
 Fish-plates. 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers as specified . 
 Providing, laying, and fixing complete, 
 rails, sleepers, chairs, tie-rods, bolts, 
 &c., as specified, single line 
 Do., do., but assuming rails to be pro¬ 
 vided by the Company .... 
 Providing and laying chilled cast-iron 
 
 point rails. 
 
 Do., do., with moveable point . 
 
 Do., do., crossings . . . . . 
 
 Extra price for laying in junctions from 
 crossing to point, single line . 
 
 Do., do., cross-over roads, from point to 
 point, single line. 
 
 C s. d. 
 
 O 13 0 
 
 0 12 0 
 10 0 0 
 076 
 o 14 O 
 003 
 O o 31 
 o 14 o 
 006 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 036 
 
 O 3 
 
 per square yard. 
 
 >> 
 
 per ton. 
 per cwt, 
 
 per lb. 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 per lineal foot. 
 
 ,, yard. 
 
 > J 
 
 each. 
 
 y y 
 
 per lineal yard 
 
 6 
 
 •)y 
 
EDIXBURGH STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 223 
 
 Quantities per Mile, Single Line, 8 feet wide, and 
 Costs as per Schedule Rates. 
 
 Work and Materials. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 
 square yards. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Excavating macadam and 
 dressing surface of same 
 Concrete bed, 6 inches 
 
 4,693 
 
 2 S. 
 
 469 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 thick .... 
 
 4,693 
 
 3 s- 
 
 703 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 
 tons cvvLS. lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rails, 52 lbs. per yard 
 
 80 0 0 
 
 _;;^io per ton 
 
 820 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts and nuts for rails . 
 
 530 
 
 3d. per lb. 
 
 144 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Tie-rods .... 
 
 700 
 
 ^14 per ton 
 
 98 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts and nuts for tie-rods 
 
 070 
 
 3Ad. per lb. 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Chairs .... 
 
 2 13 0 
 
 7s. 6d. per cwt. 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Fish-plates 
 
 I 12 0 
 
 lineal feet 
 
 14s. per cwt. 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Sleepers .... 
 
 _ 10,560 
 
 lineal 3'ards 
 
 6d. 
 
 264 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cement for sleepers 
 
 Whinstone causeway and 
 
 5,520 
 
 square yards 
 
 is. 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 grouting 
 
 4,520 
 
 I 2 S. 
 
 2,712 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost per mile 
 
 single line 
 
 • • 
 
 5,441 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 1 
 
 The amount of cost per mile, thus estimated from the schedule 
 rates, is greater than the actual amount per mile, already stated, 
 according to the contract. The difference is accounted for, partly 
 by the fact of a reduction having been made on the amount first 
 made out; and partly by the raising of the level of the road when 
 the tramway was laid, as a consequence of which the depth and 
 quantity of the excavation, as well as those of the foundation of 
 concrete, was generally less than the normal amounts as specified. 
 
 The renewal of the original ways was commenced in 1879, when 
 Mr. Macrae substituted a solid steel girder rail on concrete for 
 the older rail, shown in Fig. 72. The bed of concrete, laid for 
 the whole width, 6 inches deep, was composed of 5 measures of 
 broken whinstone, in pieces weighing from 2 ounces to 5 ounces, 
 3 measures of fine screened Fisherrow gravel, and 2 measures of 
 
224 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 best Portland cement. On this bed is laid a thinner stratum, 
 2 inches thick, of fine concrete, composed of 3 parts of whinstone 
 or Fisherrow gravel, passed through a il-inch sieve, to i part of 
 Portland cement. The rails were imbedded in this stratum while 
 it was moist. They are of Bessemer steel, weighing 106 lbs. per 
 yard, 8 inches in height. The flange base is 7 inches wide. The 
 width of the tread is i| inches, of the groove iiV inches, and the 
 
 guard flange fk inch, making together about 3 inches. The 
 rails are fixed at the joints, and the sides of each rail are filled up 
 flush with fine concrete. The paving, of best granite, is 7 inches 
 deep, and from 3 inches to 3^ inches wide; the sets are laid on 
 the bed of moist concrete, hard to hard,” and grouted with 
 bitumen, or with Portland cement and 4 ii^ch Fisherrow gravel, 
 mixed in the proportion of i to 2. 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Single Line, of the 
 Girder Railway, Macrae’s System—Edinburgh 
 Street Tramways, 1879. 
 
 Lifting old causeway and carting it away, 
 
 4,693 sup. yards . . . . . @ 6d. 
 
 Excavating foundation for concrete bed, 
 
 depth 8 inches, 4,693 sup. yards . . ,, 5d. 
 
 Providing and laying concrete, 6 inches 
 
 deep, 4,693 sup. yards . . . . 2s. lod. 
 
 Providing and laying bed of moist con¬ 
 crete, for bedding paving stones and 
 tramway rails, 2 inches deep, 4,693 sup. 
 yards.. is. 2d. 
 
 £ s, d, 
 
 117 6 6 
 
 97 15 5 
 664 16 10 
 
 273 15 2 
 
 Carried forward ;^Li 53 13 n 
 
EDINBURGH AND ABERDEEN TRAMirAVS. 
 
 225 
 
 Q 
 
 Figs. 73 and 74. Edinburgh and Aberdeen Tramways :—Plan and Cross Section of Double Line of Way. 
 
 Scale g-Q. 
 
226 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMIVAYS. 
 
 Quantities and Costs [ continued ). 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Providing and laying new granite cause¬ 
 way, and grouting with bitumen 4,400 
 sup. yards ...... 
 
 Rails, 106 lbs. per yard, 166^ tons 
 Fish-plates, 6 tons . . . . . 
 
 Bolts and nuts, J ton. . . . . 
 
 Laying rails, 1,760 yards . . . . 
 
 @ los. 5d. 
 
 ..;^20 
 
 ,, IS. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 ^Li53 13 II 
 
 2,291 13 4 
 
 1,665 ^ ^ 
 
 60 o o 
 1000 
 88 o o 
 
 Total 
 
 £5>26S 7 3 
 
 Recently, a system of pavement, Figs. 73 and 74 (Livesey’s patent), 
 has been adopted, in which chilled cast-iron sets alternating with 
 stone sets are laid alongside the rails, inside and outside. On this 
 system, the wear of the surface is rendered more nearly uniform, 
 and the tendency to wear into ruts is successfully counteracted. 
 The same system has been adopted in the Aberdeen tramways, in 
 which the way, complete, with chilled block paving, double line, 
 cost £^4. 6s. per lineal yard. The suburban way, single line, 
 without chilled blocks, cost £i 9s. rod. per yard. 
 
[chapters XV. TO XXIV. DEAL WITH VARIOUS WAYS 
 HAVING METAL SUBSTRUCTURE.] 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 KINCAIUS IRON WAY, 
 
 Mr. Joseph Kincaid secured his first patent in March, 1872, 
 for his system, in the forms illustrated by Figs. 75 to 77 ; of 
 
 which Figs. 75 and 76 show rails of the ordinary construction at 
 that period, supported at suitable distances apart upon supports 
 formed with a flat base, and having an open space in the centre. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 From the base, the support for the rail rises, having an open 
 space or passage through it, in order that the concrete, in which 
 the support is embedded, may enclose and surround it, so that 
 it may be solidly embedded therein. The rail was fixed to the 
 
 Fig. 76. Kincaid’s Iron Way, as patented. 
 
 chair by a vertical spike through the groove, driven into a hard¬ 
 wood plug, which was previously forced into a round hole in the 
 top of the stool or support. As an alternative method of attach¬ 
 ment, the rail might be fixed to the stool by side-fastenings 
 
 Fig. 77. Kincaid’s Iron Way, as patented. 
 
 c:)nsisting of spikes driven through holes in lateral flanges of the 
 rail, made sufficiently deep, into plugs embedded horizontally in 
 the head of the stool. 
 
 Mr. Kincaid showed also a method of fixing rails of T section. 
 Fig. 77, consisting of an upper table, with a vertical flange or 
 
KING A ID''S IRON WAY. 
 
 22i) 
 
 web, which was let into a slot in the head of the stool and fixed 
 there by a horizontal taper cotter. 
 
 His first experiment was made on the Headingley branch of 
 the Leeds Tramways, a quarter of a mile in length, which was 
 laid with the rail, 47^ lbs. per yard, fixed to cast-iron stools at 
 3-feet centres. 
 
 In the design of the first portion of the Sheffield Tramways—• 
 the line to Attercliffe—which was opened in October, 1873, on 
 his iron system, Mr. Kincaid employed a rail weighing 50 lbs. per 
 yard. It had 2^ lbs. per yard more metal than the experimental 
 rail at Leeds, and was of a much better section, having lateral 
 flanges inches deep. Supported on cast-iron bearings 3 feet 
 apart, the rail was found to be sufficiently strong and stiff. The 
 paving, 5 inches deep, was laid on a bed of ashes 3 inches deep, 
 and was grouted with an asphalted composition, pitch and tar. 
 In excavating for the work, the ground was first removed to a 
 uniform depth of 8 inches for the whole width of the way, and 
 holes were dug to receive the foundations of concrete, and the 
 stools for supporting the rails. The groove of the rail, it may 
 be remarked, w'as, by superior order, made only i inch wide at 
 the surface. It proved to be too narrow, and it bound the car- 
 wheels on sharp curves. 
 
 The Dewsbury, Batley, and Birstal Tramway, for which Mr. 
 Malcolm Paterson and Mr. Gomersell, successively, were engineers, 
 constructed in 1872—75, was laid on Mr. Kincaid’s system, 
 according to his patent of 1872. The total length of the line 
 —single line—is 3*325 miles, opened in sections successively as 
 follows:— 
 
 Dewsbury to Batley 
 
 Batley to Carlinghow 
 Carlinghow to Birstal 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1-325 July 25th, 1874. 
 
 I March 25th, 1875. 
 
 I June 23rd, 1875. 
 
 
 3'325 
 
 There were ten sidings, eight of which were 66 yards long, and two 
 were 55 yards long. The line is on an easy gradient of about one 
 
230 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 in two hundred, falling all the way, with slight exceptions, from 
 Birstal to Dewsbury. 
 
 The rails are of wrought iron, and weigh 41 lbs. per yard. 
 They are inches wide and 2 inches deep, and are carried on 
 chairs 3 feet apart between centres, to which they are secured by 
 vertical spikes to the bottom of the groove. The chairs were laid in 
 concrete, run in with pitch, and the rails were packed underneath 
 with a concrete composed of small broken stone and pitch. 
 
 The paving consisted of Dalbeattie granite sets, of which those 
 laid between the rails were 4-inch cubes, and those laid in the 
 18-inch breadths outside were 6 inches deep. They were grouted 
 with pitch. The paving was laid on a foundation consisting of a 
 2-inch layer of broken stone, covered with a 4-inch layer of ashes. 
 
 The cost of construction of the first 2^ miles from Dewsbury, 
 through Batley, to Carlinghow, in a paved road, amounted to 
 p^4,6oo per mile; whilst the last mile, from Carlinghow to Birstal, 
 in a macadam road, was constructed with paving complete for 
 ^4,000. 
 
 Mr. Kincaid, in his second patent, of January, 1876, introduced 
 several improvements in the details of his iron system of tramway. 
 He widened the body of the stool, or chair, to the same breadth 
 as the rail, flush with it vertically, and thus widened the bearing 
 for the rail by taking in the flanges, and presented an even 
 surface as an abutment for the paving sets. He employed a rail 
 like that of the Dewsbury line, hollowed out under the tread, and 
 formed the head of the chair to fit into and take a bearing in the 
 hollow. For the vertical plugs and spikes he substituted hori¬ 
 zontal plugs in the chairs, with staples as side fastenings for 
 binding the rail to the chair. 
 
 One of the later applications of Mr. Kincaid’s system of way is 
 illustrated by Figs. 78 and 79, exhibiting the construction of the 
 Bristol tramways, laid in 1876. The Hull Street Tramways were 
 constructed on the same system in the same year; the Leicester 
 tramways in 1874 ; also, the more lately constructed sections of 
 the Leeds tramways and the Sheffield tramways in the years 
 1876—77. 
 
KINCAID'S IRON WAY. 
 
 231 
 
 The gauge of these lines is 4 feet 8^ inches. The Bristol 
 tramways are made in single line, i mile 1,452 yards in length, 
 with maximum gradients of i in 17. The roadway, which was of 
 macadam, was excavated for a width of 8 feet for a uniform depth 
 of 8 inches; and holes for the foundation of the chairs, 3 feet 
 apart between the centres, were excavated to a depth of 15 inches 
 below the surface of the road, 18 inches wide and 16 inches long. 
 The concrete employed was of the following composition :— 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Clean sharp gravel or broken stone to a i-inch ring-gauge 3 
 Sand ........... 2 
 
 Fresh burned Aberthaw lime ...... i 
 
 6 
 
 The holes were filled with concrete to a total depth of 8 inches. 
 
 Fig. 78. Biistol Tramways : Section Figs. 79. Bristol Tramways : Rail 
 of Rail. Scale Fastenings. Scale i. 
 
 in which the soles of the chairs were embedded to a depth of 
 3 inches below the upper surface of the concrete. Concrete was 
 also applied under each of the rails for its whole width, between 
 the chairs, in some measure affording bearing surface, but 
 designedly to occupy the space under the rail and keep it free 
 from water. 
 
 The rails were of wrought iron, rolled from a single ingot of best 
 malleable No. 2 mine iron, weighing 43 lbs. per yard, with a 
 margin of from 42 lbs. to 44 lbs., in lengths of 24 feet; except 5 per 
 cent, of the whole number, which were to be of shorter lengths. 
 
232 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 The rails were 3^ inches wide, and xg- inch thick under the tread 
 and under the groove ; they are formed with two flanges, one at 
 each side, 21V inches deep, slightly taper in thickness, -r€ inch 
 thick at the lower edges. The tread of the rail is if inch wide, 
 the groove is if inches wide, and the outer border is f inch thick 
 at the edge and corrugated. The groove is taper in section and 
 the slope mostly towards the outside. The tread of the rail is 
 flat, but is slightly inclined upwards, to the extent of iV-inch rise, 
 towards the centre of the rail. With such a formation, the contact 
 of the car-wheels with the tread is concentrated at the inner 
 edge of the tread; the load is, in consequence, fairly delivered on 
 the rail at the middle of its width, and undue twisting action or 
 deflection by side loading is obviated: a point of special impor¬ 
 tance for the stability of a suspended rail. 
 
 The chairs, of cast iron, have rectangular bases, 14 inches wide, 
 12 inches long, and f inch thick, at a level 10 inches below the 
 surface of the rails. They are, like the rails, 3^ inches wide at the 
 head; and they give a bearing to the rails of 3f inches at inter¬ 
 mediate points, and 7 inches long at the joints. They are placed 
 3 feet apart between centres. The rails are fastened to the chairs 
 by staples at each side, made of half-round bar-iron, best Stafford¬ 
 shire, which engage into holes punched in the rails, and are driven 
 into hard-wood plugs, which are forced into holes at the heads of 
 the chairs. There are two staples at each end of the rails, at 
 each side, to make the joints ; and, for a 24-foot rail, there are 
 eleven staples at each side, or twenty-two in all. The plug holes 
 in the chairs are slightly taper ; at the larger ends they are 
 if inches in diameter for the joint chairs, and if inches inter¬ 
 mediately. 
 
 The points and crossings are of cast iron, with wrought-iron 
 tongues. The upper surfaces were file-dressed. There are three 
 cast-iron chairs to each point, and two to each crossing. 
 
 All the castings are of No. i strong grey iron. 
 
 The paving consists of granite sets, 5 inches deep, laid, for the 
 extreme width of 8 feet, on a bed of gravel 3 inches thick, spread 
 on the bottom of the excavation. The paving was grouted with a 
 
KINCAID'S IRON WAY. 
 
 2 *^ “S 
 00 
 
 liquid mortar, containing six parts of fine sand, to one part of 
 fresh burnt lime ; it was rammed before the grouting had set, and 
 was again grouted. 
 
 Actual Cost of the Bristol Tramways (Kincaid’s Way) 
 
 PER Mile, Single Line, 1876. 
 
 C s. d. 
 
 Rolled iron rails, 43 lbs. per yard, 68 tons @7100 
 Cast-iron chairs, royalty included, 79 tons ,,612 9 
 
 4,000 wood plugs, per 1,000 . . . ,, 4 10 o 
 
 9,700 wrought-iron staples, each . .,,002 
 
 Laying the way, including excavation and 
 
 concrete, per lineal yard . . .,,070 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 510 O O 
 
 524 7 3 
 1800 
 80 16 8 
 
 616 o o 
 
 Total cost of way 
 
 L749 3 
 
 Providing and laying granite pavement, 
 including gravel bed and grouting, 4,400 
 
 square yards . . . . . . ,, 0 12 o 2,640 o o 
 
 4 o 
 
 The work was maintained in good order for six months after it 
 was completed and the line opened for traffic. Payments were 
 made monthly, less 10 per cent., which was kept in reserve until 
 the contract was completed. 
 
 Leicester Tramways. 
 
 In addition to the tramways, 4*44 miles in length, constructed 
 in 1874, the Leicester Tramways Company (October, 1877) con¬ 
 tracted for the construction of 5 miles additional length of tram¬ 
 way, on Mr. Kincaid’s system. The rails were of Siemens steel, 
 weighing 47 lbs. per yard. The staples were of Lowmoor iron. 
 The following are particulars of the contract:— 
 
234 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Cost of New Line of the Leicester Tramways (Kincaid's 
 
 Way) per Mile, Single Line. 
 
 C is.. £ 
 
 Rolled Siemens’ steel rails, 47 lbs. per 
 yard, 74 tons, delivered . . . .@876 620 
 
 75 tons Kincaid’s cast-iron chairs . . ,, 3 18 6 294 
 
 Lowmoor iron fastenings or staples and 
 
 plugs ....... .. 100 
 
 Five pairs of cast steel points ... .. 50 
 
 Laying the way, including excavation for 
 paving, as well as for the way and con¬ 
 crete, per lineal yard . . . .,,051 450 
 
 Total cost ...... 1*514 
 
 Providing and laying Leicestershire granite 
 paving, 8 feet wide, as follows : Sets, 6 
 inches by 4 inches outside the rails, and 
 one course next the rails inside ; “ Ran- 
 don granite,” not less than 4 inches deep 
 and 4 inches cube, over the remaining 
 
 surface, per lineal yard, say . . .,,064 1.300 
 
 Total cost for way and paving . . . 2,814 
 
 Add, for engineering and legal charges . 186 
 
 Total per mile, single line . . . 3,ooo 
 
 Salford Corporation Tramways. 
 
 A more recent development of Mr. Kincaid’s system, as exem¬ 
 plified in the Salford Tramways, lately constructed to the plans 
 of Mr. Alfred M. Fowler, the borough engineer and surveyor, are 
 illustrated by Figs. 80, 81,82. The tramways consist of two lines, a 
 double line, from Albert Bridge to Pack Horse Inn, i mile 1,437 
 yards long, and a single line, in Bury New Road, between the 
 Kensal Toll Bar and Grove Inn, i mile 479 yards long. The 
 roadways were partly paved and partly macadamised. 
 
 The rails are laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, with an inter- 
 
KINCAID'S IRON IVAY. 
 
 235 
 
 space of 4 feet between the two lines of the double way. The 
 total width for a double way, including the 18-inch breadth at 
 each side is 17 feet, constituted as follows; — 
 
 4 feet 8A inches x 2 = . 
 
 Ft. 
 
 9 
 
 In 
 
 5 
 
 Interspace ...... 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 18 inches x 2 = . 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Four half breadths of rail (if x 4) = 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 For a single line the total width is 8 feet. 
 
 The pavement is lifted, or the macadam is excavated, for a 
 uniform depth of 8 inches, for the whole width of 17 feet for a 
 double line, or for 8 feet for a single line. Holes for the founda¬ 
 tions of the chairs are excavated at 3 feet apart between centres, 
 to a depth of 15 inches below the surface, or level of the rails; 
 they are 18 inches long and 20 inches wide at the bottom. 
 
 The concrete is composed as follows, thoroughly mixed as 
 required, on a wooden platform, and used fresh:— 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 236 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Clean sharp gravel, broken stone, or macadam, to 
 a I-inch ring-gauge ...... 4 
 
 Best Portland cement ...... i 
 
 5 
 
 The holes excavated for the foundations of the chairs are filled 
 with concrete in which the chairs are properly bedded and 
 levelled ; the concrete is rammed underneath and around each 
 chair. Each block of concrete is 20 inches by 18 inches, by 
 8 inches deep, and the underside of the sole of the chair is sunk 
 
 Fig. 82. Salford Corporation Tram¬ 
 ways :—Section of Rail. Scale 
 
 to a level of ifr inches below the upper side of the block. The 
 space under the rails between the chairs is filled with concrete, by 
 enclosing the space at one side of the rail, and ramming in the 
 concrete with wooden beaters from the other side. 
 
 The chairs stand at a level 8§ inches below the surface of the 
 rails, measured to the underside of the chair. The sole has an 
 average thickness of i inch, the sides have a minimum thickness 
 of f inch ; the neck of the intermediate chair is 3F inches square, 
 whilst the head, which takes the rail, is slightly taper, and 2^ 
 inches wide. The head is fiat on the top, and receives the rail 
 with a fiat bearing. The intermediate chairs weigh about 48 lbs. 
 each, and the joint chairs 68 lbs. each. The plug-holes in the 
 
A'/XCA/D'S IRON WAY. 
 
 237 
 
 heads of the chairs are taper, i inch in diameter at the larger 
 end, filled with ash plugs. 
 
 The rails, of iron, were rolled from piles composed of selected 
 puddle bars, made from refined mine or pig iron, granular above, 
 fibrous below, to weigh 50 lbs. per yard, and to be rolled to 
 lengths of 24 feet. Five per cent, of the whole number of rails 
 were rolled as shorter lengths, not less than 12 feet long. Rails 
 weighing less than 50 lbs. or more than 52 lbs. were to be rejected, 
 'bhe rails are 3^ inches wide and have 2 % inches of total depth, 
 with a maximum thickness of if inches. The tread or rolling 
 surface is if inches wide; the groove is if inches wide and 
 i inch deep; and the outer edge is F inch Avide at the surface, 
 deeply corrugated at the rate of 14 corrugations per foot of length. 
 The surface of the tread is flat and inclined, so that at the centre 
 of the rail it is f inch higher than at the side. It is thus insured, 
 as was remarked of Mr. Kincaid’s Bristol rail, that car-wheels 
 should take their bearing on the middle or centre line of the rail. 
 
 In each 24-foot rail 18 holes are drilled in pairs at 3 feet dis¬ 
 tances apart, through which the rails are fastened to the chairs by 
 f-iuch round wrought-iron spikes, 2f inches long from the head, 
 taper for part of their length. The spikes were of the very best 
 quality and workmanship capable of being bent cold to form a 
 right angle without fracture or flaAv. The rails and chairs Avere 
 pressed together by means of a screAv clamp Avhile the spikes 
 Avere being driven ; and the spikes Avere in such a position, near 
 the upper part of the plug-holes, and Avere so driA^en that, by their 
 action, the rail Avas brought Avell home to the top of the chair. 
 Here the staple usually employed has been replaced by a direct 
 acting spike, according to one of the forms described m Mr. 
 Kincaid’s patent of 1876. The heads of the spikes are I inch 
 thick, and they project by so much from the sides of the chairs, 
 Avhich otherAvise, Avith the rails, present flat abutments for the 
 paving sets. 
 
 The points are 8 feet long, they are of cast iron, annealed cast 
 steel, or of Vickers’ forged steel. The crossings are made by 
 cleanly cutting ordinary rails to the required angles so as to fit 
 
238 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 truly to the sides of the rails of the main road to be crossed. The 
 adjoining flanges at the junction are bolted together with ^-inch 
 bolts. 
 
 The paving consists of granite sets 6 inches deep, laid on a bed 
 of sand 2 inches thick. 
 
 The whole of the work was maintained for twelve months after 
 completion, except the rails, which were maintained for two years. 
 
 The cost of the work, excluding paving, was ^1,925 per mile, 
 single line. 
 
 Mr. Kincaid’s later system of way. Figs. 83 and 84, laid in 
 Bristol, was an advance upon his earlier practice—providing a 
 
 wide foundation of concrete, and chairs and sleepers with a long 
 base. This system, as here shown, was laid for lengths of a mile 
 and a half, taken together, on the more lately constructed part of 
 the Hotwells line, opened June 24, 1880; the Bedminster line, 
 opened November 17, 1880; and the Horfield line, opened a day 
 later, on the i8th. The other portions of these lines were laid 
 on the same construction, except that the bases of the chairs were 
 only 14 inches long and 12 inches wide. 
 
 The rail of the newer ways, Fig. 85, is of steel, weighing 50 lbs. 
 per yard, formed with a central web and inclined flanks, to take a 
 wedge-like bearing on the chairs. The groove is only i inch wide 
 
KINCAID'S IRON WAY. 
 
 239 
 
 at the surface, the tread is i | inches wide, and the guard flange 
 
 1 inch wide, making together a width of 3^ inches. The total 
 depth of the rail is 3! inches, and the web is f inch thick at the 
 origin, tapering to f inch thick at the lower edge. 
 
 The chairs are of cast iron, of which the joint chairs weigh 
 76 lbs. each, and the intermediate chairs 64 lbs. each. They are 
 7^ inches in height, and have a flat base 10 inches wide by 
 
 2 feet 10 inches long. They are placed at distances apart of 
 
 3 feet from centre to centre, and are therefore only 2 inches 
 clear of each other in line, making a bearing on the foundation 
 practically continuous. They are gathered up in the body of the 
 intermediate sleepers to a head 
 3^ inches long—the length of 
 bearing for the rail—and 3^ inches 
 wide, the same as the width of 
 the rail, presenting two flat ver¬ 
 tical flanks to the paving stones. 
 
 The heads of the joint-chairs are 
 six inches in length. The rails 
 are fastened to the sleepers by 
 means of iron cotters passed 
 through the web of the rail, 
 one cotter to each intermediate 
 sleeper, and two cotters to each 
 joint-chair, or one to each rail, 
 with longitudinal clearance in the chair to allow for expansion. 
 The joint-chairs are connected transversely by wrought-iron tie- 
 bars, if X f- inch thick, passed through the chairs, and screwed 
 up with nuts at the outsides. 
 
 A continuous foundation of lias-lime concrete, 6 inches deep, 
 is provided, laid on the floor of the excavation, at a level 12 inches 
 below the level of the rails, for the whole width of the way. 
 Two longitudinal trenches in addition are excavated, one below 
 each rail, 2 \ inches deeper than the general excavation, at a level 
 14} inches below the surface of the rails. At these trenches the 
 concrete stands 8} inches deep. Over the concrete a bed of 
 
 Fig. 85. Kincaid’s Way, Bristol. 
 —Rail. Scale f. 
 
240 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 gravel is laid, inches thick when spread, and beaten down to 
 I inch when the sets are rammed. The paving sets, of granite, 
 are 5 inches deep and 4 inches wide, and are grouted with lias 
 lime and clean sharp sand. 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Single Line, of the 
 Kincaid Way, Bristol Tramways, 1880. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Steel rails, 50 lbs. per yard, 78^ tons 
 
 @ 
 
 / 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 588 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 3,520 cast-iron chairs, 103 tons 
 
 ) ) 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 515 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,000 wrought-iron keys, 9^ cwt. 
 
 > y 
 
 0 
 
 T 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 220 wrought-iron tie rods .... 
 Excavation, 1,715 cubic yards, including 
 
 y ? 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 carting away surplus material and main¬ 
 tenance of tramway for six months 
 
 j) 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 171 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Lias lime concrete, 909 cubic yards . 
 
 Bed of gravel, inches thick, as spread. 
 
 ) } 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 340 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 200 cubic yards ..... 
 
 Laying the way, including fencing, watch- 
 
 y y 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ing, and lighting, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 y y 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 132 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way 
 
 
 
 
 
 L823 15 
 
 0 
 
 Providing and laying granite paving sets. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 including rammdng and grouting, and 
 making good at sides of paving, 4,^00 
 square yards ...... 
 
 y y 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,200 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ^4,023 15 o 
 
 Kincaid’s System, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Tramways, 1878. 
 
 The first tramway in Newcastle-upon-Tyne was laid on Mr. 
 Kincaid’s system, to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, under the direc¬ 
 tion of Mr. A. M. Fowler, the borough engineer, similar to the 
 first ways laid by him at Salford. The way was laid early in 1878 
 for a length of five miles, of which about three miles were of 
 double line and the remainder of single line. The rails weighed 
 50 lbs. per yard, and are of the same section as those of the 
 Salford line. The cost of the way per mile, single line, amounted 
 to ;>^i,54o per mile, in which were included the cost of every¬ 
 thing except providing and laying down pavement. 
 
KINCAID'S IRON 
 
 IVA V. 
 
 241 
 
 Kincaid’s System—Salford Tramways, 1879—80. 
 
 When Mr. A. M. Fowler settled the details of Mr. Kincaid’s 
 way for the Salford Tramways, the principal feature on which he 
 laid stress was the direct-acting spike for fastening the rail to the 
 sleepers, two of which were, from opposite sides, driven into a 
 plug of ash in the upper part of the chair or stool. This fasten- 
 
 Figs. 86 and 87. Kincai.l’s Way, Salford, as laid by Mr. Jacob.— 
 Rail and Chair—Sections. Scale J. 
 
 ing has been found, according to the report of Mr. A. Jacob, to 
 give way by the breaking up of the wooden plugs by the wedging 
 of the spikes, and their gradually becoming loose. In November, 
 1879, Jacob introduced a method of fastening in which a pair 
 of soft iron cotters were substituted for the wood block and the 
 spikes, shown in Figs. 86 and 87 The rails are punched for the 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 cotters, and square holes are very truly formed in the chairs. 
 The lower cotter is inserted when the rail is placed in position, 
 and the upper cotter is driven home, so that the rail is pinched 
 tightly down to the chair. When the cotters have been tightly 
 driven in, their ends, being of very soft iron, are easily turned 
 over, one upwards, the other downwards. A small allowance for 
 longitudinal play is made in the holes, to admit of free expansion. 
 
 Under the chairs Mr. Jacob laid a continuous bed of concrete, 
 under each rail, along the whole line, and 6 inches deep, in which 
 the bases of the chair are embedded. A good support is thus 
 provided for the intermediate paving next the rails. The sets 
 are now supported by the concrete, on a layer of cinders, for a 
 depth varying according to the height of the sets. In the illus¬ 
 trations 5-inch sets are shown, resting on a cinder bed ij inches 
 thick. 
 
 The Welsh sets formerly used had been laid f inch above the 
 level of the rails, to make allowance for wear. But, in fact, they 
 did not wear much faster than the rails; so they caused great 
 inconvenience and gave rise to loud complaints of damage to 
 wheeled vehicles. Scoriae blocks, made from blast furnace slag, 
 were substituted for the Welsh sets, and were laid next the rails, 
 and level with them. They wear well and evenly, worn grooves 
 were obviated, and complaints ceased. 
 
 In the Kincaid way, recently constructed in Salford, Figs. 86 and 
 87, the rails were of iron, faced with steel to take the wear, rolled 
 in lengths of 24 feet. The cost was not much increased by the 
 facing, and the duration of the rails was expected to be much 
 augmented. By measurements made in Salford, Mr. Jacob 
 ascertained that where the traffic on the old rails had been very 
 heavy, as in New Bailey Street, iV inch in thickness had been 
 worn off the tread of the rails, being at the rate of '025, or Ar inch 
 per year. At this rate he estimated a life of 19 or 20 years for 
 the rails, allowing for ^ inch of vertical wear before the rails 
 required to be renewed. The rails were of box pattern, 3^ inches 
 wide and 2 % inches deep, weighing 52 lbs. per yard. The tread 
 is inches wide, the groove inches, and the guard flange 
 
KINCAID'S IRON WAY, 
 
 243 
 
 ^ inch wide. The chairs were placed 3 feet from centre to centre. 
 They are 7^ inches high, the soles are 14 inches square, and the 
 length of bearing for the rails is 3 inches for the intermediate 
 chairs, and 10 inches for the joint chairs. The joint chairs weigh 
 54f lbs. each, the intermediate chairs 45^ lbs. each. The rails are 
 fastened with one pair of cotters to the intermediate chairs, and with 
 four pairs, two to each rail, to the joint chairs. The cotters were 
 I inch wide. The chairs were hollowed, and were solidly packed 
 with concrete. They were embedded in the concrete, which is laid 
 in two continuous lines, one under each rail, 18 inches wide 
 and 6 inches deep. Next comes a i-inch layer of sand, and 
 5-inch paving upon this, with pitch grouting. Mr. Kincaid’s way, 
 as laid by Mr. Jacob in the manner above described, gave, it 
 was reported, satisfaction. The first section, without the cotters, 
 was opened March 18, 1879; cotters complete, the next 
 
 section was opened May 12, 1880. 
 
 Quantities and Costs of Tramways, laid in Salford, 
 PER Mile, Single Line, under Contracts No. 5 and 6, 
 DATED December 27, 1879. 
 
 s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Steel-faced iron rails, 52 lbs. per yard, 
 
 81 tons 14 cwt. I qr. 4 lbs. . . .@850 
 
 Cast-iron chairs, 73 tons 6 cwt. i qr. 10 lbs. ,,520 
 Cotters, 17 cwt. i qr. 4 lbs. . . .,,130 
 
 Excavation in trenches, 587 cubic yards . ,, o 15 o 
 Excavating roadway, taken up 6 inches in 
 depth, for a total width of 18 inches 
 outside the rails . . . . .,,020 
 
 Laying single line, complete, 1,760 lineal 
 
 years @. . . . . . .,,0011 
 
 674 2 10 
 
 373 o 
 19 17 o 
 
 384 15 o 
 
 58 14 o 
 80 13 ^ 
 
 1,636 16 2 
 
 Paving with Welsh cyanite sets, including 
 cinder bed and pitch grouting, 4,302 
 
 yards . . . . . . . ,, o 12 o 2,581 16 o 
 
 4,218 12 2 
 
 Note.—T he costs of slag blocks and granite sets are nearly equal. 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Kincaid’s System (as laid by Messrs. Grover and Newton), 
 Stockton-on-Tees and District Tramways, i88i. 
 
 The Stockton-on-Tees Tramways, 4 % miles in length, single 
 line, including passing-places, were (May, 1881) in course of 
 construction, to a gauge of 4 feet, under the direction of Messrs. 
 J. W. Grover and J. W. Newton, the engineers of the line. 
 They adopted the Kincaid system of way, in the recent form, 
 slightly modified. The rails, of Bessemer steel, weighed 45 lbs. per 
 yard, and were rolled in lengths of 23 feet, except 5 per cent, of 
 shorter lengths. They are, like the Barker rail, indented on the 
 lower side of the head, and formed with a central web. The chairs 
 give a bearing 6 inches long, for the sole of the rail, and 3 inches 
 at the sides. The rails are fastened to each chair by a cotter 
 of Lowmoor iron, through the rail, transversely. The sole of each 
 chair is 2 feet 10^ inches long, and 9 inches wide—wide enough 
 to afford support for the paving. The total height of the chairs 
 is 5 ff inches. The chairs are inches apart at the ends, and thus 
 make up a distance of 3 feet apart between centres. But, at the 
 joints, the chairs are placed not under the joint, but 2 feet apart 
 between the centres, and are shorter accordingly. The joint is made 
 with -1%-inch wrought-iron fish-plates, 13^ inches long, and four 
 J-inch bolts and nuts, with Grover’s elastic washers. The fish¬ 
 plates are about 4 inches deep, underlapping the rails. 
 
 The rails are if inches wide at the tread, i inch at the groove, 
 with a |-inch guard flange; together 3 inches. The groove is 
 if inch deep, the web is f inch at the lower edge, and the total 
 depth of the rail is 3ff inches. 
 
 Cross-ties, of 2-inch angle-iron, are placed at 9 feet intervals, 
 except in curves, at 6 feet intervals; passing under and seizing the 
 chairs by means of clips, the outer clips being riveted to the 
 angle-irons, and the inner clips bolted to them. 
 
 The trench was excavated to a depth of 12 inches below the 
 surface, for a width of about 7 feet 3 inches, and was laid with con¬ 
 crete 5f inches thick, consisting of i part of Portland cement in 
 7, or one part offline in 4. The excavated macadam, after having 
 
KINCAID'S IRON WAY. 
 
 245 
 
 been screened, was mixed with river sand, and occasionally with 
 burnt clinkers. The sleepers were laid on this bed of concrete, 
 after which the contour of the bottom was formed with a thin layer 
 of fine concrete, and the spaces under the rails were filled flush with 
 Portland cement concrete. On a 4 -inch layer of furnace ashes 
 the paving sets are laid, consisting of whinstone, 5 inches deep 
 by 4 inches, toothing with the macadam at each side. The paving 
 was grouted with lime mortar, and finished with a coating of furnace 
 ashes. 
 
 Quantities per Mile, Single Line, of Kincaid’s System, 
 Stockton-on-Tees and District Tramways, 1881. 
 
 Steel rails, 45 lbs. per yard ..704 tons 
 
 Cast-iron chairs—920 joint chairs 55 lbs. each 
 
 2,760 intermediate do., 65 lbs. each 
 
 3,680 . 
 
 Fish-plates, 920, @ 7^ lbs. each I. 
 Angle-iron ties, 612, @ 195 lbs. each 
 Clips, 2,448; and rivets, 1,224 
 £-inch bolts and nuts, for fish-plates 
 f-inch bolts and nuts, for clips 
 
 Total .... 
 
 I02f ,, 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 5 ^ >» 
 
 17 cwt. 
 
 II ,, 
 
 • 5 > > 
 
 182 tons 13 cwt. 
 
 Grover’s spring washers for ^-inch bolts, 1,840 
 Do. do. do. f do. 1,224 
 
 Wrought-iron cotters, 3,680. 
 
 Excavation, 1,450 cubic yards. 
 
 Lime concrete, 770 ,, ., 
 
 Bed of sand, or furnace ashes, 112 cubic yards. 
 Portland cement, or asphalte, filling under the rails. 
 Whinstone paving, laid complete, 3,960 square yards, 
 r.aying the way, complete, 1,760 lineal yards. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 BARKER’S SYSTEM—MANCHESTER CORPOR’ 
 ATION TRAMWAYS, 1877. 
 
 The first contract for the Manchester Corporation Tramways was 
 completed on the 8th of May, 1877, and opened on the 12th of 
 the same month. It consisted of three sections as follows :— 
 
 1. Lower King Street, Bridge Street; leading to Salford and 
 Pendleton. 
 
 2. Deansgate; terminus in Manchester. 
 
 3. Hunt’s Bank. Bury New Road, to the City boundary; 
 leading to Higher Broughton. 
 
 The total length is 2 miles, comprising half a mile of double 
 way and miles of single way, with six passing places. The 
 maximum gradient on the line is at the rate of i in 40. After six 
 months of working the line in Bury New Road, it was found that 
 it could not be worked with advantage as a single line, and it was 
 proposed to lay a second line of tramway in that road on Barker's 
 system. The application of this system was to be extended to 
 other lines under the control of the Manchester Corporation. The 
 system was adopted also for the lines of tramway at Patricroft, and 
 for lines to Newton Heath, Levenshulme, Openshaw, and other 
 places. 
 
 The Manchester lines were constructed under the superin¬ 
 tendence of Mr. J. H. Lynde, C.E., on the system of iron way 
 shown in Figs, 88 and 89, patented in March, 1876, by Mr. Benjamin 
 Barker. The peculiar features of this system are the longitudinal 
 
MANCHESTER CORPORATION TRAMJFAVS. 
 
 247 
 
 cast-iron sleepers, which afford a continuous bearing for the rail, 
 and for the adjoining paving sets ; and the grooved rail, of which 
 the lower surface is indented longitudinally, and is formed with a 
 central flange or web, by which it is fastened by cotters to the 
 sleeper. The sleeper is, in section, like the ordinary bridge-rail in 
 use on railways, but it is of larger dimensions. It consists of a 
 hollow vertical portion, 3 inches wide, furnished with a solid head, 
 formed to fit and to carry the rail, and two horizontal flanges, 
 about 4 or 44 inches wide, making in all a broad continuous base 
 12 inches in width. The total height of the combined sleeper and 
 
 Fig. 88. Manchester Corporation Tramways :—Section of Rail and 
 
 Sleeper. Scale f. 
 
 rail is yg- inches, and the clear height above the flange-base is 
 61 inches, leaving a ^-inch space for bedding under the paving 
 sets, which are 6 inches deep, and adjoin the rail. The sleepers 
 are cast in lengths of 2 feet iid inches, and are stiffened by two 
 transverse webs between the vertical ribs. The thickness of metal 
 of the sleepers is 4 inch, except for the flanges, which are made 
 I inch thick at their roots, next the vertical ribs, and taper in thick¬ 
 ness to f inch at their edges; except also the head of the sleeper, 
 which is sufficiently massed to provide a solid bearing and attach- 
 
248 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 ment for the rail, and a vertical wall at each side, as an abutment 
 for the stone sets. The castings were made from remelted iron, 
 containing at least i th part of scrap. Two test bars were cast each 
 day that any of the castings were run, i inch wide, 2 inches deep, 
 and 3 feet 6 inches long; one of which was tested edgewise on 
 bearings, 3 feet apart, and was not to break with any weight less 
 than 27 cwt. applied at the middle. If the test-bar failed to sus¬ 
 tain the test, all work cast from the same melting was rejected. 
 Each sleeper, 2 feet i id inches in length, was to weigh not less 
 than 137 lbs.; or for a length reckoned as 3 feet, at the rate 
 of 137 lbs. per lineal yard. The position of the holes for the keys. 
 
 cast in the sleepers, was not to 
 vary more than Td inch from the 
 given position. 
 
 The rails were rolled of 
 Bessemer steel, 3 inches wide, 
 and weighed 40 lbs. per yard. 
 They were rolled in lengths of 
 18, 21, and 24 feet. The tread 
 or rolling surface of the rails is 
 I d inches wide, and is rounded 
 with nearly d inch of rise; the 
 groove is inches wide, and 
 1 inch deep below the summit 
 of the tread. The side of the 
 
 Fig. 89. Mancliester Corpora¬ 
 tion Tramways : — .Section of 
 Barker’s Rail. .Scale d. 
 
 groove next the rail is vertical, the bottom of the groove is 
 f inch wide, and the whole of the taper of the groove is 
 directed towards the ledge. The lower side of the rail is longitu¬ 
 dinally indented, and is strongly formed with inclined flanks, from 
 which the central web depends. The web is T inch thick, and the 
 total depth of the rail amounts to 3 inches. The indentations of 
 the rail fit on the corresponding wedge-formed surfaces of the 
 head of the sleepers; and the rail is fastened to the sleepers by 
 horizontal cotters of hard wrought iron, ^ inch by | inch, slightly 
 taper, which pass right through the flange of the rail and the head 
 of the sleeper. There is one cotter to each sleeper, except at the 
 
MANCHESTER CORPORA 7T0N TRAMJVAYS. 
 
 24Q 
 
 joints of the rails, where there is one cotter extra for each end. 
 By this method of attachment the rail is secured by the indented 
 surfaces against lateral displacement, whilst the chief function of 
 the cotter is to hold it down to the sleeper. 
 
 It was required that the rails should be manufactured from a 
 mixture of the best English hematite brands and spiegeleisen, 
 cast into ingots of sufficient weight to make one or more rails. 
 The curved rails were bent, cold, in a bending machine to the 
 required radii. The flanges of the rails were punched for the 
 cotter holes, and the holes were required to be within tV inch of 
 the proper position. 
 
 The way was laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8|- inches, with an inter¬ 
 space 4 feet wide between the two lines of a double way. The 
 new pavement is not confined to the customary breadth of 
 18 inches outside the ways, but is in some cases laid for the whole 
 width of the carriage way to render the whole of the surface 
 uniform. Allowing for purposes of comparison the usual 18-inch 
 breadths of paving outside the ways, the total width for a double 
 way is made up thus :— 
 
 Two widths of gauge, 4 feet 84 inches . 
 Interspace ...... 
 
 Two breadths of 18 inches 
 
 Four half-widths of rail (i 4 inches x 4) , 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 9 5 
 4 o 
 3 o 
 o 6 
 
 16 II 
 
 The sleepers are not fastened together, but are fastened 4 inch 
 apart from end to end, and make up intervals of 3 feet for each 
 straight sleeper. For sharp curves the sleepers are laid in shorter 
 segments 18 inches in length. Sleepers have been cast to match 
 curves in some instances, but, it is said, it was not necessary to pro¬ 
 vide sleepers of a curved form. 
 
 The roadway was excavated to a uniform dejjth of about 
 8 inches. The bottom of the excavation was taken as the founda¬ 
 tion for the sleepers, as the ground was considered to be sufficiently 
 consolidated to support the tramway with its extensive Iiearing 
 
250 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 surface without the assistance of special concrete foundations. The 
 sleepers were, nevertheless, for the purpose of packing, bedded on 
 a I-inch layer of rough mortar. Before being laid they were filled 
 with rough mortar. The mortar was composed of three parts of 
 clinker and one part of Ardwick (hydraulic) lime, ground in a 
 mill. 
 
 The rails were bedded on the sleepers in gas tar, which aids in 
 filling up any chance vacancies between the sleepers and the rails. 
 The flat rails, without grooves, were only laid, as outer rails, at one 
 curve of the way, having a radius of 32 feet. 
 
 The paving is of granite sets, 3 inches wide and 6 inches deep, 
 laid on a 2-inch bedding of small gravel or old macadam. The 
 joints were filled in with pea-gravel, or small granite chips, and 
 grouted with a boiling mixture of pitch and creosote, on the system 
 which has for years been practised in laying pavement in Man¬ 
 chester.'-' 
 
 The contractors were required to replace any sleepers or rails 
 found to be defective for a period of twelve months after the 
 work was completed. Payments were made at intervals to the 
 extent of 80 per cent, of the value of the work executed ; the 
 balance was payable at the expiration of three months after the 
 completion of the work. 
 
 In one mile, single line, of Mr. Barker’s system of tramway, as 
 laid in Manchester, there are 215 tons of cast-iron sleepers and 
 63 tons of steel rails. Of the mortar bedding for the sleepers 
 40 tons per mile was used. The price of the rails, delivered, was 
 per ton, and that of the sleepers was ^{^5 4s. 6d. per ton. The 
 mortar bedding cost 7 s. 6d. per ton, delivered on the ground. The 
 total cost for materials and labour, to remove the old paving, pre¬ 
 pare the bed for the sleepers with a layer of rough mortar i inch 
 thick, and lay in the tramway complete (exclusive of all charge for 
 paving), was ^£’2,320 per mile, single line. The annexed is a cost 
 list comprising the items of cost in a tabular form: — 
 
 * For an account of the Manchester system of paving, see Co7z- 
 strziction of Streets and Roads, 1877. Crosby Lockwood & Son. 
 
MANCHESTER CORPORA T/OA^ 7R AM WAVS. 
 
 25 ^ 
 
 Manchester Corporation Tramways, Barker’s System, 
 
 Cost per Mile, Single Line. 
 
 215 tons cast-iron sleepers 
 63 tons steel rails, 40 lbs. per yard . 
 1,760 lineal yards, labour, mortar bed, 
 royalty ...... 
 
 Wedge keys. 
 
 Carting the materials (iron only) 
 
 and 
 
 @ 5 
 8 
 
 y y 
 
 o 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4 6 
 
 o o 
 
 7 3 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,123 7 6 
 
 504 O O 
 
 638 o o 
 25 o o 
 29 12 6 
 
 Cost of way 
 
 4,400 square yards of paving 
 
 ,, o 12 o 
 
 2,320 o o 
 2,640 o o 
 
 Total 
 
 ;^4,96o o o 
 
 At Leeds, in 1878, about 4 miles of Barker’s tramways were laid, 
 of three different sections: ist, the section for 6-inch paving, 
 having a rail of 40 lbs. per yard and sleepers of 137 lbs. ; 2nd, the 
 section for 5-inch paving, with sleepers of 102 lbs. and rails of 
 34 lbs. per yard; 3rd, the section for 4-inch paving, with sleepers 
 of 90 lbs. and steel rails of 34 lbs. 
 
 In the Barton, Eccles, Winton, and Monton district, at Patri- 
 croft, near Manchester, Barker’s system was, in 1878, laid for a 
 length of 3^ miles, with 40-lb. steel rails and 135-lb. sleepers for 
 6-mch paving. The line of tramway cost about ^4,000 per mile. 
 The total cost for construction and all incidental charges amounted 
 to ^£"17,200. The tramway was leased to Messrs. Turton and 
 Busby. 
 
 At Wallasey, near Liverpool, a line of about 4 miles in length 
 was laid, in 1879, for 4-inch paving, with 34-lb. steel rails and 
 90-lb. sleepers. This line was laid by the engineer of the tramway, 
 Mr. C. H. Beloe, who states the cost per mile, single line, as 
 follows:— 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Laying tramway rails, concrete, &:c. .... 2,031 6 8 
 
 4-inch granite cubes . . . . . • . 1,144 o o 
 
 Paving ......... 608 13 4 
 
 Total 
 
 .£3.784 0 o 
 
252 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Shaw’s System.—Rusholme, Manchester, 1880. 
 
 This is a metal way, in which the rails are laid on chairs or 
 stools, which are cast solid in pairs upon long cast-iron sleepers. ’ 
 The rails are spiked to the stools. 
 
 Mr. J. C. Shaw’s system is here illustrated. Figs. 90 and 91, as 
 laid at Rusholme. The cast-iron sleepers are made in lengths of 
 
 
 //. /////. 
 
 
 //////////' 
 
 Fig. 90. Shaw’s Way, Rusholme. Scale -0^-. 
 
 4 feet, and 11 inches wide at the base, laid i inch apart longi¬ 
 tudinally. Each sleeper is formed with two standards or pedestals 
 to carry the rail, placed at 2 feet 6 inches apart between centres, 
 or about half the length of the sleeper. The middle portion of 
 the sleeper, between the standards, is open, and is bordered with 
 
 r ' I O O ] O O I ' I 'o~ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 .,,1 . " ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' i 
 
 1 
 
 . . 
 
 Fig. 91. Shaw’s YVay, Rusholme.—Rail and Sleeper. Scale 
 
 two Stiffening flanges. Each sleeper weighs 117 lbs. The rails, 
 of steel, weigh 45 lbs. per yard, and are of the ordinary box section, 
 3 inches wide, through the side flanges of which they are spiked to 
 the standards, into which hardwood plugs are driven to receive the 
 spikes, one spike from each side, as in Mr. Kincaid’s early fasten¬ 
 ing. To the joint standards the end of each rail is secured by two 
 pairs of spikes; at the intermediate standards one pair of spikes 
 
S HA TV'S WAY, RUS HOLME. 
 
 253 
 
 is employed. The length of bearing of the rails on the joint 
 standards is 9 inches, and on the other standards 4f inches. It 
 is stated that the rails have been tested with a load of 7 tons at the 
 centre of a span without any perceptible deflection. The sleepers 
 are bedded on two continuous lines of concrete, 15 inches wide and 
 5 inches deep, one under each line of sleepers. The spaces under 
 the sleepers are completely filled with fine concrete, which is 
 packed upon the basement of concrete through the openings in the 
 soles of the sleepers, and so bonding the sleepers to the beds. 
 
 The general level of the floor of the excavation, excepting the 
 trenches, is 8 inches below the surface of the ground, as the paving 
 sets are laid direct on the subsoil. The paving adjacent to the 
 rails is supported directly on the base of the sleepers. 
 
 Quantities and Costs of Shaw’s Way, per Mile 
 
 Single Line, 1880. 
 
 Rails, 45 lbs. per yard, 70 tons 
 
 @ /ii 
 
 £ 
 
 770 
 
 s. 
 
 0 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 Sleepers, 70 lbs. per yard, no tons 
 
 
 53* 
 
 577 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Spokes, 14 cwt. ...... 
 
 > > 
 
 i8s. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 Wooden plugs, 6,160 ..... 
 
 > J 
 
 Id. 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Concrete, 204 cubic yards .... 
 
 J ? 
 
 i6s. 6d. 
 
 168 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, 204 cubic yards 
 
 > J 
 
 2 S. 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Surface excavation, 8 inches deep, 1,109 cubic 
 yards.. 
 
 
 2 S. 
 
 no 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost of way .... 
 
 
 I 
 
 ,672 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Paving, 4,694 square yards .... 
 
 > > 
 
 IIS. 6d. 2 
 
 ,699 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total cost of way and paving . 
 
 ;^4o7i iS o 
 
CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 BOWSOJV’S IRON WAK 
 
 Messrs. J. E. and A. Dovvson devised a system of iron permanent 
 way, with continuous bearing, in various forms, patented in 1871 
 and in March, 1873. The Madras tramways, consisting of 
 II miles of single line, to a gauge of i metre, opened in 1874, were 
 
 constructed according to 
 one of the forms patented 
 in 1873, Fig. 92. The 
 rail was of wrought iron, 
 an ordinary flat - grooved 
 rail. It was laid on a series 
 of cast-iron sleepers, which 
 overlapped laterally at the 
 ends, where they were 
 bolted together^ and 
 afforded a continued bear¬ 
 ing for the rail. The 
 sleepers were formed with 
 fitting strips, by which they were levelled to receive the rail, and 
 the fastenings consisted of vertical bolts with countersunk heads, 
 through the groove of the rail, cottered to the sleepers. 
 
 The rails were i inch thick and 3! inches wide ; they weighed 
 26 lbs. per yard. The sleepers weighed 40 lbs. per yard, as 
 laid; they were 2 feet in length, of a flanged form, 4.^ inches 
 deep and 2 inches wide. The width of bearing surface on the 
 foundation, which was of concrete, amounted to 4 inches. The 
 sleepers were tied transversely with hook tie bars at intervals. 
 
 Fig. 92. Dowson’s Iron Way.— 
 IMadras Tramways. Scale T 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 WINBY AND LEVICN’S SFSTEiU. 
 
 Nottingham and District Tramways, 1878. 
 
 In December, 1877, Mr. Levick and Mr. F. C. Winby patented 
 the application of a broad base of iron plate, fastened to the 
 lower flange of the girder rail, by means of cotter bolts and 
 cotters, to be laid on consolidated macadam or road material, in 
 
 Fig. 93. Winby and Levick’s Way, Nottingham. Scale -o-f. 
 
 order to make up a sufficient foundation without concrete, and to 
 give support to the pavement. 
 
 The length of lines of the Nottingham and District Tramways, 
 laid by Mr. T. F. McNay, on the system of Messrs. Winby and 
 Levick, Fig. 93, by Messrs. Ridley & Co., of Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne, consists of 4 miles 246 yards double line, and 2 miles 
 1,012 yards of single line; together 6 miles 1,258 yards, making 
 10 miles 1,504 yards of single line. The rail. Fig. 94, is of steel, 
 6 inches deep, weighing 58 lbs. per yard. The width of the 
 tread is if inches, that of the groove is ^ inch, and the guard 
 flange is f inch thick, making the total width of the head 
 2§ inches. The flange base is 3^ inches wide, and the web is 
 f inch thick. The base plate is of wrought iron 12 inches wide 
 and ^ inch thick, in lengths of ii feet ii inches, laid con- 
 
256 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 tinuously, and so as to break joint with the rails. The rails are 
 secured to the base-plate by f-inch cotter bolts and cotters, at 
 intervals of 2 feet, on alternate sides of the rails. The gauge is 
 fixed by means of tie-bars, inches deep and | inch thick, having 
 screwed ends f inch in diameter, and lock-nuts through the web 
 of the rails, placed 12 feet apart. The rails are in lengths of 
 24 feet and are fished with steel plates, 16 inches long, and four 
 I inch bolts and nuts. 
 
 The contract for the rails, plates, and fastening, laid complete. 
 
 Fig. 94. W'inby and Levick’s Way, Nottingham.—Rail and Baseplate. 
 
 Scale T 
 
 was let to Messrs. Ridley and Company at £2,000 per mile, 
 single line, inclusive of the extra material and labour for points 
 and crossings and'curves. The items in detail are here given as 
 stated by the contractors. In the last two columns are added, by 
 the author, the estimated net quantities and costs per mile, single 
 line, exclusive of such extras :— 
 
NOTTINGHAM AND NEWCASTLE TEAM WAYS. 257 
 
 Quantities and Costs per Mile, Single Line, of Winby 
 AND Levick’s System.—Nottingham and District Tram¬ 
 ways, 1878. 
 
 Gross 
 
 weight. 
 
 Steel rails, 58 lbs. 
 
 per yard . . 92 tons (3 
 
 Wrought-iron base- 
 
 plates 12 in. X in. 
 
 50 » 
 
 Fish-plates 
 
 5 
 
 Fish-bolts 
 
 0*75 
 
 Cotter - bolts and 
 
 
 cotters. 
 
 1*75 - 
 
 Tie-bars . 
 
 1*75 vj 
 
 149*25 
 
 Excavation, 4,694 square yards ,, 
 Laying 1,760 lineal yards . ,, 
 
 Total cost for way 
 Paving by the Tramway Com¬ 
 pany, 4,858 square yards . ,, 
 
 Total for way and paving . 
 
 
 Gross 
 
 Net 
 
 Net 
 
 
 cost. 
 
 weight. 
 
 cost. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ^10 lOS. 
 
 966 
 
 91 tons 956 
 
 
 400 
 
 47 - 
 
 376 
 
 
 150 
 
 6 „ 
 
 120 
 
 
 1,516 
 
 144 
 
 1,452 
 
 IS. 6 d. 
 
 353 
 
 
 353 
 
 IS. 6 d. 
 
 132 
 
 
 132 
 
 
 2,001 
 
 
 1,937 
 
 los. 6 d. 
 
 2,550 
 
 
 2,550 
 
 • • 
 
 .^4,551 
 
 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1879. 
 
 A length of 5 miles 6^ chains, of Winby and Levick’s way, was 
 laid in Newcastle by Messrs. Ridley and Co., in 1879—^ 
 gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches. Of this length, about 2 miles was 
 double way and 3 miles single way. The rails weighed 65 lbs. per 
 yard. The base-plates are 12 inches wide and inch thick. With 
 fish-plates and tie-rods the gross weight of material, inclusive of 
 points and crossings, was 181 tons per mile, single line ; and the 
 cost, including the charge for laying, amounted to ;2Ci 4s. id. pec 
 yard, or ;2^2,ii9 per mile, single line, paving not included. 
 
 s 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 
 './■ 
 
 
 WILSON'S SYSTEM.—SOUTHAMPTON STREET 
 
 TRAMWAYS, 1878. 
 
 JVEr. Edward Wilson, the engineer of the Southampton Street 
 Tramways, on a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, arranged an adap¬ 
 tation of the central web rail, Figs. 95 and 96, with cast-iron 
 ^chairs, resembling in cross section Barker’s sleepers, laid on con- 
 . Crete. The rails. Fig. 97, are of Bessemer steel, weighing 55 lbs. 
 per yard, in ruling lengths of 24 feet. The head of the rail is 
 jf- inches wide, the groove is inches wide at the surface, and 
 
 Figs. 95 and 96. Wilson’s Way, Southampton. Scale -o^. 
 
 the guard-flange, though it is something more massive than a 
 flange is supposed to be, is f inch wide at the surface, m.ak- 
 ing altogether a width of 3^ inches. The depth of the rail is 
 3 t 6 inches. The flange is tapered to -fV inch in thickness at 
 the lower edge. The rail takes a square bearing on the chair. 
 
SOUTHAMPTON STREET TRAMWAYS. 
 
 259 
 
 The joint chairs, Fig. 98, weigh 66 lbs. each, and the interme- 
 diate chairs 58 lbs. each ; the soles of all the chairs are 12 inches 
 wide and 16 inches long, and the total height of the chairs is 
 5^ inches. The length of seat for the rails is ii inches in the 
 joint-chairs and 8 inches in the others. The chairs are placed 
 at 3 feet distance from centre to centre, and are fastened to the 
 rails with two steel cotters intermediately, and four cotters at the 
 joints; the cotters are 3 inches long, inch thick and taper. 
 The chairs are tied to gauge transversely by wrought-iron tie-bars 
 
 in the chairs, and being notched on the lower side, are dropped 
 upon a corresponding elevation on the bottom of each recess, then 
 secured in position by keys. 
 
 A trench 8 feet wide was excavated for one line of rails, to a 
 uniform depth of 15 inches for the routes of heavy city traffic, and 
 I clinches for the routes of light traffic, increased to 15 inches under 
 the rails for a width of 2 2 inches under each rail, forming trenches 
 there. A bed of concrete, 9 inches deep, is laid in the heavy 
 routes, for the whole width, and in the trenches only for the light 
 
 s 2 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 260 
 
 routes. In the shallower portions of the excavation for the light 
 routes the concrete is laid 4^ inches deep, making up a flush 
 surface for the paving. The soles of the chairs are let flush into 
 the concrete, and uniformly bedded on a thin layer of cement. 
 The concrete is composed of 5 parts of clean sharp gravel, 
 or of stones broken to a i-inch gauge, 2 parts of clean sharp sand, 
 and I part of Portland cement, weighing not less than no lbs. 
 per striked bushel. 
 
 The space between the rails is closely filled with fine Portland 
 cement concrete in the proportion of 4 parts of fine gravel to 
 I part of cement. 
 
 A layer of sand, i inch thick, was laid on the concrete to bed the 
 paving sets. The sets are of granite, from 3^ inches to 4 inches 
 wide; those next the rails are 6 inches deep, of blue Guernsey 
 granite; the others are 5 inches deep, of Welsh or Cornish granite. 
 The paving was grouted with liquid mortar made with six parts of 
 fine sand and one part of lias lime. It was laid ^ inch above the 
 level of the rails. A portion of the work is paved with wood. 
 
 Quantities per Mile, Single Line, of Wilson’s Way, South¬ 
 ampton Street Tramways, 1878. 
 
 Routes of Heavy City Traffic :— 
 
 Rails, 55 lbs. per yard 
 Chairs, 3,070 single, 450 joints . 
 Tie-bars . . . . . 
 
 Keys and cotters 
 Excavation ..... 
 Concrete ..... 
 Cement filling under rails . 
 Granite pitching 
 
 86*4 tons. 
 93*8 „ 
 
 3'5 
 
 1-6 ,, 
 
 1,955*2 cubic yards. 
 1.173*2 
 50*6 
 
 4,351 square yards. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 DUGDALE'S SYSTEM—HUDDERSFIELD CORPORA¬ 
 TION TRAMWAYS (INNER CIRCLE), i88i. 
 
 The metal system, Fig. 99, of Mr. R. S. Dugdale, the borough 
 surveyor, adopted for the original tramways of Huddersfield, com¬ 
 prising 10 miles of single way, was laid to a gauge of 4 feet 
 7 1 inches, in order that railway waggons might be run over the 
 
 Fig. 99. Dugdale’s Way, Huddersfitld. Scale 
 
 lines to the suburban districts of the borou2:h. As in the case 
 of the Vale of Clyde Tramways, the waggons were designed to 
 bear on their flanges, which take a bearing on the floors of the 
 grooves ; whilst, of course, the tramcars run, as usual, on the 
 treads of the rails. For this double purpose, the section of the 
 rails. Fig. 100, was specially designed to combine strength and 
 durability; providing a sufficient thickness of metal and strength 
 under the groove, where the principal load is to be taken, and a 
 wedge-form bearing surface to rest on the sleepers, chairs, or 
 bearers. The groove is inches wide at the surface, and f inch 
 in depth ; the tread is inches wide, the guard flange ^ inch 
 wide; making the total width of rail 3^ inches. The web is 
 I- inch thick at the lower edge, and the total depth of the rail is 
 3!^ inches. The rails are of steel, weighing 43 lbs. per yard, in 
 
262 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 lengths of 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, and 30 feet, of which 70 per cent, 
 are 24 feet long. In the web of each rail, sixteen rectangular holes 
 f inch wide and \ inch deep are punched, to receive the cotters; 
 two holes near each end, to make the joint, and the others in 
 couples, a couple for each intermediate bearer. The guard flange 
 is corrugated, 14 indents to the foot. The bearers, of cast iron, 
 shown to an enlarged scale. Fig. loi, weighing 80 lbs. each, are 
 open or frame-like; and are formed with a sole 25 inches long, 
 10 inches wide, and f iuch thick. The body, or upper part, is 
 18 inches in length, and the width of the rail is 3^ inches. It 
 stands 3 inches high, and the bearing surface is formed trough- 
 
 Fig. ioo. Dugtlale’s Way, Hud- 
 derstield.—Rail. • Scale 
 
 Fig. loi. Dugdale’s Way,Hud¬ 
 dersfield.—Bearer. Scale Fe- 
 
 like to lodge the rail securely. The base is hollowed out, and the 
 vacuity opens into the hollow space in the body. One pattern of 
 bearer is used for the joints and the intermediate supports, and each 
 bearer is cast with six cotter holes. Eight bearers are laid for each 
 24 feet lengths of rail, and they are placed at uniform distances 
 apart, 3 feet between centres. The rails are fastened to the joint 
 bearers by four cotters, through the four inner holes, two to each 
 end of the rails; and to the intermediate bearers by two cotters 
 passed through the two extreme holes. The cotters, or “ spikes,” 
 are of soft flat iron, F inch wide; they are double, with reverse 
 taper, and are driven in from opposite sides, so as to wedge down 
 
HUDDERSFIELD CORPORATION TRAMWAYS. 263 
 
 the rail upon its seat. Softening,” a kind of tarred felt, in thin 
 sheets, is placed, after having been gently heated, in the grooves 
 of the bearers, so that all the bearing surfaces are covered with it, 
 before the rails are placed, in order to absorb vibration. 
 
 'fhe roadway was excavated to a depth of 6^ inches below the 
 level of the rails, for the paving, and two trenches were cut, one 
 under each rail, 18 inches wide, and 13^ inches below the level of 
 the rails, to receive the two continuous beds of concrete, 7 inches 
 deep. The concrete is composed of 4 parts of clean sharp 
 gravel or broken stone to a ij-inch ring gauge, and i part of 
 best Portland cement. The bearers are embedded in the concrete 
 for a depth of 2^ inches, the open spaces in the body of the 
 bearers and between them under the rails are well packed with 
 concrete, finished with vertical sides flush with the sides of the 
 bearers. 
 
 The paving consists of granite sets, 6 inches deep, from Ros- 
 sendale Valley, Yorkshire, bedded on a ^-inch layer of fine clean 
 mill ashes. They are racked with fine granite chippings, and 
 grouted with hot pitch. 
 
 Quantities and Costs, per Mile, Single Way, of Dugdale’s 
 System, Huddersfield Corporation Tramwavs, 1881. 
 
 Bessemer steel rails, 43 lbs. per yard, 67*12 
 
 tons.@7 
 
 Cast-iron bearers, 80 lbs. each, 125*70 tons ,, 4 
 Wroiight-iron fastening spikes, i ton . ,, 16 
 Tarred felt softening, 1,760 lineal yards . ,, o 
 Taking up pavement or macadam for a 
 width of 8 feet, cutting two trenches for 
 concrete foundations, laying foundations, 
 rails and bearers, ready for paving, in¬ 
 cluding cartage for all materials, 1,760 
 
 lineal yards . . . . . ,@049 41800 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 5II 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 509 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 1,465 14 I 
 
 Total for way 
 
 Paving, 6 inches deep, 8 feet wide, com-. f 
 
 plete, 1,760 lineal yards. @ 0 16 9 1,474 o 0 
 
 Total for way and paving 
 
 ;^2,939 14 ’ I 
 
264 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 
 In 1891—92, ten years after the first contract was let for the 
 original line above described, the Huddersfield Tramways were 
 reconstructed and extended, with steel girder rails, weighing 100 lbs. 
 
 per lineal yard, as shown in Figs. 102 and 103. 
 The rail is 7 inches high, 7 inches wide over the 
 flange-base, with a -Pe-inch web. The base is f inch 
 thick at the edges, | inch near the web. The 
 guard-fillet is f inch wide at the surface. The 
 rails are laid to the railway gauge, 4 feet 8^ inches, 
 secured to gauge by wrought-iron tie-bars, 2 inches 
 by ^ inch thick, fixed at from 9 feet to 12 feet 
 apart, screwed for a nut and a jam-nut, ^ inch in 
 diameter at one end, and notched at the other 
 end to lock with the web of the rail. The joints 
 are fished with two steel flanged fish-plates (Dug- 
 dale and Pogson’s patent) f inch thick, 24 inches 
 long, and six i-inch bolts with self-locking nuts. 
 The joint is, in addition, strengthened by means 
 of a ^-inch iron sole-plate 12 inches wide, and 
 equal in length to the fish-plates, screwed to the 
 flanges of the rail and fish-plates with eight |-inch 
 bolts and self-locking nuts. The rails are laid upon 
 a continuous bed of strong cement concrete 7 inches 
 deep, 8 feet wide. The space between the rails 
 and for a width of 18 inches outside is paved with 
 granite sets, the outer edge of the marginal pave¬ 
 ment being serrated every two courses of sets. 
 
 The lengths of the rails as manufactured were 
 24 feet, 26 feet, 28 feet, and 30 feet, of which 
 90 per cent, were 30 feet long. The number 
 of 24-foot rails did not exceed 5 per cent, of 
 the total number. The scheme of tests was as 
 follows :—Take at least four pieces of rail 5 feet 
 long, from each day’s make, and place them on solid bearings 
 3^ feet apart, the ends to be securely fixed and properly bedded ; 
 to stand the following tests; ist. By suspending a dead weight 
 
 I ^ 
 
 ..|i 
 
 
 i'^ 
 
 <V 
 
 r3 
 
 O 
 
 C/} 
 
 
 u 
 
 <u 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 p 
 
 6 
 
 in 
 
 f 3 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 L . 
 
 o 
 
 p. 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 OJ 
 
 (x: 
 
 33 
 
 y 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
HUDDERSFIELD CORPORATION TRAMWAYS, 265 
 
 of 25 tons from the centre between the bearings; each sample 
 to support this load for half an hour without exhibiting a greater 
 deflection than inch, or any permanent set exceeding iV inch. 
 2nd. By a weight of 1,120 lbs. (10 cwt.) falling in proper guides 
 upon the centre of each sample from a height of 20 feet without 
 breakage of the sample. Each bolt was to be of the b b quality, 
 and to be capable of resisting a tensile stress of 18 tons on a 
 circular section i inch in diameter. 
 
 Fig. 103. Huddersfield Corporation Tramways : Section of Rails and 
 
 Fastenings. Scale j. 
 
 Mr. Dugdale’s most recent design of way, above described, is 
 notable for the elaborate construction of the fish-joints, specially 
 in order to secure strength and solidity at the junctions. The cost 
 of construction of the way was about £^,000 per mile, single line. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 BRUNTON^S SYSTEM.-^CITF OF OXFORD AND 
 
 DISTRICT TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Oxford Tramways were laid to a gauge of 4 feet, with an 
 interspace for double ways of 3 feet between the rails. 
 
 The rail, Fig. 104, was of Bessemer steel, weighing 67 lbs. per 
 
 Fig. 104. Brunton’s Way, Oxford.—Rail and Fastening. Scale B 
 
 yard, of the Brunei rail, or bridge rail section, 4^ inches high, 
 3 inches wide at the surface, and 6|- inches wide at the base, rolled 
 to the standard length of 18 feet. The tread is inches wide, 
 the groove i inch wide, and the guard flange tV inch thick. The 
 sides are N inch thick, and the flange base f inch. The tread 
 has a minimum depth of f inch. The rails are laid on cast-iron 
 chairs at the joints, 9 inches long, and 8^ inches wide, consisting 
 of a flat plate ^ inch thick; with raised edges between which the 
 
OXFORD TRAMWAYS. 
 
 267 
 
 base of the rail is laid, and a central oblong stud, 2^ inches wide 
 and 6 inches long, over which the ends of the rails are laid, and 
 by which, like a key, they are kept in position, true to each other. 
 
 The rails are held and locked down by a wrought-iron fish¬ 
 plate, of the same length as the chair, 2 inches wide and | inch 
 thick, overlapping the flange of the rail, and fastened by three 
 |-inch bolts and nuts to the chair. The nuts are Halpin’s lock 
 nuts; a gauge-tie, of bar-iron, 2 inches by f inch, having the 
 
 Figs. 105 and 106. Brunton’s Way, Oxford. Scale -oV. 
 
 ends turned up and passed into apertures cast in the chair, is 
 fastened to each chair and its opposite neighbour by the middle 
 one of the three bolts by which the fish-plates are fixed. 
 
 The plan of the way is shown in Figs. 105 and 106. The ground 
 is excavated to a depth of, say, 10 inches below the surface, for a 
 width of 7 feet 3 inches for single lines, and 147} feet for double 
 lines. A bed of concrete is laid on the bottom of the excavation 
 for the whole width 4^ inches deep; except at the rails, where it 
 is made up to a depth of 6 inches. The concrete consists of 
 
Z68 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 one part of Portland cement, 2\ parts of clean sharp sand, 
 and 5|- parts of gravel or broken stone. The paving is of 
 granite, 5 inches deep. At each side of each rail, a longitudinal 
 course of sets is laid, specially fitted closely and truly, and made 
 to bed evenly on the flanges of the rails. This longitudinal 
 paving may, as an alternative, be of wood,—Norway pitch pine. 
 The paving is laid on a bed of sharp sand. The whole of the 
 paving, except the longitudinal blocks next the rails, is to be 
 thoroughly grouted with liquid mortar, composed of six parts of 
 sand to one of fresh lias lime. Before the grout sets, the 
 paving is rammed evenly with wooden beaters; after which the 
 interstices are finally filled up with grout. The longitudinal 
 blocks are not rammed. At the time of first grouting, above 
 noticed, they are to be thoroughly grouted with thin cement 
 mortar, composed of six parts of sand to one part of Portland 
 cement, so as to completely fill up all the interstices below the 
 blocks, or between them and the rail flanges, or the bed of 
 concrete. The joints between the courses of the sets at the 
 tie-bars are filled* with fine gravel, or fine stone chippings, and 
 grouted with thin cement mortar. All spaces between the sides 
 of the paving and macadam or the soil are to be filled with gravel 
 and macadam, and thoroughly rammed before the final grouting 
 of the paving. 
 
 Quantities per Mile, Single Line, of the City of 
 Oxford and District Tramways, 1881. 
 
 Excavation 
 
 Concrete . . . . 
 
 Rails, 67 lbs. per yard 
 Joint chairs, 22| lbs. each 
 Fish-plates, if lbs. each . 
 Gauge ties, 9 lbs. each . 
 Bolts and nuts, ^ lb, each 
 
 1,175 cubic yards. 
 
 587 
 
 105 tons 6 cwt. 
 6 tons. 
 
 9 cwt. 
 
 24 „ 
 
 Total weight of metal 
 
 113 tons 7 cwt. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 VIGNOLES' SYSTEM.—NORTH LONDON SUBURBAN 
 TRA AIWA YS—NOR TH ST A FFORDSHIRE 
 
 TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Mr. Henry Vignoles’ system was laid for the North London 
 Suburban Tramways, Tottenham ; and for the North Stafford¬ 
 shire Tramways, Stoke-upon-Trent, to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, 
 as illustrated by Figs. 107 and 108. The rail and chair are 
 
 Figs. 107 and 108. Vignoles’ Way, Tottenham and Stoke. Scale -A. 
 
 sho^yn in section. Fig. 109. The rails are of steel, made with 
 a central web, weighing 42^ lbs. per yard. The whole depth of the 
 rail is 5 inches. The web is f inch thick at the lower edge. 
 The chairs are placed on cross-sleepers at 2 feet 6 inches apart 
 between centres. The joint chairs weigh 23 lbs. each; they give 
 
270 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 a bearing 10 inches in depth, and are fastened with four ^-inch 
 bolts and nuts to the sleepers, and two bolts and nuts to the rails. 
 The intermediate chairs weigh 12 lbs. each ; they give a bearing 
 5 inches in length, and are each fastened with two bolts and nuts 
 to the sleepers, and one bolt and nut to the rails. A bearing 
 plate is inserted between the rail and each chair, the upper part of 
 which is curved to fit under the head of the rail, and the lower 
 part is formed with a fillet, which fits under the web of the rail. 
 The function of this plate is not obvious, except at the joints of 
 the rails, where it acts as a fish. The sleepers are 6 feet long, 
 
 Fig. 109. Vignoles’ Way, Tottenham and Stoke.—Rail. Scale T 
 
 4 inches deep, 12 inches wide at the joints, and 7 inches inter¬ 
 mediately. They are bevelled inwards from the lower side. The 
 depth excavated is 12^ inches for the whole width. A i-inch 
 layer of fine gravel concrete is laid on the floor of the trench ; 
 then a i-inch layer of sand, on which the sleepers are bedded. 
 Around and above the sleepers hydraulic concrete is deposited for 
 a depth of 5^ inches, topped with a i-inch layer of sand and 
 cement, on which a paving of 4-inch cubes is laid. 
 
 Mr. Vignoles gives the following estimated cost per mile, single 
 line:— 
 
VIGNOLES^ JFAY. 
 
 Quantities and Costs "of Vignoles’ Way, 
 
 PER Mile, 
 
 
 Single Line, i88i. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Steel rails, 42^ lbs. per yard, 70 tons . 
 Wrought-iron fish-plates, 6 lbs. and 3 lbs. 
 
 @ £9 
 
 630 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 each, 6 tons ...... 
 
 Cast-iron chairs, 23 lbs. and 12 lbs. each, 
 
 M £7 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 23 tons ....... 
 
 Bolts, nuts, and washers, 5|- lbs., and 2f 
 
 >> £s 
 
 115 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 lbs. for each chair, 5 tons 
 
 ^,£20 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Joint sleepers, 250 . . _. 
 
 ,, 45* 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Intermediate sleepers, 1750 
 
 M 3s. 
 
 262 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Excavation, 1,76ovlineal yards . 
 
 ,, 2 S. 
 
 176 
 
 .0 
 
 0 
 
 Hydraulic concrete, 900 cubic yards . 
 
 00 
 
 360 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Laying the way, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 ,, IS. 
 
 88 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way, single line . 
 
 
 1,823 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Paving, 4-inch granite cubes, 4,550 square 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards . 
 
 ,, lOS. 
 
 2,275 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total for the way and paving . 
 
 
 '.44.098 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 TRUSWELLS SYSTEM—DEWSBURY, BATLEY, AND 
 BIRSTAL TRAMWAY—BIRSTAL AND 
 GOMERSAL EXTENSION. 
 
 The system of way, Mr. Kincaid’s earliest form, laid for the 
 original line of the Dewsbury, Batley, and Birstal Tramway, has 
 been described. The rails w'ere fixed to the chairs with vertical 
 spikes driven into oak plugs—a mode of fastening which was 
 
 Fig. no. Tiuswell’s Way, Birstal. Scale 2^. 
 
 insufficient for permanently retaining the rails under the action 
 of the engines which were there at work. Mr. George Truswell 
 designed a system of way having a reversible steel rail. Fig. no, 
 on cross-sleepers, for the Birstal and Gomersal Extension, 1*13. 
 miles in length. The rail. Fig. in, weighed 55 lbs. per yard,, 
 and was rolled in lengths of 24 feet. It was laid and keyed 
 with oak keys in cast-iron chairs, placed 3 feet apart between 
 centres, of which the joint-chairs are 6^- inches long at the 
 seat of the rail, and weigh 37 lbs. each ; and the intermediate 
 
TR US WELL’S WAY, BIRSTAL. 
 
 273 
 
 chairs are 3^7 inches long, and weigh 25 lbs. each. The chairs 
 are laid on sleepers of Baltic timber, 7 feet in length, 12 inches 
 wide by 4 inches deep at the joints, and 8 inches wide inter¬ 
 mediately. The chairs are each fixed to the sleepers by two oak 
 trenails, and two coach-screws. The ground was excavated to a 
 depth of 16 inches, for a width of 8 feet, for a single line. A layer 
 of concrete, 5 inches deep, was deposited on the floor of the exca¬ 
 vated space, on which the sleepers were laid, and the space was 
 filled up about the sleepers to a total height of 10 inches, or i inch 
 above the level of the sleepers. The concrete was made of 
 
 2 parts of broken stone to a id-inch ring gauge, i part of sand or 
 fine screened ashes, and i part of blue lias lime. The rails are 
 3f inches high, and 2f inches wide, comprising a tread if inches 
 wide, a i-inch groove, and a guard flange f inch thick. They are 
 hollowed sufficiently at one side to receive an oak wedge fasten¬ 
 ing. They stand 2f inches clear above the concrete, and at the 
 surface 6 inches above it, making room for 5-inch set paving, and 
 I inch of fine screened ashes for bedding. The paving sets, 
 5 inches deep, are of Clee Hill granite, covering 4I square yards 
 per ton of sets. The interstices are filled with melted pitch and 
 tar in mixture. 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Quantities and Costs of One Mile, Single Line, of 
 Truswell’s System, of the Dewsbury, Batley, and 
 Birstal Tramway, Gomersal Extension, i88i. 
 
 Steel rails, 55 lbs. per yard, 86 tons 
 Sleepers, 12x4 ins., by 7 feet, 220 
 Do., 8x4 ins., by 7 feet, 1,540 
 Joint chairs with fastenings, 440 
 Intermediate chairs with fastenings 
 
 3,080. 
 
 Oak keys, 3,520, per 1,000 . 
 Excavation, 2,086 cubic yards 
 Concrete, 1,268 cubic yards 
 Laying the way, 1,760 lineal yards 
 Watching, lighting, and maintaining 
 the way for six months 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 @1115 o 
 ,,036 
 ,,024 
 ,.022 
 
 o I 10 
 
 ,, 2 10 o 
 
 >.015 
 ,,080 
 ,, 0 o 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1,010 10 O 
 
 38 10 O 
 179 13 O 
 47 13 4 
 
 282 6 o 
 
 8 16 o 
 147 15 o 
 507 4 o 
 73 6 8 
 
 75 0 o 
 
 Total for the way 
 
 2,370 14 o 
 
 Granite paving complete, 4,400 square 
 yards . . . . . .,,086 
 
 Total for the way and paving . 
 
 1,870 o 0 
 ^4,240 14 o 
 
 Note,—T here are 464 chairs per mile, single line ; 22 cwts, of 
 coach screws per mile ; 7,040 oak trenails ; and 7,040 coach screws 
 per mile. 
 
 The way remains the same as when laid. The rails have not 
 yet (1892) been reversed. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 KERR'S SFSTEAIS. 
 
 First System : Ipswich Tramways, 1880. 
 
 Mr. John Kerr’s first system, Fig. 112, consists of a solid 
 girder rail laid upon wrought-iron sleepers of the section of an 
 inverted trough, bedded in concrete. In the Ipswich tramways the 
 way is laid to a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches. The sleepers are laid 
 longitudinally, as in Figs. 112 and 113. 
 
 The rails, of Bessemer steel, weigh 58 lbs. per yard, and are 
 
 Fig. 1 12. Kerr's Way, Ipswich, Woolwich. Scale 7/4-. 
 
 rolled in lengths of 24 feet. They are of girder form, 3 inches in 
 width at the head, as well as at the flange base. The tread of the 
 rail is 11 inches wide, the groove is i inch wide and Ff inch deep, 
 and the guard flange is f inch wide at the surface. The web is 
 f inch thick near the head, and -flkinch near the base. The base 
 is J inch thick near the edges, and is thickened up to ^ inch near 
 the web. 
 
 The test applied to the rails was such that they were to submit, 
 without rupture, to a deflection at the rate of 3 inches in a length 
 of 5 feet. The deflection was to be produced by one blow of a tup, 
 falling from a height of 10 feet, at least, on the middle of the rail, 
 supported on bearings 3 feet apart. The rails were fished with 
 wrought-kon plates 16 inches long, and four ^-inch bolts and 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 nuts. The holes in the plates are f inch square; the bolts have 
 round heads and square necks. 
 
 The sleepers are of ^-inch wrought-iron plates, moulded as an 
 inverted trough with inclined sides, 2 \ inches in total height, and 
 ii^ inches in total width. The sleepers break joint with the rails. 
 The rails are fastened to the sleepers by wrought-iron clips riveted 
 to these. The weight of the sleepers, with clips, was 36^ lbs. 
 per yard. 
 
 The ground was excavated for the whole width of the way, 
 including paving, to a depth of 9I inches below the surface ; and 
 
 a bed of concrete 4 inches deep was laid for the whole width. The 
 hollows of the sleepers are thoroughly packed with concrete, the 
 upper surface of the sleepers being flush with the concrete. The 
 concrete is composed of i part of blue lias lime, i part of clean, 
 sharp sand, and 4 parts of i -inch broken stone or of clean gravel. 
 On a i-inch bed of sand the paving sets, of granite, 5 inches deep, 
 are bedded and rammed home level with the rails, between the 
 rails, and for a width of 18 inches outside the line at each side. 
 The stones are laid dry with interspaces of 1 to f inch wide, and 
 well packed with clean pebbles, from | to f inch in diameter, and 
 grouted flush with Portland cement. The paving is covered with 
 
KERR'S SYSTEMS. 
 
 277 
 
 a layer of sharp, clean sand. The spaces at the side of the rails 
 are likewise filled with pebbles and grouting. 
 
 Subjoined are particulars of the quantities per mile (single line, 
 Ipswich Tramway, 3!^ feet gauge, 1880) ; — 
 
 Bessemer steel rails, 58 lbs. per yard .... 91 tons. 
 
 Wrought-iron sleepers and clips, 36.^ lbs. per yard , - 57 >> 
 
 Wrought-iron fish-plates . . . . . . 2^ ,, 
 
 ,, ,, bolts and nuts ...... i >> 
 
 151 
 
 Excavation, 1,045 cubic yards. 
 
 Concrete 440 ,, 
 
 Granite paving, 3,670 square yards. 
 
 Woolwich and Plumstead Tramway, 1881. 
 
 The materials and construction of the Woolwich and Plumstead 
 Tramway, 3P feet gauge, under the direction of the engineer, Mr. 
 Thomas Floyd, are the same as those of the Ipswich Tramway, 
 with the exception that in the former bituminous grouting was 
 employed, and Portland cement concrete, 6 inches deep, was 
 laid. 
 
 The following ])articulars show the quantities and costs per 
 
 mile (single line, Woolwich and Plumstead 
 
 Tramway, 3 
 
 ^ feet 
 
 gauge, 1881) ;— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 S, 
 
 d. 
 
 Way (as in the Ipswich Tramways), 151 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons, 1,760 lineal yards 
 
 © 
 
 0 15 
 
 4 
 
 G 349 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Excavation, 1,270 cubic yards 
 
 y y 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 
 
 190 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Portland cement concrete, 600 cubic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards ....... 
 
 y y 
 
 0 15 
 
 o 
 
 495 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cost of way .... 
 
 
 
 
 2,034 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 Paving, 3,670 square yards, granite sets 
 
 y y 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,835 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bituminous grouting, 3,670 square yards 
 
 ' y 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 412 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Cost of paving 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 2,247 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 Cost of way and paving 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 ;^4,282 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
278 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Kerr’s Second System.—Alford and Sutton Steam 
 
 T RAMWAYS. 
 
 In this tramway, (Fig. 116), girder rails, 4-I inches high, weighing 
 45 lbs. per yard, are laid to 2^ feet gauge, on transverse concrete 
 
 Fig. 114. Alford and SuUon Steam 
 Tramways : Section of Rail, 
 Sleeper, and Fastening. Scale 
 
 Fig. 115. Alford and Sutton Steam 
 Tramways: Sleeper and Fasten¬ 
 ing. Scale about -J-. 
 
 sleepers 3 feet apart between centres. Steel tie-plates, i inch 
 thick, are laid on and imbedded in the sleepers. The road is 
 
 Fig.116. 
 
 Alford and Sutton Steam Tramways : Cross Section. Scale 7,A. 
 
 macadam. There is no paving, except at passing places, where 
 4-inch cubes were laid. 
 
 This line is now closed. It was worked with steam locomotives 
 weighing iiF tons, when, it is stated, it bore the weight of the 
 traffic perfectly. 
 
KERR'S SYSTEMS. 
 
 279 
 
 Kerr’s Third System.—Bucharest Tramway; Madrid 
 
 Tramway. 
 
 This way (Fig. 117 ) is laid with girder rails, 5 inches high, weigh- 
 
 Fig. 117. Bucharest Tramways ; Madrid Tramways : Cross Section. 
 
 Fig. 118. Bucharest Tramways ; Madrid Tramway^s : 
 Section of Rail and Fastenings. Scale T 
 
 ing 60 lbs. per yard. The rails are laid on timber sleepers, 8 inches 
 by 4 inches deep, placed 9 feet apart, in a macadam road. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SPECIAL TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Glasgow Harbour Tramway. 
 
 Tramways suitable for goods-yard traffic, consisting of two cast- 
 iron tram-plates and iron paving between them, have been down 
 in the Devonshire Street Station of the Great Eastern Railway, 
 London, for upwards of 30 years. 
 
 A cast-iron tramway^ bedded in concrete, chiefly designed for 
 
 Fig. 119. Glasgow Harbour Tramway:—System of Messrs. Ransome, 
 
 Deas, & Rapier. Scale - E . 
 
 Street or dock-lorrie traffic, was patented in December, 1869, by 
 Messrs. Ransome, Deas, & Rapier. A tramway on this system, 
 4 1 miles long, was laid, in 1870, on the Broomielaw Quay, at Glas¬ 
 gow. It is adapted for both flanged and unflanged vehicles. The 
 way consists of hollow rectangular blocks of cast iron. Figs. 119 
 and 120, 5 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 8^ inches deep; i inch 
 thick at the top, ^ inch at the sides. A groove, inches wide, 
 and li inches deep, is formed in the middle of the upper surface of 
 
GLASGOW HARBOUR TRAMWAY. 
 
 281 
 
 the block, for wheel-flanges. The upper surface, cast on a chill, 
 is formed with grooves on each side, to afford a foothold for 
 horses. Recesses at the ends are cast to receive fish-plates, which 
 are bolted in the ordinary manner. The blocks are entirely filled 
 with concrete, composed of 7 parts of gravel and sand, and i part 
 of Portland cement, well punned, and allowed 
 to lie three or four days to set. The bottom 
 was prepared like that of an ordinary first- 
 class street or dock-road, consisting of dry 
 rubble, and two lines of concrete were pre¬ 
 pared for the tram-blocks, i foot 10 inches 
 wide, and 6 inches deep. The tramway 
 blocks were then turned over, and were fixed 
 with cement to the bases of concrete. 
 
 At first, it seemed desirable to have 
 bottom flanges at the outsides of the 
 blocks, but it was found inconvenient for laying the paving 
 sets. Bottom flanges were then applied to the insides; they 
 answered well, but for the sake of economy of material, flanges 
 were entirely dispensed with, and the tramway blocks con¬ 
 structed as shown in the illustrations have been found to be per¬ 
 fectly steady. The road was made thoroughly rigid; and the 
 blocks, once laid, remained there. At first, cross tie-bars were 
 used, but it was found that they were not necessary, for the blocks 
 could not be got to stir even when it was required to move them. 
 In a few instances, where it was necessary to have the blocks 
 raised for laying water-pipes or gas-pipes, it was found that they 
 had stuck to the concrete beneath, and had to be actually cut away. 
 
 The quantities and costs for this system of tramway are as 
 follows, for a single way:— 
 
 Single Line. 
 
 Cast-iron blocks, 406 lbs. per lineal yard of 2 rails; or 319 tons 
 per mile. 
 
 Concrete, o'jo cubic yard per lineal yard; or 528 cubic yards per 
 mile. 
 
 Fig. 120. System of 
 Messrs. Ransome, 
 Deas, & Rapier. 
 Section of rail, 203 
 lbs. per yard. 
 
 Scale -fio-. 
 
282 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Per lineal yard. 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Cost of cast-iron blocks, in¬ 
 cluding fish-plates,and bolts 
 and nuts . . . ,150 
 
 Cost of concrete, @ 15s 6d, 
 per cubic yard . . .048 
 
 Laying . . . . .026 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2,200 0 O 
 
 410 13 O 
 
 220 O O 
 
 12 2 . . ^" 2,830 13 O 
 
 To this is to be added the cost for excavation and for pavement. 
 
 The experience of this tramway at Glasgow has been very satis¬ 
 factory. From 100 to 140 railway waggons pass over the busiest 
 part of the tramway daily. Contractors’ locomotives also con¬ 
 stantly pass, frequently dragging heavy loads upon bogies to the 
 
 6o-ton crane. The highest speed of the railway vehicles is about 
 5 miles per hour, and of the street lorries 6 miles per hour. It is 
 notable that, when horses have to turn off the tramway, they 
 return to it of their own accord. From the report of Mr. Deas, 
 the engineer of the Clyde Navigation, it appears that none of 
 the cast-iron blocks have been broken, and that the chilled sur¬ 
 faces are now in as good condition as when the way was first laid. 
 It was originally expected that, in order to get the blocks to lie 
 steady, they would require to be cast in lo-feet lengths; but it 
 was found not to be necessary, for the 5-feet blocks never showed 
 any signs of movement. 
 
 A variety of the same kind of tramways is shown on Fig. 121, 
 for flanged vehicles only. The cast-iron block is only 4 inches 
 wide at the surface, and it is formed with side flanges at the 
 
GLASGOIV HARBOUR TRAAIIVAV. 
 
 283 
 
 bottom, making up the base to a width of 
 9 inches. The edges are notched at intervals 
 of 3 inches or 4 inches for the use of vehicles 
 crossing the road. The blocks are filled 
 with concrete, and laid with cement on two 
 lines of concrete, 6 inches deep and 18 inches 
 wide. The quantities and costs for a single 
 way are as follows :— 
 
 Single Line. 
 
 Cast-iron blocks, 308 lbs. per lineal yard of 
 two rails ; or 242 tons per mile. 
 
 Concrete, I cubic yard per lineal yard; or 
 352 cubic yards per mile. 
 
 Per lineal yard. Per mile, 
 s. d. £ 
 
 Cost of cast-iron blocks, in¬ 
 cluding fish-plates, bolts, 
 and nuts . . . . 0 19 o 1,672 
 
 Cost of concrete, @ i6s. 3d. 
 
 per cubic yard . -0 3 3 286 
 
 Laying . . . .023 198 
 
 /A 4 6 /2,i56 
 
 In 1871, a length of about 700 yards of 
 tramway on this system was laid in the gas- 
 yard of the Glasgow Corporation. The 
 manager reported that it worked very well, 
 had not required any repair, and had not 
 occasioned any trouble. 
 
 The tramways, as above constructed with 
 cast-iron blocks, served the original purpose 
 very well. But when heavy locomotives were 
 permitted to run on them they gradually went 
 to pieces and were superseded by a new 
 tramway of steel, suited for the heavy traffic 
 that was imposed on it. A steel rail tramway 
 
284 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 was designed for the purpose in 1887 by Mr. Deas’ son, as shown in 
 Figs. 122 and 123. The way consists of a heavy double-headed steel 
 rail with a steel guard-rail, carried in chairs on creosoted cross 
 sleepers, 2 feet 9 inches apart between centres. The tops of the 
 chairs are laid flush with the pavement, and thereby prevent much 
 of the wear that would otherwise take place alongside the rail. 
 
 Estimates of costs per mile of single line are here subjoined. 
 
 Figs. 123. Clyde Navijjation, Glasgow Harbour Tramways : 
 
 Chair. Scale -J. 
 
 The first estimate applies to a line constructed on the new road¬ 
 way, including cost of excavation, concrete bottoming, and paving ; 
 whilst the second estimate is for a line laid down on an existing 
 roadway. The sleepers are 10 inches wide, 5 inches deep, 8 feet 
 II inches long, creosoted. The chairs are of cast iron, spiked to 
 sleepers. The rails are of steel, single headed, weighing 80 lbs. 
 per lineal yard, in lengths of 32 feet. They are fished with steel 
 
GLASGOIV HARBOUR TRAMWAY. 
 
 285 
 
 plates, 18 inches long. The guard rails are formed with bulbs, 
 and are of steel, weighing 39‘9o lbs. per lineal yard. The ground 
 is excavated to a depth of 17^ inches for a width of 8 feet ii 
 inches, for a single line. Concrete is made with Portland cement 
 6 inches thick. The paving or causeway is of granite 6 inches 
 deep. 
 
 CLYDE NAVIGATION. 
 
 Glasgow Harbour Tramways. 
 
 Estimated Cost per Mile for Single Line. 
 
 I.— For Tramway on a New Roadway. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1. Rectangular sleepers of Baltic, Riga, 
 or Windau red-wood, 8 feet ii inches x 
 10 inches x 5 inches, creosoted with 
 2\ gallons per sleeper, placed about 
 
 2 feet 9 inches centres, No. 1,980 . @ o 3 b 
 
 2. Cast-iron chairs, 58 lbs.each, No. 3,960, 
 
 102 tons 10 cwt, 2 qrs. 24 lbs. . .,,400 
 
 3. Wrought-iron spikes 5I inches long x 
 I inch diameter, fixing chairs to sleepers, 
 two to each chair, weighing 19^ oz. each. 
 
 No. 7,920, 4 tons 5 cwts. o qrs. 8 lbs. . 7 ii 8 
 
 4. Single-headed steel rails, 80 lbs. per 
 lineal yard, in lengths of 32 feet, 125 tons 
 
 14 cwts. I qr. 4 lbs. ., 5 19 6 
 
 5. Steel fish-plates for 80 lb. rails, 18 
 ins. long, 22 lbs. per pair, 330 pairs, 3 
 
 tons 4 cwts. 3 qrs. 8 lbs. . . .,,600 
 
 6. Wrought-iron bolts and nuts for fish¬ 
 plates, 4 ins. long x g in. diameter, four 
 to each pair of fish-plates, 5*20 lbs. per 
 
 set of four, 15 cwts. i qr. 8 lbs. . . ,, g o o 
 
 7. Steel bulb rails 39’90 lbs. lineal yard, in 
 
 lengths of 32 feet, 62 tons 14 cwts. . ,, 10 10 o 
 
 8. Steel fish-plates for bulb-rails, 18 ins. 
 long, 8f lbs. per pair, i ton 5 cwt. 3 qrs. 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 346 10 o 
 410 2 10 
 
 32 5 2 
 
 751 2 10 
 
 19 811 
 
 61711 
 658 7 o 
 
 12 
 
 o o 
 
 15 9 5 
 
286 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAM WAYS. 
 
 CLYDE NAVIGATION {continued). 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 g. Wrought-iron bolts and nuts for bulb- 
 rail fish-plates, 2^ ins. long x f in. dia- ^ 
 meter, 4 to each pair, 2‘20 lbs. per set 
 of four, 6 cwts. 2 qrs. . . . .@1200 
 
 10. Oak keys, 5 ins. x 2 ins. x 2^ ins., 
 
 No. 7,920, per 1,000 . . . .,,250 
 
 11. Cartage of rails, 188 tons 8 cwt. i qr. 
 
 4 lbs. . . . . . . .,,016 
 
 12. Labour laying sleepers, chairs, and 
 
 rails, lineal yards 1,760 . . . .,,010 
 
 {£i 6 s. lod. per lineal yard for materials 
 and laying.) 
 
 Excavation, including carting away, 5,280 
 ft. X 8 ft. II ins. X I 7 jins., cubic yards 
 
 2,543. ,,010 
 
 Portland cement concrete, 9 to i, 6 ins. 
 thick, 5,280 feet x 8 ft. ii ins. x bins. 
 
 cubic yards, 872.,, o 10 o 
 
 Granite causeway 6 ins. deep, including 
 bed of sand and grouting joints of stones 
 with bitumen, 5,280 x 8 ft. ii ins. less 
 4 rails (5f 4 - 5b = io|) ; square yards, 
 
 4>705’05. ,,090 
 
 Concrete bottoming betw^een sleepers. 
 
 5,280 ins. less sleepers 1,980 @ 10 ins. wide 
 1,650 
 
 £ s . d. 
 
 3 18 o 
 17 16 5 
 14 2 7 
 
 88 o 0 
 
 127 3 o 
 
 436 o 0 
 
 2,117 9 6 
 
 3,630 ins. X 8 ft. II ins. x 4^ ins. ; cubic 
 
 yards, 449-54.,, o 10 o 224 15 4 
 
 Cost per lineal yard . 
 
 I 13 0 2,905 7 10 
 
 Total cost per lineal yard . 
 
 2 19 10 ^5,269 8 II 
 
 IL —For Tramway on a 7 i Existing Roadway. 
 
 Tramway materials and laying . 
 Cost per lineal yard . 
 
 I 610 
 
 2,364 I I 
 
BEL FAST HA RBO UR TRA M U ^A Y. 
 
 287 
 
 CLYDE NAVIGATION {cojitimied). 
 
 £ s. cl. 
 
 Lifting' and relaying granite causeway, 6 
 ins. deep, and grouting with bitumen, 
 
 5,280 ft. X 8 ft. II ins. less 4 rails, io| ins. 
 o io| 
 
 8 
 
 square yards 4,705'5 . . . . @ o 2 10 
 
 Preparing bottoming, 5,280 ft. x 8 ft. ii 
 ins.; square yards 5,231^ . . .,,006 
 
 Concrete bottoming between sleepers, 
 
 5,280, less sleepers 1,980 @ 10 ins. wide. 
 
 1,650 
 
 3,630 ft. X 8 ft. II ins. X 4^ ins. ; cubic 
 
 yards, 449’54. 0100 
 
 £ «• < 1 . 
 
 666 12 3 
 
 130 15 6 
 
 224 15 4 
 
 Cost per lineal yard . 
 Total cost per lineal yard 
 
 on 7 1,022 3 I 
 I 18 5 ;^3G86 4 2 
 
 Belfast Harbour Tramway. 
 
 A single line of tramway, specially designed for the traffic, was 
 laid, in 1869, on the quays at Belfast Harbour, under the superin¬ 
 tendence of Mr. Lizars, the engineer to the Harbour Commis¬ 
 sioners. It was opened in January, 1870. It was a single line, 
 with sidings. It consisted of two longitudinal sleepers of pitch 
 pine, or of Memel timber, 9^ inches wide and 7 inches deep. Fig. 
 124, upon which an ordinary iron bridge rail, 4 inches deep, and 
 weighing 80 lbs. per yard, was laid and fastened with spikes 
 through the flanges. A check-rail of L section, also 4 inches 
 deep, weighing 39 lbs. per yard, was laid and spiked alongside the 
 bearing rail, upon the same sleeper, leaving an interval or groove 
 of a width of if inches. The ground was excavated with trenches 
 for the sleepers, which were bedded upon gravel or on ashes. 
 The pavement consisted of oblong sets, 7 inches deep, on a bed 
 of sand grouted with lime, abutting on the sleepers. 
 
 It is apparent that, on this system, wide vacancies were created 
 
288 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 between the rails and the pavement, 2\ inches at each side; these 
 vacancies were fdled with concrete flush with the pavement. But 
 there was a want of stability in the combination. It was very 
 liable to get out of order; the check rail, no matter how tightly 
 
 Fig. 124. Belfast Harbour Tramway :—Lizar’s System. Scale 
 
 spiked to the sleepers, being easily pressed and moved inwards 
 against the non-resistant concrete; and the groove was thus 
 widened to an extent which made it dangerous for traffic. 
 
 Fig. 125. Belfast Harbour Tramway :—Salmond’s System. Rail, 70 lbs. 
 
 per yard. Scale 
 
 A better system was subsequently designed and employed by 
 Mr. T. R. Salmond, the present engineer to the Commissioners, 
 for extension and for replacements of portions of the line. A 
 single iron rail. Fig. 125, weighing 70 lbs. per yard, was substituted 
 
BELFAST HABO [/R TRAAflVAV. 
 
 289 
 
 for the combined bridge rail and check-rail. It is 6 inches wide, 
 formed with a groove inches wide and if inches deep, and a 
 raised bearing surface at one side of the groove. The average 
 thickness is about f inch. It is fastened by |-inch vertical spikes, 
 ragged, with countersunk heads, to a longitudinal sleeper, 6 inches 
 square, at intervals of 3 feet, except at the joints, where it is 
 fastened by i-inch bolts and nuts. The nuts, at the under side, 
 are screwed up on a fish-plate of iron of the width of the sleeper, 
 12 inches in length and ^ inch thick. The longitudinal sleepers 
 are laid on and spiked to cross sleepers of larch, 9 feet in length, 
 laid at distances of 4 feet between centres. 
 
 P'lG. 126. Belfast Harbour Tramway :—System adopted for sharp curves. 
 
 Scale, 
 
 The pavement consists of sets, 6 inches deep, 3f to 4 inches 
 wide, and from 8 to 12 inches long, laid close to the sleeper and 
 rail at each side. 
 
 In the construction of sharp curves, the combination. Fig. 126, 
 is applied, consisting of a bridge-rail, laid on a longitudinal 
 sleeper, 6 inches square, and a flat plate, f inch thick, 6T inches 
 deep, spiked to one side of the sleeper, forming a if-inch groove. 
 The rail of the section here shown lends itself to the formation of 
 curves more readily than the solid wide rail used for the straight 
 portion of the line. It may be noted, too, that the lateral slab 
 
 U 
 
2go 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 which is placed as a check-rail may be more firmly fixed to the 
 sleeper than the check rail used in the earlier design. 
 
 The new rails were ordered in 1873, with a flat surface, and 
 were partially used for constructing 100 yards of way, in 1875, of 
 which 50 yards was laid in replacement of a portion of the old 
 line. The remainder was used for traversing steam cranes along 
 the quays. In 1875 new rails were ordered, having a raised sur¬ 
 face; they were laid on the new Queen’s Quay. The newlines 
 gave great satisfaction ; it was reported that they laid solidly, and 
 the fastenings kept tight under the traffic of the railway wagons 
 and locomotives by which they were traversed. The permanency 
 of the fastenings, it is clear, was due to the disposition by which 
 they were placed entirely out of the range of the wheels'. 
 
 The prices paid for the materials of the new way were as 
 follows : — 
 
 Rails, 70 lbs. per yard, delivered . 
 
 £ 
 
 7 
 
 s, 
 
 10 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 per ton. 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers, 6 inches square, 
 
 
 
 
 
 cut from log, including the labour of 
 
 
 
 
 
 laying....... 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 per cubic foot. 
 
 Larch cross-sleepers, 9 ft. long 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 each. 
 
 Square setting ..... 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 per square 3^ard 
 
 Switches and crossings .... 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 per set. 
 
 Guinness’s Brewery Tramways, Dublin. 
 
 The transport of goods and materials in Guinness’s Brewery is 
 
 Fig. 127. Guinness’s Brewery Fig. 128. Guinness’s Brewery Tramways: 
 Tramways: Section of Section of Rail. Scale ’ 
 
 Rail. Scale 
 
 effected by means of a double system of tramways : a tramway of 
 
GUINNESS'S BREIVERY TRAMIUAYS. 
 
 291 
 
 5 feet 3 inch gauge—the standard Irish gauge—and a tramway of 
 22 inch gauge, for the work of transport ^within the brewery, and 
 for communication between the higher 
 and lower premises. For the narrow- 
 gauge lines the first rails were of iron, 
 weighing 16 lbs. per yard. The weight 
 has been increased to 46 lbs. per yard 
 in the present steel rails, shown in 
 Fig. 127. The tram rail, Fig. 128, forms 
 by far the greater part of the system ; 
 it is of iron, weighing 56 lbs. per yard, 
 and, as in Fig. 129, is fastened to rebated 
 longitudinal timbers, which are laid on 
 cross-sleepers. In some cases they are 
 laid directly upon concrete, and wrought- 
 iron cross-ties are used. The most 
 recently-constructed portion was laid 
 with steel girder rails, weighing 76 lbs. 
 per yard, as in Fig. 130, laid on cross¬ 
 sleepers. The foot of the rail is made 
 narrow, in order to allow of its being 
 easily bent to small radii. As there is 
 horse traffic over the broad-gauge rails, 
 these are grooved as in Fig. 131, and 
 the wagons run on the wheel flanges, 
 in the grooves, thus keeping the tread 
 of the wheel well clear of the pavement, 
 and avoiding the use of a guard rail. 
 
 The total length of the line and sidings 
 is about 5^ miles. 
 
 For switches, the tongued point, as 
 used on tramways, has been adopted 
 for tram - lines, and the crossings, 
 when very close to one another, are 
 made of cast-steel rails, bolted upon 
 a cast-iron plate, with a wood liner between. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The cost of laying the narrow-gauge line, of 22-inch gauge, 
 amounted to ^£‘4,070 per mile, or ^2 6s. 3d. per lineal yard. 
 For this sum is included the tram rails fastened to rebated longi¬ 
 tudinal sleepers, laid on cross-sleepers, bedded in concrete for the 
 depth of the cross-sleepers, and ballasted up with gravel, paved 
 with Welsh sets between the rails and for an outer width of 
 18 inches at each side ; including all points, crossings, and curves, 
 of which there are many. The rails were specified to be capable 
 
 Fig. 130. Guinness’s Brewery Tram¬ 
 ways : Section of Rail, 22-inch 
 gauge. Scale 
 
 Fig. 131. Guinness’s Brewery Tram¬ 
 ways ; Section of Rail, 5I feet 
 gauge. Scale 
 
 of being bent to a curve of 10 feet radius without fracture, the 
 width of the rail being in the plane of curvature. 
 
 1 RAMWAY IN HoRWICH LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, LANCASHIRE AND 
 
 Yorkshire Railway. 
 
 Several miles of tramway have been designed and laid at Horwich 
 locomotive works by Mr. John A. F. Aspinall, to a gauge of 
 
EDGE'S WAY. 
 
 293 
 
 18 inches, with foot-rails weigh¬ 
 ing 26 lbs. per yard, according 
 to the section, Figs. 132, 133, 
 and 134. The base of the rail 
 is 21 inches wide, and the rail 
 stands 2^ inches high. The 
 head is if inches wide, the web 
 is iV inch thick, the rail is laid 
 on longitudinal timber sleepers, 
 7 inches wide, 3f inches deep. 
 The rails are spiked to the 
 sleepers as shown in Fig. 134, 
 and they are fished at the 
 joints by a slipper-plate formed 
 out of a flat plate f inch 
 thick. 
 
 Edge’s Way. 
 
 Mr. C. A. Edge patented, 
 November 30, 1877, a system 
 of tramway, Figs. 135 and 136, 
 without grooves in the rails. 
 The rails, hollow in section, 
 are perforated at the surface 
 with holes, either round or 
 oval, at equal intervals, into 
 which corresponding studs 
 fastened to the wheels of the 
 car enter in succession as the 
 car advances. By this means the 
 wheels are kept on the track, 
 without the aid of flanges and 
 grooves. The studs are applied 
 only to the wheels at one side 
 of the car. Any impediments 
 
 Figs. 132, 133, 134. Tramway, Hor- 
 wich Locomotive Works : Rail 
 and Fastenings. Scale f. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 294 
 
 lodged in the holes are crushed or are squeezed out by the action 
 of the studs. An experimental piece of tramway of this kind, in 
 the form of the figure 8, a quarter of a mile in length, was laid 
 
 down at Birmingham, and was traversed by a car built for the 
 purpose. The car, it is stated, travels at a speed of 12 miles per 
 
 Fig. 136. Edge’s Way. Side view of Wheel. Scaled- 
 
 hour, without leaving the rails, whilst a passenger would be unable 
 to detect any difference between the running of this car and that of 
 an ordinary car with flanged wheels on grooved rails. 
 
 The Edge system was laid, with cast-steel rails, 70 lbs. per 
 
EDGE'S M^AV. 
 
 295 
 
 yard, for a length of three miles in the City of Brunswick, in 
 1879—one-third of the length consisting of curves of from 
 40 to no feet radius. The first route, miles in length, was 
 opened in October, 1879, remaining length of miles in 
 
 1880. It is reported that, in the month of December, 1879, when 
 snow and frost prevailed, the system, it was found, could safely be 
 used during weather which would have stopped running on other 
 systems of tramway. The cars, it is said, run with as little resis¬ 
 tance as those on ordinary ways. In March, 1881, it was reported 
 that during the previous eighteen months, upwards of 50,000 
 journeys, amounting to about 100,000 miles run, were performed 
 without any extraordinary wear of either the wheels or the rails. 
 It is stated by the City Surveyor, that “ the rails with holes have 
 offered no interference whatever, either to heavy or to light 
 vehicles, nor to foot traffic; ” and it was remarked by a local 
 newspaper that ‘‘ the cars move along with the same quiet ease 
 and smoothness as in the old system, and the friction is apparently 
 less.” 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY.—ON FOREIGN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 When M. Loubat returned to Paris from America, he introduced 
 his system, slightly modified, Figs. 137 and 138, and, in 1853, laid 
 a line of tramway in Paris, from the Place de la Concorde to Passy, 
 in the Avenue de la Reine. This was the first horse tramway laid 
 
 Fig. 137. Loubat's Tramway: — Fig. 138. Section of LoubaTs Rail, 
 
 Section of Rail and Sleeper. 38 lbs. per yard. Scale F 
 
 Scale - 1 . 
 
 in France. It was laid to a gauge of i'54 metres, or 5 feet b inch. 
 The rail was of a semi-hexagonal section at the lower side, to rest 
 upon a wood sleeper, which was chamfered to receive it, and upon 
 which it was spiked diagonally through the sides. A fish-plate of 
 iron, 6 inches long and f inch thick, was laid under each joint. 
 The rail weighed 19 kilogrammes per metre, or 38 lbs. per yard. 
 It was 3 inches wide at the surface; the groove was il inches 
 
PARIS TRAAIWAYS. 
 
 297 
 
 wide and ^ inch deep; whilst the tread was only i^- inches 
 wide. The longitudinal sleepers were 4 inches wide by 6 inches 
 deep, and were laid upon transverse sleepers 6 inches wide and 
 4 inches deep, placed at 2 metres, or 6 feet 7 inches apart, be¬ 
 tween centres. The transverse sleepers were notched to receive 
 the longitudinals, which were fixed into them by wood keys. The 
 spikes proved to be insufficient as fasteners, for they were either 
 broken or pulled out, probably for want of a good bearing on the 
 sleeper, on which, it is manifest, the rail must have been displaced 
 by the eccentric pressure of the load. 
 
 This rail was laid by the Compagnie Generale des Omnibus, 
 
 Fig. 139. Section of Rail, bciween Fig. 140, Seciiou of Rail, to replace 
 Sevres and Versailles, 32 lbs. Sections, Figs. 138 and 139:—46 
 per } ard. Scale k lbs., per yard. Scale 
 
 on the lines from the Place de la Concorde to Sevres and to 
 Boulogne. 
 
 The next section employed. Fig. 139, was that of the tram rails 
 laid by a private company between Sevres and Versailles. The 
 rail weighed 16 kilogrammes per metre, or 32 lbs. per yard; it was 
 hollowed at the lower surface, for the sake of economy of material. 
 
 These rails, Figs. 137, 138, and 139, according to M. Goschler,"' 
 lasted ten years. At the end of this period the rolling surface had 
 worn so much that the flanges of the car-wheels lodged on the bottom 
 of the grooves. A rail. Fig. 140, of a heavier section, weighing 
 
 * “ Les Chemins de Fers Necessaires,” in the Compfes Rciidus de 
 la Socdte des Inghiieurs Civils, 1873. 
 
zgS CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 46 lbs. per yard, calculated to last 20 years, was employed to 
 replace the lighter rails. A similar rail. Fig. 141, was laid by 
 the Omnibus Company on the route between the Arc de I’Etoile 
 and the Trone, on the Tramways Nord. It was 4 inches wide, and 
 2*16 inches deep, and had a groove ifinches wide. It was fixed on 
 a longitudinal wood sleeper, like its predecessor, by vertical bolts, 
 through the bottom of the groove, with countersunk heads and 
 nuts. The rails were rolled in lengths of 6 metres, or nearly 
 
 I IG. 141. Section of Rail and Fastening, Tramways Nord, 46 lbs. per yard. 
 
 Scale f. 
 
 2 0 feet, and they were fished at the joints with iron plates, formed 
 to fit the lower surfaces of the rails. 
 
 It was early assumed that transverse sleepers were not necessary, 
 and they were dispensed with as the lines came under repair. 
 Cross tie-bars of wrought iron were employed instead of the 
 sleepers, but even these were, after a time, abandoned. When the 
 lines were laid in macadam, without any paving, the cost of main¬ 
 tenance was very great, due to the practice of the running of 
 ordinary vehicles on the track of the tramway. A continual supply 
 of nev/ macadam was required for a width of 10 inches on each 
 side of the rails, and, of course, the perpetual renewal of loose 
 stone led to a greater increased resistance on, and wear of the 
 
PARIS TRAMWAYS. 
 
 299, 
 
 tramway, occasioned by the detritus of the covering at the sides. 
 To avoid such serious objections, the Omnibus Company replaced 
 the macadam by paved margins next the rails in the outer portions 
 of the system, and by a general paving on the lines within the 
 city. 
 
 Though it appears that the first line of tramway laid, that of 
 M. LOubat, was laid to a gauge of 1-54 metres, or 5 feet Y inch, 
 the tramways subsequently constructed were laid to the railway 
 gauge, I '44 metres, or 4 feet 8^ inches ; or to i *43 metres, or 
 4 feet 8^ inches. Uniformity of gauge was adopted with a view to 
 establishing communications between the railway goods-stations. 
 The expectation was futile. 
 
 The schedule of prices, adopted in 1867, for laying the tram¬ 
 ways in macadam roads, according to M. Goschler, was as 
 follows:— 
 
 Tramways in Paris.—Schedule of Prices, 1867. 
 
 Rails, drilled with 10 countersunk holes, 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 per 100 kilogrammes . . . . @ 
 
 ' 26 
 
 10 
 
 8 0 per ton. 
 
 Bolts or fishes, per 100 pieces . . ,, 
 
 Oak sleepers, longitudinal, 6 inches by 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 17 5 
 
 8 inches, per stere . . . . ,, 
 
 Broken mill-stone (macadam) per cubic 
 
 134 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 cubic ft. 
 
 metre . . . . . . . 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 7 3 cubic yd. 
 
 Sand, per cubic metre . . . . ,, 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 I 10 
 
 Labour, per hour . . . . . ,, 
 
 o ’35 
 
 
 3'32 per hour. 
 
 One-horse cart, per hour . . . ,, 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 0 ,, 
 
 On the basis of these prices, the cost per yard of the construc¬ 
 tion of a single line of tramway with the 46-lb. rails. Fig. 141, was 
 as follows:— 
 
 Cost per yard, Single Line.—Rails 46 lbs. per Yard. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Rails.8 8 
 
 Longitudinal sleepers .... 2 io'8 
 
 Shaping the sleepers. . . . . 087 
 
 Carried forward 12 3.5 
 
300 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Cost per Yard { contmiced '). 
 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 s. 
 
 12 
 
 d. 
 
 3‘5 
 
 Bolts .... 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 77 
 
 Fishes 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 5*1 
 
 Washers . 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 
 
 07 
 
 Excavation 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 
 
 6*6 
 
 Fitting together 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 Laying and packing . 
 
 
 0 
 
 5 *^ 
 
 Land .... 
 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 Broken stone 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0 
 
 87 
 
 Watering and rolling. 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 2'2 
 
 Watching and general expenses 
 
 0 
 
 8-3 
 
 Total 
 
 or, ^ 1,437 
 
 6s. 8d. per mile. 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 The rail adopted for the Tramways Nord, in the Avenue de la 
 Grande Armee, is shown in Fig. 142. 
 
 The section of rail which was next laid by the Tramways Nord, 
 in 1873, 1 ^^^ macadam road between the Porte Maillet and the 
 
 Fig. 142. Section of Rail in the Fig. 143. Section of Rail, Avenue de 
 Avenue de la Grande Armee. Neuilly, 60 lbs. per yard. Scale 
 
 Scale 
 
 Pont de Neuilly, is shown in Fig. 143, adopted from English 
 practice. The weight of the rail is 60 lbs. per yard ; it is bolted 
 down through the grooves to longitudinal sleepers of oak, 4 inches 
 wide and 6 inches deep, laid on transverse sleepers, 6 inches wide 
 and 3^ inches deep, placed at distances of 5 feet apart between 
 
PARIS TRAMWAYS. 
 
 301 
 
 centres. The cost of this way per mile of single line is estimated 
 at ;£‘i,4i 8, including the cost of rails, cast-iron joint chairs, and 
 brackets, bolts, sleepers, laying the way, watching, and sundry 
 expenses. Though the section of rail was copied from English 
 practice, it appears that the valuable function of the flanges, in 
 superseding with side fastenings the vertical holding bolts, was not 
 apprehended. 
 
 The whole cost of construction of the Tramways Nord of Paris 
 is given in an Addenda-Dunod, 1877, from which the following 
 
 summary is deduced :— 
 
 
 
 Tramways Nord.—Cost per Lineal Yard 
 
 OF 
 
 Double 
 
 ON A Paved Road. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Lifting pavement and excavation . 
 
 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 Paving. 
 
 I 
 
 7 7 
 
 Way ....... 
 
 I 
 
 15 7 
 
 
 jQi 
 
 5 4 
 
 Ob ii5.750 per mile. 
 
 
 
 From the balance-sheet of the company it appears that the 
 total capital expenditure on these tramways amounted to 1,900 
 per mile. 
 
 Mr. Oppermann gives an analysis of the cost of working the line 
 between St. Germain-des-Pres and Montrouge, a part of the 
 Tramways Sud, in Paris. The line is 3*12 miles in length. One 
 car makes 20 trips in 16 hours per day, and runs (3’i2 x 20 =) 
 62*40 miles per day. Each car contains 16 passengers inside, 
 18 on the roof, and 10 on the platforms; in all, 44. Each car 
 is drawn by two horses, relieved four times, making 10 horses 
 for each car. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 One horse costs per day for fodder 4‘50 
 
 Shoeing, stabling, attendance, renewal, (See. i*oo 
 
 Total for one horse . . . 5*50 
 
 Horse labour per car per day (5*50 x 10) . 55'oo 
 
 ,, ,, per mile run *88 franc, or 8*37 
 
 pence. 
 
302 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The system of tramway adopted and put in execution by 
 M. Francq, for the Versailles Tramways, in 1875, is illustrated by 
 Figs. 144, 145, and 146, with rails on a timber substructure of 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 Fig. 145. Versailles Tramways :—Rail, &€., by M. Francq. Scale T 
 
 Fig. 146. Section of Versailles Rail, 30^ lbs. per yard. Scale ^ 
 
 longitudinal sleepers laid upon transverse sleepers. The rail weighs 
 30T lbs. per yard, it is of a section comparatively shallow, if inches 
 deep, and about 3 inches wide at the surface. It is rolled with two 
 
PA2<JS 7'RAMIVA VS. 
 
 303 
 
 fillets, one at each side, projecting inch, and making a total 
 width of 3A- inches. The rolling surface was iTe inches wide, 
 and the groove is inches wide; the lower surface, under the 
 tread, is hollowed, and receives in the hollow a corresponding 
 section of the longitudinal sleeper, which is rebated to fit the rail. 
 The longitudinal sleepers are of fir, creosoted; they are 3 inches 
 wide and 7 inches deep, under the soles of the rails. They are 
 slightly inclined inwards, at an angle of i in 20, and laid upon 
 transverse sleepers of oak, 6 inches wide and 3I inches deep, 
 placed at distances of 5 feet apart between centres. 
 
 The fastenings are peculiar. The lateral fillets of the rails are 
 notched at intervals of i metre, or 40 inches, between centres, to 
 receive the two ends of an iron strap, which is doubled under the 
 sleeper, the ends being correspondingly notched to enter the 
 notches in the fillets, and take a bearing upon the fillets. The 
 ends of the strap are fixed in position by a bolt and nut through 
 the sleeper, and the strap is tightened by a hardwood wedge, 
 driven in under the sleeper. 
 
 The longitudinal sleepers are secured to the transverse sleepers 
 by means of a piece of iron plate, bolted to one side of each 
 cross-sleeper, and cut out and flanged to receive the longitudinal 
 sleeper, which is spiked to it. 
 
 The objections to this system are, that the fastening of the 
 longitudinal to the transverse sleeper is in sheer, and is not 
 durable; that the rail is too shallow, and is weak; that the means 
 of lateral resistance of the rail to displacement upon the sleeper 
 is insufficient; that the lateral fillets represent a waste of metal, 
 and prevent the close fitting of the pavement to the rail; that 
 there are other projections which are inconvenient in the same 
 way; and that the situation of the wedge for tightening the fasten¬ 
 ing of the rail—below the sleeper—is inconvenient for purposes 
 of inspection and repair. This system, like many others which 
 have failed in practice, would answer very well if it were a mere 
 fixture, but not for resisting the stress of the rolling movement of 
 heavy bodies. 
 
304 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Lille. 
 
 The tramways of Lille are constructed like level crossings for 
 railways, with two rails and two counter-rails, enclosing at each 
 rail a clear space sufficient for the clearance of the wheel flanges. 
 The rail and the counter-rail (Figs. 147 and 148) are bolted to a 
 cast-iron chair. The chairs are bedded on and screwed down to 
 
 Fig. 147. Lille Tramways :—Section 
 of Rails and Chair, for Passenger 
 Traffic. Rail, 21-7 lbs. per yard. 
 Scale j. 
 
 Fig. 148. Lille Tramways;— 
 Section showing arrangement 
 of Rails for Railway Wag¬ 
 gons. Scale i. 
 
 cross-sleepers laid on the ground, at 5 feet intervals, without any 
 intermediary longitudinal sleepers. The interspace is 1*20 inches 
 wide for the tramcar, as in Fig. 147, but by fixing the counter-rail 
 so that its flat side is presented to the rail, as in Fig. 148, the 
 interspace is increased to i*8o inches in width, for the traffic of 
 railway waggons. 
 
 lbs. per 3'aid. 
 
 Weight of the rail, 3*60 inches deep . . . 287 
 
 ,, counter-rail, 3*60 inches deep . . 22*5 
 
 Total weight per yard for each rail . 51-2 
 
 The same system—of rail and counter-rail—was adopted in the 
 construction of the Geneva Tramways. 
 
BELGIAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 305 
 
 Brussels.—Antwerp.—Liege.—Ghent. 
 
 Ill Brussels the tramways are worked by four distinct companies, 
 each company having adopted special forms of rail. The oldest 
 line is that between Schaerbeek and the Bois de la Cambre, 
 4^ miles in length, which was completed and opened in 1869. 
 All the other lines have been constructed since 1871. In the end 
 of 1874, the lengths of lines of tramway open in Brussels were 
 as follows :— 
 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Belgian Street Tramway 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 Compagnie Bresilienne 
 
 • • • 
 
 6| 
 
 Compagnie des Voies Ferrees Beiges 
 
 (Bois de la 
 
 
 Cambre) ..... 
 
 • • • 
 
 4 f 
 
 Compagnie Becquet 
 
 . 
 
 3 l 
 
 Open in Brussels . 
 
 . 
 
 23 s 
 
 Gauge of ways, 4 ft. 85 
 
 ins. 
 
 
 In other towns in Belgium there were open as follows :— 
 
 
 IMiles. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ins 
 
 Antwerp . 
 
 6’l6, 
 
 gauge 4 
 
 5A 
 
 Liege 
 
 . 478 
 
 - 4 
 
 8A 
 
 Ghent 
 
 4'66 
 
 - 4 
 
 8.1 
 
 making a total length of about 38k miles of tramway open in 
 Belgium in 1874. 
 
 The way was made in double line in the first three tramways of 
 Brussels ; the fourth was made with a single way. The tramways 
 in the other three towns were single line, except for a small 
 section of tramway in Ghent. 
 
 The sections of rails employed in the tramways of Belgium are 
 shown in Figs. 149 to 159. 
 
 The interspace between two lines ot way is, in Brussels, i metre, 
 or 40 inches ; except in narrow streets, where it is only *8 metre, or 
 32 inches. At Antwerp it is i metre ; and at Ghent 1*05 metres, or 
 42 inches. At Liege it is from to if metres, or from 5 feet to 
 
 X 
 
3o6 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 5 feet 9 inches, in view of the clearance required for the passage 
 of railway waggons. 
 
 The minimum radius of curvature permitted in any tramway is 
 
 Brussels, 23 lbs. per yard. Scale |. 
 
 Fig. 150. Belgian Street Railway : 
 —Section of rail laid in Brussels, 
 24^ lbs. per yard. Scale 
 
 Fig. 151. Voies Ferrees Beiges: — 
 Section of rail, &c., 52 lbs. per 
 yard. Scale 
 
 Fjg. 152. Voies Ferrees Beiges :— 
 .Section of rail for straight lines, 
 52 lbs. yer yard. Scale |. 
 
 Fig. 153. Voies Ferrees Beiges :— 
 Section of inner rail for curves, 
 36^ lbs. per yard. .Scale ‘j. 
 
 Fig. 154. Voies Fences Beiges: — 
 Section of outer rail for curves, 
 31 lbs. per yard. Scale f. 
 
 44 metres, or 144 feet. At Brussels, the radius is usually from 
 100 feet to 130 feet; occasionally, for want of space, it is as low as 
 65 feet, and but rarely as low as 46 feet. At Antwerp the minimum 
 radius is 25 metres, or 82 feet; and at Ghent 15 metres, or 50 feet. 
 At Liege the lower limit is 25 metres, or 82 feet, except for the 
 
BELGIAN TRAMWAYS. 
 
 307 
 
 routes traversed by railway stock, where the radius is not less 
 than 75 metres, or 246 feet. 
 
 The way consists generally of grooved iron rails laid on a 
 
 Fig, 155, Compagnie Bresilienne :— 
 Section of rail, 34 lbs, per yard. 
 Scale f, 
 
 Fig, 156, Anvers :—Section 
 of rail, 30 lbs, per yard. 
 Scale f. 
 
 Fig, 157, Tramways dTxelles Etterbecq, 
 Brussels (Compagnie Becquet) : — Sec¬ 
 tion of rail, 37 lbs, per yard. Scale -|. 
 
 P'lG. 158. Liege Tramways :— 
 Section of rail, and tyre of 
 railway waggon, 56 lbs. per 
 yard. Scale 
 
 Fig. 159. Ghent Tramways :—Section of rail, &c., 24 lbs. per yard. 
 
 Scale f. 
 
 timber substructure of longitudinal sleepers upon transverse 
 sleepers. The only exceptions to the grooved rails are the rails 
 used in the suburbs of Brussels, and at Ghent, which are formed 
 on the principle of the “crescent” rail. Fig. 17, for which the 
 
 X 2 
 
3o8 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 groove is made by a gap between the rail and the pavement. 
 Sections of the rail are shown in Figs. 149 to 159, in which it is 
 seen that for the most part the rails are fastened to the longi¬ 
 tudinal sleepers by vertical screws through the grooves. The 
 only exception is the side fastening, by staples, employed on the 
 “ Voies Ferrees Beiges,” Fig. 151. At Liege the rail is formed 
 with a groove 2 inches in width. The weights of the rails illus¬ 
 trated above are as follows :— 
 
 Belgium, Weight of Rails per yard. 
 
 Brussels:— 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Belgium Street, suburbs 
 
 23 
 
 ,, ,, in town 
 
 24I 
 
 Voies Ferrees Beiges . 
 
 52 
 
 Bresilienne .... 
 
 34 
 
 Compagnie Becquet 
 
 37 
 
 Antwerp. 
 
 30 
 
 Liege ..... 
 
 • 56- 
 
 Ghent ..... 
 
 24 
 
 The length of tramway in Brussels open in the end of 1876 
 amounted to 45,312 metres, or 28 miles. The number of cars in 
 service on all the lines was 84, and of horses 750. The working 
 expenditure may be calculated approximately on the following 
 basis • 
 
 Total cost per day. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 I horse 3 7 to 40 
 
 I car 16 0 ,, 20 o 
 
 JMiles travelled 
 per da)'. 
 
 12 to 19 
 60 ,, 80 
 
 These costs include the whole of the working expenses. 
 
 The first cost of Brussels tramways has been approximately as 
 follows:— 
 
 Cost of Tramways in Brussels. 
 
 Way, single line..^1,270 to 1,600 per mile. 
 
 Horses, including harness and acces¬ 
 sories ....... ;^48 per horse. 
 
 Cars in service, including accessories . car. 
 
 Stables, sheds, offices, workshops, &c., 
 per horse, effective, or on duty 
 
 £^o to ^100 per horse. 
 
CONSTAXTINOPLE TRAMWA YS. 
 
 309 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 The tramways of Constantinople, of which M. Lebout was the 
 engineer, were constructed with the pattern of grooved rail, weigh- 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 Tramways of Constantinople :—Section of rail, &c., 46 lbs. 
 per yard. Scale 
 
 Fig, 16 (. Tramways of Constantinople :—Section of half-width of street 
 
 and way. Scale 
 
 Fig. 162. Tramways of Constantinople. Section of a narrow street, 
 with a single line of way. Scale 
 
 ing 46 lbs. per yard, employed in the Paris tramways, fastened as 
 in Fig. 160. The rails were bolted to longitudinal sleepers, laid 
 on a bed of sand 8 inches deep, spread on the bottom of the 
 excavation. The longitudinal sleepers were connected by round 
 
310 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 iron tie-rods, which were passed through them, and were screwed 
 up by nuts at both ends of the sleepers, as shown in the section 
 of the way. Fig. i6i. Streets of from 13 feet to 23 feet wide were 
 paved all the way across, as shown in Fig. 162. 
 
 The rails and their accessories were, according to M. Goschler, 
 before quoted, supplied from the Terrenoire Works, France, 
 delivered at Constantinople, at the following prices :— 
 
 Constantinople Tramways. 
 
 Rails and fishes . . . . ;^io is. 6d. and 
 
 bolts ......... 
 
 Washers ........ 
 
 Tie-rods, 2 metres or 6'56 feet apart 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 10 17 6 
 
 23 15 6 
 
 3116 6 
 
 33 9 o 
 
 The weight of material per yard of single way was as follows :— 
 
 Per lineal yard 
 of way. 
 lbs. 
 
 Rails, per yard, 46 lbs. ..... 92 
 
 Fishes for rails, 5 lbs. each . . . . i'5 
 
 ,, for longitudinal sleepers, i| lbs. each . 1*38 
 
 Bolts, ^ lb. each.1-84 
 
 Tie-rods, 13^^ lbs. each ..... 3 
 
 Total per yard of single way . . .100 lbs. 
 
 Total if tie-rods are 2 metres or 6*56 feet 
 
 apart.. 103 lbs. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Cost of laying way, including carriage and 
 maintenance for one year . . . .25 per yard. 
 
 Cost of laying pavement . . . . • 3 » 
 
 Mr. Goschler gives an analysis of the accounts of the Constan¬ 
 tinople Tramways for 1872, which contains many instructive 
 details.* 
 
 * ‘^Les Chemins de Fer Necessaires,’’ Compte Rendus de la 
 Societi des Ingenieurs Civils, 1873, page 366. 
 
j/oscon^ TRAJinrAYs. 
 
 311 
 
 Moscow. 
 
 The first section of the tramways of Moscow was opened in 
 August, 1874; and in 1875 ^ total length of 60 miles of tramway 
 
 was opened for tralhc. The way was designed by the engineer 
 of the tramways, Colonel Sytenko, who commenced by rejecting 
 the grooved rail, and adopted the Vignoles 
 type of rail, laid on transverse sleepers. 
 
 Figs. 163 and 164. The rails are of steel, 
 from the works at Creusot, weighing 36 lbs. 
 per yard; they are made to a height of 5 
 inches, to admit of the juxtaposition of 
 paving stones of sufficient depth above 
 the sleepers. The paving stones next the 
 rails at the inner sides are cut to form a 
 groove for the wheel flanges. Counter¬ 
 rails, it appears, have only been found 
 necessary at the points and crossings. 
 
 The rails are laid to a gauge of 5 feet, 
 upon sleepers placed at intervals of 4 feet 3 inches. It is believed 
 —and it is likely—that, on this system of way, the tractive force 
 required is a half less than that required for the ordinary grooved 
 rail. 
 
 Fig. 164. Moscow'J'ram- 
 ways :—Section of rail 
 and fish-joint, 36 lbs. 
 per yard. Scale i. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 
 The first section of the Leipzig tramways, consisting of the 
 Promenade line round Liepzig and branches to Rendwitz and 
 Connewitz, together about 6 English miles in length, was opened 
 on May 18, 1872. The line to Lindenau was opened in Sep- 
 
312 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 tember of the same year, making in all 8| English miles of way 
 open for traffic in 1872. There are now altogether five lines 
 open, of an aggregate length of ii’3o miles. 
 
 The rails are laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, on what is 
 known as the Vienna system, which i^, in fact, similar to Loiibat’s 
 way, already described, page 296. The rails are of iron, and they 
 weigh 30 lbs. per yard. They are 3 inches wide, and are formed 
 with obliquely-faced flanges, as shown in Figs. 165 and 166. They 
 are laid on longitudinal timber sleepers, which are remarkable for 
 
 Fig. 165. Leipzig Tramways :— Ftg. 166. Leipzig Tramways :—Sec- 
 
 Section of rail, &c. Scale b tion of rail, 30 lbs. per yaid. 
 
 Scale 
 
 their deep and narrow scantlings,—8 inches deep and 2§ inches 
 wide. They are chamfered to receive the rails, which are fastened 
 to them by qL-inch spikes, passed through holes punched in the 
 flanges. The longitudinal sleepers are laid on and notched into 
 transverse sleepers, 7 inches wide, 5 inches deep, and 6T feet in 
 length, placed at intervals of 6 feet between centres, and laid in 
 ballast. The longitudinal sleepers are secured to the cross¬ 
 sleepers by oak wedges. When the line passed through streets 
 already paved, the pavement was renew^ed for the whole width. 
 On macadamised roads only a narrow strip of paving was laid on 
 each side of the rail. 
 
 Cassel. 
 
 The Cassel Tramway was opened on July 9th, 1877, to be 
 worked by steam locomotives, supplied by Messrs. Merry weather 
 
LJSBON TRAM WAYS. 
 
 313 
 
 and Sons. The section of rail is shown in Fig. 167, with the 
 section of the wheel-tyres of the locomotives. 
 
 Lisbon. 
 
 A concession was secured, in 1873, ^7 Messrs. Edwin Clark, 
 Piinchard & Co., for the construction and working of a system 
 of tramways in Portugal, 51 miles in length, from Lisbon to Cintra, 
 for passenger traffic, and from Lisbon to Torres Vedras, for goods 
 and wine traffic chiefly. The tramways were made a single line, 
 laid on common roads ; they were to be worked by tank locomo¬ 
 tives, with trains of passenger cars and of goods cars, at a speed 
 of 15 miles an hour. The ruling gradient was i in 20, and the 
 quickest curves were of a radius of 25 feet. 
 
 The way consisted of three parallel rails, laid on transverse 
 sleepers. The central rail was an iron flat-footed rail, weighing 
 36 lbs. per yard, spiked to the sleepers. The outer rails were 
 wooden trams of oak, 8 or 9 inches wide, and 3 inches deep, laid 
 to a gauge of 4 feet 2 inches between centres. The cross-sleepers 
 were alternately long enough to take all the rails, and short enough 
 to take only the middle rail. The engine and the train were guided 
 by the central rail; the weight of the train rested on the central 
 rail, whilst the greater portion of that of the engine rested on the 
 wooden trams, through the driving wheels. 
 
 The engines had two steam cylinders, 11 inches in diameter, 
 with a stroke of 18 inches; the driving wheels were 3 feet 9 inches 
 
314 
 
 CONSl^RUCriON OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 in diameter, by 14 inches wide at the tyres. The working pressure 
 in the boiler was 140 lbs. per square inch. The engine was carried 
 by two bogies, one before and one behind, arranged as bicycles, 
 running on the central rail. The distance between the centres of 
 the bogies was 13 feet. The weight of the engine, empty, was 
 II tons i4 cwt., and, in working order, 134 tons, of which 8k tons 
 was available as driving weight. According to Mr. Curiq^,* these 
 engines were capable of taking a train of six passenger carriages, 
 with 132 passengers, weighing altogether 227V tons, up an incline 
 of I in 20. The heaviest goods train, taken up the same incline, 
 consisted of six waggons, weighing, with goods, 287} tons. 
 
 It appears that these tramways have been abandoned. 
 
 Wellington City Tramways, New Zealand. 
 
 In the design of these tramways. Fig. 168, constructed in 1878, 
 to a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches, it seems that the best results of 
 
 experience in Europe and America 
 have been ignored. The rail is a flat 
 bar, 3k inches wide, ik inches thick, 
 grooved to a depth of f inch, and 
 leaving only | inch thickness of metal 
 under the groove. The rail is spiked 
 through the groove to a longitudinal 
 sleeper 4 inches wide and 6 inches 
 deep. The longitudinal sleepers rest 
 on transverse sleepers, 6 inches wide 
 by 4 inches deep and 5 feet long, 
 placed at distances of 3 feet 5 inches 
 apart between centres. The cross-sleejiers are fastened to the 
 longitudinal sleepers with a small knee on each side, and one 
 spike each way. 
 
 * “ The Lisbon Street Tramway,” a paper read March 6, 1874, at 
 the Institution of Civil Engineers, by Mr. Matthew Curry, jun.. 
 Stud. Inst.C.E. 
 
 Fig. 168. Wellington City 
 Tramways : — Section of 
 rail, &c. Scale k- 
 
BUENOS AYRES TRAiUJl^AYS. 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 Buenos Ayres Tramways.—Livesey’s TvIetal Way 
 
 Mr. James Livesey, so early as in 1869, advocated the employ¬ 
 ment of an iron substructure for tramways, constructed on the prin¬ 
 ciple of the modern railway, with 
 intermittent bearings, substituting for 
 the continuous wood-sleeper system, 
 with the objectionable vertical spike 
 fastenings then in vogue, a rail of 
 sufficient stiffness supported on and 
 solidly and simply fixed to cast-iron 
 bearings or stools at intervals. In 
 his patents of that year he showed 
 several varieties of iron and steel 
 tramway, of which two kinds, shown 
 in Figs. 169 to 172, were laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8 tV inches, in 
 the city of Buenos Ayres, the first section having been opened in 
 October, 1870. 
 
 The steel grooved rail, Figs. 169 to 171, w^as employed for the city 
 lines. It weighed 40 lbs. per yard, and it was rolled in lengths of 
 24 feet. It was inches wide, and 2f inches deep at the roll- 
 
 Fig. 169. Buenos Ayres Tram¬ 
 ways:—Livesey’s Steel Rail 
 System. Scale 
 
 Fig. 170. Buenos Ayres Tramways :—Livesey’s Steel Rail System. 
 
 Scale -a\j. 
 
 ing side, being formed with deep flanges, so as to derive the 
 practical maximum of strength from a given quantity of material. 
 The tread was if inches wide, the groove is if inches wide and 
 inch deep. The width of the groove is more than is usual in 
 English tramways, but the width is not inconveniently great, as the 
 narroivest wheel tyres of common road vehicles at Buenos Ayres 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 316 
 
 are 3 inches in width. The least thickness under the tread is 
 f inch, and at the sides iT inch. 
 
 The rails were laid on stools at distances of 3 feet apart between 
 the centres, except at the joints of the rails, where an extra stool 
 was placed under the joint. The stools are bolted to baseplates of 
 wrought iron, corrugated, two stools to each baseplate, except at the 
 joints, where there were three stools on the baseplate. The base¬ 
 plates are 4 feet 6 inches in length, 5^ inches wide, and ^ inch 
 thick. The stools were each 3I- inches long, and afforded a 
 bearing of that length for the rail. The rail was rolled so as to 
 form a dovetail with the stool, and by means of wedge-shaped 
 keys it was firmly held down. At the joint, the rails were fixed to 
 
 the chair by two wedge-headed bolts and nuts. The sides of the 
 rail were flush with those of the stools, and together they offered 
 vertical walls for the close abutment of the pavement. Mr, 
 Livesey was of opinion that in dealing with such hard and rigid 
 materials, wrought iron is preferable to cast iron as a material for 
 the base, and that, on the contrary, cast iron is preferable to 
 wrought iron for the standards or stools, since the greater mass of 
 cast iron absorbs the blows of the traffic, and does not impart, like 
 wrought iron, a tremulous movement to vehicles. The rails were 
 tied to gauge by wrought-iron tie-bars, inches deep and | inch 
 thick, at distances of 3 feet apart. They passed through the 
 stools and were notched to fit into them, and keyed into position. 
 
BUEXOS AYRES TRAMJVAYS. 
 
 317 
 
 The quantities and costs at current prices (July, 1877) were as 
 follows :— 
 
 Livesey’s Groove-rail Tramway, Per Mile, Single Line. 
 
 440 lengths of steel grooved rails, 24 feet long, at 40 lbs. per 
 
 yard. 
 
 440 X 4 = 1,760 wrought-iron baseplates, 22J lbs. each . 
 
 440 X 8 = 3,520 cast-iron stools, 9^ lbs. each ) 
 
 440 ,, joints, 15 lbs. ,, j ' 
 
 440 X 4 = 1,760 wrought-iron tie-bars, loj lbs. each 
 1,760 X 2 = 3,520 cotters, 6 ozs. each . . . . . 
 
 3,520 -f- 440 = 3,960 X 2 = 7,920 base bolts, 7 ozs. each 
 3,520 wrought-iron bent keys, ij lbs. each . . . . 
 
 440 X 2 — 880 wrought-iron joint bolts, i lb. each 
 
 Tons. 
 
 63 
 
 1775 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 o'6o 
 
 1 '60 
 
 2 
 
 040 
 
 Total weight per mile, single line . . .111-35 
 
 Taken at per ton, in the gross, the cost for the material 
 amounts to ^1^002 per mile. 
 
 The tramways which have been made with timber substructures 
 in Buenos Ayres, have been taken up and replaced by iron 
 structures. 
 
 The second kind of tramway. Fig. 172, used in the suburban 
 
 districts of Buenos Ayres, has a flanged, or Vignoles’ rail, such as 
 
 is used on railways, except that it is 
 
 rolled with the flange narrower at one side 
 
 than at the other, to admit of the paving 
 
 sets at the outer side being laid close to 
 
 the head of the rail. The extra width of 
 
 flange at the inner side determines the 
 
 width of the groove in the pavement for ,, _ 
 
 ^ ^ Pig. 172. Buenos Ayres 
 
 wheel flanges, and it acts as abutment for Tramways Livesey’s 
 the contiguous paving sets. The rail is ^Scafe^^^^”^* 
 
 placed on a cast-iron stool, to which it is 
 
 fixed by a hook bolt and nut; the stool is bolted to a flat wrought- 
 iron baseplate, which rests on the foundation. The stools are 
 tied to gauge by means of cross-bars and cotters. 
 
3 i 8 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 There have been nearly loo miles of tramway laid on Mr. 
 Livesey’s system in the city of Buenos Ayres. This may be called 
 the City of Tramways, where a tramway runs down nearly every 
 street. 
 
 In this connection, it may be noted that Mr. Livesey, in his 
 patent of February, 1875, describes a method of maintaining the 
 stone sets of the pavement next the rails at the same level as the 
 rails. The rail is laid on a longitudinal sleeper, which rests on 
 “a flat plate sufiiciently wide to project under the first row of 
 stones on each side of the rail.” 
 
 Cockburn-Muir’s Iron Way. 
 
 Mr. W. J. Cockburn-Muir patented, in November, 1870, a 
 system of iron way, for railways, light railways, and tramways, of 
 simple design, which he calls the block sleeper ” system, in 
 which the rail is supported at regular intervals on cast-iron stools 
 or blocks. It is shown in Figs. 173, 174, 175, as employed for tram¬ 
 ways. The rails are of wrought iron, rolled in lengths of 21 feet; 
 they are formed with the ordinary groove on the upper side, and 
 with a vertical web on the underside, to impart to the rails the 
 needful vertical strength between the bearings ; they weigh 30 lbs. 
 per yard, and are 3 inches in width. The sleepers are cast-iron 
 blocks, rectangular, hollow, open at the base, and ribbed interiorly. 
 They are about ii^ inches long, 7^ inches wide, and 6 inches 
 deep, outside dimensions; and, for ordinary traffic, they are laid at 
 3 feet 6 inches apart between centres. The span between the sleepers 
 is only 2 feet 6^ inches. They are laid upon the floor of the 
 excavation, or upon a prepared bed of concrete. In laying they 
 are turned upside down, filled with gravel or coarse sand, and 
 closed with a hand board, then returned into place when the 
 board is slipped out. The weight of one block is from 43^ lbs. to 
 48 lbs., according to the nature of the traffic. The blocks are 
 
COCKBURN-MUIR^S IRON WAY. 319 
 
 chequered on the upper surface to give foothold; they act 
 as paving sets, and are integral portions of the paving of the 
 
 Fig. 173. Cockburn-Muir’s Iron Way at Monte Video, &c. 
 streets. As the sleepers alternate with the stone sets next the 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 Cockburn-Muir’s Iron Way ;—View of sleeper and rail. 
 
 rails at each side, the formation ot ruts or furrows at the sides ot 
 the rail is prevented. 
 
320 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The rails are rolled with a fillet on the outer side to fit into a 
 corresponding groove in the recess of the blocks. The recess 
 is formed to receive the rail, which fits it exactly, except at the 
 outer side of the rail, where a key or wedge of cast iron, 13 inches 
 long, is driven, taking a bearing for the whole length of the block, 
 and fixing the rail to the block. As the rail rests solidly on the 
 block for its whole length, the key also acts as a fish at the joints 
 
 of the rails, and the actual span of 
 the rail is reduced to the distance 
 between the sleepers, or 2 feet 6^ 
 inches. 
 
 The sleepers are connected trans¬ 
 versely, and tied to gauge, by 
 wroLight-iron bars, which are passed 
 right through the blocks, into which 
 they are keyed at the outer side. 
 
 The depth of the sleepers affords space for a^-inch bed of sand, 
 and paving sets 5^ inches deep. 
 
 Mr. Cockburn-Muir's system was adopted for all the tram¬ 
 ways at Monte-Video. It is also in use at Buenos Ayres, Salto, 
 and Bahia, and short lengths have been laid at Vienna and 
 Palermo. At Monte-Video the gauge of one of the lines is 
 4 feet I of inches, and that of all the others is 4 feet inches. 
 At Bahia one part of the line is laid to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, 
 and another part to a gauge of 2 feet 5^ inches. At other places 
 this system has been adopted on a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches. 
 
 The quantities of iron per single mile of 4 feet 8f- inches gauge 
 are as follows :— 
 
 Fig. 175. Cockburn - ]\Iuir’s 
 Iron Way :—Rail, sleeper, 
 and fastenings. Scale -jb. 
 
 W. J. Cockburn-Muir’s Tramway, per Mile, Single Line. 
 
 Rails, wrought iron, at 30 lbs. per yard 
 830 tie-bars, at lbs. each 
 1,660 cotters for tie-bars, at o'i5 lb. each 
 3,018 block sleepers, at 43^ lbs. each. . 
 3,018 wedge keys, at lbs. each 
 
 Tons. Cwts. Qrs 
 
 • 47 3 o 
 
 • 2 13 3 
 
 o 2 I 
 
 . 58 12 I 
 
 • 372 
 
 Total weight 
 
 . Ill 18 3 
 
COCKBURN-MUIR'S IRON WAY. 
 
 321 
 
 The cost of the materials complete amounted (1877) to about 
 ^£870 per mile, single line. 
 
 Portions of Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s rail, weighing 30 lbs. per 
 yard, were tested by Mr. Kirkaldy, as the rolling proceeded, 
 for transverse strength, at the rate of one sample for every 100 
 rails. The test rails were laid on a span of 2 feet 7i- inches 
 between the supports, and they were tested by loads applied at the 
 middle. The following are average results of tests of ten speci¬ 
 mens of rail;— 
 
 Total load applied, 5, 000 lbs. or 2’23 tons. 
 Deflection, *16 inch ,, 
 
 Set 01,, ,, ,, 
 
 Elastic limit of load . . . . . 
 
 Ultimate load applied . . . . . 
 
 6,800 lbs. or 3*03 tons. 
 •60 inch. 
 
 *41 M 
 
 5,200 lbs. or 2*32 ,, 
 9,073 lbs. or 4'05 „ 
 
 All the specimens were removed unbroken. Mr. Cockburn- 
 Muir stated that the greatest weight which in practice comes upon 
 the rail does not exceed 3,500 lbs., or 1*12 tons. This is just 
 half the elastic strength of the rail. 
 
 After having been down in Buenos Ayres upwards of ten years, 
 Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s way stood well, and gave great satisfaction. 
 The manager of the tramways there, Mr. H. W. Ford, reported 
 in September, 1880, that having during the preceding two years 
 watched the working of three miles of this way, the Puente Ulsina 
 line, laid on a very bad road, together with other lengths in the 
 city streets, he arrived at the conclusion that this was “ the best 
 horse tramway in that part of the world.” The block sleepers, he 
 added, stood remarkably well, and were easily packed; they 
 resisted, without harm, the blows of the heavy ox-carts, and one 
 reason for their stability is no doubt to be found in the block-and- 
 key combination, which constitutes “an efflcient equivalent for 
 fish-plates, keeping the rail joint stitf and true.” 
 
 Subsequently, Mr. Cockburn-Muir, at the instance of others, 
 adopted steel for the material of his rails, selecting Siemens steel, 
 for extensions of the lines of tramway in Monte-Video. The 
 Lima tramwavs also were constructed with Siemens steel rails on 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 this system. These steel rails, weighing 30 lbs. per yard, and 
 measuring 3*05 inches in extreme width, and 2*35 inches in depth, 
 have been tested for transverse strength. They were tested in 
 lengths of 3^ feet, laid on supports at a distance of 2 feet 7^ inches 
 apart. The best of five samples yielded the following results :— 
 
 Stress at the middle. 
 
 Deflection (steel rail). 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Fi 
 
 lbs. 
 
 *12 
 
 inch 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0^ 
 
 }> 
 
 •19 
 
 » y 
 
 10,000 
 
 5 ) 
 
 •33 
 
 yy 
 
 11,300 
 
 )) 
 
 '43 
 
 y y 
 
 12,500 
 
 )5 
 
 •62 
 
 y y 
 
 15,000 
 
 )) 
 
 I *2 I 
 
 y y 
 
 17,500 
 
 )) 
 
 2‘69 
 
 y y 
 
 19,104 „ ( 
 8-55 tons ) 
 
 (ultimate stress) 579 
 
 yy 
 
 (broken). 
 
 Plotting these deflections as ordinates to a base line represent¬ 
 ing the stresses, and drawing a curve through the ends, it appears 
 that the yielding point of the curve corresponded to a stress of 
 9,000 lbs., or 4 tons, at the middle, where the deflection was *25 
 inch. This load of 4 tons should be taken as the measure of the 
 elastic limit of strength. But Mr. Cockburn-Muir prefers to 
 fix the limit at the stress under which permanent set commences 
 to take place, which in this instance amounted to 11,300 lbs., or 
 5 tons, when the deflection was *43 inch. The average results 
 for the five samples which were tested, when permanent set began, 
 were as follows :— 
 
 Elastic limit of load, according to Mr. 
 
 Cockburn-Muir. iOj32o lbs. or 4*61 tons 
 
 Maximum deflection without permanent set *40 inch. 
 
 Ultimate load ..17)766 lbs. or 7*93 tons. 
 
 Deflection.—3 rails remained unbroken at 6 inches of deflection; 
 2 rails were broken at 5*8 inches of deflection. 
 
 The maximum weight, 1*12 tons, or 2,500 lbs., that could be 
 placed on the rails when in place at their destination, leaves ample 
 rnargin of strength. The deflection under that weight at the 
 
CGCKBURN-MUIR^S IRON WAV. 
 
 323 
 
 middle does not exceed ’06 inch, iV inch, when the rail is free on 
 the supports. But, regarding the rail as a continuous beam, as it 
 practically is, when keyed into the block sleepers, the deflection 
 must be something less than a fourth of this, or eh inch. This, it 
 is needless to add, makes a sufficiently stiff way for the locality. 
 
 Where the general traffic of the street is heavier than the limit 
 above stated, of course the rail should be proportionately stronger. 
 But there is a plentiful reserve of stiffness in Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s 
 way, wffiich is attributable, not only to the compactness of the 
 rail in section, but in great measure to the scope and firmness of 
 the fastenings. 
 
 To compare these steel rails with the iron rails of the same 
 section and weight, 30 lbs. per yard, already noticed, the following 
 are corresponding results of tests for transverse strengths of ten 
 samples of iron rails. The results for the best samples were as 
 follows. On bearings 2 feet 7^ inches apart, loaded in the 
 middle :— 
 
 Stress at the middle. Deflection (iron rail). 
 
 3,800 lbs. 
 
 •09 inch 
 
 4,000 „ 
 
 •10 ,, 
 
 4,200 „ 
 
 •II ,, 
 
 4,600 ,, 
 
 •13 M 
 
 5,000 „ 
 
 *14 »» 
 
 5,600 „ 
 
 •17 »» 
 
 5,650 ,, Elastic limit, according to Mr. Cockburn-Muir.. 
 
 6,000 ,, 
 
 •23 inch 
 
 6,600 ,, 
 
 •35 » 
 
 7,000 „ 
 
 •48 „ 
 
 7,600 „ 
 
 •76 ,, 
 
 8,000 ,, 
 
 *98 ,, 
 
 9>094 „ ) stress 
 
 4'o6 tons ) 
 
 6*00 ,, (unbroken) 
 
 - The average results, already given, for the ten samples, are here 
 repeated for the sake of comparison. 
 
 Elastic limit of load, according to Mr. 
 
 Cockburn-Muir. 5 ,200 lbs. or 2*32 tons. 
 
 Maximum deflection without permanent set ’16 inch. 
 
 Ultimate load. 9;073 lbs. or 4*05 tons. 
 
 Y 2 
 
3^4 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 The average elastic limits given for the iron rails and the steel 
 rails respectively are 5,200 lbs. and 10,320 lbs., whilst the corres¬ 
 ponding deflections without permanent set are *16 inch and *40 
 inch, indicating that whilst the elastic strength of the steel rails is 
 double that of the iron rails, the deflection is more than double, 
 and that the stiffness of the steel rail is practically not more than 
 that of the iron rail. Under the medium stress, 5,000 lbs., or 
 2\ tons, the deflections are respectively *14 inch and *12 inch for 
 iron and steel, showing, in practice, equal stiffness. 
 
 The weight of metal in Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s way has already been 
 given. It remains the same with the steel rail of 30 lbs. per yard, 
 making in tons i8f cwt. per mile, single line, the cost of which 
 at current prices (March, 1881) amounted to about ^900 per mile, 
 averaging about ^8 per ton. 
 
 Mannheim and Ludwigshafen.—De Feral’s Iron Way. 
 
 The iron way of M. de Feral consists of a girder-rail laid on 
 wrought-iron sleepers, with clip-fastenings. It was first laid at 
 Metz, by M. Feral, for a length of 8^ miles, opened in October, 
 1876 ; then at Ludwigshafen for a length of miles, opened in 
 May, 1878 ; at Leiden, for a length of 5 miles, opened in Novem- 
 iber, 1879 ; Antwerp, for a length of 3! miles, opened also 
 
 in November, 1879. 
 
 The flange-rail and the base-plate, shown in section. Fig. 176, 
 are both of rolled iron. The rail weighs 23 kilogrammes per 
 metre, or 46^ lbs. per yard, and is rolled in lengths of 61 metres, 
 ■or 21 feet 4 inches. They are 15 centimetres, or 5*9 inches, deep. 
 The head of the rail is 2-A- inches wide, of which the tread is 
 T iV inches in width, and the remainder is a horizontal flange pro¬ 
 jecting from the base of the head to form a groove in conjunction 
 with the paving stones. The flange-base is 3 inches wide. The 
 base and the web average 9 millimetres, or -35 inch in thickness. 
 The fish-plates are 8 inches long, and Fir inch thick, and are fixed 
 with four iVinch bolts and nuts, two deep. 
 
DE FEE AES IROX WAY. 
 
 325 
 
 The base is not continuous, but consists of rolled iron ribbed- 
 plates, *35 inch in thickness, i if inches wide, having three vertical 
 ribs on the lower side ; making the total depth of the base 2 f inches. 
 These are similar in section to the Hilf sleeper laid in Continental 
 railways, and they take a secure hold of the subsoil. They are 
 about 8 inches long intermediately, and about inches long at the 
 
 Fig. 176. De Feral’s Way, ^lannheim, Ludwigshafen. Scale 
 
 joints. The rails are fixed to the bases by means of clips riveted 
 at one side of each chair, and bolted at the other. The bases 
 are laid at distances of 5 feet 4 inches apart between centres. 
 
 The iron sleepers are simply laid in the bottom of the space 
 cleared for the way. There is not any other preparation or foun¬ 
 dation. 
 
 Approximate Quantities per Mile, Single Line, of 
 
 De Feral’s Way. 1878. 
 
 Iron Rails, 46 lbs. per yard . . . . -73 tons 
 
 Base-plates:—496 joints @ 22 lbs. 4’9 »» 
 
 1,488 intermediates @ 13 lbs. . . 8'6 ,, 
 
 Fish-plates, 496 pairs @ 7^ lbs. per pair (bolts extra) i-6 ,, 
 
 - Tie-rods, 744 at 4^ lbs. each . . . . . 1*5 ,, 
 
 Total weight ' 
 
 89'6 tons. 
 
32 6 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Here follow notices of three South American tramways of recent 
 design, in which the girder rail is employed:—■ 
 
 City of Buenos Ayres Tramways 
 (Mr. Edward Woods, Engineer). 
 
 Original Section .—The girder rails, Fig. 177, are of steel, 
 weighing 103 lbs. per yard. They stand 6^ inches high, 6 inches 
 wide at the base. The webs of the rails are | inch thick; the 
 heads are 3^ inches wide, and the grooves are i inch wide. The 
 fish-plates are ^ inch thick, 18 inches long, weighing 22 lbs. per 
 pair, and fastened with four ^-inch bolts and nuts. The maximum 
 
 Figs. 177 and 178. City of Buenos Ayres Tramways :—Sections of rail and 
 
 fastenings. Scale -5. 
 
 length of the rails is 27 feet, for each pair of which there are five 
 cross iron tie-bars, 2 inches by -J- inch, slotted and fixed with 
 cotters. 
 
 Amended Section, Fig. 178.—A slight addition to the weight of 
 the rails was made, to the extent of 3 lbs. per yard, making a total 
 of 106 lbs. per yard. The fish-plates were extended to a length of 
 24 inches, and to lA inch thick, or Ae inch thicker than the original 
 plate; and there are six bolts and nuts to each pair of fishes. 
 The weight of fish-plates was thus augmented to 36 lbs. per pair. 
 
 The quantities per mile of way, single line, are as follows :— 
 
BUENOS AYRES IRON 11 AY. 
 
 327 
 
 City of Buenos Ayres Tramways.—Quantities of Way, 
 
 Single Line. 
 
 
 
 Original section. 
 
 Amended section. 
 
 Rails 
 
 Weight per yard 
 
 103 lbs. 
 
 106 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 tns. cts. 
 
 q. lbs. 
 
 tns. cts. q. lbs. 
 
 
 9 9 
 
 ,, mile 
 
 161 17 0 16 
 
 166 II I 20 
 
 Fish-plates 
 
 Weight 
 
 ,, pair 
 
 22 lbs. 
 
 36 lbs. 
 
 
 Pairs 
 
 ,, mile 
 
 400 
 
 
 400 pairs 
 
 
 
 
 tns. cts. q. lbs. 
 
 tns. cts. q. lbs. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 3 18 
 
 2 8 
 
 6828 
 
 Fish-bolts 
 
 Weight 
 
 ,, bolt 
 
 I lb. 
 
 I lb. 
 
 
 Number ,, mile 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 
 
 cts. q. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 tns. cts. q. lbs. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 9 9 9 9 
 
 14 I 
 
 4 
 
 I I I 20 
 
 Tie-bars . 
 
 Weight 
 
 ,, bar 
 
 16 lbs. 
 
 16 lbs. 
 
 
 Number ,, mile 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 tns. cts. q. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 tns. cts. q. lbs. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 9 9 9 9 
 
 ’ 
 
 7 2 3 
 
 12 
 
 7 2 3 12 
 
 Tie-bar cotters 
 
 AVeight 
 
 ,, cotter 
 
 Lib. 
 
 Lib. 
 
 
 Number ,, mile 
 
 4,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 
 
 cts. q. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 cts. q. lbs. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 17 3 
 
 12 
 
 17 3 12 
 
 Total 
 
 1 J 
 
 Weight of Materials Per Mile. 
 
 
 
 tns. cts. 
 
 q. lbs. 
 
 tns. 
 
 cts. q. lbs. 
 
 Rails 
 
 
 161 17 
 
 0 16 
 
 166 
 
 II I 20 
 
 Fish-plates 
 
 
 3 18 
 
 2 8 
 
 6 
 
 82 8 
 
 Fish-bolts 
 
 
 0 14 
 
 I 4 
 
 I 
 
 I I 20 
 
 Tie-bars . 
 
 
 7 2 
 
 3 12 
 
 7 
 
 2 3 12 
 
 Cotters 
 
 
 0 17 
 
 3 12 
 
 0 
 
 17 3 12 
 
 Tons 
 
 • • 
 
 174 10 
 
 2 22 
 
 182 
 
 2016 
 
 
 
 
 
 The cost of the material, according to the amended section, as 
 above, per mile of way, delivered in Antwerp, was, in 1891, 
 
 ;^I,200. 
 
 Tests for Rails of the Amended Section. 
 
 The rails were tested by Mr. Woods in the following manner :—• 
 1st. By Falling Weight .—A piece of rail 10 feet long was placed 
 
328 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF 7RAMIVAYS, 
 
 on bearings 3 feet 6 inches apart centre to centre, and a weight 
 of I ton was allowed to fall on its middle point. The first blow 
 was from a height of 10 feet; the second 15 feet, and the third 
 20 feet. The average amounts of bending produced by these blows 
 were:— 
 
 For ist blow I'56 inches. 
 
 ,, 2nd ,, 3*29 ,, 
 
 »» 3rd ,, 5-55 
 
 2nd. By Pressure Tests .—A piece of rail 10 feet long was placed 
 on bearings 3 feet 6 inches apart, centre to centre, and pressure 
 was applied at the middle point. The following were the average 
 
 results :— 
 
 Central 
 
 Average 
 
 Averag^e 
 
 pressure. 
 
 deflection. 
 
 permanent set. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 20 
 
 0-054 
 
 0-0 
 
 25 
 
 0*064 
 
 0-0 
 
 30 
 
 O'lOI 
 
 0-0 
 
 35 
 
 0-134 
 
 0-0 
 
 40 
 
 0*187 
 
 0*024 
 
 ' '^rd. By Tests for Tensile Strength and Ductility .—The average 
 tensile strength per square inch of original section was 33'i5 tons. 
 
 The average reduction of area at the place of rupture by tensile 
 stress was 49 per cent, of the original section. 
 
 Buenos Ayres Grand National Tramway. 
 
 Sir George B. Bruce, the 
 engineer of this tramway, em»- 
 ployed girder - rails, weighing 
 75 lbs. to 77 lbs, per yard, bedded 
 on concrete. The rails. Fig. 179, 
 are 6 inches high, and 6 inches 
 wide at the base, in lengths of 
 30 feet. The web is | inch thick ; 
 the head is 2 ^ inches wide; the 
 groove is i inch wide. The joints 
 are fished with two plates inch 
 thick, 16 inches long, with four 
 
 Fig. 179, Buenos Ayres Grand 
 National Tramway : Section of 
 Rail and Joint. Scale J. 
 
nilLADELPHIA IRON WAY. 
 
 3^9 
 
 ^-inch bolts and nuts. The rails are tied to gauge with slotted 
 tie-bars inches by -iV inch, with cotters, of which there are 
 six for each 30-feet rail, at 5 feet 
 intervals, 'fhe gauge is 4 feet 
 8.V inches. The surface is paved 
 with granite sets. 
 
 La Plata Tramways. 
 
 The girder-rail. Fig. 180, designed 
 by the engineer of La Plata Tram¬ 
 ways, Sir Douglas Fox, weighs 75 lbs. 
 to 76 lbs. per yard. They are 6 inches 
 high, 5 1 inches wide at the base, 
 with f-inch webs. The head is 
 2^ inches wide, with a groove 
 I inch wide. The fish-plates are of 
 i-inch metal, with bolts and 
 
 nuts. 
 
 Fig. 180. La Plata Tramways : 
 — Section of rails and fasten¬ 
 ings. Scale 
 
 American Practice.—High Gir¬ 
 der Rail, Philadelphia Type. 
 
 This rail. Fig. 181, is an adapta¬ 
 tion of the Philadelphia, or step 
 rail, already noticed, to the girder 
 rail. The rail is 9 inches high, 
 
 5 inches wide at the base; the 
 step is inches high, and the 
 total width of the head is 5^ inches. 
 
 The web of the ordinary girder-rail 
 is usually pared down to a thickness 
 of from k inch to -Ae* inch. So far, 
 it has been noted, none of the 
 
 leading patterns of girder rail has failed in consequence of being 
 too thin. 
 
 Fig. 181. High Girder Rail. 
 Philadelphia type. Section. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE GIRDER RAIL. 
 
 The girder rail was originally invented and patented by Mr. 
 Charles Burn, in October, i860, according to the section. Fig. 182, 
 which is well proportioned, and is, in fact, a modification of the 
 
 Vignoles rail for railways. It was re¬ 
 invented and patented by M. Achille 
 Legrand, of Paris, in January, 1877, 
 according to the section. Fig. 183. 
 Mr. J. Gowans patented, in July, 1878, 
 a modification of the girder rail. Figs. 
 35.36 (pp. 132, 133), in which the base 
 flange is wider at the outer side, under 
 the tread, than at the inner side. Open¬ 
 ings were made through the web of the 
 rail at short intervals, in order to 
 lighten the rail, and to admit of the binding of the concrete 
 packing through the rail. This rail was tried experimentally in 
 Edinburgh in 1877—78, and in Dundee in 1879. 
 
 Although the girder rail was not in any sense the invention 
 of Mr. Gowans, yet to him belongs the merit of introducing 
 and testing the girder type. By the rule of experience it has been 
 made evident that built-up rails—rails constructed of two or more 
 pieces—are not suited for tramway service, especially with steana 
 locomotion; and that, like railway rails, it is necessary that they 
 
 
 Fig. 182. Burn’s Girder Rail. 
 Section. 
 
GIRDER RAIL. 
 
 331 
 
 should be rolled as one piece. The tramway girder rail is a clear 
 instance of the survival of the fittest; although, singular to say, 
 it was, as above noted, announced to the world nearly twenty 
 years before it was brought into practical use. 
 
 Though the foregoing evidence, supplied by a few leading tram¬ 
 ways in favour of the girder rail, led up to the employment of the 
 girder rail in the case of the Glasgow Tramways, the Kincaid 
 Tramways, and the Manchester Tramways, there is a notable 
 exception in the case of the Liverpool Tramways, in the develop¬ 
 ment of which the Deacon system has been retained. Much of 
 the excellence of this system is fairly due to first-rate material and 
 workmanship, to the general design also, and specially to the 
 binding of the rails and sleepers by bolts to 
 the foundation of concrete. The facility for 
 extracting paving sets at the surface when 
 required, without disturbing the neighbouring 
 sets, is also to be noted. 
 
 A few medium and minor tramways, also, 
 have retained for new work the system of way on 
 which they were originally executed. With these 
 limited exceptions, new work and renewals are 
 now constructed with girder rails. A great variety 
 of sections of tramway rails are exhibited in 
 the Table, pages 332 and 333, m which upwards 
 of forty rail sections are noted, with the corres¬ 
 ponding illustrated sections. Figs. 184 to 205, 
 and 206 to 226 (pages 336, 337). These data, reduced from the 
 section sheets of Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co., exhibit a remarkable 
 variety, the reason of which is not very obvious, though probably 
 one of ,the chief causes has arisen from the difficulties of rolling 
 such sections,—prohibitory, for the most part, in the early days of 
 girder rolling,—in large and spread sections. Much of the difficulty 
 has disappeared since steel was introduced to take the place of 
 iron, for the manufacture of girder rails, which it now does entirely; 
 and, in any case, larger and stronger sections have been in 
 demand to meet the heavier work of steam traction. 
 
 Fig. 183. Girder 
 Rail, by A. 
 Legrancl. 
 
33- 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAM WAYS, 
 
 Table of Weights and Leading Dimensions of Steel 
 
 Tram Girder Rails. 
 
 (Reduced from the Section Sheets of Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co.) 
 
 Order 
 
 number. 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 3 ^^ 
 
 6-^ 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 Names of tramwa) s. 
 
 Tramways. 
 
 Spanish . 
 Gateshead-on-Tyne 
 Woolwich and South 
 east London . 
 Wigan 
 Ipswich . 
 
 Madrid . 
 
 Bucharest 
 Brighton . 
 
 Malaya . 
 
 Panama . 
 
 Norwood & Croydon 
 Hartlepool 
 South Staffordshire 
 Cardiff 
 
 Southampton . 
 
 La Plata . 
 
 Accrington 
 Port Glasgow . 
 Birmingham Midland 
 Manchester, Bury, 
 and Rochdale 
 N ewcastle-on-Tyne 
 Manchester, Bury, 
 and Rochdale 
 Dublin United 
 
 Brazilian . 
 Bridgetown 
 London, Camberwell 
 and East Dulwich 
 Portsmouth 
 Brisbane . 
 
 Seville 
 Brisbane . 
 
 AVeight of 
 rail per yard. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 50 to 53 
 
 r56 „ 58 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ^6o ,, 63 
 
 [ 74 „ 77 
 
 75 M 78 
 
 75 M 78 
 
 I 88 ,, 92 
 90 ,, 94 
 
 I 90 94 
 
 90 ,, 94 
 
 35 
 
 40 ,, 42 
 65 ,, 68 
 
 55 M 57 
 
 77 „ 80 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 0 • 
 
 Thickness 
 
 
 <3^ . 
 
 t-M 
 
 JD 
 
 of base. 
 
 Height by 
 width of 
 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 . 
 
 ■4^ 0 
 
 
 
 
 base. 
 
 ^ 0) 
 'S 0 
 
 TS 0 
 U" ^ 
 > M 
 
 3 0 
 
 B ^ 
 
 At 
 
 Near 
 
 
 
 
 
 edges 
 
 w'eb. 
 
 [ns. by ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 X 
 
 •sr 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 -h 
 
 X 4 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 x5 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 i .‘i 
 
 4 3 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 6 X 6 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 TIT 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 x6 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 6x6 
 
 016 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 x 7 
 
 3i\ 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 x? 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 7 x; 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 full. 
 
 
 7 x; 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 bare. 
 
 
 3 ^x 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 _3 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3i x3 
 
 2 — 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 3_ 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 5 ^x 5 
 
 3liT 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bare. 
 
 4 ^x 4 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 JL. 
 
 16 
 
 6 x6^ 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 L 
 
 4 
 
 iV 
 
GIRDER RAIL. 
 
 333 
 
 Table of Weights { continued ). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Thickness 
 
 
 
 
 Height by 
 width of 
 base. 
 
 0) . 
 
 
 -O 
 
 of base. 
 
 Order 
 
 Names of tramways. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 G-. 
 
 0 (iJ 
 
 
 number. 
 
 rail per yard. 
 
 ^ l- 
 
 ^ 9 
 
 0 
 
 nj 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ > 
 rj 0 
 
 ^ tUJ 
 
 c 
 
 At 
 
 Neat 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 C ^ 
 
 edges 
 
 web. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tramways. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ins. by ins. 
 
 Ins, 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 ] 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Huddersfield . 
 
 > 97 to 100 
 
 7 x? 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 IL 
 
 16 
 
 
 Bradford . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 • 
 
 
 26 
 
 North London . 
 
 90 ,, 92 
 
 6x7 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 T5 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lull. 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 67 ,, 70 
 
 5^ X si 
 
 
 7 
 
 R 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 6 
 
 28 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 74 M 77 
 
 cAL. X 6)— 
 016 ^8 
 
 0 1 5 
 "^16 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 87 ,, 90 
 
 6jl v- a 5_ 
 ^16 ^ ^16 
 
 1 
 
 08 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 ( 
 
 North Metropolitan. 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 full. 
 
 
 
 30 j 
 
 South London . 
 Edinburgh 
 
 >90 >> 93 
 
 7iV ^ 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 jr_ 
 
 ] 6 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 3^ 
 
 Berlin 
 
 77 M 80 
 
 6 X4f 
 
 4i 
 
 li 
 
 7 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 1 6 
 
 33 
 
 Guinness Brewery . 
 
 76 
 
 7^x4 
 
 3t15 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 jr_ 
 
 1 6 
 
 34 
 
 German . 
 
 90 
 
 7^X78 
 
 3^5 
 
 3I 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 35 
 
 German . 
 
 82 
 
 6 X si 
 
 T5 
 
 ;t 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 T6' 
 
 36 
 
 Argentine 
 
 103 
 
 Og X Uj g 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 11 
 
 1 6 
 
 37 
 
 Guinness Brewery . 
 
 79 
 
 7ix4 
 
 0 X. 
 08 
 
 li 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 16" 
 
 3« 
 
 Argentine 
 
 84 
 
 6x7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1 6 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 Argentine 
 
 102 
 
 6 X 7 
 
 3i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 Argentine 
 
 74 
 
 5ix6i 
 
 3i 
 
 Il^6 
 
 a 1 
 
 8 
 
 i 1 
 
 4 52 
 
 9 
 
 1 6 
 
 41 
 
 Midland . 
 
 76 
 
 6x6 
 
 25 
 
 1.5 
 
 T6 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 South London . 
 
 lOI 
 
 8 X 6 
 
 3t^6 
 
 15 
 
 T6 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 Argentine 
 
 106 
 
 6i X 7 
 
 X 
 
 08 
 
 I 5 
 
 s 1 
 
 8 ;3 2 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 Argentine 
 
 
 6 X 4^ 
 
 3f 
 
 I? 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 Argentine 
 
 72 
 
 5ix5| 
 
 3d6 
 
 If 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1 6 
 
 461 
 47 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 1 86 
 
 55x51 
 
 45 
 
 l¥ 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 London . 
 
 90 
 
 7 x 6 h 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 T5 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 Spanish . 
 
 48 
 
 4 x4f 
 
 3iV 
 
 I5 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 JT 
 
 1 6 
 
 49 
 
 Mexican . 
 
 41 
 
 6x4 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 .6 
 
 16 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bare. 
 
 50 
 
 Glasgow . 
 
 79 
 
 hi ^ si 
 
 3i 
 
 I 5 
 
 7 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
 Indian 
 
 95 
 
 7 X 64 
 
 3l 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 iV 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 54 
 
 Alford and Sutton . 
 
 46 
 
 41 X 3^^ 
 
 3i 
 
 I 5 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bare. 
 
 55 
 
 German . 
 
 83 
 
 78 X5i 
 
 3l 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 Reverting to the Table, it appears that steel girder rails have 
 been rolled, weighing from 50 lbs. per yard to 106 lbs. per yard; 
 
334 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 that girder rails vary in height from 4 inches to a maximum of 
 8 inches; and from a 3-inch width of base flange to a maximum 
 width of 7 inches, and that the head varies from 2% inches to 
 4l inches in width. 
 
 The flange base tapers transversely in thickness from about 
 I inch in thickness, near the edge, to from f inch to -f-i- inch, 
 speaking generally, near the web : the base joining the web with a 
 quarter circle filling. The web is most commonly from f inch to 
 ^ inch in thickness. In several instances the thickness of the web 
 is excessive, as in No. 36 and others. Nos. i, 14, 15, 16, and 30 
 are fairly well-balanced sections, without undue fulness of web; 
 and having the vertical centre line of the web just in line, or very 
 nearly so, with the edge of the groove, through which the vertical 
 pressure of the load passes. No. 28 gives an instance of a bad 
 side-bearing for the fish-plates, under the tread. It is much too 
 oblique for stability, and would have been much better if it had 
 been more steeply sloped, with a suitable fish-plate, as indicated 
 in dot lining. Nos. 6, 47, and 55 offer good bearing surface for 
 fish-plates. In No. 35, the overhang of the principal bearing point 
 of the tread is specifically bad, resulting in severe torsional stress. 
 
 The lip flange or guard, forming the outer side of the groove, 
 should be about 4- inch in thickness. 
 
 ^ f 
 
 The usual tests for steel tramway girder rails are as follows :— 
 
 Breaking stress, tensile, from 37 tons to 43 tons per square 
 inch; elongation in a length of 8 inches, at least 15 percent; 
 contraction of sectional area, at least 30 per cent. A short piece 
 of the rail, 5 feet long, placed on supports 3 feet apart, must resist 
 a blow from a weight of i ton falling freely on its centre or middle 
 point, from a given height, without causing more than i inch of 
 deflection at the centre, according to the following scale:— 
 
 Weight of rail per yard. 
 
 Height of first fall. 
 
 Height of second fall. 
 
 60 lbs. to 70 lbs. 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 15 feet. 
 
 70 ,, 80 ,, 
 
 7 
 
 
 80 „ 90 „ 
 
 8 „ 
 
 20 ,, 
 
 90 ,, 100 ,, 
 
 9 
 
 22J ,, 
 
 The same piece of rail, after having been so tested, must, in the 
 
GIRDER RAIL. 
 
 335 
 
 same position, be exposed to a second blow from the same weight 
 falling freely through the heights above noted for the second fall, 
 without exhibiting any sign of fracture. 
 
 The girder rails for the Huddersfield Corporation Tramways 
 were tested both for deflection under a falling weight, and also for 
 deflection under a given dead pressure. A piece of the Hudders¬ 
 field rail, of 98 lbs. per yard, 5 feet long, was laid on supports 
 3h feet apart; and was exposed to four successive blows from a 
 falling weight of half a ton, or 1,120 lbs., dropped through a 
 height of 20 feet. 
 
 I St blow inch deflection at middle 
 2nd ,, I ,, ,, 
 
 3rd ,, 2| ,, „ 
 
 4th ,, 3|- ,, ,, 
 
 A dead pressure of 25 tons was applied at the middle of a like 
 piece of rail for a period of thirty minutes. The load was then 
 removed, and it was found that there was no permanent set. 
 
 Samples of girder rails supplied by Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co. 
 to several tramway companies were tested for tensile resistance. 
 Particulars, with sections of the rails, are given in the Table, pages 
 332 and 333, and illustrations. Figs. 184 to 205, and 206 to 226 
 (pages 336, 337). They can be identified by means of the 
 reference order numbers. 
 
 Results of Tests of Tramway Girder Rails for Tensile 
 
 Resistance. 
 
 Tramway. 
 
 Order 
 no. of 
 section. 
 
 Weight 
 of rail 
 peryard. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight 
 (tensile) per 
 sq.inch. 
 
 Elongation 
 in a length 
 of eighteen 
 inches. 
 
 Contrac¬ 
 tion of 
 sectional 
 area. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 West Metropolitan . 
 
 10 
 
 76 
 
 42-13 
 
 24-90 
 
 52-64 
 
 Durban , 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 41 ’55 
 
 23*00 
 
 53-18 
 
 Calcutta . 
 
 51 
 
 95 
 
 44-76 
 
 19-25 
 
 52*40 
 
 North Metropolitan . 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 42-00 
 
 21*00 
 
 55 ' 6 o 
 
 Huddersfield 
 
 25 
 
 98 
 
 43 ‘ 8 i 
 
 i8'io 
 
 47-80 
 
 London , 
 
 47 
 
 90 
 
 39-61 
 
 20*40 
 
 58-88 
 
 Brazilian . 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 39-28 
 
 20-50 
 
 51-95 
 
 Averages . 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 41-87 
 
 21*02 
 
 53-20 
 
33 & 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 No. 17. No. 18. 
 
 Figs. 184 to 205.— Sections of Steel Girder Rails. (Reduced from the 
 Section Sheets of Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co.) Scale 
 
GIRDER RAIL. 
 
 337 
 
 No. 37. 
 
 Figs. 206 to 226.— Sections of Steel Girder Rails. (Reduced from the 
 Section Sheets of Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co.) Scale 
 
 Z 
 
338 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 A type of girder-rail tramway recently designed and constructed 
 by Mr. Joseph Kincaid, is illustrated by Figs. 227 and 228. The 
 rails are of steel, weighing 78 lbs. per yard ; 6 inches high, 6 inches 
 wide at the sole or base. The web is | inch thick ; the base is 
 
 h inch thick near the web; 
 tapering in section to Ar inch 
 at the edges. The head is 
 3 inches in total width, giving 
 ij inches width of tread, 
 I inch width of groove, and 
 J inch width or thickness of 
 guard - flange or fillet. The 
 rails are fished with f-inch 
 iron plates, 14 inches long, 
 and four ^-inch bolts and 
 nuts. The joints are further 
 secured with f-inch iron joint- 
 plates, or slipper - plates, 16 
 inches long, 9 inches wide, 
 turned over the edges of the base, to give a tight hold of the ends 
 V of the rails without the aid of bolts. 
 
 The ground is excavated for a depth of 12 inches below the level 
 of the rails, and upon the bottom of the excavation a 6-inch bed 
 
 ! ii'' P \ 
 
 (If jfif 1 /' 
 
 W " 4’ !■' 
 
 ,(/• i 
 
 
 ■’ ill V* 
 
 >1'' 4 "1 iiC'illi -r .,ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i'-'**" r-^v^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 228.—Type of Girder Rail Tramway (Mr. Kincaid) :—Cross Section 
 
 of Way. Scale A* 
 
 of Portland-cement concrete is laid in. The rails are laid on the 
 concrete, and a i-inch layer of gravel covers the concrete, to 
 receive and give bedding for the pavement, which consists of 
 5-inch granite sets. The rails are tied to the usual gauge, 4 feet 
 Sh inches, by iron tie-bars, ih inches by f inch, 8 feet apart, 
 notched at one end into the web of the rail, and set to gauge by 
 
 ^ Fig. 227.— Type of Girder Rail Tram¬ 
 way (Mr. Kincaid) :—Section of 
 Rails and Fastenings. Scale f. 
 
GIRDER RAIL, 
 
 339 
 
 means of a screw formed on the other end, with a nut and a jamb- 
 nut. The interspaces between the sides of the rails and the paving 
 sets are packed with concrete. 
 
 A statement of quantities and costs for one mile of single line 
 laid with girder rails, in accordance with the design as illustrated 
 and described, is here subjoined. 
 
 Type Girder Rail Tramway : Quantities and Cost of 
 One Mile, Single Line, 1893. 
 
 (Mr. Kincaid). 
 
 Tons. cwts. qrs. s, d. £ s. d. 
 
 122 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Steel girder rails, 78 lbs. per yard 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0—735 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Wrought-iron fish-plates, 16^ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per pair .... 
 
 • 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 — 22 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Wrought-iron joint plates, loj 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 each .... 
 
 • 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Wrought-iron tie-bars, 15:^ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 each .... 
 
 • 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0— 54 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Bolts, nuts, and washers 
 
 • 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 — 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,662 
 
 c. 
 
 yds. 
 
 Excavation .... 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 — 207 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 846 
 
 
 Portland cement concrete . 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0—634 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1,760 1. 
 
 yds. 
 
 Laying the way . 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 6—132 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 Total cost of way per mile. 
 
 sing 
 
 le line 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4,376 s. yds. Granite paving sets, including 
 i-inch bed of gravel, laying 
 and grouting per mile, single 
 
 line.07 6—1641 0 0 
 
 Total cost of way and paving per mile, 
 
 single line.2 3 
 
 Say ^3»500* 
 
 z 2 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 It needs but a glance at the illustrations of practice in tramway* 
 construction, to perceive that great advances have been made in 
 design and execution. The advantages of solidity and direct¬ 
 ness of construction have been developed in the experience of the 
 Liverpool Corporation Tramways, where the steel rail, longitudinal 
 timber sleeper, and concrete bed, having been thoroughly united,, 
 in conjunction with a perfect system of paving, have, during the 
 last three or four years, endured the heaviest cross traffic and 
 longitudinal traffic in the world, at but a nominal cost for repair. 
 The adoption of cast-iron sleepers for these tramways led up to 
 one of the most complete systems of tramway for streets of 
 maximum heavy traffic. 
 
 The system of Barker and the more recent systems of Shaw, 
 Mackieson, and Dugdale, may be classed with the Deacon system 
 (Liverpool), as structural combinations of rails and continuous, or 
 nearly continuous, cast-iron longitudinal sleepers. But whilst in 
 Barker’s and Deacon’s systems solid vertical walls are presented as 
 lateral bearing surfaces for the paving, in the others the sleepers 
 are of the nature of open framing, and are packed flush with con¬ 
 crete to provide lateral bearing surface. With the exception of 
 the Shaw system, in which the rail is supported on pedestals at 
 short intervals, they make a floor for supporting the rails, which 
 affords a bearing that is practically continuous. 
 
 The girder-rail and cross-sleeper system, embedded in concrete, 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 341 
 
 now practised in Glasgow, is an instance of perfected design, logi¬ 
 cally developed by experience. In the retention of the cross-timber 
 sleeper, with respect to which the engineers of the Glasgow Cor¬ 
 poration Tramways stand almost alone in their practice, there is 
 no evil consequence whatever, and there are the advantages of 
 complete control of gauge, economy of maintenance, partial 
 absorption of vibration, efficient support where underground sub¬ 
 sidences may happen to take place, and the facility for shifting 
 the rails laterally upon the sleepers without disturbance of the 
 substructure, where such adjustment may happen to be required. 
 
 The Kincaid system, likewise, has been logically matured, and 
 it is a satisfactory development of the type of rail supported on 
 isolated pedestals. It was improved by the adoption of rails of a 
 better and stronger section, by the extension of the bases of the 
 chairs or sleepers, so as to form a practically continuous base, by 
 the adoption of iron cotter-fastenings, and by the development of 
 a sufficient foundation of concrete. The supporting of the rails 
 at intervals only, provides for a slight elastic reaction, and the 
 consequent prevention of absolute rigidity, whilst the vertical 
 stress is, by the method of construction, landed on and limited to 
 the centre of the pedestal-sleeper,—a concentration which is 
 conducive to stability, and is desirable in a system in which 
 transverse cotter-fastenings are adopted. 
 
 The principle of a system of rails supported by comparatively 
 isolated chairs of cast-iron, is embodied in the systems of Wilson, 
 Vignoles, and Aldred-Spielmann. 
 
 In the Wilson system, laid on the Southampton Street Tram¬ 
 ways, a rail of considerable section is carried in cast-iron chairs of 
 large base, at wide intervals, without any approach to continuity. 
 The rail is unusually heavy, of its kind—55 lbs. per yard;—and 
 it has an unusually long bearing in the chairs : conditions en¬ 
 suring a great degree of strength, and contrasting in this respect 
 favourably with those of the Kincaid way at Bristol, in which the 
 chairs, at the same distance apart, and of great length of base, 
 only give a 3i-inch bearing to the rail, which weighs just 50 lbs. 
 to the yard. 
 
342 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Vignoles rail is carried in chairs at 30-inch centres, and is 
 correspondingly light—42J lbs. per yard,—lighter than any other 
 suspended rail. But the most has been made of the metal, by 
 rolling the rail to a depth of 5 inches, though the central web is 
 but f inch in thickness. The rail is open to the objection of 
 having only a one-sided support, on a half-chair, as it may be 
 called, to which, necessarily, it is bolted laterally: the rail de¬ 
 pending upon the bolts and nuts to be kept in position. This 
 dependence is rendered inevitable by the inclination of the bearing 
 surface of the rail upon the top of the chair. Had the inclination 
 been reverse, the stability of the structure would have been 
 greater. The employment of transverse timber sleepers is a good 
 feature in the design of this system. 
 
 The Aldred-Spielmann rail, laid in cast-iron chairs on cross 
 sleepers, is interesting as a reversible rail, and as a rail which 
 fishes itself, by the break-joint method of laying the two halves 
 of the rail. Since the bearing rail is, in a manner, wedged 
 upon the guard-rail, constant contact and tightness, as well 
 as mutual support, are ensured. As the way is laid on and 
 spiked to transverse timber sleepers in concrete, it is both a secure 
 and an easy rail; and it has done good service in the London 
 Tramways and other lines. 
 
 Page’s system of semi-continuous bearings of rails and WTought- 
 iron standards may be classed with the Kincaid and Cockburn- 
 Muir systems. It is open to the objection that the width of the 
 bearing for the rail upon the sleeper is very narrow, and that the 
 rail considerably overhangs its own base, at both sides. In the 
 other systems, the rail takes a bearing for its whole breadth on the 
 sleeper or chair. In Meakins’ system, as laid by Mr. Dixon, the 
 rail is also supported on a bearing which is narrower than its own 
 width. But the objection of overhang, in this system, is obviated 
 by the secure method of uniting the rail with the angle-iron 
 brackets, by riveting. 
 
 Ways constructed on the principle of the girder-rail are amply 
 represented by the systems of Gowans, Macrae, Johnstones & 
 Rankine, Winby & Levick, and Kerr. To Mr. Gowans is due 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 343 
 
 the merit of having first promoted and introduced the girder-rail, 
 which Mr. Macrae was the first to lay down. The rail, as devised 
 by Mr. Gowans, was peculiarly formed,—with a flange-base wider 
 on one side of the web than on the other; and with perforations 
 in the rail. These refinements have not, generally, been much 
 appreciated. Mr. Macrae abandoned them, though he appre¬ 
 hended the advantages of the girder form; and he adopted an 
 ordinary solid rail, corresponding to the old railway railofVig- 
 noles. So also have the other engineers just named. Difficulties 
 naturally arose in the perfecting of the methods of rolling rails— 
 particularly steel rails—with a groove, and with so wide a base; 
 though a wide base was only needful where the rail was to be 
 embedded in concrete and was to rely on its hold upon this alone 
 for stability. It was preferable, as a matter of manufacture, that a 
 base-flange of limited width should be rolled ; and a limited flange 
 was adopted by Messrs. Johnstones & Rankine, who really did 
 not require a wide base, since they possessed a solid foundation 
 in the transverse sleepers which they employ, to which the rails 
 could be securely spiked. Messrs. Winby & Levick and Mr. 
 Kerr devised other means of utilising the limited base-flange, by 
 bolting and clipping the girder rail to wider base-plates or sleepers, 
 and so providing ample bearing surface in combination with the 
 limited flange-base. 
 
 In the later developments of the solid girder-rail, conveniently 
 rolled sections have been introduced. Messrs. Johnstones & 
 Rankine’s system obviously combines the advantage of a well- 
 constructed foundation and a secure hold for the rails, with 
 perfect freedom for detachment or uplifting when removal is 
 required whilst Mr. Kerr anchors his rails and sleepers together 
 in the concrete—inseparable without breaking up the foundation; 
 and Messrs. Winby & Levick, on the contrary, content them¬ 
 selves, like Mr. Barker, with depositing the metal structure on 
 the floor of the excavated space, reserving the freedom for readily 
 detaching and removing the rails. 
 
 With regard to the sections of rails for what may be called the 
 composite ways, in which rails are laid on metal sleepers or 
 
344 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 chairs, they have evidently drifted towards the T section—a 
 grooved head with a central web—initiated by Mr. Cockburn- 
 Muir. Its advantages are manifest. In it are combined lightness, 
 strength, stiffness, and compactness ; and facility for fish-jointing 
 when required, though it must be acknowledged that the joint 
 made by Mr. Cockburn-Muir, by means of a long wedge in his 
 block-sleeper, has never been surpassed. Fastenings by means of 
 wedges or bolts are generally preferable to cotter fastenings. 
 
 As to the material for tram-rails, the results of the respective 
 wears of steel rails and iron rails in Glasgow, reported by Messrs. 
 Johnstones & Rankine, appear to show that the iron rails were as 
 durable as the steel rails; whilst it is also apparent, from the 
 results of Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s tests for deflection, that iron 
 rails were, within their elastic limits, practically as stiff as steel 
 rails. 
 
 The imperative necessity for maintaining the pavement coinci- 
 dently with the way, not only for the special business of the tram¬ 
 way, but also for the other business of the street, has led to the 
 general adoption of means for efficiently supporting the pavement, 
 particularly the parts adjacent to such as lies next the rails; and, 
 in addition, at Liverpool, the exact dressing of the paving-stones, 
 next the rails, in order to provide the maximum area of bearing 
 surface and so to minimise the wear, and the consequent tendency 
 -to form objectionable ridges next the rails. The reports of the 
 London General Omnibus Company afford evidence of the incon¬ 
 venience of unequal and local wear of way and paving. ‘‘ The 
 deplorable state of the main thoroughfares in the eastern, southern, 
 and northern parts of the Metropolis,” it was reported in 1878, ‘‘was 
 destructive of the wheels, springs, and under carriages of ordinary 
 vehicles. The cost for wheels alone for the Company’s omnibuses 
 increased from los. per omnibus per year to ^£"15 per omnibus 
 per year since the introduction of tramways. Valuable horses have 
 constantly been injured by straining and slipping on the rails.” 
 
 It is apparent that a first-rate rolling surface is of the essence of 
 a tramway—a street railway;—and it is not well to study too 
 closely the mere element of first cost, in the amount of which, for 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 345 
 
 efficient systems of tramway, the variation is not of very considerable 
 importance. The practical value of a good rolling-surface, on the 
 contrary, can scarcely be over-estimated; for the running and car 
 expenses are influenced to a very great extent by the condition of 
 the surface, and they constitute nearly two-thirds of the total 
 working expenses. 
 
 With a perfect rolling surface, an even and durable pavement 
 must be associated, in order that uniform levels may be preserved, 
 not necessarily for the special business of the tramway only, but 
 also for the other business of the street. A completely constructed 
 tramway must, therefore, combine a perfect unyielding rolling sur¬ 
 face with a firm and durable pavement. A perfect rolling surface 
 it was impossible to fulfil so long as the rails were fastened by 
 vertical spikes or bolts passed through the groove in the rail. But 
 when the side-fastenings of Mr. Larsen, improved by Mr. Hopkins, 
 were introduced, by which the rail was lapped upon the longi¬ 
 tudinal sleeper, and was tied down by lateral staples at each side, 
 entirely out of the reach of derangement by the strokes of the 
 traffic, the problem was greatly simplified. The stiffness of the 
 rail, vertically as well as laterally, was greatly augmented by the 
 adoption of the side-fastenings. These, whilst they were placed 
 beyond the reach of blows at the surface, were enabled, in virtue 
 of their lateral disposition, to resist with powerful leverage the 
 force of oblique lateral strokes—a function in respect of which a 
 central spike or bolt was clearly inferior to the side-staple. Vertical 
 movement under the traffic was prevented, and the destructive 
 action of blows from the surface was checked in the initiatory 
 stage. The staple-fastening was so simple, and, after its intro¬ 
 duction, so obvious, that one may wonder at the primitive combi¬ 
 nation of a flat-grooved bar, of minimum strength, with a vertical 
 spike, which was used for several years. Let us wonder, and pass 
 on. But before passing on, let us note that Mr. Livesey and 
 Mr. Cockburn-Muir had from an early period perfectly well appre¬ 
 ciated the mechanical necessity for applying the fastenings of the 
 rail apart from the rolling surface, and had accordingly applied 
 wedge-fastenings at the sides of the rail. Their system, as systems 
 
346 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 of iron way, were long in advance of their time in the home 
 countries; and though these systems have not entered into the 
 domain of English practice, they were long since in general prac¬ 
 tice abroad. 
 
 The function of the substructure is to support the rails, and also 
 to keep them in gauge, whilst the foundation is laid to provide a 
 firm and uniform base for the rails and the paving conjointly, 
 maintaining both of them to one level. In some systems of tram¬ 
 way, the substructure is to some extent identified with, and forms 
 part of, the foundation. The foundation, in nearly all systems, 
 consists wholly or mainly of concrete—an artificial stone or com¬ 
 pound of considerable cohesive force, admirably adapted, when 
 properly made, for supporting dead weights on the ground, and 
 distributing superincumbent pressure. With a broad base of con¬ 
 crete the maintenance of the rails and the pavement at a uniform 
 level may be effectually performed. A wide solid base is indis¬ 
 pensable for the purpose, and if not already provided by nature or 
 by previous use, it must be supplied by art. 
 
 The substructure should afford a continuous support to the 
 rail, for the construction of a continuous bearing is simpler and 
 better than the construction required for intermittent bearings; 
 and, before all, the continuity of support contributes to the per¬ 
 fection and permanence of the rolling surface, not alone by 
 insuring longitudinal and lateral stiffness, but also by preventing 
 the twisting or torsion of the rail which would be caused by the 
 eccentric pressure of the wheel on a suspended rail. Take the 
 centre-line of the 2-inch rolling-surface of a rail 4 inches wide, as 
 the line of insistent vertical pressure; it lies only one inch from the 
 outer edge of the rail, and it is one inch off the central line of 
 support. Obviously, therefore, the rail which is supported by 
 intermittent bearings, is exposed to twisting stress between the 
 bearings, tending to cant it sidewise; and it is required to be 
 stiffened enough to resist such torsional stress. Besides, the 
 same stress ultimately reaches and strains the fastenings. 
 
 An extensive area of bearing-surface between the rails, the sub¬ 
 structure, and the foundation is not indispensable. It has been 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 347 
 
 demonstrated by experience that the continuous bearing of two 
 longitudinal sleepers, 4 inches wide, on sound concrete, is suffi¬ 
 cient for sustaining the heaviest traffic of the streets, and main¬ 
 taining the level of the rails. Two widths of 4 inches each, or 
 8 inches together, provide two square feet of bearing surface per 
 lineal yard of way. This datum has been arrived at, rather than 
 deduced, from practical results, simply because the first English 
 rails for tramways were 4 inches in width, and the longitudinal 
 sleepers upon which they were placed were made of the same 
 width, in order that the granite pavement might be set close up to 
 the rail at both sides. A less proportion of bearing surface, 
 fairly placed, would suffice. In fact, Mr. Deacon’s rail and longi¬ 
 tudinal sleeper are only 3^ inches in width—a width which affords 
 an area of bearing surface of not more than isquare foot per 
 lineal yard for two sleepers. Mr. Kincaid’s intermittent supports 
 on concrete present an area of 2^ square feet of bearing per lineal 
 yard. It might be difficult to prescribe the safe limit of area of 
 bearing on concrete, for Portland-cement concrete, twelve months 
 old, has been proved by Mr. Grant to be capable, before being 
 crushed, of resisting loads of from 91 tons to 170 tons per square 
 foot, according to the strength of the composition. 
 
 The mere extent of the area of bearing-surface on a foundation 
 of concrete, therefore, is practically of no moment, and does not 
 in itself affect, one way or another, the character of the way for 
 durability or efficiency—supposing, be it remembered, that the 
 concrete is faithfully made and laid ; and no other supposition, it 
 has been proved by experience, should ever be entertained. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that longitudinal sleepers of 
 timber, in good condition, are quite capable, without suffering 
 undue compression, of permanently supporting rails of a width of 
 3 or 4 inches, having a continuous bearing on the sleepers. 
 
 But the rails must also be maintained to gauge by the substruc¬ 
 ture. In other words, the rails must be prevented from spreading 
 apart, and so widening the gauge or distance between them. The 
 maintenance of gauge is indispensable, for, if the gauge be 
 strained, the flanges of car-wheels, which are devised so as to 
 
348 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 run near the inner sides of the grooves, when fairly placed, bind 
 against the ledges which form the inner slopes of the grooves. 
 The effect of such a spreading is greatly to augment the frictional 
 resistance of the cars, and, if continued far enough, to grind away 
 the flanges and reduce their thickness, to increase the difliculty of 
 passing the points and crossings, and, finally, to lead to the derail¬ 
 ment of the cars. Fortunately, the derailment of a tramcar, 
 though it may prove of great inconvenience, is a trivial matter 
 compared with the derailment of a railway train; but the other 
 evils of a spread of gauge are of much greater magnitude on a 
 tramway than their analogues on a railway. It need scarcely be 
 added that when railway-carriages, wagons, or locomotives are 
 passed over tramways, the means of maintaining the gauge must 
 be positive and precise. The pavement by which the rails are 
 enclosed affords, no doubt, material assistance in keeping them to 
 gauge; but it can be accepted only as an auxiliary. 
 
 The method of binding the rails to gauge by transverse sleepers, 
 to which longitudinal sleepers are fixed, by the medium of solid 
 chairs or of brackets, or by notching together, is positive. So, 
 also, is the method of tie-bars connecting the sleepers which carry 
 the rails. When longitudinal sleepers are bedded in concrete for 
 a portion of their height, the concrete forms a connection which 
 may be said to be positive; but in practice it is treated only 
 as auxiliary to other connections. Mr. Kincaid’s chairs were 
 solidly embedded in blocks of concrete, which were constructed 
 in holes formed in the ground. Nevertheless, in macadamised 
 roads, where no paving was provided, Mr. Kincaid applied a 
 cross tie-rod to each pair of joint-chairs ; and in Sheffield a solid 
 bed of concrete was laid for the whole width, in substitution for 
 the isolated blocks. 
 
 Transverse sleepers of wood give great satisfaction. Transverse 
 sleepers of wrought iron, like Vauteren’s, used on Continental 
 railways, might do well; but the wood sleeper is the better, for it 
 possesses bulk and surface, to make and keep a place for itself, 
 and to adhere by friction to the surrounding concrete. 
 
 That a tramway should be cushioned on an elastic substance— 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 349 
 
 wood—is a doctrine which has been maintained with some decree 
 of persistency. That it should be grounded on a hard substruc¬ 
 ture—cast iron—is a doctrine maintained by others. The question 
 of the elasticity of the material of the substructure—elasticity in 
 the conventional sense—is a matter of perfect inditference. Wood 
 is elastic, so also is cast iron. The action is rolling, not percus¬ 
 sive ; the speed is low, not high ; and the cars, as well as the 
 engines of the future, are, and will be, placed on springs having a 
 wide elastic range. The pavement of streets—granite stones 
 bedded on sand—is not, conventionally, elastic; yet it answers 
 well for the passage of loads at the customary speed of street 
 traffic. Elastic pavements have been tried, and they have failed. 
 The truth is that the depth of structure necessary for the formation 
 of a tramway is sufficient for inducing as much elasticity—percep¬ 
 tible to the touch, if not to the eye—as is needful to prevent a 
 sound structure from shaking itself loose. 
 
 The form of section of the groove in the rail is a subject 
 deserving of careful consideration. In many of the examples of 
 rails which have been illustrated, it may be noted that the sides of 
 the groove are formed with a greater degree of splay inwards than 
 outwards,the wheel than under the wheel. The motive for 
 the greater splay has been, in some instances, to economise metal; 
 but the economy thus effected is simply insignificant. By other 
 designers a low slope has been adopted, with a view to the more 
 facile extrusion of dried mud and other detritus from the groove 
 by the wedging action of the passing wheel-flanges, than is likely 
 to take place when the sides are vertical. There is incurred a 
 much greater resistance to traction when the groove is occupied 
 by hard deposit than when it is clear; since it is inevitable that 
 the mud and small stones or gravel, which find a lodgment 
 in the groove, must be either expelled or trodden upon by the 
 flanges of the wheels. It is a matter of common observation that 
 the resistance is much increased under such conditions, and the 
 principal reason is not far to seek : the wheels run at the same 
 time upon two circumferences of different radii—those of the 
 tread and the flange. Now, a square groove, by its form, resists 
 
350 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 the expulsion of detritus ; and it may happen, and does frequently 
 happen, that the resistance of the car over choked-up grooves is 
 so much increased, that it amounts to as much as that of wheels 
 running on common roads. In the sections of the American 
 grooved-rails, and particularly Mr. Light’s section, it is obvious 
 that the advantage of a widely sloping berme was appreciated 
 by the designers of those sections. The motive of the extremely 
 contracted grooves which have been practised—some of them 
 not exceeding an inch in width—and which, when clear, pro¬ 
 vided little more than clearance for wheel-flanges, is the fear of 
 the entanglement of the narrow-tyred wheels of cabs and carriages 
 in the grooves. But it is known that the derangement of common 
 road vehicles is almost wholly caused by the girding of their 
 wheels against the outer sides of the rails, when the surface 
 of the pavement is permitted to sink below the proper level—a 
 cause of disorder with which the groove is not concerned. 
 
 It is further to be noted that, by the occasional grounding of 
 the wheel-flanges over the bottom of the groove, by the interven¬ 
 tion of mud, dust, or stones, the metal at that, the weakest point, 
 is heavily stressed. The flanges may also ground directly on the 
 bottom, where the tread of the rail is reduced in height by wear, 
 when a like effect may be produced. It is found that old thin 
 rails subject to such action are spread laterally, and are occasion¬ 
 ally split through the bottom of the groove. 
 
 The form of the groove, then, is a point of importance, and the 
 best form is that in which the side next the rolling surface is 
 vertical, and the whole of the slope is given to the inner side. 
 
 The pavement should be specifically’ adapted to the tramway, 
 and the chief concern is to construct it so that it shall maintain 
 its level, and remain flush with the rails. A great deal of pre¬ 
 caution has been taken for preventing the rails from sinking; 
 whilst the pavement has been laid without sufficient permanent 
 support. A pavement that may suffice for a street untrammelled 
 by rails, laid on loose sand, gravel, or ashes, is not sufficient to 
 match a pair of rigidly supported rails, carried on an unyielding 
 foundation. There is nothing better to be done, for matching the 
 
GEXERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 351 
 
 ordinary wall-sided rail, than to bring up a solid unyielding foun¬ 
 dation for the paving, identical with the foundation for the rails. 
 This necessary object is fulfilled by the concreting of the subspace 
 up to the level of the under side of the paving stones, as a bottom 
 upon which they may, with the aid of a thin layer of sand, stand 
 to the level. Finally, as a security that neither will water pene¬ 
 trate, nor sand nor mud work up, the paving sets should be grouted 
 with an adhesive, elastic, bituminous mixture. 
 
 Adopting the conclusions just announced as standards for 
 estimating the merits of different systems of tramway, it would 
 appear that, upon the whole, the recently-made tramways of 
 Glasgow afford the best example of tramway having a timber 
 substructure hitherto actually constructed in its entirety. 
 
 Of the tramways having substructures of iron the system of Mr. 
 Kincaid is the only one of which successful experience has been 
 acquired in England. The isolated chairs or stools at 3-feet 
 centres are each levelled and set independently. In this respect, 
 Mr. Livesey’s system of coupled stools—two stools on one longi¬ 
 tudinal sleeper—is better; for they make a structural connection, 
 and they can be levelled and set with facility. They are. in 
 addition, efficiently tied transversely by two tie-bars, and thus the 
 stools and sleepers are framed together both longitudinally and 
 transversely, and assist each other in a manner which is not 
 available on Mr. Kincaid’s system of independent chairs. These 
 are not connected together either longitudinally or transversely, 
 and depend for their stability each on the fixity of its own portion 
 of concrete. 
 
 The length of the bearings of the rail on the intermediate 
 sleepers of Mr. Kincaid and of Mr. Livesey is 3 J inches; whilst 
 that of Mr. Cockburn-Muir is iij inches. It is clear enough that 
 the long bearing on the sleeper of the last-named engineer must 
 beneficially stiffen the rail, and he has taken advantage of such * 
 aid in adopting a longer distance apart for the sleepers, and 
 employing a rail of less weight than those of the other engineers. 
 The three systems may be thus brought into comparison :— 
 
35 - 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Rails. 
 
 Weight per 
 yard. 
 
 Centres of 
 sleepers. 
 
 Span 
 
 between 
 
 bearings. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Mr. Kincaid 
 
 iron 
 
 43 
 
 3 0 
 
 34 
 
 Mr. Livesey 
 
 steel 
 
 40 
 
 3 0 
 
 34 
 
 Mr. Cockburn-Muir . 
 
 iron 
 
 30 
 
 3 6 
 
 34 
 
 Now, it is to be premised that a rail may be strong enough, 
 as a beam, to support any load that may be placed upon it, 
 whilst it may not be stiff enough: for, resistance to deflection 
 must be the ruling consideration in the design of a tramway. 
 Deflection should be reduced to a minimum, since vertical stiffness 
 is the first condition for insuring a minimum tractional resistance. 
 It is obvious, too, that vertical stiffness is an essential condition 
 for insuring the stability of the fastenings and of the paving. 
 
 The stiffness of a rail is inversely as the cube of the length, and 
 Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s rail, if -it had had the same section as Mr. 
 Kincaid’s, would have been stiffer in the ratio of 32*5^ to 30*5^, or 
 of 3433 to 2837, or nearly 5 to 4. That a difference of 2 inches 
 in the span should cause a difference of a fourth or a fifth in the 
 stiffness of a rail supported on bearings at intervals, is a note¬ 
 worthy fact, and it points to the advantage of compactness of span 
 for intermittent bearings, and of the reduction of the overhang of 
 the rail by giving to it a considerable length of bearing surface 
 upon the chair or stool. These advantages may be exemplified 
 by supposing Mr. Cockburn-Muir’s block-sleepers to be placed 
 apart at 3-feet centres, the same distance apart as Mr. Kincaid’s 
 sleepers. The spans between the bearings and the relative stiff¬ 
 nesses of the rails—inversely as the cubes of the spans—supposing 
 that the same rail is laid in both cases, would be as follows :— 
 
 Centres of Spans between Relative 
 
 sleepers. bearings. stiffness. 
 
 Short bearing . . . 3 feet 32^ inches, as i 
 
 Long bearing . . .3 feet 2^^ inches, as 2^ 
 
 Showing that if Mr. Kincaid’s rail were laid on chairs with 
 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON CONSTRUCTION. 353 
 
 iij-inch bearing surfaces, it would possess 2^ times the stiffness; 
 or, otherwise, the deflection of the rail between the longer bearings 
 would be less than half of what it amounts to between the actual 
 bearings, of shorter length. The form of Mr. Kincaid’s chairs, it 
 may be observed, lends itself readily to the extension of the 
 bearing surface; and even if the gi-inch bearing surface of the 
 intermediate chairs were only doubled in length, making a 7-inch 
 bearing, uniform with the bearing at the joint-chairs, the stiffness 
 would be increased by nearly one-half. 
 
 It is logically deducible by the same line of argument, that with 
 a continuous bearing under the rail, the stiffness is indefinitely 
 greater than it can be upon bearings at intervals. But it is not to 
 be concluded that the rail on a continuous bearing may be made 
 indefinitely light in scantling. The rail must be of sufficient 
 scantling to enable it to resist the wire-drawing and out-rolling 
 action of moving loads concentrated under the wheels ; to check 
 the effects of occasional weakness of substructure; to bridge over 
 the inevitable junctions of the substructure, even when it is 
 nominally continuous, and to resist, also, accidental derange¬ 
 ments of the way, and the numberless varieties of irregular stress 
 to which tram-rails are subject. 
 
 These conditions are fulfilled by the solid girder-rail, now 
 universally employed. In this rail the functions of the top, the 
 middle, and the bottom are united in one piece,—combining 
 simplicity, strength, stiffness, solidity, and durability. Thus it 
 appears that, constructionally, tramways advanced in a circle. 
 They began with one piece, and they have ended in one piece. 
 
 A A 
 
PART IV. 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTICE OF TRAMWAY CARS, 
 
 The earliest cars specially designed for the modern tramway 
 were constructed, in 1831, for the New York and Haarlem 
 Street Railway, of which the first section, in the city of New 
 York, was opened in 1832. These cars, illustrated in Fig. 229,, 
 
 Fig. 229. Original Tramcar, manufactured in 1831, by Mr. John 
 
 Stephenson, New York. 
 
 were constructed with bodies like those of the road coaches 
 of the time. The car had three compartments, each of which 
 had side doors. The body was supported on leather springs. 
 The driver was seated on a dickey, or elevated seat, at the 
 front; the brake, which acted on one pair of wheels only, was 
 moved by the driver’s foot. The wheels, brakes, drawheads, &c., 
 
ms TOR/CAL NOTICE OF CARS. 
 
 355 
 
 were combined in a “ carriage-part,” a structure independent of 
 the body, which rested on the four axle-boxes of the carriage-part. 
 On this principle of arrangement, tramway cars were for several 
 years constructed, until it was found by experience that the por¬ 
 tions of the carriage-part not carried by the springs, soon became 
 worn and disordered, and required to be early renewed. One of 
 the first alterations in design consisted of the substitution of 
 laminated steel springs for the leather springs; the ends of the 
 springs were confined in pockets on the under side of the body, 
 whilst the springs were secured, by the middle, to the axle-box. 
 Then the carriage-part was dispensed with. Pedestals in jaw^ 
 plates, known as axle-guards in England, were not used. Though, 
 this form of running gear was practised for several years, it was. 
 unsatisfactory, because the adjustment of wheels and axles was>- 
 not positive. Single jaw-plates were then applied to take the- 
 axle-boxes and keep the axles square. 
 
 About the year 1856, volute steel springs were substituted for 
 laminated side-springs, and were succeeded by “spiral,” or,, 
 properly, helical steel springs. In every case, a single steel spring 
 rested on the top of the axle-box. But, in 1858, a pair of helical 
 springs were provided for each bearing; a yoke was placed on 
 the axle-box, astride, and sustained a spring at each side of the 
 box. About the same time, a method of preparing india-rubber 
 was discovered, by which it preserved its elasticity independently 
 of heat and cold, whilst its power of sustaining loads was greatly 
 increased. The combination of cheapness, durability, and smooth¬ 
 ness of action, led to the abandonment of steel bearing springs for 
 those of india-rubber. But, since the expiration of the patent for 
 the method of preparation, the manufacture of the india-rubber 
 springs was thrown open to the public, inferior goods were placed 
 in the market, the good name acquired for india-rubber springs was 
 damaged, and, as a consequence, helical and other springs came 
 again into demand. 
 
 The wheels made for the original American car. Fig. 229, were 
 of cast iron, with flat spokes, as shown. The “ hub,” or nave, 
 was parted radially into three sections, to provide for the shrinking 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 of the metal as it cooled. But the wheel was not strong, and 
 solid wood wheels with iron tyres were substituted. These were 
 heavy and expensive, and they were liable to fail by the loosening 
 of the tyre. About 1834, the cast-iron plate-wheel, or disc-wheel, 
 was introduced; it is regarded in America as the best type of 
 wheel for all kinds of service. 
 
 It was for many years supposed that a tramcar would not stay 
 on the track if the depth of the flanges of the wheels were less 
 than inches; and, although a slight reduction was made on 
 the depth, it was not until the year 1857 that it was discovered 
 that a depth of half an inch was sufficient for the purpose. The 
 half-inch flange is now universally employed on tramways. 
 
 The brakes, until 1858, consisted of clogs or shoes applied to 
 the treads of the wheels ; but when the flat tram-rail, or step-rail, 
 came into use, it was found that, as good car-wheels wear off 
 ^ inch of the thickness at the circumference before being “used 
 up,” the flange became half an inch deeper, and was made to 
 “ touch bottom,” when, usually at the end of three or four years, 
 the rail was split by the penetrating action of the flange. The 
 additional rubbing resistance, at the same time, arising from the 
 frictional contact of the two surfaces of different radii—the tread 
 and the flange—amounted to from 30 to 50 per cent, of the 
 resistance under normal conditions. But the objections of unequal 
 wear were met by extending the width of the brake-blocks, so as 
 to confine and take a bearing upon the flange as well as upon the 
 tread of the wheel. The flange was worn down at the same rate 
 as the tread, the life of the wheel was prolonged, the rail was 
 saved from rupture, and the additional resistance to traction was 
 prevented. 
 
 The hardest kind of chilled iron is the best material for brake 
 blocks, for the purpose of wearing upon the flanges of the wheels. 
 But it is not the best for stopping the car, for it does not “ cling ” 
 to the wheel so well as softer iron does. Still, the brakes should 
 have a sufficient degree of pressure applied to arrest the turning of 
 the wheels. 
 
 In the construction of American cars, the best American white 
 
HISTORICAL NOTICE OF CARS. 
 
 357 
 
 oak is used for the framework of the substructure, and the best 
 white ash for that of the body. The life of a tramcar in America, 
 properly maintained, is from 25 to 30 years. On the New York 
 and Haarlem Tramway, cars placed there in 1857 are still running. 
 Mr. Bancroft states that the wheels last for about 30,000 miles, 
 and the axles for from 200,000 to 300,000 miles. On tramways 
 of from 4 to 8 miles in length, with gradients varying up to i in 
 25, cars taking 80 passengers as a maximum load, are drawn 
 usually by two horses; in very hot weather, a third horse is 
 occasionally attached to assist the others on a steep incline. 
 
 The price of “top-seat” cars in America is about 11,000 
 dollars, or ^£22^. 
 
 Mr. Martineau'*' gives the following table of the capacity and 
 the weight of tramway cars and waggons :— 
 
 Weight of English and Foreign Cars, constructed by 
 
 THE Starbuck Car and Waggon Company. 
 
 Cars :— weight. 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 1 London, car to seat 22 in and 22 out . 
 
 • • 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Hoylake ,, 
 
 22 
 
 
 24 • 
 
 • • 
 
 46 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Birkenhead ,, 
 
 22 
 
 y y 
 
 24 
 
 • • 
 
 47 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 Oporto ,, 
 
 20 
 
 y y 
 
 20 ,, . 
 
 • • 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Middlesbro’ ,, 
 
 16 
 
 y y 
 
 16 ,, . 
 
 • • 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Naples, open car, 
 
 with 
 
 5 transverse 
 
 seats, to 
 
 
 
 
 seat 20 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 21 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 Naples,'car to seat 
 
 12 inside 
 
 only (with partition) 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 >» 
 
 16 
 
 y y 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Brussels ,, 
 
 16 
 
 y y 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Middlesbro’ ,, 
 
 14 
 
 y y 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 Sheffield ,, 
 
 16 
 
 y y 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 29 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Leeds ,, 
 
 18 
 
 y y 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 31 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Tramway Goods Waggons : 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pernambuco waggon . 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 I r 
 
 Oporto open goods 
 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 27 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 ,, covered goods 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 32 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 Note .—The weights above given include wheels and axles. 
 
 * Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol 1 ., 
 page 42. 
 
358 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 From this statement, it appears that the weight varies from 
 21 tons for a full-sized car carrying forty-six passengers, to 24 cwt. 
 for a light one-horse car carrying fourteen inside. Some heavier 
 cars, not mentioned in the table, have been made for Russia, 
 weighing 3 tons. They were made with wrought-iron under¬ 
 framing, iron panels, and elliptic springs. The bearing-springs of 
 tramcars are most commonly made, wholly or partly, of india- 
 rubber ; but it had been found that they would not bear the 
 extreme and lasting cold of a Russian winter, for which steel 
 springs are indispensable. Steel springs, in connection with 
 screw-brakes, which are preferred by Russian engineers, make the 
 Russian car, of course, a heavier vehicle than English cars. 
 
 Light one-horse cars are used in England—principally at 
 Sheffield, Leeds, and Leicester. They are also much used on 
 the Continent—in Naples, Oporto, Antwerp, and Brussels—and it 
 appears that they are extending in use, and are replacing the two- 
 horse car with roof-seats, or an “ imperial,” as the upper stage 
 is designated. As Mr. Martineau justly observes, there can be 
 no doubt that the heavy weight of roof-seats, with a number of 
 people on them, strains the framework of a car, in starting and 
 stopping, and that, therefore, cars made without such seats last 
 the longest. It has been said that the essence of a tramway is to 
 keep up a continuous flow of traffic, so that, if possible, a car 
 should always be in sight; and the principle of continuity of 
 service may often be more economically maintained by means of 
 one-horse cars than by heavier cars with two horses. 
 
 Taking wide averages, it may be stated that the number of 
 passengers carried per mile run by cars is seven. The significa¬ 
 tion of this statistical item is, that seven passengers are taken up 
 and set down per mile run by each car. Supposing that a car, 
 going 70 miles in a day, makes four stoppages per mile-run, for 
 passengers and interruptions, it would be stopped and started nearly 
 three hundred times a day. When it is reflected that a 2i-ton 
 car fully loaded with passengers, becomes a moving mass equal to 
 6 tons in weight—or, half loaded, upwards of 4 tons—it is clear 
 that the duty of arresting such a heavy mass, with the resumption 
 
HISTORICAL NOTICE OF CARS. 
 
 359 
 
 of motion, entails a vastly greater internal stress, comparatively, 
 than is borne by ordinary 3o-c\vt. omnibuses, or even by railway 
 carriages. Railway carriages, themselves strongly framed though 
 they be, shake loose in the framework. The elastic oscillation of 
 the body framing of these may be observed at the doorways, in 
 many instances, when a train is started, if the valve-gearing of 
 the locomotive be not equally adjusted so as to generate an even 
 pull on the train. 
 
 But there is the patent objection to the smaller cars, that what 
 is fictitiously called the ‘‘ dead weight ” of the smaller car con¬ 
 stitutes a larger proportion of the gross weight with passengers, 
 than that of the larger car. It was seen, for example, that the 
 2^-ton car can carry 3^ tons of passengers—‘‘paying weight”— 
 whereas the 24-cwt. car can take little over a ton of passengers. 
 Otherwise— 
 
 The 2^-ton car weighs ro8 cwt. per passenger 
 
 The 24-cwt. ,, I'71 ,, ,, 
 
 showing that the lighter car has 57J per cent, more weight of 
 material per passenger than the heavier car. There is a certain 
 degree of force in the argument thus deducible in favour of the 
 heavier car. But it may mislead. Suppose, on the contrary, that 
 the heavier car conveyed on an average only as many passengers 
 as the lighter car with its load, it might with an equal degree of 
 plausibility be made to appear that the lighter car would be much 
 the more economical, since there would be a gross weight of 
 4^ tons against only 3^ tons for the lighter car. And, again, the 
 lighter car employs only one horse, whilst the heavier employs 
 two. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 INSIDE - AND -O UTS IDE PA SSENGER TRA MCA R, 
 CONSTRUCTED BY THE METROPOLITAN RAIL¬ 
 WAY CARRIAGE AND WAGGON COMPANY. 
 
 This car—shown in Plate I. (Figs. 230 to 235)—was constructed 
 for the North Dublin Street Tramways. It is suited to the railway 
 and tramway gauge of Ireland—5 feet 3 inches. It seats 20 pas¬ 
 sengers inside, and 22 outside : total, 42 passengers. The weight 
 of the car is about 2^ tons, equivalent to 1*19 cwt. per passenger. 
 The weight of 42 passengers is 3 tons; and the gross weight, 
 fully loaded, is 5^ tons. 
 
 The body of the car is 15 feet 3 inches long," and 6 feet 
 8 inches wide, outside measurement. It is about 10 feet i inch 
 high to the roof seats, and the total height over all amounts 
 to II feet 3 inches. The total length is 21 feet 3 inches, in 
 which a length of 3 feet is allowed at each end for the platform. 
 The length of the body, inside, is 14 feet 7^ inches, which, for 
 
 10 seats on each side, provides an allowance of 17^ inches per 
 passenger. On the roof, the allowance per passenger for 22, or 
 
 11 on each side, amounts to about 16^ inches. The axles are 
 
 placed at centres 6 feet apart. v 
 
 The roof-seats are approached by a spiral staircase at each 
 end. The inside seats are stuffed with the best curled horsehair, 
 and covered with Utrecht velvet. The body is closed by a sliding 
 door at each end. All the side windows, except two on each side, 
 are fixed ; these two slide downwards, and they are fitted in the 
 slides with steadying springs. Sliding^ curtains are mounted on 
 iron rods. Ventilation is provided by means of small hinged 
 

 »IDE-and-OU 
 
 LITAN RAILW/ 
 
 Plate 1 . 
 
 SCA 
 
 lig. 235. 
 
 ^ ■ 
 
 L 
 
 Cros/'y ZorkwooU Sc. 
 
 To face jO'Cuot 360 
 
INSI DE-and-OUTSIDE PASSENGER CAR . 
 (metropolitan railway carriageand waggon company.) 
 
 Plate 1. 
 
 Fig. 230. 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 
 Fig. 233 
 
 Inq. 235. 
 
 k A A A, A A A A A A A ,A As, A 
 
 To face, page- 360 
 
INS,IDE-AND-OUrSIDE PASSENGER TRAMCAR. 361 
 
 windows under the outside seats. Two lamps are fixed within the 
 car. 
 
 The whole of the framing is of well-seasoned oak or ash, and 
 the panels are of mahogany, f inch thick. The doors are of ash. 
 The roof is covered on the outside with canvas, rendered thoroughly 
 watertight with paint. The canvas is protected by boards or slats, 
 forming footpaths for outside passengers. 
 
 The underframe consists of two side-soles, 3^ by 3 inches, two 
 end-soles, 4^ inches wide and 3 inches deep, rebated for the floor¬ 
 boards, and four cross-bats, 3^ inches wide, and 2 inches deep. 
 The flooring-boards are i inch thick, let flush into the side-soles 
 and end-soles. The corner-pillars are 3^ inches by 4^ inches, 
 rounded at the outer angles. There are seven intermediate pillars 
 at each side, between which the side-windows are framed. The 
 upper side-rails are inches square. The end-rails are inch 
 thick, shaped to the form of the roof; and there are 16 inter¬ 
 mediate roof-sticks, inches square, placed at distances of 
 II inches apart between centres. The roof-boards are ^ inch 
 thick, and the flooring-boards on the roof are t inch thick. Each 
 platform is carried by three cantilevers, 2 \ inches thick, and 
 5f inches deep at the middle, bolted to the underframe of 
 the car. 
 
 The wheels and the axles, Figs. 236, 237, 238, are of cast steel. 
 The wheels are 30 inches in diameter, and are each formed with 
 six spokes; one of them is keyed fast on the axle, and the other 
 is loose and revolves independently; it is formed with a nave 
 8 inches in length, hollow in the middle, making a receptacle for 
 oil. The rim is 2^ inches wide, and is formed with a flange pro¬ 
 jecting 1^6 inch from the tread of the wheel, according to the 
 section. Fig. 238. The axle is 2J inches in diameter between the 
 wheels, and 2f inches in the naves of the wheels. The journals 
 are i|^ inches in diameter, and 4f inches long. They are formed 
 with flat ends, without collars, and they take their bearings endwise 
 against steel wearing-plates, inserted in the axle-boxes. The 
 ' diameter of the tread is 2 feet 6 inches next the flange, and it is 
 ^ inch less at the outer edge, making a slope of de inch, or i in 
 
362 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 24, on the face of the tread. The rim is f inch thick at the outer 
 edge. The two wheels are placed on the axle at a distance of 
 5 feet inches between the backs of the tyres, which is if inches 
 less than the gauge of the rails ; so that, deducting the thickness 
 of the two flanges, f inch remains for play. When the wheels, 
 therefore, stand centrally on the rails, the flanges are just f inch 
 clear of the rail at each side. This is an important point. It is 
 necessary that the flanges of the wheels should not touch or revolve 
 against the inner ledges of the rails ; in order that any binding of 
 the way, and increased resistance, and probable alteration of 
 
 Fig. 236. Dublin Tramcar :—Wheels and axle. Scale W- 
 
 gauge, or derailment, may be avoided. It is well, therefore, that 
 the clearance between the flanges and the treads of the rails 
 should be limited to what is just requisite for free circulation, and 
 the whole remaining width of the groove given to the inside. 
 There is another advantage in this disposition of the wheels, that 
 detritus collected in the groove is the more easily pushed aside by 
 the action of the flanges. The length of the axle between the 
 cehtres of the journals is 6 feet 4 inches, being 13 inches larger 
 than the width of gauge. The overhang of inches at each end 
 —or 5 inches from the nave of the wheel—confers the advantage 
 
INSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER TRAM CAR, 363 
 
 of some degree of elasticity of action, as between the rigid bearing 
 of the wheel on the rail and the bearing of the axle-box. 
 
 T 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 237. Dublin Tram- Fig. 238. Dublin Tramcar :—Section 
 car : — Side view of of rim of wheel. Scale 
 
 wheel. Scale -re* 
 
 The axle-boxes, Fig. 239, are of American pattern; they are 
 
 ) • 
 
 Fig. 240. Dublin Tramcar 
 Section of brass bearing in 
 axle-box. Scale F 
 
 excellently constructed, with lubrication by oil. They are very 
 simple. The body of the box is cast in one piece, with a recep- 
 
3^64 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS, 
 
 tacle in the lower part for cotton-waste, which is soaked with oil, 
 and laps the journal below. The brass or gun-metal bearing. Fig. 
 240, is formed with a hollow in the upper side, as a receptacle for 
 oil, which is introduced through a hole in the top of the box, and 
 is'admitted upon the-journal through two oil holes in the brass. 
 The brass bears upon the journal for all its length, but is restricted 
 to a narrow width of contact, about i A inches, upon the journal: 
 being five-eighths of the diameter. The horizontal area of the 
 bearing-surface on one journal is (4^ X lA =) 5*64 square 
 inches, upon which the maximum load is a fourth of, say, 5 tons, 
 or 2,800 pounds—equivalent to 500 pounds on the square inch of 
 bearing-surface. Again, for the horizontal area of the journal, 
 which amounts to (4I X =) 8'4i square inches, the maximum 
 load is equivalent to 333 pounds per square inch. These are 
 great amounts of pressure concentrated on a square inch of 
 surface. They may be contrasted with the corresponding distribu¬ 
 tion of pressure on the axle-journals of railway rolling stock :— 
 
 Tramway car. Railway stock, 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 Load per square inch of bearing surface . 500 300 
 
 Do. do. of horizontal area of 
 
 journal . . -333 224 
 
 It may here be noted that the gross weight of the Birmingham 
 Central double bogie car—say 8 tons—is distributed at the rate of 
 360 pounds per square inch of horizontal area of journals. 
 
 The excess of pressure in tramway cars is warranted by the 
 limited speed of tramway traffic, with the frequency of stoppages. 
 But there is another feature in this axle-box, of great utility—the 
 grit-shield, made of papier-mache', which embraces the axle, and 
 is let into a groove formed in the back of the axle-box. The 
 shield not only excludes dust and dirt from the axle-box, but it 
 also aids in preventing waste of oil. 
 
 The brass is free to slide laterally under the upper part of the 
 axle-box, and is slightly rounded at the surface of bearing on the 
 box. The needful end-resistance is supplied by the steel bearing- 
 plate, already noticed, let into and sustained in vertical grooves in 
 
INSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER TRAMCAR. 365 
 
 the front part of the box, to oppose the end of the journal, and 
 limit the lateral play of the axle in the axle-boxes to an allowance 
 of f or d inch. The journal is also free to slide laterally, to a 
 limited extent, under the brass. The effect of all this freedom of 
 action is, that the liability to binding or heating in the axle-boxes 
 is reduced to a minimum, whilst the traction of the car is 
 facilitated. 
 
 A portion of the front of the axle-box is readily removable, so 
 that every part of the axle-box may be opened to inspection, and 
 the brass withdrawn, or the stuffing renewed. The axle-box, as a 
 whole, may also be withdrawn from the axle. 
 
 The axle-guards are of cast iron, bolted to the side-soles. They 
 are formed with broad bearing-surfaces, to support the axle-box for 
 its whole length, from front to back, and with a recess at each side 
 of the axle-box, in which the bearing-springs are lodged. The 
 springs are of india-rubber, two to each axle-box, manufactured 
 by the North British Rubber Company. They are barrel-shaped, 
 and placed on end, each of them between two dished washers, 
 upon the lateral extensions of a wrought-iron saddle, which 
 bestrides the axle-box. The side-soles of the car take a bearing 
 upon the upper ends of the springs. 
 
 The bearing-springs are formed of a special compound of india- 
 
 rubber, stiffer than pure rubber* so as to dispense with the aid of 
 
 * » 
 
 steel as an auxiliary. There is no need for steel in combination 
 with rubber anywhere, provided that a sufficient area of base is 
 obtained for the rubber. ^ There is a pair of india-rubber springs 
 over each axle-box, which are about 7 inches high, when un¬ 
 loaded, and 4J inches in diameter at the middle. They are 
 reduced in height f inch by compression under the empty car, 
 under a net weight of, say, 2 tons. Divided over eight springs, 
 the compressing weight per spring is 1 ton—whence it is deduced 
 that the springs yield at the rate of (f X 4 =) inches per ton 
 on each spring, in the first stages of compression. Under the net 
 load of 5 tons, the load per spring would be (5 8 =) t ton, 
 
 and the total deflection would be (li X t nearly i inch for 
 each spring. 
 
366 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 The brake, on the system known as Stephenson’s, of New York, 
 is worked at the platform at each end of the car. A block of 
 cast iron is applied to each wheel. The blocks are hung as two 
 pairs, each pair on a transverse swing-beam, applicable to one pair 
 of wheels. The beams, when not under pressure, hang free of the 
 wheels. The power is applied by hand by turning a vertical iron 
 shaft or spindle, on which a chain is coiled. The chain is con¬ 
 nected to one end of a long intermediate transverse lever, pivoted 
 under the centre of the car, from which, by pulling-rods pinned to 
 it near the centre, the swing-beams and brake-blocks are pulled 
 into contact with the wheels. The actual pressure applied to the 
 wheels in this manner may be calculated from the dimensions of 
 the brake-gear. The handle, or crank, has a radius of lo inches, 
 whilst the chain is coiled on the shaft to a mean radius of about 
 finch. Next, the chain pulls the intermediate lever at a radius 
 of 2 2f inches, measured from the central pivot, and the pulling- 
 rods are connected at a radius of inches. Applying these data, 
 the pressure applied at the handle is multiplied or intensified 72 
 times when it is transmitted to and applied to the wheels: calcu¬ 
 lated thus, in terms of the ratios :— < 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 Handle to chain 
 
 Inches. 
 
 . . 10 
 
 to 
 
 Inches. 
 
 7 
 
 Long lever to short lever ^ 
 
 . . 22f 
 
 to 
 
 
 Final ratio 
 
 . . 225 
 
 to 
 
 3*94 
 
 or, Leverage of the power 
 
 • ■ • 57 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 Suppose that a man can apply, on 
 
 emergency, 
 
 a 
 
 pressure 
 
 56 lbs. to a crank-handle. The statical equivalent of this pressure 
 at the handle is (57 x 56=) 3,192 lbs. at the tyres of the 
 wheels, or i'42 tons. This is the breaking force that may be 
 applied to the wheels; and, supposing that the coefficient of 
 frictional resistance between the brake-blocks and the wheels is the 
 same as that between the rails and the wheels, it would appear 
 that the wheels may not be skidded by the application of this 
 brake, even when the car is empty, when the weight is. 
 
INSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER TRAMCAR. 367 
 
 2 \ tons. Of course, with its complement of weight, as passen¬ 
 gers, adding a ton and a half, and making up 3 tons gross, 
 it is still less practicable to skid the wheels, unless the co¬ 
 efficient of friction of the brake-blocks is considerably greater than 
 that upon the rails. In practice, the wheels can be skidded by 
 the brake. 
 
 Framework of such tender scantling as that of the tramway car, 
 with a contracted wheel-base, great overhang, and seat-room for a 
 heavy load of passengers, it is needful to stiffen by means of truss- 
 rods. The underframe is strengthened by a trussing of iron bars 
 
 Fig. 241. Disc car-wheel and axle. 
 Scale 
 
 Fig. 242. Disc car-wheel. 
 Section of tyre. Scale T 
 
 applied under the seats, with tightening screws at the ends, under 
 the side-soles; and by tie-bars and diagonal rods connecting the 
 axle-guards and the side-soles. The roof, too, being of the form 
 of an interrupted arch, to make a support for the roof-seats, 
 requires to be trussed ; and in order to stihen the roof, a segmental 
 truss-rod is applied at each side, suspended between the ends ot 
 the body, and clasped to the roof-ribs. 
 
 The price of this car, to the Irish gauge, is at the Avorks; 
 
 to the English gauge, the price of the car, of equal capacity, is 
 I os. The weight in each case is taken at 2^ tons. 
 
368 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 • The ordinary solid disc-wheels and axles employed by the 
 Metropolitan Company for tramcars, are shown in Figs. 241, 242. 
 The wheels are dished inwardly, with stiffening flanges on the 
 back : they are 30 inches in diameter. The naves are 4 inches 
 deep, and are simply driven tightly upon the axle, where they 
 remain without the aid of keys. The disc is inch thick at the 
 nave, and is reduced to a thickness of f inch at the rim. The 
 rim is 2^ inches broad, comprising the thickness of the flange, 
 \ inch, and the width of the tread, 2I inches. The flange projects 
 ^ inch from the tread ; the axle is 3 inches in diameter between 
 the wheels, 2^ inches in the naves; and the journals are 2 inches 
 in diameter, by 5^^ inches long. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 INSIDE PASSENGER TRAMCAR, CONSTRUCTED 
 BY THE STARBUCK CAR AND WAGGON 
 
 COMPANY. 
 
 The passenger tramcar, to hold eighteen passengers inside, illus¬ 
 trated by Plate II. (Figs. 243 to 247), is an excellent example of 
 its kind. The body is 14 feet long and 6 feet 7 inches wide, 
 
 Fig. 248. Section of wheel-tyre of the Starbuck car. Scale 
 
 outside measure. The clear length inside is about 13 feet 3 inches,, 
 which, for nine persons on each side, contains an allowance of 
 17! inches for erch passenger. This allowance is liberal; in 
 omnibuses, 16 inches only is allowed. The weight of the car is 
 31 cwt.; equivalent to i’72 cwt. per passenger. The total length 
 of the car, over the platforms, allowing 3 feet for each platform, 
 is 20 feet; and the extreme height, above the rails, is 9 feet 
 3 inches. The gauge of the rails is 4 feet 8^ inches. 
 
 The wheels are 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, of cast iron chilled 
 
 B B 
 
370 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 at the tread and the flange, which are of the section shown in 
 Fig. 248; the axles are 3 inches in diameter, and are of best scrap 
 iron. They are placed at a distance of 5 feet 6 inches between 
 centres. The bearing-springs are of india-rubber—two blocks to 
 each axle-bearing. The brake is of the same design as that 
 already described for the Dublin car; but the proportions are 
 different, thus:— 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 Handle to chain 
 
 Long lever to short lever . 
 
 Final ratio 
 
 or, Leverage of the power 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 . 9 to I 
 
 . 24 to 3 
 
 . 216 to 3 
 
 • 72 to I 
 
 For a pressure of 56 lbs. at the handle, the statical equivalent 
 at the wheels is (72 X 56 —) 4,032 lbs., or nearly 2 tons—a con¬ 
 siderably greater pressure, for a considerably lighter vehicle, than 
 was found in the Dublin car. In short, the leverages are respec¬ 
 tively as follows:— 
 
 Total weight Leverage Leverage per 
 
 Car. half-loaded. of brake. ton of weight. 
 
 Metropolitan . . 4^^ tons ... 57 to 1 ... 13*4 to i 
 
 Starbuck . . • 3 ... 72 to i ... 24 to i 
 
 Such variations of practice point to the greater strength and pov»*er 
 •of resistance to braking stress of the solid-roofed cars, relative to 
 ^ars with interrupted roofs and top-loads. 
 
Plate J1 . 
 
 Fig. 246. 
 
 Fiq. 
 
 247 . 
 
 To foLce j)ag&370 
 
Plate ] 1 . 
 
 INSIDE PASSENGER CAR. 
 
 (STARBUCK CAR AND WAGGON COMPANY.) 
 
 ^ Z S^afzoner-s yT^// 
 
 Fig. 246 . 
 
 Fig. 2 F 7 . 
 
 Tlio^Kelld- Son. Litit-40,King’Coveiit Gandon. 
 
 To facA pobg&370 
 

 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INSIDE-AND-OUTSIDE PASSENGER-CAR FOR 
 STEAM TRACTION, CONSTRUCTED BY THE 
 FALCON ENGINE AND CAR WORKS, 
 LOUGHBOROUGH. 
 
 This car—shown in Plate III. (Figs. 249, 250), and further 
 illustrated in Figs. 251 to 253—was constructed for the Birmingham 
 Central Tramways, on a gauge of 3^ feet, to carry thirty passengers 
 inside and thirty outside. It runs on eight 21-inch wheels, set in 
 two swivelling bogies. The body is of the usual street car type, 
 having a platform and staircase at each end, and an awning over 
 the top seats. The dimensions are—• 
 
 Length inside body, 20 feet 5 inch, or 16 inches per passenger. 
 
 Length over platforms, 29 feet li inches. 
 
 Width outside pillars, 5 feet 6 h inches. 
 
 Width over all, 5 feet 9 inches. 
 
 Height, 14 feet. 
 
 Distance apart of bogies, between centres, 19 feet 8^ inches. 
 
 The bottom frame is of oak, put together with white lead, and 
 where necessary, with oak pins. Each side is trussed. The side 
 and corner pillars are of ash. The waist panels are of Honduras 
 mahogany, and the rocker panels of whitewood. The inner sides 
 of the panels are covered with canvas glued on. The panels are 
 pinned to every pillar, except the end pillars, to which they are 
 screwed; they are glue-blocked to the battens. 
 
 The floor is of i-inch red deal, tongued and grooved, nailed 
 down to the bottom frame. Wearing grids are formed of longi- 
 
 B B 2 
 
37^ 
 
 TRA.MWAY CARS, 
 
 tudinal strips of white deal, nailed to the floor. The roof ribs are 
 of American elm or English ash, bent to the curves and covered 
 with pitchpine tongued and grooved. Canvas is put on with white 
 lead, and painted outside with four coats of white lead paint. The 
 doors have frames of cherry, panelled at the bottom with light wood 
 and at the top with glass. They are hung on brackets and rollers 
 at the top, and are fitted with friction-plates, handles, and catches. 
 
 The inside casings are framed together, and fitted with fancy 
 wood patterns finished in their natural grain. A swing door with 
 glass panel is fixed on the side where the car door slides in. The 
 windows are of best polished plate-glass, and ^-inch bare in thick¬ 
 ness, fixed in grooved india-rubber. The blinds are of curtain 
 form, of mohair mounted on polished brass rods. The seats and 
 backs are of perforated veneer in one piece, suitably carved, 
 finished in the natural grain, and French polished. The inside 
 hand rails are of wrought-iron tube with screwed ends. They act 
 as tension rods to keep the roof in proper form. A sufficient 
 number of hand-straps are provided. There are two lamps, one at 
 each end of the car. Their reflectors are fluted glass mirrors, 
 showing a strong light to the car and a coloured signal light out¬ 
 side. Ventilators are fixed inside of the roof. Cords are pro¬ 
 vided to be connected with the gong on the engine. 
 
 The platforms are of-i-inch red deal, 4^ feet long. The frames 
 and supports are of angle-iron, with oak bearers. The off-sides are 
 railed in. The entrances are fitted with gates and locks. The 
 flooring is either tongued and grooved or open-jointed. The steps 
 are of hard wood, on wrought-iron brackets. The dash or fence is 
 formed of wrought-iron rails supported by suitable standards, with 
 a hand-rail at the top, and shut in outside. A light staircase is 
 fixed to each platform to give access to the seats on the roof. The 
 stair has sheet-iron stringers and risers and wood treads. The 
 risers are flanged to receive the treads and secure the stringers. 
 
 The frames of the bonnets are of ash or American elm, bent to 
 the curves, and covered with pine and canvas, as specified for the 
 roof; fixed to the ends of the cars with wrought-iron brackets. 
 
 The top seats are of slat-and-space construction, with reversible 
 
Plate 111 
 
 Fig. 24-9 
 
 INSIDE*-and—OUTS IDE PASSENGER CAR, for STEAM TRACTION. 
 
 (falcon engine and car works, Loughborough) 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 
 Crosby Lockwood i. Son 7. Stationers' Hall Couri,£ondo7i 
 
 ? Kell (fc Son. Litli 40.Eug-S^ Coveui Garden- 
 
 Tofajo&-poige^31Z 
 
PASSENGER-CAR FOR S7EAM TRACT/ON. 
 
 373 
 
 backs. The slats are of pitch-pine or other suitable wood, var¬ 
 nished the natural colour. A light wooden roof covered with 
 canvas is supported by iron standards. The upper part of each 
 end is glazed and fitted with a deal door. Wearing slats of deal 
 
 are fitted alongside the roof and across the bonnets. A light and 
 strong hand-rail, 2^ feet high, of wrought-iron tube with wrought- 
 iron feet, all screwed together, is securely fixed round the top of 
 the car and on the outer side of each staircase. 
 
374 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 The bogies, Figs. 251 to 253, are of wrought-iron. The axles 
 of each bogie are 3^ feet apart. The sides are cut out of |-inch 
 solid plates, forming guides for the axle-boxes. The centres are of 
 cast iron, with convenient means for oiling. Friction rollers are 
 fitted on each side to limit the tilting of the car. The wheels are of 
 chilled cast iron, from America, 21 inches in diameter, bored to 
 2f inches in diameter. The axles are of mild steel, turned, with 
 2^-inch journals, having 5I- inches length of bearing. The wheels 
 are forced into their proper places on the axles by hydraulic 
 pressure. The axle-boxes are formed with oil wells, and to exclude 
 dust and dirt. The bearings are of gun-metal. There are double¬ 
 spring check plates to limit end play. The lids are of wrought 
 iron, fixed with a hook at the top and a bolt at the bottom. The 
 springs are of coiled steel. The deflection of the springs, when 
 fully loaded, amounts to f inch. 
 
 Fig. 253. Car for steam traction ; bogie. End view. 
 
 A wrought-iron draw-bar is connected to each bogie as near 
 as possible to its centre. Brake blocks of chilled cast iron, 
 supplied one to each wheel; worked by means of a hand-wheel 
 under the stair at each end of the car, and arranged to connect to 
 the break-chain from the engine. 
 
 The iron work is of B B Staffordshire or other iron of equal 
 quality. It is required to be of light but strong design and first- 
 rate workmanship. 
 
 The outside of the car receives three coats of lead priming, 
 eight coats of filling-up, stopped and rubbed down, painted, picked 
 
PASSENGER-CAR FOR STEAM TRACT/ON, 
 
 375 
 
 out, fine lined, and lettered according to colours, patterns, and 
 wording, to be supplied by the purchaser. Finished with three 
 coats of durable body varnish outside ; and French polished inside, 
 except the roof, which is varnished with finishing body varnish. 
 
 Tons. cwts. 
 
 Weight of car, unloaded.318 
 
 Do., fully loaded with 60 passengers, weighing 
 4 tons, at the rate of 15 passengers per ton , 7 18 
 
 The gross weight may be taken as 8 tons, or 2 tons per axle, 
 or I ton per wheel. The total horizontal bearing area of the 
 journals may be taken at 50 square inches, and the gross load 
 
 at ( ^^5^ ^ ^ ^ round number, 360 lbs. per 
 
 square inch. 
 
 The weight of the car unloaded is 1*30 cwt. per passenger. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 RADIAL-AXLE PASSENGER TRAMCAR, BY 
 AIR, JAMES CLEAIINSON, 
 
 Mr. Cleminson’s system of three axles, forming a self-adjusting 
 or ‘‘flexible” wheel-base, complies with the conditions of the 
 problem of a free passage along curves in a satisfactory manner. 
 The axles, with their axle-boxes, springs, and guards, are mounted 
 in independent frames, one to each axle, separate from the main 
 underframe of the carriage. The end frames are fitted with central 
 pivots, on which they swivel freely, whilst the middle frame is so 
 arranged that it can slide transversely. The three frames are 
 connected together by articulated radiating gear, so that they act 
 sympathetically, in such a manner that when the carriage or the 
 car, leaving a straight portion of the way, passes on to a curve, 
 the end axles are deflected horizontally, forming angles with the 
 central axle, and taking up radial positions coincident with the 
 radii of the curve. By means of such self-acting adjustment, the 
 car rolls freely round the curve. When, conversely, the car passes 
 from the curve to the straight line, the axles resume their paral¬ 
 lelism, and the car rolls on naturally in a straight line. The 
 automatic action arises from the translation of the middle axle and 
 frame transversely, on a curve : the relative lateral movement of 
 the middle frame is communicated to the near sides of the end 
 frames, causing them to swivel on their pivots, and to turn the end 
 axles into appropriate radial positions. 
 
 Mr. Cleminson’s radial-axle tramcar. Fig. 254, has been at work 
 on the Dublin and other tramways. The wheels are placed widely 
 apart under the body of the car, and the pitching movement inci¬ 
 dental to the working of tramcars constructed with the ordinary 
 
RADIAL-AXLE PASSENGER-CAR 
 
 377 
 
 contracted wheel-base, is extinguished. This car seats i8 passen¬ 
 
 gers inside, and 20 outside ; total number, 38. The weight of the 
 car is 45 cwt., equivalent to i’i8 cwt. per passenger. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FRENCH TRAMCARS. 
 
 The winter car, designed and constructed by M. Leon Francq^ 
 for the tramways from the Arc de Triomphe to the Porte Maillot, 
 accommodates 14 passengers inside, and 7 standing on each plat¬ 
 form; total number, 28. The weight of the car, empty, is i’57 
 
 with passengers, 3*36 tons. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Total length, extreme .... 
 
 . 19 
 
 0 
 
 Length of the body ..... 
 
 . 11 
 
 
 Length of each platform .... 
 
 • 3 
 
 1\ 
 
 Length inside. 
 
 . 11 
 
 5 i 
 
 Space per passenger, width 
 
 I 
 
 7-k 
 
 Width, transversely, of seats 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 Height of seats. 
 
 I 
 
 7 i 
 
 Width of passage way, between seats 
 
 2 
 
 9 i 
 
 Width of body, outside .... 
 
 . 6 
 
 7 
 
 Width of doors ...... 
 
 I 
 
 
 Height of doors ...... 
 
 • 5 
 
 II 
 
 Maximum height, inside .... 
 
 . 6 
 
 9i 
 
 Diameter of wheels (four) .... 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Distance apart of axles, between centres * 
 
 • 5 
 
 3 
 
 With dimensions so spacious, this car weighs only i’i2 cwt. per 
 passenger, or about 4 per cent, more than the inside-and-outside 
 car, described at page 360. The body is constructed as ordinary 
 coach-work, with cross-bars of double “P iron. The panels and 
 the fences of the platforms are of sheet-iron, varnished. The 
 springs were originally constructed on the Belleville system, con- 
 
FRENCH TRAMCARS. 
 
 379 
 
 sisting of dished steel yjlates, piled on a spindle; but they have 
 been replaced by ordinary springs of india-rubber, barrel-shaped, 
 like those already described, standing 8 inches high, and 4 inches 
 in diameter at the middle. The brake is on Stephenson’s system 
 applied to all the wheels. The price of the car delivered was 
 ^180. 
 
 The resistance of the car to traction, on a level, varies from 
 13 lbs. to 22 lbs. per ton, according to the state of the way, at a 
 speed of 7 J or 8 miles per hour. 
 
 The summer car, designed by M. Francq, has nearly the same 
 leading dimensions as those of the winter car, and accommodates 
 the same number of passengers inside and on the platforms. The 
 sides and the ends of the body are open above the seats, but they 
 are provided with curtains. The weight of the car, empty, is 1*37 
 tons, equivalent to i cwt. per passenger. The price of the car 
 delivered was ;£^i6o. 
 
 The Compagnie Gene'rale des Omnibus use large omnibuses 
 (see Plate IV., Figs. 255, 256), for inside and outside passengers, 
 on the outer boulevards, on the line between the Etoile and La 
 Villette. There are seats for 20 passengers inside, 22 outside, and 
 standing room on the platform for 6 passengers; in all, 48. The 
 body is 16 feet 5 .inches long outside; the platform at the back 
 projects 4 feet 10 inches beyond the body; the steps project 7 
 inches farther back ; whilst the driver’s seat in front projects 3 feet 
 in advance. The total length of the vehicle is 24 feet 10 inches. 
 The width of seat-space allowed in the interior is 19 inches per 
 passenger; on the roof it is 17! inches. The width of the body 
 is 6 feet 7 inches outside. There is one staircase, at the end, 
 leading to tlie roof, and the steps off the platform descend end¬ 
 wise. The body of the car is supported on transverse framing of 
 wood, mounted on four wheels, 3 feet 3f inches in diameter, at a 
 distance apart of 7 feet loj inches. The wheels on one side of 
 the car only are flanged, and are keyed on their axles; those on 
 the other side are made with flat tyres, and are loose on their 
 axles. The fore-wheels only are flanged; those on the other side 
 are made with flat tyres. The fore-wheels run in a movable 
 
380 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 frame, to which traces for two horses are attached, and which 
 turns on a perch-bolt, and admits of an easy passage on curves. 
 The car rests on laminated springs, having a span of 39 inches. 
 A brake, which can be turned by the driver, may be applied to 
 the hind-wheels of the car. The cars run lightly, and the resist¬ 
 ance to traction is much less than that of ordinary tramcars. The 
 weight of the car empty is 2‘95 tons, equivalent to 1-23 cwt. per 
 passenger. The weight, when loaded, is from 6 to tons. The 
 cost of the car, constructed at the works of the company, is 
 £2(^0. 
 
 The cars of the North Company are seated for inside pas¬ 
 sengers only: 16 inside, with standing room for 16 on the two 
 platforms; in all, 32. The weight is if tons empty, equivalent 
 to I cwt. per passenger; the weight loaded is from 4 ^ to qf tons. 
 
 The cars of the South Company are seated for 16 inside, 
 12 on the platforms, and 18 outside; in all, 46. The weight is 
 2'2o tons empty, equivalent to '96 cwt. per passenger; loaded, 
 the weight is from 5 to 5'20 tons. 
 
 Each car is worked with 8, i o, or 12 horses; each pair making 
 a journey of 10 miles per day. The cars run from 53 to 56 miles 
 per day. 
 
Plate 
 
 INSIDE— AND —OUTSIDE 
 
 (COMPAGNIE GENERALE DES 
 
 PASSENGER CAR. 
 
 OMNIBUS. Paris) 
 
 SCALE I 25^ DIMENSIONS IN METRICAL MEASURE. 
 
 JTi g. 256 . 
 
 CM 
 
 S? 
 
 
 s 
 
 oo 
 
 Li til. 40. Eng' S* Covent Garden. 
 
 Croshy Zockwood A Son 7, Stationers' Hall Court, Zondon 
 
 To fojse pa.ge' 380. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FADE'S REVERSIBLE CAR. 
 
 Eade’s car, patented in 1877, was, in the same year, started 
 on the Salford Tramways by the Manchester Carriage Com¬ 
 pany. The principal object in the design of this car has 
 been to obviate the necessity for unfastening and carrying the 
 draw-bar and pole from one end of the car to the other end, at 
 the terminus;—a duty which is performed by a staff of men known 
 as pole-shifters. The body of the car is swivelled centrally on 
 the underframe, and can be turned round whilst the horses remain 
 in harness, and the driver retains his seat. The body is secured 
 in position by a simple locking apparatus. There is but one 
 entrance to the car, at one end, and two staircases to the roof, one 
 at each side of the entrance. The entrance is reached by three 
 steps, one more step than there are in ordinary cars, as the body 
 is more elevated thanisusuah The windows are at a higher level 
 than is usual, and they are considered to be safer. The driver 
 occupies an elevated seat in front. 
 
 The body is seated for 16 inside passengers, and i8 outside 
 passengers ; in all, 34 passengers. The body is 12 feet long, and 
 feet wide, outside measure. It is iij feet long inside, giving 
 i7f inches per seat. The seat-room outside is 12 feet long, and, 
 for 18 passengers, is equivalent to j6 inches per passenger. The 
 total length from the front of the dash-board to the end of the 
 staircase, is 17 feet 6 inches. There are four 30-inch wheels to 
 the car, constructed with cast-iron nave, wood spokes and rim, and 
 a flanged steel tyre. One wheel on each axle runs loose, and it 
 
382 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 is said that the traction is sensibly eased by the additional freedom 
 of movement thus secured. The side-springs are ordinary 
 laminated steel springs as used in omnibuses. A brake block is 
 provided for each wheel, constructed of wood, secured by four 
 I-inch iron bolts, which take a bearing with the wood on the 
 wheel. This construction of wood and iron, it is stated, bites 
 more keenly than either wood or iron alone. 
 
 The weight of the car, empty, is 34 cwt., equivalent, for 34 pas¬ 
 sengers, to I cwt. per passenger. So low a ratio as this has not 
 been attained in any other English car of the same capacity. The 
 comparative lightness of the car is attained by employing frame¬ 
 work of light scantling, wheels of wood, and smaller axles. 
 
 It is reported that there is, by the use of the reversible car, a 
 saving of over 30 per cent, in horse-power; inasmuch as the car 
 can be worked with a stud of 8 horses as efficiently as the ordinary 
 car with 12 horses. Additional cars on the same design have been 
 constructed for the service. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 BEARING SPRINGS —WHEELS,—ROAD-AND- 
 
 RAIL WAGONS. 
 
 Bearing Springs. 
 
 The calculations for the depression of side-springs, at page 365, 
 are but roughly approximate, for the rate of compression or de¬ 
 flection of such springs diminishes as the load is increased. For 
 instance, for the barrel-shaped india-rubber springs manufactured 
 by George Spencer & Co., for tramway cars—7 inches high, 
 4f inches in diameter at the middle, and 2| inches in diameter 
 at the ends—the deflections, or reductions of height, for given 
 vertical loads are as follows :— 
 
 George Spencer & Co.’s India-rubber Springs. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Total height. 
 
 Maximum 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Deflection, or re¬ 
 duction of height. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 4 l 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 sN 
 
 4 l 
 
 T.lJi 
 
 ft 
 
 I 
 
 4 iV 
 
 5 i 
 
 
 
 3 t 
 
 si 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 i 
 
 
 3 l 
 
 For a similar spring, of the same manufacture, 7 inches high, 
 5-iV inches in diameter at the middle, and 3^ inches in diameter at 
 the ends, the deflections were as follows :— 
 
384 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Total height. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 <> 
 
 s\ 
 
 I 
 
 4f 
 
 4 
 
 4fV 
 
 2 
 
 oiii 
 
 J16 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Deflection, or re- 
 
 diameter. 
 
 Auction of height. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 StV 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 2? 
 
 6t 
 
 2 IT 
 ^16 
 
 
 3fV 
 
 The deflections in the last columns increased less rapidly than 
 the loads, insomuch that the rates of deflection per ton of load, 
 under increasing loads, were as follows 
 
 
 Deflection per ton of load. 
 
 Load. 
 
 
 
 ist spring. 
 
 2 nd spring. j 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2f| 
 
 
 
 2 — 
 
 If 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 'i ■ 
 
 Under a load of 5^ tons net, eight of these springs would have 
 each to support f ton, corresponding to an elasticity measured by 
 about 3f inches per ton for the first spring, and about 2|- inches 
 per ton for the second spring. These deflections are much greater 
 than those of the North British Rubber Company, page 365. 
 
 It appears from the results of the deflections of Mr. Spencer’s 
 springs that the elasticity under a load of 2 tons is only about half 
 of the elasticity under a load not exceeding half a ton. Also that 
 the deflection is inversely as the cube-root of the quantity of 
 material in the springs. For, the diameters of the springs are 
 respectively qf inches and 5 xV inches, of which the squares are as 
 2 to 3, and are as the quantities of matter in the springs. Now, 
 the deflections under 2 tons of load, are if inches and i| inches; 
 
BEARING SPRINGS. 
 
 385 
 
 and : : ,^3 : ,^2 : : 1*44 : 1*26, or as 15 to 13. That is 
 
 to say, the cube-roots of 2 and 3 inversely are as li to if. 
 
 Further, as the quantities of material in the springs—being of 
 the same height—are as the squares of the diameters, the deflec¬ 
 tions are inversely as the cube-roots of the squares of the diameters, 
 or as the - 3 - power of the diameter. 
 
 The quality of the india-rubber spring, whereby the resistance to 
 compression increases more rapidly than the load, is in ordinary 
 conditions objectionable; for it momentarily intensifies the 
 resisting stress opposed to oscillations of the car fore and aft. It 
 contrasts in this respect disadvantageously with the ordinary 
 laminated spring, of ^vhich the increase of deflection is uniform for 
 equal additions of load. But, under the actual conditions of a 
 tramcar, placed on axles which are near together, with consider¬ 
 able overhanging masses at each end, the increasing rigidity of the 
 springs under increasing pressure has a powerful influence to 
 check the fore-and-aft oscillation of the car, and to reduce the 
 extent of the oscillation. 
 
 The “rubber-centre spiral springs,” manufactured by Messrs. 
 L. Sterne & Co,, offer a compromise between the uniform increase 
 and the accelerated increase of resistance to increase of load. A 
 pair of their springs of the C pattern, suitable for tramway stock, 
 is deflected I’qy inches under a load of 1785 tons, equivalent to 
 *86 inch per ton. The annexed table of deflections and loads, 
 based on the results of experiments made by Mr. Kirkaldy, 
 exemplify the compromise referred to, showing that the increase of 
 rigidity is much less than that of springs made entirely of india- 
 rubber. Each spring consists of a central core of india-rubber, 
 2 inches in diameter, within a helical steel spring, 3 inches in 
 diameter outside, of -A-inch round steel, m.ade in 8i complete 
 coils, to a length of 8 inches :— 
 
 c c 
 
386 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS, 
 
 Compression or 
 deflection. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Total deflection per ton 
 of load. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 •45 
 
 •446 
 
 1*00 
 
 •81 
 
 *892 
 
 •91 
 
 i*i6 
 
 I '339 
 
 •87 
 
 1*47 
 
 1785 
 
 *82 
 
 173 
 
 2*232 
 
 77 
 
 1*89 
 
 2*678 
 
 *71 
 
 2*04 
 
 3*124 
 
 *65 ! 
 
 It may be remarked that though the stiffness of the Sterne 
 spring increases less rapidly than that of the Spencer spring, the 
 Sterne spring is on the whole much stiffer than the Spencer 
 spring. 
 
 The composite spring, Fig. 257, is a combination of a helical 
 steel spring and two indiarubber cushions within the helix. The 
 
 helix is made of-i^o-inch round steel, 3 inches 
 in diameter outside. The cushions are slightly 
 apart until a given load is reached, when they 
 come into action as auxiliary springs. 
 
 Cast-iron wheels, chilled at the periphery,, 
 are extensively used for tramway cars. A 
 quality of charcoal iron is secured which 
 admits of crystallisation and chill going to a. 
 remarkable distance into the grain of the 
 iron. In the earlier experience of tramways in 
 London, car-wheels lasted fourteen months, 
 performing, say, from 22,000 to 25,000 miles 
 run. They weighed, when new, about 214 
 pounds, and they lost in weight from 14 to 
 16 pounds by wear—chiefly by the action of 
 
 ^ ^Spring'wkli^India- brake. They failed by the breaking-off 
 rubber Cushions. of the flanges. 
 
 - -t-l- 4 
 
 i 1 ! J ' 
 
 I n 
 
 I 
 
No. I, No. 2. No. 
 
 CAR WHEELS. 
 
 387 
 
 c c 2 
 
 Figs. 258 to 261. Miller & Co.’s Car Wheels. 
 
388 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Car Wheels. 
 
 The three varieties of wheels of chilled cast-iron—Figs. 258 
 to 261, and Figs. 262 to 264—inanufactiired hy Messrs. Miller & 
 Co., Edinburgh, are cylindrical at the tread, 3^^ inches in dia¬ 
 meter, and have seven spokes. 
 
 No. I, light, for one-horse cars : ins. wide at the periphery 
 
 ,, 2, medium, for two-horse cars: ,, 
 
 „ 3, heavy, for two-horse cars: 24’^ ,, ,, 
 
 The flange stands -iV inch high on the periphery, and is struck 
 at the summit with a radius of -gV inch. The nave is 2 inches in 
 
 No. I. No. 2. No, 3. 
 
 Figs. 262 to 264. Miller & Co.’s Car Wheels. Sections of rims. 
 
 bore, 4^ inches deep, for No. i ; inches by 4^ inches for No. 2 ; 
 the same for No. 3. The spokes form up the web of the wheel, 
 which is iinch, inch, and tI inch thick. They are 2\ inches, 
 2^ inches, and 2^ inches in minimum width, and are fortified by 
 stiffening ribs on the back, one to each spoke. 
 
 The average depth of chill on the periphery of the wheels of 
 Messrs. Miller & Co. is |-inch, which is sufficiently great to admit 
 of a reduction in diameter by wear of from i inch to inches 
 before the wheel is worn out: corresponding, it is stated, to a 
 mileage-run of from 30,000 miles to 70,000 miles, dependent on 
 the working conditions; as the state of the rails, gritty roads. 
 
CAJ^ WHEELS. 
 
 389 
 
 level or hilly roads, with use of the breaks. A mileage-run of at 
 least 50,000 miles is frequently attained by Miller & Co.’s wheels. 
 
 The height of the wheel-flange where narrow-grooved rails are 
 employed is commonly ^ inch. On some foreign tramways |-inch 
 flanges are used. 
 
 The steam tramway car and engine disc wheel. Figs. 265, 266, 
 is a solid disc-plate wheel, usually 21 inches or 24 inches in 
 diameter, with Tinch flange. 
 
 Fig. 265. Steam Tramway Car and Engine 
 Disc Wheel. 
 
 Fig. 266. Rim of Disc 
 Wheel. 
 
 Combined views of the wheel, axle, axle-box, bearing springs, and 
 guides, as constructed by Messrs. Miller & Co., are given in 
 Figs. 267, 268. The class of axle-box has already been described 
 in page 363. In the present instance the journal is 2J inches in 
 diameter, with a bearing 5^ inches long, or twice the diameter. 
 A pair of steel thrust-plates, having a limited horizontal elastic 
 action, is inserted in the axle-box, between the end of the axle and 
 the front of the axle-box. The vertical bearing stress is taken up 
 by a pair of helical springs of lA-inch round steel, 2| inches in 
 
390 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Figs. 267, 268. Wheel, Axle, &c.: combined views. 
 
CAR WHEELS AND AXLES. 
 
 391 
 
 diameter externally, and 7 inches high. An axle-box and guard, 
 similar to those here shown in Figs. 267, 268, are shown in perspec¬ 
 tive in Figs. 269 and 270, of toughened iron. The axle is 2^ in. in 
 diameter in the wheels, and 2f in. in diameter between the backs. 
 
 The Handyside wheel, Fig. 271, which has been employed 
 
 on railway rolling stock, is suitable for tramway stock. It 
 is made in three parts—the tyre, the nave, or boss, and a pair 
 of discs uniting the nave and the tyre. The tyre-is of steel, or 
 of chilled cast iron ; the nave is of wrought iron, or of steel, with 
 four radial arms. The discs are of cast steel, and are dished and 
 
392 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
ROAD-AND-RAIL WA GONS. 
 
 393 
 
 turned inwards at the inner and 
 outer circumferences. When 
 put together, the edges of the 
 discs embrace the tyre and the 
 nave by corresponding flanges 
 or lips, whilst at the middle, 
 or half-radius of the discs, 
 they close upon, but do not 
 touch, the ends of the four 
 arms. The discs are bolted 
 together between two ring- 
 washers at the bottom of the 
 hollow, equally all round the 
 nave; and as they do not 
 touch each other, they are 
 placed in a condition of elastic 
 tension, at the same time that 
 they firmly hold the tyre and 
 the nave in position. The 
 wheel has been well tested on 
 the Caledonian Railway. 
 
 Road-and-rail Wagons 
 WITH Flangeless Wheels. 
 
 Wagons used on the line 
 can be adapted for use on 
 the ordinary public road, so 
 obviating transhipment, load¬ 
 ing goods at the wharves, 
 drawing them to the line by 
 horses, and delivering them 
 at any part of the mill pre¬ 
 mises. This system was 
 originally suggested, in 1880, 
 by Mr. Alfred Holt, and was 
 worked out by Mr. Henry 
 
 Fig.' 273.—Bessbicok and Newry Tramway: Flangeless wheels and way. 
 
394 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Fig. 274. Road-and-Rail Wheel Tramway Wagons in Staffordshire : Side elevation. 
 
ROAD-AND-RAIL WAGONS, 
 
 395 
 
 G. 275. Flangeless Road-and-Rail Wheel Tramway Wagons: Plan of under frame and changing genr. 
 
396 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 Barcroft for the Bessbrook and Newry Tramway. The wheels 
 of the wagons, Figs. 272 and 273, are without flanges, with tyres 
 2f inches wide, for running on common roads. The tram rails are 
 of steel, 41^ lbs, j^er yard, and outside these second rails, 23! lbs. 
 per yard, are laid at a level ^ inch below that of the way, on which 
 
 Img. 276, Road-and-Rail Wheel Tiamway Wagons: 
 
 End elevation. 
 
 the plain wheels run, the ordinary rails forming the inside guard. 
 The wheels are loose on the axles, and these work loose on 
 journals. The wagon is supported on a fore carriage with a 
 central coupling, which engages in a jaw in the fore carriage, to 
 guide it when not pinned. Shafts are attached to the fore carriage 
 when the wagon is to be used on ordinary roads. The wagon 
 
ROAD-AND-RAIL WA GONS. 
 
 3Q7 
 
 weighs, without the shafts, 23J cwt., and is constructed to carry 
 2 tons. 
 
 Flangeless wheels have been employed in another way. Figs. 
 274 to 276, on some of the road tramways in Staffordshire, on 
 Mr. Dickinson’s system, in which both road-wheels and rail-wheels 
 are employed. When the road-wheels are lifted, the rail-wheels 
 are lowered on to the rails; and conversely, when the rail-wheels 
 are lifted, the road-wheels arc lowered on to the road. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 RESISTANCE TO TRACTION ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The first and leading datum which rules the employment of 
 mechanical power, is the resistance to traction on the tramway. 
 On a railway, the resistance, under the most favourable conditions^ 
 may be as low as 6 lbs. per ton.'*' But, so low a resistance as- 
 6 lbs. per ton is not to be hoped for on tramways, which, besides- 
 the difficulty of the groove in the rail, are exposed to the incidents 
 of mud, stone, and dirt, and are made with many and quick curves. 
 On a straight line of grooved rails, in fair order, the frictional 
 resistance of a tramcar was found by Mr. Henry P. Holt to vary 
 from a minimum of 15 lbs. per ton of the gross weight of the car, 
 upwards, according to the weather and the state of the way, ta 
 more than 40 lbs. per ton :—indicative, certainly, of a bad order 
 of conditions in this particular case. 
 
 His experiments were conducted on the Headingley line of tram¬ 
 way, at Leeds. It was laid, to a gauge of 4 feet 8J- inches, with 
 a flat-grooved rail, on longitudinal and transverse sleepers, in 
 concrete. A trial for the purpose of testing the resistance of a 
 passenger-car. No. 21, by means of a dynamometer, was made on 
 the 5thMay, 1876. The barometer stood at 297 inches, and the 
 thermometer at 53° Fahr. The day was dry, the way was in 
 average condition, and the wind was north-west, slight. The 
 direction of the way was for the most part due south, having two- 
 curves in it. The length of the line traversed was 1,645 ya-rds,, 
 having a net rise of 115 feet, making an average ascending 
 
 * Railway Machinery, by D. K. Clark, 1855 5 page 297. 
 
RESISTANCE TO 2'RACTION. 
 
 399 
 
 gradient of i in 43. The car was an ordinary four-wheel car, 
 weighing 47^ cwts.; and it was loaded with 45 passengers. The 
 wheels were 30 inches in diameter, 5^ feet apart between centres. 
 The journals were 2J inches in diameter. A section of the tyre 
 of one of the car-wheels, and of the rail, as worn, is shown in 
 Fig. 277. The load of passengers, allowing 14 to the ton, weighed 
 3’2 tons; making with the weight of the car, 2’37 tons, a gross 
 load of 5’57 tons. The car was drawn by three horses over the 
 greater part of the way; and, for a short distance, on an incline of 
 I in 19, by four horses; at an average speed of 6 miles per hour. 
 Two intermediate stoppages were made on the way. The average 
 tractive force exerted over the whole length, deduced from Mr. 
 Holt’s continuous diagram of force, was 22*44 ibs. per ton of the 
 gross load. 
 
 Fig. 277. Section of Tyre of Trial Car, and of Rail, Leeds. 
 
 Mr. Henry Hughes deduced from some experiments a tractive 
 resistance of about 26 lbs. per ton; often much more, occasionally 
 less. Such high resistances as these are readily explained, when 
 it is considered that the flanges of the wheels frequently take a bear¬ 
 ing on the floors of the grooves, or on the dirt embedded therein, at 
 the same time that the wheels roll on the surface of the rail; for 
 thus the wheel rolls on two different radii simultaneously, and 
 grinding resistance is excited. Again, whilst the wheel at one end 
 of an axle may be running on the proper bearing surface only, the 
 wheel at the other end may be running on the flange, causing the 
 car to swerve and grind laterally against the rails. Again, the 
 rails may be out of gauge, or out of level, or weak and springy. 
 Lastly, the grooves may be so clogged with detritus that all the 
 wheels may be running on their flanges only; and, besides the 
 illegitimate resistance due to traction on a mud surface, there is 
 
400 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 the extra resistance due to the wedging of the flanges in the dirt. 
 Car-drivers know the value of a clear groove :—one may tell you 
 that the car requires a horse more power to draw it over clogged 
 rails; another will tell you that it is equivalent to some hundred¬ 
 weights more load, or a ton or two more, according to the clear¬ 
 ness of his perceptions. The horse would be the best witness, if 
 he could speak his mind, but, failing his verbal evidence, the 
 dynamometer must be consulted. 
 
 It was directly proved by experiments made by M. Tresca, on 
 the tractional resistance of a tramway car, that the groove in the rail 
 was the direct cause of a large portion of the resistance to traction. 
 The car, having four flanged wheels, with its load, was drawn over 
 a portion of the Paris and Versailles Tramway, laid in macadam, 
 when the tractional resistance amounted to i-iooth part of the 
 gross weight, or 22*40 lbs. per ton. This quantity is precisely the 
 same as that which Mr. Holt deduced from his trials. Subse¬ 
 quently, two of the flanged wheels, both on one side of the car, 
 were removed and replaced by flat-tyred wheels, by M. Belon- 
 chant, the engineer of the tramway; and in July, i860, M. Tresca 
 repeated the experiment with the half-flanged car:— 
 
 Weight of 47 passengers, @ 143 lbs. 
 
 Tons. 
 . 3*00 
 
 Weight of wheels ..... 
 
 . 0*41 
 
 Weight of the car. 
 
 . 2*26. 
 
 Gross weight 
 
 • 5*67 
 
 The length of line traversed was a third of a mile, on a level; 
 and the tractive force, at a uniform speed of yi miles per hour, 
 amounted to about 86 lbs., equivalent to i-iqyth part of the gross 
 weight, or to 15^ lbs. per ton. Thus, the removal of two flanges,, 
 was accompanied by a reduction of the tractive resistance by one- ■ 
 third. M. Delonchant, encouraged by the results of his experi¬ 
 ence, removed another flanged wheel, running the cars with only 
 one flanged wheel, and three flat-tyred wheels. The result, 
 according to M. Goschler, was that the resistance was reduced one 
 half as compared with the original car with four flanged wheels. In 
 
/RESISTANCE TO TRACTION. 
 
 401 
 
 this proportion, the tractional resistance must have been reduced 
 to about i-2ooth part of the gross weight, or to about ii lbs. 
 per ton. , 
 
 The Vignoles rail, employed in the tramways of Jyloscow, incurs v 
 one-half less resistance to traction than the ordinaify grooved rail, ' 
 according to the report of the engineer. Colonel de^^ytenko. The 
 comparatively small tractional resistance of the Vrigs^les rail is 
 clearly due to the absence of a narrow groove, buf^it has the 
 objection of breaking the continuity of the pavement. 
 
 The resistance to traction at low speeds, increases, of course, 
 with the speed, though slowly. On ordinary railways, under 
 ordinary conditions of curvature and of maintenance, the resis¬ 
 tance of engines and trains taken together, as deduced experi¬ 
 mentally by the author, may be taken as follows :— 
 
 12 lbs. per ton, at a speed of i mile per hour. 
 
 ^3 lbs. ,, ,, 10 ,, 
 
 14 lbs. ,, ,, 15 ,, 
 
 bSilbs. ,, ,, 20 
 
 Here it appears that the resistance increases only by 2 J lbs. per 
 ton, when the speed is raised from 10 miles per hour to 20 miles 
 per hour. It may be assumed that, on tramways, the speed will 
 not exceed 15 miles, even when mechanical motive power is em¬ 
 ployed, and within such a limit the variations of tractive force 
 with the speed are not worth serious consideration. 
 
 Considering that the experiment by M. Tresca,, from which a 
 resistance of 22*4 lbs. per ton was deduced, was made on a line of 
 tramway laid in macadam, it may be inferred that the resistance 
 on a straight line of tramway, made with grooved rails, well 
 maintained in granite pavement, would not, under similar condi¬ 
 tions, have exceeded 20 lbs. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Edward Woods, also, estimated the resistance of a tram- 
 car on a level, and, it is presumed, a straight line, at 20 lbs. per 
 ton. 
 
 In view of the foregoing observations, it may be concluded that, 
 
 * Railway Alachiiiery, 1855; page 310. 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 for purposes of estimation, the resistance of engines and cars on 
 grooved-rail tramways, level, straight, and well maintained, is 
 2 0 lbs. per ton; and that on a line in average condition, with 
 curves, it may occasionally amount to 40 lbs. per ton. An average 
 of 30 lbs. per ton may be taken as a datum for the calculation of 
 the ordinary tractive force to be provided for. These data coin¬ 
 cide with the conclusions of Messrs. Merryweather & Sons from 
 their experience with tramway locomotives and cars. 
 
 The force required to start a tram-car, to get up the speed, is 
 necessarily greater than the force required to maintain the speed 
 uniformly. It is a variable quantity, for it may be anything that 
 horses may choose to exert, or that engine-drivers may apply. Mr. 
 John Phillips found by experiment that in starting a car by two 
 horses, an initial tractive force of from 500 lbs. to 600 lbs. was 
 exerted on the car:—equivalent, for a gross weight of 5 tons, to 
 from 100 lbs. to 120 lbs. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Holt found that the momentary initial force exerted by the 
 horses in starting the load from a state of rest, was in three 
 instances as follows :—in starting down an incline of i in 79, it 
 was 450 lbs. ; in starting up an incline of i in 62, it was 
 1,100 lbs. ; and up an incline of i in 50, it was 975 lbs. Allowing 
 for the force of gravity, the net initial efforts to start the car were 
 606 lbs., 900 lbs., 725 lbs. respectively; being at the rate of 
 no lbs., 160 lbs., 131 lbs., respectively, per ton. These results 
 accord with those which were found by Mr. John Phillips. 
 
 In order to obviate the straining, spavining, and weakness of 
 back, to which horses are subject, caused by the effort of starting 
 heavy cars, Mr. Henry P. Holt designed a tramcar starting gear, 
 patented in May, 1879, illustrated by Figs. 278 and 279. A lever, 
 to the upper end of which the horse is harnessed, is arranged verti¬ 
 cally at each end of the car, pivoted at the lower end to a bracket 
 fixed to the frame, and carrying a quadrant fixed to it about half¬ 
 way up, corresponding to, and connected by a chain with, another 
 quadrant formed as a cam, slung on the hind axle of the car (see 
 Fig. 280). Enclosed within the quadrant, which is hollow, a 
 ratchet-wheel is keyed fast on the axle, into which a pawl pivoted 
 
/ 
 
 RESISTANCE TO TRACTION. 403 
 
 D D 2 
 
 Figs. 278, 279. Tramcar Starting Gear, by H. P. Holt. 
 
404 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 in the quadrant engages, when the pull of the horse is applied 
 through the chain to the quadrant. The pull of the horse at start¬ 
 ing is thus transmitted to the axle, and causes it to revolve. As 
 the cam is upright at the instant of starting, it exercises a degree 
 of leverage on the axle, by which the pull of the horse and the 
 tractive force are multiplied. The pawl is released clear of the 
 ratchet-wheel, after the car has been started, by means of a rod 
 running through friction-discs contained in a fixed box. By these 
 means, it is arranged that, at first starting, the horse travels at 
 twice the forward speed of the car. The lever is controlled by 
 springs, by which it is retained in a vertical position, or at right 
 
 angles to the platform when there is 
 no tractive pull. When the pull is 
 applied to the lever, the springs 
 through which the pull is communi¬ 
 cated to the car, yield in proportion 
 to the pull, and in so doing fall for¬ 
 ward, and to a lower level, thereby 
 augmenting the angle of the traces, 
 and the downward stress on the horse, 
 and so improving the foothold. 
 
 For the ordinary momentary pull of 
 Gear—Cam Quadrant. Scaled. 975 Ibs., in Starting on an incline of 
 
 I in 50, a substituted steady pull—550- 
 lbs.—is brought to bear by the instrumentality of the starting gear. 
 Mr. Holt deduced as means of several experimental results, that 
 the force exerted in starting a tramcar, weighing in all 5 tons, on 
 a level, without starting gear, is 470 lbs., or 94 lbs. per ton; and 
 with it, 213 lbs., or 43 lbs. per ton. Ascending an incline of i in 
 12, the forces are respectively 1,400 lbs. and 636 lbs. 
 
 The weight of two sets of starting gear for one car is 135 lbs. 
 the price is ^18. Mr. Holt estimated that the working life of the 
 tramway horse would be extended half a year by the employment 
 of the starting gear. Thus the life which is usually 4J years, would 
 be extended to 5 years, equal to that of an omnibus horse. 
 
 Mr. E. Perrett experimented with a passenger-car, for 24 pas- 
 
RESISTANCE TO TRACTION. 
 
 405 
 
 sengers, weighing 34 cwt., on four wheels 52- feet apart between 
 centres, on the Nottingham tramways. The force, by dynamo¬ 
 meter, required to start the car, and the force required to keep it 
 moving, under different circumstances, were as follows :— 
 
 Grooves. 
 
 Line. 
 
 To start. 
 
 To keep* 
 mo\ing. 
 
 Clear 
 
 Very dirty 
 
 Moderately dirty 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Straight and level 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 j Do. up gradient 
 
 1 T in 130 ) 
 
 Do. down do. do. 
 i Curve, 45 feet radius } 
 
 1 up gradient i in 130 j 
 Down do. do. 
 
 i Curve, 22 feet radius } 
 
 1 up gradient i in 130 \ 
 Down do. do. 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 SO lbs. 
 
 66 ,, 
 
 106 ,, 
 
 5 / j > 
 
 86 ,, 
 
 62 ,, 
 
 132 ,, 
 
 95 
 
 Per ton, ' 
 
 25 lbs. 
 
 50 
 
 66 ,, 
 
 34 
 
 72 ,, 
 
 50 .. 
 
 94 .. 
 
 65 M 
 
 From this statement it appears that on a straight line the start¬ 
 ing force varied from 50 lbs. to 80 lbs. per ton, according to the 
 state of the rails—being less than those already mentioned. But 
 it is probable that in this, as a private experiment, the starting was 
 more gently effected than in the other instances. On the straight 
 line, with clear grooves, the running resistance was 25 lbs. per ton ; 
 and this was doubled, or increased to 50 lbs. per ton, when the 
 grooves were very dirty; or even when they were but moderately 
 dirty, if the mean of the upward and downward pulls on the incline 
 I in 130 be taken. Under the same condition, of moderately 
 dirty grooves, the effect of a curve of 45 feet radius, averaged from 
 the upward and downward pulls, was to raise the resistance from 
 50 lbs. per ton to 61 lbs. per ton ; and that of a curve of 22 feet 
 radius, raised it to 80 lbs. per ton. If 25 lbs. be deducted from 
 each of the last three values, for the effect of dirt in the grooves, 
 there remain 25 lbs., 36 lbs., and 55 lbs. per ton as the relative 
 resistances with clear grooves, on a straight line, a curve of 45 feet 
 radius, and a curve of 22 feet radius ; showing that the resistance 
 
4 o 6 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS. 
 
 on a 2 2-feet curve is more than twice the resistance on a straight 
 line. (For resistance of steam-car, see page 481.) 
 
 Mr. A. W. WrighF" tested the tractional resistance of a car on 
 the North Chicago City Railway—a tramway laid with step-rails, 
 which are grooveless, like the Philadelphia rail (page 9). 
 The car, with passengers, weighed 3 tons, and required an 
 average force of 109J lbs. to draw it at a speed of five miles per 
 hour, including stoppages, or 36^ lbs. per ton, over old worn-out 
 iron rails. On new steel rails, the traction force averaged 17 lbs. 
 per ton. To start the car, a force of 148 lbs. per ton was exerted 
 on the old rail, and 128 lbs. per ton on the new rail. 
 
 In view of the foregoing results, though based on scanty data, 
 and the results of Mr. Holt’s trials, with other data already given, 
 the average resistance—30 lbs. per ton—already adopted for 
 calculation, may be retained ; although an occasional maximum 
 of 60 lbs. per ton may be reached, and, on the contrary, a 
 minimum of, say, 15 lbs. per ton, when the rails are wet and 
 clean, straight and new. 
 
 The great degree of extra resistance due to the clogging of the 
 grooves in the rails, compared with the resistance for clear grooves, 
 has been referred to. These observations are corroborated 
 by the experience of steam-power as well as of horse-power. 
 Mr. J. Arthur Wright states that, on a dusty day, on the steam¬ 
 lines of the Rouen Tramways, when, despite every effort to keep 
 the rails clear, the grooves become filled with dust and dirt, the 
 engines consume about 2^ lbs. of coke per mile more than they 
 do under more favourable circumstances—when the consumption 
 averages about 12 lbs. per mile. The excess is nearly 20 per 
 cent. 
 
 On this question of special tractional resistance, Mr. H. Conradi 
 made some observations on the reduction of resistance due to the 
 employment of his rail cleaner.f The gross resistance of each 
 
 * See his Paper on “ The Best Pavement for Horse Railroad 
 Tracks,” in the American Engineer^ June, 1881, page 103. 
 
 t See Mr. Conradi’s paper O71 the Clea^iing of Tramway a 7 id 
 othe^' Rails, read before the Society of Engineers, April 10, 1893. 
 
RESISTANCE TO TRACTION 
 
 407 
 
 car at starting on muddy and dirty lines, straight and level, was 
 from 80 lbs. to 90 lbs. After the starting the resistance settled 
 down to from 60 lbs. to 70 lbs. On curves and passing places, of 
 from 25 feet to 30 feet radius, the resistance was from 75 lbs. to 
 85 lbs. On very steep gradients and curves of this radius the 
 resistance varied from 90 lbs. to 100 lbs. These trials were made 
 with a car weighing about tons, carrying a varying load of 12, 
 19, and 22 passengers during the trial run, making an average 
 total weight of above 3 tons. 
 
 To determine the tractional resistance of cars on rails cleaned 
 by his apparatus, Mr. Conradi fitted it to two cars in ordinary 
 condition and in ordinary service. The first car was started with 
 the cleaner lowered and in action on the rails. Ten minutes 
 later, the second car followed with a varying load of passengers up 
 to 28 in number, also having the cleaner in action. This car 
 started with an initial resistance of from 50 lbs. to 60 lbs. on the 
 straight and level, and a running resistance of from 35 lbs. to 
 45 lbs.; on curves and at passing places, on the level, from 50 lbs. 
 to 60 lbs. ; on curves on steep gradients from 70 lbs. to 80 lbs. 
 
 It thus appeared that, on rails previously cleaned by the first 
 car, the tractional resistance of the second car, including that of 
 the cleaner, was less by from 25 lbs. to 35 lbs. 
 
 Assuming the average gross weight of the second car with pas¬ 
 sengers to have been 3 tons, the tractive resistances were as 
 follows :— 
 
 Muddy and dirty, straight and level line, on 
 
 starting . . . . . . . 27 to 30 lbs. per ton 
 
 Muddy and dirty, straight and level line, run¬ 
 ning .20 ,, 23 ,, 
 
 Same line, straight and level; car fitted with 
 
 Mr. Conradi’s cleaner in action . . . 12 ,, 15 ,, ,, 
 
 The mean running resistance with the rail-cleaner in action is 
 thus shown to be only 63 per cent, or less than two-thirds of the 
 resistance under ordinary conditions. 
 
 Experiments were made, in 1890, on the Modling (Vienna) 
 
4o8 
 
 TRAMWAY CARS, 
 
 Electric Railway, to ascertain the resistance in sharp curves, by 
 means of a dynamometer placed between the two cars composing 
 the train. The way consisted partly of grooved or tramway rails, 
 and partly of Vignoles rails as used for ordinary railways. On a 
 gradient of 1*50 per cent, or i in 66*6, with curves of 100 feet 
 radius, and at a speed of 9'3 miles per hour, the resistance (irre¬ 
 spective of that due to the gradient) was from 17’6 lbs. to 22 lbs. 
 per ton, averaging 19-8 lbs. of train weight on the Vignoles 
 section, and 26-4 lbs. on the grooved section, and showing that the 
 mean resistance on the Vignoles section was 6*6 lbs. per ton, or 
 25 per cent, less than on the grooved section. 
 
PART V. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER T. 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE APPLICATION OF 
 STEAM POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Latta.—Grice and Long.—Train. 
 
 The first application of steam for propelling tramway-cars, accord¬ 
 ing to Mr. Cramp/''' appears to have been made on the Cincinnati 
 Tramway, in 1859, ^7 LrRRj who constructed a steam- 
 
 car in which, it is said, eighty persons had been conveyed. The 
 second application was made by Messrs. Grice and Long, of 
 Philadelphia, who constructed a long car on two four-wheel trucks 
 or bogies—one under each end of the car. To one of the trucks 
 steam-power was applied by means of toothed gear. In i860, five 
 or six steam-cars were in use in the United States, in which the 
 engine and boiler were placed within the car, the whole being 
 carried on two bogie trucks. Mr. G. F. Train, in i860, patented 
 a steam-car, on a Bissell-truck at one end, and a pair of wheels at 
 the other end, driven by a double-cylinder steam-engine with a 
 vertical boiler, with intervening spur-gearing. 
 
 * “ Tramway Rolling Stock,” by Mr. C. C. Cramp : Transactions 
 of the Society of Engineers, 1874, page 124. 
 
410 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Todd. 
 
 Mr. Leonard J. Todd, of Leith, it appears, was the first steam- 
 locomotist who, in 1871, designed an engine for tramways, specially 
 adapted for passing through common roads and streets, avoiding- 
 noise, smoke, and steam, and possessing great facilities for starting 
 and for stopping quickly. He insisted on the advantage of accu¬ 
 mulating power, for which purpose he used a boiler of great capa¬ 
 city, holding a large quantity of water, with a very small fire-grate. 
 ‘Hn the case of a small generator,” he says,* “the only reliable 
 way of making a furnace-boiler which can take care of itself for a 
 considerable time is simply to give it a greater water-capacity and 
 water-area. This water, in the most perfect and natural manner 
 possible, acts the part of a heat-accumulator, as, during a long 
 time, it goes on storing up heat within itself, and but very slowly 
 raising the pressure-gauge; and, again, during a lengthened period 
 it gives off heat from its store, while yet only slowly reducing the 
 pressure and the water-level. Now, this invaluable action of 
 water within a boiler is not carried to any great extent in ordinary 
 locomotives, as there is, in them, no j^articular use for it, 
 although, on undulating lines, it is well known to be of great 
 importance that a boiler should contain a large amount of water. 
 
 “ Now locomotive boilers contain 5 cubic feet of water, and 
 3 square feet of water-area for each square foot of grate, and never 
 require attention oftener than, nor, indeed, so often as, every ten 
 minutes. It is evident, then, that if we give six times as much 
 water-capacity and water-area, while still keeping the same size of 
 grate, as far as safety goes, we need only attend to the boiler once 
 in sixty, instead of ten, minutes.” . . . “ The power required to 
 propel a forty-four-seat car, including the weight of the propelling 
 mechanism, with this large quantity of water, will not, on level 
 lines, exceed ten indicator horse-power, although more than this 
 will be required to work heavy roads. Then, small boilers and 
 engines will give ten horse-power for each foot of grate; but we 
 had better allow the grate of the car boiler to contain li square 
 
 * T/ie Engineer, July 24, 1874 ; page 66. 
 
TODD'S STEAM-LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 411 
 
 feet; and with 30 cubic feet of water and 18 square feet of water- 
 area—both six times the ordinary locomotive allowance—we get 
 45 cubic feet as the water capacity, and 27 square feet as the area at 
 the water-level. The furnace should be of considerable depth, not 
 less than 2 feet below the fire-doorway; so that, before commenc¬ 
 ing a run, it could be filled with fuel, and then left to sink down 
 as it burns away.” 
 
 Mr. Todd constructed a steam locomotive capable of drawing 
 two passenger cars, with a total of 76 seats, for the Tram Via de 
 Santander, shown in Fig. 281. The boiler was of the locomotive 
 form, having 3^ square feet of area of grate, and 160 square feet 
 
 Fig. 281. Steam-locomotive, by Mr. L. J. Todd, 1871. Scale 7,^. 
 
 of heating surface, including that of the tubes. The cylinders 
 were 6 h inches in diameter, with a stroke of 9 inches, and 
 made 150 revolutions of the crank-shaft when the speed was 10 
 miles per hour. The driving-wheels were 5J feet in diameter, 
 formed with a disc of wood. There was a bogie-truck in 
 front, having 21-inch wheels at 3 feet between the axles. The 
 fixed wheel-base, between the driving-axle and the centre of 
 the truck, was 5 feet 3 inches. The motion of the crank-shaft was 
 communicated to the driving-wheels by a pair of spur-wheels. 
 The draught of air to the furnace was supplied from a i2-inchfan> 
 
412 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 driven by the exhaust steam of the engine, which struck the buckets 
 of a bucket-wheel on the axle of the fan. The steam passed thence 
 into the water tank, where condensation water might be deposited, 
 whilst the uncondensed steam escaped into the chimney. With a 
 pressure of steam in the boiler of 150 lbs. per square inch, the 
 engine could exert 20 effective horse-power. The weight in work¬ 
 ing order was 5 tons. The extreme length was 14 feet 10 inches^ 
 and the width over all was 6 feet 6 inches. The chimney was 
 14 feet 5 inches high above the rails, to clear the awning above 
 the cars. 
 
 Mr. L. J. Todd, early in 1875, constructed a fireless steam- 
 
 Figs. 282, 283. Fireless Steam-car, ]\Ir. L. J. Todd, 1875. 
 
 Scale about y\r. 
 
 car. Figs. 282, 283, in which the reservoirs and the machinery 
 were placed beneath the floor of the car. There were two reser¬ 
 voirs, having the form of boilers, with domes ; each reservoir con¬ 
 taining 30 cubic feet of heated water, or a total of 60 cubic feet. 
 The reservoirs were well coated with non-conducting material. 
 The cylinders were 9 inches in diameter, with 8 inches of stroke, 
 connected direct to one pair of the wheels. There were two pairs 
 of 24-inch wheels, coupled, for adhesion, at a distance of 4 feet 
 6 inches apart between the axles. The cylinders are surrounded 
 by large jackets open to the heated water^ in which they are im¬ 
 mersed ; and are thus maintained at the maximum temperature in 
 
LAJinrS AMMONIACAL-GAS CAR. 
 
 413 
 
 the reservoir. By this means a better action of the steam in the 
 cylinder was expected to be effected, and the steam was super¬ 
 heated to some extent before it was exhausted. There was no 
 other provision for rendering invisible the exhaust-steam, which 
 simply emerged at the end of the car, under the roof. The body 
 of the car was 14 feet long, and 7 feet wide over all; the extreme 
 length over the buffers was 22 feet 6 inches. Two lines of seats 
 were fixed on the roof; the weight of the car, in working order, 
 was 6 h tons. 
 
 Lamm. 
 
 Dr. Emile Lamm experimented for some time, in 1871, with an 
 
 Fig. 284. Ammoniacal-gas Car, by Dr. Lamm, 1871. Scale about 
 
 I 
 
 ammoniacal-gas car. Fig. 284, in New Orleans. He placed a 
 reservoir of hot water on the roof of the car, containing an in¬ 
 terior reservoir of liquid ammoniacal gas, produced by heating sal- 
 ammoniac in the presence of a hydrate of lime. The gas was 
 disengaged under the influence of the heat of the surrounding 
 water, and it passed to the cylinders, which were placed vertically 
 at the end of the car, and were connected to a crank-shaft below, 
 from a chain-pulley on which revolving motion was communicated 
 by a corresponding pulley to one of the axles of the car. The gas 
 was exhausted into the reservoir of water, where it was condensed 
 
414 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 7R AM WAVS, 
 
 and its heat was imparted to the water. This process of evolu¬ 
 tion and condensation was continued until the pressure of the gas 
 in the interior reservoir became insufficient for keeping the pistons 
 in motion. The greatest fall of pressure in the gas-generator 
 during a run of seven miles, did not exceed lo lbs. per square 
 inch. When the water became saturated with gas, it was replaced, 
 and the gas absorbed could be extracted from the water for further 
 service. 
 
 The greatest difficulty in the employment of ammoniacal gas is 
 the necessity for entirely preventing its escape into the atmosphere, 
 to obviate the offensive smell, and the difficulty of respiration 
 caused by its presence in the air. This objection, together with 
 
 Fig. 285. Tireless Locomotive, by Dr. Lamm, 1872. Scale about g-g. 
 
 that of the chemical action of the gas on iron, led to the abandon¬ 
 ment of the system of propulsion by ammoniacal gas, though Dr. 
 Lamm’s car was at work for some time. 
 
 Dr. Lamm subsequently, in 1872, started a tireless loco¬ 
 motive—a ‘'thermo-specific engine”—on the line of tramway 
 between New Orleans and Carrolton. The locomotive, Fig. 285, 
 consisted of a reservoir, about 3 feet in diameter, and 10 feet 
 long, on four wheels, filled with water heated to a high tem¬ 
 perature, under a corresponding high pressure. When the 
 regulator was opened, the pressure was relieved, and steam was 
 formed spontaneously from the water to keep up the supply, accom¬ 
 panied by a gradual fall of pressure. The cylinders were fixed 
 vertically to the fore-end of the reservoir, and they worked to a 
 
FIRE LESS LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 415 
 
 crank-shaft below, from which the power was transmitted by spur¬ 
 gearing to the nearest axle. The reservoir contained 60 cubic 
 feet of heated water. It was first filled with cold water, after 
 which a connection was made with the steam-pipe of a large 
 stationary boiler at Carrolton, under a pressure of 200 lbs. 
 per square inch. The cold water was quickly heated up, and 
 raised to a pressure of 180 lbs. per square inch. The con¬ 
 nection was then uncoupled, and the hot-water locomotive 
 was ready for work. The exhaust-steam was discharged 
 directly into the air, making clouds of moist white vapour. It 
 was reported, in 1875, that the hot-water locomotives were in 
 constant and successful operation. The tramway is about six 
 miles in length. From the centre to the outskirts of the city, the 
 cars are worked by mules, which are then exchanged for the 
 engines. With one replenishment of the reservoir at Carrolton, 
 the locomotive could make the double journey to New Orleans and 
 back, and have a residual pressure of 50 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 By observation it was found that when the atmospheric tem¬ 
 perature fell to 40' F., the temperature of the water, though it 
 was 160° higher, only fell about 3° F. per hour. 
 
 East New York and Canartio. 
 
 In October, 1873, a ^ fireless locomotive was made be¬ 
 
 tween East New York and Canartio, a distance of 3^ miles. The 
 reservoir was 3 feet 10 inches in diameter, and 10 feet long, on 
 two pairs of 30-inch wheels, coupled. There were two steam- 
 cylinders, 8 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 12 inches. The 
 exhaust-steam was discharged into two condensers, one for each 
 cylinder, fitted with 38 condensing tubes f inch in diameter, and 
 air-pumps for creating a partial vacuum. The weight of the engine 
 was 4 tons 3 cwt. ; that of the car which was drawn by it was 7J 
 tons, empty, and was estimated at 12^ tons, loaded with 120 pas¬ 
 sengers. The locomotive, with the car, performed the run of 3^ 
 miles to Canartio, on falling gradients, in i2| minutes, at the rate 
 of 164 miles per hour, whilst the pressure in the reservoir fell from 
 
4 i6 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 i8o lbs., at the beginning of the trip, to io8 lbs. per square inch 
 at the end of the trip. The train stopped for nine minutes at 
 Canartio, and during this time the pressure fell to 104 lbs. The 
 return trip, on rising gradients, was made in 17 minutes, being at 
 the rate of 124 miles per hour, when the pressure fell to 45 lbs. 
 per square inch. It is stated that the machinery of this engine 
 was poorly designed and constructed: obviously the condenser 
 was quite insufficient. 
 
 A few months later another fireless locomotive working on 
 the Canartio line, was tested by Mr. R. H. Buel and Mr. H. L. 
 Brevoort. The results of their trials were recorded in a report 
 written by Mr. Buel, in January, 1874.'" The reservoir of the 
 locomotive was 3 feet i inch in diameter and 9 feet long, having a 
 steam dome 12 inches in diameter and 2 feet high. The cylinders 
 were vertical, 5 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 7 inches, fitted 
 with side-valves and link-motion. The power was transmitted to 
 one of the axles by a spur pinion of 26 teeth on the crank-shaft, 
 gearing into a wheel of 46 teeth on the axle. There are four 30- 
 inch wheels on two axles. The reservoir was covered with cement 
 and felting, and the steam cylinders were heavily felted. A 2-inch 
 pipe, perforated with small holes, lay along the reservoir, near the 
 bottom, for nearly the whole length ; and steam was admitted 
 from a stationary boiler, through this pipe, for the purpose of 
 heating the water. 
 
 The reservoir was half full of water at the commencement of 
 the trip, of 4*40 miles, and the pressure of steam was 142 lbs. per 
 square inch. The pressure of the steam during the trip was as 
 follows :— 
 
 Time. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 3-35 
 
 3-37 
 
 3-3 
 
 8 
 
 3-39 
 
 3-51 
 
 3*53 
 
 3-55 
 
 4.4 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 142 
 132 
 124 
 124 
 102 
 
 97 
 89 
 
 Time. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 4-7 
 
 4.10 
 
 4-13 
 
 4-15 
 
 4.21 
 
 4.24 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 lbs. per square inch. 
 66 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 Average pressure 81*5 lbs. 
 Published in The Engineer, February 20, 1874, ^ 35 * 
 
BAXTER'S STEAM CAR. 
 
 417 
 
 The total time rimnmg the trip, 4‘4o miles, was 49 minutes, of 
 which the time actually running was 35J minutes. The average 
 speed whilst running was 7‘44 miles per hour. The average speed 
 of the crank-shaft was 147’4 turns per minute, giving a speed of 
 piston 172 feet per minute. Mr. Buel calculated, from the pres¬ 
 sures in the reservoir, that 210 lbs, of water was evaporated and 
 consumed during the trip, or at the rate of 48 lbs. per mile run. 
 The engine was worked in full gear, and the steam was wire-drawn 
 by the regulator. The average initial pressure on the cylinder 
 was found, from indicator diagrams, to be 23‘5 2 lbs. per square 
 inch; the average terminal pressure was 19*86 lbs. ; the average 
 back pressure was 5’i5 ; the average effective pressure was 17*86 
 lbs. per square inch. The indicator power was 3*61 horse-power. 
 Mr. Buel estimated that the quantity of steam manifested in the 
 cylinders, according to the indicator diagrams, amounted to 147*15 
 lbs., or 70 per cent, of 210 lbs., the calculated quantity evapo¬ 
 rated. The circumstances under which the steam was employed 
 in the engine were obviously unfavourable. The steam was not 
 worked expansively to any degree ; and much of it was condensed 
 in the cylinders. The speed of the pistons was too low, and, 
 even wuth such low speed, the back pressure on the pistons 
 amounted to 5*15 lbs. per square inch, or 22^ per cent, of the 
 positive pressure above the atmosphere. 
 
 Baxter. 
 
 In 1872, Mr. Baxter, of Newark, U.S., brought out a steam-car. 
 Fig. 286, in New York. It was placed on four 30-inch chilled 
 wheels, at 7-feet centres, driven by a steam-engine with compound 
 cylinders, placed together under the floor. The steam was sup¬ 
 plied from a vertical boiler, 26 inches in diameter, and 4J feet 
 high. It is stated that this steam-car worked well, taking 52 
 passengers, ascending an incline ot i in 13. It was also noise¬ 
 less. 
 
 E E 
 
4i8 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Grantham. 
 
 Mr. John Grantham, impressed with the need for substituting 
 steam-power for horse-power, patented a system of steam-car in 
 1871, consisting of an ordinary tramway-car, in which the pro¬ 
 pelling power was to be lodged and applied at the middle of the 
 length of the car. In 1872 he had a steam-car, Fig. 287, con¬ 
 
 structed ; of which the car proper was made at the Oldbury 
 Carriage Works, and the engines and boilers by Messrs. Merry- 
 weather & Sons, to Mr. Grantham’s design. This was the first 
 steam-car for tramways constructed in England. A boiler-chamber 
 was constructed at each side of the body, to hold two upright 
 boilers, leaving a central passage free for circulation in and out at 
 
GRANl'HAilf S STEAM CAR. 
 
 419 
 
 either end of the car, or from end to end. The boilers were con¬ 
 structed on the Field system, with pendent water-tubes, having 
 internal circulating tubes. They were^ 18 inches in diameter, and 
 4 feet 4 inches high ; the fire-grate of each boiler was 15 inches in 
 diameter. The machinery was placed below the floor. The 
 steam-cylinders were 4 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 10 
 inches, and were connected to a single pair of driving-wheels, 30 
 inches in diameter. The car had four wheels, placed at 10 feet 
 apart between the axles. One axle was for driving; the other 
 axle had one wheel loose, on a sleeve, so that the wheels could 
 revolve independently of each other. The car, over all, was 30 feet 
 in length : it held seats for 44 passengers—20 inside and 24 out¬ 
 side. The weight, empty, was 6 h tons. Early in 1873, the steam- 
 car was put to work experimentally on a short piece of level 
 railway, 350 yards long, at West Brompton, where it worked for 
 some time satisfactorily enough with steam of 90 lbs. pressure :— 
 traversing the line at an average speed of 11 miles per hour, in¬ 
 cluding the starting and the stopping. But, though a steam-car 
 may do well on a railway, it may fail on a tramway, on which the 
 resistance is much the greater. Thus is to be explained the failure 
 of the Grantham car when it was tried in November, 1873, on ^ 
 portion of the London Tramways, between Victoria Station and 
 Vauxhall Bridge; possibly, also, as The Enghieei' remarked, be¬ 
 cause of difficulties in firing, due to the crowded state of the car. 
 
 The car was removed to the Wantage Tramway, where it was 
 put to work. But it did not generate sufficient steam for working 
 the inclines and curves of the line, which are severe. The Wan¬ 
 tage Tramway is two miles long; the steepest gradient is i in 47 
 for 350 yards, and its quickest curve has a radius of only 75 feet. 
 The insufficient performance of the boilers, and the danger of 
 isolated boilers, unfitted the Grantham car, as first constructed, for 
 employment on ordinary tramways. It was altered under the 
 advice of Mr. Edward Woods. The boilers were taken out, and 
 a single large vertical boiler, constructed by Messrs. Shand, Mason, 
 & Co., with numerous small water-tubes, laid nearly horizontally, 
 was substituted. This new boiler, like the old boilers, was placed 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 in the middle of the car, nearer one side than the other, completely 
 boxed off, and leaving a passage or thoroughfare towards the other 
 side between the first-class and the second-class ends of the car. 
 New wheels of smaller diameter, 24 inches, were substituted for the 
 original wheels. One pair of the wheels was used for driving, and 
 the other pair, as before, had one loose wheel to ease the passage 
 on curves. The car was driven from either end by removable 
 levers, by means of which the driver possesses entire control of its 
 movements. It was 27 feet 3 inches long, 6 feet 6 inches wide, 
 and 11 feet i inch high. The net weight of the car, empty, was 64 
 tons, and with a supply of coke and water, 8 tons. It could 
 accommodate 60 passengers, making a load of, say, 5 tons, and a 
 gross weight of 13 tons loaded. 
 
 The following estimate of the cost of working tramways by the 
 Grantham steam-car, was based on the results of experience on 
 the Wantage Tramway. It was assumed that a mileage amounting 
 to 26,260 miles is run during the year, equivalent to 72 miles per 
 day, although, as a matter of fact, the daily mileage run on the 
 Wantage line has been less than 40 miles. 
 
 Wantage Tramway. 
 
 Estimated cost of working Grantham's Steam-car. 
 
 One engine-driver @ 35s. per week \ s. d. 
 
 „ stoker ,, 25s. ,, ( 80s. 208 0 o 
 
 „ conductor ,, 20s. ,, ) 
 
 Fuel, 7 lbs. of coke per mile for 26,260 miles = 
 
 82 tons @ 15s. . . . . . . . 61 10 o 
 
 Oil, tallow, wash, and sundries, @ ^d. per mile, 
 
 for 26,260 miles . . . . . . 27 7 i 
 
 Water at is. per day. 1850 
 
 Repairs of car and machinery, at id. per mile, 
 for 26,260 miles.109 8 4 
 
 Total cost . . • 10 5 
 
 or, 3‘88d. per mile run. 
 
 The next steam-car constructed on Grantham’s system. Fig. 
 288—though the leading speciality of the system nearly vanishes 
 
GRANTHAM’S STEAM CAR. 
 
 42 I 
 
 in the car last constructed—comprised a few further improvements, 
 made on the recommendation of Mr. Woods. A four-wheel 
 bogie was substituted for the independent wheels, and the boiler 
 and machinery were placed at one end of the car. The car 
 was constructed by the Starbuck Car and Wagon Co., Bir¬ 
 kenhead, to work on the Vienna Tramways. The machinery 
 and the boiler were supplied by Messrs. Shand, Mason, & Co. 
 The boiler was one of their inclined water-tube boilers, like those 
 which are employed by them in the construction of fire-engines. 
 The fire-box was upright; the water-tubes, which were of small 
 diameter, were arranged in layers, slightly inclined, which crossed 
 each other, one layer above another. The machinery was below the 
 
 platform, and the water-tanks were placed under the seats of the 
 car. The cylinders were 6 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 
 pinches; the driving-wheels were 2 'feet in diameter; and the 
 bogie-wheels were 20 inches, placed at 3 feet between the centres 
 of the axles. The distance from the centre of the driving-axle 
 to that of the bogie, was 8 feet. On this working base of 8 feet, 
 there was a total length of car equal to 28^ feet, of which the 
 length of the body was 23J feet, comprising 14 feet for the 
 accommodation of 24 passengers, and 9^ feet for the boiler-room. 
 The total weight was about 7 tons gross, with passengers, of 
 which there were 3 tons on the driving-wheels, and 4 tons on the 
 bogie. The price of the steam-car was about ^750. 
 
 This car was tried on the Hoylake and Birkenhead Tramway 
 
422 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 on May ii, 1876. The tramway is 2^ miles long, with curves of 
 35 feet radius, and a maximum gradient of i in 19. The car 
 made three complete double journeys, or a total running of 15 
 miles, with a load of 45 passengers. The working pressure in 
 the boiler was 100 lbs. per square inch. The ordinary speed, 
 whilst running, was about 10 miles per hour ; but the speed, when 
 tested, occasionally reached double that rate. 
 
 The car ascended the incline i in 19; but it could not 
 have started on the incline if it had previously been stopped 
 upon it. 
 
 A trial of this steam-car was made on reaching its destination, 
 on the Vienna Tramways, over a piece 2’40 miles long, between 
 the Semmering Tramway Station and the Central Cemetery, on 
 July 28, 1876. The distance was traversed in 15 minutes, or at 
 the rate of 9J miles per hour, including stoppages. The steepest 
 gradient was i in 48, which was ascended at a speed of 14 miles 
 per hour. The boiler, though a rapid generator of steam, was, for 
 the purpose of a tramway motor, too limited in water-room; and 
 it demanded skilled management to maintain the pressure free 
 from violent fluctuations. 
 
 The regular working speed was from 10 to 12 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 In Mr. V/oods’ latest design of the Grantham steam-car, the 
 distance between the centres of the driving-axle and the bogie was 
 increased to 10 feet. 
 
 The Grantham car continued in dailv work for some time, as 
 late as in 1881, on the Wantage Tramway. In the reports of Mr. 
 G. Stevenson, the engineer of the line, in that year, it appears that 
 the steam-car consumed 220 lbs. of coke per day in running 8 trips 
 of 5 miles each, or 40 miles in all : at the rate of 5J lbs, of coke 
 per mile run, and not 7 lbs., as was assumed for estimation. The 
 car weighed with fuel and water 6^ tons, and took 2f tons of pas¬ 
 sengers ; making a gross weight of 9I tons, for moving which the 
 fuel was consumed at the rate of "59 lb. per ton-gross per mile 
 run. According to the first estimate given in page 420, the total 
 working cost for the Grantham car was calculated at 3*88d. per 
 
PER kins' L O COMO T1VE. 
 
 423 
 
 mile run. It now appears from the published accounts, that the 
 cost for locomotive power for the two years ending June 30, 1880, 
 during which 24,280 miles were run by cars, amounted to 4'44d. 
 per mile run by cars, comprising the cost for the heavier engines of 
 Hughes already noticed. 
 
 Perkins. 
 
 In 1874, a tramway locomotive was constructed on the system 
 of Mr. Loftus Perkins, by the Yorkshire Engine Company, for the 
 Belgian Street Railway Company, Brussels. It was worked with 
 steam of a pressure of 500 lbs. per square inch, with compound 
 cylinders, of which the first cylinder was single-acting, 2 inches 
 in diameter, and the second cylinder was double-acting, 4f inches 
 in diameter. Thence the steam was exhausted into an air-surface 
 condenser, consisting of two assemblages of vertical J-inch copper 
 tubes, one on each side of the engine, presenting together 700 or 
 800 square feet of cooling surface. The steam was condensed by 
 the cooling action of the atmospheric air which circulated about 
 the outsides of the tubes. The upper ends of the tubes were closed, 
 with the exception of a small aperture, about inch in diameter, 
 left for the escape of residual vapour. The boiler was constructed 
 of bent iron tubes, 2 J inches diameter inside, and f inch thick ; 
 it had been proved to a pressure of 2,500 lbs. on the square inch, 
 or 167 atmospheres. Coke was the fuel used, and the force of 
 draught was simply that due to the height of the chimney. The 
 wheels were 2 feet in diameter; the axles were 2 J inches in dia¬ 
 meter, swelled to a diameter of 3J inches at the middle. The 
 speed of the crank-shaft was reduced by toothed-wheel gearing, 
 in the ratio of four to one ; and the motion was taken off the 
 second shaft to the wheels by coupling-rods. The weight of the 
 locomotive was only four tons, in working order. The scantling 
 of its parts appears generally to have been scarcely sufficient. 
 The crank-shaft, for example, was only if inches in diameter. Mr. 
 Cramp states, that in a preliminary trial of this engine, with its 
 
424 
 
 MECHANICAL POIVER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 load, in the end of 1874, on the Manchester and Sheffield Rail¬ 
 way, a speed of 15 miles per hour was attained, on gradients of 
 from I in 200 to I in 80. 
 
 Fig, 289. Perkins’s Condensing Locomotive : Elevation. 
 
 The engine was sent to Brussels, where it had the duty of 
 drawing a one-horse passenger-car. M. Vaucamps, director of 
 the Belgian Street Railways, writing upon the results of trials in 
 the end of 1874, stated that the system was perfect: “ In fact, no 
 
PERKINS' LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 425 
 
 smoke, no escape of steam into the atmosphere, no noise, no 
 feeding of water during the trip, nor even, if needful, for several 
 days,” 
 
 Spee, writing in December, 1875,'^' i^C)t form quite so 
 
 Fig. 290. Perkins’s Condensing Locomotive : Transverse Section. 
 
 favourable an estimate; but “ he was convinced that this motor, 
 slightly modified, would answer perfectly. It would be neces- 
 
 * Exploitation des Chemins de Fers Americains par Traction 
 Alecafiique, page 12. 
 
42 6 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 sary to employ two cylinders at least [probably he meant two 
 systems of compound cylinders]. The pressure, 35 atmospheres, 
 n consequence of which it is very difficult to maintain the joints, 
 would not appear to be indispensable. The condenser,” he added, 
 “does not act efficiently, for the outer ranges of tubes, screening 
 the others, prevent their being sufficiently cooled.” M. Vaucamps 
 appears to have afterwards adopted similar views, for, in 1875, he 
 adapted two systems of compound cylinders to the engine, with a 
 mode of coupling by frictional gearing, heavy and complicated, 
 for moving the locomotive either way; this gearing gave rise to 
 violent shocks. 
 
 “ After having tried this coupling-gear for some time,” says 
 M. Spee, “M. Vaucamps resolved to take the machine to pieces, 
 and sell it as old metal.” 
 
 Mr. Perkins availed himself of the results of his experience with 
 the locomotive at Brussels, in the designing of the condensing 
 locomotive. Figs. 289 and 290. It is compactly arranged, within 
 a length of 10 feet, a width of 7 feet, and a height of 9 feet 
 8 inches above the level of the rails, exclusive of the chimney, which 
 is about 13 or 14 feet high. The wheel-base is 4 feet 3 inches in 
 length, and the width of gauge is 4 feet 8k inches. The boiler 
 and the engines are placed side by side in the middle, and they 
 are flanked by two air-condensers. 
 
 The motion is reduced by toothed gearing from the crank¬ 
 shaft to an intermediate shaft, and is thence communicated to all 
 the wheels by coupling-rods. 
 
 The boiler is vertical, and is constructed on Mr. Perkins's water- 
 tube system. There are nine tiers of wrought-iron tubes, bent to 
 an oblong form, with circular ends, 2k inches in bore, and f inch 
 thick. The tiers are connected vertically by short junction tubes 
 of smaller diameter. The boiler is “ absolutely safe from explo¬ 
 sion.” The total external heating surface presented is 90 square 
 feet. The area of grate-surface is 3 square feet. Thus the ratio 
 of the fire-grate area to the heating surface is i to 30. The 
 pressure of steam in the boiler is 500 lbs. per square inch, though 
 the boiler is constructed to bear a maximum pressure of 800 lbs. 
 
PERKINS' LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 427 
 
 per square inch. The chimney is sufficient, by the natural draught, 
 for the production of steam, with coke as fuel. 
 
 'The engine consists of two single-acting cylinders and one 
 double-acting cylinder. The single-acting cylinders have one 
 piston-rod ; the steam, at 400 lbs. pressure, being admitted above 
 the piston by the first and smallest cylinder, 3b inches in diameter; 
 then expanded into the second, or medium, cylinder, 5J inches in 
 diameter, below its piston ; lastly, exhausted into the double¬ 
 acting cylinder, which is 7J inches in diameter. The first and 
 second cylinders thus work together as one cylinder, and they, 
 with the third cylinder, are connected to a crank-shaft, with a 
 stroke of 9 inches. The object of the combination of the first 
 and second cylinders, and working them by single action, is to 
 prevent the exposure of the packing round the piston-rod to the 
 extreme temperature of the steam as first admitted. 
 
 The steam is cut off in the first cylinder at three-fourths of 
 the stroke; and whilst its initial temperature at 400 lbs. effective 
 pressure is about 450° F., the pressure falls by expansion to 
 something less than 300 lbs. effective pressure when the steam 
 enters the second cylinder, where the initial temperature does 
 not exceed 420° F. 
 
 A sufficiently high degree of expansion is obtained by this 
 combination, for the working volumes of the cylinders are as 
 follows :— 
 
 Area of piston. 
 ^ , 3.S I 
 
 1st cylinder 
 
 . 2376, as 3*23 
 
 44* 18 sq. in. x 2 = 88*36, as 11*52 
 
 Setting off the expansion in the first cylinder against the reduc¬ 
 tion of expansive action by clearances, it may be taken that the 
 steam may be finally expanded to twelve times its initial volume 
 before being exhausted into the condensers. The cylinders are 
 jacketed with steam direct from the boiler; the jackets are in 
 reality coils of pipes, of small bore, conducted round the cylinders, 
 embedded in the castings. 
 
428 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The engine, boiler, and chimney are entirely enveloped in a 
 non-conducting casing of vegetable-black, 3 inches thick. 
 
 The condensers consist each of a great number of brass tubes, 
 i inch in diameter outside, and 6 feet long, placed vertically on a 
 hollow base, and pitched at a distance of one inch between 
 centres. The steam is exhausted into the hollow base of each 
 condenser, whence it freely enters the tubes, which are nearly 
 closed at the upper ends, leaving only a very small opening, 
 iV inch in diameter, to the atmosphere. They present an area of 
 external surface equal to i’5oo square feet, of which, it is stated, 
 150 square feet are sufficient for the formation of one cubic foot 
 of water per hour, by the condensation of steam as from a tem¬ 
 perature of 212° F., or atmospheric pressure. The total quantity 
 of steam that could be condensed per hour, as from 212° F., 
 would thus amount to 10 cubic feet of water, which affords ample 
 margin. The feed is drawn from the condensation-water. The 
 temperature of condensation is from 210° to 212° after the water- 
 supply is heated. The back pressure in the condenser is about 
 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere. 
 
 The intermediate shaft is geared to the crank-shaft in the ratio 
 of 4 to I, to make one turn for four of the crank-shaft, and the 
 motion is transmitted by 4-inch cranks, with coupling-rods, to the 
 wheels, which are 24 inches in diameter. The play of the springs 
 is allowed for by a slot in each coupling-rod. The axle-boxes of 
 each pair of wheels are united into one piece, reaching across the 
 engine. 
 
 The weight of the locomotive, empty, is 5J tons, of which 
 10 cwt. is contributed by the condensers. The weight, in full 
 working order, with fuel and water for the day’s work, is 6 tons. 
 
 It was anticipated that very economical results of performance 
 would be obtained by the use of this locomotive. In a stationary 
 engine and boiler constructed on the same system, 18-indicator 
 horse-power has been realised with a consumption of 30 pounds 
 of coke per hour, equivalent to i’ 6 j pounds per horse-power per 
 hour. The waste of water in the engine is only 5 gallons in 
 12 hours. 
 
SOCIETE METALLURGIQUE ZOCOMOT/IE. 
 
 429 
 
 The tramway locomotive, working at full power, indicated, it 
 was stated, 30 horse-power, with a consumption of about 50 lbs. 
 of coke per hour, or ry lbs. per square foot of grate per hour. 
 
 SOCIETE MeTALLURGIQUE. 
 
 The Socie'te Me'tallurgique et Charbonniere, Belgium, according 
 to M. Spec, constructed, in 1875, ^ locomotive fitted with a three- 
 cylinder engine on Brotherhood’s system. 
 
 The high speed of the engine was, in the first design, reduced 
 by means of an endless-screw and wheel, with a view to the 
 prevention of noise. But this gearing broke down several times, 
 and the friction and the wear were found to be so considerable, 
 that in a second design the reduction of speed was effected by 
 means of spur-gear. From cranks on the last shaft of the motion, 
 the wheels were turned by connecting-rods. A fly-wheel, also, 
 was fixed on the first shaft of the engine, for the purpose of 
 preventing the noise of the gearing. The locomotive resembled, 
 in external appearance, an omnibus; the body was 7 feet 2 inches 
 long, and 6 feet 8 inches wide; the total length of the frame 
 was iij feet. There were four wheels, coupled, of which the 
 axles were 3 feet 7 inches apart between centres. The boiler 
 was of the Belleville type, ‘‘ inexplodable,” consisting of water- 
 tubes arranged for rapid evaporation, with only the natural 
 draught of the chimney. It is fed automatically by a donkey- 
 engine. 
 
 The steam was slightly superheated, and was exhausted into 
 a surface-condenser, whence the remaining uncondensed steam 
 mixed with the air is discharged into the chimney. The principle 
 of the condenser consisted in the division of the exhaust-steam 
 into a number of jets, which drew, each by a conical nozzle, 
 currents of air to condense the steam. The locomotive weighed 
 6 tons, and it carried a supply of coke and water for 4 or 5 miles. 
 It was found that the condensation was imperfectly effected when 
 the atmosphere was not warm or dry, and in another locomotive 
 
430 
 
 MECHANICAL LOWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 of the same kind, constructed subsequently, the area of the con¬ 
 densing surface was extended to five times that of the surface in 
 the first engine. 
 
 To facilitate the lubrication of the cylinders, they were placed 
 horizontally on the platform near the conductor. The stoker, 
 who took his place within the covering, attended to the fire and 
 the water. 
 
 Kohl. 
 
 In August, 1875, ^ tramway-locomotive, constructed by Mr. A. 
 Kohl, a Danish engineer, was tried in Copenhagen, on the tramway 
 worked by the American Omnibus Company. It weighed, in 
 working order, upwards of 5 tons, and it drew two American 
 tramway-cars filled with passengers. 
 
 Smith & Mygind. 
 
 In December, 1875, ^ tramway-locomotive, constructed by 
 Messrs. Smith & Mygind, of Copenhagen, was put to work on 
 the tramways of Copenhagen, drawing passenger-cars. The boiler, 
 according to M. Spec, was of the locomotive type, and compound 
 cylinders were employed. The exhaust steam was condensed in 
 a surface-condenser, holding a quantity of water sufficient to last 
 an hour. 
 
 Bede. 
 
 MM. Bede & Co., Belgium, constructed a fireless steam car, 
 in 1875, fo the directions of the Societe Generale de Tramways. 
 The reservoirs consisted of four small horizontal cylinders placed 
 under the seats, and two upright cylinders placed one on each 
 side of the car, enclosed, and leaving a passage-way within the 
 car between the first-class and second-class compartments. The 
 
BEDE'S FIRELESS STEAM CAR. 
 
 431 
 
 Steam, disengaged in the upper part of the upright cylinders, 
 descended in a pipe through the hot water, to the steam cylinders. 
 There were three steam cylinders, 4J inches in diameter, with a 
 stroke of 14’2 inches, connected to a triple-crank axle, with 28-inch 
 wheels. They were fitted with link-motions. The crank-axle 
 was placed under the middle of the car, which originally had two 
 other axles with 20-inch wheels which were loose on the axles. 
 One of the pair of wheels was removed, and the wheels of the other 
 pair were fixed on the axle. But the wheels were not coupled. 
 The reservoir contained 50 cubic feet of water heated to 365° F., 
 for an effective air-pressure of 10 atmospheres or 162 lbs. per 
 square inch. The reserve of heat was sufficient to last 50 minutes 
 at the ordinary speed on tramways, with a load of i‘6o tons. The 
 car ran with facility on curves of 40 feet radius, and ascended an 
 incline of i in 28, with a pressure of 44 atmospheres, or 66 lbs. per 
 square inch. The car stopped and started quickly and without 
 shock. The exhaust-steam was discharged into a chamber so 
 arranged as to. separate water from the steam, and the sound of the 
 escaping steam was scarcely audible.'*' 
 
 It appeared that this engine worked daily with regularity and 
 success in Belgium.! The charging of the reservoir was renewed 
 every two hours, and was done in a quarter of an hour. The 
 cylinders constituting the reservoir were covered with woven glass 
 and lagging. A tank was filled with cold water for condensing the 
 exhaust steam; there were, it is said, four horizontal steam-cylin¬ 
 ders, two at each end, all of which are brought into action in 
 ascending the steepest incline already noted. The speed attained 
 was ten miles per hour, on a level. Suet was used for lubrication, 
 to obviate the odour of oil. The sockets for the driving and other 
 levers were in duplicate, one set at each end of the car. The 
 engine was about (September, 1877) to undergo a few alterations, 
 but it was ultimately taken off the line on account of the excessive 
 cost of working. 
 
 * These particulars are borrowed from M. Spee. 
 
 f The Foreman Engineer and Draughtsman, September, 1877, 
 page 138. 
 
43 ^ 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Baldwin. 
 
 Reverting to America, a steam-car was built at the Baldwin 
 Locomotive Works, in 1875, experimentally worked on 
 
 the Atlantic Avenue Railway (Tramway) at Brooklyn, for the 
 first six months of 1876. It was run and kept in order by one 
 engineer during that time, consuming from 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. of coal 
 per mile run. Night and morning, it drew behind it an additional 
 car with passengers from and to New York. On several occasions 
 a speed of 16 or 18 miles per hour was attained with it. In June, 
 1876, the steam-car was removed to Philadelphia, where it was 
 worked on the Market Street line till nearly the date of closing 
 the Centennial Exhibition. The car was constructed with steam- 
 cylinders under the body, connected to a cranked axle, to which 
 the fore-wheels were coupled. The hind-wheels were free. The 
 machinery was fixed to an iron bed-plate bolted to the wooden 
 framing of the car. This mode of construction was found to be 
 objectionable, as the framing was not strong enough for the pur¬ 
 pose, and the crank-axle was subject to occasional breakage. 
 
 In the end of 1876, therefore, the steam-car was removed to the 
 works of the Baldwin Company to be reconstructed. An iron 
 framework was made, on which an upright boiler and the machinery 
 were fixed, independent of the body of the car, which was bolted 
 down to it; and outside horizontal cylinders were employed. In 
 this way existing car stock could be utilised—bolting down the 
 bodies to an engine-frame adapted to receive them and carry them. 
 The throttle-valve was placed close to the cylinders—a good idea 
 —having the advantage of promptly stopping and starting the 
 engine. The car was carried on rubber springs, with cross equalis- 
 ing-beams; the motion was smooth, free from interference by the 
 action of the machinery. The boiler was of steel, double-riveted, 
 and was calculated to support with safety a steam-pressure of 
 300 lbs. per square inch. But a pressure of 90 lbs. was sufficient 
 to move the loaded car over the steepest inclines on the Market 
 Street line, which are about i in 22, without ever “stalling” or 
 requiring assistance. The reconstructed steam-car, which was 
 
BALDWIN STEAM CAR, 
 
 433 
 
 named the Baldwin,” was replaced on the Market Street Tram¬ 
 way on March 21, 1877; it worked regularly for four weeks, to 
 April 18 :—running 88 miles per day, seven days in the week. 
 
 The quantity of fuel, coal, consumed by the steam-car amounted 
 to 4,950 lbs. in seven days, running (7 x 88 —) 616 miles :—at the 
 rate of 8’03 lbs. per mile. The car did not require any repair 
 during the four weeks’ run. The actual daily expenses, with esti¬ 
 mated cost for maintenance and interest, were as folloAvs : — 
 
 Baldwin Steam Car. 
 
 Cost of Rimning one Steam- Car 
 
 one day. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 Fuel, 88 miles, at 8 lbs. per mile, equal to 
 
 704 lbs., @ 4 dollars per ton 
 
 f26 or 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Oil, waste, and tallow ..... 
 
 •25 
 
 I 
 
 O-J 
 
 Wages of engineers, 16 hours @ 25 cents 
 
 4-00 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 Repair and maintenance of car and ma- 
 
 chinery ..... . . 
 
 i-oo 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Working cost 
 
 6-51 
 
 27 
 
 
 Daily interest on cost of steam-car, 3,000 
 
 dollars, or ^625 @ 6 per cent., per year . 
 
 '49 - 
 
 2 
 
 od 
 
 Total cost per day (4d. per mile run) 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 The Baldwin Company also constructed a tramway locomotive, 
 having boilers and cylinders of the same capacity as those of the 
 steam-car, on an iron frame; of which, with water-tanks, the total 
 weight was 12,000 lbs., or 5-35 tons. The whole of these masses 
 were carried within the wheel-base, so preventing rocking and 
 pitching. A locomotive of this class was constructed in 1876 for 
 the Citizens’ Railway of Baltimore, of which the maximum gra¬ 
 dients are i in i4'3. It was capable of drawing one car up the 
 incline, but it had not sufficient power to take up two cars. A 
 second engine, weighing about 7*2 tons, was built and delivered in 
 December, 1876. During severe snow-storms it ascended the 
 maximum incline, drawing one car, with 100 passengers, when the 
 tracks were covered in places with a mixture of snow and dirt to 
 
 F F 
 
434 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 'PR AM WAYS. 
 
 a depth of 8 or lo inches. It could, without difficulty, draw a 
 loaded car, for taking which, otherwise, four horses were required. 
 In better weather the locomotive worked regularly—taking two 
 cars up the incline. 
 
 The following is a statement, for comparison, of the cost of 
 running horse cars, based on the reports of various tramway com.- 
 panies in Philadelphia :— 
 
 Horse Cars in Philadelphia. 
 
 Cost of Riiniivig one T'iuo-Ho 7 'se Ca?‘ one day. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 First cost of one car, i,ooo dollars, or . . . 258 6 8 
 
 Ditto 9 horses, @ 140 dollars, or ^29 3s. qd. 262 10 o 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Feed and stable expenses (feed, straw, hostlers, stable 
 
 boss, medicines), of 9 horses, (a) 46 cents, or is. iid. 17 3 
 
 Shoeing of 9 horses, @ 6 cents, or 3d. . . . . 23 
 
 Maintenance of harness of 9 horses, (a) 2 cents, or id. o 9 
 Maintenance of 9 horses, @ 33 J per cent, per year, for 
 depreciation, equivalent per day for 9 horses to . . 4 
 
 Maintenance of car . . . . . . . . 18 
 
 Wages of driver ........ 7 3^ 
 
 Daily interest on cost of car and 9 horses, @ 6 per cent. 
 
 per year.16^ 
 
 Total . . . 35 64 
 
 Compared with this amount, the cost of running a steam car, 
 before estimated at 29s. 2d. per day, shows a difference of 6s. qld. 
 per day, or 18 per cent, in reduction on the cost for horse-power. 
 
 Ransom. 
 
 Mr. Louis Ransom’s steam car is so constructed that the 
 machinery may be readily adapted to existing cars. A double¬ 
 crank axle with driving-wheels for inside cylinders, is substituted 
 for one pair of ordinary wheels, and the machinery is placed 
 horizontally under the floor. The two cylinders are cast in one 
 
RANSOArS STEAAI CAR, 
 
 435 
 
 piece, connected to the driving axle by means of three bars, which 
 have bearings on the axle, and form the framing of the engine. 
 
 The valve-gear consists of a rocking expansion-link, vibrating on 
 a pivot at the middle, and worked by two eccentrics. The valve- 
 spindle is connected to the expansion-link by a radius-link, which 
 is shifted vertically for reversing and for varying the degree of 
 expansion. The forward end of the engine-frame, at the cylinders, 
 is supported by a loop pinned to the bottom of the body. By this 
 arrangement the engine is suspended on three points, and is easily 
 removed for the purpose of repair. Light repairs may be made by 
 merely detaching the fore-end of the frame from the body, and 
 letting it hang from the crank-axle. The machinery is accessible 
 for general purposes through trap-doors in the floor. It is enclosed 
 in a casing made so perfectly dust-tight that even after having run 
 all day through dusty streets the engine is free from dust, and is 
 actually covered with drops of water, being the slight quantity of 
 steam condensed which escapes from the stuffing-boxes. The 
 boiler is placed a little forward of the front axle; the water-tank 
 is under the floor at the rear end; the body—for passengers—is 
 nearly equally divided forward and aft of the hind axle. To quell 
 the noise of the exhaust-steam, the steam is passed through a 
 muffler, consisting of a box filled with balls or pebbles. 
 
 The body of the car is i6 feet long, having seats for 22 passen¬ 
 gers. The length of wheel-base is 7 feet—longer than what is 
 customary, but the car runs by so much the more steadily. It is 
 said that there is less ieter in passing over rough or uneven places 
 in the line, although the resistance on curves is greater than with 
 a shorter base. The cylinders are 5^ inches in diameter, with a 
 stroke of 14 inches. The boiler is upright, 3 feet i inch in 
 diameter, and 4 feet 8 inches high, made of one sheet of No. i 
 charcoal hammered iron; it contains 300 upright flue-tubes, 
 inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, making up a heating 
 surface of 116 square feet, for a grate-area of 6 }j square feet. The 
 pressure in the boiler is 120 lbs. per square inch; the testing pres¬ 
 sure was 200 lbs. The steam-room has 26 times the capacity of 
 one cylinder of the engine. The car is fitted with a steam brake, 
 
 F F 2 
 
436 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 having a q^linder gi inches in diameter,, with a stroke of 8 inches; 
 the piston-rod is extended with a rack, gearing into a toothed 
 sector linked to knuckle-jointed levers, by which the brake-blocks 
 are forced against the inner edges of the wheels. The steam-valve 
 for the brake is thrown open by the same movement which closes 
 the regulator. 
 
 In January, 1876, one of the Ransom steam cars, constructed 
 l)y Messrs. Gilbert, Bush & Co., Troy, N.Y., was placed on 
 the Coney Island Railroad, 4^ miles in length, where it ran 
 81 miles per day for five months. The double trip of nine miles 
 was made in 40 minutes, at a gross average speed of 13^ miles per 
 hour. After each double trip, the steam-car was at rest for 50 
 minutes. The quantity of coal consumed per day, as fuel, amounted 
 to 600 lbs. per day ; equivalent to 7*4 lbs. per mile run. The total 
 cost for running 81 miles per day was estimated at 8’31 dollars, or 
 34s. 7^d. per day—at the rate of 5*13 pence per mile run. The 
 engine was sold, and went to work on the Onondaga Valley Road, 
 Syracuse, N.Y. 
 
 Six Ransom steam cars were placed on the Market Street line, 
 Philadelphia, on March 21, 1877, to v/ork on the Baring Street 
 branch, on which the maximum inclines are at the rate of i in 22, 
 with many curves. Though seated for 20 passengers, these cars 
 have frequently carried 50 passengers. Some difficulties have been 
 encountered in running the cars, which appear to have been 
 scarcely able to cope with the gradients and curves of the Baring 
 Street branch. In Mr. Ransom’s opinion, the engine should have 
 had 7-inch cylinders for this traffic. Besides, the “peculiar greasy 
 mud ” of the city causes the ordinary chilled cast-iron driving- 
 Avheels to slip, a defect which Mr. Ransom proposed to remedy by 
 the substitution of tyres of steel for the driving-wheels.'"' 
 
 * The above particulars of the performances of the Baldwin steam 
 car and the Ransom steam car are drawn from the reports of the 
 Secretary of the Franklin Institute upon “ Steam on Street Rail¬ 
 ways,” published in T/ie yoitr 7 'ial of the Franklin Institute, June 
 and July, 1877. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CURRENT FRACIICE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF 
 
 STEAM POWER. 
 
 Merryweather. 
 
 Messrs. Merryweather & Sons were early engaged in the 
 design and manufacture of tramway-engines. It has already been 
 noted that this firm constructed the machinery for the first steam-car 
 made for tramways in England, in 1872, to the designs of Mr, 
 Grantham. They secured their first patent for tramway-engines 
 of their own design in April, 1875. The first engines on this 
 system constructed by them, were to the order of Mr. G. P. 
 Harding, for working the line of tramv/ays in aris, 4^ miles long, 
 between the Bastille and the Mont Parnasse railway station. The 
 first of these was started about the month of November, 1875, and 
 in January, 1878, thirty-six of Messrs. Merryweather’s engines 
 were regularly at work on that line. There were also ten of their 
 engines on the line from the Bastille to St. Mande'. Many 
 improvements, naturally, have been made in the design and con¬ 
 struction of the engines. In the earliest engines, a portion of the 
 exhaust-steam was discharged into the ash-pan and passed through 
 the fire, that it might be superheated, and, mixing with the 
 remaining portion discharged direct into the chimney, reduce the 
 visibility of the escaping steam. 
 
 In their later designs, Messrs. Merryweather disposed of the 
 exhaust-steam by means of an “ auto-absorbing ” apparatus—a 
 
438 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 simple arrangement in which the steam was condensed by cold 
 water. 
 
 Messrs. Merry weather & Sons construct three classes of steam 
 locomotives for tramways :— 
 
 1. Cylinders, 6 inches diameter; stroke, 9 inches ; wheels, 2 feet. 
 Weight, empty, 3^ tons ; in working order, 4 tons. 
 
 2. Cylinders, 7 inches diameter; stroke, ii inches ; wheels, 2 feet. 
 Weight, empty, 5‘4 tons ; in working order, 6 to tons. 
 
 3. Cylinders, 71 ^ inches diameter; stroke, 12 inches; wheels, 2 feet. 
 Weight, empty, 6^ tons ; in working order, 7A- to 8 tons. 
 
 The working pressure in the boiler is 8 atmospheres, or nomi¬ 
 nally 120 lbs. per square inch. The guaranteed maximum perfor¬ 
 mances are respectively as follows :— 
 
 1. To draw i loaded car, weighing 7 tons, up an incline of i in 30. 
 
 2. To draw i loaded car, weighing 7 tons, up an incline of i in 18 ; 
 or 2 loaded cars, weighing 14 tons, up an incline of i in 30. 
 
 3. To draw 2 loaded cars, weighing 14 tons, up an incline of i in 
 16 ; or 3 loaded cars, weighing 21 tons, up an incline of i in 20. 
 
 Engines of the third class have taken three cars up an incline of 
 I in 18, at regular work. 
 
 The tramway locomotives of Messrs. Merry weather & Sons, 
 worked on the Southern Tramways of Paris, thirty-six in number, 
 had, as already mentioned, two cylinders, 6 inches in diameter, 
 with a stroke of 9 inches. The cylinders are horizontal, inside 
 the framing, and connected to cranks on the driving-axle. There 
 are two pairs of driving-wheels of cast steel, coupled, 2 feet in 
 diameter, 4 feet 7 inches apart between centres of axles. The 
 blast-orifice is annular in form, and has an area of i square 
 inch, being about 1-28th of the area of the pistons. The length 
 of the frame is about 8 feet, and the width is 6 feet. Over the 
 buffers, which are central, the extreme length is about 8 feet 10 
 inches. The load is carried by a pair of helical springs over each 
 journal. The buffing and draw-springs, of india-rubber, at each 
 end, are well connected to the frame, the attachment having been 
 taken as near to the centre of the machine as was conveniently 
 
MER R YIVEA THER 'S LO COMO TIRES. 
 
 439 
 
 practicable. A close-laid draw-pin eases the traction very much, 
 compared with a distant draw-pin. The engine is braked by cast- 
 iron blocks, applied one to each wheel. The whole machine is 
 enclosed in a large wooden box, made like a short tramway-car, 
 having several windows. The fire-box is 2 feet wide, and i foot 
 6 inches long. The barrel of the boiler is 2 feet 9 inches long, 
 and 2 feet 3 inches in diameter; it contains 65 fliie-tubes, if inches 
 in diameter, and 3 feet long:— 
 
 Scjuare feet. 
 
 Heating surface in fire-box .... i6'o 
 Do. do. tubes .... 89*3 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 Area of fire-grate . . . . 
 
 Ratio of grate to heating surface, 
 
 • 105-3 
 
 3 
 
 fo 35 - 
 
 'Fhe pressure in the boiler is nominally 8 atmospheres, or 120 
 lbs. per square inch ; but the working pressure usually maintained 
 is 6 atmospheres, or 90 lbs. per square inch. The steam is cut off 
 in the cylinders at from i-qth to 3-4ths of the stroke. The 
 length of the journey is 4 miles, between the Bastille and the Gare 
 de Mont Parnasse, on which the maximum incline has a gradient 
 of I in 50, whilst there are long inclines of from i in 60 to i in 70. 
 The speed is limited by law to 9 kilometres, or a little over 54 
 miles per hour; but it occasionally rises to 14 or 15 miles per 
 hour, and the average speed, including stoppages, is 84 miles per 
 hour. The weight of the engine, empty, is 3^ tons; with coke 
 and water, 4 tons. It draws a car which, when loaded, weighs 
 7 tons; and it can ascend the inclines with its load, and keep 
 time, with a pressure in the boiler of 90 lbs. per square inch. The 
 fuel (coke) consumed per day, amounts to 550 lbs. for a total dis¬ 
 tance run of 100 miles:—at the rate of 54 lbs. per mile. The 
 combustion of the fuel proceeds at a comparatively low rate. Sup¬ 
 posing that the average actual speed while running is 10 miles per 
 hour, the quantity of coke consumed per hour would be (10 x 5*5 
 = ) 55 lbs., equivalent to (55 -f- 3 =) 184 lbs. per square foot of 
 grate. In the ordinary practice of locomotives on railways, the 
 
440 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 quantity of fuel consumed per square foot of grate per hour amounts 
 to three or four times as much. The comparatively low rate in the 
 Merryweather engine is easily accounted for by the comparatively 
 low speed, and the reduced blast and draught which are required 
 for the generation of steam. It is true, the area of the blast-orifice 
 is contracted to i-28th of that of the pistons, which is a very small 
 fraction, and would cause great back-pressure on the pistons if the 
 engine travelled at a high speed. But it is to be obseiwed that the 
 pistons travel at a comparatively low speed. The wheels, 2 feet 
 in diameter, and 6‘28 feet in circumference, make (5,280 -r- 6‘28 =) 
 841 turns in a mile, or in (60 -r- 10 =) six minutes of time, when 
 the speed is ten miles per hour. The number of turns per minute 
 is, then (841 6 —) 140 ; and, as the double stroke of the piston 
 
 is (9 X 2 —) 18 inches, or i’5 feet, the speed of the pistons is 
 only (140 X I ’5 —) 210 feet per minute. 
 
 The engines, more recently constructed, for the tramway from 
 the Bastille to St. Maude, are more powerful than those just 
 described. They have 7-inch cylinders, with a stroke of ii inches, 
 and 2-feet wheels. The fire-box is 2 feet 2 inches by 2 feet, 
 having an area of 4*33 square feet of grate. The fire-box surface 
 is 24*5 square feet; there are 79 flue-tubes, i|- inches in diameter 
 outside, and 3 feet 6 inches long, giving 126-6 square feet of 
 heating surface. The total heating surface is 151*1 square feet, 
 and it amounts to 35 times the area of grate. The diameter of 
 the barrel of the boiler is 2 feet 6 inches; the length of the 
 engine, over all, is 6 feet 7 inches, and the length of the wheel¬ 
 base is 4 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Additional engines of equal power have been constructed for 
 other lines of tramway in Paris. 
 
 The locomotives constructed for the tramway from Barcelona 
 to St. Andres, on a 1-metre gauge, have 6-inch cylinders, with a 
 stroke of 9 inches, and four 2-feet wheels, coupled. The fire-grate 
 has 3 square feet of area. The barrel of the boiler is 27 inches in 
 diameter ; and there are 96 flue-tubes, i§ inches in diameter, and 
 3 feet in length. The heating surface of the fire-box is 16 square 
 feet, of the tubes 102*7 square feet, total surface 118*7 square feet. 
 
MERR YIVEA TIIER'S LOCOMOT1VES. 
 
 441 
 
 A tank to hold a supply of cold water, 300 gallons, for condensing 
 the steam, is placed overhead. The exhaust-steam is discharged 
 from the cylinders into an apparatus like an ejector, in the lower 
 part of the engine, to which the water is conducted from the tank, 
 where it meets and condenses the exhaust steam, and whence it 
 returns by a return-pipe to the tank. The water, of course, becomes 
 gradually heated, but the condensation of the steam is effective, and 
 there is no appearance of escaping steam until the temperature of 
 the water arrives near the boiling point. Possessing so wide a 
 range of effective action, a tankful of cold water lasts good, for 
 condensing the exhaust-steam, for two hours, over a distance of 
 more than 10 miles. The distance to be run before the water can 
 be heated, from, say, 60° F. to, say, 180° F., is easily determined. 
 
 The quantity of fuel consumed per mile is 5 lbs., evaporating, 
 say, 7 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel. The quantity of steam generated 
 per mile would be (5 x 7 =) 35 lbs., exhausted at, say, a pressure 
 of 3 ibs. per square inch. The total heat of i lb. of steam of 3 
 lbs. effective pressure per square inch is 1,117 units, reckoned from 
 a temperature of 62° F., or 967 units, reckoned from 212°. The 
 mean total heat per pound of steam to be extracted by condensa¬ 
 tion is (i117 -p 967) -r- 2 r=) 1,042 units. Each pound of con¬ 
 densing water absorbs (180 — 62 —) 118 units of heat, when 
 heated from 62° to 180°; and, to condense i lb. of steam, the 
 quantity of water required is (1042 -^118 =) 8*8 lbs. The total 
 weight of water in the tank is (300 gallons X 10 r=) 3,000 lbs. ; 
 and (3000 ^ 8’8 =r) 341 lbs. of steam, is the total quantity that 
 may be condensed by the store of condensing water. As 35 
 lbs. of steam is consumed per mile, the supply of condensing 
 water would last for (341 35 ~) 10 miles, equivalent to 30 
 
 gallons per mile—a result of calculation which agrees with the 
 results of practice. 
 
 For occasional use, a blast-pipe is adopted for exhausting the 
 steam into the chimney ; it is fitted with the means of contracting 
 the area of the orifice, by a conical plug with a rack-and-pinion 
 movement. A steam-jet is also available at will, by a nozzle 
 placed concentrically within the blast-pipe. Two truncated cones 
 
442 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 are placed one above the other, over the blast-pipe and below the 
 chimney, through which the blast is directed upwards. They are 
 useful in inducing the draught from the lower rows of flue-tubes, as 
 well as from the upper rows ; and they assist the absorption of the 
 exhaust steam by the hot air, whereby, except in very cold weather, 
 it issues from the chimney invisible ; so far dispensing with the 
 use of the water-condenser. 
 
 The Barcelona Tramway was opened in November, 1877. The 
 engines each take two loaded cars up inclines of i in 30. The 
 additional engines supplied by the same makers have cylinders 
 7 inches in diameter, of the same power as the later engines 
 constructed for the Paris Tramways. They weigh, empty, 
 7J tons. 
 
 The engines each run about 90 miles per day, from 5 a.m. till 
 9 P.M. Each train consisted of two second-class cars and one first- 
 class car. The engine stock consists of five, having 6-inch cylin¬ 
 ders, already described and illustrated; and five others having 
 7-inch cylinders with ii inches of stroke, weighing, empty, about 
 7^ tons. Don Alejo Soujal, the chief director of the line, is 
 about to construct other tramways, which, in view of the success 
 of the Barcelona line, will be worked by steam power. 
 
 Merryweather's Latest Condensing Tramzvay Locomotive .—This 
 engine is constructed for a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, and is 
 fitted with two 7^-inch cylinders inside the longitudinal frame- 
 plates. It has two pairs of 28-inch wheels, coupled, on a base 
 5 feet long. The cylinders are inclined to clear the coupled axle, 
 and they are fitted with the ordinary shifting link motion, with 
 reversing gear at each end of the engine. The boiler is of the 
 locomotive type, of mild steel, with a copper fire-box 2 feet 
 inches square, and 85 brass tubes if inches in diameter outside, 
 4 feet long. The heating surface is 181 square feet. The work¬ 
 ing pressure is 150 lbs. per square inch. The ash-pan is specially 
 designed to prevent the dropping of cinders or the showing of fire. 
 It can be easily cleaned out when required. The ash-pan damper 
 can be worked from either end of the engine. The wheels are 
 of steel, fitted with rolled steel tyres secured by screws. The 
 
AIERR YJVEA THERMS LOCOMO77FES. 
 
 443 
 
 exhaust steam is condensed in an air-condenser, consisting of 404 
 thin I-inch copper tubes, laid in three double tiers, 5 feet 10 inches 
 long, making 617 square feet of condensing surface, transversely 
 over the roof. These are fastened by ferrules at each end to longi¬ 
 tudinal copper passages or ducts, into which the exhaust steam is 
 discharged, and from which the steam is free to pass into the 
 transverse tubes. The ducts are divided by internal partitions into 
 sections in order to direct the flow of steam alternately from one 
 side to the other. 
 
 In order to fulfil the conditions laid down by the Board of Trade 
 a centrifugal governor is employed, driven by gearing direct from 
 the driving-axle, by the action of which the throttle-valve is closed 
 when the speed exceeds 8 miles per hour. Should the speed in¬ 
 crease, nevertheless, a small steam-valve opens automatically for 
 steam to the break-cylinders, by which the break is applied. 
 AVhen the speed is reduced below the assigned limit the break is 
 thrown off. The steam break can also be applied by the driver’s 
 foot on a treadle. All hand-gear is in duplicate, being at each 
 end of the foot-plate. 
 
 The engine, empty, weighs about 8 tons, and with water and 
 fuel about 9 tons. The engine, it is stated, can take, in ordinary 
 working, 80 passengers on an incline of i in 20. 
 
 Cassel, Guernsey., and IVe/ling/on, N.Z .—The engines of the 
 Cassel Tramway, opened in August, 1877, were supplied by 
 Messrs. Merryweather & Sons. They were constructed with 
 72-inch cylinders, having 12 inches of stroke. They draw three 
 loaded cars and one luggage truck over the road, on which the 
 inclines are severe; some of them equal to i in 16. 
 
 The Guernsey Steam Tramway, to connect the town of Guern¬ 
 sey with the town and harbour of St. Peter Port, and St. Samp¬ 
 son's, was opened in 1878. It is about 3 miles long, constructed 
 to a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, having a ruling gradient of i in 32, 
 with curves of which the quickest is of 50 feet radius. The line 
 is worked by Merryweather engines, having 7-inch cylinders. 
 Each engine on duty runs 72 miles daily; but on Saturdays 88 
 miles. The train consists of 2 cars, first and second class, and 
 
444 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 one luggage truck, except in the morning and evening, when one 
 extra car is attached for workmen. 
 
 The first tramways in New Zealand were opened in February, 
 1S78, at Wellington. The locomotives, supplied by Messrs. 
 Merryweather & Sons, have 7-inch cylinders, with an ii-inch 
 stroke. The gauge is 3 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Merryweather.—Rouen Tramways. 
 
 Of the Merryweather tramway engines that were at work on 
 the Southern Tramways of Paris, at the time of Mr. Harding’s 
 contract, in 1878, 10 engines were translated to the Rouen 
 Tramways, the engine-stock of which lines was in 1881 as 
 follows:— 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Cylinders. 
 
 Wheels. 
 
 Weight 
 
 emptj'. 
 
 6, Merryweather & Co. 
 
 Inches Inches 
 
 6 X 9 
 
 Feet. 
 
 2 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4, Merryweather & Co. 
 
 7x11 
 
 2 
 
 
 6, Fox, Walker &: Co. . 
 
 8 X12 
 
 Z 0 
 
 7 
 
 I, Fox, Walker & Co. (6 wheels) 
 6, Compagnie de Fives-Lille 
 
 7x10 
 
 ol 
 
 •> 
 
 6 
 
 7x11 
 
 2 
 
 5 f 
 
 All of these engines, excepting three from the Fives-Lille 
 Company, had done service on the Southern Tramways of Paris 
 at the time of Mr. Harding’s contract. There were 17 engines 
 on the working list, of which 13 usually were in working order, 
 and 4 under repair. 
 
 The ruling gradient on the Rouen Tramways is i in 20, at one 
 end of the line, on a very sharp curve at the commencement. 
 There are also a long incline averaging i in 40, and other inclines. 
 The average number of miles run per day per engine on duty is 
 56 miles. The speed is fixed at 5 miles per hour within the town, 
 and 8 miles per hour outside. This speed is frequently exceeded, 
 as the line is single, with passing places, and time must be kept. 
 
MERR VIVE A THERMS LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 445 
 
 The working pressure varies from 8 to lo atmospheres, and the 
 engines are non-condensing. The running expenses for locomo¬ 
 tive-power per mile run (March, i88i), were as follows : — 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Coke, 5‘360 kilogrammes, or 11 -8 lbs. @ 28|- francs per ton 1-53 
 Oil, '087 kilogramme, or ’ig lb. @ 85 francs per 100 kilos . -73 
 
 Tallow, -013 kilogram.me, or ‘0286 lb. @ 100 francs per 100 
 kilos . . . . . . . . . • '13 
 
 Waste, water, anti-corrosive fluid, trimmings, circ. . . *16 
 
 Stores consumed for depot and reserve engines, coke, fire¬ 
 wood for lighting up, packing, trimmings, &c. . . -36 
 
 Stores ....... 2‘gi 
 
 Wages of drivers (5s. per day), firemen (3s. 4d. per day), 
 
 night cleaners, and fitters, yard men and foremen . .2*20 
 
 Running expenses . . . . . 5*ir 
 
 Repairs of engines,—wages (i'68d.) and stores (i'33d.) . 3-01 
 
 Total working cost, per mile run . . 8'12 
 
 Mr. J. Arthur Wright, the Engineer and General Manager of 
 the Rouen Tramways, who supplied the foregoing statement of 
 cost, explained that the comparatively large item for repairs of 
 engines, 3*0id. per mile run, may, by alterations he is making in 
 some of the engines,—stiffening the framing, and enlarging the 
 working bearings, &c.—be eventually reduced to from ijd. to i^d. 
 per mile run, which is about what the best of the Merryweather 
 engines are costing. The total working cost for engine-power 
 would then amount to from 6Jd. to yd. per mile run. In 1880, 
 the cost for repairs to engines varied from 2'49d. in July, to 
 3'65d. in December. 
 
 Although the average mileage run by engines has been taken at 
 56 miles-run per day, the following for three recent months give 
 higher averages:— 
 
 February, 1881 
 
 Eng-’me- 
 d t vs. 
 
 . 209 = 
 
 Per 
 
 diein. 
 
 7-46 
 
 ]\Iiles 
 
 run. 
 
 12,816 
 
 Per engine 
 per day. 
 
 61*32 
 
 March ,, 
 
 . 224 = 
 
 7-22 
 
 15.056 
 
 67*21 
 
 April ,, 
 
 . 267 = 
 
 8*96 
 
 15.565 
 
 57-85 
 
44^ 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 The consuQiption of coke by engines, at the same time, was :— 
 
 February, 1881 . . 818 lbs. = i3’35 lbs. per mile run. 
 
 March ,, . . 785 ,, = 1170 „ 
 
 April ,, . . 649 ,, = 11 *00 ,, 
 
 For regular service, there are 8 engines in steam on week-days, 
 of which 6 are on active duty, and 2 in reserve as relief engines. 
 On Sundays and holidays, there are ii engines in steam. On 
 week-days, the average number of hours on duty with trains, 
 is 10 hours 8 minutes; and in steam, 12 hours 40 minutes. On 
 week-days, one car ordinarily is run as a train, weighing from 
 2 tons 18 cwt. to 3 tons empty, or, with 46 passengers, an average 
 of 6 tons 7 cwt. gross. Twice a day, two cars are run for workmen’s 
 trains; and on Sundays also: making a load of 12^ tons gross, 
 which is as much as the engines can do on the heavier inclines. 
 
 Assuming that the general average weight of the train is 
 yi tons, and of the engine with fuel and water 6 h tons; the gross 
 average weight moved would be 14 tons for each engine; and 
 the fuel, 11’8 lbs. consumed per mile, would average ‘85 lb. per 
 ton-gross per mile. 
 
 Merryweather.—Dewsbury, Batley, and Birstal Tramway. 
 
 The Dewsbury, Batley, and Birstal Tramway, already described, 
 is made with an easy falling gradient of about i in 200, from 
 Birstal to Dewsbury. It is worked with Merryweather engines, 
 condensing, having 6i-inch cylinders, with a lo-inch stroke, and 
 four coupled wheels, 2 feet 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 The Batley Engines are illustrated by Figs. 291 to 294. The 
 cylinders are placed inside the framing, and are joined together 
 at the middle, where they form the valve-chest, whilst a saddle is 
 placed on each half, for the purpose of supporting the boiler at 
 the smoke-box. The guide-bars are of steel, the crosshead is of 
 cast steel, and the crosshead-slippers are of cast iron, having 
 large wearing surfaces. The guide-bars are supported by a cross 
 
MERR YWEA THERMS L OCOMOTIVES. 447 
 
 plate, which they considerably overhang in the direction of the 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 ( 1-® ' ■ I'l 
 
 
 - -:r--— 
 
 FiG. 291. Tramway Locomotive, by Meiryweather Sons, for the Dewsbury, Bailey, 
 and Birstal Tramways.—Longitudinal Section. Scale 
 
 fire-box. The guides for the valve-spindles are carried by the 
 
448 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 same plate. The link-motion is of the ordinary shifting-link 
 type. The excentrics and hoops are of cast iron. The coupling- 
 rods are made with solid ends, having phosphor-bronze bushes. 
 All the oil-cups are forged or cast solid on the moving parts. 
 
 Fig. 292. Merryweather’s Engine.—Transverse Section. Scale 3k-. 
 
 The wheels and axles are of steel, the crank-pins in the wheels 
 are casehardened. The brake is applied to all the wheels. The 
 boiler is of the usual locomotive type, of Lowmoor iron throughout. 
 
MERR YJVEA THER'S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 449 
 
 double-riveted in the longitudinal seam. It is fed by a feed-pump 
 driven by a special excentric, and by Giffard’s injector. 
 
 
 Fig. 293. Merryvveather’s Engine.—Plan above foot-plate. Scale 
 
 The whole of the engine-work has been made of unusual 
 
450 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Strength, in order to provide for wear and tear by dirt, dust, and 
 rough usage. 
 
 Fig. 294. Merryweather’s Engine.—Plan below foot-plate. Scale 3^-. 
 The feed-tank, holding 100 gallons, is placed in front of the 
 
MERR Y I'VE A THERMS L O COMO TIVES. 
 
 451 
 
 smoke-box. A fender-plate is fixed at each end of the engine, 
 to remove obstructions, and to obviate any chance of running 
 over any person. Plates are also run along each side to conceal 
 the wheels and the coupling-rods. The whole of the work is 
 enclosed in a cab or casing of sheet-iron on angle-iron framing, 
 12 feet in length, 6 feet 4 inches in width, and about feet 
 above the rails. 
 
 The condenser, placed above the roof, consists of four hori¬ 
 zontal layers, slightly arched, of thin copper tubes, laid trans¬ 
 versely across the roof. The tubes are i inch in diameter outside. 
 No. 26 wire-gauge, or inch in thickness, and are each 6 feet 
 in length. There are 60 tubes in each layer, or 240 tubes in the 
 four layers, coated with brown varnish to augment their radiating 
 power. They are brazed at the ends into 3-inch longitudinal 
 pipes, 3 inches in diameter outside, four on each side, ii feet 
 long. The exhaust-steam is discharged by two copper pipes, one 
 to each side, into the uppermost longitudinal pipe, whence it 
 circulates through the transverse tubes. The condensation-water 
 and the remaining vapour are conducted into a separator-vessel 
 at the front, whence the water runs down to the feed-water tank, 
 and the vapour passes away into the smoke-box, where it is mixed 
 with, and disappears with the products of combustion. So efficient 
 is the condenser that the engine can be worked all day with one 
 charge of the feed-water tank. This tank holds only 100 gallons, 
 and the quantity consumed as uncondensed steam or otherwise 
 does not exceed 50 gallons for the day. 
 
 The engine is fitted with apparatus to fulfil the requirements 
 of the Board of Trade. A ball-governor placed over the foot¬ 
 plate at one side is provided for the purpose of shutting off the 
 steam, and turning on a steam-brake, when the maximum speed 
 allowed—10 miles per hour—is reached. The steam-brake may 
 also be turned on by means of a small pedal placed near the foot 
 of the driver. Steam-levers and reversing-levers are fitted in 
 duplicate, one of each at each end of the engine, so that the 
 driver may take his place at the leading end of the engine, which¬ 
 ever end goes first. A speed-indicator is also erected. The 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 governor is driven by means of a pitch-chain from the crank¬ 
 shaft, and the speed-indicator is driven by a band from the 
 governor-spindle. 
 
 The hre-box is i foot lo inches long by 2 feet wide, inside; 
 and is 2 feet ij inches high above the grate. The barrel of the 
 boiler is 2 feet 4 inches in diameter inside. There are 64 flue- 
 tubes if inches in diameter outside, and 5 feet in length. The 
 grate-area is 3*8 square feet, and the heating-surface is 169*2 square 
 feet, or 44^ times the grate-area. The condensing surface of the 
 condenser amounts to 377 square feet for the i-inch tubes, and 
 69 square feet for the longitudinal pipes; together, 446 square 
 feet of condensing surface. 
 
 The working pressure of steam in the boiler is 140 lbs. per 
 square inch. There are two safety-valves on the boiler, one of 
 which is a lock-up valve. Steam escaping by the-safety-valves is 
 conducted to the exhaust-pipe, and thence into the condenser. 
 The steam is supplied to the cylinder through a perforated steam- 
 pipe at the upper part of the boiler. The cylinders are, as before 
 stated, 6 h inches in diameter, with a stroke of 10 inches. The 
 wheels are 2 feet 2 inches in diameter, placed at 4J feet centres. 
 The whole of the machinery is encased from below. The weight 
 of the engine, empty, is 6 tons; and, in working order, with water 
 and fuel, 7 tons. The price of the engines was about £^$0 for 
 each engine, or at the rate oi ^12^ per ton of the net weight. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 Commenced 
 
 Miles run, by 
 
 running. 
 
 March 22, 1881. 
 
 No. I 
 
 April 10, 1880 
 
 15,000 
 
 No. 2 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 8,000 
 
 No. 3 
 
 Dec. 7 ,, 
 
 6,000 
 
 No. 4 
 
 Dec. II ,, 
 
 
 No. 5 
 
 Jan. I, 1881 
 
 4,800 
 
 
 Total miles run 
 
 . 30,700 
 
 The weight of one car drawn is 2 tons 4 cwt. and of ii passen¬ 
 gers—the average number—16 cwt.: together, 3 tons. Add the 
 weight of the engine itself, 7 tons, making the gross load drawn 
 10 tons. Occasionally, an extra car is attached, and it is taken 
 
MERR YJVEA THER ’S LO COMO TIVES, 
 
 453 
 
 • with ease. The length of the line is 34 miles, and in the course 
 of the journey the train, passing through a continuously populated 
 district, is pulled up from 15 to 25 tim^s-each way. The double¬ 
 journey of nriles is performed in 65 minutes, including all 
 stoppages—making an average speed of 6 miles per hour. 
 
 The total weight of coke—Straker & Son’s—consumed in 
 running the mileage, 39,700 miles run, was 122J tons, costing 
 23s. 6d. per ton; being at the rate of 6‘9ii lbs. per mile, costing 
 ■872d,. per mile; or '69 lb. per ton-gross per mile. 
 
 The wages of drivers is 5s. per day ; of cleaners, 2s. 6d.; coke- 
 and-water men, 2s. 6d.; mechanic, 8s. 4d. 
 
 The working expenditure per day, running 72 miles, is as 
 follows (March, 1881) :— 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 • • 
 
 5 
 
 2 | 
 
 Water, 150 gallons, including water for washing out 
 
 0 
 
 
 Oil, I5 pints ...... 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Waste, ^ lb. . 
 
 
 0 
 
 ih 
 
 Driver’s wages ...... 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Cleaner’s wages, proportion 
 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 Coke-and-water man’s wages, do. . 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Mechanic’s wages, do. . 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 Total expenditure per day 
 
 
 13 
 
 ii| 
 
 equivalent to 2•33d. per mile run. The cost for repairs, included 
 in the above, has been but nominal, for the time the engine has 
 been at work. The springs have given a little trouble by breakage, 
 caused, it was believed, by deficiency of strength of the way, which 
 was not constructed for engine-haulage. 
 
 For comparison with the cost above given, of working the 
 traction by engine-power, Mr. Truswell gave the cost for horse¬ 
 power, where two horses are harnessed to the car, for which ser¬ 
 vice he employs a stud of eight horses. For provender, water, 
 driver’s and stableman’s wages, proportion of wages of a man for 
 chopping and mixing provender, shoeing, harness, and veterinary 
 services, the cost is at the rate of qjd. per mile run by the car— 
 
454 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 about double the cost for engine-power. The comparison is neces¬ 
 sarily imperfect. 
 
 Merryweather.—Stoke-on-Trent and District Tramways. 
 
 Two engines constructed by Messrs. Merryweather & Sons for 
 the servive of the Stoke-on-Trent and District Tramways, on a 
 gauge of 4 feet, are arranged similarly to the Batley engines; but 
 they are larger in dimensions, and are fitted with an ordinary 
 water-condenser, placed in the roof of the engine-house or cab. 
 The engine. Fig. 295, has yj-inch cylinders, with a stroke of 
 12 inches, and four coupled wheels 2 feet 4 inches in diameter, at 
 4J feet centres. The barrel of the boiler is 2 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter inside; the fire-box is 2 feet 2 inches square, and 2 feet 
 7 inches high above the grate. There are 78 flue-tubes if inches 
 in diameter outside, and 5 feet long. The grate-area is 4*8 square 
 feet, and the heating surface is 197*3 square feet, equal to 41 times 
 the grate-area. The condensing tank holds 400 gallons. The 
 total length of the engine is 13 feet, and the width is feet. 
 The weight, empty, is 7^ tons ; with fuel and water, lof tons. The 
 exhaust-steam is delivered from the exhaust-pipe, at a level above 
 the top of the tank, into a concentric chamber, whence it escapes 
 through an injector, or inductor, within the tank, placed horizon¬ 
 tally on the floor of the tank. A continuous circulation of the 
 water is thereby set up, and all the water is brought successively 
 into contact with the steam to condense it. At the summit of the 
 cylindrical exhaust-chamber there are two small vacuum-valves, 
 through which air is admitted, destroying any degree of vacuum 
 that may be formed in the chamber, and so preventing back-flow 
 into the cylinders. Overflow from the tank is conducted to the 
 feedwater-tanks, in front and below the foot-plate. Steam from 
 the safety-valves is conducted into the smoke-box, whence it 
 passes off with the gaseous products of combustion. The price 
 of the engines was about ;£’8oo each. 
 
 The Stoke line has severe and continuous gradients, some of 
 them being i in 16, others i in 18 and i in 20. The cars weigh 
 
MERRYWEATHERMS LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 455 
 
 from 2 J to 3 tons, and are constructed to carry 48 passengers; 
 
 Fig. 295. Tramway Locomotive, by Merryweather & Sons, for the Stoke-on-Trent 
 and District Tramways.—Vertical Section. Scale 
 
 occasionally from 80 to 100 passengers are carried in a car. The 
 
 jj-^IMLiAULT 
 
456 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 engines take with ease a loaded car, weighing with passengers 
 9 or lo tons, up the steepest inclines, at a speed of from 4 to 5 
 miles per hour. The two Merryweather engines commenced 
 operations in April, 1881. Additional engines, constructed by 
 the same firm, were employed to work the extension to Hanley 
 and Burslem, having lo-inch cylinders, with a stroke of 15 inches. 
 It may be questioned whether there is to be found in England any 
 worse combination of circumstances than those which have to be 
 met in the working of the Stoke line. 
 
 Hughes. 
 
 Mr. Henry Hughes brought out, early in 1876, a tramway loco¬ 
 motive. “The result of my experiments,” he said, on his exa¬ 
 mination as a witness by the committee on Mechanical Power on 
 Tramways, “is that I have produced an engine of the ordinary 
 locomotive type, which can be worked without showing any steam, 
 which is practically noiseless, and in which we can keep up the 
 steam without the aid of a blast; and it shows no smoke because 
 we use coke as a fuel. It is covered in similarly to an ordinary 
 car, and consequently does not frighten horses more than ordinary 
 cars do.” These are, concisely stated, the conditions for the 
 success of mechanical power on tramways. 
 
 The means for condensing the exhaust-steam, which is the 
 novel feature of this engine, was patented in January, 1876. Each 
 blast of exhaust-steam is, by an automatic action, condensed as it 
 issues from the exhaust-pipe, by a shower of cold water, let off in 
 regulated quantities at the instant of the exhaust. The exhaust- 
 steam, arriving by a branch from the exhaust-pipe, blows open a 
 valve on the end of the branch, and escapes into a small chamber 
 —the condenser. By the same impulse, another valve in the 
 bottom of a water-tank, connected with the exhaust-valve, and 
 moving simultaneously with it, is opened, and discharges water 
 into the condenser. The exhaust-steam is condensed by the 
 water, a partial vacuum is formed in the condenser, and the water- 
 valve is consequently closed by the external pressure. The re- 
 
HUGHES'S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 457 
 
 suiting mixture, consisting of hot water, is discharged at a tem¬ 
 perature of 170° F., into a receiving tank. Within this limit of 
 temperature, there is not much visible vapour disengaged from the 
 discharged water. When the temperature is allowed to rise above 
 180*^, a good deal of visible vapour escapes. The supply of feed- 
 water for the boiler is drawn from this tank, and the remainder of 
 the hot water is ejected during the journey, or at the end of the 
 trip. 
 
 It is stated that, on a level line, the condensing water is 
 consumed at the rate of from 25 to 30 gallons per mile. The fire 
 is made up at the beginning of the trip, and is not touched during 
 the passage. According to Mr. Hughes, a fire lasts for a ten-mile 
 run without requiring fresh stoking. 
 
 The first public trial of Mr. Hughes’s tramway locomotive was 
 made on the Leicester Tramways, on March 27, 1876. A run of 
 four miles was made, a portion of which was on an ascending 
 gradient of i in 22. The engine had two 6-inch cylinders, having 
 a stroke of 12 inches, connected direct to four coupled wheels, 
 2 feet in diameter, on a wheel-base of 4 feet. The boiler, of the 
 locomotive type, had 120 square feet of heating surface. The 
 whole of the boiler and the machinery was enclosed in a wooden 
 structure resembling a section of a trarnway-car; the wheels and 
 side-rods were concealed by sheet-iron plates. The chimney rose 
 through the roof of the car, and by its length sufficed for the 
 natural draught required to keep up the steam, which was maintained 
 at a pressure of about 120 lbs. per square inch. The furnace was 
 supplied with a sufficient quantity of fuel to last the journey. The 
 quantity of condensing water carried amounted to 300 gallons, 
 which, it is said, would suffice for a trip of six miles on ascending 
 inclines, in cold weather. The weight of the steam-car, in working 
 order, was about 5 tons. 
 
 The locomotive was coupled to a one-horse car, constructed to 
 carry 16 inside. During the trial it carried 25 persons, and the 
 total weight of the car, with its load, must have been about 3J 
 tons, making the gross weight of the train about 82- tons. The 
 speed was generally about 8 miles per hour, and one or two steep 
 
458 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 inclines on bridges were steadily surmounted, at a lower speed. 
 During the whole of the trip, there was no visible escape of steam, 
 except on one occasion, in surmounting a steep incline, when a 
 little steam escaped, which quickly disappeared.''' 
 
 The same engine, according to Mr. Hughes, was used on the 
 Leicester line every day for some weeks, on passenger traffic. 
 The average pace was six miles per hour. 
 
 Mr. Hughes’s engines have also been at work experimentally on 
 the tramways at Edinburgh and at Sheffield, and on the Vale of 
 Clyde Tramways at Glasgow. The traffic of this line was worked 
 by steam-power, under a contract made with Mr. Hughes, com¬ 
 mencing July 21, 1877, at the rate of 5id. per mile run. The 
 contract expired July 21, 1880, and was renewed for one year, at 
 the rate of 6|d. per mile run. 
 
 Hughes.—Wantage Tramway. 
 
 On the Wantage Tramway, one of the Hughes engines has 
 been working for some years. The line, which has already been 
 noticed, is constructed like an ordinary railway, with raised rails 
 on longitudinal sleepers. The engine makes eight trips each way, 
 —40 miles a day. The trip is performed in 32 minutes, or at the 
 average speed of 9*4 miles per hour. Two cars are taken by the 
 engine, weighing, with their load of passengers, an average of 6 h 
 tons. The engine weighs in working order 6| tons, and the gross 
 weight of the engine and train amounts to {6|- -f =) 13-I tons. 
 The fuel (coke) is consumed at the rate of about 307 lbs. per day, 
 or 7-67 lbs. per mile run, equivalent to ’58 lbs. of coke per ton- 
 gross per mile. 
 
 Hughes.—Southern Tramways of Paris. 
 
 Twelve of the Hughes engines, shown in longitudinal section, 
 Fig. 296, similar to the engines on the Vale of Clyde Tramway, 
 
 * The particulars of this trip are derived from T/ie Engineer, 
 March 31, 1876, page 232. 
 
HUGHESES LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 459 
 
 Fig. 296. Tramway Locomotive, by Hughes’s Locomotive Company, for the Southern Tramways of Paris. 
 
 Longitudinal Section. Scale 7^. 
 
460 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 were constructed for the Bastille-Charenton line of the Southern 
 Tramways of Paris. They are on four wheels, coupled, 2 J feet 
 in diameter. The cylinders are 7 inches in diameter, with a 
 stroke of 12 inches. The boiler is of Lowmoor iron, 2 feet 
 3|- inches in diameter inside. The fire-box is of copper, i foot 
 I of inches long, 2 feet i inch wide at the grate, and 2 feet 5 inches 
 high to the roof, above the grate. The plates are f inch thick, 
 except at the tubes, where the plate is f inch thick. There are 
 62 brass tubes, i J inches in diameter outside, and 5 feet yf inches 
 long, with a clearance of f inch between the tubes. The grate- 
 
 area is 3’70 square feet; the total heating 
 surface is 149J square feet. The working 
 pressure in the boiler was from 80 lbs. to 
 100 lbs. per square inch. The exhaust- 
 steam is condensed in a lower water-tank 
 by water from the upper tank, in the manner 
 already explained, and indicated in the 
 Fig. 296, and in detail. Fig. 297. The piston- 
 valve in the front lower tank is opened by 
 a rod connected with the regulator-handle, 
 making a communication between the tank 
 and the condensing chamber between two 
 valves, which constitute a double-beat valve. 
 The exhaust-steam from the pipe below 
 forces open the valves, and escapes into the 
 condensing chamber, and is met and condensed by cold water 
 from the pipe leading from the upper tank. The water is thus 
 heated to a temperature of about 170° F., and is collected in the 
 lower tanks, whence the boiler is fed by means of a pump or an 
 injector. 
 
 The Bastille-Charenton line is 4'i miles in length. The steepest 
 gradients on the line are, one of i in 29 for 100 yards, and one 
 of I in 20 for the same length. The engines weighed 5^ tons 
 empty, and 7J tons in working order. The regular duty was to 
 draw one car, weighing 2*55 tons, constructed to carry 46 pas¬ 
 sengers. Assuming that the car was half filled with passengers. 
 
 Fig. 297. Hughes’ 
 Tramway Locomotive. 
 —Feedwater heater. 
 
HUGHES’S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 461 
 
 weighing i*6 tons, the gross weight moved amounted to ii’65 tons. 
 The journey of 4*1 miles was run in 35 minutes, being at the rate 
 of 7 miles per hour. Four engines were at work daily, making 
 each about 67 miles per day. The fuel (coke) was consumed at 
 the rate of 17 lbs. per mile run; equivalent to 1*46 lbs. per ton 
 gross per mile. The expenses averaged as follows :— 
 
 Per mile. 
 
 d. 
 
 Coke, 17 lbs. per mile, @ 24s. 2d. per ton . . 2'2i8 
 
 Oil, *42 lb. ,, ...... 1-840 
 
 Tallow, •0341b. „ ...... -148 
 
 Water, 40 galls. ,, for feed and condensing, 4d. 
 
 per 1,000 gallons . . -160 
 
 4-366 
 
 Wages of drivers, labourers, cokemen, &c. . . 2-357 
 
 Running expenses ...... 6-723 
 
 Repairs ......... 2-702 
 
 Total working cost . . . 9*425 
 
 The contract payment for the engine-service was at the rate of 
 45 centimes per kilometre, equivalent to 6*96. per mile run, for 
 drawing i car. For 2 cars, the payment was 60 centimes, or 
 9'2d. per mile run. The contract, which commenced in August, 
 1879, was brought to an end in February, 1880; when the work 
 of traction was resumed by means of horse power.Although 
 the steam-haulage was conducted at a loss, the immediate cause 
 of the termination of the contract was the breaking down of the 
 engines by lodgment of a compound of grease and lime on the 
 walls of the fire-boxes,—the grease derived from the condensed 
 steam and the lime from the water—by which the fire-boxes 
 became overheated and bulged inwards, and the flue-tubes leaked 
 and broke. 
 
 In explanation of the large consumption of fuel, it must be 
 stated that the way was in wretched order. It was too weak, 
 
 * For the particulars of performance of the Hughes engine the 
 Author is indebted to Mr. H. Conradi. 
 
462 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 having a mean sort of rail of hollow section, without strength. 
 The wave-movement of the rails, in advance of the engine, was 
 beyond description. The tractional resistance may easily be 
 conceived to have been double what it would have been with a 
 good way. 
 
 The condensing apparatus employed in the engines, it may be 
 added, was uncertain in action—very fickle ; and it caused, it is 
 believed, a considerable degree of back-pressure on the pistons. 
 
 Hughes.—Bristol Tramways. 
 
 On the Bristol Tramways, seven of the Hughes engines that 
 worked in Paris were set to work on the Horfield section, which 
 is 1*43 miles in length. It is a severe line to work, being up-hill 
 for four-fifths of the length in one direction—towards Horfield; 
 and downhill for the remaining fifth. The prevailing gradients 
 are from i in 24 to i in 68. The line runs through a very 
 populous district. The work was done under a contract for 
 12 months made with the Hughes Engine Company, by means of 
 four engines in steam daily. During the week 1,717 miles were 
 run, of which 26if miles were run each week-day, averaging 
 65^ miles per engine; and 147J miles on Sunday. 
 
 In these engines, the steam was not condensed. The weight 
 was taken at 7 tons each in working order. One car only was 
 allowed to be hauled by an engine; the car weighing, with pas¬ 
 sengers, 4 tons. The gross weight of engine and car was thus 
 II tons. The fuel (coke) consumed was 12 J tons per week, or at 
 the rate of 16-31 lbs. per mile run, or 1-48 lbs. per ton-gross per 
 mile. Here again the Hughes engines work at a disadvantage, 
 since, besides working up steep gradients in one direction, they 
 were braked for most of the way back, and, to the extent of 
 brakeage necessary, lost the advantage of the aid of gravitation. 
 The contract price paid by the Tramway Company for steam- 
 haulage was 7d. per car-mile run 
 
HUGHES'S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 463 
 
 Hughes.—Lille Tramways. 
 
 Mr. Hughes designed a more powerful class of locomotives for 
 working on the Lille Tramways. In general arrangement, they 
 resembled the engines employed at Paris, already described. The 
 cylinders were 9 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 13 inches; 
 the four coupled wheels were feet in diameter. The barrel of 
 the boiler was 2 feet 4^ inches in diameter. There were 62 brass 
 flue-tubes ij inches in diameter, 5 feet 8^ inches long. The 
 fire-box, of copper, was 2 feet inches in length, and i foot 
 
 ii|- inches wide, at the bottom; and was 2 feet 7 inches high 
 above the grate. The area of grate was 3‘82 square feet; and 
 the heating surface was 162J square feet. The exhaust-steam 
 was passed through a feedAvater-heater, consisting of a number of 
 brass tubes in a cast-iron box, and thence into the saddle water- 
 tank, in which it was delivered over the surface of the water, or 
 through branching pipes which descended into the water. The 
 steam was discharged under water, in town; and above water, in 
 the country. The tank held 400 gallons of water, which was 
 heated by the exhaust-steam up to the boiling-point, in the course 
 of the trip. For three-fourths of the trip, the condensation was 
 efficiently effected; but for the remaining fourth, it was ineffective. 
 The water was changed for each trip. The pressure in the boiler 
 was from 80 lbs. to 100 lbs. per square inch. The engine weighed, 
 empty, 7 J tons; and, in working order, with fuel and water, 
 10 tons. 
 
 The Lille-Haubourdin line is a level line, 5*138 miles in 
 length. The Lille-Roubaix line is a line of many inclines, 
 of which the steepest is i in 22. It is 6*78 miles in length. The 
 lines are both single lines, with passing places. The way is 
 constructed with double rails bolted to chairs, screwed down 
 to cross sleepers. Steam-service was commenced on the Hau- 
 bourdin line April 6, 1880; and on the Roubaix line July i, 
 1880. Payments were made to the contractors (Hughes’ Engine 
 Company) at the same rates as were paid to them in Paris; 
 namely, d'qd. per mile-run with one car; and 9*2d. per mile-run 
 
464 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 with 2 cars. This contract lasted only four months; after which 
 the engines were hired for one year commencing November i, 
 1880. 
 
 The averaged results of the performance of engines, on the 
 Haubourdin line, equivalent to the work of one engine for 103 
 days, running 3,817 miles, or at the rate of 37 miles per day,, 
 were as follows. The usual load on week-days was one car, with 
 an extra car between Lille and the depot, a distance of about 
 2 miles; on Sundays and holidays 2 cars were taken. It may be 
 assumed that the train averaged loaded cars :— 
 
 Col\.0 • • • 
 
 17! lbs. per mile-run, cost 
 
 d. 
 
 2-250 
 
 Oil . 
 
 •3291b. 
 
 1-410 
 
 Tallow 
 
 •0362 lb. 
 
 •156 
 
 Feed water 
 
 12| gallons,, 
 
 •051 
 
 Condensing water . 
 
 72 5 ) >> >> 
 
 •248 
 
 I driver @ 6 francs per day } 
 
 I stoker ,,4 ,, ’ 
 
 4 'ii 5 
 
 2-570 
 
 Running expenses 
 
 Repairs :—Ordinary .... 
 
 Extraordinary, tor accidents 
 
 Total .... 
 
 6-685 
 
 2'45 5 
 '437 
 
 2-892 
 
 Working charges : running and repair expenses 9-577 
 
 From this statement it appears that, in round numbers, the 
 running charges amounted to 6id. per mile-run, and the cost for 
 repair to 3d. per mile-run; together ghd. per mile-run. The 
 engines were worked at a disadvantage. They took their turns 
 between horse-cars, and were thus limited to low speeds, with 
 many stoppages, making the trip of 5*13 miles in 55 minutes,—at 
 an average speed of 5-60 miles per hour. They were also com¬ 
 pelled to remain from 20 to 25 minutes at one terminus, and from 
 8 to 10 minutes at the other. 
 
HUGHES'S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 465 
 
 
 The evaporation of water was at the rate of 7*18 lbs. per lb. 
 of coke, from a temperature averaging probably 140° F. 
 
 Assume the average load of cars, before stated, weighing 
 2’4 tons per car, with, say, 45 passengers, weighing 3 tons, making 
 together 6'6 tons; and with the engine, 10 tons, a gross weight 
 of, say, 16J tons, the consumption of fuel .was, for this gross 
 weight, at the rate of 1*07 lbs. per ton-gross per mile-run. 
 
 Mr. H. Conradi tested the consumption of feed-water by the 
 engines on the Haubourdin line, for the double trip, to and fro, 
 on four occasions. First with i car, twice with 2 cars, and once 
 with 3 cars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-> 
 
 . 
 
 cars. 
 
 n 
 
 bo 
 
 .E 
 
 0 
 
 u . 
 
 c 
 
 3 c 
 
 med 
 
 an. 
 
 
 0 
 
 U 
 
 bo c 
 
 1 s 
 
 C/5 
 
 ^ •rx 
 
 ■ c 
 
 Cm 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 ^ u 
 
 0 7 
 
 3 
 
 u, • 
 
 C U 
 0 1 
 
 c "r 
 
 i 
 
 Cars, weig 
 passenge 
 
 0 
 
 c 
 
 To 
 
 c 
 
 Length o 
 
 Time, inc 
 stoppai 
 
 ir; 
 
 0 p. 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 u 0 
 u 
 
 £ E 
 
 ^ ft 
 
 i) 
 
 JO 
 
 Coke con; 
 per mile 
 
 el 
 
 « U 
 ^ 0 
 
 t- ^ 
 
 £ & 
 
 «S 
 
 M ft 
 0 
 'J 
 
 car tons 
 
 tons 
 
 miles 
 
 mins. 
 
 miles 
 
 galls. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 I 5'4 
 
 
 10*40 
 
 90 
 
 6*9 
 
 ii'45 
 
 16*87 
 
 6*8 
 
 7'43 
 
 1*10 
 
 2 9‘3 
 
 I9‘3 
 
 9‘i8 
 
 90 
 
 6*12 
 
 14*20 
 
 17*10 
 
 8-3 
 
 7*36 
 
 •89 
 
 2 9'3 
 
 I9’3 
 
 9*i8 
 
 90 
 
 6* 12 
 
 16*10 
 
 19*28 
 
 8*35 
 
 8’34 
 
 1*00 
 
 (with piof 
 iron and 
 rails) 
 
 1 
 
 25-2 
 
 9'23 
 
 46 
 
 12*0 
 
 10*40 
 
 — 
 
 
 4’i3 
 
 
 3 i5'2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1880. 
 
 1. 'VTay5,Windy and Dusty 
 
 2. May i6 do. do. 
 
 3. May 23 do. do. 
 
 4. June 16 
 
 In the ist, 2nd, and 3rd double-trips, there were the usual 
 frequent stoppages for passengers. The 4th trial was made speci¬ 
 fically to test the capacity of the engine to draw at least 2 cars 
 up the steepest incline on the line, at Croix, a gradient of i in 20. 
 It shows that the engine was capable of taking up this incline 
 li times its own weight; and the relatively low consumption of 
 water per mile-run shows most remarkably how wasteful of engine- 
 power are the frequent stoppages incidental to the regular traffic 
 as exemplified in the ist, 2nd and 3rd trials. The consumption 
 of fuel, which was not actually noted for the 4th trial, did not 
 probably exceed ^ lb. of coke per ton-gross per mile-run. 
 
 H H 
 
466 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 On the Lille-Roubaix line, the quantities and cost for working 
 
 engine-power were as 
 
 follows *.— 
 
 
 0 
 
 . 0 
 
 b 
 
 Coke 
 
 20*625 lbs. per 
 
 mile-run, cost 
 
 Oil .... 
 
 *292 lb. 
 
 yy y y 
 
 1*000 
 
 Tallow 
 
 *028 lb. 
 
 yy y y 
 
 * 120 
 
 Water, feed 
 
 17*74 galls. 
 
 yy yy 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Water, condensing . 
 
 88*10 ,, 
 
 yy yy 
 
 •350 
 
 
 
 
 4*240 
 
 Drivers, stokers, cokemen, pointsmen. 
 
 &c. 
 
 2*800 
 
 Running charges' 
 
 * • • 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 L 
 
 Repairs :—Ordinary . 
 
 * « • 
 
 • • • 
 
 2’i75 
 
 Extraordinary (Accidents) 
 
 '250 
 
 2*425 
 
 Working charges :—Running and repair 
 
 9*465 
 
 The line was generally in very bad order. On soft ground, the 
 sleepers were not properly squared for the chairs. The wheels of 
 the engines jammed between the rails and counter-rails. Waves 
 were raised in the way in advance of the engines. The distance, 
 6*78 miles, was traversed in 42 minutes, comprising frequent stop¬ 
 pages for passengers in Lille and Roubaix, and at seven inter¬ 
 mediate stations. The average speed was 10*17 miles per hour; 
 and the maximum speed frequently rose to from 17 to 18 miles 
 per hour. The time allowed was 60 minutes for the trip, making 
 a speed of 6| miles per hour. 
 
 Since the engines were hired to the tramway company, the 
 exhaust-steam was not condensed, but was discharged direct into 
 the chimney. The traction company from whom the engines 
 were hired paid for them from ;£65o to each. 
 
 The locomotives, six in number, weighed, empty, 4I- tons; with 
 fuel and water, 6 tons. They worked up to a pressure in the 
 boiler of 150 lbs. per square inch; but the average pressure was 
 from 100 lbs. to 120 lbs. 
 
FALCON WORKS’ LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 467 
 
 Falcon Engine and Car Works. 
 
 This company manufacture tramway steam locomotives of three 
 sizes, having respectively 7-inch, 8-inch, and 9-inch cylinders, 
 with four-coupled wheels for the 8-inch engine. The leading 
 data are as follows :— 
 
 Diameter of cylinders 
 
 7 ins. 
 
 8 ins. 
 
 9 ins. 
 
 Stroke of ditto . 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 » 
 
 Diameter of wheels . 
 
 305 » 
 
 30^7, 
 
 305 » 
 
 Length of wheel-base 
 Working pressure in the 
 
 45 ff- 
 
 42 
 
 5 ff- 
 
 boiler per square inch 
 
 175 lbs. 
 
 175 lbs. 
 
 175 lbs. 
 
 Heating surface 
 
 I28'5 sq. ft. 
 
 154 sq. It. 
 
 i73i sq. ft. 
 
 Area of firegrate 
 
 Ratio of grate to surface . 
 
 4’0 V 
 
 5‘9 
 
 675 
 
 Extreme length . 
 
 32-1 ft. 
 
 26*1 ft. 
 
 257 ft. 
 
 Extreme breadth 
 
 Extreme height above level 
 
 
 
 
 of rails, with condenser . 
 
 10 ft. 8 ins. 
 
 10 ft, 8 ins. 
 
 10 ft. 8 ins. 
 
 Ditto, without condenser . 
 
 9 4 
 
 9 
 
 9 4 m 
 
 Weight, with i empty 
 
 7I tons. 
 
 8 tons. 
 
 84 tons. 
 
 condenser . (loaded . 
 
 Sh „ 
 
 95 
 
 10 „ 
 
 Weight, without j empty . 
 
 6 f „ 
 
 - 1 
 
 / 2 5 > 
 
 8 „ 
 
 condenser . t loaded . 
 
 8 „ 
 
 9 
 
 9 h » 
 
 Tractive force . . . 
 
 2,2. 
 
 ^9 lbs. 2,938 lbs. 3,718 lbs. 
 
 Effective load, exclusive of ^ 
 
 Level. 67 
 
 tons. 89 tons 
 
 ). 114 tons. 
 
 engine, drawn at a speed 
 
 I in 50 22 
 
 M 3 *^ 
 
 40 M 
 
 of 10 miles per hour, up 
 
 1 I in 30 13 
 
 V ^9 jj 
 
 25 M 
 
 an incline of . . . ^ 
 
 I in 20 8 
 
 5) 4 i 
 
 16 „ 
 
 The 8-inch engine was one of a number of engines of the 
 same class, constructed for the Burnley tramways at the Falcon 
 Works, from the designs of Mr. Norman Scott Russell, the 
 general manager of the works. It has a locomotive boiler; the 
 cylinders are inside the frame-plates, with a cranked axle. The 
 tractive force, 2,938 lbs., is at the rate of 29-9 lbs. per pound of 
 effective pressure per square inch in the cylinders. The working 
 gear is shut in from below by iron sheeting with suitable doors, 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 excepting only the coupling rods. The horn-blocks have special 
 wood shields. 
 
 The air-condenser is composed of 250 very thin copper tubes 
 fixed in thin brass chambers. Any steam remaining uncondensed, 
 as may happen in warm or in damp weather, passes to a water-tank 
 at the front end of the engine. Under ordinary conditions the 
 residuary steam is passed through a change-valve into the smoke- 
 box, where it is superheated, and becomes invisible on passing 
 from the chimney. 
 
 Special consideration has been bestowed upon the break 
 power. The speed-regulating governor is driven by an inde¬ 
 pendent wheel, running on the rails and kept down by springs. 
 The wheel of the governor is on the same shaft. The governor 
 works the speed indicator by means of levers, and when the 
 speed of the engine reaches 10 miles per hour a small valve is 
 lifted, and admits steam from the boiler to the car-break and 
 engine-break, and to a small cylinder on the top of the boiler, 
 by which the regulator is closed. This apparatus automati¬ 
 cally limits the speed on descending inclines to 10 miles per 
 hour. There is, in addition, a hand break-valve, by which steam 
 may be admitted at any constant pressure to both break-cylinders, 
 and there is a foot-break, by means of which all the wheels can be 
 locked. The steepest gradients are i in 17 and i in 20. The 
 engines usually take one 46-passenger car. They have taken 
 experimentally two cars with 73 passengers, easily. The con¬ 
 sumption of fuel, coke, is stated to be at the rate of from lbs. 
 to 9 lbs. per mile-run. 
 
 Kitson & Co. 
 
 The cylinders in this engine. Fig. 298, are placed outside the 
 longitudinal frame-plates, and as high as possible above mud and 
 dust, protected by suitable casings. The engine is on four wheels, 
 coupled. Kitson’s patent valve-gear is, with the same object, 
 employed. It is a modification of Walschaert’s valve-gear. The 
 
KITSON’S LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 469 
 
 ends of a floating lever are linked to the crosshead, the valve 
 spindle, and intermediately at a point near the valve-spindle; 
 
 the lever is pinned to the radius-link, which receives its rocking 
 movement through an arm linked to the coupling rod. The 
 
 Fig. 298.—Tramway Locomotive, by Messrs. Kitson & Co., for the Birmingham Central Tramways, 
 
470 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 motion of the valve and its spindle is a compound of two move¬ 
 ments : one a movement directly the inverse of that of the piston, 
 on a reduced scale, for the lead ; the other a reduced duplicate of 
 ) the vertical movement of the coupling rod, to open the port for 
 steam. The boiler is of the locomotive type. The exhaust steam 
 is condensed to the extent of two-thirds in a tube-condenser over¬ 
 head, and one-third is discharged into the chimney, or is con¬ 
 densed by means of a water tank. The engine is provided with 
 a speed indicator and an automatic break. The engines, as 
 employed on the Central Tramways line, Birmingham, weigh, with 
 water and fuel, from 9 tons to 10 tons. They can draw a large 
 1 car holding 60 passengers. 
 
 i Messrs. Kitson & Co. construct four standard classes of four- 
 , coupled tramway locomotives, as follows :— 
 
 No. of Engine. 
 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 1 
 
 No. 4 . 1 
 
 Cylinders, diameicr 
 and stroke . 
 
 7^ X 12 ins. 
 
 8^ X 12 ins. 
 
 9 X It; ins. 
 
 1 
 
 1 X I S ins. 
 
 Wheels, diameter . 
 
 2 ft. 4;f ins. 
 
 2 ft. 4d ins. 
 
 2 ft. 10 ins. 
 
 2 ft. 9 ins. 
 
 Water-tank, capa¬ 
 city for water 
 
 80 galls. 
 
 80 galls. 
 
 I.SO galls. 
 
 2S0 galls. 
 
 Weight of engine, 
 empty. 
 
 6| tons 
 
 tons 
 
 8 tons 
 
 i3itons 
 
 Weight with water 
 and fuel 
 
 7i 5? 
 
 
 loi „ 
 
 
 Net load, exclusive 
 of engine weight, 
 
 . that can be taken 
 up an incline of i 
 
 
 
 in 25, at a speed 
 of 6 miles per hour 
 
 13 - 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 44 » 1 
 
 1 
 
 The cost for working, repairs, and maintenance of Messrs. 
 Kitson & Co.’s engines on two lines of tramways, is summarised 
 in the following statements :— 
 
WILKINSON'S LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 471 
 
 Birmingham and Aston Tramways :—Ruling Gradient, 
 
 I IN 17. 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 run. 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 mile run by engines. 
 
 
 (/) 
 
 0 
 
 t£ 
 
 5 
 
 U 
 
 0 
 
 ■ Ts 
 
 C/3 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Si 
 
 c/3 
 
 u 
 
 
 Depre¬ 
 
 ciation, 
 to per cent. 
 
 Z 
 
 1 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 6 months ending 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1883 . 
 
 61,170 
 
 1*44 
 
 1-50 
 
 'I3 
 
 ‘35 
 
 •24 
 
 3-66 
 
 1-27 
 
 4‘93 
 
 12 months ending 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1884 . 
 
 176,528 
 
 1-41 
 
 •90 
 
 •09 
 
 •08 
 
 •80 
 
 3-28 
 
 1*49 
 
 4‘77 
 
 • 11 months ending 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 31, 1885 . 
 
 193,204 
 
 i '43 
 
 •76 
 
 •06 
 
 •25 
 
 1* 12 
 
 3-62 
 
 1*12 
 
 4‘74 
 
 29 monthsending 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 31, 1885 . 430.902 
 
 1-43 
 
 •92 
 
 •09 
 
 •19 
 
 •86 
 
 3’49 
 
 1-29 
 
 478 
 
 Dudley and Stourbridge Steam Tramways :— 
 Ruling Gradient, i in 15. 
 
 Per mile run by engines. 
 
 
 Milts 
 
 run. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Stores. 
 
 1 
 
 Repairs. 
 
 Sum. 
 
 Depre¬ 
 ciation, 
 lo per cent. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 A... 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 6 months ending 
 Nov. 30, 1884 . 
 
 6 months ending 
 May 31, 1885 . 
 
 57.776 
 
 2'06 
 
 i ‘95 
 
 *21 
 
 •17 
 
 '39 
 
 478 
 
 i ‘39 
 
 >— 1 
 
 tb 
 
 62,128 
 
 2’ 14 
 
 i ‘95 
 
 *21 
 
 •39 
 
 •70 
 
 5‘39 
 
 1*22 
 
 6 ' 6 i 
 
 12 months ending 
 May 31, 1885 . 
 
 119,904 
 
 2-10 
 
 i ‘95 
 
 *21 
 
 •29 
 
 •55 
 
 5-10 
 
 1-30 
 
 6*40 
 
 Wilkinson. 
 
 The worm-geared condensing tramway locomotive of Mr. W. 
 Wilkinson combines a few original elements. Acting on the 
 
472 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 results of Mr. Dewrance’s experiments on the evaporative 
 activity of different parts of a locomotive boiler, Mr. Wil¬ 
 kinson designed a short locomotive boiler, having flue tubes 
 only 12 inches in length. His object was to maintain the 
 water level in the boiler practically constant whether on level 
 ground or on steep incline such as i in ii. The tubes are not 
 straight, but of an ogee form, in order to yield to expansion without 
 the liability to breakage. The steam is exhausted into a condenser 
 fitted with tubes also of ogee form presenting between 200 and 
 300 square feet of condensing surface. The steam surrounds the 
 tubes, and the air for cooling them is drawn through them into 
 the ash-pan to support combustion. The steam that remains 
 uncondensed passes into a superheater in the smoke-box—a 
 rectangular box fixed against the tube plate, traversed by tubes 
 coincident with those of the boiler, through which the burnt 
 gases flow into the smoke-box. 
 
 While running on a level line, with a heavy load, in or nearly 
 in mid-gear, there is scarcely sufficient steam left uncondensed to 
 cause the necessary draught, and in such a case the draught is 
 sharpened by reducing the blast orifice, in applying a thimble to 
 the top of the blast pipe, which is done by hand with a lever. 
 
 In the fire-box a number of Field tubes are fixed to the roof 
 between the roof-stays. 
 
 The power of the engine is transmitted through worm-gear to 
 the driving axle. The worm is double-threaded, and one turn of 
 the axle is made for turns of the worm. The diameters of the 
 worm and the wheel are equal, or nearly so—about 12 inches in 
 diameter; and the obliquity of the worm-thread is so considerable 
 that, on a falling gradient of i in 70, the worm is propelled by the 
 force of gravity. The Avorm is of Siemens steel, and the toothed 
 Avheel runs in an oil bath, providing constant lubrication. The 
 carrying wheels are 3 feet 2 inches in diameter. There are two 
 cylinders working to a longitudinal crank-axle. It is stated that 
 the engine can draw a loaded car, weighing 3 tons, full of passen¬ 
 gers, on a level or nearly level road, with the valves in mid gear; 
 the steam being cut off at 9 per cent, of the stroke. At the 
 
GEOGHEGAN'S LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 473 
 
 regulation speed of 8 miles per hour, the speed of the pistons is 
 436 feet per minute. The engine has been worked at a speed of 
 16 miles per hour. The machinery is compactly placed, and the 
 cylinders, guide bars, valve gear, foundation plate, worm, and 
 plummer-blocks can be removed for repair by undoing six bolts, 
 and a duplicate substituted. 
 
 Geoghegan. 
 
 The tramway system of Guinness’s Brewery has already been 
 noticed, page 290. The rolling stock comprised, in 1888, nine 
 locomotives and 177 waggons. The first engine, Fig. 299, weigh¬ 
 ing about two tons, is suitable only for light work, and the gearing 
 being so close to the ground, is diflicult to keep in order when 
 working full time. Geared engines. Fig. 300, were obtained, 
 weighing about 5 tons. They were found very useful, but for 
 want of bearing springs, they were slow in speed, costly in repairs, 
 and hard on the road. They were also troublesome in starting. 
 The next class of engine, Fig. 301, weighing 6 tons, having outside 
 cylinders, circular ends for footplates, and water tanks for con¬ 
 densing the exhaust-steam, proved better adapted to the traffic. 
 The motion being all outside, was readily accessible ; but, being so 
 near the ground, it got very dirty, and the wear necessitated very 
 frequent adjustment. Case-hardened eccentrics and straps made 
 an improvement. 
 
 To combine the best points of these three classes of engines, 
 and obviate their defects, Mr. Geoghegan designed the locomotive 
 shown in Fig. 302. Facilities are given for getting out the 
 wheels and axles, and the cylinders and motion are placed on the 
 top, out of the dirt, and very accessible for cleaning and repair. 
 The spring frame is independent, and is formed of eight steel 
 leaves in four pairs, two pairs at each side, one pair on the top of 
 each pair of axle-boxes, and the other pair under the bottom. It 
 is attached to back and front stays, so that byremoving the pins and 
 coupling-rods, and lifting the engine, the spring-frame with wheels 
 
474 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 and axles and break gear, can be run out for examination and 
 
 Figs. 299, 300, 301. Guinness’s Brewery: Tramway Locomotives. 
 
 repair. The upper or crankshaft axle-boxes work between horn- 
 plates, and they are each connected with the spring-frame by a 
 
GEOGHEGAN'S LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 475 
 
 vertical link, of which the upper pin is lengthwise of the engine, 
 and the lower pin is crosswise, giving freedom for oscillation. 
 
 The break-gear consists of a steam cylinder having two pistons, 
 between which steam is admitted for applying the breaks. 
 
 The boiler is of the Ramsbottom type. The barrel is 2 feet 
 5 inches in diameter, having 64 tubes 2 feet lof inches long, 
 inches in diameter outside. The heating surface is 72‘6i square 
 feet in the tubes, 13*75 feet in the fire-box; together 86*36 square 
 
476 
 
 MECHANICAL POIVER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 feet, or 27 times ihe grate-area, which is 3*24 square feet. The 
 working pressure is 180 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 The cylinders are 7 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 
 inches. There are four coupled 22-inch wheels, on a wheel-base 
 of 3 feet. The weight on the leading wheels is 3*6 tons, on the 
 trailing wheels 3*8 tons; total weight, 7*4 tons. The gauge is 
 22 inches.'*' 
 
 Aspinall. 
 
 Shunting engines of 18-inch gauge are employed by Mr. John 
 A. F. Aspinall at the Horwich Locomotive Works of the Lancashire 
 and Yorkshire Railway, for the movement of moderately heavy 
 weights from workshop to workshop, over a large area of ground, 
 laid out with tramways of 18-inch gauge. These tramways, 
 which have already been described (page 292), comprise several 
 miles of way. The works are on practically level ground, and in 
 virtue of the narrowness of the gauge, there are facilities for passing 
 in and out of the narrow doorways of the workshops, on quick 
 curves which are not greater than 13 feet in radius. 
 
 The locomotives employed (Fig. 303), were designed and 
 constructed by Mr. Aspinall. They are four-wheel coupled, 
 similar to those of Mr. Geoghegan (page 475). The cylinders 
 are 5 inches in diameter, with 6 inches of stroke; the wheels 
 are idj inches in diameter, on a wheel-base of 2f feet. The 
 frame is 7 feet 4J inches long ; the extreme width of the 
 engine is 3 feet. The boiler is of steel, cylindrical, 2^ feet 
 in diameter, 5 feet 2 inches long; containing an iron cylindrical 
 fire-box, 17 inches in diameter, 2J feet long, and 55 tubes in 
 sequence, if inches in outside diameter. The fire-grate is about 
 I foot long, and has an area of i ’78 square feet. The heating sur- 
 lace of the fire-box is 10*42 square feet; of the tubes, 36*12 feet; 
 together 46*54 square feet, or 26*1 times the grate-area. The 
 
 * See a paper by Mr. Samuel Geoghegan, “ Description of Tram¬ 
 ways and Rolling Stock at Guinness’s Brewery,” in the Proceedings 
 of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, July, 1888, page 327. 
 
ASPINALUS LOCOMOTIVE 
 
 All 
 
 capacity of the tank is 26^ gallons. The working pressure is 
 
 170 lbs. per square inch. The weight, empty, is 2*80 tons; full, 
 and in working order, 3*19 tons. The tractive force is computed 
 
478 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 as 1,412 lbs., or 9*22 lbs. per pound of effective pressure per 
 square inch on the piston. The height of the horizontal centre¬ 
 line of the boiler is 2 feet 9J inches. The top of the chimney is 
 7 feet 4J inches high above the level of the rails. 
 
 Perrett. 
 
 Mr. Edward Perrett arranged a steam car, Figs. 304, 305, in 
 which the machinery is placed horizontally under the frame, and 
 two vertical steam-boilers are placed on the platform, one at each 
 end of the car, and connected together. The weight is thus 
 equally distributed, and the car may be run either end foremost. 
 The car runs on eight wheels, and weighs 8 tons when loaded, of 
 which 5 tons rest on the four middle wheels, which are driven by 
 the engine, and 3 tons is divided between the fore pair and 
 aft pair of wheels. These wheels, fore and aft, are arranged as 
 Bissell trucks, radiating outwards on pivots, and they are con¬ 
 trolled at either end by steering gear, so that the car may be taken 
 with facility off the road, on to a branch, or vice versa. The fixed 
 wheel-base—that of the driving wheels—is 4 feet, and the total 
 wheel-base is 17 feet. The two cylinders are 6 inches in 
 diameter, with a stroke of 9 inches; the coupled driving wheels 
 are 27 inches in diameter, and the bogie wheels are 18 inches. 
 The steam boilers, on Broadbent’s system, are 25P inches in 
 diameter outside, and 6 feet long ; the fire-box is 2 oh inches 
 diameter at the grate, giving 2*27 square feet of grate-area for 
 each boiler. 
 
 An experimental steam car was constructed on this system, 
 with 5-inch cylinders, and an 8-inch stoke ; 27-inch driving wheels 
 at 4-feet centres, and 19-inch bogie wheels, at 14-feet centres; 
 
 I *60 square feet of grate for each boiler; total weight, 8 tons, of 
 which 5 tons was driving weight. It was publicly tried in May, 
 1876; and it is reported that the car ran easily on a circular line 
 of 35 feet radius, to a gauge of 4 feet 8J inches, with a pressure 
 
PERRETTS STEAM CAR. 
 
 479 
 
 of 90 lbs. per square inch in the boiler, cutting off at 5-8ths of the 
 
 stroke; though it was necessary to get up the pressure to 120lbs. 
 
 Fig. 304. Bissell Bogie Steam Car, by Mr. Edward Perrett, 1876. Scak 
 
480 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 per square inch before starting again. With a pressure of 120 lbs. the 
 
 car could start on an incline of i in 30. 
 
 A car of this type, Fig. 306, was 
 constructed by Messrs. Manlove, 
 Alliott, Fryer & Co., Nottingham, for 
 the Dublin and Lucan Tramway. The 
 cylinders are 7 inches in diameter, 
 with a stroke of 9 inches, and four 
 coupled 27-inch wheels, 4J feet apart 
 between centres. The total wheel¬ 
 base, including the Bissell trucks, one 
 at each end, is 17 J feet. The car in 
 working order, without passengers, 
 weighs 9 tons. A series of tests of 
 this car were made on an endless 
 tramway, 3 feet in gauge, a quarter 
 of a mile in length, on the premises 
 of Messrs. Manlove & Co., to prove 
 the amount of the gross resistance. 
 Indicator-diagrams were taken from 
 the engines, yielding the following 
 results :— 
 
 On a straight line, with ascending 
 gradients of i in 57 and i in 22, the 
 indicator frictional resistances, after 
 allowing for the resistance of gravity, 
 were, at 4 miles per hour, at the rate 
 of 35 lbs. and 36 lbs. per ton on the 
 two gradients respectively; and at 
 8 miles per hour, 41 lbs. and 39 lbs. 
 On a curve, of 60 feet radius, on a 
 level, the resistances were 81 lbs. and 
 96 lbs.; going up an incline i in 41, 
 Fig. 305. Mr. Penett’s Steam they were 50 lbs. and 75 lbs.; up 
 
 I in 33, they were 65 lbs. and 84 lbs. 
 per ton. The mean results may be taken thus:— 
 
PERRETT'S STEAM CAR 
 
 481 
 
 Steam car. 
 
 Straight line, frictional resistance . 
 Curve, 60 feet radius, frictional 
 resistance . . . . . 
 
 4 miles per hour. 
 
 36 lbs. per ton 
 65 lbs. „ 
 
 8 miles per hour. 
 
 40 lbs. per ton. 
 85 lbs. „ 
 
 Here it appears that the resistance on a curve of 60 feet radius is, 
 in round numbers, double the resistance on a straight line. This 
 result compares unfavourably with the result of trials for the trac- 
 
 I I 
 
 hiG. 306. Steam Car, by Mr. R. Perrett, for the Dublin and Lucan Tramway 
 
482 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 2R AM WAYS. 
 
 tional resistance of a passenger-car on the same line of way, page 
 405, where it was deduced that the straight-line resistance of a 
 car was little more than doubled even on a curve of 22 feet radius. 
 It is probable that the greater resistance of this steam-car is attri¬ 
 butable not alone to the working of the propelling machinery as 
 such ; but also to the spread and the arrangement of the wheel 
 system. The fuel—gas coke—for a run of 6 miles, at a speed of 
 8 miles per hour, was consumed at the rate of 17 lbs. per mile, or 
 nearly 2 lbs. per ton-gross per mile. Of course, the great and 
 unequal resistance of inclines and curves contributed to the caus¬ 
 ing of so considerable a consumption of fuel. 
 
 This steam car was set to work on the Dublin and Lucan 
 Tramw'ay, on June 6, 1881, working between Dublin and 
 Chapelizod, a length of two miles, making 13 double trips, equal 
 to 52 miles per day. The car, weighing 9 tons empt}^ weighs 
 with IJ tons of passengers, the average load loj tons-gross. The 
 fuel consumed per day is 6 cwt. of gas coke, including the fuel 
 consumed for getting up steam, equivalent to i'3 lb. per ton-gross 
 per mile. This comparatively high rate of consumption may be 
 accounted for, to some extent at least, by the unfavourable con¬ 
 ditions under which the work was done. The car makes but one 
 double-trip or 4-mile run in each hour. In fact, the 2-mile trip 
 was made in 10 minutes, and the car was at rest for forty minutes 
 in each hour. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 Mr. A. Brown, of Winterthur (Switzerland), designed a steam 
 car for tramways, on the principle of Mr. R. F. Fairlie’s double¬ 
 bogie railway steam-carriage. An illustration of his original design 
 was published in Engineer mg, for March 31, 1876. He constructed 
 a steam-car on the same .system, on a somewhat modified design, 
 which was put to work, in 1877, on the Lausanne and Echellens 
 Branch Railway—a “ Chemin de Fer Regional ”—for local traffic, 
 constructed to a gauge of i metre, 8*86 miles in length, and laid 
 
BROWiYS STEAM CAR. 
 
 483 
 
 on the common road, which inclines upwards from Lausanne to 
 Echellens. The ruling inclines are heavy ; they are as follows :— 
 
 Yards. 
 
 I in 28 for 545 
 
 I in 40 „ 578 
 
 I in 31 „ 236 
 
 I in 25 „ 655 
 
 2,014 
 
 The minimum radius is 100 metres, or 330 feet; in stations, it is 
 60 metres, or 200 feet. 
 
 The car, Figs. 307, 308 and 309, is supported at each end by a 
 four-wheel swivelling bogie. The engine with its boiler complete is 
 supported on one of the bogies, the wheels of which are coupled, 
 and constitute the driving-wheels; the locomotive is lodged in 
 one end of the car, where it is wholly masked by the surrounding 
 portion of the car, and is free to revolve on its axis. 
 
 The cylinders are horizontal, and are above the foot-plate. 
 The valve-chests are below the cylinders, and so these are kept 
 clear of condensation-water. The piston-rods each work a vertical 
 rocking beam, from the lower ends of which the wheels are driven 
 by connecting-rods. This arrangement is employed for the sake 
 of keeping most of the working machinery out of the way of dust. 
 The valve-gear consists of a combination of levers and rods 
 worked off the connecting-rod,—in which excentrics and straps 
 are dispensed with. 
 
 The main framing of the car is of joist iron, at such a level that 
 the floor of the car is only 19 inches above the level of the rails. 
 The car is divided into three portions—the saloon furnished with 
 longitudinal seats, upholstered, for 24 passengers ; the pavilion at 
 the hind end, over the hind bogie, as a smoking department for 
 7 passengers ; and the upper story, or imperial, to which a stair¬ 
 case leads from the pavilion, with seats for 30 passengers. Thus 
 accommodation is provided for 61 passengers in all. 
 
 The following are the leading dimensions of the steam car:— 
 
 I I 2 
 
484 
 
 ME C/I A NIC A L POIVE R 
 
 ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Fig. 308. Mr. Brown’s Steam Car. Plan. 
 
486 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 Car:— 
 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 Length over all 
 
 
 . 42 
 
 Extreme breadth 
 
 
 • 7 9 ^ 
 
 Height . . . . • 
 
 
 . 14 I 
 
 Diameter of bogie-wheels of car 
 
 
 - I 5 l 
 
 Wheel-base of bogie . 
 
 
 . 4 0 
 
 Distance between centres of bogie 
 
 s . 
 
 • 30 4 f 
 
 Engine :— 
 
 
 
 Diameter of steam-cylinders 
 
 
 . 0 61 
 
 Length of stroke 
 
 
 I 0 
 
 Diameter of coupled wheels 
 
 
 
 Length of wheel-base 
 
 
 . 4 I 
 
 Diameter of boiler 
 
 
 • 2 3J 
 
 Length of flue-tubes . 
 
 
 • 4 7 
 
 
 
 Square feet. 
 
 Area of fire-grate 
 
 
 • 2-35 
 
 Heating surface :—Fire-box 
 
 
 20 
 
 Tubes . 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 Total 
 
 
 . 150 
 
 Pressure of steam in boiler (per square 
 
 inch) 180 lbs. 
 
 Capacity of water-tanks . 
 
 • 
 
 . 130 gallons. 
 
 Do. coal-bunkers . 
 
 • 
 
 5 cwt. 
 
 Weight:— 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Engine, empty .... 
 
 • 
 
 5 
 
 Do. in working order . 
 
 • 
 
 6 
 
 Car, empty .... 
 
 » 
 
 
 Engine and empty car 
 
 » 
 
 ii^ 
 
 Total weight in working order. 
 
 with 61 
 
 passengers, and luggage 
 
 • 
 
 16 
 
 Driving weight, when the car 
 
 is 
 
 fully 
 
 loaded ..... 
 
 • 
 
 10 
 
 Net weight of engine and car, in working 
 
 order, per passenger .... 3-77 cwt. 
 Maximum load per driving axle . . 5 
 
 do. do. per free axle . . . 3 
 
 On Sundays, 600 persons have been carried in eight trips, 
 or, 75 passengers at a time. The greatest number taken at a 
 time was 120. It is stated that the ordinary speed was about 
 
BROWN'S STEAM CAR. 
 
 487 
 
 9 miles per hour, but speeds of about 19 miles per hour have been 
 attained on a level. The car may be stopped on the steepest 
 gradients within from 16 to 20 feet. It is reported that the engine 
 has never slipped her wheels, even in the most unfavourable 
 weather—in snow, ice, or fog. The fuel, Saarbruck coal, has been 
 consumed at the rate of ii^ lbs. per mile, or 72 lb. per ton-gross 
 per mile. The daily expenses for working the steam-car at Lau¬ 
 sanne, doing 29 miles per day, have been as follows:— 
 
 Per day. 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 I engine-driver . 
 I stoker 
 I conductor 
 Coal (3 cwt.) 
 Cirease, oil, &c. . 
 
 Or, 7'7d. per mile-run. 
 
 It is stated that if the steam-car were worked over a nearly 
 level road, it could easily make 80 miles a day, at a daily expense 
 of 25s., equivalent to 3fd. per mile run. But in this charge there 
 is no element for maintenance. The price of the steam-car is 
 £i,ooo.'^' 
 
 Independent engines of the same type have been constructed 
 by Messrs. R. and W. Hawthorn, as shown in Fig. 310. The cylin¬ 
 ders are 5^ inches in diameter, and have iif inches of stroke. 
 The wheels are made from 2 feet to 2 feet 4 inches in diameter, 
 on a wheel-base of 5 feet. The pressure in the boiler is 220 lbs. 
 The steam is condensed in tubes placed overhead. The weight 
 of the engine with coal and water is 61 tons. 
 
 Engines of this class have been working at Strasburg, at a cost 
 of about 5d. per mile-run. At Hamburg the cost was 4id. per 
 mile-run. The engines have also been at work on the Sunderland 
 tramways, where they can take, when required, two cars loaded 
 with goods, weighing 6J tons-gross, up gradients of i in 25 and 
 
 * The above particulars of the steam-car are taken from Eftgineer- 
 ing, for August 10, 1877, p. 108. 
 
488 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 2R AM WAYS. 
 
 I in 18. The condensing power is increased in the more recently- 
 made engines, with a view to reducing the back pressure and 
 suppressing all the exhaust steam, even on the severest inclines. 
 
 QJ 
 
 u 
 
 7 } 
 
 t/3 
 
 :n 
 
 in 
 
 <v 
 
 u-i 
 
 CJ 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 s 
 
 rt 
 
 H 
 
 6 
 
 ro 
 
 6 
 
 Lx^ 
 
 Mr. W. R. Rowan, of Copenhagen, designed a steam-car for 
 tramways, Fig. 311, resembling Mr. Fairlie’s steam carriage, and 
 Mr. Brown’s car, in general arrangement. 
 
 But Mr. Rowan, not recognising the principle of Mr. Fairlie’s 
 steam carriage, reverted to the American railway carriage, or 
 
ROJrAN'S STEAM CAR, 
 
 489 
 
 car, for his prototype, ‘‘ the body resting on two bogies or 
 under-carriages” ; and “with a view of affording a suitable place 
 in which the engine may stand,” he naively explained that the 
 ])in of one of the bogies is made hollow and enlarged to several 
 feet in diameter, instead of being a mere pin of metal, and in this 
 hollow pin is fixed the engine, which acts directly upon the bogie- 
 wheels underneath, and thus sets the whole carriage in motion. 
 It is evident that the enlargement of the bogie-pin will not affect 
 the revolving movement of the carriage body upon it; nor will 
 the engine in this position interfere with the arrangements for 
 ascending or descending to or from the upper seats of the car at 
 either end.” ''' 
 
 There need not be any doubt of the feasibility of the system. 
 
 Fjg. 31 1 . DoubJe-Bogie Steam Car, by Mr. AV. R. Rowan, 1877. 
 
 Scale yyj. 
 
 It was amply tested on a working scale by Mr. Fairlie many years 
 ago. The engine may be readily detachable from the body of the 
 car, when required, by the aid of a temporary crutch lowered to 
 support the free end of the car. 
 
 Mr. Rowan condensed the exhaust steam by surface-condensa¬ 
 tion in a sheet-iron chamber, which is traversed by a number of 
 tubes, either flat or round, from end to end. The steam was 
 exhausted into the chamber surrounding the tubes; and was con¬ 
 densed by currents of cold air from a fan driven through the 
 tubes on its way to the furnace. By this means, the air might be 
 heated to 190° or 200° F., whilst the steam was effectively con¬ 
 densed, and the condensation water was pumped again into the 
 
 * The Employment of Mechanical Motors on IVanizvays. By 
 W. R. Rowan, C.E., 1877. 
 
490 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 boiler. Mr. Rowan considered that from i,ooo to 2,000 square 
 feet of condensing surface was sufficient for an engine of from 15 
 to 25 horse-power. 
 
 The steam-car last constructed by Mr. Rowan was 32 feet long 
 over all, built of teak, excepting the side-soles and the roof. It 
 was made to seat 60 passengers inside and outside. The only 
 entrance is at the hinder end. The engine was capable of work¬ 
 ing to 18 horse-power, with a pressure in the boiler of 150 lbs. 
 per square inch. The cars easily passed on curves of 45 feet radius, 
 and could surmount a gradient of i in 20. The total weight of the 
 car and engine was 5 tons. Mr. Rowan gives the following 
 comparative statement of the “working elements ” of a horse-car, 
 a car drawn by a separate engine, and his steam-car :— 
 
 Comparative “Working Elements’’ for Horse-Power 
 AND Steam-Power, on Tramways. 
 
 "Working elements, 
 
 1 
 
 Horse-car. 
 
 Car drawn 
 by a separate 
 engine. 
 
 Steam-car. 
 
 ! 
 
 Number of passengers 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 Do. servants 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Length of street occupied . 
 Gross weight, including pas- 
 
 35 feet 
 
 35 feet 
 
 32 feet 
 
 sengers .... 
 
 si tons 
 
 9^ tons 
 
 9I tons 
 
 Weight, without passengers 
 
 
 01 ,, 
 
 5 
 
 Maximum weight on anv 
 
 
 
 
 wheel, with gross load 
 
 i *375 .. 
 
 i ’375 M 
 
 1-50 ,, 
 
 Maximum weight on any 
 
 wheel, without load . 
 
 '625 
 
 I ‘000 ,, 
 
 roo 
 
 Dead weight per passenger 
 
 cwt. 
 
 3 cwt. 
 
 cv^t. 
 
 Greatest weight on driving- 
 
 
 
 
 wheels, with full load 
 
 — 
 
 4 tons 
 
 6 tons 
 
 Greatest weight on driving- 
 
 
 
 wheels, without load 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Horse-power for haulage 
 
 2 h.p. 
 
 18 h.p. 
 
 18 h.p. 
 
 Steepest working gradient 
 
 
 
 
 for long runs . 
 
 I in 80 
 
 I in 40 
 
 I in 20 
 
 1 
 
 On the results of the trials of his steam-car, Mr. Rowan based 
 an estimate of the comparative cost of working tramway traffic on 
 his system, and by ordinary horse-traction, assuming that the 
 
7^0IVAN'S STEAM CAR, 
 
 491 
 
 saving in tear and wear of stock on his system is balanced by the 
 increase in the wear of the road, and leaving, therefore, these 
 causes of expenditure out of the account :— 
 
 (i) Steam-cars.- 
 
 —Daily Expenses. 
 
 
 
 
 Kroner. 
 
 S. 
 
 (1. 
 
 I engineman 
 
 . 7-50 or 
 
 8 
 
 3 '> 
 
 f reserve do 
 
 . ro8 ,, 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 j cleaner 
 
 . ri2 ,, 
 
 I 
 
 3 h 
 
 Coke .... 
 
 . 9*00 ,, 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Oil, tallow, waste, &c. . 
 
 . 1-50 ,, 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 Sundry petty expenses . 
 
 . 2-30 ,, 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 22*50 ,, 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 Allowing a day’s work of 12 Danish miles, or ^ 6 ’i 6 English 
 miles, the expenses are equivalent to 5*34d. per English mile, or 
 to ’OQd. per passenger per mile. 
 
 (2) Horse-cars.—Daily Expenses. 
 
 The cost for horse-power to the Copenhagen Tramway Com¬ 
 pany, in 1874, amounted to 2’10 kroner per Danish mile, or 6d. 
 per English mile; for a car seated for 40 passengers, equivalent 
 to •i5d. per passenger per mile. 
 
 From these statements, it appears that the expense of working 
 with the steam-car would be absolutely less by '66d., or 12^ per 
 cent., and that per passenger it would be less by 40 per cent., 
 supposing, of course, that full loads were taken in each case. 
 
 More recently (1891—93), Rowan’s steam-car has been in use 
 on a line at Stockholm, having gradients of 7 per cent., or i in 14. 
 It contains a 6-ton motor working up to 14 atmospheres (200 lbs. 
 per square inch), and carries from 30 to 50 passengers. The 
 total weight available for adhesion is ii tons, and develops a 
 tractive force of 1,000 kilogrammes, equal, at 8 kilometres per 
 hour, to 30 horse-power. The first cost of such a steam-car is 
 about j£ 8 oo at the works. The Rowan steam-car is also used on 
 seven other light railways in Sweden, and on suburban lines at 
 Copenhagen, Berlin, Saarbriicken, Moscow, Paris, Tours, L)^ons, 
 and Marseilles. These lines are for the most part level. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CALCULATION OF STEAM LOCOALOTIVE POWER 
 
 ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 When the effective mean pressure in the cylinders of a locomo¬ 
 tive, of which there are iisiiolly two, is known, the tractive force at 
 the rails is readily estimated in terms of that force, and the dimen¬ 
 sions of the machinery. 
 
 Take the case, nearly universal, of two cylinders connected 
 directly to the driving-wheels and their axle. The pressure deve¬ 
 loped in the pair of cylinders is thus expressed by the equivalent 
 pressure or tractive force, as at the rails :— 
 
 d~ L p 
 
 T 
 
 D 
 
 (■) 
 
 Reversely, the effective mean pressure on the pistons, equivalent 
 to a given tractive force at the rails, is expressed by the formula— 
 
 P = 
 
 D T 
 (P L 
 
 (O 
 
 d = the diameter of the cylinders, in inches. 
 
 L = the length of the stroke, in inches. 
 
 D = the diameter of the driving-wheels, in inches. 
 p — the effective mean pressure on the pistons, in lbs. per 
 square inch. 
 
 T = the equivalent tractive force at the rails, in lbs. 
 
 That is to say:— To find ike traciivc force —Multiply the square of 
 the diameter of the pistons, in inches, by the length of the stroke, 
 in inches, and by the effective mean pressure on the pistons in 
 pounds per square inch ; and divide the product by the diameter 
 
CALCULATION OF STEAM POUEK. 
 
 493 
 
 of the driving-wheels, in inches. The quotient is the equivalent 
 force, as tractive force, at the rails, in pounds. * 
 
 To find the efi^ective mean pressw'e .—Multiply the diameter of 
 the driving-wheel, in inches, by the total equivalent tractive force 
 at the rails, in pounds; and divide the product by the square of 
 the diameter of the cylinders, in inches, and by the length of 
 stroke, in inches. The quotient is the effective mean pressure in 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 It is understood, of course, that so much of the power developed 
 in the cylinders, as is necessary to overcome the resistance of the 
 machinery of the engine, is intercepted and consumed ; and that 
 only the balance of the power is available for tractional action at 
 the rails, and there exerted. But, for the sake of reducing, for 
 purposes of estimation, all the resistances of the engine, as well as 
 those of the car, to one standard for measurement, the whole of 
 the steam-power in the cylinders, as measurable by the indicator, 
 is reduced to an equivalent tractional force at the rail. 
 
 Effective Mean Pressures in the Cylinders. 
 
 Period of 
 
 \ admission in parts 
 of tlie stroke. 
 
 Effective mean I 
 pressure in parts 1 
 of the maximum 
 pressure. 
 
 Period of 
 admission, in 
 fractions of 
 the stroke. 
 
 t 
 
 Effective mean 
 pressure, in parts 
 of maximum 
 pressure. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 I-I 0 th 
 
 i- 7 th fully 
 
 I2I 
 
 20 
 
 i- 8 th 
 
 I-5 th 
 
 15 
 
 1/12 
 
 24 \ 
 
 28 \ 
 
 i-6th 
 
 I -4th 1 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 i-5th 
 
 1 -^rd i 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 46 ) 
 
 I-4th 
 
 i-?th 
 
 30 
 
 I -3rd 
 
 i-2nd 
 
 35 
 
 52 ^ 
 
 
 40 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 — 
 
 -— 
 
 50 
 
 67 
 
 i-2nd 
 
 2-3rds 
 
 1 55 
 
 72 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 60 
 
 77 
 
 I — 
 
 — 
 
 65 
 
 81 
 
 ! 2-3rds 
 
 4-5 ths 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 — 
 
 
 75 
 
 89 
 
 3-4ths 
 
 9-ioths 
 
494 
 
 J/ECBAN/CAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 The effective mean pressure in ordinary steam-cylinders, non 
 condensing, worked by ordinary valves and link-motion, is given 
 in the annexed table, for various periods of admission, of from 
 lo per cent, to 75 per cent, of the stroke, and for maximum pres¬ 
 sures in the cylinder of from 60 lbs. per square inch to 150 lbs. 
 per square inch.''' 
 
 The proportion of the adhesion-weight, or driving-weight, of the 
 engine, which measures the force of adhesion, available for traction, 
 is very variable—from one-fifth in dry weather, according to the 
 author’s experiments on the adhesion upon railways, to one-ninth 
 in damp weather, when the rails may be slippery. To keep within 
 the limits of one-ninth, in the proportioning of engines to their 
 work, ensures the working the engine in all states of the weather; 
 but a larger fraction may wisely be assumed for the purposes of 
 general estimates, particularly as the aid of dry sand dropped on 
 the rails may be invoked, when necessary, for the increase of the 
 adhesive force. A fraction of one-eighth may safely be adopted. 
 
 The influence of gradients on the resistance to traction, is easily 
 calculated by multiplying the gross load by the fraction which 
 expresses the rate of inclination. The product is the amount by 
 which the resistance is increased in ascending a given gradient; 
 or, on the contrary, reduced in descending the gradient. To 
 exemplify the effect of an ascending gradient in increasing the 
 resistance, and reducing the available gross load, take such gra¬ 
 dients as are equivalent to 30 lbs. per ton, and it multiplies 
 thus:— 
 
 Gradient. Resistance due to gravity. 
 
 I 
 
 in 
 
 75 
 
 or 
 
 I'33 per cent. 
 
 30 
 
 lbs. per ton 
 
 I 
 
 in 
 
 37 
 
 
 270 
 
 60 
 
 lbs. ,, 
 
 I 
 
 in 
 
 25 
 
 J) 
 
 4-00 
 
 90 
 
 lbs. ,, 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 00 
 
 
 5’40 
 
 120 
 
 lbs. ,, 
 
 I 
 
 in 
 
 15 
 
 
 6-66 ,, 
 
 150 
 
 lbs. ,, 
 
 Taking, as before adopted, a resistance of 30 lbs. per ton, as the 
 normal resistance on a level, the resistance is 30 lbs. more, or is 
 
 * This table is copied from the author’s work on Railway Ala- 
 chinery^ 1855? page 116. 
 
CALCULATION OF STEAM POWER. 
 
 495 
 
 doubled, for an ascending gradient of i in 75; and the gross load 
 that can be drawn up the incline, by a given force of traction, is 
 halved :— 
 
 On a level the available gross load is as . .1 
 
 On an incline of i in 75, it is as . . .4 
 
 ,, I in 37 • • -5 
 
 ,, I in 25 ,, . . . f 
 
 ,, I in 18J ,, . . .4 
 
 ,, I in 15 ,, . . . ^ 
 
 As the tramway engine traverses the line in both directions, the 
 work done on each section of the line, whether level or inclined, 
 may, for general purposes, be taken, when averaged for both 
 directions, to be the same as the work done on a level; and it may 
 be assumed that the average period of admission of the steam to 
 the cylinder is 50 per cent, or half-stroke. The average initial 
 pressure in the cylinder may therefore be assumed as that due to 
 the effective mean pressure that is equivalent to the resistance on 
 a level. 
 
 From the foregoing rules and data, the quantity of steam con¬ 
 sumed may be calculated for a given distance—per mile-run, for 
 instance ; and thence,—in terms of the relative volume of steam,— 
 the quantity of water evaporated, and the quantity of fuel to be 
 consumed. The volume of steam consumed for a stroke of one 
 piston is half the capacity of one cylinder; and there are four 
 halves, or two cylinders, full of steam, consumed for one turn of 
 the driving-axle ; or. 
 
 Steam consumed per turn in cubic inches, 
 
 7854 ^2’“ X L X 2 ; 
 
 = 1*5708 d~ . . . . . • ('^) 
 
 d = the diameter of the piston, in inches. 
 
 L = the length of the stroke, in inches. 
 
 D = the diameter of the driving-wheel, in feet, 
 s = the volume of steam consumed, in cubic feet, per mile. 
 
 The quantity of steam, in cubic inches, consumed per mile is 
 
49 & 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 7R AM WAYS. 
 
 equal to the quantity {a), multiplied by the number of turns made 
 
 in a mile, or by product be divided by 1728, 
 
 3-1416 D J ! ’ 
 
 the quotient is the number of cubic feet consumed per mile. But 
 an addition is to be made for the usual proportion of steam con¬ 
 densed in the cylinder—12 per cent, of the indicated quantity, 
 when the steam is cut off at half-stroke—and the total quantity of 
 steam actually consumed is as follows :— 
 
 I'5708 X 5280 
 
 S — o - . X 
 
 s = 
 
 1728 X 3’I4i6 d 
 1-71 L 
 
 I I 2 
 
 100 
 
 D 
 
 or, 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 That is to say:— To find the average volume ofi steam actually con¬ 
 sumed per mile, cut off at an average of half the stroke —Multiply 
 the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches by the length 
 of the stroke in inches, and by 1*71 ; and divide the product by 
 the diameter of the driving-wheels in feet. The quotient is the 
 average volume ofj steam consumed per mile. 
 
 The equivalent quantity of water required to be evaporated to 
 form the steam thus calculated is found by dividing the volume of 
 the steam by its relative volume ; that is, its volume compared 
 with that of the water of which it consists. Thus :— 
 
 w =: 
 
 I '71 d“ L 
 
 D X rel. vol. 
 
 (4) 
 
 w = the average volume of water evaporated, in cubic feet, 
 per mile. 
 
 'To express the volume of the water in gallons, multiply the 
 value (4) by 6-2355, the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 
 Thus :— 
 
 - — 6-2355 X d- L 
 
 W r= — 
 
 W = 
 
 D X rel. vol. 
 10-7 d~ L 
 
 ; or 
 
 D X rel. vol. 
 
 5 ) 
 
 w the average volume of water evaporated, in gallons, per mile. 
 
CALCULATION OF STEAM 1^0 HER. 
 
 497 
 
 That is to say:— To find the average volume of zvater as steam 
 consumed per mile, cut ojf at an average of half the stroke —i. In 
 CUBIC FEET. Multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinders 
 in inches, by the length of the stroke in inches, and by 1*71 ; and 
 divide the product by the diameter of the driving-wheels in feet, 
 and by the relative volume of the steam. The quotient is the 
 volume of water in cubic feet. 
 
 2. In GALLONS. Perform the same calculation as the preceding, 
 except that the multiplier 107 is to be employed instead of 171. 
 The quotient is the volume in gallons. 
 
 To facilitate such calculations, particulars of the volume and 
 den.sity of saturated steam are given in the following table, 
 abstracted from the author’s larger table. 
 
 Density and Volume of Saturated Steam. 
 
 Pressure per 
 square* inch above 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Density, or 
 weight of one 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Volume of one 
 pound of steam. 
 
 Relative volume, or 
 cubic feet of steam 
 from one cubic foot 
 of water. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Relative volume. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 oc 
 
 rC 
 
 0 
 
 26" 
 
 1,642 
 
 5 
 
 •0507 
 
 1972 
 
 1,229 1 
 
 10 
 
 •0625 
 
 i5'99 
 
 996 j 
 
 15 
 
 '0743 
 
 13*46 
 
 838 
 
 20 
 
 •0858 
 
 I 1*65 
 
 726 
 
 22 
 
 •0905 
 
 I 1*04 
 
 688 
 
 24 
 
 •0952 
 
 10*51 
 
 655 
 
 26 
 
 •0996 
 
 10*03 
 
 625 
 
 28 
 
 • 1042 
 
 9'59 
 
 S98 
 
 30 
 
 ' 1089 
 
 9* 18 
 
 572 
 
 1 32 
 
 •I M3 
 
 8*82 
 
 550 
 
 i 34 
 
 •1179 
 
 8*48 
 
 529 
 
 i 36 
 
 • 1224 
 
 8*17 
 
 509 
 
 ; 38 
 
 • 1269 
 
 7-88 
 
 491 
 
 ' 40 
 
 •1314 
 
 7*61 
 
 474 
 
 i 42 
 
 •1364 
 
 7*36 
 
 458 
 
 ! 44 
 
 •1403 
 
 7* 12 
 
 444 
 
 j 46 
 
 •1447 
 
 6*90 
 
 430 
 
 48 
 
 •1493 
 
 6*70 
 
 417 
 
 * See A Maziual of Rules, Tibles, a?ui Data for Mechanical 
 Engineers, 1877, page 387. 
 
 K K 
 
498 
 
 MECHANICAL POIVER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Density and Volume of Saturated %-Y^\yi—cojitinued. 
 
 Pressure per 
 square inch above 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 1 
 
 Density, or 
 weight of one 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Volume of one 
 pound of steam. 
 
 Relative volume, or 
 cubic feet of steam ! 
 from one cubic foot 
 of water. 1 
 
 i 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Relative volume. ! 
 
 ; 50 
 
 •1538 
 
 6*49 
 
 405 
 
 i 52 
 
 •1583 
 
 6-32 
 
 393 
 
 54 
 
 • 1627 
 
 6-15 
 
 383 
 
 5^ 
 
 • 1670 
 
 5-99 
 
 373 
 
 i 
 
 •1714 
 
 5-83 
 
 363 
 
 1 60 
 
 •'759 
 
 5-68 
 
 353 
 
 1 62 
 
 • 1804 
 
 5'54 
 
 345 
 
 64 
 
 • 1848 
 
 5-41 
 
 337 
 
 ! 66 
 
 • 1891 
 
 5'29 
 
 329 
 
 68 
 
 •1935 
 
 5-^7 
 
 321 
 
 70 
 
 • 1980 
 
 5-05 
 
 314 
 
 72 
 
 •2024 
 
 4-94 
 
 308 
 
 ' 74 
 
 •2067 
 
 4-84 
 
 301 
 
 ! 76 
 
 •2111 
 
 9-74 
 
 295 
 
 ' 78 
 
 •2155 
 
 4-64 
 
 289 
 
 i 80 
 
 •2198 
 
 4" 55 
 
 283 
 
 I 82 
 
 •2241 
 
 4-46 
 
 278 
 
 ! 84 
 
 •2285 
 
 4-37 
 
 272 
 
 : 86 
 
 •2329 
 
 4-29 
 
 267 
 
 1 88 
 
 •235' 
 
 4'25 
 
 265 ' 
 
 ; 90 
 
 •2414 
 
 4-14 
 
 257 
 
 92 
 
 •2456 
 
 4-07 
 
 253 
 
 94 
 
 •2499 
 
 4-00 
 
 249 
 
 96 
 
 •2543 
 
 ’ 3-93 
 
 245 
 
 98 
 
 •2586 
 
 3-86 
 
 241 
 
 100 
 
 •2628 
 
 3-80 
 
 237 
 
 105 
 
 •2738 
 
 3 -f >5 
 
 227 
 
 110 
 
 •2845 
 
 3-51 
 
 219 
 
 ibS 
 
 •2955 
 
 3-38 
 
 211 
 
 120 
 
 •3060 
 
 1 
 
 3’27 
 
 203 
 
 i 
 
 When the ordinary evaporative perfonnance of the fuel used in 
 the boiler is known :—the quantity of water evaporated per pound 
 of fuel, or the quantity of fuel required to evaporate a cubic foot 
 of water—the average quantity of fuel consumed per mile is easily 
 estimated, from the quantity of water consumed. The evaporative 
 performance above defined is usually expressed in terms of the 
 weight of water evaporated per pound of fuel. The volume of 
 
CALCULATION OF STEAM POWER, 
 
 499 
 
 water, taken as cold water, in cubic feet per mile, may be multi¬ 
 plied by 62 J, to give the weight of water in pounds; or the volume, 
 if expressed in gallons, is to be multiplied by 10, to give the weight 
 of water in pounds. The product so found is divided by the 
 evaporative ratio of the fuel, and the quotient is the average quan¬ 
 tity of fuel consumed per mile. 
 
 To exemplify the application of the foregoing rules, with the 
 tables and the deductions, take the locomotives constructed by 
 Messrs. Merryweather & Sons, for the tramways of Paris (Reseau 
 Slid). The cylinders are 6 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 
 9 inches; the driving-wheels are 2 feet in diameter. The weight 
 of the engine in full working condition is 4 tons, and it draws a 
 loaded car, say, 7 tons in weight. The gross weight to be drawn 
 is 11 tons; and the total resistance, on the level, at a uniform 
 speed, at the rate of 30 lbs. per ton, is (ii x 30 =) 330 lbs. at 
 the rail. To find the equivalent pressure on the pistons—the 
 effective mean pressure,/, by formula (2) :— 
 
 D T 24 X 330 „ . , 
 
 / r= ^^2 ^ — ^6 X 9 ~ square inch. 
 
 By the table, to produce an effective mean pressure of 24*4 lbs. 
 per square inch, the initial pressures for different periods of ad¬ 
 mission, or cut-offs, are as follows :— 
 
 For a Uniform Speed, 
 
 Cutting off at Ith, the initial pressure is 24-4 lbs. x 3 
 Do. fth do. 24-4 lbs. X 2 \ 
 
 Do. frd do. 24-4 lbs. x 2 
 
 Per 
 
 squ.ire inch. 
 
 = 73 lbs. 
 
 = 61 lbs. 
 
 = 49 lbs. 
 
 For starting the train on the level, allow four times the tractive 
 force, or four times the effective mean pressure required for a 
 uniform speed—in this case, 1,320 lbs. traction, or 98 lbs. per 
 square inch in the cylinders ; then— 
 
 K K 2 
 
500 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 For Starting the Ti^ain. 
 
 Per 
 
 square inch. 
 
 lO 
 
 Cutting off at | the initial pressure is 98 lbs. x — = 109 lbs 
 
 Do. 
 
 do. 
 
 q 8 lbs. X - = 122 lbs. 
 4 
 
 If the pressure in the boiler be 120 lbs. per square inch, it is 
 sufficient for the exertion of the extreme tractive forces above 
 assumed. 
 
 But, suppose that the rate of the ruling gradient of the tramway 
 amounts to i in 25. For the same tractional force, the gross load 
 that can be taken up the line is, by the statement, page 495, 
 reduced to one-fourth. To take up the same load, therefore, as 
 on the level, the effective mean pressure in the cylinder should be 
 four times as much as on the level, so that four times the tractive 
 force may be exerted. That is, instead of an effective mean pres¬ 
 sure of 24J lbs. per square inch, there must be 98 lbs. effective 
 pressure, being the same as was assumed for starting the train on 
 a level. For the exertion of this pressure, it has already been 
 shown that the initial pressure in the cylinder would amount to 
 109 lbs. per square inch, supposing that the steam were admitted 
 for three-fourths of the stroke, or to 122 lbs. for two-thirds of the 
 stroke. 
 
 This example is sufficient to illustrate the wideness of the range 
 of power that may be exerted by a tramway steam-locomotive. 
 
 To find, by formula (4) or (5), page 496, the average quantity 
 of water actually consumed as steam per mile, supposing, as was 
 assumed, that the average period of admission is half the stroke. 
 To find, in the first place, the relative volume, which is a factor in 
 the formula, the initial pressure in the cylinder is to be determined. 
 For an effective mean pressure of 24J lbs. per square inch, cutting 
 off at half-stroke, the initial pressure is, by the table, page 497, 
 (24J lbs. X f =) 37 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere. 
 By formula (4) or (5), page 496, for which = 6, l 9, D = 2, 
 and the relative volume of steam of 37 lbs. effective pressure, 
 is 500 :— 
 
CALCULATION OF STEAM POWER. 
 
 501 
 
 1 7 1 X 6- X 9 ... 
 
 w = -- = -5 54 cubic feet: 
 
 2 X 500 ^ 
 
 107 X 6- X 9 
 
 or w - ^ ^ = 3-47 gallons : 
 
 the average quantity of water consumed per mile. 
 
 To estimate now the quantity of fuel—which is coke—con¬ 
 sumed per mile by Messrs. Merry weather’s engine, it may be 
 assumed, in the absence of positive data, that 7 lbs. of water are 
 evaporated per lb. of coke. Reducing, then, the volume of water, 
 •554 cubic feet, or 3*47 gallons, to pounds, and dividing the 
 weight by 7— 
 
 34 ’ '^5 
 
 •554 X 62^ = 34-35 pounds ; and —^ = 5 lbs. 
 
 or 3*47 X 10 
 
 = 34*70 pounds ; and — c lbs. 
 
 7 
 
 —showing a consumption of coke at the rate of 5 lbs. per mile 
 run by the engine, in drawing a gross load of ii tons, including 
 the weight of the engine. To this, of course, is to be added an 
 allowance for getting up steam, and for contingent waste of steam 
 and fuel—say 10 per cent.; making an addition of J lb. of coke 
 per mile, and altogether 5J lbs. of coke consumed per mile. 
 
 Thus, by a simple process, founded on general experimental data, 
 the exact quantity of coke actually consumed by those engines, as 
 working on the Paris tramways, is arrived at. They consume 
 250 kilogrammes, or 550 lbs. of coke for 100 miles run; which is 
 equivalent to 5J lbs. per mile, the same as has just been calcu¬ 
 lated. 
 
 The foregoing values for water and fuel give the following 
 data:— 
 
 Average Consumption ;per Toil Gross per Mile-run. 
 
 ^ pound of coke. 
 
 3-5 pounds of water. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIRELESS TRAMWAF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 A BODY of water heated under pressure, spontaneously generates 
 and disengages steam, when the pressure is permitted to fall. The 
 temperature at the same time falls, according to the decline of the 
 pressure ; and the temperature and pressure correspond exactly 
 as if steam were generated by the application of heat to the water 
 under a given pressure. 
 
 The corresponding pressures and temperatures may be ascer¬ 
 tained by referring to a table of the properties of saturated steam, 
 and the quantity of steam that may be spontaneously generated 
 during the fall of the temperature may be calculated with exact¬ 
 ness. For example, suppose a pound of water, heated to the 
 temperature of 445° F., necessarily under the corresponding total 
 pressure, 400 lbs. per square inch, and cooled to the temperature 
 281° F., corresponding to the total pressure, 50 lbs. per square 
 inch.* The quantity of heat disengaged is measurable by the fall 
 of temperature (445° — 281° —) 164°, and for a pound of water the 
 loss of heat is 164 units. The heat so disengaged is available for 
 evaporating water—in fact, a portion of the heated water itself— 
 into steam. Now, the total heats of the two steams are as 
 follows:— 
 
 Total heat in i lb. 
 of steam from o® F. 
 
 1 otal pressure. iemperature. Units (or degrees). Difference. 
 
 400 lbs. ... 445° ... 1,249 ••• ^04° 
 
 50 lbs. ... 281° ... 1,199 ... 918° 
 
 ' Mean) 225 lbs. ... — .. _ ... 861° 
 
 * See Manual of Rulesy Tables, and DatUy 1877, page 387. 
 
FIR EL ESS L O COMO T11ES. 
 
 503 
 
 The mean difference, or excess of heat in the steam above the 
 sensible heat, is 861°, or 861 units for i lb. of steam; and as the 
 quantity of heat disengaged by i lb. of water in falling from 445° 
 to 281° is 164 units, there are required (861 164 =) 5’25 lbs. 
 
 of the heated water to supply heat sufficient to evaporate i lb. ot 
 the heated water. That is to say, out of 5*25 lbs. of heated water 
 1 lb. is evaporated “ spontaneously.” In round numbers, one- 
 fifth of the heated water is evaporated during the fall of tempera¬ 
 ture from 445° to 281°. By a similar calculation, it is found that 
 the proportional quantities of heated water evaporated in falling 
 to the temperature 281°, and total pressure 50 lbs. per square inch, 
 from other temperatures and pressures, are as follows :— 
 
 FaUi 72 g to Total Fi/ial Pi^essiire, 50 lbs. ^per square inch. 
 
 Total initial pressure 
 in lbs. per square inch. 
 
 400 lbs. 
 
 Initial tem¬ 
 perature. 
 
 445" 
 
 One pound of water 
 e\ aporated in 
 
 5*25 lbs. of heated water. 
 
 350 ,, 
 
 430' 
 
 5*82 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 418° 
 
 6*35 
 
 250 ,, 
 
 4 - 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 ' 3 i 
 
 200 ,, 
 
 382^ 
 
 874 
 
 150 ,, 
 
 358^ 
 
 11'60 ,, 
 
 100 ,, 
 
 328" 
 
 19-20 
 
 It may be said that, in round numbers, a fifth of the heated 
 water is evaporated in falling from a total pressure of 400 lbs. 
 per square inch to 50 lbs. per square inch, and that a ninth 
 is evaporated in falling from 200 lbs. to 50 lbs. per square 
 inch. 
 
 Without going further, it is obvious that between the limits of 
 400 lbs, and 200 lbs. initial pressure in the reservoir, worked 
 down to 50 lbs., a quantity of water, in round numbers, from five 
 to nine times the quantity of water that can be converted into 
 steam, must be constantly carried on the engine :—a tax by which 
 engines constructed on this principle—the principle of spontaneous 
 
504 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 7R AM WAYS, 
 
 evaporation—are unfitted for taking the place of ordinary steam- 
 locomotives for work in the open air. 
 
 Cockerell. 
 
 An instructive practical trial was made in June, 1874, by the 
 Socie'te J. Cockerell, of Seraing, in Belgium, with one of their 
 locomotives of the class designed for indoor service.* The boiler 
 was vertical, 64 feet high, and had two transverse water-tubes in 
 the fire-box ; the chimney rose direct from the fire-box, passing 
 upwards through the steam-space. The boiler was not clad on 
 the lower half of it, nor on the top, which was 3 feet in diameter. 
 There were two cylinders, 8 inches in diameter, with a lo-inch 
 stroke; four coupled wheels, 24 inches in diameter, 5 feet apart 
 between centres, to a gauge of 4 feet 11 inches. The total capacity 
 of the boiler was 35 cubic feet. The weight in working order was 
 8f tons; say, with four or five men, 9 tons. 
 
 NirsL Expej'iment .—The locomotive at rest in the open air. 
 Twenty-five cubic feet of cold water was measured into the boiler. 
 The fire was lit, and, in the course of 2 J hours, steam was got up 
 to 10 atmospheres effective. The water level rose 1*38 inches 
 in the glass, corresponding to a dilatation of (1*38 X '78 =) 
 1*076 cubic feet, or i-33rd of the initial volume, passing from 
 the temperature 54° F. to 365° F. 
 
 The fire was then extinguished, and the grate was withdrawn. 
 The chimney was hermetically sealed at the upper end. The fire- 
 door was simply closed ; there was no closure for the ash-pan. 
 The weather was fine, the temperature was 77° F. in the shade, 
 and at 5 p.m. the locomotive was left to itself, when the initial 
 effective pressure was 9*40 atmospheres. 
 
 * Annales Iiidustrielles, February 7, 1875, col. 175. 
 
COCKERELL'S FLRELESS LOCOMOTLVE. 
 
 505 
 
 Locomotive at Rest. Initial Effective Pressure 9-40 Atmospheres. 
 
 Time elapsed. 
 
 Fall of pressures. 
 
 Fall of level. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 Atmospheres. 
 
 Inches." 
 
 0 10 (5 P.M.) 
 
 0*00 
 
 0*00 
 
 0 15 
 
 1-30 
 
 0*39 
 
 0 30 
 
 2*40 
 
 0-67 
 
 0 45 
 
 3*40 
 
 0*91 
 
 I 0 
 
 4 ‘i 5 
 
 no 
 
 I 15 
 
 4’8o 
 
 1*26 
 
 I 30 
 
 5-35 
 
 1*38 
 
 I 45 
 
 5*80 
 
 1*50 
 
 2 0 
 
 6*20 
 
 i*6i 
 
 2 15 
 
 6*6o 
 
 173 
 
 2 30 
 
 6-95 
 
 i*8i 
 
 2 45 
 
 7*30 
 
 1*93 
 
 3 0 
 
 7 *60 
 
 2*05 
 
 3 15 
 
 7'85 
 
 2*21 
 
 4 15 (9-15 
 
 8*40 
 
 2*68 
 
 16 0 (9 A.M.) 
 
 9-40 
 
 3’27 
 
 At the commencement of the observations, when the effective 
 pressure was 9*40 atmospheres, the boiler contained 24*07 cubic 
 feet of water as at 54° F. At the time of the last observation, 
 when the pressure had fallen to atmospheric pressure, and the 
 boiler was cool enough to permit of the hand being laid upon it, 
 the quantity of water, as at 54° F., contained in the boiler, only 
 amounted to 22*54 cubic feet; showing an apparent loss of 1*53 
 cubic feet, in 16 hours, at joints or cocks, although no escape had 
 been apparent. The provision against cooling was not con¬ 
 siderable. The surface of the fire-box in free contact with air, 
 amounted to 49 square feet; that of the chimney 3^ square feet. 
 It may be noted that whilst the pressure fell rapidly at the com¬ 
 mencement, it fell less rapidly as it became lower. 
 
 Second Experiment .—The locomotive, alone, was run to and 
 fro upon a piece of railway 552 yards in length, consisting of two 
 straight pieces connected by a slight curve. The line was nearly 
 level; it had a slight gradient of about i in 400, at one end. It 
 was in good order, but it contained several points and crossings. 
 
 Steam was got up to a pressure of upwards of 10 atmospheres 
 
5o6 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 effective, in 2^ hours after lighting the fire. The fire was then 
 drawn, and the mouth of the chimney was hermetically sealed 
 around the exhaust-pipe, which was prolonged upwards through 
 the chimney. The circulation of cold air through the boiler was 
 thus prevented. The fire-door was closed; but the ash-pan was 
 left open. The cylinder-cocks were open for some time at start¬ 
 ing, and the steam was cut off at 80 per cent, of the stroke. 
 During the journey the steam was cut off at 60 or 70 per cent. 
 During the last run, the maximum admission for steam was required, 
 with the regulator wide open. Four or five men were carried on’ 
 the engine. 
 
 There was a slight wind blowing, and to neutralise the circum¬ 
 stances of wind and gravity as far as possible, the engine was run 
 to and fro several times. The effective pressure at the commence¬ 
 ment amounted to 10’30 atmospheres ; there were 24*91 cubic feet 
 of water, as at 54° F., in the boiler; and of steam 10 cubic feet. 
 At the end of the last return trip, the effective pressure was i 
 atmosphere; there was 21’66 cubic feet of water, as at 54° F., 
 and 13*29 cubic feet of steam. The total fall of pressure was, 
 therefore, 9 atmospheres, and the quantity of water consumed was 
 3*25 cubic feet. The following are the results of the experi¬ 
 ment :— 
 
 Loco?)iohve alo?te i)i Motion. Initial Effective Pressure, 
 
 10*30 A tniospheres. 
 
 Time elapsed. 
 
 Total distance 
 run. 
 
 ( 
 
 ' Averag-e speed 
 each trip. 
 
 Fall of pressure. 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 JMiles per hour. 
 
 Atmospheres. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0*0 
 
 3 
 
 552 
 
 6*31 
 
 2*30 
 
 5 
 
 1,104 
 
 9-44 
 
 3 *80 
 
 7 
 
 1,636 
 
 9-44 
 
 5*05 
 
 9 
 
 2,208 
 
 9‘44 
 
 6* 10 
 
 12 
 
 2,760 
 
 6*31 
 
 /•05 
 
 PS 
 
 3.312 
 
 6*31 
 
 7*90 
 
 18 
 
 3 .^64 
 
 6*31 
 
 8*63 
 
 23 
 
 4,416 
 
 37 ^> 
 
 9*30 
 
COCKERELL'S EIRE LESS L0C0M077JE. 
 
 507 
 
 At the end of the last run, the engine was pushed home by two 
 men for a few yards. 
 
 The total distance run was 2*51 miles, and the water consumed 
 was at the rate of (3’25 2'5i —) 1*30 cubic feet, or 87 lbs., per 
 
 mile. Allowing an evaporative power of 7 lbs. of water per lb. 
 of fuel, the fuel consumed, if the steam had been generated on 
 the journey, would have amounted to (87 -f- 7 =) 12 J lbs. per 
 mile; equivalent to (12^ h- 9 =) 1*40 lbs. per ton gross per 
 mile. 
 
 It was observed that, though very little water or priming ap¬ 
 peared with the exhaust-steam when the pressure was high, 
 there was a notable increase of priming towards the end of the 
 trial, when the pressure had fallen. 
 
 Third experivient, —The locomotive with one waggon was run 
 to and fro on the experimental line. Immediately after the last 
 experiment, steam was again got up in the engine. In i hour 
 10 minutes, an effective pressure of 10 atmospheres was got up ; 
 whilst the boiler was refilled. The fire was withdrawn, and the 
 chimney was sealed, as before. An ordinary waggon, in ordinary 
 condition, was coupled to the locomotive. The waggon had 
 4 wheels, 3 feet 3 inches in diameter, at 9 feet 9 inches apart 
 between the axles. It was fitted with a screw-brake, and its weight 
 with a small load was 8*80 tons. The gross weight drawn was- 
 as follows :— 
 
 Ions. 
 
 Locomotive . . . . - .9 
 
 Waggon . . . . . . . 8 '8o 
 
 17-80 
 
 The initial effective pressure in the boiler was loj atmo¬ 
 spheres, and the final pressure was 2*30 atmospheres. There 
 were 24*91 cubic feet of water in the boiler at the commence¬ 
 ment of the trial, and 21*91 cubic feet at the termination, after 
 six trips were made ; showing that 3 cubic feet of water were con¬ 
 sumed on the trial. 
 
5o8 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Locomotive and One IVaggon in Motion. Ifiitial Effective 
 Pressure^ 10*50 Atmos;p}ieres. 
 
 ! 
 
 i Time elapsed. 
 
 Total distance 
 run. 
 
 Average speed 
 each trip. 
 
 Fall of pressure. 
 
 JMinutes. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 iMiles per hour. 
 
 Atmospheres. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2-5 
 
 552 
 
 7-53 
 
 1*85 
 
 5 
 
 1,104 
 
 7‘53 
 
 3’50 
 
 7'5 
 
 1,656 
 
 7'53 
 
 5*00 
 
 9'5 
 
 2,208 
 
 9'44 
 
 6*25 
 
 12*5 
 
 2,760 
 
 6*31 
 
 7’30 
 
 15*5 
 
 3 » 3 i 2 
 
 6-31 
 
 8*20 
 
 The total distance run was 1*90 miles, and the water was con¬ 
 sumed at the rate of (3 1*90 =) 1*58 cubic feet, or 99 lbs. per 
 
 mile; or, calculating as before, 14 lbs. of fuel per mile, equiva¬ 
 lent to (14 -f- 17*80 =) 0*79 lb. per ton gross per mile. 
 
 The performance of the engine was more economical in the 
 last experiment; for the addition of the waggon caused but a small 
 addition to the quantity of water consumed. The comparative 
 economy of steam in the third experiment is due to the higher 
 pressure necessarily employed in the cylinders to overcome the 
 resistance of the greater weight to be drawn, and to the greater 
 efficiency of the steam in consequence, against the constant resis¬ 
 tance of the atmosphere. The following data are derived from 
 the results of the third experiment:— 
 
 Average Consumption per Tott Gross per Mile-Rim. 
 
 i of a pound of coke [in heating up the water]. 
 
 5^ pounds of water. 
 
 The distance run for these rates of consumption was 2 miles, 
 on a line of railway practically level. 
 
 These results do not compare advantageously with those of the 
 Merry weather locomotive, page 501, where it appears that this 
 engine consumed only J lb. of coke per ton gross per mile, against 
 the resistance of a tramway, and on inclines ; whereas in the ex- 
 
FRANCO'S FIRELESS LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 509 
 
 periment with heated water, lb. of coke is the equivalent of the 
 (juantity of water consumed on a railway nearly level. 
 
 Francq. 
 
 AI. Leon Francq, in 1875, patented a tireless locomotive 
 containing some improvements on Dr. Lamm’s engine. The 
 reservoir was 3 feet 9 inches in diameter, and about 6 feet 8 inches 
 long; it was filled for about three-fourths of its capacity—50 to 
 60 cubic feet—with water; which is put in communication with 
 one or more stationary boilers, from which steam is admitted 
 through a perforated pipe into the water. The steam in the 
 boilers had a pressure of 156 lbs. per square inch; the pressure 
 obtained in the reservoir is 135 lbs. per square inch. If the 
 communication were continued for a sufficient length of time, the 
 pressure in the reservoir would become equal to that in the boiler; 
 but the rate of absorption of heat and rise of pressure decreases 
 gradually as the pressure is elevated, and for economy of time it is 
 found expedient to arrest the process of heating-up at a lower 
 limit of pressure and temperature than that in the boilers. The 
 steam from the reservoir is admitted to an intermediate chamber, 
 where it is maintained at a fixed pressure, the degree of which is 
 adjusted by means of a throttle-valve. There is a pair of vertical 
 cylinders, about 6 inches in diameter, with a stroke of about 
 12 inches, which work an intermediate crank-shaft, from which 
 the four wheels are driven by outside coupling-rods. The wheels 
 are about 26 inches in diameter, and the two axles are at a 
 distance of 4J feet apart. By a system of double frames, the 
 passage over curv'es was facilitated. The locomotive was con¬ 
 trolled by a brake having eight blocks, which were applied to the 
 wheels successively. The stopping was thus effected promptly 
 and without shock. The exhaust-steam was delivered into two 
 air-surface condensers, one on each side of the car, each con¬ 
 sisting of a group of small copper tubes. It was in contemplation 
 to apply three cylinders to work as compound cylinders. The 
 
510 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 locomotive was heavy : it weighed, empty, 6-50 tons ; full, 
 8'3 o tons. 
 
 In trials of this engine on the tramway between Saint-Augustin 
 and the Boulevard Bineau—a distance of 2b miles—drawing one 
 omnibus of 2 tons weight, with eight passengers—it was observed 
 that the pressure in the reservoir fell from 156 lbs. per square inch 
 to 50 lbs., during the double trip of 5 miles. For the first ten 
 minutes of the service, no exhaust-steam was visible from the 
 engine; but, afterwards, a considerable quantity of steam escaped, 
 and proved an annoyance to the passengers who travelled in a 
 following car drawn by horses. 
 
 In the more recently designed engines on M. Francq’s system, 
 constructed by M. Cail, the wheels were 2^ feet in diameter, and 
 the axles were 4 feet 3 inches apart, that the engine might pass 
 easily over curves of 15 metres, or 49 feet radius. The cylindrical 
 reservoir was of steel plate, ’56 inch thick, and was i metre in 
 diameter and 2 metres long, or 3*28 by 6*56 feet. The authorised 
 limit of pressure was 213 lbs. per square inch, nearly fifteen atmo¬ 
 spheres. The reservoir was coated with cork and wood. The 
 regulator was so arranged that the driver might fix, before starting, 
 the maximum pressure of the steam upon the pistons ; and that, at 
 the same time, he might reduce the pressure below the maximum, 
 according to the requirements of the engine. The steam was 
 exhausted into a cast-iron box, and thence into a condenser, dis¬ 
 posed on the surface of the reservoir, before escaping into the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 The advantages formally claimed for M. Francq’s locomotive 
 are : i. The production of steam at a low cost, in a fixed boiler, 
 using coal as it comes from the mine. 2. Reduction of dead 
 weight, since no fuel is conveyed on the engine. 3. Employment 
 of a high pressure for ascending inclines, and no escai)e of steam 
 in descending inclines. 4. Reduction of the number of attend¬ 
 ants, a single man being able to conduct the engine and keep a 
 look out. 
 
 The cost for engine-power by this system on the Rueil-Marly 
 Tramway, in France, 4*54 miles in length, is here given in detail. 
 
FRAACQ'S FIRELESS LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 511 
 
 according to a statement by Gaune, the manager of the line, 
 made in February, 1880 :— 
 
 Cost for Traction per Month (Francq). 
 
 
 Per ^lonth. 
 
 Coal in stationary boiler for supplying hot water. 
 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,553 kilogrammes per day, per tonne . 
 
 @ 29 fr. 
 
 C 357 
 
 Oil, /•50 kilos, per day ..... 
 
 ,, no fr. 
 
 247'5 
 
 Tallow, 1*83 kilos. ,, ..... 
 
 ,, no fr. 
 
 60 
 
 Waste, 1*82 kilos. ,, ..... 
 
 ,, -32 fr. 
 
 17-40 
 
 Brooms ........ 
 
 White and red lead, 43'20 kilos, per year . 
 
 ,, -go fr. 
 
 3 
 
 Fire-bars, 6^ per month ..... 
 
 
 T 7 
 
 Spun yarn, 3'6 o kilos, per year .... 
 
 
 0-3 
 
 Tiles ......... 
 
 
 13 
 
 Packing, &:c. ....... 
 
 
 13 
 
 Tube-brushes ....... 
 
 
 4 
 
 Foreman’s wages, half for traction, 275 fr. -F 2 = 
 
 
 137-5 
 
 Firemen, i day and i night, per day . 
 
 .. 5*5 h'- 
 
 330 
 
 3 fitters, per hour ...... 
 
 M ’55 fr-- 
 
 495 
 
 I fitter for stationary boilers .... 
 
 
 165 
 
 I smith and i stoker, @ i—5th of their time 
 
 
 59 
 
 3 drivers . . . . . . 2 @ 6 fr., i 
 
 ,, 6'66 fr. 
 
 560 
 
 3 firemen on engines ...... 
 
 ,, 4 fr. 
 
 360 
 
 2 spare firemen ....... 
 
 
 270 
 
 4,1167 
 
 The books from September 8, 1878, to February 
 g, 1880 (14 months), show an expenditure of 
 
 724'90 fr. for renewal of engines, or per month 
 
 
 60 
 
 Also 1,400 fr. per year for tyres, or per month . 
 
 
 117 
 
 Total for working and repair 
 
 
 4^2937 
 
 The total length rim per month was 10,455 kilometres, or 6,534 
 miles ; and this sum is at the rate of 6*5yd. per mile run, of which 
 4'9id. is running expenses, and i‘6od. for repairs. Allowing a 
 sinking fund for the repair and renewal of the stationary boilers, 
 the total charge is estimated to amount to y28d. per mile run. 
 The way is laid on one side of the highway, and consists of 
 Vignoles rails on sleepers in ballast. It is not, therefore, a tram- 
 
512 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 way as usually understood : the 
 rails are plain, and the resis¬ 
 tance of the way may be 
 averaged, as a maximum, at 
 15 lbs. per ton-gross, or half 
 the resistance of the grooved 
 tramway ; except on the Port 
 Marly incline, miles long, 
 averaging i in 25 gradient, on 
 which the rails are of an ordi¬ 
 nary grooved section. The 
 engines weigh 6^ tons empty, 
 and 8'3 o tons in working order. 
 Taking 3, 4, or 5 cars with 
 passengers, averaging 17 tons, 
 the gross weight moved is, 
 say, 25^ tons. The fuel is con¬ 
 sumed at the rate of i5j- lbs. 
 per mile run, or -61 lbs. per 
 ton-gross per mile, equivalent 
 to twice as much, or 1*22 lbs. 
 per ton-gross per mile on a 
 grooved tramway. 
 
 The fireless locomotives, 
 Figs. 312 and 313, more lately 
 designed by Messrs. Francq & 
 Mesnard for the service of the 
 Metropolitan Railway of Paris, 
 have a cylindrical reservoir, 
 having segmental ends, about 
 5 feet 7 inches in diameter, 
 26^ feet in length, with a 
 capacity of about 620 cubic 
 feet. Four-fifths of the capacity 
 is occupied by water, which is 
 heated by the aid of a powerful 
 
FR A NCQ ^ ME SNA RD'S FIR EL ESS L O COMO TIVE, 5 13 
 
 jet of Steam supplied from stationary boilers. The water is heated 
 up until equilibrium of pressure is established between the boiler and 
 the reservoir. The temperature is raised to about 390° Fahr., corre¬ 
 sponding to 15 atmospheres total pressure, or 225 lbs. per square 
 inch. The steam from the reservoir is passed through a reducing 
 valve by which the steam is reduced to the required working pres¬ 
 sure. It is then passed through a tubular super-heater situated within 
 the receiver at the upper part, and thence through the ordinary regu¬ 
 lator to the cylinders. The exhaust-steam is expanded to a low 
 pressure in order to obviate noise of escape. In certain cases the 
 exhaust steam is condensed in closed vessels, which are only in 
 part filled with water. In the upper free space a pipe is placed 
 into which the steam is exhausted. Within this pipe another pipe 
 is fixed, perforated, from which cold water is projected into the 
 surrounding steam, so as to effect the condensation as completely 
 as may be. The heated water falls on an inclined plane, and flows 
 off without mixing with the cold water. The condensing water is 
 circulated by means of a centrifugal pump, driven by a small three- 
 cylinder engine. 
 
 In working off the steam from a pressure of i 5 atmospheres to 
 4J atmospheres, 530 cubic feet of water at 390° Fahr. is sufficient 
 for the traction of the trains, for working the circulating pump 
 for the condensers, for the breaks, and for electric lighting of the 
 train. At the stations the locomotive takes from 2,200 to 3,300 
 pounds of steam, nearly the same as the weight of steam consumed 
 during the run between two consecutive charging stations. There 
 is 210 cubic feet of condensing water. Taking the initial tempera¬ 
 ture at 60° Fahr., the temperature rises to about 180° Fahr. after 
 the longest runs underground. 
 
 The locomotive has ten wheels, on a base 24 feet long; of which 
 six are coupled, 4J feet in diameter. The extreme wheels are on 
 radial axles. The cylinders are 23^ inches in diameter, with a 
 stroke of 23^ inches. 
 
 The engine weighs, in working order, 53 tons, of which 36 tons 
 are on the coupled wheels. The speed varies from 15 miles to 
 25 miles per hour. The trains weigh about 140 tons. 
 
 L L 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 COMPRESSED-AIR LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 
 
 Compressed-air engines necessarily derive their power at second¬ 
 hand ; and they therefore work at a disadvantage, in point of effi¬ 
 ciency, compared with steam-locomotives, in which the force is 
 generated and expended simultaneously. A supply of air, previ¬ 
 ously compressed, is taken in by the propelling engine, and it is 
 gradually dispensed to the working cylinders, where it works by 
 expansion, and from which the force is transmitted to the driving- 
 wheels by mechanism similar to that of a steam-locomotive. If 
 the reverse actions—of compressing the air, and working it by 
 expansion—could be made to take place between the same tempera¬ 
 tures, pressures, and volumes, the work by expansion would be 
 an exact duplicate, in reverse, of the work expended for compres¬ 
 sion ; and the efficiency of the combined compressor and motor 
 would be equal to loo per cent., irrespective of losses by friction 
 and clearance. But, under practical conditions, the initial tem¬ 
 perature for expansion is not more than that of the surrounding 
 atmosphere; and in working, by expansion, back to atmospheric 
 pressure, even between the same extremes of pressure, the volumes 
 are smaller, since the temperatures are lower. The efficiency must, 
 therefore, be less than loo per cent. 
 
 When air is compressed mechanically, the temperature is raised ; 
 and, if none of the heat so generated be permitted to escape, the 
 air would be “ adiabatically ” compressed. If air be subjected to 
 compression, so that the pressure be doubled, trebled, &c., or so 
 that, taking the initial pressure, at 62°, as i— . 
 
COMPRESSED AIR LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 515 
 
 the relative pressures nre as 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 ; 
 
 the final temperatures are 178°, 258', 321°, 373°, 559°. 
 
 It may be noted here that, taking the initial temperature, 62°, as 
 I, the final temperatures are, very roughly, as 3, 4, 5, 6, 9. 
 
 In practice, as was said, the air cannot be employed at these 
 high temperatures. It is, in fact, cooled down by radiation and 
 conduction, to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, 
 before it is applied to do work. The loss of efficiency by the 
 intermediate fall of the temperature of the compressed air from the 
 absolute temperature t", due to the compression, to the absolute 
 atmospheric temperature t, is simply the proportion which this fall 
 (t" — t), bears to the higher temperature t". It is so, because the 
 volume is as the absolute temperature t", and the loss of tempera¬ 
 ture (t" — t), indicates the loss of volume by contraction, under 
 the same pressure. For instance, in compressing dry air at 62° to 
 two atmospheres of pressure, in a non-conducting vessel, the 
 temperature is raised to 178°, and the fall, in reverting to 62°, is 
 (178 — 62 =) 116“ The loss of efficiency due to this decline of 
 temperature, is the proportion of 116® to (461° -b 178° —) 639*^, 
 the maximum absolute temperature,* thus :— 
 
 (461 -f 178 ) 639° 
 
 (461 4- 62 = ) 523^ 
 
 Difference, or loss, 116° = 18 per cent, of the maximum absolute 
 
 temperature. 
 
 Leaving 523° = 82 do. do. do. 
 
 The reduced efficiency here is 82 per cent. Take other 
 examples :— 
 
 . For ratios of pressure, or atmospheres, 
 
 2, 3 . 4 , 5 y 10. 
 
 * Absolute temperature is an expression signifying the measure of 
 total heat in a body, as from the bottom of the scale of temperature. 
 The zero of the scale of absolute temperature, or the point of no¬ 
 heat, is 461 degrees below the zero point of the Fahrenheit scale ; 
 and to find the absolute temperature for any temperature indicated 
 by the thermometer, 461° are added to the indicated temperature. 
 For instance, the absolute temperature for 62° F. is (461 -i- 62 =) 523°. 
 
 L L 2 
 
5 i 6 mechanical power on tramways. 
 
 the final temperatures for compression are 
 
 178°, 258°, 321°, 373°, 559" F.; 
 
 and the losses of temperature, by the fall of the temperature to 
 62°, the initial temperature for expansion, are 
 
 116°, 196^ 259°, 311°, 497°; 
 
 whilst the reduced efficiency is 
 
 82, 73, 67, 63, 51 percent.; 
 
 and the loss of efficiency is 
 
 18, 27, 33, 37, 49 per cent. 
 
 Thus, it is obvious that the lower the degree of compression 
 applied to the air, the less is the rise of temperature, the less is 
 the loss of heat by dissipation, and the greater is the efficiency of 
 the machine. 
 
 As air under adiabatic compression may rise to temperatures 
 which are impracticable, so air under adiabatic expansion—that 
 is, expanded behind a piston, in a non-conducting cylinder—may 
 fall to temperatures which are impracticable. 
 
 Thus, when the initial temperature is 62^, for ratios of adiabatic 
 expansion, 
 
 2, 3 j 4 , 5 ’ 
 
 the final temperatures are, 
 
 — ss"*. —81°, — iii°, —133°. —193°- 
 
 It is clearly as impracticable to work a compressed-air engine 
 in such low temperatures, when every particle of moisture and 
 lubricant would be frozen, as amongst the high temperatures 
 previously noticed. Expedients are, therefore, employed for keeping 
 the rise of temperature, during the compression of air, within 
 feasible limits; and for limiting likewise the fall of temperature, 
 during the expansion of compressed air. The former is effectively 
 done by surrounding the compressing pumps with cold water, and 
 by injecting cold water, in finely divided spray, into the mass of 
 air whilst undergoing compression. Dr. Colladon has probably 
 done more for the improvement and perfecting of air-compressing 
 machinery than any other operator. In the air-compressing ma¬ 
 chinery at the works of the St. Gothard Tunnel, at Airolo, arranged 
 by Dr. Colladon, it has been found by experiment that, by the 
 
COMPRESSED AIR LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 517 
 
 means above indicated, the rise of temperature of air, even when 
 the air is condensed under a pressure of ten atmospheres, was 
 limited to from 36*^ to 54° F. The pistons had a stroke of 17’3 
 inches, and they made from 120 to 180 strokes per minute, giving 
 speeds of piston of over 260 feet per minute. A quantity of cold 
 water, equal in volume to i-i,000th of the volume of the stroke, 
 was injected during each stroke. 
 
 The clearance space at each end of an air-compressing cylinder 
 affects very sensibly the yield, or rendement^ of compressed air, by 
 reducing it, to some extent, below the total volume of the stroke, 
 or the space described by the piston for one stroke. This effect— 
 the reduction of yield—is obviously due to the fact that the com¬ 
 pressed air left in the clearance-space, after the stroke of the 
 piston is completed, expands upon the piston as it recedes, and so 
 far monopolises the cylinder, to the exclusion of a fresh supply of 
 air, until its pressure falls, in due course, to an equality with that 
 of the atmosphere. The reduction of yield, by this cause, increases 
 as the pressure of compression is increased. In a series of obser¬ 
 vations made at Airolo, with the pumps already mentioned, having 
 a stroke of 17*3 inches, with a clearance-space i-8oth of the 
 volume of the stroke, making 64 turns per minute, the yield in 
 weight of air was only 78 per cent., in compressing air in the 
 reservoir by the pump, from 6 atmospheres to 7 atmospheres. At 
 higher pressures the yield became still less, as follows:— 
 
 Compression. 
 
 From 6 to 7 atmospheres 
 
 ,, 7 to 8 
 
 ,, 8 to 9 
 
 ,, 9 to 10 
 
 Yield, in weight of air. 
 
 78 per cent. 
 
 74 
 
 66 
 
 59 
 
 In performing work with compressed air, on the contrary, 
 accompanied by expansion, the fall of temperature is to be 
 checked, that it may be prevented from falling to or below the 
 freezing point. There is a well-known practical difficulty in work¬ 
 ing compressed air expansively. The extreme fall of temperature 
 causes the freezing of moisture and the hardening of lubricants 
 
5 i 8 mechanical power on tramways. 
 
 about the mechanism. For this reason, the working of air expan¬ 
 sively is confined to narrow limits ; and the air is admitted to the 
 cylinder for nearly the whole of the stroke, that the cooling which 
 results from expansion upon a piston may be reduced to a mini¬ 
 mum. The most efficacious means of checking the fall of tem¬ 
 perature, and mitigating the inconveniences of it, is to saturate the 
 compressed air with moisture or vapour. According to the inves¬ 
 tigations of M. Mallard, the following are the ratios of expansion 
 t) which dry air, and air saturated with vapour or moisture, 
 respectively, may be worked before they fall to the temperature 
 32° F. 
 
 Expansion of Air Dry and Moist. 
 
 Temperatures. 
 
 Ratio of expansion. 
 
 Final. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 Dry air. 
 
 Air with sufficient 
 moisture or vapour. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 1 32° 
 
 40° 
 
 1 -05 
 
 no 
 
 32° 
 
 50" 
 
 I 13 
 
 1-24 
 
 32° 
 
 60° 
 
 1*22 
 
 1-38 
 
 32° 
 
 62° 
 
 1*23 
 
 1-41 
 
 32“ 
 
 68" 
 
 1-28 
 
 1-50 
 
 32° 
 
 70" 
 
 1-30 
 
 1-56 
 
 32° 
 
 80" 
 
 1-37 
 
 175 
 
 32° 
 
 96" 
 
 1*47 
 
 2-00 
 
 32° 
 
 100° 
 
 I ‘57 
 
 2*28 
 
 32° 
 
 110° 
 
 1*67 
 
 2*63 
 
 32° 
 
 120° 
 
 176 
 
 3-00 
 
 32° 
 
 130" 
 
 1-88 
 
 3-45 ' 
 
 32° 
 
 140° 
 
 2-00 
 
 4-00 
 
 As the steam is condensed during expansion, the heat that is 
 liberated is absorbed by the air. 
 
 It was seen that when the compression of air was carried to 
 10 atmospheres, the efficiency for working in a compressed-air 
 engine was only 51 per cent. Add, that the efficiencies of the 
 machines themselves—the compressor and the power engine—are 
 factors for the calculation of their resultant efficiency, and if the 
 
ME/CARSKfS COMPRESSED-AIR CAR. 
 
 519 
 
 efficiency of each machine be taken at 80 per cent., the combined 
 
 '80 X 80 \ . 
 
 = ) 64 per cent., or 
 
 percentage of the two machines is 
 
 100 
 
 about two-thirds; and 64 per cent, of 51 per cent, is 33 per 
 cent., the resultant efficiency of the combined compressor and 
 engine, working to 10 atmospheres. Similarly, it is found that 
 the resultant efficiency, working to 2 atmospheres, is 52 per 
 cent. The less the degree of compression, the greater is the 
 efficiency, because the less is the proportional loss from the 
 intermediate reduction of temperature. In general practice, the 
 resultant efficiency rarely exceeds 30 per cent. But, to give 
 a character of precision to the relations of tlie first power and 
 the final performance, the following are the resultant efficiencies, 
 deduced from actual experiment, of 16-inch cylinder air-com¬ 
 pressing engines, and lo-inch cylinder compressed-air engines, 
 cutting off at 3-4ths, constructed by Messrs. John Fowler & Co. 
 for Sir George Elliot—at work at Powell Duffryn Collieries. The 
 air-compressing cylinders were immersed each in a cold-water bath, 
 open at the upper side. The resultant efficiency is here expressed 
 by the ratio of the brake-power of the compressed-air engine to 
 the indicator-power in the steam-cylinder of the air-compressing 
 
 engine 
 
 Eftective pressure of air in receiver:—40‘o, 34*0, 28*5, 24, 
 19 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 Indicator horse-power in the steam-cylinder :—59'4, 46’2, 35*8, 
 25-8, ii'8 I.H.P. 
 
 Resultant efficiency:—25-8, 27T, 28-5, 34'9, 45*8 per cent. 
 
 Mekarski. 
 
 Early in 1876, a tramway car, propelled by compressed air, was 
 constructed by M. Mekarski, and tried on the Courbevoie line of 
 
 * The substance of this chapter on the principles and the action of 
 compressed-air motors is derived from the author’s Majiiial of Rules, 
 Tables, and Data (1877), pages 898—914. 
 
5-0 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 the Tramway Nord, in Paris. The car is, in general outline, on 
 the model of the cars of the Compagnie des Tramways. The body 
 is 1feet long, and accommodates twenty passengers inside ; there 
 is also room for fourteen passengers outside, on a spacious platform 
 at the rear. Compressed air, of 25 atmospheres, is stored in eight 
 cylindrical reservoirs of plate-iron, from 12 to 16 inches in 
 diameter, placed transversely underneath the carriage, and con¬ 
 nected together. They are in two separate series. The capacity 
 of the principal series is 52 cubic feet, and that of the second, or 
 reserve series, is 17 cubic feet. An upright reservoir, 14 inches in 
 diameter and about 5 feet in height, is placed at the fore end of 
 the car, is three-fourths filled with water heated to 340° F., cor¬ 
 responding to a pressure of 103 lbs. per square inch above the 
 atmosphere. The compressed air, as drawn off for consumption, 
 is passed through this reservoir, in which it becomes saturated with 
 vapour. The mixture of air and water occupies the upper part of 
 the reservoir. The frame of the car is of wrought iron, 5 feet 
 10 inches wide, and 18 feet 8 inches long. The car runs on two 
 pairs of wheels about 28 inches in diameter, and placed 6 feet 
 10 inches apart. One pair of the wheels is driven by a pair of 
 cylinders, 5 or 6 inches in diameter, with about 10 inches of 
 stroke. The weight of the car is 4I tons, and with a load of 
 30 passengers the weight is 7 tons. 
 
 The air is wire-drawn to a pressure of 5 atmospheres for work¬ 
 ing in the cylinders. M. Mekarski calculates that the fall of 
 pressure by wire-drawing, from 25 atmospheres to 5 atmospheres, 
 followed by the complete expansion on a piston from 5 atmo¬ 
 spheres down to atmospheric pressure, results in an efiiciency of 
 62 per cent.—that is to say, a loss of 38 per cent.; and that this 
 loss is compensated by the re-heating of the air during expansion 
 by the intermixed steam. The expenditure in thus re-heating the 
 air is only a small proportion of the total fuel consumed. The 
 quantity of heated water supplied to the reservoir of the car is 
 about 3 cubic feet, at a temperature of 340° F., and the car 
 returns with about 25- cubic feet of water at 212° F., the difference 
 representing the consumption of about 2 lbs. of coal, whilst the 
 
MEKARSia'S COMPRESSED-AIR CAR. 
 
 521 
 
 fuel consumed in charging the reservoirs with compressed air 
 amounts to 33 lbs. of coal. The cooling of the heated water, and 
 the diminution of pressure of the air in the reservoir, take place 
 simultaneously in the course of the journey; and thus the ele¬ 
 ments of the mixture may be maintained in sensibly constant pro¬ 
 portions. It is stated that the quantity of air consumed does not 
 exceed 11 cubic feet per mile-run. 
 
 The Me'karski car works well as a mechanical engine—free from 
 smoke, steam, noise, and fumes. 
 
 Mekarski’s system of propulsion by compressed air was adopted 
 for working the Nantes tramways, which consist of a line of tram¬ 
 way 3I miles in length, 4 feet inches in gauge. The line is gene¬ 
 rally level. The cars carry 19 passengers inside, and 12 on the plat¬ 
 form at the rear. The compressed-air reservoirs are placed between 
 the frame-plates, beneath the body of the car. They are charged 
 with a pressure of 30 atmospheres, or 450 lbs. per square inch. The 
 pressure is reduced to from 4 to 6 atmospheres, or 60 lbs. to 90 lbs. 
 per square inch, for admission to the cylinders. There are two 
 stations for compressing the air-supply, at one of which, the larger, 
 there are four 50 horse-power engines, of which two are at work 
 daily. Each engine drives two pumps, by which the air is 
 compressed successively to 6 atmospheres and 30 atmos¬ 
 pheres, stored in reservoirs. From these, the cars are charged 
 in twenty minutes, the charge being sufficient for one trip. 
 The trip of 3f miles is run in forty minutes, making an average 
 speed of 5J miles per hour. The total time per trip is one hour. 
 The total cost for wages and material for repair of the work¬ 
 ing plant, was, for the first year of the tramway, i'37d. per 
 mile run. Of course, the expenses for repair are greater as the 
 plant becomes worn out; and the expenses may, it has been 
 estimated, by-and-by amount to 7 Jd. or 8d. per mile run. 
 
 The weight of the car, in working order, is 6 tons; and, allow¬ 
 ing 3 tons for passengers and attendants, the gross amount moved 
 is 9 tons. The cylinders, two in number, are 5f inches in dia¬ 
 meter, with a stroke of iO:f inches. According to Sir Frederic 
 Eramwell, who reported on the system at Nantes, 4J tons of coal 
 
522 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAM If AYS, 
 
 are consumed by the compressing engines per day, in winter, when 
 86 double trips are made per day, or (86 x 2 x = ) 645 miles 
 run; with a consumption of i5'64 lbs. of coal per mile-run, or 
 1-74 lb. per ton-gross moved per mile-run. 
 
 Two Mekarski locomotives were placed on the Wantage Tram¬ 
 way in July, 1880, and worked the traffic for three months. The 
 engines made, on ordinary days, four double-trips, with one 
 passenger-car ; and, on special days, five double-trips, frequently 
 taking two loaded cars in both directions. The initial pressure 
 was 30 atmospheres, and each engine made the double-trip, 5 
 miles, with one charge of compressed air, the pressure falling to 
 about 5 atmospheres in the battery of three working reservoirs, and 
 to 27 atmospheres in the fourth, or reserve reservoir. The pres¬ 
 sure at which the air was supplied to the cylinders seldom 
 exceeded 70 lbs. per square inch. The speed of travelling on the 
 line averaged 9 miles per hour; the mileage run by two cars 
 amounted to, say, 40 miles per day, or, allowing for special trips, 
 an average of 42 miles per day. Mr. G. Stevenson, engineer of 
 the line, estimated that 24 cwt. of coal was consumed per day on 
 the compressing power—an absurdly excessive consumption, 
 showing, evidently, that the means were not properly proportioned 
 to the end. 
 
 Scott-Moncrieff. 
 
 Mr. Scott-Moncrieff’s car, worked by compressed air, resembles 
 in appearance an ordinary tramway-car. The reservoirs and 
 machinery are carried on a frame below the floor of the car. In 
 the central portion the engines are carried. In the car hrst made, 
 and started for trial, about the middle of 1875, Vale of 
 
 Clyde Tramway, there were six reservoirs holding compressed air 
 —three at each end of the car. The air was supplied to the 
 reservoirs at a pressure of 350 lbs. per square inch. There were 
 two air-cylinders, 6 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 14 inches. 
 The supply of air was wire-drawn before it was admitted into the 
 cylinders, and cut off so that it expanded to, and was exhausted at 
 
BEAUMONl'S COMPRESSED-AIR CAR. 523 
 
 atmospheric pressure. The total weight of the car was 6f tons; 
 with 40 passengers, 10^ tons. Mr. Scott-Moncrietf states, that 
 during a trial of the car, lasting fourteen days, on the line between 
 Govan and Paisley Toll, the reservoirs were charged, after every 
 three-miles run, with compressed air having a pressure of 310 lbs. 
 per square inch, which was worked until the pressure fell to 
 ICO lbs. or no lbs. The average pressure in the cylinders was 
 about 2 2i lbs. per square inch. Mr. Scott-Moncrieff states that 
 his car consumed from 400 to 500 cubic feet of air as at atmo¬ 
 spheric pressure per mile, and he is of opinion that a compressing- 
 engine of about 150 indicator horse-power would be capable of 
 keeping up a service of 1,000 miles per day. 
 
 Mr. Scott-Moncrieff’s engine resumed regular duty on the Vale 
 of Clyde for a few weeks in the beginning of 1877. From the 
 results of his experiments, he concluded that the cost price of 
 working—including drivers’ wages, lighting, cleaning—was be¬ 
 tween 3d. and 4d. per mile-run. 
 
 Beaumont. 
 
 A compressed-air car on Major Beaumont’s system was con¬ 
 structed by Messrs. Greenwood & Batley. The initial pressure 
 in the reservoirs, which have a capacity of 65 cubic feet, was 
 1,000 lbs. per square inch. This high pressure was adopted, for 
 it was found that the higher the pressure the greater was the effi¬ 
 ciency. This conclusion is apparently in contradiction to the 
 conclusions drawn from other experience, as well as from the 
 elementary data which have already been considered. But the 
 explanation lies in the use of a compound-engine of four cylin¬ 
 ders, in which the air is successively expanded down from an 
 initial pressure of 1,000 lbs. per square inch, to the pressure at 
 which the air is exhausted into the atmosphere. The volumes of 
 the cylinders successively are as i, 3, 9, 27, having a common 
 ratio of i to 3, and showing that the air may be expanded in the 
 engine as many as 27 times. When the pressure falls off, the first 
 
5^4 
 
 .MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 cylinder is closed to the air, which is then turned on direct to the 
 second cylinder; again, on further need, it is closed to the second 
 cylinder, and turned on direct to the third, and ultimately direct 
 to the fourth. As Mr. Greenwood remarks, the same power may 
 thus be got out of the engine under a decreasing pressure. He 
 calculated on a loss of four-fifths of the steam-power used for com¬ 
 pression ; but he hopes to reduce the loss to two-thirds, leaving 
 one-third of the work of the steam as the useful work done. The 
 horse-power given out per cubic foot of air at i,ooo lbs. pressure 
 is under 5 horse-power. The engine above noticed has run 
 miles with a load of 4 or 5 tons ; but Mr. Greenwood considers 
 that with a reservoir of 100 cubic feet of capacity, fully charged, a 
 run of ten miles could be made. The weight of such an engine 
 would be from 4 to 4^ tons. 
 
 The four compounded cylinders have been replaced by two sets 
 of compound cylinders, two to each set, in each of which sets the 
 air is expanded from the first cylinder into the second. The 
 temperature of the expanding air is maintained to a greater or less 
 degree by the external application of heat in a steam-jacket. An 
 engine of this construction was, in 1881, at work on trial on the 
 Leytonstone extension of the North Metropolitan Tramway. 
 
 Hughes and Lancaster. 
 
 From the results of trials made by the author with one ot 
 Messrs. Hughes & Lancaster’s low - pressure compressed - air 
 tram-cars, propelled by means of four single-acting 5-inch 
 cylinders, of 3 inches stroke, it appears that the consumption 
 of compressed air was at the rate of 30^^ pounds per mile-run for a 
 level. The car, with passengers, weighed 4^ tons ; and the work 
 done was at the rate of 22,070 foot-pounds per pound of air. 
 The maximum working pressure of compressed air was 132 pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CABLE TRACTION. 
 
 The working of tramways by .cable haulage is effected by the 
 employment of an endless wire rope continuously moving in one 
 direction, supported on pulleys within a slotted tube laid below the 
 surface of the street or roadway, or between the rails of a surface 
 or an elevated railway. The rope is driven by means of a fixed 
 or stationary steam-engine or other motor, situated at a suitable 
 place near the line, the motion of the cable being intermittently 
 communicated to the cars, for starting and stopping, by means of 
 a gripper attached to the car. 
 
 The principle of cable traction has been successfully applied on 
 railways and in mines for many years. The first practical test 
 for cable traction was made in San Francisco, in 1873, by Andrew 
 S. Halliday and his associates, A. E. Hovay, W. Eppelscheimer, 
 and Henry Root. For heavy street traffic the cable is extensively 
 employed. 
 
 The slotted tube is of concrete. It is virtually an arch of which 
 the key is left out. It is constructed with yokes or frames of 
 angle-iron or cast-iron. The latter material is preferred. The 
 sides act as cantilevers to resist the lateral pressure of the soil, 
 packed by heavy waggon traffic, and, in cold climates, the pressure 
 in addition due to the expansion of the soil by freezing. The 
 first tube was 12 inches wide, 15 inches deep, or 22 inches below 
 the level of the street. The slot is usually inch wide, and it is 
 formed by two slot rails which are fastened to the yokes at the 
 upper side. The slot rails, of overhung formation, are brought up 
 
526 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAM WAVS. 
 
 to the surface level and require to have great vertical and lateral 
 strength, whereby they are nearly as heavy as the way-rails. 
 
 The gripper is a powerful vice within the tube, supported 
 by or suspended from the car by means of a thin shank through 
 the slot. It is worked from the platform by a lever or a hand- 
 wheel through the medium of an excentric toggle-joint or an 
 equivalent device, and is caused to grip the rope with a pressure 
 sufficient to impart the motion of the rope to the car. The rope 
 is grasped between two flat plates or jaws, upper and lower, 
 usually of steel, and from i8 inches to 20 inches long, lined with 
 removable dies for wear, slightly grooved to fit the rope. Grips 
 are of two types—vice-grips and roller-grips. The former com¬ 
 prise the side grip, the top grip, the bottom grip. Side grips are 
 usually constructed with a pair of jaws at each side of the shank. 
 They take the rope on either side without turning the cars. 
 
 The cable is a steel wire-rope, commonly of 6 strands twisted 
 round a heart of hemp rope, each strand of 19 wires, of which 
 7 wires form the heart of the strand, round which the other 12 wires 
 are wrapped. Sometimes the 12 enveloping wires are larger than 
 the 7 heart wires to provide allowance for wear. Ropes are also 
 made with 6 strands of 16 wires each, or 7 strands of 19 wires, 
 usually laid 12 over 6 over i. On straight lines 19 wires do good 
 service. Ropes are also made with a wire centre. Though 
 stronger than others they are not so flexible. 
 
 Cables are from i inch to i J inches in diameter. The usual sizes 
 are inches and i f inches. The if-inch ropes weigh aj-lbs. per 
 foot, and their breaking weight is about 80 tons. The average 
 life of common ropes is 12J months, or 88,402 miles, making 
 about 85,000 miles per year. The general average life for all lines 
 and ropes is about 8 months, or from 40,000 to 150,000 miles. 
 According to the system of wire rope known as the Lang lay the 
 wires forming the strands, and those of the strands themselves, 
 are laid in the same direction instead of in opposite directions 
 Thus, a larger portion of each outside wire is e.xposed for wear, 
 the rope is of greater flexibility, and a maximum degree of wear 
 is attained without fracturing of the wires. 
 
CABLE TRACTION IN SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 5^1 
 
 The driving machinery operates on the rope by frictional contact 
 with two large V-grooved pulleys in tandem, usually lined with wood 
 or with babbit metal. The rope makes two wraps over the pulleys, 
 like the letter S, known as the front driver and the back driver. 
 The pulley shafts are geared together by two spur-wheels, one ol 
 which is driven by a toothed wheel on the engine shaft. Frictional 
 contact is maintained by tension apparatus, in which a large 
 sheave is mounted on a car which travels to and fro on a track 
 laid over a long, narrow pit. A tail rope or a chain is connected 
 to the car, and is led over a pulley, suspended within a deep 
 well, and loaded with a heavy weight, which, taking up the slack, 
 maintains tension on the cable. The length of the track is from 
 150 feet to 200 feet for long lines. The length of the tail rope is 
 adjustable by means of hand-wheel and worm-gear on the car. 
 
 The steam-power is from 200 to 1,500 horse-power in duplicate, 
 averaging 25 actual horse-power per car, including reserve. In 
 INIelbourne, Australia, the aggregate length of cable is 91 miles. 
 There is 15 horse-power per car of the average number of cars 
 running. On American lines there is an average of 4*6 horse¬ 
 power to move 1,000 feet of cable. The power required to move 
 the cable alone is from 35 per cent, to 75 per cent. The average 
 of twelve roads is 54 per cent. The approximate “ steam horse¬ 
 power” to work a line employing less than 10 miles of rope may 
 be estimated as follows:—Allow 4 horse-power to each 1,000 feet 
 of rope, reckoning each right-angle curve equivalent to 1,500 feet 
 of straight way. Add 3 horse-power for each car of ordinary size, 
 and 60 horse-power for engines and machinery. 
 
 Cable Tramways in San Francisco and Chicago. 
 
 Several tramways are in operation in San Francisco. Of these, 
 the Clay Street Tramway has a double way, about 5,500 feet, or 
 1-04 miles in length, of 3^ feet gauge, ilt rises to a height of 
 307 feet above the starting-point, in the course of 2,475 rnaking 
 
 an average gradient of i in 8, the steepest gradient being i in 6. 
 
52 8 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS . 
 
 On the other tramways of San Francisco there are gradients of 
 
 I in 5, on which cars are drawn upwards and downwards with 
 ease and security. A car with its coupled dummy in front, when 
 fully loaded, hold together 44 passengers. 
 
 The disposition of the dummy car, tube, and gripping apparatus 
 is shown in Figs. 314 and 315. Below the surface, and about the 
 middle of each way, there is a channel, or technically a tube, 
 within which the endless rope travels on pulleys. The tube also 
 affords protection for the gripper a, connected to the dummy on 
 the way by means of a flat bar of iron which passes up through 
 the longitudinal slot in the upper part of the tube. The throwing of 
 the gripper into action, by grasping the rope, induces the necessary 
 motion of the car, which, of course, travels at the same velocity 
 as the rope. The slot is not immediately over the centre of 
 the tube, but on one side, in order that grit or other droppings 
 falling through the slot does not lodge on the rope, but falls to 
 the bottom of the tube. By this means, also, the gripper passes 
 by and under the upper pulleys, c. Fig. 315, and over the lower 
 pulleys, D, Fig. 314 in the tube. 
 
 The rope, endless, travels down one way and up the other. At 
 the summit the rope is turned on to one series of 8-feet pulleys, 
 and led into the engine-house. Thence it passes out by another 
 series of 8-feet driving pulleys, the rope making a right-angle turn 
 to the left and right after leaving the house. At each terminus of 
 the road the rope passes half round an 8-feet horizontal sheave, 
 fixed to a tension-carriage moveable horizontally, for the purpose 
 of maintaining uniform tension on the cable. The pulleys d. 
 Fig. 314, by which the rope is supported in the tube, are from 
 
 II inches to 12 inches in diameter, secured to cast-iron standards 
 placed 30 feet apart, with man-holes and doors for access. The 
 sheaves on the Chicago road are formed in halves bolted together, 
 with wood between, the dividing plane being at right-angles to the 
 axle of the pulley. The wood thus forms the bottom of the 
 groove, and is exposed to the wear. It is renewed every two 
 months. The slot-rails are supported by intermediate cast-iron 
 standards, placed at from 3 feet to 4 feet apart, and they are 
 
CABLE TBACTION IN SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 529 
 
 fixed at a distance of f inch apart, transversely, forming the slot. 
 Sheet-iron tubing, e, Fig. 314, about to inches wide, reaching 
 upwards to within 15 inches of the surface of the street, is bolted 
 to the cast-iron standards. The tubing is packed outside with 
 earth, and, to prevent the earth from getting into the tubing, a 
 3-inch plank, F, Fig. 314, is placed on edge on the standards, the 
 upper edge being at the level of the underside of the slot-rail. 
 The running rails are laid on longitudinal wood sleepers, about 
 3f inches wide, 5^ inches deep, and these are let into and supported 
 by short cross sleepers, the inner ends of which have a bearing 
 on the standards, and are bolted to them. 
 
 According to another system of construction in San Francisco 
 the standards are formed from ordinary railway-bars, bent as 
 required, braced and arranged to carry both the slot-rails and the 
 running rails. A culvert, or “ tube,” of Portland-cement concrete 
 is constructed in place of sheet-iron tubing. 
 
 Where a steep rise occurs in the road, the wire rope is kept down 
 by small pulleys, as shown in Fig. 315, from 6 inches to 8 inches 
 in diameter, mounted in a frame. Where the rope leaves a summit 
 and descends, it is passed over a pulley of about 4 feet in diameter. 
 
 The cable is about 11,000 feet in length, i inch in diameter, 
 of crucible steel wire, of 6 strands of 19 wires. Each wire 
 has a tensile strength of 160,000 pounds, or 71 tons, per square 
 inch. It can be bent in any direction without fracture. The wire 
 rope is found to stretch i per cent, of its length before being too 
 much weakened for use. The average life of the rope is about 
 fifteen months. On some tramways the length of rope is 
 17,000 feet. A tensional-pulley system is provided in the engine- 
 house, about 50 feet in length. 
 
 The shank b of the gripper a. Fig. 314, is, as before noted, a flat 
 bar of iron 5^ inches wide, f inch thick, which works through the 
 longitudinal slot, and to the lower end of which the gripper 
 attachment is made. This consists of two pairs of 3^-inch pulleys, 
 placed obliquely, the pulleys of each pair being 10 inches apart 
 and secured to sliding frames, mounted with jaws for the purpose 
 of taking a firm hold of the rope. The small sheaves act as guides 
 
 M M 
 
 * 
 
530 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON IRA ALWAYS. 
 
 Fig. 314. Cable Tramways, San Francisco : Transverse Section of Way, 
 
 Tube, and Gripper. 
 
CABLE TRACTION IN SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 53^ 
 
 M M 2 
 
532 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 for the rope to pass between the jaws, and they are gradually 
 tightened on the rope by the screw g. The dummy, through the 
 medium of the shank and pulleys, gradually acquires the velocity 
 of the rope until the gripping jaws are brought into action, and 
 firmly acquires a hold of it by means of the screw g. 
 
 The speed of the cable is 6 miles per hour, running for i6 hours a 
 day. It is driven by two horizontal steam-engines, each of loo-horse 
 power, of which one is kept in reserve; and about 2,900 pounds 
 of small coal is consumed per day. The total cost of the engines 
 and machinery was about ;£'3,ooo. A double way of the tramway, 
 having a tube 30 inches deep, costs, on an average, 0,000 per 
 mile, not including rolling stock. For a tube 12 inches deep the 
 cost would probably be ^S,ooo. It is believed that a gauge of 
 31^ feet is as effective as the 5-feet gauge, and is frequently more 
 convenient. The dummy carries 18 passengers, the car 26; 
 together, 44. Each vehicle is provided with a powerful break. 
 
 Many of the cable roads have right-angle curves, for which the 
 rope is deflected by means of two horizontal 8-feet pulleys, with 
 other auxiliary pulleys. 
 
 Highgate-hill Cable Tramway, London. 
 
 The Highgate-hill cable tramway was the first cable line con¬ 
 structed in this country. The works were carried out by the 
 Patent Cable Tramways Corporation, under the supervision of 
 Messrs. Eppelsheimer and Colam ; and the line was opened in 
 May, 1884. It is nearly f mile in length, of double way, con¬ 
 structed to a gauge of 3^ feet, between the Archway Tavern, 
 Upper Holloway, and Southwood Lane, near the summit of High¬ 
 gate-hill. 
 
 The gradients vary from i in ii to i in 15, and the curves from 
 250 feet to 3,000 feet in radius. The way was laid with steel 
 rails ot the Dugdale type, weighing 52 pounds per yard. The cable 
 consists of crucible steel wire, in strands closed round a hemp core. 
 It is 3 inches in circumference, or -f l- inch thick, and it weighs 
 about 5 tons complete. It passes round two 8-feet pulleys at the 
 
EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE TRAMWAYS. 533 
 
 termini, in brick pits. The endless rope is carried on pulleys 
 beneath the track, in a “tube” of concrete, lo^ inches deep, 
 8^ inches wide. It is driven by two independent horizontal steam 
 engines, each of 25 nominal horse-power, affording service in du¬ 
 plicate. The speed of the rope is from 5 miles to 6 miles per hour.* 
 
 Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways. 
 
 Mr. W. N. Colam, the engineer of the Edinburgh Northern 
 Cable Tramways, describes the two routes of which the tramways 
 are composed—the Trinity route and the Stockbridge route.! 
 
 Fig. 316. Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways : Gradient 
 
 Diagram, Trinity route. 
 
 The gauge of the ways is 4 feet inches. The two lines start 
 from Princes Street, one in Hanover Street, the other in Frederick 
 Street. The first named, or Trinity route, passes Henderson 
 Row, where the cables branch off to the engine-house. It takes 
 18 curves, varying in radius from 80 feet to 980 feet, the smallest 
 curve being less than a right angle. It is also diverted at various 
 places by nine large pulleys. The total height ascended is 
 187 feet. The double way is ij miles long. It is almost entirely 
 on gradients, varying from i in 11 to, for the greater part, i in 60 
 approximately. Fig. 316 is a gradient diagram of the line. 
 
 The gradient diagram. Fig. 317,is that of the Stockbridge route, 
 on which the steepest gradient is i in 13. The length of way. 
 
 * Since the above paragraphs were written, the line has stopped 
 working. 
 
 t In a paper read before the Association of Municipal and Sanitary 
 Engineers of Great Britain. 
 
534 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 double line, is 1*20 mile. After passing over 100 feet curves into 
 the Royal Circus, the line is almost entirely a series of curves, 
 passing through steep and very narrow roads. At Stockbridge, 
 where the cable leaves for and returns from the engine-house, the 
 line, though curvy, is nearly level. The cable traverses 28 curves 
 of radii varying from 80 feet to 400 feet. It is diverted by means 
 of nine large pulleys. The line rises 173 feet. The tramways 
 were opened in January, 1888. 
 
 The road is shown in section by Figs. 318 and 319, having two 
 lines of way. The conduit or “ tube” is of concrete ; it is 19 inches 
 deep from the surface and 9^ inches wide. Cast-iron tube-frames 
 are embedded in the concrete, at 3^ feet apart between centres. 
 
 Fig. 317.—Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways : 
 
 Gradient Diagram, Stockbridge route. 
 
 to which the slot-rails are bolted, forming a slot f inch wide. The 
 frames are i inch thick in the webs, and they weigh 135 lbs. 
 each. They are lined up in place before the concrete is poured 
 in. Thus a solid mass is constructed, by which subsidence or 
 closing, of the slot, is prevented. The extreme depth occupied by 
 the tube is 26 inches below the surface. The bottom of the tube 
 is 7 inches thick, the sides 6 inches, and the concrete floor of the 
 way, 5 inches. A 6-inch clay pipe is laid under the bottom of the 
 tube, by which it is drained from recesses in the concrete in which 
 the supporting pulleys are mounted at 50 feet apart between 
 centres. On two of the worst curves, there are convenient subways 
 between the two lines of way, from which pulleys may be renewed 
 or adjusted. 
 
 The running rails are of girder type, 6 inches deep, of steel. 
 
EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE TRAMWAYS. 
 
 535 
 
 Fig. 319. Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways : Longitudinal Section 
 
53^ 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Fig. 320. Edinburgh Noitheni Cable Tramways : Supporting Pulleys for Cable (Colam’s Patent). 
 
EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE 7 E AM WAYS. 537 
 
 weighing 75 lbs. per yard. The slot-rails are fished with plates 
 weighing 34 lbs. each. They are tied to the running rails by 
 adjustable bars to keep these accurately in gauge with the slot. 
 The supporting pulleys, Fig. 320, are of cast iron, 14 inches in 
 diameter, V-shaped in the tread. The journals revolve in boxed 
 lignum-vitae bearings. The horizontal supporting pulleys for 
 curves. Fig. 321, are 14 inches in diameter. The large diverting 
 pulleys are of cast iron ; the jaws are bolted on in segments, with 
 good treads. The terminal pits. Figs. 322 and 323, holding the 
 diverting pulleys, are, one of brick, the other of concrete. They 
 are 19 feet long, ii feet broad, 8 feet deep. The roofing is con¬ 
 structed of rolled joints, jack arches, and buckled plates. 
 
 Fig. 321. Edinburgh Northern Cable Tramways : Horizontal Supporting 
 
 Pulley, on curves. 
 
 The cables are those known as the Lang lay. This rope gives 
 a maximum quantity of wear without fracture of wires, as it admits 
 of the use of comparatively larger wires, and is, at least, as flexible 
 as the older system. The rope is of crucible or steel wire laid 
 round a hempen core, in 6 strands, each of 13 wires—7 round 6. 
 The wires have stood a tensile stress of 80 tons per square inch, 
 and torsional tests of 35 twists in 8 inches of length. The lay 
 of the rope is 9 inches, the circumference is 34 inches, and the 
 diameter is 1*03 inches. 
 
 The gripper, with details, is shown in Fig. 324. “ The driver, 
 
 in operating the hand-wheel, raises or lowers a nut by the square- 
 thread spindle. Attached to the nut are two rods which raise 
 
538 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 or lower the bottom jaw of the gripper, the upper portions of 
 which slide through openings in the plate, which has the upper 
 jaw casting bolted to it. This plate rests on angles suspended 
 
 from the bogie axles of the cars, and is firmly held down in its 
 place by wedges which are forced in or out by the driver through 
 screw spindles and inclined slots. When the wedges are with- 
 
EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE TRAMWAYS. 539 
 
 drawn the whole gripper will rise by the action of the hand-wheel. 
 The bottom jaw can be lowered out 6 inches, and by that means 
 the cable can be picked up, because when the rounded bottom of 
 the jaw touches it, the cable ascends into its place in the gripper. 
 
 The dies by which the cable is gripped, are of the softest 
 cast-iron, and they last on an average about six weeks. The 
 sectional area of the steel shanks where they work in the slot is 
 4*92 square inches.” 
 
540 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Fig. 324. Edinburgh Noithern Cable Tramways : Gripper (Colam’s Patent). 
 
EDINBURGH NORTHERN CABLE TRAMWAYS. 541 
 
 The cable is driven by a pair of horizontal non-condensing 
 steam-engines, having 20-inch cylinders, with a stroke of 40 inches. 
 The Proell automatic expansion gear is employed. Either engine 
 is capable of working the two routes, and one of the routes can be 
 thrown off without interfering with the other. The driving pulley 
 is 10^ feet in diameter, having a V-groove. The jaw of the pulley 
 is removable in segments, and is lined with white metal, which is 
 renewed when the groove wears to the bottom. The bottom of 
 the V is filled with soft wood upon which the cable bottoms. 
 The cable, on entering the engine-house, goes direct to the 
 driving-pulley, on which it makes a three-quarter turn, and thence 
 passes over a lo-feet pulley to the automatic tension-pulley, 
 around which it takes a half-turn when it leaves the engine-house. 
 The effective tensional weight is 7 cwt. 
 
 Mr. Colam summarises the working conditions as follows :—On 
 gradients as steep as i in 11 ; over perfectly flat roads ; round 
 small right-angled curves; over old bridges, in which the crowns 
 are not twelve inches from the road surfaces; two routes at con¬ 
 siderable distances apart, worked from one engine in the same 
 depot; single lines with passing places; reduced speeds by auxi¬ 
 liary cables, when it is necessary to go round dangerous corners. 
 
 The cost of constructing and equipping these lines for a three- 
 minutes service of cars has been as follows : 
 
 
 £> 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Track with tube, pulleys, &c., complete 
 
 33 C 77 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Machinery buildings, offices, chimney shaft, &c. 
 
 4,786 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Engines,boilers,machinery at depot and in pits 
 
 5A03 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cars and gripping’ machinery .... 
 
 4 C 04 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Auxiliary cable gear ..... 
 
 850 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cables ........ 
 
 1,260 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Payments made to City for paving up to side 
 
 
 
 
 walks, and to gas and water companies, 
 
 
 
 
 and extras ....... 
 
 7 A 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ^57,230 0 o 
 
 The cost is at the rate of ^9,867 per mile of single track, 
 including equipment for three-minutes service of cars. 
 
54^ 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Comparisons of Receipts and Expenditures taken from 
 THE Company’s Balance Sheets for 1890, with 1893. 
 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Year ending i8qo. 
 
 Per mile 
 run. 
 
 Year ending 1893 
 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Receipts 
 
 I2'46 
 
 12,345 14 6 
 
 T I •41 
 
 15.275 14 0 
 
 Expenditures including— 
 Motive power, traffics 
 maintenance, and 
 general charges 
 
 8-93 
 
 8,284 0 9 
 
 6-38 
 
 8,431 3 7 
 
 Balance to nett revenue , ^4,061 13 9 
 
 ^6,844 10 5 
 
 Comparison of Passengers Carried and Miles Run 
 TAKEN from THE COMPANY’S BALANCE SHEETS 
 FOR 1890, WHTH 1893. 
 
 Passengers 
 
 jMiles run. carried. 
 
 For twelve months ending December, 1890 . 222,822 2,581,994 
 
 „ „ ,, 1893 • 3^6,752 3.263,790 
 
 Increase .... 93,930 681,796 
 
 Note.— These 93,930 e.xtra miles were run, and the 681,796 extra 
 passengers were carried at an increased expenditure, as indicated 
 above, of the comparatively small sum of ;^i47 2s. lod. 
 
 Following on their experience of the working of the Edinburgh 
 Northern tramways for a period of six years, the Edinburgh 
 Corporation have lately purchased the horse tramway lines within 
 their city boundaries, and have determined to work them by cable 
 traction. For this purpose they have leased the lines to Messrs. 
 Dick, Kerr & Co. for a period of twenty-one years. Practically, 
 therefore, the whole system will in due course be converted and 
 worked by means of cables. 
 
 It may also be noted that the tramway committee of the New¬ 
 castle Corporation have made a report in favour of the working of 
 their system by cable traction, and there is little doubt that cables 
 will soon be laid in that city. Other cities are enquiring in the 
 same direction, and awakening to a knowledge of the advantages 
 of the cable system, and its capacity for dealing with their heavy 
 
BIRMINGHAM CABLE TRAMWAY. 
 
 543 
 
 traffics : facts which for a considerable period have been fully 
 appreciated by the cities of America and Australia, where heavy 
 traffics have had to be negotiated. 
 
 Birmingham Cable Tramway. 
 
 
 % 
 
 i\'' 
 
 The Birmingham Cable Tramway—a section of the Birmingham 
 Central Tramways — was constructed between 
 Colmore Row, Birmingham, and Hockley, to the 
 designs of Mr. Joseph Kincaid and Mr. E. 
 
 Pritchard, the engineers of the line; and was 
 opened in March, 1888. Fig. 325 is a plan 
 of the Birmingham terminus in Colmore Row, 
 showing two lines of way, connected by two 
 over-crossings, with the position of the large 
 terminal pulley and pulley-pit. The pulley and 
 its dispositions are shown in Fig. 326. So also 
 are the four large pulleys and pulley-pit at Hockley 
 in Figs. 327, 328, and 329, which receive the 
 ropes on their way to Birmingham, and those for 
 working the line from Hockley to Handsworth. 
 
 A longitudinal section of the engine-house and 
 tensional gear is given in Fig. 330. The rope 
 coming from Birmingham enters the engine-house 
 at a low level, and passes under and free of the 
 first driving-pulley to the second driving-pulley, 
 by which it is received, and round which it is 
 bent, whence it passes over the top, then crossing 
 over to and winding under the first pulley. 
 
 Thence the rope, passing from the top of the first 
 pulley, proceeds to and passes over and under the 
 pulley on the tension - carriage, from which it 
 returns to the engine-house, and passes out for 
 Birmingham. The axle of the tension-pulley is 
 not horizontal, and the pulley is inclined. By 
 
 1 
 
 .i X 
 
 Fig. 325.—Birmingham Cable Tramway : Birmingham Tenninus. 
 
544 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER OA^ TRAMWAYS 
 
 Fig. 326. Birmingham Cable Tramway: Terminal Pulley and Pit. 
 
BIRMINGHAM CABLE TRAMIVAY. 
 
 545 
 
 this means the rope coming from under the pulley is diverted to 
 one side a little, and passes by the side of the driving-pulleys in 
 the engine-house. The same system of communication is em¬ 
 ployed for the Handsworth line. 
 
 A winch is mounted on the tension-carriage, from which a rope 
 is led to a small pulley fixed to a cross-head, then round the small 
 pulley and back to the winch. Strong volute springs are fixed at 
 
 Fig. 327, Birmingham Cable Tramway ; Pulleys and Pulley Pit 
 
 at Hockley. 
 
 the back of the cross-head to take up or absorb any violent shock. 
 From this point chains are led over the pulleys and supports, and 
 connected to cradles, in which the tension-weights are carried. 
 There are 16 weights adjustable in number according to the 
 magnitude of the traffic or the condition of the rails. 
 
 The line is worked by steam-power, for which steam is su])- 
 plied by six Lancashire boilers, 6 feet in diameter, 24 feet long, 
 
 N N 
 
546 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON 7 RAM WAYS 
 
 jtjq^ ^2^. Biiminghani Cable Xramway : T.ransverse Section of Pulley Pit, Hockley. 
 
BIRMINGHAM CABLE TRAMWAY. 
 
 547 
 
 with two flues 28^ inches in diameter, 
 generating steam of 80 lbs. pressure 
 per square inch. The two flues merge 
 in one wide flue, which is fitted with 
 21 Galloway tubes. The chimney is 
 no feet high above the ground level, 
 and 5^ feet in diameter at the top. 
 
 The engines. Figs. 331 and 332, are 
 a pair of horizontal steam-engines, 
 having jacketed cylinders, 24 inches in 
 diameter, with a common stroke of 
 4 feet, making 50 revolutions per 
 minute. The fly-wheels are 15 feet in 
 diameter, 2 feet wide, and weigh about 
 8 tons each. Under each fly-wheel a 
 powerful steam-brake is fixed, and the 
 engines can be stopped immediately in 
 case of accident to the rope. The 
 main shaft is of steel, having 9^ inch 
 journals. The pinion on the main 
 shaft is 5 feet 4f inches in diameter, 
 and gears into the front driving spur- 
 wheel, which is 13 feet ii^ inches in 
 diameter. The back driver, of equal 
 diameter, gears with and is driven by 
 the front driver. Either engine can be 
 coupled or uncoupled as required by 
 means of clutches on the engine-shaft. 
 The three spur-wheels are keyed fast 
 on the shafts, but the large grooved 
 pulleys are made fast or loose on the 
 spur-wheel shafts by means of clutches 
 and hand-wheels on the ends. The 
 lower of the rope-driving pulleys are 
 10 feet in diameter. They are for the 
 Birmingham service. The periphery is 
 
 N N 2 
 
 Fig. 330. Birmingham Cable Tramway : Engine House and Tensional Gear 
 
548 
 
BIRMINGHAM CABLE TRAMWAY. 
 
 549 
 
 Fig. 332. Birmingham Cable Tramway : Steam Engine and Driving Gear.—Plan. 
 
550 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS, 
 
 grooved for the rope, and is lined with compressed beech-wood, 
 held in position by segments bolted on at one side, as shown in 
 Fig- 333- The upper of the large grooved pulleys, 13 feet 
 
 Fig. 333. Birmingham Cable Tramway : Rope-driving Pulley. 
 
 4 inches in diameter, are employed on the Hands worth service. 
 The larger size was adopted because the cars may be run on this 
 service at a higher speed. 
 
 Fig. 334. Birmingham Cable Tramway : Type Section of Way. 
 
 The cars are constructed with two bogies. They can carry 
 20 passengers inside and 21 outside ; together, 41 passengers. 
 
 A cross section, typical of the whole of the way, is given in 
 Fig- 334- The gauge is 3^ feet. The running rails are of girder 
 
BIRMIXGHAM CABLE TRAMWAY. 551 
 
 section, weighing 98 lbs. per yard, the slot rails are 65 lbs. per yard. 
 The conduit is of concrete, in which the framed bearers of the 
 rails, running and slot, with the ordinary conduit-pulley supports, 
 are embedded. The conduit is 13 inches wide, and 2 feet 8 inches 
 deep below the level of the rails. The framing, or skeleton ot 
 the conduit, is constructed of T-steel, 4 inches by 3 inches by 
 ^ inch. The frames or yokes are 4 feet apart between 
 centres. The carrying-pulleys, in the lower part of the conduit, 
 for supporting the rope, are ii| inches in diameter, 3 inches 
 wide. 
 
 The cable is of steel wire, 3f inches in circumference, or about 
 I *08 inches in diameter. The cable contains 6 strands of 19 wires 
 each, laid on a central hemp-core. The wire is No. 15 wire gauge. 
 The breaking tensile strength of all except the central wire of 
 each strand is 95 tons per square inch, and the breaking strength 
 of each cable is 33 tons. 
 
 The gripper, with its mounting, is shown in Figs. 335 and 336. 
 Its position relative to the slot-rails is shown in Fig. 335, the upper 
 part of the figure showing the slot-rails in section. When the 
 gripper jaws are open, and the cable runs freely between them, 
 it is carried by the smaller rollers, which are carried by levers, 
 which work on the pins, as fulcra, and are connected by a pin, 
 which causes them to act in concert either in raising or in lowering 
 the rope, and so fixing or freeing it. When the lower jaw descends, 
 with the vertically sliding plate to which it is fixed, the helical 
 spring, acting vertically under compression through the pin and 
 levers, forces the rollers upwards into the positions shown. The 
 gripper-plate slides between guide-plates. By reverse movements 
 the rope is lifted on the lower jaw into gripping position. The 
 raising and lowering of the gripper apparatus is effected by means 
 of the grip-lever on the platform of the car. The rope is shown 
 in section in the two extreme positions in Fig. 334 ; the upper 
 position when gripped, the lower when running free. 
 
 The cable tramway, as above described, has been extended 
 from the Hockley winding station on a> route three miles long 
 with double way, worked by ropes from the Hockley station. 
 
552 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 
 3y--(0) 1; 
 
 Figs. 335 and 336 — Birmingham Cable Tramway: Gripper. 
 
 Matlock Cable Tramway. 
 
 The Matlock Cable Tramway, opened in Easter, 1893, is a 
 short line | mile in length, presenting unique features of construe- 
 
LONDON TRAMWAYS : CABLE SECTLON. 
 
 553 
 
 tion and application much appreciated by the residents in the 
 district. The track is all single line, with one passing place, and 
 on the single line are six curves from i8o feet to i,ooo feet in 
 radius. The average gradient is i in 77, and the steepest is 
 I in 5. There is a rise of 300 feet in 770 yards. The width of 
 road is in many places only 20 feet. Car brakes are provided ot 
 sufficient power to stop a loaded car on the steepest grade when 
 running free after having left the cable. Each car is provided 
 with two brakes, a wheel and a rail brake. The construction of 
 the track is similar to that of the Edinburgh Northern Cable Tram¬ 
 ways, but special pulleys were designed to take the cable round 
 the curves. The gauge of the way is 3^ feet. The speed of the 
 rope is 5^ miles per hour. 
 
 The driving plant at the depot is in duplicate, and consists of 
 two Sinclair boilers fitted with mechanical stokers, and a pair of 
 high-pressure steam-engines with cylinders of 14 inches diameter 
 and 28-inch stroke, with Proell valve gear. The grip pulley, 
 cable gearing, and car grippers are similar to those supplied for 
 the Edinburgh cable lines. The cars are double-deckers, and 
 have garden seats both inside and outside, seating 31 passengers. 
 The whole of the permanent way, engines, boilers, cars, and cables 
 were provided through Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co. to the designs 
 of Mr. W. N. Colam. Mr. Croydon Marks was engineer to the 
 company. 
 
 Brixton Cable Route of the London Tramways. 
 
 The Brixton Cable Tramway of the London Tramways Company 
 has a track length of 5^ miles, to a gauge of 4 feet inches ; 
 and runs from near-Kennington Park through the busy thorough¬ 
 fares of Brixton, up Streatham-hill to a point near Streatham- 
 hill Station. The depot, situated at the Streatham terminus, is 
 of large dimensions, covering a piece of ground 370 feet by no 
 feet. Its arrangement is shown in detail in Figs. 337 to 339 
 
554 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 (Plates V. and VI.). It was built to accommodate the machinery 
 and cars necessary for working an extension of the line to 
 Streatham Common ; a further distance of about three miles of 
 route. The London tramway line was opened for horse traffic 
 about the year 1875 ; and the cable tramway from Kennington to 
 Telford Park, in December, 1892. 
 
 The cable, about six miles in length in one rope, was manufac¬ 
 tured of special steel, and it weighs about 30 tons. It runs along 
 the road in a concrete tube, constructed centrally along both up 
 and down tracks, somewhat similar to the arrangement in the 
 case of the Edinburgh tramway shown in Figs. 318 and 319 (page 
 535). The tube, which is properly drained, is 19 inches deep 
 and 9 inches wide. In the road, however, there is but a con¬ 
 tinuous slot f inch wide ; this slot being formed by rolled steel 
 slot-rails fixed to cast-iron yokes embedded in concrete. The 
 speed of the cable is 8 miles per hour. 
 
 In the tube on the straight road, at intervals of about 50 feet, 
 vertical pulleys, as in Fig. 320, are placed, and on the curves hori¬ 
 zontal pulleys (Fig. 321), at intervals proportionate to the curves. 
 These pulleys carry the cable so that normally it is from 14 inches 
 to 24 inches out of the centre line.of the slot: no road dirt, there¬ 
 fore, falling on it. 
 
 Over each pulley a hatch cover (Fig. 319) 18 inches by 9 inches, 
 is placed in the road. This cover is fitted with wood blocks, 
 and is very little distinguishable from the ordinary paving. 
 
 At the Kennington terminus, large pulleys are provided for the 
 purpose of passing the cable from the up line to the down line, 
 similar to Fig. 322 (p. 538). At Streatham, similar pulleys are 
 provided to pass the cable into the depot. 
 
 Ordinary horse cars are employed on the line for passenger 
 traffic, coupled to a cable car for the purposes of cable traction. 
 On the cable car the gripping aj^paratus is mounted. Such a 
 disposition was rendered necessary by the fact that at Kennington 
 the passenger cars are despatched to three different termini by 
 means of horses, and it was thought undesirable to increase the 
 weight of their cars by the gripping apparatus. The cable cars 
 
Plate V. 
 
 [To face page 554. 
 
 B R 
 
Plate V. 
 
 
 
 
 337* Sectional Elevation of the Streatham Depot {see Plate VI.) 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 1 ^= 
 
 
 References to Plates V. and VI. 
 
 A. Travelling Crane. 
 
 B. Babcock Boilers. 
 
 C. Economiser. 
 
 D. Low-pressure Cylinders. 
 
 E. High-pressure Cylinders. 
 
 d: lo feel Pulley] 
 
 H. Main Clutch. 
 
 I. Car Traverser to Repairing Shop. 
 
 J. Auxiliary Cable Clutch. 
 
 K. Auxiliary Grip Pulley. 
 
 L. Auxiliary Tension Race. 
 
 M. Mam Cable Grip Pulley. 
 
 N. Main Cable Deflecting Pulleys. 
 
 O. Main Cable Tension Carriage. 
 
 P. Old Cable Drum. 
 
 Q. Barring Gear. 
 
 R. Barring Engine. 
 
 S. Main Cable I'ension Gear Winch. 
 
 T. Main Cable Tension Weight. 
 
 U. New Cable Storage Drum. 
 
 V. Main Cable Deflecting Pulleys. 
 
 W. Telford Park Main Road Pit. 
 
 X. Car Traverser worked by Auxiliary Cable. 
 
 Y. Rain-water Storage Tank. 
 
 Z. Chimney. 
 
 [To face page 554 . 
 
 BRIXTON CABLE ROUTE OF 
 
 THE LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
Plate VI 
 
 Fig. 339. Plan of the Streatham Depot (for literal reference.?, see Plate V.). 
 
 BRIXTON CABLE ROUTE OE THE LONDON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 [To face page 554. 
 
LONDON TRAMWAYS : CABLE SECTLON. 
 
 555 
 
 simply carry the gripper and the driver, the Board of Trade 
 objecting to their carrying passengers until after the line had 
 been in operation for some time. 
 
 Each cable car is provided with a double-jawed gripper, some¬ 
 what similar to Fig. 324—that is, a gripper which is capable of use 
 on both the up and the down lines. The gripper is suspended 
 from the car framing in such a way that it is free to move from 
 left to right: a movement which is necessary when rounding the 
 curves in the slot. The shank, which is 12 inches wide and 
 ^ inch thick, passes through the slot, and is fitted with upper 
 and lower jaws for gripping the cable. The upper jaw maintains 
 a fixed level in the tube; whilst the lower jaw can be raised or 
 lowered by means of the hand-wheel and screw, as seen, above 
 the car floor, to the extent of 6 inches, thus rendering it possible 
 to pick up the cable at any part of the road. Both jaws are 
 lined with soft cast-iron dies, which are easily renewable. In 
 rounding curves in the road a horizontal roller is provided in the 
 gripper shank, and this then rolls on a recess in the slot rail. 
 
 There are four double-furnace Babcock & Wilcox water-tube 
 boilers, having a working pressure of 140 lbs. per square inch. 
 They are provided with Vicars’ mechanical stokers and coal ele¬ 
 vators ; also an automatic arrangement for maintaining the steam 
 steadily at one pressure without interference on the part of the man 
 in charge. The arrangement is worked by a jet of steam from'the 
 boiler in such a way that as the pressure rises above the normal 
 working pressure the stokers are stopped, and when it falls the 
 stokers go on. Rain-water is collected in settling-tanks. 
 
 The engines for driving the line are in duplicate. There are 
 two pairs of high-pressure compound steam-engines with high- 
 pressure cylinders of 20 inches, and low-pressure cylinders of 
 32 inches in diameter respectively, and the stroke of both is 
 50 inches. Each pair of engines is capable of driving 12 miles of 
 cable with the necessary cars, and is now developing about half 
 its maximum power, the high-pressure cylinders alone being used. 
 One pair of engines is placed at each end of the first motion-shaft, 
 the two cylinders driving on toa U crank and a disc crank respec- 
 
55 ^ 
 
 MECHANICAL POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 lively. The valve gear on the high-pressure cylinders is of the Proell 
 type ; the low-pressure cylinders are fitted with Corliss valves. 
 The motion of the engines is communicated to the counter or 
 cable shaft by means of a rope-drive, which forms the chief feature 
 of novelty in the engine-house. The ratio of the gearing is three 
 to one, and the large wheel on the countershaft is 30 feet 
 diameter. Each wheel is grooved for twenty-four 6Tinch ropes, 
 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 A rope drive was installed instead of gearing in order to 
 insure a minimum of vibration and noise, the depot being built 
 in a residential neighbourhood. 
 
 At one end of the countershaft is a Mather & Platt clutch of 
 the outside grip pattern, which can be worked by means of a lever 
 placed near the engine stop-valve, thus insuring complete control 
 of the machinery from one point. The clutch communicates the 
 motion of the countershaft to the grip pulley, the pulley which 
 moves the cable. A similar clutch and pulley are to be placed on 
 the other end of the countershaft to drive the second cable when 
 the extensions are made. The grip pulley is of the solid jaw type ; 
 the jaw being a parallel groove running round the pulley, the 
 cable resting on a small shoulder on either side of the jaw. The 
 jaw, formed of white metal slabs cast in place, and renewable, is 
 found not to do any harm to the cable. This method of drive should 
 be contrasted with the present American practice—two Walker 
 differential drums having three or four complete wraps of the 
 cable, whereas a three-quarter lap is found to do the work in 
 London, and has been found equal to any strain put on it. The 
 cable, after leaving the grip pulley, is conducted by another wheel 
 to the tension pulley, which is mounted on a wrought-iron carriage 
 free to run on rails. A uniform tension is maintained on the cable 
 by a weight suspended from the back of the tension carriage. The 
 rise or fall of this weight is a perfect indicator of the amount of 
 strain on the cable, and by watching its movements a very good 
 idea may be gained of the fluctuations of the load which have to 
 be provided for in a cable tramway, in order to insure the smooth 
 and steady running of the cars on the road. 
 
LONDON TRAMIVAYS : CABLE SECTION. 
 
 557 
 
 The depot is built on a level lo feet above the level of the 
 main road, and the cars in returning to the shed have to mount 
 a long incline of i in 20. An auxiliary rope is provided here, 
 which is driven by a clutch on the countershaft, at a speed of 
 about 2 \ miles per hour. It is so arranged that the cars can take 
 this rope on the main line, mount the incline, and pass on to a 
 traverser which commands the whole width of the car-shed, and is 
 moved by another rope off the main engines. 
 
 Machinery is provided for changing the cables on the main line, 
 together with the necessary storage drums. Machines are also 
 provided for doing all necessary repairs, such as slotting, planing, 
 drilling, turning. The necessary power for driving all this ma¬ 
 chinery is obtained from the barring engine. 
 
 A travelling crane is provided; of 55 feet span to lift 24 tons 
 on two winches. This crane travels the whole length of the 
 engine-house, which is 150 feet. 
 
 Mr. W. N. Colam was the engineer for the whole of the work, 
 including the buildings ; Messrs. Dick, Kerr & Co. were the con¬ 
 tractors for the road, gripping gear, engines, and most of the 
 machinery; Messrs, Babcock & Wilcox supplied the boilers; 
 Messrs. Cradock & Co. the cable ; and Messrs. Lucas & Aird the 
 buildings. 
 
 The Company possess in their Brixton route one of the most 
 complete installations for cable traction. They have applied to 
 Parliament for an extension. 
 
PART VI. 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELECTRIC POWER AS APPLIED TO TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The only available source of electrical energy was until compara¬ 
 tively recently the galvanic battery, and attempts have been made, 
 since the beginning of the century, to apply that force for obtain¬ 
 ing and transmitting power. The hopelessness of the attempts is 
 obvious. A pound of zinc is produced by the combustion of from 
 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. of coal, and while a pound of coal in burning 
 gives out 12,000 heat-units, a pound of zinc in burning gives only 
 2,340 units. Thus zinc gives in burning only one-fifth of the effect 
 in energy that coal does, and taking the cost of zinc at fifty times 
 that of coal, it follows that the cost of energy in the case of a 
 galvanic battery is approximately two hundred and fifty times 
 greater than in a steam boiler. 
 
 For the purpose of mechanical traction on tramways, electric- 
 power may be transformed into mechanical power, with a large 
 percentage of efficiency. The dynamo is the source with which, 
 principally, electricity has been associated. The current pro¬ 
 duced is known as inductional electricity, as it is magnetically 
 induced by the revolution of the armature of the dynamo. The 
 motor is connected to the wheels of the car, for the purpose 
 of propulsion, by direct gearing or by reducing gear. Self-contained 
 motor trucks comprise a rigid framework resting on the axle-boxes. 
 
ELECTRIC POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 559 
 
 The body of the car rests on and is fastened to the frame. Thus 
 may be provided an elastic gear connection; the axle-journals are 
 maintained parallel; and the gear-wheels may be properly pro¬ 
 portioned to reduce the speed of the armature from, say, 2,500 
 revolutions per minute, for a suitable speed of the car on the rails. 
 In order to secure a sufficient degree of adhesion for propulsion, 
 it is expedient to provide tw^o motors to each truck, geared to 
 independent axles. 
 
 To transmit current from the dynamo, or generator, to the 
 motors on the car, it is necessary that a complete metallic circuit 
 should extend from the generator to the car, and return to the 
 generator. “Positive” current is conveyed over that part of the 
 circuit which leads out from the generator. “ Negative” current 
 is the return current leading back to the generator. 
 
 It is readily seen that an electric motor can be connected by 
 reducing gear to the wheels of a tram-car to cause them to revolve : 
 in the manner of a turning-lathe, for instance. But the peculiar 
 difficulty in dealing with electric traction is to convey tlie elec¬ 
 tricity produced at the supply station to the electric motor on the 
 moving cars :—properly to locate these conductors, with the best 
 means of securing a continuous movable contact. 
 
 (i.) On some early tramways, a third rail was laid, on insulating 
 material, through which positive current was transmitted, and from 
 which, by means of a brush or wheel, the current was taken up, 
 passed through the motor, and thence, by means of the car-wheels, 
 to the rails of the w’ay, through which it was returned to the 
 generator. 
 
 (2.) -Underground communication by two wires or metal rods, 
 one for positive current, the other for negative current, in a shallow 
 conduit laid between the rails or at one side of the way. Contact 
 with the conductor is effected by means of brushes or ploughs, 
 supported by a thin iron plate or finger hung to the truck, and 
 moving along a narrow longitudinal slot in the top of the conduit. 
 One brush takes up current from the positive wire and conveys it 
 to the motor, whence it is returned to the negative wire through 
 the other brush. The conducting wires must be carefully insu- 
 
56o 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 lated from the sides of the conduit, and from contact with the 
 slot-rails. 
 
 (3.) The overhead system of connection is the system most 
 generally employed. It includes the methods of (i) supporting 
 one or both conductors on trolleys, and (2) making contact with 
 them above the car. Of these, the single-wire under-contact 
 arrangement is the more popular. The positive wire is supported 
 over the centre of the way by means of cross wires attached 
 to poles at the side of the street, or by means of cross-arms on 
 poles placed between the ways. For single lines of way, side poles 
 with brackets are used. The trolley wires are braced on curves. 
 
 In the single-trolley system, the rails are utilised for the return 
 or negative current; and for this purpose the ends of the rails are 
 wired together, and are usually supplemented by one or more return 
 wires which are buried beneath the pavement, to which each sec¬ 
 tion of rail or casting is connected by means of branch wires. The 
 bonds are riveted to the rails. Galvanised iron wire is recom¬ 
 mended for rail-bonds and way wiring. Copper wiring deteriorates 
 rapidly by electrolysis. 
 
 The way connections should return the current to the generator 
 in a direct path—having a minimum of resistance in the return 
 circuit—and resulting in economy of power, and efficient service 
 from the motors. 
 
 In some soils the resistance of the rail-return may be reduced 
 and leakage avoided, by driving metal rods or pieces of gas pipe 
 10 or 15 feet down into the ground and connecting these rods 
 with the rails or a supplementary wire. 
 
 In place of rods, copper ground plates, having from 30 to 40 
 sq. ft. of surface, may be placed at intervals of 1,000 feet, and at 
 a depth sufficient to insure their being always in moist ground. 
 
 For supporting the overhead wire, poles of wood, iron, or steel, 
 from 26 to 30 feet long, may be employed. The best timber is 
 chestnut, cedar, or Georgia pine. Wooden poles on straight lines 
 should be from 7 to 8 inches in diameter at the top, and at least 
 from 10 to 12 inches at the base ; but iron or steel poles are more 
 desirable than wooden poles. The poles are usually placed 
 
OVERHEAD CONDUCTOR SYSTEM. 
 
 5^1 
 
 125 feet apart, and they should be set at least 6 feet deep in the 
 ground in a foundation of concrete. Near the top of the pole a 
 device should be provided to secure the most perfect insulation 
 for the suspension wire. The trolley wire is supported from 
 above without obstructing the passage of the under-running trolley 
 wheel. 
 
 The trolley wire should not be smaller than No. o ('325 inch) 
 of hard drawn copper wire or silicon bronze wire. 
 
 Feed ]Vire .—The trolley wire is usually not large enough to 
 transmit the power to a long distance without undue loss; and it 
 is advantageous to supply the current to the trolley wire at 
 intervals, by means of auxiliary insulated feed wire. By this means 
 a nearly uniform potential can be maintained at all points of the 
 line. Subways, or electric conduits for feed wires, should be of non¬ 
 conducting tubing, through which the bare conductors can be laid ; 
 and the tubing should be enclosed in a creosoted plank casing. 
 Contact of the moving car with the overhead wire, for the purpose of 
 conducting the current through the controlling mechanism on the 
 car to the respective poles of the motor, is made by means of a 
 trolley pole and stand. The relation of the cars to the circuit 
 is illustrated by diagram, Fig. 340, showing that the current seems 
 to start from the positive brush of the generator, G, and along the 
 overhead conductor in the line of the arrows until it reaches the 
 trolley, t, of one of the motor bars, which is in contact with the 
 conductor. Here a portion of the current passes down through 
 the trolley to the motors M, m, as shown by the dotted line. The 
 current having done its work in the motors goes on the rails 
 through the wheels and by the rails return wire, w, back to the 
 negative brush of the generator. The main portion of the current, 
 which divides at t, passes on to feed the other cars upon the 
 line in the same manner, each car taking from the conductor only 
 the necessary amount of current to develop the required power, 
 while the entire return current is carried by the rail and a supple¬ 
 mentary wire. 
 
 The trolley-stand consists of an upright, firmly attached to the 
 roof of the car, and a long wooden or iron arm mast, pivoted near 
 
 o o 
 
562 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 one end upon the top of the 
 upright. The long arm of 
 the mast carries a metal 
 trolley wheel which is held 
 firmly up against the under 
 side of the conductor by 
 strong springs attached to the 
 short end of the arm and 
 connected with the base of 
 the standard. The mast 
 springs and attachments are 
 all free to swivel upon the 
 upright. 
 
 An insulated wire em¬ 
 bedded in the mast conducts 
 the current from the trolley 
 wheel to the controlling 
 switches on the car, but in 
 place of a trolley wheel, 
 a sliding contact may be 
 obtained by means .of a 
 carbon-lined metal brush at 
 the end of a trolley pole. 
 
 Two overhead wires, 5 
 inches or 6 inches apart, 
 are, as already stated, some¬ 
 times employed instead of 
 the single overhead wire and 
 rail connections to form 
 the necessary metal circuit. 
 Two trolley wheels, or two 
 masts, each carrying a wheel, 
 are required, one wheel in 
 contact with the positive 
 wire and the other with the 
 negative wire. The current 
 
ELECTRICAL TERMS AND UNITS, 
 
 5^3 
 
 is thus conducted from one wire to the motors and back to the 
 other wire. 
 
 As to the wiring of the car, and how the wires are connected 
 with the switches and with the poles of the motors. Usually a 
 switch on each platform directs the current to both motors, and 
 controls the speed and the direction of the car. In addition, the 
 flow of current through the motors is controlled :—according to one 
 system, by a peculiar winding of the field magnets; by another system, 
 current is controlled through a “ rheostat,” or resistance box, by 
 which any abnormal flow of current through the armature is 
 prevented, and the motor is enabled to start gradually. It is 
 in the form of a half circle, mounted under the floor of the car. 
 Resistance is produced by small pieces of thin sheet-iron, side by 
 side, separated by mica, so arranged that they are connected in 
 series throughout the rheostat. At proper intervals, contact pieces 
 of heavy sheet-iron are provided. The whole is secured in a 
 semi-circular iron case thoroughly insulated with mica throughout. 
 
 Storage Batteries, Accumulators, or Secondary Batteries, belong 
 to a class of chemical batteries, in which chemical action, primarily 
 induced by the application of a current of electricity, supplied from 
 a primary battery or from a dynamo, enables a strong current to 
 be given back any time after cutting off the charging current. This 
 derived current is the product of chemical reaction. 
 
 The accumulator system of storage batteries, or secondary 
 batteries, is the simplest and most convenient method of convey¬ 
 ing the electricity produced at the supply station to the electric 
 motor on the cars. The stored energy is carried in accumulators, 
 which are placed under the seats of the car, and connected by 
 wires through a regulating switch to the motor. But there is an 
 unavoidable loss in the use of current taken from accumulators, 
 and there is a loss in addition due to the additional weight of the 
 accumulators to be drawn. 
 
 Electrical Terms and Units. 
 
 It may be useful to recapitulate these here : 
 
 Volt. —Unit of electro-motive force (E.M.F.) : Electric Pressure. 
 
 0 0 2 
 
564 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Ampere. —Unit of current; rate at which electric current is 
 transmitted through the conductor forming the circuit. 
 
 QJim. —Unit of electric resistance in the conductor. Resistance 
 is that which tends to stop the flow of electricity. 
 
 Watt. —Unit to express rate at which electric power is absorbed 
 or developed in an electric system, stated in terms of any two of 
 the other units. It serves as a means of comparison between 
 electrical and mechanical power. 
 
 Thus, to measure the power exerted by a current in a wire, the 
 twits of electro-motive force and the amperes of curretit are mea¬ 
 sured. The two numbers are multiplied together. Or, the same 
 result is obtained by multiplying the square of the current in 
 amperes by the resistance in ohms. Products are the same, and 
 give the rate of doing work, or the watts. 
 
 A Watt is = th part of a horse-power. 
 
 Resistance of Conductors (say, a wire), is, ist, proportional to its 
 length; 2nd, is inversely proportional to the area of section; 3rd, 
 depends on the material of which it is made. 
 
 Silver 
 Copper 
 Iron . 
 
 Lead . 
 
 German silver . 
 
 Conducting 
 
 power. 
 
 100 
 
 99'55 
 
 i6'8i 
 
 8-32 
 
 Resistance, 
 
 '2421 
 
 •2106 
 
 1- 2425 
 3-236 
 
 2- 652 
 
 Volts 
 
 Ohms 
 
 = Amperes of current. 
 
 Volts 
 
 Amperes 
 
 Ohms. 
 
 The United States of America are conspicuously in advance of 
 the United Kingdom in the application of electrical traction to 
 tramways. In nearly every town in America, horse traction has 
 been either totally or in part superseded by electrical traction. 
 In the year 1892, the number of electrical tramways in the United 
 States was 436, with 3,532 miles of track and 5,851 motor cars, 
 travelling in the aggregate 50,000,000 miles and carrying 
 250,000,000 passengers annually. On the Continent, many im- 
 
TRAMWAYS USING ELECTRIC 7RACTION. 565 
 
 portant city tramway systems are now worked electrically. (For 
 a list of electrical tramways in Europe, compiled by Air. R. Ham¬ 
 mond, see Appendix.) On the other hand, the British and Irish 
 electrical tramways, aggregating 22 miles of way, have been reduced, 
 during the past five years, by three on account of the abandonment 
 of electrical working on those lines, whilst only six new lines have 
 been added to the list, making 33I miles of way in all. 
 
 Electrical Tramways in the United Kingdo:m, 1893. 
 
 1 Year of 
 opening. 
 
 , 
 
 Miles. 
 
 S}-stem. 
 
 
 1883 
 
 jPortrush and^ 
 
 ( Giant’s Causeway ( 
 
 8 
 
 Side conductor . 
 
 Water-power 
 
 1883 
 
 Brighton Beach 
 
 I 
 
 Rails. 
 
 Gas-engine 
 
 1885 
 
 jBessbrook and) 
 
 \ Newry Tramway. j 
 
 3 ? 
 
 Central conductor . 
 
 Water-power 
 
 1886 
 
 Ryde Pier 
 
 1 
 
 o; 
 
 Side conductor . . 
 
 Gas-engine 
 
 1 1886 
 
 Blackpool 
 
 2 
 
 Conduit .... 
 
 Steam 
 
 1 1889 
 
 Carstairs .... 
 
 
 Side conductors 
 
 Water-power 
 
 { 1890 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 0 
 
 Accumulator 
 
 1 1890 
 
 j City and South ) 
 
 1 London . . . | 
 
 Southend Pier . 
 
 36 
 
 Side conductor . . 
 
 Steam 
 
 1891 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Central conductor . 
 
 ? y 
 
 1891 
 
 Guernsey .... 
 
 2~ 
 
 Overhead conductor 
 
 y y 
 
 1891 
 
 Leeds . 
 
 04 
 
 ? ? ? > 
 
 » y 
 
 1893 
 
 South Staffordshire 
 
 7i 
 
 ? J y } 
 
 y y ! 
 
 1893 
 
 Liverpool Overhead 
 
 
 Central conductor . 
 
 ” _ 1 
 
CHAPTER 11 . 
 
 FA RL Y EL EC TRICAL TRAMWA VS~BESSBROOK 
 AND NEWRY TRAAIWAY. 
 
 Early Electrical Tramways. 
 
 The application of electrical transmission of power to railways 
 was first exhibited by Dr. Werner Siemens, at the Berlin Exhibi¬ 
 tion of 1879. The current produced by a dynamo-machine, fixed 
 at a convenient station and driven by a steam-engine or other 
 motor, was conveyed to a dynamo placed upon the moving car, 
 through a central rail supported upon insulating blocks of wood : 
 the two working rails serving to convey the return current. The 
 line was 900 yards in length, of 2 feet gauge, and the moving car 
 served its purpose of carrying twenty visitors through the Exhibi¬ 
 tion each trip. 
 
 The success of this experiment led to the laying of the Lichter- 
 felde line, in which both rails were placed upon insulating sleepers 
 and served respectively for the conveyance of the current from the 
 power station to the moving car, and for completing the return 
 current. 
 
 This line, which is 2,500 yards in length on a gauge of 3:f feet, 
 is worked by two dynamo-machines, developing an aggregate 
 current of 9,000 watts, equal to 12 horse-power. The line has 
 been in operation since May, 1881. 
 
 A line ^ kilometre in length, of 4 feet 8^ inches gauge, was 
 laid at Paris in connection with the Electrical Exhibition of 1881. 
 
 Two suspended conductors, each in the form of a hollow tube 
 
BESSBROOK AND NEH’RY TRAMIVAY. 
 
 567 
 
 with a longitudinal slit, were adopted, the contact being made 
 by metal bolts drawn through the slit tubes, and connected 
 with the dynamo-machine on the moving car by copper ropes 
 passing through the roof. On this line 95,000 passengers were 
 conveyed in the course of seven weeks. 
 
 An electrical line 765 yards long, 2 feet 2 inches in gauge, has 
 been worked in connection with the Zaukerode Colliery since 
 October, 1882. 
 
 An electrical tramway, 8 miles in length and 3 feet in gauge, was 
 opened in 1883, connecting the town of Portrush with the Giant’s 
 Causeway, in the North of Ireland. It was designed by Dr. C. W. 
 Siemens. 
 
 The rails are not insulated from the ground, but joined elec¬ 
 trically by means of copper staples. The return circuit is thus 
 formed, the current being conveyed to the car through a T-iron 
 placed upon short standards about 3 feet high, and insulated by 
 means of insulite caps. The power is produced by the utilisation 
 of a waterfall near Bushmills by means of three turbines of 
 40 horse-power each and giving motion to a shunt-wound dynamo 
 of 15,000 watts equal to 20 horse-power. The working speed is 
 10 miles per hour. 
 
 An electrical tramway half a mile long, and similar to the Port- 
 rush line, was laid on the Ryde Pier. It was constructed by 
 Messrs. Siemens Brothers, and was opened in 1886 for electrical 
 traction, converted from horse-power. The generating dynamo is 
 driven by a gas-engine. The electrical working cost in December, 
 1886, was 6•3d. per mile run, against 8d. for horse traction. 
 
 BeSSBROOK and NeWRY TrAxMWAY.* 
 
 A line of electrical tramway was constructed between Newry 
 and Bessbrook (Co. Armagh, Ireland) for the carriage of coal and 
 
 * The material for the notice of this undertaking has been 
 
568 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 flax from the wharves to the mills, as well as the down traffic of 
 manufactured goods, the abundant water power available offering 
 exceptional advantages for the line being worked electrically. 
 
 In the construction of the line the following conditions had to 
 be met. Ten trains were to be run in each direction per day, pro¬ 
 viding fora daily traffic each way of loo tons of minerals and 
 goods, and capable of dealing with 200 tons in any single day, in 
 addition to the passenger traffic :—the electrical locomotive to be 
 capable of drawing a gross load of 18 tons on the up-journey, in 
 addition to the tare of the car itself, and its full complement of 
 passengers, at an average speed of 6 miles per hour, and a load of 
 12 tons at an average speed of 9 miles per hour. 
 
 The contract for the construction of the line was of a rather 
 special character: the company agreed to place the line entirely at 
 the disposal of Dr. Edward Hopkinson, to whom its construction 
 had been entrusted, for a period of time, and to purchase the 
 electrical plant at a fixed sum, when the above conditions had 
 been complied with, and it had been shown that the cost of 
 working as evidenced by six months’ trial did not exceed the 
 cost of steam traction on a similar line. 
 
 The work was commenced in November, 1884, and the line 
 opened for traffic in October, 18S5 ; it was formally taken over 
 by the company, as having fulfilled the conditions of the contract, 
 in the following April. Since that time it has been in regular 
 daily operation. 
 
 The total length of the line is 3 miles 2*4 chains, the maximum 
 gradient is i in 50, and the average gradient is i in 86. The 
 gauge is 3 leet. For illustrations of the way, see page 392. 
 
 The locomotive equipment of the line consists of two passenger 
 33 feet and 21 leet 8 inches long respectively, each provided 
 with a motor. The body of the car is carried on two four-wheeled 
 bogies, with a wheel-base of 4^ feet, the motor being carried on the 
 front bogie independent of the body of the car (Fig. 341). By this 
 
 derived from Dr. Edward Hopkinson’s paper on “Electrical Tram¬ 
 ways,” in the Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers, vol. xci., 1887—88. 
 
JIESSBROOK AND NEU’RY TRAIIIVAY.' 
 
 569 
 
 arrangement the cars are 
 enabled to traverse the 
 55-feet curves at the ter¬ 
 mini with great facility, 
 and also relieves the body 
 of the car from the vibra¬ 
 tion due to the driving. 
 The body of the longer 
 car, Fig. 341, is divided 
 into three compartments; 
 the front one covers the 
 motor; the second forms 
 a second-class compart¬ 
 ment, seating twenty- 
 four passengers; and the 
 third, a first-class com¬ 
 partment seating ten 
 passengers, is separated 
 from the second by a 
 cross passage. The front 
 bogie carrying the motor 
 has an extended plat¬ 
 form projecting 3 feet 
 7 inches beyond the 
 body of the car, and 
 communicating by a 
 slide - door with the 
 dynamo compartment, 
 thus giving the driver 
 direct access to all parts 
 of the driving machinery, 
 which are at the same 
 time entirely boxed off 
 from the passenger com¬ 
 partments. All four 
 wheels are braked by a 
 
 Fig. 341. BeSbbrook and Newry Electrical Tramway; Passenger cars. 
 
570 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION, 
 
 powerful screw-brake, worked from the front of the driving platform, 
 on which is also fixed the switch-board controlling the motor. 
 The wheels of the back bogie are braked by a chain brake, worked 
 from the cross-passage, and are under the control of the conductor. 
 This brake is also prepared for coupling to the wagons. The total 
 weight of the car is 8f- tons, distributed as follows :— 
 
 Tons. Cwt. Qrs. 
 
 3 6 I 
 
 1 17 2 
 
 100 
 
 2 I I 
 
 Car body ....... 
 
 Leading bogie ...... 
 
 Trailing ,, ...... 
 
 Dynamo bed-plate, armature, and accessories 
 
 850 
 
 The shorter locomotive-car is similar, but without the first-class 
 compartments. There is also a third passenger-car of the same 
 length as the first, accommodating forty-four passengers, and 
 similarly carried on two four-wheeled bogies. This car weighs 
 54 tons. The wagons, having flangeless wheels, are, with the 
 way, described and illustrated in pages 393 to 397. 
 
 The generating machinery is fixed at Millvale, a distance of 
 68 chains from the Bessbrook terminus. At this point, in close 
 proximity to the line, there is an available fall of 28 feet in the 
 Camlough stream, down which there is a guaranteed minimum 
 flow of 3,000,000 gallons per day. The turbine is an inward flow 
 vortex wheel with double buckets, working on a horizontal shaft 
 extended into the dynamo shed, from which the dynamos are 
 driven direct with belts. The capacity of the wheel is 1,504 cubic 
 feet per minute, and when running at 290 revolutions per minute, 
 should develop a maximum power of 62 H.P. It is worked 
 with a tail draught of 13 feet. The admission of water is con¬ 
 trolled by a shutter-valve, regulating the flow uniformly through 
 each bucket of the wheel, and actuated either by hand or by 
 a centrifugal governor. The latter is not direct-acting, but when 
 its balls rise or fall beyond certain limits, it couples one of a pair of 
 right and left-hand bevel-wheels, driven by a wheel on the governor 
 spindle to a small countershaft geared with the valve-spindle. 
 
BESSBROOK AND NEWRY TRAMWAY. 
 
 571 
 
 There are two generating dynamos of the Edison-Hopkinson 
 type, shunt-wound, for a normal output of 250 volts, 72 amperes, 
 at a speed of 1,000 revolutions per minute. Three times that 
 amount may be necessary for starting a heavy train on a steep 
 gradient. 
 
 The resistance of the field magnets is 74 ohms, and that of the 
 armature is 12 ohms. Consequently, the electrical efficiency with 
 the normal current is 92"2 per cent., and the commercial efficiency 
 90'4 per cent. 
 
 The conductor is of channel-steel, laid midway between the 
 rails, and carried on wooden insulators nailed to alternate sleepers. 
 The electrical connection is made independently by a strip of soft 
 copper of such section that its conductivity is about the same as 
 that of the steel. It is bent in a (J form to allow for the expan¬ 
 sion and contraction of the channel. These strips are riveted in 
 the channel with double copper rivets, care having been taken 
 that the hole in the channel was perfectly free from rust before 
 the riveting. At the several crossings of occupation roads, twelve 
 in number, the electrical continuity of the conductor is broken by 
 insulating a section of the channel, and the current is conveyed by 
 a cable laid beneath the sleepers. The top of the channel being 
 level with the rails, the intervening space can be paved or planked, 
 thus making a good roadway without interfering with the mechanical 
 continuity of the conductor. As none of these crossings exceed 
 in width the length of the locomotive cars, the leading collector 
 makes contact on one side the crossing before the back collector 
 breaks on the other. The cables are of stranded copper wire, 
 consisting of 37 No. 14 B.W.G. : ist, cotton lapped and var¬ 
 nished 3 2nd, heavily covered with pure rubber; 3rd and 4th, 
 double served with best rubber separator; 5th, covered with pure 
 rubber; 6th and 7th, taped with double-served proof tape, the 
 cable then vulcanized and made water-tight; 8th, lapped with 
 thick serving and tarred hemp; 9th, braided over all and heavily 
 compounded. In constructing a conductor of iron or steel it is 
 of the utmost importance to specify the composition. Steel may 
 be obtained with a specific resistance varying from o’00001 ohm to 
 
57 ^ 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 o'ooooy ohm, according to the amount of carbon, silicon, and par¬ 
 ticularly manganese. The steel used in this case was manufactured 
 by the Darlington Steel and Iron Company, and specified not to 
 exceed in carbon 0-15 per cent. ; silicon, 0-05 per cent.; manga¬ 
 nese, I'oo per cent. The actual composition, according to the 
 makers’ analysis, is, carbon 0.09 per cent., silicon 0*02 per cent., 
 manganese o'63 per cent., and the specific resistance 0*0000121 
 ohm. The weight per foot of the conductor is 4*33 lbs. (6*46 
 kilograms per metre), and the section i'367 square inch (8*817 
 square centimetres). 
 
 The insulators, which are of poplar wood, are 5 inches long. 
 These are carefully dried and then impregnated with boiling 
 paraffin. A block of dried poplar will absorb as much as 75 per 
 cent, of its own weight of paraffin, which permeates through the 
 whole mass. These blocks have proved efficient insulators, and 
 they are apparently standing well. The actual measured insulation 
 of the conductor, under unfavourable circumstances as regards 
 weather and when charged to a potential of 250 volts, is about 900 
 to 1,000 ohms per mile, approximately the same as the insulation 
 obtained at Portrush. Such an insulation is sufficient for practical 
 purposes. It represents a loss, through leakage, of d ampere, or 
 one-tenth of a horse-power per mile. The actual measured leakage 
 current of the whole line in wet weather amounts to nearly four 
 times the above amount, the excess being probably due to some 
 slight fault in the cables and arrangements at the points and 
 crossings. 
 
 The circuit is completed by the rails of the permanent way, 
 which are uninsulated. As is the case with the conductor, the 
 fish-plate connections are not sufficient, and they are therefore 
 supplemented by flexible copper strips riveted to the under surface 
 of the rails. The specific resistance of the steel rails (Barrow 
 Hematite) is 0*0000166 ohm, and hence the total resistance of 
 the four rails, having an aggregate area of 12*4 square inches, is 
 0*033 ohm per mile. The resistance of the conductor is 0*221, 
 making the resistance of the circuit 0*254 ohm per mile. Allowing 
 for the earth and for some contact resistance, probably 0*25 ohm 
 
BESSBROOK AND NEWRV TRAMIVAV. 
 
 573 
 
 represents the average resistance per mile (o’i56 ohm per kilo¬ 
 metre). The electrical connection of the rails of the permanent 
 way is essential, since the earth connection is of little value, 
 as the rails are practically insulated by the sleepers and dry 
 ballast. 
 
 Each locomotive-car is fitted with an Edison-Hopkinson 
 dynamo-motor. As previously mentioned, the motor is fixed on 
 the leading bogie, and is entirely independent of the body of the 
 car. The armature shaft carries a double helical toothed steel pinion, 
 6 ‘o 5 inches in diameter, gearing into a steel wheel 21*08 inches 
 diameter, carried on a small countershaft running in bearings fixed 
 on the bed of the motor. This shaft also carries a chain pinion- 
 wheel of steel, 8*8 inches diameter, on the extended boss of 
 which the helical toothed wheel is keyed. The chain pinion 
 drives with chain gear on to a wheel 21 inches in diameter, keyed 
 on to the back axle of the bogie, the wheels of which are 28 
 inches in diameter. This gives a ratio of gear of 8*3 to i; hence 
 a speed of i mile per hour corresponds to 100 revolutions per 
 minute of the dynamo axle. To give the necessary adhesion the 
 axles are coupled with outside connecting-rods. 
 
 The motors are series-wound with such a number of convolu¬ 
 tions that the magnets are nearly saturated with 72 amperes, 
 which is also the normal current for the armature. The resistance 
 of the magnets is 0*113 2-i^d of the armature 0*112 ohm; 
 
 hence if the potential between the terminals be 220 volts, the 
 electrical efficiency with the normal current is 92*6 per cent., 
 and the commercial efficiency 90*7 per cent., the power deve¬ 
 loped being nearly 20 H.P. In actual work the power of the 
 motor frequently exceeds this amount. To transmit this 
 power with the car running at, say, seven miles per hour, 
 the tension of the chain would be 1,430 lbs., and the speed 
 460 feet per minute. At starting on a gradient with the full 
 load the tension may reach 3,400 lbs., and with the car run¬ 
 ning at the maximum rate, the speed may reach 1,300 feet per 
 minute. 
 
 A steel chain based on the well-known tricycle form was em- 
 
574 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 ployed. The tubes are keyed as well as riveted in the inner 
 links, and the pins in the outer links. 
 
 The current is conveyed from the conductor by two collectors 
 fixed on the bogies. These form a good rubbing contact on the 
 upper surface of the conductor. From them the current passes 
 to the reversing and regulating switch fixed on the splash board 
 of the leading bogie. To avoid throwing the full load suddenly 
 on the generator and motor dynamos, a series of resistances are 
 first thrown into circuit and cut out one by one. After passing 
 through the armature and magnets, the current returns through 
 the axle boxes and wheels to the rails. 
 
 The potential allowed by the Board of Trade is 300 volts, but 
 the actual potential employed is only 250 volts. 
 
 The trains are commonly composed of one locomotive car and 
 three or four trucks, but frequently a second passenger car is 
 coupled, or the number of trucks increased to six. Thus a gross 
 load of 30 tons is constantly drawn at a speed of 6 or 7 miles per 
 hour on a gradient of i in 50. 
 
 The cost of the electrical equipment of the Bessbrook and 
 Newry line is summarized as follows :— 
 
 S. d. 
 
 Turbine, pen-trough, and driving gear . . 330 o o 
 
 Two generator dynamos, measuring instru¬ 
 ments, and driving belts .... 450 o o 
 
 Conductor at £,200 per mile .... 600 o o 
 
 Two locomotive cars, including their entire 
 
 electrical equipment . . . . . 1,120 o o 
 
 ^2,500 o o 
 
 The cost of each of the above items includes delivery and 
 erection. 
 
 The cost of haulage was carefully ascertained over a period of 
 five months, from November 21st, 1885, to April 22, 1886, and is 
 given as follows :— 
 
BESSBROOK AND NEIVRY TRAMIVAY. 
 
 575 
 
 Wages of driver and attendant at generator 
 station ........ 
 
 Sundry repairs ...... 
 
 Oil, grease, and waste . . . . . 
 
 Rental of water-power . . . . . 
 
 Dynamo brushes, renewals of driving chain 
 and commutators ...... 
 
 s. J. 
 
 32 7 6 
 
 610 
 
 5 4 
 59 16 o 
 
 14 II 6 
 
 118 0 10 
 
 Train mileage, 8,652 
 
 Hence cost per train mile, 3'3d. 
 
 For the six months ending June 30th, 1887, during which 
 period there had been a goods traffic of 8,000 tons over the line, 
 a much larger amount than in the period referred to above, the 
 cost per train-mile was something greater, as follows :— 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Wages ........ 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Sundry repairs and alterations, including the 
 
 
 
 
 cost of changing the winding of four arma- 
 
 
 
 
 tures of the dynamos ..... 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 Oil, grease, and waste ..... 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Rental of water power ..... 
 
 71 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Dynamo brushes and sundry renewals 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 £^79 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 Train mileage, 10,276. 
 
 Hence cost per train mile, 4*26. 
 
 The above amounts do not include anything for depreciation 
 or for general supervision. 
 
 Subjoined are tables showing distribution of the power em¬ 
 ployed :— 
 
576 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Distribution of Power. 
 
 
 ' I 
 
 II.P. hours. 
 
 1 
 
 1 H.P. hours. 
 
 i 
 
 H.P. hours. 
 
 Total water power ...... 
 
 ,, electrical power developed by generator 
 Net power of motor ...... 
 
 Loss in generator ...... 
 
 ,, in line resistance ..... 
 
 ,, leakage ....... 
 
 ,, motor ....... 
 
 Sum of electrical losses ..... 
 
 30-4 
 
 i8-i 
 
 12*6 
 
 1*68 
 
 1*82 
 
 071 
 
 2-07 
 
 6-31 
 
 20*63 
 
 10*86 
 
 7*82 
 
 0*88 
 
 0*65 
 
 0*52 
 
 0*90 
 
 2 ’95 
 
 13*9 
 
 4*71 
 
 3*62 
 
 0*40 
 
 0* 14 
 0*39 
 
 O' 165 
 1*10 
 
 Distribution of Power. 
 
 Gross load .... 
 Mean speed in miles per hour 
 Total energy of water in foot 
 Ihs. ..... 
 Total electrical energy de- '1 
 veloped by generator in > 
 
 foot lbs.) 
 
 Net mechanical energy de¬ 
 veloped bymotorinfoot lbs. 
 Sum of electrical losses in 
 
 foot lbs. 
 
 Loss in generator in foot lbs. 
 
 ,, leakage _ „ 
 
 ,, resistance in line of) 
 
 foot lbs.j 
 
 Loss in motor in foot lbs. 
 Total work done against 
 gravity . . . _ . 
 
 Total work done against 
 friction .... 
 Mean tractive force exclu¬ 
 sive of gravity in lbs. per ton 
 
 First journey. 
 
 Second 
 
 journey. 
 
 Tns. Cts. Qrs. ! Tns. Cts. Qrs 
 
 28 12 3 
 
 57 
 
 60,291,000 
 
 21 18 o 
 
 7*2 
 
 40,860,600 
 
 35,871,000 21,516,000 
 
 24,928,200 
 
 12,493,800 
 
 3,343,000 
 
 1,420,300 
 
 3.613,500 
 
 4,098,600 
 11,867,400 
 
 13,060,800 
 
 28*9 
 
 15,493,500 
 
 5,841,000 
 
 1.735.800 
 1,029,600 
 
 1.296.900 
 
 1.791.900 
 
 7.356.800 
 
 8,136,700 
 
 27-4 
 
 Third journey. 
 
 Tns. Cts. Qrs. 
 
 8160 
 
 11-3 
 
 27,522,000 
 
 9,332,400 
 
 7,170,900 
 
 2,174,700 
 
 801,900 
 
 775,500 
 
 287,100 
 
 326,700 
 
 2,858,300 
 
 4,312,600 
 
 37 ’i 
 
BESSBROOK AND NEWRY TRAMWAY. 
 
 577 
 
 Percentages.’ 
 
 
 ! Eirst journey. 
 
 i 
 
 Second journey. 
 
 Third 
 
 journey. 
 
 Of the 
 water 
 power. 
 
 Of total 
 power of 
 generator. 
 
 Of the 
 water 
 power. 
 
 Of total 
 power of 
 generator. 
 
 Of the 
 water 
 power. 
 
 Of total 
 power of 
 generator 
 
 Water power . 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 _ 
 
 100*0 
 
 
 100*0 
 
 
 Generator power 
 
 59 'S 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 52*6 
 
 100*0 
 
 33*9 
 
 100*0 
 
 Net motor power 
 
 41*3 
 
 69-4 
 
 37*9 
 
 72*0 
 
 26*1 
 
 76*8 
 
 Loss in generator 
 
 5 \S 
 
 9’3 
 
 4*2 
 
 8*0 
 
 2*9 
 
 8*6 
 
 ,, leakage . 
 
 2-3 
 
 3*9 
 
 2*5 
 
 4*8 
 
 2*8 
 
 8*3 
 
 ,, line resistance . 
 
 6’0 
 
 io '6 
 
 3*2 
 
 6*0 
 
 1*0 
 
 3*1 
 
 ,, motor 
 
 6-8 
 
 11*4 
 
 4*4 
 
 8*3 
 
 1*2 
 
 3*5 
 
 The line has been regularly worked since October, 1885. The 
 following table shows the traffic on the line in successive years :— 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Mileage. 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 1886 
 
 12,238 
 
 19,872 
 
 97,636 
 
 1887 
 
 13464 
 
 19,212 
 
 81,275 
 
 1888 
 
 14,928 
 
 20,376 
 
 85,450 
 
 1889 
 
 17.055 
 
 20,424 
 
 85,978 
 
 1890 
 
 16,173 
 
 20,478 
 
 92,447 
 
 1891 
 
 15.852 
 
 21,468 
 
 94465 
 
 Total 
 
 89,710 
 
 121,830 
 
 536,951 
 
 The cost of haulage for the year 1891 was as follows :— 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Wages (drivers, guards, and dynamo engineer) . . 123 12 6 
 
 Maintenanceand repairs of electrical machinery—materials 60 6 4 
 
 „ „ „ wages . 23 18 9 
 
 Oil, grease, and waste . . . . . . . 962 
 
 Water rent ..128 ii o 
 
 Total . . . ;^345 14 9 
 
 Train mileage, 23,468. 
 
 Hence cost per train mile, 3'94d. 
 
 P P 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS: BIRMINGHAM ; 
 BLACKPOOL ; GUERNSEY, 
 
 Birmingham Central Tramways.—Electrical Section. 
 
 The Bristol Road Section of the Birmingham system, three miles 
 long, was opened in 1890. It is worked electrically on the accu¬ 
 mulator principle. The ruling gradients are i in 28 and i in 32. 
 The rails are of steel, girder section, 6 inches high, with a 7-inch 
 flange base, fish-jointed, and weighing 92 lbs. per yard. They are 
 laid on a 6-inch bed of concrete. 
 
 The cars, which resemble the double-bogie car already described 
 (Plate III., page 372), are 6 ^ feet wide, 26^ feet long, to carry 
 24 inside and 26 outside passengers. The two bogie-trucks are 
 about 15 feet apart between centres. The cells of the batteries 
 are carried in trays underneath the seats—six trays on each side 
 of the car, holding eight cells—96 in all. 
 
 Blackpool Electric Tramway. 
 
 The Blackpool tramway is 2 miles in length, and occupies the 
 length of the Esplanade. During the season eight cars are con¬ 
 stantly at work, seating on an average 45 passengers. 
 
 The electricity is generated at a central station, and is conveyed 
 to the cars by means of an underground channel or “ tube ” in 
 the centre of the track, having a narrow slit or opening for 
 communication between the electric motor on the car and electric 
 
BLACKPOOL ELECTRIC TRAMWAY, 
 
 579 
 
 conductors within the channel. The channel is formed strong 
 enough to support the ordinary traffic of the road, and so as to be 
 easily flushed and cleansed. Its surface consists of steel trough- 
 ing filled with wooden paving blocks, and forms a good roadway. 
 The sides of the channel are partially formed of creosoted wood, 
 holding porcelain insulators which carry electric conductors of 
 special drawn copper so formed that they can be readily and 
 securely fixed, and the lengths secured by expansion joints. 
 
 Two conductors are supplied, first, that they may be hidden 
 in the tube under either side, and so be protected from injury 
 by any substance falling through the slit channel; and, secondly, 
 to make it possible to deal with points, loops, and crossings. 
 Only the positive electricity passes along these conductors j the 
 return is made by means of the rails, which are electrically 
 connected one with the other. 
 
 Communication is made with the cars by means of a collector 
 which runs upon the copper conductors within the channel. Insu¬ 
 lated copper bands, protected by steel plates, pass through the slit 
 or opening in the surface of the road, and by a flexible insulated 
 cord attached to an electrical terminal underneath the car, so that 
 when the car moves the collector is drawn along with sufficient 
 force to clear away any ordinary obstruction. But should an 
 absolute block occur, then a special clip releases the collector, and 
 a breakage is avoided. 
 
 From the terminal underneath the car the current passes to the 
 switch-box, where the quantity and direction of the electricity to 
 and within the motor is regulated, and thereby the speed and 
 direction of the car is controlled. 
 
 Switch-boxes are placed at each end of the car, and are provided 
 with removable handles, without which it is impossible to operate 
 them. The driver, who has charge of these handles, can cause 
 the car to move backwards or forwards at will. From the switches 
 the current goes to the motor and there produces mechanical 
 energy. The motor runs at a high speed, and a combination of 
 spur and chain gear is employed to communicate the power to the 
 wheels and drive the car. The gear is specially designed to run 
 
 p p 2 
 
58 o 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 smoothly and silently. From the motor the current passes by way 
 of adjustable clips to the axles, and by them through the wheels to 
 the rails and back to the station where the electricity is generated. 
 
 The engines and dynamos are in duplicate, and so made that 
 they produce just the amount of electric energy required, so that, 
 if no car be running, no work is expended; if one car runs, just 
 enough energy to drive one, and no more; if ten cars, sufficient 
 for them, and so on up to the full capacity of the machines, which 
 are constructed to the requirements of the line. 
 
 The generators fixed at the engine-shed are capable of driving 
 ten loaded cars—sufficient to carry 400 passengers. • 
 
 The capacity for carrying exceptional traffic with a very small 
 increase in the working expenses is exemplified as follows:— 
 
 The number of passengers carried during a week of six days in 
 the winter was 2,393 at a cost, for fuel and wages, under 
 During the week ending September 4th, 1886, which was in the 
 height of the season, the number of passengers carried was 44,306, 
 while the cost of wages and fuel was only;£'45 
 
 Guernsey Electric Tramway. 
 
 This line of tramway consists of three miles of single way with 
 turnouts, following the coast line between St. Peter’s Port and 
 St. Sampson’s. It was originally worked by steam locomotive 
 power, but this service proved to be irregular and unsatisfactory 
 —working over constantly recurring curves and inclines, and stop¬ 
 ping to suit passengers—and it was susperseded about two years 
 ago (1892) by electric power, with overhead conductors, for which 
 the entire equipment was supplied by Siemens Brothers & Co. 
 
 The generating plant consists of two compound steam-engines, 
 each of 25 nominal horse-i^ower, and two locomotive boilers. 
 Each engine is fitted with a Worthington pump, a Friedman 
 
GUERNSE V ELECTRIC TRAMWA V. 581 
 
 injector, and a feedwater heater. The first cylinder of each engine 
 is 10 inches, and the second cylinder 16 inches, in diameter, with 
 a common stroke of 18 inches, making 120 turns per minute. The 
 flywheel is 8 feet in diameter, and weighs 42I cwt. The working 
 pressure is 140 lbs. per square inch. The first cylinders are fitted 
 with Hartnell’s expansion gear. With this gear the speed is nearly 
 constant; within 5 per cent. 
 
 A Siemens compound-wound central station dynamo, capable 
 of giving 100 amperes at a pressure of 500 volts, is belt-driven 
 by each engine, at a speed of 350 revolutions per minute. A 
 Schaffer and Budenberg tacheometer can be connected at will to 
 either dynamo. A single engine and dynamo suffice for ordinary 
 traffic. The sets work alternate fortnights. The average daily 
 run is 17^ hours without stop. An ingenious arrangement of 
 switchboard permits the reserve dynamo to be thrown in at any 
 time, and the load to be halved between the two machines, with¬ 
 out interruption of running. 
 
 The station buildings are of stone and corrugated iron, the 
 power-house, workshop, car, and coal-shed being conveniently 
 connected together. Three tracks run into the car-shed, and each 
 has a pit 46 inches by 54 inches for its entire length, affording easy 
 access to the driving mechanism and running gear. All repairs 
 are made at the station. A separate plant is to be put in for 
 lighting the buildings electrically. 
 
 The working stock consists of seven motor cars and two trailers. 
 Four of the motor cars have bogie trucks and double motors in 
 series, and they seat 68 persons each. The three others have 
 ordinary 4-wheel gear and single motors, seating 52 each. Each 
 motor is of 7 nominal horse-power. With the exception of the 
 motors employed on the two bogie cars last built, the motors are 
 of the Siemens double magnetic circuit type, and are furnished 
 with single reduction gearing. The pinion is of phosphor bronze, 
 and the split wheel on the car axle of cast-steel. The motor casing 
 is of wood, metal lined. The two newest cars have a simple 
 magnetic field type of motor, and chains have been abandoned 
 
ELECTRIC 2RACTION. 
 
 5S2 
 
 in favour of single reduction spur gear. The pinion in this case 
 is cut out of a single block of steel, and carefully polished, 
 the spur-wheel being cast in halves and bolted together on the car 
 axle. This gear runs much more quietly and with less wear and 
 tear than the chain gearing. Armature and gearing are enclosed 
 in a cast brass casing, which serves as an oil bath for the gear, 
 and protects the armature from dust and wet. All armatures are 
 of the drum type. The speed is regulated by the introduction of 
 artificial resistances of iron wire, carried beneath the car flooring. 
 The motors are supported on rubber cushions. The brashes are 
 of copper gauze, and a set lasts from three to four weeks. 
 
 Connection between the overhead conductor and the car is 
 made in the ordinary way by a trolley pole and wheel. The only 
 peculiarity is that the trolley head is connected to the hollow 
 steel pole by means of a piece of ash, being thus insulated from 
 the pole and its base. The insulated cable, carrying the current 
 to the motors, passes through the tubular pole. The trolley itself 
 pivots on a socket-head furnished with ball bearings, and the 
 upright supporting these bearings is screwed into a cast-iron 
 bracket bolted to the side and top of the car. The usual upward 
 pressure of the trolley against the wire is about 26 lbs. 
 
 The trolley wire along the line is supported about 2 feet outside 
 the track by light bracket arm poles. The position of these poles 
 having been fixed by the “ States ” of Guernsey to correspond 
 with those formerly occupied by lamp-posts, the brackets are of 
 varying lengths. At curves, “pull-off” poles and cross suspension 
 wires are employed. According to length of span and strain, 
 three different sizes of poles are used. All are of the Siemens 
 telegraph style, consisting of a cast-iron base, into which is fixed 
 a tubular, conical wrought-iron pole. The trolley wire itself is of 
 9-millimetre hard-drawn copper. The spans vary between 40 
 and 48 yards. The whole overhead construction is very light 
 and inconspicuous. 
 
 The permanent way is very old, and is about (March, 1894) to 
 be replaced. The metals are partly Vignoles and partly old-style 
 
GUERNSEY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 583 
 
 grooved tramway rail. Where tram rails are used, the return 
 circuit is secured by means of lengdis of 4-millimetre copper 
 wire, fixed to the metals by channel pins, and attached to a 
 bare copper return wire, 9 millimetres in diameter, laid between 
 the rails. The Vignoles rails are connected by means of an iron 
 strip riveted to the bottom flange of each rail, and electrically 
 welded to it. With these rails no return wire is used. The weight 
 of rail is uniformly 4i|- lbs. per yard. 
 
 For the three months ending December 31, 1893, the following 
 information is given :— 
 
 Average 
 
 number of cars running .... 
 
 • 
 
 5 
 
 
 daily mileage per car .... 
 
 • 
 
 70 
 
 
 speed per hour in miles .... 
 
 • 
 
 7*2 
 
 
 pounds of coal consumed per car-mile . 
 
 « 
 
 8 
 
 ?? 
 
 number of passengers per car-mile 
 
 . 
 
 7 
 
 
 ,, ,, ,, holidays 
 
 13 
 
 Costs ^er car-mile. 
 
 d. 
 
 Salaries ......... 
 
 Wages and repairs in power-house 
 
 Wages of drivers and conductors .... 
 
 Workshop repairs and car-cleaning 
 Maintenance of permanent way and electrical con¬ 
 ductors ........ 
 
 Coal ......... 
 
 Oil and sundries in power-house . . . . 
 
 ,, ,, repair shop and car-shed 
 
 Printing and stationery ...... 
 
 0*652 
 
 0‘636 
 
 1*716 
 
 1*243 
 
 0*312 
 
 0*747 
 
 0*234 
 
 o*i8t 
 
 0.070 
 
 Total per car-mile 5-79i 
 
 Coal and other stores are expensive on account of freights. 
 The cost of running, strictly speaking, viz.—coal, oil, waste, &c., 
 wages of engine and car drivers, conductors, car cleaners, and 
 everything directly connected with car service—does not exceed 
 4d. per car-mile. 
 
584 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 A four-mile extension of the road to Cobo, and a branch line 
 to Bordeaux Harbour, are now contemplated. Large granite 
 quarries are situated at these points, and it is proposed to run 
 regular freight service, as well as passenger cars, to bring the stone 
 from quarry to ship by the electric line.'^' 
 
 * The matter of this notice is derived from a paper by Mr. Philip 
 Dawson, C.E., in Engineering oi^2SQ\). 30, 1894. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAIL WAY A 
 
 This railway, worked by electricity, was opened for public traffic 
 in December, 1891. The line consists of two independent tun¬ 
 nels formed of cast-iron rings. The sleepers are transverse, resting 
 directly upon these rings, and the rails are spiked thereto, and 
 leave a minimum headway of 9 feet from the rail-level to the 
 highest point of the tunnel. Fig. 342 shows a section of the tunnel 
 and the space available. Where the line passes under the Thames, 
 between Great Dover Street and King William Street, there is on 
 the up line a down-gradient of i in 30 for a distance of 264 feet, 
 and an up-gradient of i in 30 for 462 feet; and on the down line 
 a down-gradient, with the traffic, of i in 14, followed by an up-gra¬ 
 dient of I in 30. At other points of the line the gradients are not 
 severe, the principal being an up-gradient of i in 100 approaching 
 Stockwell Station. The total length of the line is 3 miles 270 
 yards. There are four intermediate stations. 
 
 The generator station is situated at Stockwell, at a distance of 
 about 500 feet from that terminus. There are eight boilers of Lanca¬ 
 shire type, each 28 feet long and 7 feet in diameter, fitted with 
 Vicars’ automatic stokers. The boiler-floor is 12 feet 6 inches below 
 the ground level (Fig. 343), and the boiler-house is roofed over, 
 
 * The materials for this and the succeeding notices have been 
 derived from Dr. Edward Hopkinson’s paper on “Electrical Rail" 
 ways,” invol. cxii., and Mr. Sheibner’s paper on the “ Florence and 
 Fiesole Electric Railway,” in vol. cvi., of the Minutes of Proceed¬ 
 ings of the Instihition of Civil Engineers. 
 
586 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 except immediately above the stokehole, so as to provide room 
 for a fuel store. By this arrangement the fuel can be shovelled 
 direct into the hoppers of the stokers. The pressure at the 
 boilers is 140 lbs. per square inch. In addition to providing 
 steam for the electric-generating engines, the boilers are required 
 for producing steam for the powerful hydraulic plant, and the 
 
 Fig. 342. 
 
 City and South London Railway: Transverse Section of Tunnel. 
 
 auxiliary engines of the repairing shop, the compressed-air pumps, 
 and the hauling engine for drawing the locomotives and carriages 
 up the inclined w^ay connecting the Stockwell Terminus with 
 the depot. The boilers are set on Livet’s principle of expand¬ 
 ing flues, and are arranged in two groups of four, with indepen¬ 
 dent flues and chimneys. The steam-pipes from the two groups 
 are arranged so that either or both can be connected to the main 
 
CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY. 
 
 587 
 
 pipes crossing beneath the yard to the engine-house, otherwise 
 there is no duplication of the steam-pipe system. The exhaust 
 steam from all the engines passes by a single pipe through the 
 water heaters to the chimney. As there is no water available for 
 condensing purposes, all the engines are non-condensing; steam 
 power, therefore, is not produced under the most economical 
 conditions. 
 
 There were originally three engines, each of them driving one 
 generating dynamo ; but the Company has since added a fourth 
 similar engine and dynamo in view of the extension of the line to 
 Clapham, and to meet the requirements of the Board of Trade aS 
 to reserve power. The engines are of the vertical compound 
 
 Fig. 343.—City and South London Railway : Boiler-house and Engine-house 
 
 at Generator Station. 
 
 open type; the cylinders are side by side, 17 inches and 27 inches 
 in diameter respectively, and 27 inches stroke. The fly-wheels 
 are 14 feet in diameter and carried between the cranks, which 
 are of disc form. Both cylinders are steam-jacketed in the 
 barrels, with high-pressure steam, and are fitted with slide-valves, 
 with cut-off valves on both cylinders, controlled by the governors. 
 The engines run at one hundred revolutions per minute. They are 
 each capable of indicating 400 H.P., and drive the dynamos with 
 link-leather belts, which are provided with jockey pulleys to allow 
 of the distance between the engine and the dynamo centres being 
 reduced without unduly diminishing the area of contact on the 
 driven pulleys. 
 
588 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACT/ON. 
 
 The generating dynamos are of the Edison-Hopkinson type, 
 with bar armatures ipf inches in diameter. The field-magnet 
 coils are wound with both shunt and series coils, but the latter 
 can be half short-circuited, or entirely so, at will, by means of 
 switches fixed on the dynamo. Each dynamo is capable of giving 
 an output of 450 amperes at 500 volts, running at a speed of 500 
 revolutions per minute. The following are the electrical con¬ 
 stants of the machines : Resistance of armature, o'oiy ohms; of 
 shunt coils, 96*0 ohms; of series coils, o’oi5 ohms. 
 
 The electrical efficiency at full speed is 96 per cent., and 
 the weight of the armature is 37 cwt. The weight of the entire 
 machine is 17 tons. 
 
 Careful independent experiments were made upon the efficiency 
 of conversion, which showed that the frictional losses amounted 
 to 27 per cent, of the full load. Hence the commercial full-load 
 efficiency is 93'4 per cent. 
 
 The switch-board is arranged so that any of the four generators 
 can be coupled to any of the four feeders, either independently or 
 in parallel, and that any fresh combination can be instantly 
 effected without interruption of the working. The electromotive 
 force of each dynamo is measured by a Kelvin electrostatic mul¬ 
 ticellular voltmeter, and the current passing through each feeder 
 is measured by an ampere-meter. The leakage of any part of the 
 entire system of conductors, when subjected to the full potential, 
 can be measured by a special low range ampere-meter. The 
 feeders are provided with fusible cut-outs and quick-acting safety 
 switches, which automatically throw a resistance into circuit if the 
 current exceeds a certain amount; the object being to prevent 
 injury if an accidental short circuit should take place on any part 
 of the system. 
 
 From the switch-board there are four feeders, two of which are 
 connected to the working conductors at Great Dover Street 
 station, a distance of 12,800 feet from the generating station. The 
 other two are coupled in parallel as far as Stockwell, and one is 
 continued to the Oval, where it is connected to the working con¬ 
 ductors at a distance of 4,330 feet from the generator station. 
 
CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY. 589 
 
 The cables, which were manufactured by the Fowler-Waring 
 Company, consist of a standard core of 61—14 B.W.G., insu¬ 
 lated and sheathed with lead, and have an insulation resistance 
 of not less than 500 megohms per mile. They are carried along 
 the tunnels supported on the brackets carrying the hydraulic pipes. 
 
 The working conductor is similar to that adopted for the Bess- 
 brook and Newry Tramway, and consists of channel steel laid 
 between the rails, and carried on glass insulators fixed to alternate 
 sleepers. The channel weighs 10 lbs. per lineal yard, and was 
 rolled from mild ductile steel of special composition. The suitable 
 proportions of carbon, silicon, and manganese for steel conductors 
 have already been discussed. By eliminating the silicon and slightly 
 diminishing the carbon, a steel was obtained having a specific 
 resistance as low as 0*0000105 ohm at 24° Centigrade, although 
 the amount of manganese allowed was somewhat increased. 
 This corresponds to a resistance of 0*0503 ohm per 1,000 feet. 
 
 It will be observed that the level of the conductor is i inch be¬ 
 low that of the rail-level. This, of course, necessitates arrange¬ 
 ments for the lifting of the collectors over the crossing-rail at 
 points. The conductor is broken on either side the crossing-rail, 
 and replaced by inclined planes of wood, up which the collectors 
 slide till raised to a level of i inch above the crossing-rail, which 
 passes through a gap left in the wooden runners. The collectors 
 cross the gap at an angle, and are wide enough to bridge it. As 
 each locomotive is provided with three collectors, the continuity 
 of the circuit is never broken, as the leading collector makes con¬ 
 tact with the steel conductor in advance of the break before the 
 trailing collector leaves the conductor behind the break. The 
 conductor is also divided into sections, and arranged so that any 
 section can be coupled through automatic cut-outs to the adjacent 
 sections, or independently to the feeders. Thus any section can 
 be isolated for the purpose of testing or repairs, and is automati¬ 
 cally disconnected in case of any accident causing a short circuit 
 to earth. The return circuit is through the rails, which are prac¬ 
 tically uninsulated. In such a system high insulation from the 
 earth is neither aimed at nor required, provided the power lost in 
 
590 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 leakage is inconsiderable. The actual leakage on the entire 
 system, consisting of dynamos, feeders, and working conductors, 
 tested at 500 volts pressure, is generally about ^ ampere, corre¬ 
 sponding with a loss of 0*3 H.P., and it rarely exceeds one ampere 
 under the most unfavourable atmospheric conditions. 
 
 The essential feature in the design of the locomotives, Figs. 
 344 and 345, is, that the armatures of the motors are built 
 directly upon the axles, wlhle the magnets are supported partly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 T> 
 
 c 
 
 —L 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 r “ 
 
 
 1 - 
 
 I'l 
 
 1 1 
 
 _ 
 
 r 
 
 0 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 i— 
 
 Fig. 344. — City and South London Railway: Locomotive. Showing Motors. 
 
 on the axle and partly on the frame. Thus gearing is entirely 
 obviated, and the mechanism is reduced to the simplest elements. 
 Although this principle of direct driving was suggested many 
 years ago by the late Sir William Siemens, it has not previously 
 been applied in practice. The field-magnets embrace the arma¬ 
 ture, leaving but an exceedingly narrow “ gap," and are sup¬ 
 ported in part by brackets parallel to the axle with bearings 
 upon it, and partly by links connecting the yoke to a cross¬ 
 beam of the locomotive frame, thus permitting limited freedom 
 
CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY. 
 
 591 
 
 of angular motion of the field round the axle, and compensating 
 for the rise and fall of the axle-boxes in the horn-blocks. The 
 weight of one axle with its wheel, axle-boxes, and springs, and 
 with the armature attached, is 24 cwts., and the part of the weight 
 of the magnets resting on the axle is 10 cwts., whence the total 
 dead weight on each axle is 34 cwts. 
 
 The two motors on each locomotive on the South London line 
 
 Fig. 345. City and South London Railway : Locomotive. Perspective view. 
 
 are each capable of developing 50 H.P. at a speed of 25 miles 
 per hour, corresponding to 310 revolutions of the axle per minute. 
 The magnets are of the Edison-Hopkinson” form and series- 
 wound ; and the armatures are of the Gramme-ring type. The 
 resistance of the magnet coils of each motor is o'oSy ohm, and of 
 the armature 0*3 ohm. The two motors are connected electri¬ 
 cally in series. The current from the conductor is conveyed from 
 sliding collectors through a fusible cut-out and main switch to 
 
592 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION, 
 
 a rheostat switch for inserting resistance at starting; thence it 
 passes through a reversing switch to the motors, and finally 
 through the axle-boxes and wheels to the rails of the permanent¬ 
 way. The motor-magnets are proportioned relatively to the 
 armature, precisely as in a dynamo, and are wound so as to be 
 nearly saturated with the mean working current. Above this 
 point the curve of tractive force and current is approximately a 
 straight line, giving a tractive force of i,i8o lbs. with loo amperes, 
 and a maximum of 3,000 lbs. with 226 amperes. The trains are 
 fitted with the Westinghouse continuous automatic brake, applied, 
 however, in a novel manner suggested by Mr. Greathead. In 
 place of a pump working continuously on the locomotive, the 
 latter is provided with two reservoirs placed under the curved 
 side-plates of the cab, each of about 8*25 cubic feet capacity. At 
 the end of each double journey these are charged with air at 
 80 lbs. pressure, from a small reservoir erected at Stockwell, the 
 pressure in which is maintained by two small pumps in the engine- 
 house. The reservoirs on the locomotives are of sufficient capacity 
 to provide for about thirty stops from full speed. This system 
 has proved both convenient in practice and economical, the total 
 amount of steam required for the brakes being about 1*5 per 
 cent, of the entire consumption. In addition to the Westinghouse 
 brake, a powerful hand-screw brake is fitted on each locomotive. 
 The locomotives and carriages are lighted with glow-lamps sup¬ 
 plied direct from the conductor, an arrangement which has 
 the merits of simplicity and cheapness, but is open to the ob¬ 
 jection that the light is necessarily subject to some fluctuation, 
 owing to the variations of the electromotive force of the con¬ 
 ductor. 
 
 The following are the leading dimensions of the locomotives :— 
 
 Length over central buffers 
 ,, ,, cab ,, 
 
 Wheel base 
 Diameter of wheels 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 14 O 
 
 10 O 
 6 O 
 2 4 
 
CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY. 
 
 595 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 Gauge ........ 48^ 
 
 Extreme width of cab ..... 63 
 
 Height, rail level to floor plate ... 25:^ 
 
 ,, floor plate to roof .... bo 
 
 Weight of entire locomotive, 10 tons 7 cwt. 
 
 ,, ,, motors only, with wheels and axles, 6 tons. 
 
 Of the fourteen locomotives first supplied thirteen are of the 
 direct-acting type, and one is a geared locomotive. Since the 
 opening of the line two additional locomotives have been furnished 
 by Messrs. Siemens Brothers. In these the general feature of the 
 design described have been followed, but the armatures are of 
 “drum” in place of Gramme type. 
 
 The efficiency of the system is considered in three stages:—the 
 production of electric power; the distribution of electric power; 
 and the reconversion of electrical into mechanical power. 
 
 (i.) The daily consumption of water for all power purposes is 
 about 330,000 pounds, evaporated by 21 tons of North-country 
 slack, or 7 pounds per pound of fuel. From 60 to 67 per cent, of 
 the total steam produced is absorbed by the electric generating 
 engines, consuming about 14 tons of coal per day. The average 
 “ load ” on each engine is approximately “ 230 horse-power,” 
 represented by 27*5 pounds of water per H.P. per hour. 
 
 The efficiency of the engines and dynamos combined was ascer¬ 
 tained by indicating the engines and measuring the electrical 
 output at the terminals of the dynamos, when working on a steady 
 load. These experiments show an average efficiency of available 
 electrical H.P. against indicated H.P. of—at full load, 78 per 
 cent.; at three-quarters load, 70 per cent.; at half-load, 65 per 
 cent. 
 
 The daily consumption of electrical energy is about 3,700 
 Board of Trade units, which are produced from the combustion 
 of 14 tons of coal, or 8*4 lbs. of North-country coal per Board 
 of Trade unit, corresponding to about 7*5 lbs. of Welsh coal 
 per unit. 
 
594 
 
 ELECTRIC 'TRACTION. 
 
 (2.) The efficiency of distribution is not of general interest, as 
 it depends solely upon the resistance of the conductors. It is 
 sufficient to state that the average full load loss in the long feeders 
 running to Great Dover Street is 57 per cent., and in the short 
 feeders 3’5 per cent. Thus the total loss in the feeders is 9*2 
 per cent. The distant feeders are usually coupled to a generator- 
 dynamo working full-compound, while the home feeders are con¬ 
 nected to a generator working half-compound, and thus compensat¬ 
 ing for the loss of electromotive force in the feeders. The loss in 
 the working conductors can only he estimated from the average 
 current in each section and the known resistance. It probably 
 does not exceed one per cent., making the total loss in distri¬ 
 bution a little more than 10 per cent, of the total electrical power 
 generated. This represents a daily expenditure of fuel of about 
 1 4 tons of North-country coal, which is almost the exact equivalent 
 of the interest on ^-^7,000, the actual cost of the conductors. 
 Thus the continuing cost of distribution is a minimum. 
 
 (3.) The results of observations made with train-loads of from 
 35 tons to 40 tons show the electrical efficiency of the entire 
 system to be about 62 per cent. The loss in the conductors being 
 a little over 10 per cent., the average electrical efficiency of the 
 locomotives is 70 per cent. The 30 per cent, of loss includes the 
 power absorbed in the starting resistance—probably one-half. The 
 average speed of working, including intermediate stoppages, is 
 11*5 miles per hour, and of actual running between stations 13'5 
 per hour. The maximum speed attained between stations varies 
 from 20 to 25 miles per hour. The weight of a normally loaded 
 train is 40 tons. The daily mileage for the half-year ending 
 June 30, 1892, was 1,120; hence the consumption of fuel per 
 train-mile is 28 lbs. of North-country coal, equivalent to about 
 25 lbs. of Welsh coal. This result compares very favourably 
 with the best results of American tramway practice, having regard 
 to relative loads and speeds. 
 
 The working expenses for the four half-years, 1891—1892, are 
 given in the following table ;— 
 
Cost of Locomotive and Generating Power, City and South London Railway, 
 
 1891—1892. 
 
 CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILIVAY. 
 
 595 
 
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 (—1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 so 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 p 
 
 T3 
 
 C^ 
 
 T3 
 
 GO 
 
 03 
 
 £ 
 
 .£ 
 
 <3 
 
 S-i 
 
 -t—> 
 
 V-1 
 
 03 
 
 Oh 
 
 c/3 
 
 03 
 
 c/3 
 
 G 
 
 03 
 
 CU 
 
 X 
 
 CU 
 
 be 
 
 c 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 0 0 2 
 
596 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 For the last half-year, the total working cost is 7‘id. per train 
 mile. During the two years since the opening of the line in 
 December, 1890, the locomotives ran more than 820,000 miles, 
 having carried over 12,000,000 passengers. The yearly mileage 
 run per locomotive in regular running exceeds 30,000 miles. 
 
 The costs of working the generator station and the locomo¬ 
 tives, excluding office expenses, are given below separately; 
 the cost of production of electricity, and the cost of locomotive 
 power, or of utilising the electric current and reconverting it into 
 mechanical power. The total cost of the generating power is 
 4'59d. per train mile, and that of the locomotive power is 2'3id. 
 per train mile. 
 
 City and South London Railway^ : Locomotive and 
 Generating Power Separately. 
 
 Half-year ending December 31, 1892. 
 
 Train mileage ..... 214,417 
 
 Number of passengers .... 3,317,602 
 
 Cost of Working Generator Station excluding 
 
 Wages . 
 
 Fuel 
 
 Water and gas 
 Oil and stores 
 Repairs and renewals 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 d. 
 
 1,012 
 
 I • 12 per train mile. 
 
 2,172 
 
 2-42 ,, 
 
 2^2 
 
 0-28 
 
 368 
 
 0-41 
 
 321 
 
 0-36 ,, 
 
 4.125 
 
 4'59 ,, 
 
 Equivalent to i-56d. per Board of Trade unit. 
 
 Cost of Locomotive Working excluding Office Expenses. 
 
 £ d. 
 
 Wages.1,776 I'98 per train mile. 
 
 Oiland stores .... 89 o-io 
 
 Repairs and renewals . . , 208 0-23 
 
 2,073 
 
 2*31 
 
 6-90 ,, 
 
 Total ;,^6 ,i98 
 
CITY AND SOUTH LONDON RAILWAY, 
 
 597 
 
 Since the foregoing results were produced the statements of 
 accounts for the half-year ending June 30, 1893, have been pub¬ 
 lished. The revenue expenditure was as follows :— 
 
 Revenue Expenditure for Half-year ending June 30, 1893. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Maintenance of Way, Works, and Stations . 452 13 i 
 
 Locomotive and Generating 
 
 Power 
 
 
 • 5^876 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 Carriage repairs 
 
 . 
 
 
 480 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Traffic expenses 
 
 
 
 • 5>799 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 General charges 
 
 
 
 1,710 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 Passenger duty 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 Law charges . 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Rates and taxes 
 
 
 
 554 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Compensations 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 Expenditure . 
 
 • 
 
 
 14^964 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Train miles run . 
 
 . 
 
 2T 
 
 7,661 miles. 
 
 
 Number of passengers 
 
 
 . 3,146,656 
 
 
 
 ,, season tickets 
 
 • 
 
 299 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Receipts . . . . 
 
 21,748 
 
 12 6 
 
 
 
 
 ,, season tickets 
 
 709 
 
 14 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,458 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 ,, parcels, &c. . 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 Total (24'8d. per train 
 
 mile) 
 
 « • 
 
 22,477 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Expenditure (i6'5d. ,, 
 
 ) 
 
 « « 
 
 14,964 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 The locomotive and generating power together amount to 
 ^5,876 IS. lod., or 6'5d. per train mile, against 7*id. for the pre¬ 
 ceding half-year, ending December 31, 1892, already noted. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CONTINENTAL ELECTRICAL RAILWAYS.— 
 FLORENCE AND FIESOLE RAILWAY. 
 
 Six Continental Electrical Railways. 
 
 Mr. Sheibner gives the subjoined table, based on official 
 documents, for the purpose of comparison. It comprises the 
 leading features, working cost, and performance of six electric 
 railways on the continent. On the old Lichterfelde line, the 
 first in the table, the circuit is formed simply by the rails. On 
 the next four lines, both the conducting and contact wires are 
 placed overhead, but laterally to the line, the current being 
 transmitted to the cars by a small trolley running in a slot along 
 the contact wire ; whereas the Florence line has the simpler 
 arrangement of a central overhead contact wire and trolley-pole. 
 
 The Pesth lines are the only lines constructed on the under¬ 
 ground channel-and-slot system, which is of necessity very costly 
 in construction ; so much so that, for sake of economy, an ex¬ 
 tension of the lines has been made with overhead wires. On the 
 Modling line, power is generated by a locomotive engine of 140 
 horse-power, in addition to three small stationary engines of 
 15 horse-power each. On the Montreux line, local water-power 
 owned by the company is utilised, the dynamos being driven by 
 two turbines of 120 horse-power each. The average cost of con¬ 
 struction of these two lines and the Florence line was ^4,200 per 
 mile ; the average working expenditure is 45 centimes per train- 
 kilometre, or 7d. per train-mile. The three lines Mr. Sheibner 
 takes as typical examples of economy, efficiency, and success. 
 
Leading Feati^res, Working Cosr, and Performance of Six Continental 
 
 Electric Railways, 1881—90. 
 
 COi\ 77 XENTAL ELECTRICAL RAILWAYS. 599 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Systim. 
 
 1 
 
 \ Siemens and 
 
 1 Halske 
 
 n 
 
 i Vevey and 
 
 ' Montreux 
 
 ) Electric 
 
 ( Works Co. j 
 
 \ Siemens and 
 
 1 Halske 
 
 Sprague 
 
 aad s. 5 su 3 dxj 
 JoUi:>[jo^\Y 
 
 «3 ox 0 ON fO 00 
 
 CVI 00 .10 
 
 G • • • • * 
 
 0 - w CO 
 
 •utiJ 8.140m 
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 jod sosuodxo 
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 S 0 i-n 
 
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 C 1'^ *-) ■rj- lt, U 
 
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 0 « 0 00 0 
 
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 tU ^ .s 
 
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 , . . lO 1 '» . CM 
 
 . . LTV CO M . 1- 
 
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 jod 
 
 OUI[ JO 4S03 
 
 ^ 000 0 
 
 u 000 0 
 
 C • • 0^ 0 0^ • 
 
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 RTOX 
 
 0,' . . CO 0 0 00 
 
 • . . CO CO 'cj- 0 
 
 S H- CM CM Ln CM 
 
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 • 4 U 8 ipT’ 4 S 
 
 luamixBj^ 
 
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 •oSnBQ 
 
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 tiOOOO "d" 
 
 OJ • • • • • • • 
 
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 Name ot 
 line. 
 
 Berlin and 
 Lichterfelde 
 Ditto Ex¬ 
 tension 
 Mddling 
 (Vienna) 
 Frankfort & 
 Offenbach 
 
 Vevey and 
 Montreux 
 
 Buda-Pesth 
 
 Florence 
 and Fiesole 
 
 Opened 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 1881 
 
 j 
 
 1888 
 
 1883—5 
 
 1884 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 1890 
 
6 oo 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 The Florence and Fiesole Electrical Railway. 
 
 This line is 7*3 kilometres, or 4J miles, long, having gradients 
 up to I in i 2 h; and is the first continuous steep-grade electric 
 railway in Europe. It is worked on the overhead system of con¬ 
 ductors. The line was opened throughout in April, 1891. Of 
 the total length, 52 per cent, is in curves, down to 59 feet radius, 
 and is chiefly on the steep-grade section. The electric works 
 are situated at St. Gervasio, about miles from Florence. 
 
 The general arrangement of the station, with engines, dynamos, 
 &c., is shown in Fig. 346 (Plate VII.). Steam 
 is supplied from three return-flue boilers. 
 Fig. 347, 6*56 feet in diameter, with an inside 
 flue I metre in diameter, to work three vertical 
 compound engines of 80 horse-power each, 
 making 225 revolutions per minute, and driving 
 three Edison compound dynamos. Fig. 348 
 (Plate VII.), which, at 900 turns per minute, 
 give no amperes at 500 volts, each dynamo 
 developing 75 effective horse-power, or 93 per 
 cent, of the engine-power. There are, at least, one engine and one 
 dynamo always kept in reserve. Cardiff coal is consumed at the rate 
 of about 1,980 pounds per engine per day, making steam of 140 lbs. 
 per sq. in. The feed-water is heated up to 176° F. before use. 
 
 An overhead main conductor, consisting of a covered copper 
 wire. No. 3, B.W.G., is carried on poles placed at a distance of 
 from feet to 13 feet from the centre of line, and 130 feet apart 
 in straight sections, and from 80 feet to 100 feet in curves. They 
 are 30 feet high, and are let feet into the ground. In Florence 
 they consist of ornamental cast-iron columns, with brackets. 
 Fig. 349, the insulators being fixed at the top ; but in the open 
 and up to Fiesole, timber poles are used. The contact wire, 
 of silicon bronze, 5 millimetres, or ^-inch thick (No. 4, B.W.G.), 
 is suspended over the centre of the way, 20 feet above the level 
 of the rails, from the brackets of the iron columns or poles, 
 when the line runs alongside the road; and from transverse wires 
 
 Fig. 347. Fiesole 
 Railway : Sec¬ 
 tion of Boiler. 
 
Fig. 349. Susjir ; Plan. 
 
 ^ FIESOLE 
 
 [ To face page 600. 
 
Plate VII 
 
 Fig. 350. Car: Elevation. 
 
 Fig, 351. Cai-:Plan. 
 
 FLORENCE 
 
 AND FIESOLE ELECTRICAL RAILWAY, 
 
 [ To face page 600 
 
FLORENCE AND FIESOLE RAILWAY. 6 o I 
 
 hung from poles on both sides on the road, where the way is 
 situated in the middle of the roadway. In curves, the contact 
 wire is kept in position by diagonal wires as well. The current is 
 transmitted by the main conductor to the contact wire in sections 
 of about 130 feet; with two subsidiary conductors connected with 
 the main conductor, between St. Gervasio and Fiesole. From 
 the overhead wires the current passes through the trolley and 
 motors of the car to the rails, which form the return-circuit. To 
 insure perfect continuity of the circuit, the rails are connected at 
 each joint by a copper wire fixed to small iron pins which pass 
 through the flanges of the rail. Earth-plates are not used. 
 
 The small trolley wheel is 2 inches in diameter, and it runs 
 along the lower surface of the contact-wire carried on a tubular 
 pole 15 feet high, 2 inches in mean diameter, which has a lateral 
 
 Figs. 352, 353. Fiesole Railway : Trolley Pole. 
 
 play of 3 feet, and a vertical play of 10 feet, and is reversible, its 
 lower end being fitted to a channel-iron riveted to the centre of 
 the roof of the car (Figs. 350, 352, and 353). When the train is in 
 motion in one direction, the trolley pole is inclined in the opposite 
 direction at an angle of about 40°, projecting beyond the back 
 platform, and brought under the control of the guard by means of 
 a loose cord suspended from it. 
 
 Each car. Figs. 350, 351, carries two motors, of which the arma¬ 
 tures consist of twenty-eight spirals of *64 ohm. resistance each, 
 the maximum efficiency being 90 per cent., less 25 per cent, 
 due to loss by gearing. They are suspended between the car- 
 
602 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 axles and a transverse channel-iron riveted to the frame. The 
 motion is transmitted to the car-wheels by toothed gearing, 
 Fig. 354, in the ratio of i to 12. The dimensions are given 
 in the following tablet. The smaller wheels of each pair are 
 of bronze, in view of the greater stress on steep inclines. They 
 are encased in metal boxes. 
 
 Pinion. 
 
 Dimensions of teeth. 
 
 Diameter at 
 pitch line. 
 
 1 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Length. 
 
 No. 
 
 IMillimetres. 
 
 Millimetres. 
 
 ^Millimetres. 
 
 Millimetres. , 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 7-5 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 7-5 
 
 95 
 
 400 1 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 I 0‘0 
 
 100 
 
 140 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 lO'O 
 
 100 
 
 420 
 
 The motors are placed immediately under the floor, as in 
 Fig- 351- They are of the Sprague type, and they have three 
 conductors which can be coupled in seven different ways, by 
 
 - 2.4 rr.o-i 
 
 Fig. 354. Fiesole Railway : 
 Car. Gearing of Motor. 
 
 Fig. 355 - Fiesole Rail 
 way : Regulator of Car. 
 
 means of the regulator. Fig. 355, on the platform—so varying the 
 speed. The motors are tested to develop up to 20 horse-power 
 each, or 40 horse-power for both ; which at 736 volt amperes per 
 horse-power, and a potential of 500 volts, is equal to 60 amperes, 
 derived from the main conductor, and represents (40 x 75=) 
 
FLORENCE AND FIE SOLE RAILIVAY. 
 
 603 
 
 3000 metre-kilogrammes, less 25 per cent, for friction by gearing, or 
 2250 metre-kilogrammes, equal to or 30 effective horse-power. 
 The effective powers required on the three sections into which for 
 convenience the line is divided, at the regulation speeds of 14, 10, 
 and 8 kilometres per hour, are respectively 4,16, 2ohorse-poweronly. 
 
 The cars are 14.4 feet long, or 20 feet long including the end 
 platforms, 8^ feet wide outside, seated for 24 passengers. The 
 total height is 10 feet above the rails. The wheel-base is 6 feet 
 long. The weight empty is 5 tons; full, 7 J tons. The body of 
 the car rests on four vertical springs. Curves of 14 metres and 
 12 metres can be passed with perfect safety. Each platform 
 is fitted with a regulator disk, a sand-valve handle, a mechanical 
 chain-brake, and an electric safety-brake. The roof is 10 feet 
 below the contact-wire. 
 
 The cost of construction was as follows :— 
 
 £ 
 
 Works, way, sidings, buildings, stations, and accessories 13,000 
 Three boilers and three engines, of 80 horse-power each 4,000 
 Electric plant, three dynamos, twelve car-frames, with 
 
 motors, wires, &c. ....... 9,000 
 
 Twelve passenger-cars ....... 1,000 
 
 Telephone and sundries ...... 1,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 Or at the rate of ;^6,i44 per mile. 
 
 The working expenditure, based on an average of 375 car- 
 miles run per day, is as follows ;— 
 
 i 
 
 Lire per day. 
 
 Pence per 
 car-mile. 
 
 Traffic (guards, inspectors) 
 
 38 
 
 0‘96 
 
 Maintenance ..... 
 
 27 
 
 0’68 
 
 Motive power, including car drivers 
 Depreciation and renewals of boilers, 
 electric plant, cars, line 
 
 110 
 
 2'80 
 
 00 
 
 2‘08 
 
 General charges 
 
 41 
 
 
 ^ Total lire .... 
 
 297 
 
 7-58 
 
6 o 4 
 
 ELEOTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Mr. Sheibner estimates that if instead of by electricity, the line 
 were worked by eight ordinary 16-ton locomotives, or by eight 
 12-ton combined adhesion and rack engines, the total cost of 
 construction would have been as follows :— 
 
 Works 
 
 
 
 Adhesion. 
 
 £ 
 
 . 13,000 
 
 Adhesion and rack. 
 £ 
 
 13,000 
 
 Rack, 27 kilometres 
 
 « 
 
 
 — 
 
 4,000 
 
 Eight engines . 
 
 . 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 Twelve carriages 
 
 
 
 . 2,400 
 
 2,400 
 
 Sundries . 
 
 - 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 21,400 
 
 28,400 
 
 The expenditure per day of one of these engines, running loo 
 kilometres or 6o miles per day, is :— 
 
 Lire. 
 
 Fuel, 600 kilogrammes, 40 lire per ton . . 24 
 
 Oil and repairs ....... 6 
 
 Driver and stoker ...... 9 
 
 Total 
 
 33 = ;^i *32 
 
 IS 
 
 Hence, for six engines running, with two in reserve, the cost 
 
 214 X100 
 
 214 lire per day= 
 
 35.7 centimes per train- 
 
 600 kilos. 
 
 kilometre, or 5.46 pence per train-mile, which is nearly 
 double the cost for electric motive power. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY. 
 
 This railway^' is 6;V miles in length, of which 5|- miles are now 
 worked (March, 1894). Thirteen stations are in use, and four 
 are to be added. The gradients are easy, excepting two short 
 gradients of i in 40, under-crossing a coal line. The sharpest 
 carves are of 7 chains radius. The line is carried on cast-iron 
 columns, of which the normal span is 50 feet, with bow-string 
 lattice and plate girders. 
 
 The way consists of flat-bottomed steel rails, weighing 56 lbs. 
 per yard, fixed on longitudinal timbers which are held down to 
 the floor by iron lugs riveted on to it, and oak keys. Figs. 356, 
 357. On the curves these timbers vary in thickness according 
 to the necessary super-elevation of rail. The rails are fixed by 
 spikes and fang-bolts, special care being taken in fixing them to 
 avoid metallic contact with the main structure. The electrical 
 conductor, which consists of a steel bar 4 square inches in section, 
 of I I form, is placed midway between the rails of each line, 
 and is carried on porcelain insulators supported by cross-timbers. 
 The joints are provided with copper connections, and since the 
 return current is brought back through the rails, a bent iron bond 
 riveted through the web of the rails is fixed at each fish-joint. 
 Cables laid under ground from the railway to the generating- 
 
 * See a paper on “ The Liverpool Overhead Railway,” by Messrs. 
 J. H. Greathead, Francis Fox, and Thomas Parker, in the Minutes 
 of Proceedings of the Institiction of Civil Engineers, vol. cxvii., 
 1893 -94. 
 
6o6 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Station, a distance of 6o yards, connect the conductors and the 
 rails with the dynamos. 
 
 One train consists of two carriages, each 45 feet long and 
 8^ feet wide, on two bogies, 32 feet apart from centre-pin to 
 centre-pin, with 2-feet 9-inch wheels, 7-feet wheel-base and pressed 
 steel frames. The carriages are all exactly alike and contain 
 accommodation for sixteen first-class and forty-one second-class 
 passengers in each carriage, with three side doors and a passage 
 from end to end. The first-class passengers are at one end of the 
 
 Fig. 356.—Liverpool Overhead Railway ; Section of Conductor Crossing. 
 
 carriage, and the driver’s box with switches, etc., is at the other. 
 When the two carriages are coupled together to form a train, the 
 driver’s boxes are at the extreme ends and the two first-class com¬ 
 partments consequently together in the middle of the train. A 
 small door through the contiguous ends of the carriages enables 
 the guard or attendant to pass from end to end of the train. 
 
 The motors, one at each end of the train, are controlled from 
 either end; the driver, of course, always travelling at the front 
 end of the train and changing ends upon arrival at a terminus, 
 carrying with him a key without which the motors cannot be 
 
LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RALLWAY. 
 
 607 
 
 operated. In a train thus arranged one driver and one conductor 
 constitute the train staff, the guard as well as the driver having it 
 in his power to cut off the current from the motors and to apply 
 the brakes. 
 
 The trains are fitted with the Westinghouse automatic brake, 
 deriving its supply of compressed air from a reservoir on the train. 
 The reservoir has a capacity sufficient for two complete journeys 
 and is recharged each journey from a receiver placed at the 
 terminus at the north end of the line. 
 
 A hand-brake is also provided at each end of the train. 
 
 tiG. 357.—Liverpool Overhead Railway: Bogie with Armature. 
 
 Transverse section. 
 
 The generating-station, Plate VIII. (Figs. 358, 359), is under 
 the arches of the coal-railway of the Lancashire and Yorkshire 
 Railway Company at Wellington Dock. The coal, bituminous 
 slate, is here tipped direct from the railway trucks into large 
 hoppers placed over the boilers, and is distributed by means of a 
 conveyor to the shoots of the Vicars mechanical stokers with 
 which the furnaces are fitted. There is thus no handling of the 
 coal. Water from the adjacent dock is used for condensing, and 
 the town water for the boilers. 
 
 The boilers are of the double-flue Lancashire type with cross 
 tubes ; they are of steel, 6 in number, each 8 feet in diameter by 
 30 feet long, with a working-pressure of 120 lbs. per square inch, 
 
6 o8 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 and Green economisers in duplicate are fixed in the main flues. 
 The steam and feed-pipe ranges are also in duplicate. The 
 engines are four in number, each consisting of a pair of horizontal 
 compound condensing engines, built by Messrs. Musgrave & Co. 
 of Bolton, who contracted with the Electric Construction Corpora¬ 
 tion to supply the engines and boilers complete, and with the 
 Company to erect the chimney shaft (165 feet high), foundations 
 of boilers, engines, etc. The high-pressure cylinders are 15^ 
 inches, and the low-pressure 31 inches in diameter, with a stroke 
 of 36 inches, fitted with Corliss valves driven by Trip gear, acted 
 on directly by the governor. Each engine will develop 400 EH.P. 
 at 100 revolutions per minute with 120 lbs. boiler-pressure. All 
 the engines exhaust to one condenser of the tubular surface type. 
 The centrifugal circulating pump and air-pumps are driven by a 
 Musgrave “ No-dead-centre ” vertical compound engine, and the 
 condensing-plant is in duplicate. 
 
 Each engine drives an Elwell-Parker dynamo, from which the 
 current is conveyed north and south along each line of the railway 
 by the steel conductor already described. Hinged collectors of 
 cast iron, sliding upon this conductor, the upper surface of which 
 is about f inch higher than rail level, allow the current, when 
 required, to pass through the motors and to return by the wheels 
 and the rails to the dynamos. At the crossings the conductor is 
 bent to form wings parallel to the rail to be crossed, in the same 
 way as is usually done at rail crossings. 
 
 The empty train weighs 31 tons 2^ cwt., of which the electrical 
 equipment for locomotion weighs 6 tons 7 cwt. With all seats 
 occupied by passengers, the total weight is about 38 tons 6 cwt., 
 but on occasions the standing-room in the train is also fully occu¬ 
 pied, bringing the weight to perhaps 50 tons. The weight of 
 locomotive equipment is thus about 125 lbs. per passenger, and 
 about 20 per cent, of the total weight of the train with all seats 
 occupied, each passenger being taken at 140 lbs. weight. A com¬ 
 parison of these figures with those of trains on other railways using 
 electric and steam-locomotives is given in the next table:— 
 
Plate VIII 
 
Plate VIII 
 
 Fig. 358. Elevation. 
 
 ScaJ.^y 
 
 }Z ' O _ 
 
 
 Fig. 359. Plan. 
 
 RAILWAY: GENERATING 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 OVERHEAD 
 
 STATION 
 
 \_To face page 608 
 
LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILIVAY. 
 
 609 
 
 Comparative Weight and Passengers of Electric 
 AND Steam Conveyance. 
 
 
 Electric 
 
 Motors. 
 
 Electric 
 
 Locomo- 
 
 Steam Locomotives. 
 
 
 tives. 
 
 
 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Railway. 
 
 City and 
 South 
 London 
 Railwav. 
 
 Manhatta 
 Railway, 
 New York. 
 
 Gt. Northern 
 Railway, 
 Suburban 
 Train. 
 
 Weight of motors or loco- ) 
 motive . . . j 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T, C. Q. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 7 0 
 
 23 4 0 
 
 53 10 0 
 
 Number of passenger-^ 
 seats in train . . ( 
 
 II4 
 
 96 
 
 230 
 
 414 
 
 Weight of motors or loco- j 
 
 
 
 
 
 motive per passenger, > 
 in lbs. . . . ) 
 
 ^25 
 
 241 
 
 217 
 
 290 
 
 Weight of full train (all ( 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 seats occupied) . . j 
 
 Weight of motors or loco- \ 
 
 38 5 2 
 
 37 7 0 
 
 104 I 0 
 
 188 II 0 
 
 motive relatively to j 
 weight of full train, ex > 
 motors or locomotives, i 
 per cent. . . . / 
 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 Average weight of empty ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 carriages {ex motors) ( 
 per passenger seat, i 
 in lbs. . . . ) 
 
 00 
 
 490 
 
 615 
 
 590 
 
 Weight of full train per ) 
 
 752 
 
 871 
 
 972 
 
 1.020 
 
 passenger, in lbs. . ) 
 
 
 For the generating-plant there are four dynamos of the double 
 limb type, each having a normal output of 475 amperes at 500 
 volts, at 420 revolutions per minute, or say 1,200 electric H.P. 
 in all. The arrangement of the generating-plant is shown in 
 Plate VIII. The dynamos are formed with a magnetic circuit 
 above and below the armature, the poles being cut through hori¬ 
 zontally along the centre line to allow the upper part to be lifted 
 readily. They are shunt-wound, of drum ” type, with stranded 
 conductors. The resistance of the armature is o'oi ohm, and 
 that of the shunt is 75 ohms, the electrical efficiency of the 
 machines being 97*7 per cent. The armature and shaft weigh 
 
 R R 
 
6 io 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 3 tons, and the complete machines 21^ tons each. Each dynamo 
 is driven by nineteen i^-inch cotton ropes, from a horizontal 
 compound engine, indicating 400 H.P. at full load. 
 
 The armature-shaft carries a half-coupling by which it is con¬ 
 nected to the pulley-shaft, which runs between two bearings; the 
 armatures can thus be easily removed without disturbing the 
 pulley and ropes. The dynamos are built on lines sufficiently 
 massive to be capable of producing a much greater output than 
 the normal for a short period without injury. They can check 
 the engines in the event of too heavy a call being made upon 
 them, and so prevent any serious damage occurring to them, in 
 case of a continuous short-circuit on the line. 
 
 The current from each dynamo is connected to common omni¬ 
 bus bars through an ammeter and automatic magnetic cut-out, so 
 that all can work in parallel. These cut-outs, which protect the 
 generating plant, are also used as switches, and are thus always 
 kept in working order. A similar form of switch is used on the 
 cars, and the guard can, independently of the driver, by applying 
 the brakes, cut the current off the motors, and bring the train to 
 a standstill. From the omnibus bars the current passes through 
 a main magnetic cut-out (adjusted to break circuit with a 
 current of 3,000 to 4,000 amperes) to the centre conductor, 
 from which the moving trains collect their current, by four 
 fi “ Callender ” lead-sheathed and steel-armoured cables laid 
 under the road between the generating-station and the overhead 
 structure. 
 
 The main conductor is of steel, 4 square inches in section, 
 as already stated, rolled in lengths of 32 feet 6 inches, and 
 weighs about 40 lbs. per lineal yard. It is supported between the 
 main rails on wooden cross-sleepers and rests on porcelain insu¬ 
 lators. The steel channel is not rigidly attached to the insulators in 
 any way, and is supported by them at every 7 feet 6 inches, except 
 where joints occur in the conductor, in which cases the insulators 
 are 2 feet 6 inches apart. The lengths of conductor are electri¬ 
 cally connected by flexible copper straps. There are no feeders, 
 and the return circuit is through the rails, which are united by 
 
LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY. 6ll 
 
 wrought-iroii bonds riveted to the web and bridging across the 
 fish-plates. All four rails are cross-bonded at the stations, but 
 are insulated from the structure by longitudinal sleepers. They 
 weigh 56 lbs. per lineal yard. The return circuit has thus a sec¬ 
 tional area of approximately 22 square inches. At each station 
 there is a cross-over road, and, in order to surmount the difficulty 
 of carrying the charged conductor past the main rails at these 
 points, it was broken, and each end was bent parallel to the main 
 rail for some distance on each side of it, being electrically con¬ 
 nected under the rail, and fixed f inch above it. The collectors 
 on the car were made wide enough to bridge across the gap thus 
 formed without breaking the circuit. 
 
 Each car is an independent unit, having a motor built with the 
 armature direct upon the front axle of each bogie, on Mr. Eicke- 
 meyer’s system (Figs. 360, 361). The magnets are maintained 
 in correct relation to the armature-axle by two cast-iron flitch- 
 frames, carried by forged extensions of the magnet-yokes. The 
 weight of the magnets is taken off the axles by means of adjust¬ 
 able springs suspended from the bogie-frame and attached to 
 brackets at each end of the motor. To retain the magnets in a 
 correct horizontal position, a lever-arm projects from the inside end 
 of the motor, and is attached on the bogie-truck beyond the bolster 
 by rubber spring pads, top and bottom. The motors are series- 
 wound, and develop 40 H.P. for any length of time without undue 
 heating. The armature-resistance is o’dy ohm, and that of the 
 field-magnet coils is 0*37 ohm. The tractive force of each motor 
 at the rim of the wheels (2 feet 9 inches in diameter) with 100 
 amperes exceeds 1,450 lbs. (about 87 lbs. per ton of train). The 
 weight of each motor with its axle, without the wheels, is 3 tons, 
 and that of the motor-truck complete is 5 tons 7 cwt. 
 
 According to the results of tests at the generating-station, the 
 mean efficiency, or ratio of E.H.P. to I.H.P. was 88 per cent. 
 The tests lasted over 3^ hours; the coal consumed was 4,032 lbs. 
 Total E.H.P. hours, 1,195; coal per E.H.P. hour, 3-37 lbs.; coal 
 per I.H.P. hour, 2‘96 lbs. 
 
 The power absorbed by a train during an experimental run 
 
 R R 2 
 
6I2 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 covering the length of line at present open (5^ miles) in twenty- 
 four minutes fifty-seven seconds, with intervals of twenty-five 
 seconds stoppage at the stations, or an average running speed of 
 15-1 miles per hour. Also during one journey performed in 
 
 Figs. 360, 361.—Liverpool Overhead Railway; Bogie with Armature. 
 
 Elevation and Plan. 
 
 twenty-three minutes forty-seven seconds, or, at the rate of i6‘t 
 miles per hour. 
 
 The particulars of these trials are given below ;— 
 
 March 5TH, 1893. First Journey. 
 
 Herculaneum to Alexaiidra {returji). One train on line. 
 
 Loaded with 8 tons (iron weights). 
 
 Total time on journey, 24 minutes 57 seconds. 
 
LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY. 
 
 613 
 
 Total time current is on car, 17 minutes 7 seconds. 
 
 ,, ,, train is standing, 4 minutes 35 seconds. 
 
 Total distance run, 9,030*4 yards = 5 miles 230 yards, say 5^ miles. 
 Average speed while running, 15 miles-per hour. 
 
 ,, ,, including stops, 12*3 miles per hour. 
 
 Average current per train while running, 82*7 ^amperes, including 
 
 stop, 67*3 amperes. 
 
 electrical H.P. per train while running, 54*4 electrical H.P., 
 including stop, 44*4 electrical H.P. 
 electromotive force, 485*2 volts on car. 
 
 March 5TH, 1893. Second Journey. 
 
 Herctclaneiun to Alexandra {return). One train on line. 
 
 Loaded with 8 tons (iron weights). 
 
 Total time on journey, 23 minutes 47 seconds. 
 
 ,, ,, current is on car, 15 minutes 18 seconds. 
 
 ,, ,, train is standing, 4 minutes 40 seconds. 
 
 ,, distance run, 9,030*4 yards, say 5^ miles. 
 
 Average speed while running, 16*1 miles per hour. 
 
 ,, including stops, 13 miles per hour, 
 current per train while running, 90*8 amperes, including 
 stops, 73 amperes. 
 
 electrical H.P. per train while running, 57*1 electrical H.P., 
 including stops, 46 electrical H.P. 
 electromotive force on car, 484 volts. 
 
 The weight of a car complete without passengers is 15J tons. 
 For the test each car was loaded with 4 tons, making the total 
 weight of the train 39 tons. The average power absorbed was 
 44*4 E.H.P. at 15*1 miles per hour, and 46 E.H.P. at 16*1 miles 
 per hour. 
 
 The quantity of coal consumed for all purposes per train-mile 
 was :— 
 
 April . 
 May . 
 Tune . 
 July . 
 
 August 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 25*16 
 
 20*03 
 
 i8*97 
 
 18*27 
 
 i6*95 
 
 September 
 
 17*20 
 
6i4 
 
 ELECTRIC 7 RACTION. 
 
 The composition of the coal, Lancashire small slack, was as 
 follows :— 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Fixed Carbon.70*08 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbon .... 16*47 
 
 Sulphur.1*92 
 
 Moisture . . . . . . 3*01 
 
 Ash.. . 8*51 
 
 Its calorific value is approximately 75 per cent, of that of best 
 Welsh coal. The price of the slack which was used until the 
 latter part of August was 5s. rod. per ton, but since that date, 
 owing to the strike in the coal trade, coal has been procured from 
 various sources at price ranging up to 17s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 Cost of Working on Liverpool Overhead Railway, 
 INCLUDING Lighting of Stations and Signals. 
 
 Pence per Train-Mile. 
 
 
 July. 
 
 August. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Supervision ..... 
 
 0*416 
 
 0*416 
 
 0*416 
 
 Generating-Station, Wages . 
 
 0*618 
 
 0*590 
 
 0*628 
 
 Drivers’ Wages .... 
 
 1*076 
 
 1*043 
 
 1*058 
 
 Coal ...... 
 
 0*589 
 
 0*718 
 
 1 *230 
 
 Oil, Waste, Grease 
 
 0*140 
 
 0*139 
 
 0*129 
 
 Water ...... 
 
 0*010 
 
 0*013 
 
 0*015 
 
 Stores and Sundries 
 
 0*049 
 
 0*105 
 
 0*115 
 
 Cleaning and Repairs, &c., ) Wages 
 
 0-545 
 
 0*521 
 
 0-539 
 
 at the Car-Shed j Material 
 
 0*284 
 
 0*430 
 
 0*221 
 
 Total 
 
 3*727 
 
 3-975 
 
 4*351 
 
 Allowance for Signals and Lighting 
 
 0*286 
 
 0*271 
 
 0*276 
 
 Cost of Running .... 
 
 3-44^ 
 
 3-704 
 
 4*075 
 
 Train Mileage .... 
 
 0 
 
 39.250 
 
 41.430 
 
 40,640 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ROUNDHAY {LEEDS) ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 This line is an example of the Thomson-Houston system. The 
 most distinctive feature of the installation is the fact that it is 
 carried out entirely in accordance with current American practice, 
 and it is interesting to see how far that practice is applicable to 
 English conditions.’^' Although the line meets with the approba¬ 
 tion of the residents of the district, the use of single-decked cars 
 of the American type, seating only twenty-two passengers each, 
 proves to be a mistake. Double-decked cars might be used 
 without difficulty, but at the time the line was constructed these 
 were not procurable in time, and their importance was not 
 recognised. 
 
 The line, which covers about three miles of ground, is more or 
 less a suburban one, starting about a mile from the centre of Leeds, 
 and running out to Roundhay Park. It is nearly straight, with 
 the exception of the Park end, where there is a balloon loop, 
 which avoids changing the direction of the cars at that end. This 
 arrangement was made originally for steam-trams, and is not at all 
 essential for the electric system. There are two miles of double 
 track and a branch line of a mile and a quarter of single track, 
 with passing places, making a total of miles of track. The 
 maximum gradient (of which there are two instances, each about 
 a quarter of a mile long) is i in 20. There are several other 
 
 * For the materials of this Chapter, the Author is indebted to Mr. 
 J. E. Winslow, the Managing Engineer of the line. 
 
ELECTRIC TRACTION, 
 
 6l 6 
 
 less gradients; in fact, the line is practically a continuous gradient 
 from the city terminus to the park. 
 
 The permanent way—which was constructed by the Leeds 
 Corporation several years previously to its adaptation to present 
 purposes—consists of a 98-lb. girder rail of standard section, laid 
 on a bed of concrete 9 ins. thick, extending from curb to curb. 
 The metals are held to gauge by iron tie bars at short intervals. 
 The joints rest upon iron sole plates. This line has been in use 
 for nearly three years with electric traction, and for several years 
 previously with steam traction. The repairs have been nominal. 
 The electric system was installed by the Thomson-Houston 
 International Electric Company in accordance with their standard 
 practice. 
 
 A diagrammatic sketch which shows the circuit as in use has 
 already been given in Fig. 340 (p. 562), and the description 
 accompanying that sketch (p. 561) may be referred to with 
 advantage. Here it will be sufficient to say that the current 
 passes out from the dynamo along the trolley wire to the car, and 
 thence passing through the car and motors returns by the rail to 
 the dynamo. 
 
 The electric connections of the rails are shown in Fig. 362. 
 There is a tinned copper wire, *34 inches in diameter, laid between 
 the metals on each track. At the joints a smaller copper wire is 
 keyed to each rail by the peculiar-shaped pin shown in the sketch ; 
 this wire is soldered to the main return wire, and, as will be seen, 
 each rail is connected twice to this main return. 
 
 The overhead construction is upon what is known as the cross¬ 
 suspension method—that is, steel poles, as shown in Fig. 363, are 
 set 6 feet into the ground on the curb at each side of the road, 
 and a steel wire stretched between the two poles. These poles are 
 set in concrete to make them as rigid as possible. From the steel 
 wire is suspended a trolley wire, which is of hard-drawn copper 
 wire of *34 inches. 
 
 A very good idea of the way this method of suspension looks 
 in practice will be gathered from Fig. 364 (Plate IX.), which is 
 taken irom a photograph of the single-branch line. The details 
 
ROUNDHAY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 617 
 
 T 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 . 362. Diagram showing Electric Connections of Rails (Thomson-Houston system). 
 
6i8 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 of this suspension are shown in Fig. 365, the car, e, being 
 soldered to the trolley wire, d. The insulators c and a are of 
 hard rubber, and their position may be seen in the upper part 
 of the sketch, f and b are the cast-iron hangers 
 ^ which hold the insulator in place. These are of 
 
 different forms for different line construction, f 
 being used in the curve, and b on the straight line 
 only. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 366 is the section of the top of one of 
 the steel poles, showing the method of insulation, 
 A being a wooden plug driven into the top of the 
 pole. This, as will be seen, gives double insulation 
 all over the line. 
 
 Figs, 367 and 368 show the devices used for 
 making the trolley-wheel follow the car on a branch 
 line or turn out. They are usually designated as 
 “ frogs.” These are set slightly out of the centre 
 of the track, so that when the switch in the per¬ 
 manent way sends the car on to the branch line 
 the trolley-wheel is dragged to one side and follows 
 the desired wire. 
 
 The cars now in work (July, 1894) are six in 
 number, and are of the standard American pat¬ 
 tern, seating 22 passengers each. They make a 
 run of no miles a day each, and upon Satur¬ 
 days, Sundays, and holidays two trail cars are 
 also run, each seating 46 passengers, the motors 
 being of ample power to draw this additional 
 
 Fig. 363. Steel loud. 
 
 pole for Over- Each car is equipped with two single-reduc- 
 heacl Installa- . , r t-t -r. i • x-.- 
 
 tion. tion motors, each 01 15 H.P., as shown m Fig. 
 
 369. Fig. 370 will give a better idea of the 
 
 details. The following particulars will be of interest:— 
 
 Weight of motor, without gear or gear cover . 2,060 lbs. 
 
 armature, with pinion . . . 484 ,, 
 
 ,, one field-spool.128 ,, 
 

 
 
 * 
 
 f 
 
 4 
 
 I I 
 
 
 library 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 
ROUNDHAY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY, 
 
 Fig. 365. Details of Trolley-wire Suspension. 
 
 Fig. 366. .Section of Top of Steel Pole. 
 
620 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Weight of one pole-piece ..... 270 lbs. 
 
 ,, frame, including nose'i^iece . . 693 ,, 
 
 ,, axle gear . . . . . . 215 ,, 
 
 Number of teeth in gear ..... 67 
 
 „ „ in pinion . . . . . 14 
 
 Pitch diameter of gear ..... 23^ in. 
 
 „ in pinion.4f ,, 
 
 Speed reduction ....... 478 
 
 The motors are series-wound, but are in parallel with reference 
 to each other. In running the car, the speed is regulated by 
 means of a rheostat, as shown in Fig. 371. This is composed of 
 thin plates of iron insulated from each other with mica. As will 
 
ROUND HAY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 62 I 
 
 Fig. 370. Details of Single-reduction Motor. 
 
622 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 be seen, it is in the form of a semi-circle, and is exceeding com¬ 
 pact for the amount of resistance which it contains. It is operated 
 by steel cable, which passes round the drum and goes to the con¬ 
 troller stand (Fig. 372) at each end of the car. These controller 
 stands are fitted with sprocket-wheels and chain, which are 
 attached to the ends of the cables passing round the drum ; by 
 this method the amount of resistance is regulated by the man in 
 
 charge. The direction of the car is changed 
 by means of the reversing switch, b, in Fig. 
 371, this being controlled in the same manner 
 as the rheostat. 
 
 The current is taken from the trolley-wire 
 by the trolley, shown in Fig. 373, a steel pole 
 being used between the stand, b, and the 
 head, a, which carries the trolley-wheel, as 
 seen in the illustration. This stand is free 
 to revolve upon the pivot, which gives any 
 desired lateral play, and the springs press the 
 wheel up against the wire, the tension being 
 regulated by the check-nuts, as shown; this 
 gives a universal motion to the trolley-wheel. 
 It should be noticed that the cam at the base 
 of the trolley is of such a shape that the pres¬ 
 sure upon the trolley-wire is always constant, 
 irrespective of the angle which the trolley-wire 
 makes with the pole. 
 
 Fig. 374 shows a sketch plan of the sta- 
 „ r- 11 tion and car-shed. The latter is a brick and 
 
 Stand. iron building, fitted with four tracks, each 
 
 capable of storing two cars. Under each 
 line track-pits are constructed to admit of the easy inspection 
 of the motors. The engine-house is a temporary structure of 
 corrugated iron, which adjoins the car-shed. 
 
 The engine is of the American horizontal type, by Messrs. 
 Macintosh & Seymour. It has but a single cylinder, i8xi8i, 
 and indicates 200 H.P., at 100 lbs. of steam and 200 revolutions. 
 
ROUNDHAY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 623 
 
 The governor of this engine is situated in the fly-wheel, and is 
 so sensitive that it maintains the speed within 2 per cent., no 
 matter how widely the load fluctuates. 
 
 There are two dynamos of the Thomson-Houston manufacture, 
 illustrated in Fig. 375, each of which is capable of delivering 
 62 units at 300 volts. They are driven by endless perforated 
 leather belts, running at 4,500' per minute. The switch-board is 
 placed at one end of the station, and contains the necessary 
 instruments for the control of the lines. Carbon brushes are used 
 on both dynamos and motors : these are set radially to the com¬ 
 mutators, and are self-feeding. 
 
 The boiler is of the water-tube type, by Messrs. Babcock & 
 Wilcox, and is fitted with a mechanical stoker. The feed water is 
 heated by exhaust steam. 
 
 The line commenced operations on November nth, 1891, and 
 up to June 30th, 1894, the total mileage was 505,337. 
 
 As no water was available for condensing purposes, it was 
 necessary to use a single-cylinder engine. This engine, as already 
 stated, is capable of indicating 200 H.P. at the most economical 
 point of cut-off, and as the average load does not run beyond 
 60 H.P., although the maximum load frequently reaches the full 
 capacity of the engine, great economy is not to be expected under 
 such conditions. 
 
624 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 As will have 
 the weight of 
 
 been seen from the particulars given with Fig. 370, 
 the motor is very much greater than the more 
 
 0 
 
 •c 
 
 CJ 
 
 w 
 
 U1 
 
 I 
 
 L) 
 
 c 
 
 ci 
 
 C 
 
 O 
 
 • 
 
 Ci 
 
 !/) 
 
 n 
 
 rt 
 
 S 
 
 X 
 
 0 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 6 
 p—( 
 
 modern ones manufactured by the same Company, which weigh 
 only 1,500 lbs., as compared with something over 2,000 lbs.; but 
 
ROUNDHAY ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 625 
 
 in spite of these adverse conditions and an exceptionally high 
 rate of w^ages paid to the conductors and drivers, it has been 
 possible to operate the line for 5*557d. per car mile, the details of 
 which are given in the subjoined table. 
 
 Nothing is included in the table for maintenance of the way. 
 This being the property of the Corporation of Leeds, the tramway 
 company are not responsible for the repairs, but they pay to the 
 
 Fig. 375. Thomson-PIouston Dynamo. 
 
 Corporation a nominal rent—as stated in the table—which would 
 (it is estimated) be about equal to the cost of maintenance. 
 
 Again, there is no allowance for depreciation or interest, but 
 depreciation should not be high, as the operating expenses of the 
 road are considerably lower than when it was first put into 
 operation. 
 
 The following is the table referred to :— 
 
 O 
 
626 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Roundhay Electric Tramway. 
 
 Operation Expenses from January ist 
 
 TO June 301 
 
 L’H, 
 
 1894 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Wages of drivers ..... 
 
 • 
 
 • 335 
 
 I 
 
 
 ,, conductors, inspectors, cleaners, 
 
 etc. 
 
 . 462 
 
 18 
 
 Ilj 
 
 ,, power station .... 
 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 <■0 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Sundry materials used in car house, etc. 
 
 
 . 29 
 
 8 
 
 
 „ ,, ,, power station . 
 
 
 • 51 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 Fuel ....... 
 
 
 • 333 
 
 19 
 
 61 
 
 Maintenance of car equipment 
 
 
 . 161 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 ,, ,, power station 
 
 
 . 94 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 ,, ,, overhead line 
 
 
 . 18 
 
 12 
 
 5 * 
 
 Salaries—ofS.ce and management . 
 
 
 • 239 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Stationery and printing .... 
 
 
 • 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Postage and telegrams .... 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 * 
 
 Rent of permanent way .... 
 
 
 . 70 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Rent, rates, and taxes .... 
 
 
 • 153 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Freight and charges .... 
 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Insurance ...... 
 
 
 . 18 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 Uniforms, etc. ..... 
 
 
 . 16 
 
 8 
 
 3 ^^ 
 
 Accountant’s charges .... 
 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Miscellaneous expenses .... 
 
 
 • 33 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 ^^2,382 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 Number of miles run . . 102,914^ 
 
 Cost per car-mile . . 5‘557d. 
 
CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. 
 
 This tramway line is one of the only two street tramways in 
 England worked by means of an electric current conveyed by 
 bare conductors ; the other being the Roundhay line, described in 
 the last chapter. The South Staffordshire line, 8 miles in length, 
 forms part of the South Staffordshire Tramway Company’s system, 
 of which the total extent is 23 miles.* 
 
 The South Staffordshire Tramway Company serves a district 
 whose population is over 300,000, and the lines form a means of 
 communication between Birmingham and the towns of Walsall, 
 Bloxwich, Wednesbury, Dudley, Tipton, West Bromwich, and 
 Handsworth, by a junction with the Birmingham Central Tram¬ 
 ways. The whole system is laid to a gauge of 3J feet, with 
 6-inch girder rails upon a bed of concrete; and is paved with 
 granite setts between the rails and for 18 inches outside. It was 
 originally worked by steam locomotives of the Wilkinson type, and 
 with the exception of the 8 miles of electric line all the sections 
 are still so worked. The electric line commences at a junction 
 in Wednesbury with the line from Handsworth, passing through 
 the Market Place, along the Wednesbury Road to the Pleck, where 
 it is joined by another section of the electric line which connects 
 that point with Darlaston. It then passes along the Walsall Road 
 to Walsall Bridge, where it again divides, one section going to 
 
 * The particulars and illustrations here given are taken, by per¬ 
 mission, from a paper by Mr. Alfred Dickinson, A.M.C.E., in the 
 Minutes of the Proceedmgs of the Institictio7i of Civit Engineers, 
 vol. cxvii., session 1893—4, part iii. 
 
 S S 2 
 
628 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Rushall and the other to Bloxwich. These sections were origin¬ 
 ally opened for public traffic as a steam-tramway line in September, 
 1884, but objections being raised to the use of the steam-engines, 
 the Company received an intimation from the Board of Trade in 
 1891 that it would not be allowed to continue to work the line by 
 steam. On application to the municipal authorities to sanction 
 the overhead electric-traction system as employed in the United 
 States, the authorities, after visiting Leeds, refused to sanction 
 the system as at work there, chiefly on account of its unsightli¬ 
 ness. The system about to be described was designed by Mr. 
 Dickinson to overcome their objections, and they consented to its 
 introduction. 
 
 The principle of the American system, whether the trolley-wire 
 be suspended from the span-wires crossing the street, or from 
 brackets upon the poles, necessitates the trolley-wire following the 
 exact curvature of the track. Therefore the number of span-wires, 
 poles, and pull-over wires is practically governed by the physical 
 conditions of the road : the straighter the road the fewer the 
 number of poles, cross wires, and pull-over wires; and the more 
 tortuous the road the greater the number; the maximum being 
 reached in a curve of 90°. 
 
 The streets and roads along which the South Staffordshire lines 
 are laid are exceptionally difficult to equip with an overhead wire, 
 because they are very tortuous and of ever-varying widths. There 
 are no fewer than four 90° curves, one of which is of less than 
 40 feet radius, seven railway bridges, most of them with steep 
 approaches, and one canal bridge with a hog back, to cross which 
 the cars have to ascend a grade of i in 16. 
 
 The generating-station of the electric line is a substantial brick 
 building situated near to the Birmingham Canal on the Darlaston 
 and Walsall Road. It consists of an engine-room 59 feet long 
 and 45 feet wide, a boiler-house 47 feet long and 39 leet wide, an 
 octagonal chimney stack 120 feet high, and the necessary detached 
 oil-stores and outbuildings. From the canal, a basin has been 
 cut alongside the boiler-house, to permit of the unloading of the 
 coal from, boats direct into the stokehole. In the boiler-house 
 
SOUTH STAFTORDSIIJRE TRAMWAY. dzg 
 
 there are three Lancashire boilers constructed to work at a pres¬ 
 sure of 120 lbs. per square inch. Each boiler is of steel through¬ 
 out, 30 feet long by 7 feet in diameter, with internal flues 2 feet 
 9 inches in diameter, each fitted with five cross tubes. No 
 economisers or mechanical stokers are provided. 
 
 In the engine-room are three compound horizontal engines and 
 three dynamos. At 100 revolutions per minute, with a boiler-pres¬ 
 sure of 120 lbs. per square inch, each engine develops 125 I.H.P. 
 The cylinders, fitted with Corliss valves, are arranged side by 
 side with the fly-wheel driving-drum between them ; the high- 
 pressure cylinder is loj inches, and the low-pressure 20 inches 
 in diameter, with a stroke 30 inches. The fly-wheel driving- 
 drums are 10 feet in diameter, and are grooved for rope-driving. 
 The dynamos are shunt wound. They have drum armatures, and 
 at 450 revolutions per minute give an output of 260 amperes at 
 350 volts. They are driven by nine ij-inch cotton-ropes led 
 direct from the driving-drums to a 2-foot rope-pulley keyed on to 
 a shaft which is coupled to the armature-shaft; when so coupled, 
 this shaft is carried in three bearings, the rope-pulley running 
 between two of them. 
 
 The centre bearing is between the pulley and the armature, an 
 arrangement which permits of the armature being taken out with¬ 
 out disturbing the driving-ropes. Special devices have been 
 attached to both the engines and dynamos for continually lubri¬ 
 cating the main bearings during the time of running. Upon the 
 main switchboard is arranged, for each dynamo, a voltmeter, an 
 ammeter, resistance-coils and an automatic cut-out switch, the 
 magnet of which is so set that when the current exceeds the safe 
 load it automatically throws out the switch. The connections to 
 and from these switches are so arranged as to allow any two or 
 all three dynamos to be coupled in parallel at will. From the 
 omnibus bar, at the back of the switchboard, runs the lead- 
 sheathed armoured cable-feeder. 
 
 This feeder is laid underground into the road, where it is buried 
 near the curb some 15 inches beneath the surface. It extends in 
 the direction of Birchills, near Bloxwich, a distance of 3 miles. 
 
630 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 in the direction of James Bridge, a quarter of a mile, and from 
 the Pleck it branches off to Wood Green, Wednesbury, a distance 
 of mile. The whole of the current from the dynamos is sup¬ 
 plied through this feeder, which is tapped at its extremities, and 
 in thirteen places along its length; branch feeders being taken 
 from the main to terminals placed in special boxes fixed in the 
 footpath at the bases of poles situated at distances of about ^ 
 mile apart. Upon each terminal are two slots, and opposite to 
 it, at a distance of about 4 inches, two other terminals are placed, 
 each having a slot. The terminals being insulated one from 
 the other, connection is made between them by movable 
 fuses. The connection between the two single terminals and the 
 trolley-wire overhead is made by a flexible cable carried inside the 
 poles. 
 
 The trolley-wire (O. B. W. G.) is of hard-drawn copper. It is 
 suspended at a height of 21 feet above the road from the arms of 
 the poles by clips attached to JEtna. ” insulators, at varying dis¬ 
 tances from the line not exceeding 13 feet. On the trolley-wire 
 at each of these poles, is arranged a special device which insulates 
 one section of it from the adjacent section, a separate feeder going 
 to each. This arrangement allows of any half mile of the line 
 being worked or disconnected independently of the remainder. 
 As the tramway is partly double line and partly single line with 
 turn-outs, of which there are thirty-seven in all, used mostly as 
 passing places for the cars, it was necessary to provide, as in 
 double line, two trolley-wires, and, at the end of each turnout, a 
 switch to permit of the trolley-wheel diverging from the single to 
 the double wire and versa. It will therefore be seen that as 
 the trolley-wheel has double flanges, such a switch must be 
 applicable to both a point and a crossing. The device will be 
 understood by reference to Figs. 376, 377. 
 
 When the trolley-wdieel is travelling along the trolley-wire Ai 
 and is required to reach the trolley-wire A2, the movable tongue 
 I) when closed forms a crossing, as it projects below the tongue 
 B and permits the trolley-wheel to pass under it; but should it be 
 necessary for the trolley-wheel to pass from the trolley-wire A to 
 
SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE TRAMWAY, 
 
 631 
 
 the trolley-wire A2, the movable tongue D is pulled over to the 
 position Di, opening the point and allowing the trolley-wheel a 
 clear passage in the desired direction. When the trolley-wheel is 
 travelling from the wire A3 to the wire Ai, the movable point D 
 being closed, and projecting below the tongue B, permits the 
 trolley-wheel to cross it and to pass to the wire Ai; and in the 
 case of the trolley-wheel travelling from the wire A to the wire Ai, 
 it passes along the tongue B and opens the point by pushing the 
 movable tongue D to the position Di—the point being automati¬ 
 cally closed after the passage of the trolley-wheel by means of the 
 helical spring I. The same device is used at the branch roads 
 in the various car depots. 
 
 The poles form an important part of any overhead electric 
 
 installation, as they are always present in the streets. Mr. Dickin¬ 
 son’s aim was to design a type which would possess a maximum 
 amount of strength with a minimum weight, and at the same time 
 have a fairly presentable appearance (Figs. 378, 379). They are 
 made of mild rolled steel and are 30 feet long. They are built 
 in two sections, the lower one being a parallel tube, and the upper, 
 18 feet in length, being tapered to the top. They have buckled 
 steel base plates, 2 feet square, bolted to the bottom, and 
 are fixed upon concrete foundations, the excavation for their 
 reception being also filled in with concrete. They are made in 
 three sizes, the smallest size being 6 inches in diameter at the base, 
 tapered to 2 J inches at the top. These carry arms varying between 
 2J feet and 4J- feet in length. 
 
632 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 For the double line, where the rails are at a considerable dis¬ 
 tance from the footpath, the poles are 7 inches in diameter at the 
 foot, tapered to 3I- inches at the top, and have arms 7 feet to 10 
 
 feet in length. The arms of 
 both sizes of the poles taper 
 from 2f inches to inch dia¬ 
 meter at the end farthest from 
 the pole. It was necessary to 
 provide poles of extra strength 
 as strain-posts at the ends of 
 the several lines : these are 12 
 inches in diameter at the base, 
 tapering to 5 inches at the top, 
 and are of J-inch steel. They 
 have attached to them two 
 cast-iron grid frames, 3 feet 
 by 4 feet, one at the base and 
 the other 5 feet higher up, 
 and the intervening space is 
 filled with concrete, which 
 forms, with the pole, a solid 
 block. This type of pole is 
 also fixed in positions origin¬ 
 ally occupied by lamp-columns 
 at the junction of the main 
 roads, and has been fitted with 
 lamp-fittings in substitution of 
 those rem.oved. 
 
 Sixteen cars have been built, 
 each constructed to carry forty passengers, eighteen inside and 
 twenty-two outside, and weighing, when unloaded, 6 tons 13 cwt. 
 Their principal dimensions are :— 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION 
 
 
 PLAIJ 
 
 Figs. 
 
 378, 379. 
 
 Wire. 
 
 Po’e for 
 Sccile, • 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Length, including platforms 
 ,, of body, outside 
 Breadth of body, including mouldings 
 ,, inside . . . . . 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 22 O 
 
 14 3 
 5 9 
 5 3i 
 
SOUrir STAFFORDSHIRE TRAMWAY. 
 
 t>33 
 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 Breadth over roof.510^- 
 
 Height inside, from the top of the floor to the 
 
 Figs. 380, 381. Motors in Elevation and Plan. Scale, 3 ^. 
 
 I 
 
 The body is strongly made and has a bottom frame of channel- 
 bar iron. It is distinct from the motor truck, and is carried 
 upon it by eight springs. The wheels are fitted with two sets of 
 brakes, one to apply on the inside of the wheels, and the other 
 on the outside. They are worked separately by hand-wheels 
 from the platforms at the ends of the cars. The cars are fitted 
 with Nicholson automatic couplings at each end, and four dry 
 
634 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 sand-boxes, two at each end. These also are worked from either 
 platform. 
 
 Each car is fitted with and driven by two series-wound single¬ 
 reduction motors (Figs. 380, 381). The gearing is of the double 
 helical type, in the ratio of four to one. Each axle has an inde¬ 
 pendent motor, one end being on the axle by two bearings and 
 the other by a spring. There is also at the latter end a spring 
 on the top of the motor, so that at this point it is between springs, 
 the bottom one supporting it and the top one permitting vertical 
 movement. By this method, not only is the pitch-line of the 
 gearing maintained, but the shock to the gearing at starting and 
 stopping is considerably reduced, and the vibration of the motor 
 when running is minimized. The armatures are drum wound. 
 Ordinary arc-lamp carbons f inch in diameter are used for brushes, 
 laid lengthwise along the commutator. The magnets are bi-polar 
 with four limbs. 
 
 The cars are fitted with switches in duplicate, one set on each 
 platform. They consist of reversing, driving and motor-switches. 
 Those last mentioned enable the driver to use either motor at 
 will, or both in parallel. The varying resistance of the rheostat 
 in the motor-circuit is controlled by the driving-switch at the 
 will of the driver. As a precaution, and to prevent injury to the 
 motors by careless driving or from other causes, safety-fuses are 
 placed in the motor-circuit. A lightning-arrester is placed in the 
 circuit between the trolley-wire and the driving-switch. 
 
 Each car is fitted with a collector, termed a trolley ” (shown in 
 Fig. 382), a peculiar feature of Mr. Dickinson’s system. In the 
 American system, it is necessary, in addition to the trolley-wire 
 following the exact curvature of the track, for it to maintain, 
 within a few inches, a constant lateral relation thereto. In Mr. 
 Dickinson^s system this is not necessary, and the trolley-wire may 
 run in straight lines and at ever-varying distances laterally from 
 the track, not exceeding, wilh the trolley-mast in use at present, 
 26 feet. 
 
 The function of the ‘‘ trolley ” is, therefore, to form a continual 
 bridge across the varying horizontal and vertical space between 
 
SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE TRAMWAY. 
 
 635 
 
 the trolley-wire and the car as it passes along the line. To 
 effect this the apparatus must have a vertical and horizontal 
 radial movement, and this is ac¬ 
 complished by placing upon the 
 roof of the car a fixed socket into 
 which is fitted a spindle (see Figs. 
 
 383, 384). On the upper end of 
 this is formed a jaw to receive the 
 base of the trolley-mast. The 
 spindle has a free revolving move¬ 
 ment in the socket, the mast is 
 hinged at the top of the spindle, 
 and there has a radial vertical 
 movement controlled by springs 
 attached to the base of the “ trol¬ 
 ley ” at a suitable position on the 
 vertical spindle. On the end of 
 the mast is formed another socket, 
 into which is fitted a trolley wheel 
 carrier. Figs. 385, 386, which has 
 a spindle at its lower extremity 
 fitting into the socket. When 
 working, the trolley-wheel runs on 
 the under side of the trolley-wire, 
 and the vertical pressure to main¬ 
 tain contact is given by the 
 springs on the heel of the trolley- 
 mast. These springs are arranged 
 so as to allow a maximum move¬ 
 ment at the trolley-wheel end of 
 the mast with a minimum exten¬ 
 sion of the springs. 
 
 The trolley-mast being attached 
 
 to the radiating spindle, describes a circle with a radius of its 
 own length. The trolley-wheel carrier also having a free revolving 
 movement in its socket on the end of the trolley-mast, the trolley- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 382. Diagram showing Trol¬ 
 ley and Car. Scale, ^g-. 
 
636 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 wheel will, so long as the wire is within the radius swept by the 
 trolley-mast, accommodate itself to and run parallel to the trolley- 
 wire; the trolley-mast will accommodate itself to the varying 
 distances of the wire from the tramway to any position within its 
 reach. This will be better understood by a reference to Fig. 
 387, which shows diagramatically how the trolley can accommo¬ 
 date itself to the various positions. 
 
 Figs. 383, 384. Details of Trolley-pole and Standard. Scale, 
 
 By this simple device, the objections entertained by the Wal¬ 
 sall Municipal Authorities to the American system have been 
 overcome, as the use of span-wires, pull-over wires, and other 
 objectionable features of that system are thereby largely removed. 
 
 The whole of the work was carried out by the Electric Con¬ 
 struction Corporation as contractors, to the Author’s entire satis¬ 
 faction. 
 
SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE TRAMIVA V. 
 
 637 
 
 The electric system of lines was opened for traffic on the ist 
 January, 1893. From that date to the 28th February, 1894, the 
 cars have run 310,115 miles and have carried 1,920,185 pas¬ 
 sengers. From the ist January, 1893, to the 31st December, 
 inclusive, the cars ran 262,692 miles, and carried 1,668,057 
 passengers, the local authorities, the public, and the directors of 
 
 the tramway company alike being completely satisfied with the 
 results. 
 
 The line is worked by the Electric Construction Corporation 
 under a contract with the Tramways Company, and in dealing 
 with the working cost for purposes of comparison, only those 
 charges where a direct comparison can be made will be dealt with, 
 viz., all those for running and maintenance mmus traffic charges 
 and maintenance of permanent way. The following statement 
 shows the cost of working several systems of tramway lines in 
 1893:— 
 
638 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Comparative Statement of Cost per Car-mile for Running 
 
 AND Repairs, 1893. 
 
 
 1 C w 
 COO) 
 
 5 c 
 
 S 
 
 'g s 
 
 .2 cr; 
 
 0 6 
 
 ^ in 
 
 Birmingham Central Com- 
 pan}\ 
 
 6 
 
 u • 
 
 Charges. 
 
 South Staffordshire 
 ways Company. Wi 
 Locomotive Steam E 
 Vertical Boiler 
 
 Birmingham IMid 
 Company. 
 Kitson Locomotive 
 Engines. 
 
 Dudley and Stourl 
 
 Company. 
 
 Kitson Locomotive 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Kitson, 
 
 Falcon, 
 
 and 
 
 Beyer, 
 
 Peacock 
 
 Locomo¬ 
 
 tive 
 
 Steam 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Electric 
 
 Accu¬ 
 
 mulator. 
 
 Cable. 
 
 South Staffordsl 
 
 Electric Systei 
 
 Running-— 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 Wages . 
 
 1-83 
 
 1-99 
 
 1-45 
 
 2-14 
 
 3*37 
 
 1-54 
 
 1-93 
 
 Fuel 
 
 2-34 
 
 i*8i 
 
 I "94 
 
 1-92 
 
 1-76 
 
 0"6o 
 
 0-48 
 
 Stores . . . 
 
 0"33 
 
 0-30 
 
 — 
 
 0-27 
 
 o"68 
 
 0-19 
 
 0"43 
 
 Water and Gas 
 
 0-28 
 
 0"I I 
 
 0‘35 
 
 o-i8 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-03 
 
 o-o8 
 
 Sundries 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 0-09 
 
 0 'J 7 
 
 0*05 
 
 o-o6 
 
 Repairs*— 
 Wages and 
 
 Materials 
 
 2-26 
 
 3 •624 
 
 4-83 
 
 2-19 
 
 5-49 
 
 i"8i 
 
 i'o8 
 
 Total cost per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 car-mile 
 
 7-04 
 
 CO 
 
 Oj 
 
 8-57 
 
 6-79 
 
 11-59 
 
 4-22 
 
 4"o6 
 
 Number of miles 
 
 run .... 
 
 337,423 
 
 1 
 
 ' • 
 
 0 
 
 so'' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 112,299 
 
 1,225,996 
 
 140,993 
 
 641,161 
 
 262,694 
 
 The average cost for fuel on the four lines worked by steam is 
 2'ood., electric accumulator i76d., cable o‘6od., and overhead 
 electric traction o’48d. per car-mile run. 
 
 Hitherto (Mr. Dickinson remarks) it has been most difficult to 
 obtain a direct comparison between electric traction and any 
 
 * The items referring" to steam traction include repairs of every 
 description ; those to electric accumulator traction include stationary 
 engines and boilers, dynamos, motors, batteries, switches and all 
 repairs pertaining to an electric installation ; to cable traction— 
 stationary engines and boilers, cable, pulleys in road, cars and all 
 repairs incidental thereto ; to overhead electric traction—stationary 
 engines and boilers, dynamos, motors, poles, feeders, overhead wire, 
 cars and all other repairs in connection with an electric system. 
 
 t This item includes an amount taken from depreciation fund. 
 
SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE TRAHIFAY. 
 
 639 
 
 Other system ; but such now is not the case, at any rate so far as 
 the South Staffordshire line is concerned, because the electric cars 
 are running upon lines previously worked by steam. 
 
 When designing the system, Mr. Dickinson was in doubt as to 
 the amount of steam-engine power to provide in the generating- 
 station per car on the lines, and how to arrange its subdivision, as 
 
 Fig. 387, Plan of Car, showing various positions of Trolley-pole. 
 
 Scale, 
 
 the number of cars upon the line at different times would vary 
 considerably. However, he ultimately decided to split the power 
 into three elements, so as to be able to reduce it to suit the 
 number of cars running upon the line at any given time. He was 
 prepared, from his experience in the working of the cable-line in 
 Birmingham, for a considerable variation in the load ; but he 
 certainly never anticipated that its range would be so great in so 
 
640 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 short a time as he has found to be the case. With sixteen cars on 
 the line, the output has been found to vary as much as 233 E.H.P. 
 in the space of five seconds, and with eleven cars upon the road 
 as much as 202 E.H.P., in the same period. 
 
 Taking into account even the extraordinary fluctuations caused 
 during holiday times, the cost per car-mile for fuel is below that 
 of cable-traction; and in this comparison it is well to bear in 
 mind that the power on the cable route is distributed over only 
 three miles of route with double the number of cars running, as 
 against eight miles of route on the electrical section. 
 
 Mr. Dickinson states that he has had a motor that had been 
 running for fourteen months taken from a car and tested with a 
 
 Prony brake,” when its mechanical efficiency was found to be 
 78 per cent.—a most satisfactory result. At the same time he 
 tested the torque of the armature with a current of 48 amperes 
 taken from the trolley-wire under normal conditions, and found 
 this would raise a weight of 141 lbs. at the end of a lever 7 ft. 
 long. This is equal to a torsional force of 1,692 lbs. weight on 
 the armature. Testing with a dynamometer the amount of pull 
 to be obtained on the drawbar, with all the resistance cut out and 
 both motors in circuit, he found it was i ton 7 cwt. He then 
 tested a Wilkinson engine at a boiler-pressure of 150 lbs., with 
 cylinders 7f in. diameter geared i| to i, and this gave exactly the 
 same pull. 
 
 After running for fourteen months, it is satisfactory to find that 
 it is scarcely possible to measure the wear and tear upon the 
 trolley-wire. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE NEVERSHVK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC 
 
 RAILROAD. 
 
 This road, which was constructed in 1890, is of special interest 
 as the pioneer electric railway worked by turbines.'*' 
 
 Neversink mountain, with its electric railroad, lies to the east 
 of the city of Reading, in Berks county, Pennsylvania. In the 
 accompanying illustration (Fig. 388) not only Neversink mountain 
 and its railroad, but the contiguous railroad lines, are shown. 
 The Neversink line, encircling the mountain, rises by varying 
 grades from the streets of Reading up the foot slopes, and thence 
 along the mountain sides to the summit. 
 
 The route usually taken by the cars is from Ninth and Penn 
 Streets to the White House (Fig. 388), thence by the mountain 
 loop over the summit down to Klapperthal Park and the terminal, 
 a distance of 6'99 miles. On the return the cars go over the 
 same route as far as the Upper Junction, thence down the Short 
 Line, to the main line, at the Lower Junction, past the White 
 House and down to Ninth and Penn Streets, a distance of 4*07 
 
 * See Test of the Neversink Mountahi Electric Road, by 
 Hermann S. Hering and William S. Aldrich, of Johns-Hopkins 
 University, U.S.A., from which publication the particulars and illus¬ 
 trations given in this chapter are taken. 
 
 T T 
 
642 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 miles, making the total length of the round trip ii-o6 miles. The 
 schedule time of the round trip is about one hour and 20 minutes, 
 
 including all stops, though it can be made in one hour without 
 difficulty. 
 
NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC RAILROAD. 643 
 
 Figs. 389, 390 (Plate X.), show a plan, elevation, and right- 
 side view of the turbine plant (details of the transmission 
 machinery will be given presently); and Fig. 391 (Plate XI.) 
 the arrangement of the wiring. 
 
 During the summer of 1891 the usual schedule for week-days 
 required a car to leave the terminus every half-hour, necessitating 
 three cars on the road, and for Sundays every 20 minutes, requir¬ 
 ing four cars (or preferably five) for heavy travel. The schedule 
 and route are so arranged that about half the cars are going up¬ 
 grade while the others are going down-grade. This arrangement 
 makes a very economical distribution of power along the road, 
 preventing, as far as possible, excessively large currents, such as 
 would be required if all the cars were on the up-grade at the same 
 time. The speed of the cars over the mountain is from 9 to 15 
 miles per hour. 
 
 The cars make from eight to ten trips a day usual running 
 time, averaging from 88 to in miles per car per day. The seat¬ 
 ing capacity of each car is 44 passengers, but in heavy travel they 
 have carried as many as 170 passengers per car. During six weeks, 
 in the summer of 1891, 40,000 passengers were carried, reaching 
 a maximum of 3,000 per day with five cars on the road at one 
 time. The company expected, with its enlarged equipment, to 
 carry 250,000 passengers over the road during the summer 
 months of 1892. 
 
 Owing to the uncertain limit of the probable maximum load in 
 electric traction work, it is necessary to operate the turbines as 
 prime movers at a point much below their known capacity at full 
 gate, because of their inability to develop any greater power than 
 that represented at full gate and normal speed. This is an anal¬ 
 ogous case to that of the series motor. Steam-engines, on the con¬ 
 trary, as prime movers in electric traction work, are capable of 
 far exceeding their known rated capacity to meet the large and 
 sudden loads which are on only for a short time, by reason of the 
 possibilities bound up in the expansive working of the steam, 
 especially in the multiple-cylinder type. 
 
 The incompressible nature of the working fluid employed in 
 
 T T 2 
 
644 , ’ ELECTRIC TRACTION. ' 
 
 turbines as prime movers prevents their exceeding the output, as 
 determined by the dimensions of the machine, while the elastic 
 nature of the working fluid in steam-engines enables them to ex¬ 
 ceed their rated dimensional capacity for extraordinary demands. 
 Consequently, for electric traction work, turbines must be operated 
 considerably below their maximum capacity, or at part gate during 
 the average maximum loads of the day, so that they will be 
 able to meet the extraordinary loads that will be sure to arise at 
 unexpected times. As it will be necessary for constructing 
 engineers to select turbines that will be efficient at part gate, and 
 particularly at the ordinary maximum of half gate, it becomes the 
 aim of turbine builders to design wheels for traction purposes to 
 meet these particular requirements. 
 
 Subjoined are particulars of the power employed :— 
 
 Water Supply. 
 
 Flume, diameter in feet . . . . . . . .10 
 
 Nominal head of water, in feet . . . . . . 18 ' 
 
 Hercules Turbines. 
 
 Diameter, in inches ......... 45 
 
 Effective area of guide opening, square inches . . . 623 
 
 Rated speed, revolutions per minute . . . . .110 
 
 ) 
 
 Commercial rated Performance, Full Gate. 
 
 Rated discharge of each turbine, cubic feet per minute . . 8,833 
 Rated efficiency, full gate and rated speed, in per cent. . 80 
 
 Rated horse-power, at this efficiency, each turbine . . 240 
 
 Actual Performance at Full Gate.* 
 
 Actual discharge, each turbine, cubic feet per minute . . 8,588 
 
 Actual efficiency, 110 revolutions, in per cent. . . . 80*7 
 
 Maximum dynamometric horse-power, each turbine . . 210 
 
 * The data relating to the actual performance of the turbines were obtained 
 from the results of the test of the Hercules turbine made by the Holyoke 
 Water Power Company, and kindly furnished to Messrs. Hering and Aldrich 
 by that company. 
 
Plate X 
 
 THE NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC RAILROAD 
 
 [To face page 644 . 
 
1 
 
Plate XI. 
 
 9th& ]Penn Sts. 
 
 THE NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC 
 
 RAILROAD. 
 
 [ 7 b face page 644. 
 
NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC RAILROAD. 645 
 
 Actual Performance, about Half Gate. 
 
 Mean position of speed gate, being the proportional part of 
 
 the full opening of the speed gate, in per cent. . . 53*3 
 
 Actual discharge at critical speed for this gate, cubic feet per 
 minute . . . . . . . . . .5,528 
 
 Efficiency, critical speed 100, in per cent . . . ' . 7 $’ 37 
 
 Efficiency, rated speed of 110 . ...... 74*4 
 
 Actual dynamometric horse-power of each turbine at the ' 
 critical speed of 100 revolutions per minute . . . ^32'5' 
 
 Actual dynamometric horse-power of each turbine at the 
 
 rated speed of 110 revolutions per minute .... i28'5 
 
 The jackshaft, over the turbines, is driven from the vertical 
 turbine shaft, through bevel gear, and drives the countershaft 
 through the main belt. Each dynamo pulley is belted to the 
 friction clutch pulley on the countershaft. 
 
 The essential details of transmission machinery are shown in 
 the following tables :— 
 
 ; {' 
 
 Geared and Belted Connections. 
 
 Number of teeth on mortised crown gear, vertical shaft . . 49 
 
 Number of teeth on jack gear, horizontal shaft . . . *31 
 
 Diameter of main driving pulley, in inches . . . .108 
 
 Diameter of main driving pulley, on countershaft ... 66 
 
 Diameter of driving pulleys (friction clutch) .... 60 
 
 Diameter of pulleys of dynamos ...... 26 
 
 Main driving belt, extra double, width in inches . . *45 
 
 Dynamo belts, double, in inches . . . . . -15 
 
 Length of main driving belt, in feet . ..... 83 
 
 Rated Speeds. 
 
 Turbine shaft (vertical), revolutions per minute 
 Jackshaft over turbines .... 
 
 Countershaft ...... 
 
 Dynamos ....... 
 
 Speed of main driving belt, feet per minute 
 Speed of dynamo belts .... 
 
 . 4,300 
 
646 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACT /0 AT, 
 
 Distances between Shaft Centre Lines. 
 
 Between the vertical shafts of the turbines, in feet . . . 16*5 
 
 Between the jackshaft and countershaft . . . . • 30 , 
 
 Between the countershaft and dynamos . . . . . 20 i 
 
 The transmission of the turbine power through the mortise 
 crown and jack gear leads to a loss. On the other hand, the 
 two belted connections to an intermediate countershaft result 
 in the usual loss of power experienced in stations driven by steam- 
 engines. These losses are grouped as transmission machinery 
 friction in the summary of the test. 
 
 The additional loss through bevel gearing is inherent in this 
 method of transmitting the power from the prime mover shaft to 
 the main driving shaft. The efficiency of the transmission ma¬ 
 chinery, however, is the same as in steam-engine plants, when 
 the turbine shaft (like the crankshaft) is the main driving one. 
 Similarly, the driving of the dynamos by one belt from the turbine 
 shaft is but an intermediate step for driving them directly'coupled, 
 as has been projected at the Niagara plant, which is, of course, 
 the most efficient method. 
 
 As at present equipped, there are two Edison compound- 
 wound loo-kilowatt railway generators. Each dynamo has com¬ 
 plete switchboard connections, held resistances, ammeters, fuses, 
 and switches, and either or both may be connected with the 
 line circuit, and be driven by either or both turbines. Lightning 
 arresters are carefully placed in each feeder circuit. 
 
 The results of the test show that large variable loads on the 
 line cause great speed variations in the turbines, as here governed 
 and coupled, resulting in considerable drop in the voltage at one 
 time and considerable rise at another. Even with the best 
 method of governing turbines now in use these voltage variations 
 will be great—indicating that the dynamos for such plants should 
 be very much over compounded. 
 
 From Ninth and Penn Streets to the city limits the line con¬ 
 struction is of the ordinary overhead type, with wooden side poles 
 and span wires. From this point over the mountain the construe- 
 
NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC RAILROAD. 647 
 
 tion is of the side-bracket type, with plain undressed wooden poles 
 and iron pipe brackets. The poles are placed 100 feet apart, but 
 this is often varied on account of the great variations in the curva¬ 
 ture of the road at many points, frequently necessitating pull-offs 
 and anchor guys. 
 
 The ground return within the city limits is made by connecting 
 the double-bonded flat rails to a No. 4 B. & S. copper wire im¬ 
 bedded between the rails. On the mountain the T-rails are 
 double-bonded throughout and cross-connected at two points, as 
 shown in the wiring diagram. Fig. 391 (Plate XI.). These cross- 
 connections are made with No. 4 and No. 00 B. & S. wire. The 
 same two sizes of grounds are used from a point on the line near 
 the pavilion to the power-house, while a third ground. No. 000 
 B. & S., leads from a point near the car-house to the power-house, 
 where these grounds are connected to the dynamo. 
 
 Four feeders are run from the power-house: a No. 000 B. & S. 
 to the White House; a No. 00 B. & S. to the Highland House ; 
 a No. 000 B. &. S. to a point near Heiner’s Springs on the north 
 side of the mountain; and a No. i B. & S. to a point near No. 13 
 turnout. Mains of Nos. 4, i, o, and 000 B. & S. are run along 
 the entire route, except from the Highland House to the No. 8 
 turnout, in which the No. 00 feeder is used for both purposes. 
 The general distribution of the mains and feeders, and their respec¬ 
 tive sizes, are shown in the wiring diagram. Fig. 391. 
 
 The line resistance was determined at various points by taking 
 simultaneous readings at the power-house and on the car, and 
 making the computations from the current and drop of potential 
 
 thus obtained. 
 
 Mean resistance over entire line, in ohms ..... o'qS 
 
 Maximum resistance on the line, ...... O'Sq 
 
 Minimum „ „ 0*30 
 
 Mean drop of voltage, per cent, (about) ..... 6'o 
 
 Maximum drop of voltage, per cent, (normal current) . . io’5 
 
 Minimum ^,, ,, jj • • 3*9 
 
 Mean line efficiency, per cent, (about) ..... 94'0 
 
 The track construction over the mountain is of the railroad 
 
ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 A 
 
 'type, with 56-pound steel T-rails, set to standard gauge of'4 feet 
 inches, with standard tie system of 26-inch spacing, but within 
 the city limits ordinary flat tram-rails are used. The road 'is 
 ballasted with two feet of crushed stone, and has withstood the 
 most severe storms, with no wash-outs. . 
 
 'Road data are given as follows :— 
 
 Track. 
 
 Length of road, including short line 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 41,116 
 
 Miles. 
 
 7787 
 
 Length of straight track (41‘5 per cent, of total) 
 
 17,066 
 
 3'232 
 
 Longest stretch of straight track 
 
 . 2,000 
 
 0-379 
 
 Average length of straight portions of track . 
 
 3047 
 
 0-058 
 
 Curves. 
 
 
 
 Eight 35 to 40 degree curves, mean length 
 
 . . 2 
 
 78 feet. 
 
 Two 40 degree curves on a 5 per cent, grade. 
 
 The longest is a 35 degree curve, 3’5 per cent, grade, 
 
 length . . . . . . . . . 525 ,, 
 
 Ten 20 to 30 degree curves, mean length .... 377 ,, 
 
 The longest is a 25 degree curve, near Highland 
 
 House, length . . . . . . . . 654 ,, 
 
 Forty-six 10 to 20 degree curves, mean length . . . 251 ,, 
 
 The longest is a 20 degree curve, 3^64 per cent, grade, 
 
 length ... ...... 690 ,, 
 
 The steepest is a 20 degree curve, 6*4 per cent, grade, 
 
 length.251 ,, 
 
 Eighteen o to 10 degree curves, mean length . . . 378 ,, 
 
 The longest is a i degree 40 minute curve, 3’94 per 
 
 cent, grade, length ...... 1,047 
 
 The steepest is an 8 degree curve, 4 per cent, grade, 
 
 length.. 460 ,, 
 
 The average curvature (excluding straight track) of 82 
 
 curves ........ 
 
 
 17-35 deg. 
 
 Grades. 
 
 
 
 Sixteen grades, varying from i to 6-4 per cent. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 The shortest grade is a i-oo per cent. 
 
 400 
 
 0-07 
 
 The longest grade is the 3-64 per cent. 
 
 • IL 575 
 
 2-19 
 
 The steepest grade is the 6-4 per cent. 
 
 • 925 
 
 0-18 
 
 Mean ascending grade, round trip, 3-74 per cent. 
 
 
 
 Total length of ascending grades 
 
 . 27,805 
 
 5-26 
 
 Total car-lift, round trip .... 
 
 . 1,040- 
 
 I 
 
NEVERSINK MOUNTAIN ELECTRIC. RAILROAD. 649 
 
 Mean descending grade, round trip, 3•45 per cent. Fe-t. Miles. 
 
 Total length of descending grades . . .30,170 5*72 
 
 Total car-drop, round trip .... i,04ot 
 M ean grade, Ninth and Penn to Klapperthal, 7 j/a 
 Short Line, 371 per cent. 
 
 Mean grade Ninth and Penn to Klapperthal, vid 
 Neversink Mountain Hotel, 3*475 per cent. 
 
 Mean grade of the entire road, 3*53 per cent. 
 
 The following table gives the speed of regular passenger cars on 
 the usual round trip :— 
 
 
 Includingf Stops. 
 
 Excluding Stops. 
 
 Ninth and Penn to Klapperthal (over 
 the mountain) ..... 
 Klapperthal to Ninth and Penn (uzd 
 
 9*8 
 
 10.9 
 
 Short Line) ..... 
 
 Round trip. Ninth and Penn and re- 
 
 8-1 
 
 10 
 
 turn ....... 
 
 8-75 
 
 10*5 
 
 Running Time. 
 
 Ninth and Penn to Klapperthal (over 
 
 
 
 the mountain) ..... 
 Klapperthal to Ninth and Penn {vzd 
 
 42! min. 
 
 384 min. 
 
 Short Line) 
 
 304 min. 
 
 244 min. 
 
 Stop at Klapperthal .... 
 Round trip. Ninth and Penn and re- 
 
 4 min. 
 
 
 turn ....... 
 
 I hr. 17 min. 
 
 I hr. 3 min. 
 
 Stops for few passengers, require from j to ^ minute. 
 
 Stops at regular stations, require from ^ to minutes. 
 Stops due to connections injunctions are about 4 minutes. 
 Stops at Klapperthal terminal are about 4 minutes. 
 
 In the subjoined Table is given a summary of power distribution 
 and efficiencies, made with special test car No. 4, on the two prin¬ 
 cipal grades, 3*64 per cent, and 3*94 per cent., no other car being 
 on the road at that time. The mean speed on the grades is 
 exclusive of stops. Weight of car alone, 22,000 pounds; with 
 load during test, 22,500 pounds. 
 
650 
 
 ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
 
 Grade on which reading is taken. 
 
 3*64 per cent. 
 
 34*0 per cent. 
 
 Time and time interval on grade. 
 
 11-37-30 
 
 II-3I-45 
 
 to 
 
 tI-39-30 
 
 12-8-0. 
 
 12-6-0 
 
 to 
 
 12-16-0- 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 Steady. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Steady, 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Speed of turbine shaft ... 
 
 Gate opening, No. i turbine ... ... . 
 
 ,, No. 2 turbine (fixed gate) 
 
 Speed of car, miles per hour ... . 
 
 Q 7 'o 
 
 317 
 
 i 7'4 
 
 I2'4 
 
 98-5 
 
 30*6 
 
 i 7'4 
 
 II ‘43 
 
 97-0 
 
 3i'o 
 
 17-4 
 
 ii'4 
 
 ioi'5 
 
 30-2 
 
 17-4 
 
 I 0’62 
 
 Power Delivered. 
 
 Hydraulic H.P. delivered to turbines 
 
 Turbine H.P. delivered to transmission machinery 
 
 H.P. delivered to d5mamo ... ... . 
 
 E.H.P. delivered to line 
 
 E.H.P. delivered to car motors 
 
 H.P. delivered at car axles . 
 
 ico'o 
 
 93'2 
 
 56'i 
 
 4«'5 
 
 46'o 
 
 34 ‘.SO 
 
 iSy'o 
 
 88*7 
 
 53-15 
 
 45-9 
 
 43-1 
 
 31-92 
 
 i88'2 
 
 91-4 
 
 55-1 
 
 47*6 
 
 44-8 
 
 33-7 
 
 i84'2 
 
 86-0 
 
 51*9 
 
 44'7 
 
 42-3 
 
 31-78 
 
 Power Lost. 
 
 Turbine friction H.P. ... 
 
 Trans, machinery friction H.P. . 
 
 Dynamo losses ... 
 
 Line losses... 
 
 Car motor, gearing and axle losses. 
 
 q6'8 
 
 37 ’i 
 
 7-6 
 
 2‘5 
 
 ii'S 
 
 98-3 
 
 35‘55 
 
 7-25 
 
 2'8 
 
 ii'i8 
 
 96-8 
 
 36-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 2-8 
 
 II'I 
 
 98*2 
 
 34*1 
 
 7'2 
 
 2'4 
 
 10-52 
 
 Total losses, Hydraulic H.P. to car axle H.P. 
 H.P. available at car axle . 
 
 i 55'5 
 
 34‘5 
 
 155-08 
 
 31-92 
 
 154-5 
 
 33-7 
 
 152-42 
 
 31-78 
 
 Total Hydraulic H.fi. delivered . 
 
 190*0 
 
 iSy'o 
 
 i88'2 
 
 i84'2 
 
 Proportional Parts of Full Load. 
 Hydraulic load, per cent, of full hydraulic H.P.... 
 Turbine load, per cent, of full turbine H.P. 
 
 Dynamo load, per cent, of full dynamo output ... 
 IMotor load, per cent, of full motor output... 
 
 36-2 
 
 22-5 
 
 36'2 
 7)‘5 
 
 35-7 
 
 21'4 
 34-2 
 68-8 
 
 35-9 
 
 22 'I 
 
 35‘5 
 
 715 
 
 35-2 
 
 20'6 
 
 33-3 
 
 67-7 
 
 Percentage Distribution. 
 
 Turbine friction, per cent, loss 
 
 Trans, machinery friction 
 
 Dynamo 
 
 Line... 
 
 Car motor, gearing and axle losses. 
 
 Available power at car axle. 
 
 ■509 
 
 ■195 
 
 •040 
 
 •013 
 
 •061 
 
 •182 
 
 •526 
 
 •187 
 
 -038 
 
 •015 
 
 •063 
 
 -171 
 
 •514 
 
 -194 
 
 •040 
 
 •014 
 
 ‘059 
 
 •179 
 
 -533 
 
 •185 
 
 ■039 
 
 -013 
 
 -057 
 
 'I73 
 
 Total hydraulic power 
 
 I'000 
 
 1*000 
 
 I'OOO 
 
 I'OOO 
 
 Summary of Efficiencies. 
 
 Efficiency of No. I turbine .. 
 
 ,, No. 2 turbine 
 
 ,, coupled turbines... 
 
 ,, trans. machinery... 
 
 ,, No. I dynamo 
 
 ,, line mean, for given grade . 
 
 _,, car motors, from terminals to car axle 
 
 Efficiency from dynamo terminals to car axle 
 ,, Hydraulic H.P. to line H.P. 
 
 ,, Hydraulic H.P. to car axle H.P.... 
 
 .'iS-y 
 
 33'8 
 
 49-1 
 
 6o'2 
 
 86'=; 
 
 94 '8 
 75 'o 
 71‘2 
 
 25 '5 
 i8'2 
 
 57-4 
 
 32-9 
 
 47-4 
 
 59'9 
 
 86-3 
 
 94 '0 
 74'2 
 
 697 
 
 24-5 
 
 17-1 
 
 58-0 
 
 34-0 
 
 48-5 
 
 6o'3 
 
 86-4 
 
 94 'i 
 
 75-2 
 
 70'8 
 
 25‘3 
 
 i 7‘9 
 
 55-8 
 
 31-4 
 
 46-7 
 
 6o'4 
 
 86'i 
 
 94-8 
 
 75-1 
 
 71'2 
 
 24'2 
 
 I 7'2 
 
PART VII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OIL MOTOR. 
 
 The Connelly oil motor has been at work on the Greenwich 
 and the Croydon Tramways since the beginning of 1893. “ The 
 
 engine, which is fixed in a small car, Jias a pair of overhead 
 cylinders driving a crank-shaft, and is capable of developing 
 12-horse power on the brake. The mineral oil is stored in a 
 cylindrical tank placed within another cylinder and carried above 
 the engine. The engine-cylinders are kept cool by means of 
 water-jackets, and the water used for this purpose is pumped up 
 to the oil tank and circulates around it in the annular space 
 between it and the outer cylinder. On leaving the jackets of the 
 engine-cylinders the temperature of the water is about no deg. 
 Fahrenheit, and this is sufficient to heat up the oil to a point at 
 which it gives off the vapour utilised in driving the engine. After 
 having imparted heat to the oil, the water flows down to a nest of 
 tubes placed under the car and exposed to the atmosphere. In 
 flowing through the tubes the water becomes cooled down suffi¬ 
 ciently to be used for cooling the engine cylinders, to which it is 
 pumped up. The water, in fact, is kept in constant circulation, 
 first cooling the engine cylinders, then warming the oil, and 
 afterwards being cooled down for use over and over again. The 
 
652 
 
 SUPPLEMENTAR V CHAPTERS. 
 
 ignition of the charge of gas in the engine-cylinder is effected by 
 electricity, there being a small dynamo in the car in which the 
 engine is mounted. This dynamo is driven by a strap from the 
 engine, and the current is stored in an accumulator used for 
 igniting the charge, as well as for lighting the car at night. The 
 gearing, by means of which this locomotive is driven and the speed 
 regulated, is very ingenious. As the speed of a gas-engine cannot 
 be varied like that of a steam-engine, it has to be run at a nearly 
 uniform rate, the speed being controlled by the transmitting gear¬ 
 ing. This consists of an iron disc, 30 inches in diameter, whieh is 
 mounted vertically on the end of the crank-shaft. On a vertical 
 shaft set parallel with the disc is a friction-pulley, 12 inches in 
 diameter, and capable of being moved up and down on the shaft. 
 When, however, it is revolved by contact with the disc, the shaft 
 on which it is mounted revolves with it and transmits motion 
 through gearing to the driving wheels. The pulley can be moved 
 up and down its shaft, farther from or nearer to the shaft, at the 
 will of the driver. At starting the pulley is brought into contact 
 with the disc near its centre, which gives a slow motion with great 
 power. For increasing the speed the pulley is moved up its shaft, 
 and consequently approaches the edge of the disc, by which means 
 it is revolved more rapidly. When it is desired to slacken speed, 
 or to stop the car, the friction-pulley, still in contact with the disc, 
 is moved down to near the centre, at which point it can be 
 slightly removed from the face of the disc. As the engine cannot 
 be reversed, clutch gearing is employed, and is placed under the 
 car, and at the end of each journey it is set to drive the locomotive 
 forwards or in the opposite direction as may be required. In this 
 engine the products of combustion pass away noiselessly and with¬ 
 out smell, neither is there any escape of the vapour of the oil, 
 the consumption of which is very low. From a return of seven 
 days’ working—14 hours a day—it appears that 350 trips were 
 made, covering 507-85 miles, and carrying 4,182 passengers, with 
 a total consumption of 70 gallons of oil. On recently making a 
 few runs with this engine we found it to work most satisfactorily, 
 taking gradients and sharp curves well, maintaining the Board of 
 
OIL MOTOR, 653 
 
 Trade regulation speed of eight miles an hour easily, and being 
 evidently capable of a far higher speed.’' 
 
 Professor W. C. Unwin reports that the Connelly oil motor, 
 running daily on the Croydon Tramway, takes an ordinary tramcar 
 for forty passengers over the line, having gradients of i in 20, at an 
 average speed, including stoppages, of 4’65 miles per hour. The 
 car is completely under control, and starts and stops on gradients 
 without difficulty or shock. 
 
 : Mr. John S. Comrie reports the result of one week’s test-trials 
 at Croydon, in December, 1893, “during which the motor 
 travelled 29i’5 car-miles, carried 1,465 passengers, and consumed 
 48^ gallons of oil, the time on duty being 64‘9i6 hours, and the 
 rate of speed 4’49 miles per hour, the speed being regulated by the 
 horse traffic. If required, the motor can be geared to run 16 miles 
 an hour. 
 
 “ The small number of miles run and the passengers carried in 
 a week arises from the motor only having been on duty in the 
 afternoons and evenings to suit the requirements of the Croydon 
 Tramways Company. 
 
 “The route was from Poplar Walk to the Thornton Heath 
 terminus of the Croydon Tramways, a portion of the line afford¬ 
 ing a very varied and severe test, as, in addition to loops or 
 passing places inseparable from a single line, there are several 
 considerable curves and gradients, the most severe being one of 
 5 per cent. The motor, with car and load, accomplished these 
 satisfactorily, on one occasion ascending the greatest gradient 
 with a car weighing over 2 \ tons and containing 46 passengers, 
 and at all times was under perfect control as regards shunting, 
 starting and stopping, the last two operations being performed in 
 15 seconds, without shock to passengers. 
 
 “ With regard to the special feature of the motor which distin¬ 
 guishes it from all those hitherto suggested, the gear transmitting 
 the power of the engine to the wheels works excellently, is 
 extremely ingenious, and perfectly solves the hitherto impossible 
 problem of adjusting the invariable speed of a gas or oil engine 
 
 * The Times, March 20th, 1893. 
 
■654 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. 
 
 to the varying speed requisite in a tramcar, and gives simultaneously 
 the maximum of power and the minimum of speed essential to the 
 satisfactorv start. 
 
 “ The consumption of oil is *i66 gallon per mile, or *747 gallon 
 per hour, and placed in a locked reservoir under my supervision, 
 and the route being personally measured, and the hours of duty. 
 My investigation proves the capacity of the motor to perform the 
 ordinary daily tramway duty of 72 miles per day without having 
 to re-enter the depot to be re-charged with oil, as its reservoir is 
 capable of containing not less than 14 gallons. 
 
 “The above results having been obtained on a single line, 
 allowing only of a speed of less than 4^ miles an hour, it may be 
 fairly deduced that those attained on a double line, where a speed 
 of 6 miles an hour would be practicable, should be considerably 
 better. The wear of the face-plate abutting on transmission gear 
 -was so slight as to be scarcely appreciable.” 
 
CHAPTER IT. 
 
 COMPRESSED GAS MOTOR. 
 
 A MOTOR, driven by compressed coal-gas, has lately been 
 introduced by the Traction Syndicate, Limited, as an economical 
 means of tram-car propulsion. A public trial of the motor on the 
 line of the Croydon and Thornton Heath Tramways Company is 
 reported in the public press, the car and its motor being now, as a 
 result of the trial, in regular work on the line referred to.* 
 
 The motor is placed under the tram-car together with three 
 cylindrical gas-holders. The machinery occupies the space under 
 one of the seats of the car, whilst one of the gas-holders is carried 
 under the opposite seat, the other two holders being placed trans¬ 
 versely under the car-framing. The three reservoirs will hold a 
 sufficient supply of gas to serve for an eight-mile run. 
 
 The car is described as “not noticeably different from a horse- 
 car; it runs quietly and easily, emitting neither smoke nor steam, 
 and is quite under control. Inside passengers can hear a slight 
 rumble of machinery, and perceive a trifling vibration, but practi¬ 
 cally there is nothing to detract from their comfort. Neither they 
 nor bystanders in the street can perceive any machinery whatever, 
 for the engine and gearing are entirely enclosed, the motor lying 
 under one seat, and the wheels and clutches under the floor of 
 the car.” ^ 
 
 The car is about i8 feet long, and, with the machinery, weighs 
 5^ tons. It is driven from either end, there being a starting and 
 stopping lever and a hand-brake on each platform. The motor, 
 
 * For reports of the trial, see Times of 20th June, 1893, and 
 Eiigineering oi 22nd June, 1893. 
 
656 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. 
 
 which is of the Otto type, and is specially constructed for tramway 
 work, has a slow and a quick speed, although the latter cannot 
 exceed the maximum of eight miles allowed by the Board of 
 Trade. The ignition of the charge in the motor cylinders is 
 effected by electricity, and the cylinders exhaust into a condenser, 
 so that it is cleansed, no smell arises, and no public nuisance is 
 created by the escape of the products of combustion into the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 The driver stands on the end platform, with the usual brake 
 handle beside him, and in front of him a lever which operates the 
 clutches controlling the gearing. With the lever vertical the 
 engine is out of engagement with the axles; when the lever is 
 placed to one side or the other, the slow or the fast gear is in 
 engagement. 
 
 The motor has two cylinders, placed face to face at opposite 
 sides of the crank-shaft, and both driving on to one crank. At 
 one end of the shaft, that nearest the side of the car, is a fly¬ 
 wheel, and at the other end a pinion, gearing into a wheel on 
 the first motion shaft which lies under the floor of the car. 
 On this shaft are two pinions, either of which can be made to 
 drive a second motion shaft, the large pinion giving a speed of 
 eight miles an hour to the car, and the small pinion half that 
 speed. 
 
 Each of these pinions is furnished with a friction clutch, con- ' 
 sisting of two discs with a ring of beechwood between them. One 
 disc is set up towards the other by means of bell-cranks and spring 
 toggle arms pivoted to a sliding collar, the arrangement being 
 such that when the clutch is in engagement the pressure of the 
 arms is about at right angles to the shaft, and there is no end 
 thrust on the sliding collar. The second motion shaft is geared 
 to the axles by pitch chains. For driving in the opposite direc¬ 
 tion, the rotation of the first motion shaft is reversed by means of 
 intermediate wheels and claw clutches. 
 
 Although with gas-driven car the engine must not be stopped e 7 i 
 route^hvX must run constantly, whatever the car may do, it is suscep¬ 
 tible of a certain amount of regulation. When the work is light, the 
 
COMPRESSED GAS MOTOR. 
 
 657 
 
 governor cuts off the gas supply to one cylinder entirely, the other 
 doing all the work. The governor is loaded by a spring on the 
 spindle, and also by weights on an external lever, and these 
 weights can be lifted by the same handle that operates the 
 clutches. By this means the speed of the engine is reduced by 
 some 50 per cent, when the car is standing, and, further, the gas 
 admission is delayed till half-stroke, with the result that the explo¬ 
 sion is rendered much more gentle, and less likely to give rise to 
 vibration. 
 
 The charging-station is at the depot of the Croydon and Thorn¬ 
 ton Heath Tramways Company, at Thornton Heath, where an 
 8-horse power Otto gas engine drives a compressor. By this latter the 
 gas, which is taken from the gas company’s mains, is i:)umped into 
 a steel cylindrical receiver 25 feet in length and 4 feet in diameter,, 
 at a final pressure of ten atmospheres as a maximum, or 150 lbs. 
 per square inch. This plant is equal to the supply of five tram- 
 cars, the number which it is intended to place on the line for the 
 present. Five more are to be added in due course, when another 
 compressor and receiver will be put down and will be driven by 
 the present engine, which is of sufficient power for the purpose. 
 From the receiver a pipe is laid down to the tram-car charging- 
 point, the cylinders on the car being charged in the same way as^ 
 those of railway carriages are charged with gas for lighting purposes. 
 'Fhe pressure in the tramcar cylinders is about eight atmos¬ 
 pheres, or 120 lbs. per square inch, at starting. 
 
 It carries 28 passengers in all, and makes a very fair speed, the 
 limit allowed by the Board of Trade being 8 miles per hour. With 
 the slow gear it will readily mount an incline near Thornton Heath 
 station of i in 23, with a short piece of i in 16, and in coming 
 down it can be stopped by the brakes in its own length. It also 
 goes round a curve of 35 feet radius on a i in 27 grade. Its 
 weight, filled with passengers, is 5i- tons. The first cost of the 
 car, with its motor, it is stated, is not greatly different from that 
 of a horse-car with its ii horses. For gas it costs id. per mile, 
 against g^d. per mile for fodder and bedding for horses. So that 
 it starts with an advantage of 2 Jd. per mile. 
 
 TT u 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SC/MM ARY REMARKS ON MECHANICAL MOTORS. 
 
 ]\[echanical motors in considerable variety have, in addition to 
 horses, been passed in review :—compressed-air locomotives, steam 
 locomotives, fireless locomotives, cables, electric locomotives. In 
 addition to these may be noted oil motors, and compressed-gas 
 motors, of recent introduction. The practice of the Birmingham 
 Central Tramways, on which four systems of traction have been 
 in work for some years, affords a means of making direct com¬ 
 parisons under like general conditions of gradients,. &c. The 
 receipts and expenses, shown, page 85, averaged, for the three 
 years ending June 30, 1891, 1892, and 1893, as follows :— 
 
 Three years ending June 30, 1893. 
 
 Average Receipts 
 er mile run. 
 
 Average Expenses 
 per mile run. 
 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Steam .... 
 
 i 5'«7 
 
 11*41 
 
 Horse .... 
 
 11*05 
 
 9*89 
 
 Cable .... 
 
 12*57 
 
 6*28 
 
 Electric .... 
 
 15*09 
 
 13-95 
 
 Here the cable system of traction is conspicuously the lowest 
 in working cost: 6*28 pence per mile, followed by 9*89 pence for 
 horse-power, 11*41 pence for steam-power, and 13*95 pence for 
 electric power by the accumulator, which is more than twice the 
 cost for cable-power. 
 
 Carefully prepared comparative estimates have been drawn up 
 
MECHANICAL MOTORS. 
 
 ^59 
 
 by Mr. C. B. Fairchild/*' showing the capital and working costs 
 of cable roads and electric roads. The estimates are for three 
 miles of double-track, with the power station near the centre of 
 the line. Trains consisting of a motor car in one case and a grip 
 car in the other, with a trailer, run on a four-minute headway, 
 requiring 15 trains. This, of course, gives the same car mileage 
 as 30 single cars on a two-minute headway would run. The 
 average speed calculated on ps about 6 miles an hour, the maxi¬ 
 mum being 8, and the cars run 19^ hours a day. Summaries of 
 the estimates are as follows :— 
 
 Electric.—Road Cost. 
 
 Road bed ...... 
 
 Special street construction . 
 
 Overhead construction 
 Special overhead construction 
 Power-house and plant 
 Rolling stock and equipment 
 Car barn and repair shops , 
 
 Auxiliary appliances .... 
 
 Engineering, legal, and miscellaneous, at $5,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 163,822*80 
 
 1,811*50 
 
 16,361*40 
 
 418*00 
 
 134^750‘of^ 
 
 74,625*00 
 
 40,000*00 
 
 8,650*00 
 
 per mile 
 
 • • • • 
 
 15,000*00 
 
 Total for three miles double track . 
 
 45543870 
 
 Cable.— 
 
 -Road Cost. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Power-house and plant 
 
 • • • ' • 
 
 102,000 
 
 General street construction 
 
 • • . . 
 
 304.396 
 
 Special street construction 
 
 • 
 
 28,500 
 
 Rolling stock 
 
 
 33.000 
 
 Car barn and repair shops 
 
 . 
 
 37.500 
 
 Auxiliary appliances 
 
 • • • • 
 
 6,050 
 
 Engineering, legal, and miscellaneous, at $4,000 
 
 
 per mile 
 
 • • * • 
 
 12,000 
 
 Total for three m 
 
 iles double track . 
 
 523446 
 
 Putting the figures into British money roughly, it will be seen 
 that the electric road is estimated to cost ;£'91,088, against 
 
 .See Street Raihuays : their Construction^ Operation^ and Maintenance. 
 
 U U 2 
 
66 o 
 
 SUPPLEMENTAR V CHAPTERS. 
 
 __;£’io 4,689 for the cable. This is ^£30,^6;^ per mile double¬ 
 track for the former, and ;2^34 j 896 for the latter. 
 
 The cost of constructing a longer electric line would be in 
 direct proportion to the number of miles, and the cost for power 
 plant will increase according to the number of cars, but the cost 
 of real estate, power and car houses, will remain the same for a 
 considerable increase of mileage or traffic. Similarly, for the 
 cable, the cost of street construction would be in proportion to 
 the length of the line, but one power-house, if properly located, 
 and one main vault, will answer fora six-mile line. Under favour¬ 
 able conditions one station will serve for operating half-a-dozen or 
 more lines. Besides that, the cost of additional cable cars and 
 engine-power would be a mere trifle compared to that of the 
 additional electric cars, dynamos, and engine-power. 
 
 Mr. Fairchild’s estimates of the working costs per day for an 
 electric line and a cable line, constructed according to the fore¬ 
 going estimates, are as follows :— 
 
 Electric Road.—Working Cost per Day. 
 
 Dels. 
 
 Twelve tons of coal at $2'5o ...... 30 
 
 Water, oil, and grease for engines, generators, cars, 
 
 and motors . . . . . . .10 
 
 Depreciation of plant and rolling stock . . -38 
 
 Sixty-six motor-men and conductors at $2 . . - 132 
 
 Engineers, firemen, and dynamo tenders . . -25 
 
 Car-house service, inclusive of cleaning, inspection, (S:c. 20 
 
 Power and car-house expenses ..... 6 
 
 Track service ........ 8 
 
 Repairs to engines, generators, line machinery, electric- 
 
 power equipment, and miscellaneous . . *13 
 
 Repairs to cars, trucks, and motors . . . -78 
 
 Repairs to track, overhead construction, and buildings 4;- 
 Track cleaning, train and shop expenses . . -14 
 
 Injury to persons and property . . . .10 
 
 Legal, secret service, and insurance .... 8 
 
 Licences and taxes ....... y 
 
 General and miscellaneous expenses . . . . 32 
 
 Total.4~8 
 
MECHANICAL MOTORS, 
 
 66l 
 
 Cable Road.—Working Cost per Day. 
 
 Dols. 
 
 Five and a-half tons coal at $2'50 
 Water, oil, and grease . 
 
 Depreciation of rope 
 
 Sixty-six grip-men and conductors at $2 
 
 Power and car-house service 
 
 Track service .... 
 
 Repairs to engines and line machinery 
 
 Repairs to'grips and cars 
 
 Repairs to track and buildings 
 
 House, track, and cable expenses 
 
 Injury to persons and property 
 
 Licences and taxes 
 
 General and miscellaneous expenses 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 Total 
 
 The items are carefully stated in the same form where that is 
 possible, and the different class of work renders it impossible in 
 others. The great economy in the matters of coal and repairs 
 with the cable system is readily noticeable. With a maximum 
 speed of 8 miles an hour (the average being about 6) for 19F 
 hours per day, each train would make no miles per day, and 15 
 trains would make 1,650 train-miles, or 3,300 car-miles. The 
 total operating expenses would therefore be 14*5 cents per car- 
 mile for the electric, and rather over 8’3 cents for the cable. 
 The point is that the cable is fully 3d. per car-mile cheaper to 
 work on a two-minute (car) headway than the electric road. 
 This on the mileage gives a saving of over ^41 per day, or 
 ^12,911 per year, exclusive of Sundays. At 5 per cent, interest 
 rhat represents a capital of ^ 2 ^ 8 , 220 . It can thus be readily 
 seen that in the long run the cable is much cheaper than the 
 electric system for heavy work. In estimating the operating 
 expenses of cable tramways, it has to be remembered that about 
 one-half the cost remains unchanged by any alteration in the 
 amount of the traffic, while the other half varies as the traffic 
 varies. With electricity, on the other hand, about one-third of 
 the cost remains constant by a limited increase or decrease in the 
 
662 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS. 
 
 traffic, while the other two-thirds varies as the traffic varies. 
 Hence, again, let us have electricity for light traffic, and cable for 
 the severe work. 
 
 The variations of working cost, for materials and wages for 
 repairs only, are exemplified in the following instances, in which 
 general charges are not included :— 
 
 Pence 
 per mile. 
 
 Bessbrook and Newry Tramway :—Wages, mainte¬ 
 nance and repair, stores ..... 3’94 
 
 City and South London Railway :—Working and re¬ 
 pairs, generator station, 4*59, locomotive service, 
 
 23^* • • * • • • • .6 90 
 
 Blackpool Electric Tramway :—Repairs, total wages, 
 
 excluding general charges, coal, and stores . 5’34 
 
 Birmingham Central Tramways :—Electric haulage, 
 
 5’i5, machinery, ’29 ..... . 5-44 
 
 It is to be noted that the rails of the South London and City 
 line are not grooved, and that their resistance is much less than 
 that of grooved rails, as already shown by results of trials. 
 Nevertheless, the cost for the South London line is the highest in 
 the group. But the speed is also the highest. 
 
 Further comparative evidence is wanted. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 POINTS AND CROSSINGS. 
 
 The most usual combinations of points and crossings, whereby 
 the rolling stock may be shifted from one line of rails to another, 
 are shown diagrammatically in Plate XII. (Figs. 392 to 408). 
 
 Fig. 392 shows a passing-place on a single line; Fig. 393, a 
 “triangle ” junction of single lines; Fig. 394, a single cross-over 
 road; and Fig. 395, a double cross-over road. 
 
 Points are of three types :—Open, when both points of a pair 
 are open ; fixed, when one point is fixed, and the other moveable ; 
 moveable, when both points of a pair are moveable. 
 
 Open points are known also as dumb or dummy points. A 
 broken section of the open point—box section—is shown in Fig. 
 396. The upper part is chilled, or hardened. The chill usually 
 penetrates to a depth of from ^ inch to f inch in depth. Open 
 points are employed for running-out or trailing points, or as facing 
 points on horse-worked lines, where alternative routes diverge, the 
 car being pulled over by the horses to the desired line. 
 
 Fixed points are required for automatically compelling entering 
 cars to take one and the same direction. It is usual to fill up the 
 right-hand groove of the right-hand point at its entrance, thus 
 forcing the entering car to take the left-hand load. 
 
 The moveable chilled tongue points (Figs. 397, 398) are em¬ 
 ployed principally where the cars are to take alternative routes. 
 A tongue may be automatically held over to one hand by means 
 of a spring. The pair of points are suited for girder rails, with 
 fish-plates fused in the ends, in the proper positions for being 
 
664 
 
 POINTS AND CROSSINGS. 
 
 bolted up to the rails. But the outside fish-plate of each pair, at 
 one or at each end, may be left loose. 
 
 Crossings are made to any required angle. The usual angle 
 for passing-places, sidings, and cross-over roads is i in 5 or i in 6. 
 Sharper angles, up to i in 9, are sometimes taken ; and larger 
 angles down to i in 2I. Ordinary crossings are shown in Figs. 
 399 and 400. They are suitable for cross-over roads, passing 
 places, branches, and sidings. The first of these shows end chairs 
 to receive the channel rail. In the second, fish-plates are fused in 
 the ends, to connect to the girder rail. The outside fish-plate of 
 each pair at one or both ends may be loose. 
 
 Chilled cast iron, as just described, is generally used as the 
 material of ooints and crossings. It is the hardest of materials. 
 
 i. O 
 
 Cast steel annealed is extensively used on steam tramways. 
 Though less hard than chilled cast iron, it is tougher. 
 
 In built up points, made from the rolled Bessemer steel rail, the 
 steel is generally uniform in temper, and harder than annealed 
 cast steel. Mr. James More"' considers rail steel to be more 
 durable than annealed cast steel, or chilled cast iron. An example 
 of built-up points, made from 7-inch girder rails, is shown in Figs. 
 401, 402, 403. Cross-sections of these points are shown in Figs. 
 404, 405. 
 
 A moveable point, made from the rail, is shown in plan and 
 elevation in Figs. 406, 407. 
 
 A built-up crossing is shown in Fig. 408, made from the rails 
 used on the line. The running-through rail should be from 10 
 to 12 feet long, and the crossing rail from 8 to 10 feet long, in 
 order to break joint. 
 
 * See a paper on “ Tramway Permanent Way,” by James More, 
 Jun., in the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil 
 E7igineers, vol. ciii., 1890-91. 
 
Plate XU. 
 
 599. ]V 
 
 Fig. 404. Cross-section of Built-up Fixed Point aCA. 
 
 Scale I-3rd. 
 
 Fig. 405, 
 
 Figs. 
 
 ] 
 
 Cross-section of Built-up Fixed Point at B. Scale i-3rd. 
 
 [ To face page 664 , 
 
Plate XI 1 . 
 
 Fig. 404. Cross-section of Built-up Fixed Point at]A. 
 Scale I-3rd. 
 
 PLAN OF OPEN POINT 
 
 PLAN OF FIXED POINT. 
 
 a 0 
 
 ELEVATION OF POINTS. 
 
 Figs. 401, 402, 403. Built-up Fixed Points. .Scale i-24th. 
 
 Fig. 408. Built-up Crossing. 
 
 P'lG. 405. Cross-section of Built-up Fixed Point at B. Scale l-3rd. 
 
 POINTS AND CROSSINGS. 
 
 [ 71 ; face page 664. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY AND OFFICIAL 
 REGULATIONS. 
 
 I. The Tramways Act, 1870. 
 
 II. Board of Trade Rules. 
 
 III. Forms of Byelaws and Regulations issued by the 
 Board of Trade:— 
 
 (i) For a Local Authority. 
 
 (ii) For a Company. 
 
 (iii) With respect to the Use of Steam Power 
 
 (iv) AVith respect to Electric Traction . 
 
 I A". Parliamentary Enactments as to Scotland and 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 V. Terms of Purchase of Tramm^ays by Local Authori¬ 
 ties (Judgment of the House of Lords) . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 667—672 
 
 673—693 
 
 694, 695 
 
 696-698 
 
 699-701 
 
 702 — 707 
 
 708-709 
 
 7IC—727 
 
PARLIAMENTARY AND OFFICIAL 
 REGULATIONS. 
 
 I.— The Tramways Act, 1870. 
 
 This statute, 33 & 34 Viet. c. 78, the full title of which is “An Act 
 to facilitate the construction and to regulate the working of Tram¬ 
 ways —is the principal enactment dealing with tramways in Great 
 Britain. The Act does not extend to Ireland (s. 2). Previous to 
 the passing of the Act, the decisions of the Examiner and of the 
 Standing Committee of the House of Lords on the Liverpool Tramway 
 Bill of 1866 had rendered it necessary for promoters of tramways to 
 deposit plans and sections of their proposed undertakings. 
 
 Part I. of the Act deals with Provisional Orders authorising 
 the construction of tramways, and provides (s. 4) that the Local 
 Authority (seeposf, p. 673) of any district may obtain such Orders for 
 tramways in their district ; and the like power is given to any other 
 person or persons, corporation or company, with the consent of the 
 Board of Trade and the Local Authority, but not otherwise. Any such 
 Local Authority, person, persons, corporation, or company obtaining 
 such Provisional Order, are to be deemed promoters of the tramway 
 (s. 4)-* 
 
 Upon application for a Provisional Order being made to the Board 
 of Trade, the Board are to consider the application, and may, if they 
 think fit, direct inquiries as to the propriety of proceeding upon such 
 
 * Tramways Orders Confirmation Acts. —Provisional Orders made 
 by the Board of Trade under the authority of the Tramways Act, 1870, to 
 acquire final validity and force, must be confirmed by special Acts cf 
 Parliament. These are distinguished as “Tramways Oiders Confirmation 
 Acts,” by which the Orders set out in the Schedules to the Acts respecLi\eJy 
 are confirmed. 
 
 Provisional 
 
 Orders. 
 
068 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 application, and they are to consider any objection thereto that may be 
 lodged with them, and to determine whether or not the promoters 
 may proceed with the application (s. 7). 
 
 [At pp. 673— 6g^,posI, will be found the full text of the Rules issued 
 by the Board of Trade w'ith respect to Provisional Orders.] 
 
 Where it appears to the Board of Trade expedient, they may make 
 a Provisional Order, which Order shall empower the promoters to 
 make the tramway upon the gauge and in the manner therein 
 described, and shall contain such provisions as (subject to the require¬ 
 ments of the Act) the Board of Trade, according to the nature of the 
 application and tlie facts and circumstances of each case, shall 
 think fit; but such Order is not to contain any provision for acquiring 
 lands, except to an extent therein limited, and only then by agree¬ 
 ment, or to construct a tramway elsewhere than along or across a road, 
 or upon land taken by agreement (s. 8). 
 
 Tramways shall be constructed as near as may be in the middle of 
 the road, and shall not be so laid that, for a distance of 30 feet or 
 upwards, a less surface than 9 feet 6 inches shall intervene between 
 the outside of the footpaths on either side of the road, and the nearest 
 rail of the tramway, if one-third of the owners or one-third of the 
 occupiers of the houses, shops, or warehouses abutting upon the part 
 of the road where such less space shall intervene, as aforesaid, express 
 their dissent from any tramway being so laid (s. 9). 
 
 The nature of the traffic on the tramway, and the tolls to be taken, 
 are to be specified in the Provisional Order (s. 10). 
 
 The Provisional Order is not to be granted until the promoters 
 deposit in a bank as there prescribed, a sum of not less than 4 per 
 cent, upon the estimated expense, or security of equal value is 
 deposited (s. 12). 
 
 The Provisional Order is not to have any operation, until confirmed, 
 with or without amendment, by an Act of Parliament, and it is to be 
 open to parties to petition against the Act and to appear and oppose 
 the Bill in Committee (s. 14). 
 
 The Board of Trade, on the application of the promoters, may 
 revoke, amend, extend, or vary such Provisional Order by a further 
 Provisional Order, but the application for every such Provisional 
 Order will be subject to the same conditions as the former Provisional 
 Order, and will require confirmation by an Act of Parliament (s. 16). 
 
 If the promoters do not complete the tramway and open it for 
 public traffic within two years of the date of the Order, or within any 
 shorter period prescribed in the Order ; or if, within one year from 
 either of those times, the W’orks are not substantially commenced, or, 
 if commenced, are suspended without a reason sufficient in the opinion 
 
TRAMWAYS ACT. 
 
 669 
 
 of the Board of Trade, the powers given by the Order shall cease, 
 except as to so much of the same as is then completed, unless the time 
 be prolonged by the Board, and as to so much of the same as is then 
 completed, the Board may allow the powers to continue and to be 
 exercised if they think fit; but, failing such permission, then so much 
 of the tramway as is then completed shall be deemed to be dis¬ 
 continued, and dealt with accordingly (s. t8). 
 
 When a tramway has been made by a Local Authority, or posses¬ 
 sion has been acquired by a Local Authority, they may, with the 
 consent of the Board of Trade, lease to any person the right of user 
 thereof, and of demanding and taking authorised tolls and charges ; 
 or the Local Authority may leave such tramways open to be used by 
 the public, and may, in respect of such cases, take the tolls and 
 charges authorised ; but no Local Authority can place or run 
 carriages upon such tramways, and demand and take tolls and charges 
 in respect of the use of such carriages. Every such lease shall be for 
 a term not exceeding twenty-one years, and at its expiration such 
 lease may, with the consent of the Board, be renewed for a further 
 term not exceeding in any case twenty-one years ; the lease to be 
 void if the lessees discontinue the working of the tramway (s. 19). 
 
 Special provision is made by the Act for payment out of the local 
 rate of all expenses incurred by a Local Authority in obtaining and 
 carrying into effect a Provisional Order authorising the construction of 
 tramways (ss. 20, 21}. 
 
 Part II. of the Act relates to the Construction of "I'kamways, 
 and (together with Part HI.) is to be incorporated with every Provi¬ 
 sional Order or special Act authorising a tramway, except so far as 
 they may be expressly varied thereby (ss. 22, 23, 24). 
 
 If no gauge is prescribed by the special Act, the gauge is to be such 
 as to admit of the use on the tramwaysof carriages constructed for use 
 upon railways of a gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches. They are to be laid on 
 a level with the surface of the road (s. 25). 
 
 Powers are given to promoters to break up streets ; and provision 
 is made for the completion of the works and the reinstatement of the 
 road, for the repair of the part of the road where the tramway is laid, 
 and for contracts between the road authority and the promoters for 
 paving roads on which tramways are laid; also for the case of 
 interference with the mains of gas and water companies, and for the 
 protection of sewers, drains, and the like (ss. 26—31). 
 
 The Act further preserves the rights of authorities and companies, 
 (Src., to open roads (s. 32), and provides for the settlement of all 
 differences that may arise between the promoters and the road 
 
 Construc¬ 
 tion of 
 Tramways. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 General 
 
 Provisions. 
 
 Oyo 
 
 authority or other body or person by a referee to be appointed by the 
 Board of Trade (s. 33). 
 
 Part III. of the Act contains General Provisions relating to the 
 working of tramways. 
 
 Carriages. —The promoters are to have the exclusive use of the 
 tramways for carriages with flange-wheels or other wheels suitable 
 only to run on the prescribed rail, to be moved by the power prescribed 
 by the Special Act ; and, where no such power is prescribed, by 
 animal power only. No carriage shall extend beyond the outer edge 
 of the wheels of such carriage more than 11 inches on each side 
 34)- 
 
 Licenses. —If the Local Authority or twenty inhabitant ratepayers, 
 satisfy the Board of Trade that the public are deprived of the full 
 benefit of the tramway, licenses to use it may be granted to third 
 parties by the Board of Trade on certain prescribed conditions, provi¬ 
 sion being made by the Act for enforcing payment of tolls, &c. 
 (ss. 35—41)- 
 
 Discontinuance of Tramways. —If the working of a tramway, orot 
 any part thereof, is discontinued for the space of three months (such 
 discontinuance not being occasioned by circumstances beyond the 
 control of the promoters), the powers of the promoters in respect of 
 such disused tramway, or portion thereof, may be determined by an 
 order of the Board of Trade. At any time after two months from the 
 date of such order, the road authority may remove the disused portion 
 of tramways at the cost of the promoters (s. 41). 
 
 Insolvency of Projnoters. —If at any time after opening of a tram¬ 
 way for traffic the promoters appear to be insolvent or unable to 
 maintain the tramv/ay, the Board of Trade, on the application of the 
 Local Authority or road authority, and after enquiry by a referee, may 
 make an order declaring that the powers of the promoters shall cease 
 at the expiration of six months from the date of the order, unless the 
 same are purchased by the Local Authority, who may, in that event, 
 remove the tramway at the cost of the promoters (s. 42). 
 
 PiLrchase and Sale of 'Tramways. —Where the promoters of a 
 tramway are not the Local Authority, the Local Authority may, within 
 six months after the expiration of a period of twenty-one years 
 from the time when such promoters were empowered to construct 
 such tramway, and within six months after the expiration of every 
 subsequent period of seven years, or within three months after 
 any order made by the Board of Trade under ss. 41, 42, with the 
 approval of the Board of Trade, require the promoters to sell their 
 undertaking, upon terms of paying the then value (exclusive of any 
 
7'RAMWAYS ACT, 
 
 67 1 
 
 allowance for past or future promts of the undertaking, or any com¬ 
 pensation for compulsory sale, or other consideration whatsoever) of 
 the tramway, and all lands, buildings, works, materials, and plant 
 of the promoters suitable to and used by them for the purposes 
 thereof, such value to be in case of difference determined by a 
 referee nominated by the Board of Trade. 
 
 The Local Authority in any district may pay the purchase money 
 and all expenses incurred by them in so purchasing an undertaking 
 out of the like rate, and shall have the like powers of borrowing 
 on the security of the rate, as if such expenses were incurred in 
 obtaining and carrying into effect a Provisional Order under the 
 Act. 
 
 Two or more Local Authorities may jointly purchase any under¬ 
 taking within their several districts (s. 43). 
 
 Where a tramway has been opened for traffic for six months the 
 promoters may, with the consent of the Board of Trade, sell their 
 undertaking to any person, persons, corporation, or company, or to 
 the Local Authority of the district; and where such sale is made to 
 the Local Authority such Local Authority may pay the purchase 
 money in like manner as if such purchase were made under the 
 authority of the 43rd section (s. 44). 
 
 Tolls .—The promoters or lessees of a tramway authorised by 
 special Act may demand and take tolls and charges as specified in 
 the special Act, such tolls and charges to be exhibited in a conspicuous 
 place inside and outside each tramway carriage (s. 45). 
 
 Byelaws .—The Local Authority are empowered to make byelaws 
 as to the rate of speed, the clear distances betw'een any twm carriages 
 travelling on the same line of rails, the stopping of carriages using 
 the tramway, and the traffic on the road in which the tramway is 
 laid ; and the promoters or lessees of a tramway may also make 
 byelaws for the prevention of any nuisance in or about their carriages 
 or premises and the regulation of travelling upon the carriages. The 
 byelaws are to be subject to allowance by the Board of Trade, and 
 may prescribe penalties (ss. 46, 47). 
 
 [For Forms of Byelaws issued by the Board of Trade, see 
 post, p. 694]. 
 
 Power is given to the Local Authority to license the drivers and 
 conductors of tramways (s. 48). 
 
 Offences .—Penalties are imposed for obstruction of promoters in 
 laying-out a tramway ; for wilful injury or obstruction to tramways or 
 works ; for frauds practised or attempted by passengers ; for biinging 
 dangerous goods on a tramway, &c. (ss. 49—53). 
 
 Any person, not duly authorised, using a tramway with carriages 
 
672 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 liaving flange-wheels, or other wheels suitable only to run on such 
 tramway, becomes liable to a penalty not exceeding £20 (s. 54}. 
 
 Accidents and Injuries .—The promoters or lessees are to be 
 answerable for all accident, damages, and injuries happening 
 through their act or default, or through the act or default of any 
 person in their employment by reason or in consequence of any of 
 their works or carriages (s. 55). 
 
 Recovery of Tolls and Pe 7 ialties. — All tolls,, penalties, and 
 charges under the Act, or under a byelaw, may be recovered and 
 enforced in England before two justices of the peace under the Sum¬ 
 mary Conviction Act, and in Scotland before the sheriff or two 
 justices as penalties under the Railway Clauses Consolidation 
 (Scotland) Act, 1845 (s- 56). 
 
 Right of User of Road only .—The promoters of a tramway shall 
 not be deemed to acquire any right other than that of user of any 
 road along or across which they lay the tramway, and nothing con¬ 
 tained in the Act is to exempt the promoters, or other person using a 
 tramway, from the payment of tolls to the trustees of a turnpike road. 
 With the approval of the Board of Trade, the trustees of a turnpike 
 road and the promoters of a tramway may enter into agreements for 
 the payment of a composition in respect of the user of such road 
 (ss. 57, 58). 
 
 Mines and Mmerals tmder Tra^nways .—Nothing in the Act is 
 to limit or interfere with the rights of any owner or occupier of mines 
 or minerals lying under or adjacent to a road along or across which a 
 tramway is laid ; nor shall any such owner or occupier be liable to 
 make compensation for damage occasioned to such tramway by the 
 working of the mines in ordinary course (s. 59). 
 
 Public Rights .—Nothing in the Act is to restrict the powers bylaw 
 of existing authorities to widen, alter, divert, or improve any road, 
 railway, tramway, or inland navigation ; or to limit the powers of the 
 police or Local Authorities to regulate the traffic of the road ; or to 
 abridge the right of the public to pass along or across any part of a 
 road along or across which a tramway is laid with carriages not 
 having flange-wheels (ss. 60, 61, 62). 
 
 Piiblzc Ijiquiries .—Inquiries which by the Act the Board of Trade 
 are empowered to make are to be made according to the provisions 
 set forth in the Act (s. 63). 
 
 Board of Hade Rules .—Power is given to the Board of Trade 
 from time to time to make and amend Rules for carrying the Act into 
 effect ; and any Rules so made are to be laid before Parliament 
 (s. 64). 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 673 
 
 11 .—Board of Trade Rules with respect to 
 Provisional Orders and other Matters 
 
 UNDER THE TRAMWAYS ACT, 1870.* 
 
 BY WHOM PROVISIOxNAL ORDERS MAY BE OBTAINED 
 AND THE NECESSARY CONSENTS THERETO. 
 
 By the Tramways Act, 1870, it is provided as follows :— 
 
 “ Part I.— Provisional Orders authorizing the Construction of Tramways, 
 
 Section 4.—“Provisional Orders authorizing the construction of tramways 
 in any district may be obtained by— 
 
 “(r.) The local authority of such district; or by— 
 
 “ (2.) Any person, persons, corporation, or company, with the consent of 
 “ the local authority of such district; or of the road authority of such 
 “ district where such district is or forms part of a highway district 
 “ formed under the provisions of ‘ The Highway Acts.’ 
 
 * * * * id 
 
 “ Application for a Provisional Order shall not be made by any local 
 “ authority until such application shall be approved in the manner prescribed 
 “ in Part III. of the Schedule A. to this Act annexed. (This schedule follows 
 “ on page 3.) 
 
 “ Where in any district there is a road authority distinct from the local 
 “ authority, the consent of such road authority shall also be necessary in any 
 “ case where power is sought to break up any road subject to the jurisdiction 
 “ of such road authority, before any Provisional Order can be obtained.” 
 
 Definition of Terms. —Section 3 provides that for the purposes of the Act— 
 
 The terms “ local authority ” and “ local rate” shall mean respectively the 
 bodies of persons and rate named in the table in Part I. of the Schedule (A. 
 to this Act annexed. 
 
 The term “ road ” shall mean any carriageway being a public highway, and 
 the carriageway of any bridge forming part of or leading to the same. 
 
 The term “road authority ” shall mean, in the districts specified in the table 
 in Part H. of the Schedule (A.) to this Act annexed, the bodies of persons 
 named in the same table, and elsew’here any local authority, board, town 
 council, body corporate, commissioners, trustees, vestry, or other body or 
 persons in whom a road as defined by this Act is vested, or who have the 
 power to maintain or repair such road. 
 
 The term “ district ” in relation to a local authority or road authority shall 
 mean the area within the jurisdiction of such local authority or road authority. 
 
 * Notes. — (i) All memorials, objections, and other documents addressed 
 to the Board of Trade under the Act should be on paper of foolscap size. 
 (2) Promoters who desire to be incorporated must register themselves under 
 the Companies Act, 1862. 
 
 X X 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ■674 
 
 “Schedule A.— (Part I.) 
 “Local Authority. 
 
 Districts of Local 
 Authorities. 
 
 “ The city of London 
 “and the liberties 
 ‘ ‘ thereof. 
 
 “The metropolis [a) 
 
 “ Boroughs ( 5 ) 
 
 “ Anyplace not included 
 “in the above de- 
 “ scriptions, and under 
 “the juiisdiction of 
 “commissioners, trus- 
 tees, or other persons 
 ^‘intrusted by any 
 “Local Act with 
 “ powers of improving, 
 “cleansing, or paving 
 “ any town. 
 
 “ Anyplace not included 
 “in the above desciip- 
 “ tions, and within 
 ^‘the jurisdiction of a 
 “ local board consti- 
 “ tuted in pursuance 
 “ of the Public Health 
 “Act, 1848, and the 
 “ Local Government 
 “Act, 1858, or one of 
 “such Acts. 
 
 “Any place or parish 
 “ not within the above 
 “ descriptions, and in 
 ‘ ‘ which a rate is levied 
 “ for the maintenance ' 
 “ of the poor. 
 
 Description ot Local 
 Authority of District set 
 opposite its Name. 
 
 England & Wales. 
 
 The major, aldermen, 
 and commons of the 
 city of London. 
 
 TheMetropolitanBoard 
 of Works (c). 
 
 The mayor, aldermen, 
 and burgesses acting 
 by the council. 
 
 T h e commissioners, 
 trustees, or other 
 persons intrusted by 
 the Local Act with 
 powers of improving, 
 cleansing, or paving 
 the town. 
 
 The local board 
 
 The vestry,select vestry, 
 or other body of per¬ 
 sons acting by virtue 
 of any Act of Parlia¬ 
 ment, prescription, 
 custom, or otherwise, 
 as or instead of a 
 vestryor select vesti'y. 
 
 The Local Rate. 
 
 The consolidated sewers 
 rate. 
 
 The metropolitan con¬ 
 solidated rate. 
 
 The borough fund or 
 other property ap¬ 
 plicable to the pur¬ 
 poses of a borough 
 rate, or the borough 
 rate. 
 
 Any rate leviable by 
 such commissioners, 
 trustees, or other 
 persons, or other 
 funds applicable by 
 them to the purposes 
 of improving, cleans¬ 
 ing, or paving the 
 town. 
 
 General district rate. 
 
 The poor rate. 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 675 
 
 “ Places within the juris- 
 “ diction of any town | 
 “ council, and not sub- ; 
 ‘•ject to the separate 
 “jurisdiction of police 
 “commissioners or 
 “ trustees. 
 
 ^•In places within the 
 “jurisdiction of police 
 “commissioners or 
 “trustees exercising 
 
 o 
 
 “ thefunctionsofpolice 
 “commissioners under 
 “ any General or Local 
 “ Act. 
 
 “ In any parish or part 
 “thereof over which 
 “the jurisdiction of a 
 “ town council or of 
 “police commissioners 
 “ or trustees exercising 
 “ thefunctionsofpolice 
 “commissioners does 
 “ not extend.” 
 
 “ Scotland. 
 The town council. 
 
 The police commis¬ 
 sioners or trustees. 
 
 The road trustees hav¬ 
 ing the management 
 of any road on which 
 a tramway is pro¬ 
 posed to be con¬ 
 structed. 
 
 The prison assessment 
 or police assessment, 
 as the local authority 
 shall resolve. 
 
 The tolls, duties, and 
 assessments leviable 
 by the road trustees. 
 
 “Schedule A.— (Part II.) 
 “ Road Authority. 
 
 Districts of Road Authorities. 
 
 Description of Road Authority of 
 Districts set opposite its Name. 
 
 “ Parishes within the Metropolis (i) 
 “mentioned in Schedule (A.) to 
 “ the Metropolis INIanagement Act, 
 
 “ 1855. 
 
 “ Districts within the Metropolis (i) 
 
 ‘‘ formed by the union of the parishes 
 “ mentioned in schedule (B.) to 
 “ the Metropolis Management Act, 
 
 “ 1855.” 
 
 The vestries appointed for the pur¬ 
 poses of the Metropolis Manage¬ 
 ment Act, 1855. 
 
 The board of works for the district 
 appointed for the purpose of the 
 Metropolis Management Act, 1855. 
 
 “ [d) ‘ The metropolis ’ shall include all parishes and places in which the 
 Metropolitan Board of Works have power to levy a main drainage rate, 
 except the city of London and the liberties thereof.” 
 
 “ ip) ‘ Borough ’ shall mean any place for the time being subject to an Act 
 passed in the session holden in the fifth and sixth years of the reign of King 
 William the Fourth, chapter seventy-six, intituled ‘An Act to provide 
 for the regulation of municipal corporations in England and Wales.’ ” 
 
 (c) Now London County Council. 
 
 X X 2 
 
676 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 “ Schedule A.— (Part III.) 
 
 ^'■Evidence of Approval a 7 id Coftsent .—The approval of any intended 
 “ application for a Provisional Order by a Local Authority shall be in manner 
 “ following; that is to say, 
 
 “ A resolution approving of the intention to make such application shall 
 “ be passed at a special meeting of the members constituting such Local 
 “ Authority. 
 
 “ Such special meeting shall not be held unless a month’s previous notice 
 “ of the same, and of the purpose thereof, has been given in the manner in 
 “which notices of meetings of such Local Authority are usually given. 
 
 “ Such resolution shall not be passed unless two-thirds of the members 
 “ constituting such Local Authority are present and vote at such special 
 “ meeting, and a majority of those present and voting concur in the 
 “resolution ; provided that if in Scotland the local authority be the road 
 “ trustees, it shall not be necessary that two-thirds of such trustees shall 
 “be present at the meeting, but the resolution shall not be valid unless 
 “ two-thirds of the members present vote in favour of such resolution, and 
 “ unless the said resolution is confirmed in like manner at another 
 “meeting called as aforesaid, and held not less than three weeks and not 
 “ more than six weeks thereafter. Where any such resolution relating to 
 “ the metropolis as the same is defined in Part I. of the Schedule, or to 
 “any district in Scotland of which road trustees are the local authority, 
 “has been passed in manner aforesaid, the intended application to 
 “ which such resolution relates shall be deemed to be approved.” 
 
 RULES OF THE BOARD OF TRADE. 
 
 Rule I.— Affroval of Afflication made by Local Authorities. 
 —Where the application is made by any Local Authority, the evi¬ 
 dence of approval required as above by Schedule A. (Part III.) of 
 the Act must be given at the time fixed for proving compliance with 
 the Act and these Rules, by (rz) a certified copy of the resolution 
 approving of the intention to make the application, {f) a certified 
 copy of the notice convening the special meeting to consider the 
 application, and f) a certified statement of the number of members 
 constituting the Local Authority, and of the number present and 
 voting at such special meeting. 
 
 Rule II. — Consent to Afplications not made by Local Authori¬ 
 ties. —Where an application is made by promoters, not being the 
 Local Authority of the district in which the tramway is proposed to be 
 laid, evidence of the consent required by Part I., section 4 of the 
 Act, must be given at the time fixed for proving compliance with the 
 Act and these Rules, by {a) a certified copy of the resolution passed 
 at a meeting of the local or road authority, as the case may be, at 
 which the application was approved, {f) a copy of the notice convening 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 677 
 
 the meeting, which notice must contain a statement that the subject 
 of the proposed tramway will be brought before the meeting. 
 
 Similar evidence of the consent of the local and road authorities 
 must be produced in cases in which the promoters seek to use steam 
 or other mechanical power on any tramway or tramways already 
 authorised. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT AND NOTICES IN OCTOBER OR 
 NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER. 
 
 Section 6.— “The promoters intending to make an application for a 
 “ Provisional Order shall proceed as follows :— 
 
 “ (i.) In the months of October and November next before the application, 
 “ or in one of those months, they shall publish notice of their intention 
 “ to make such application by advertisement; and they shall, on or 
 “ before the fifteenth day of the following month of December, serve 
 “ notice of such intention in accordance with the Standing Orders (if 
 “ any) of both Houses of Parliament for the time being in force with 
 “ respect to Bills for the construction of tramways. (See Schedule 
 “ B., Part I.) 
 
 “ (2.} On or before the thirtieth day of the same month of November they 
 “shall deposit the documents described in part two of the same* 
 “schedule, according to the regulations therein contained : 
 
 “ (3.) On or before the twenty-third day of December in the same year 
 “ they shall deposit the documents described in part three of the 
 “ samef schedule, according to the regulations therein contained.” 
 
 * * * * 
 
 “ Schedule B.— (Part I.) 
 
 “ (i.) Every advertisement is to contain the following particulars :—• 
 
 “I. The objects of the intended application. 
 
 “2. A general description of the nature of the proposed works, if any. 
 
 “ 3. The names of the townlands, parishes, townships, and extra-parochial 
 “ places in which the proposed works, if any, will be made. 
 
 “4. The times and places at which the deposit under Part II. of this 
 “ schedule will be made. 
 
 “5. An office, either in London or at the place to which the intended 
 “application relates, at which planted copies of the Draft Provisional 
 “ Order, when deposited, and of the Provisional Order, when made, 
 “ will be obtainable as hereinafter provided, 
 
 “ (2.) The whole notice is to be included in one advertisement, which is to 
 “ be headed with a short title descriptive of the undertaking, 
 
 “ (3.) The advertisement is to be inserted once at least in each of two suc- 
 “cessive we’eks in some one and the same newspaper published in the 
 “district affected by the proposed undertaking, where the proposed works, if 
 
 * Schedule B. (on page 5). 
 t Schedule B. (on page 6). 
 
678 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 “ any, will be made; or if there be no such newspaper, then in some one and 
 “the same newspaper published in the county in which every such district, or 
 “ some part thereof, is situate ; or if there be none, then in some one and the 
 “same newspaper published in some adjoining or neighbouring county.” 
 
 “ (4.) The advertisement is also, in every case, to be insetted once at least 
 “in the London or Edinburgh Gazette^ accordingly as the district is situate in 
 “England or Scotland.” 
 
 Rule III.— Description of Tramways in Advertisement. —The 
 tramways mentioned in the advertisement of the intended application 
 should be described in the manner prescribed in Rule XVI., but the 
 length need not be inserted. 
 
 Rule IV.— Advertiseme 7 it as to Narrow Ptaces. —The adver¬ 
 tisement must specify at what point or points, and on which side of 
 the street or road, it is proposed to lay such tramway, so that for a 
 distance of thirty feet or upwards a less space than nine feet six 
 inches, or if it is intended to run thereon carriages or trucks adapted 
 for use upon railways, a less space than ten feet six inches, shall inter¬ 
 vene between the outside of the footpath on the side of the street or 
 road and the nearest rail of the tramway. The notice shall also 
 specify the gauge to be adopted, and what power it is intended to 
 employ for moving carriages or trucks upon the tramway. 
 
 Rule V.— Street Notice. —In the months of October and November, 
 or one of them, immediately preceding the application for any Provi¬ 
 sional Order, a notice thereof shall be posted for fourteen consecutive 
 days in every street or road, along which it is proposed to lay the 
 tramway, in such manner as the authority having the control of such 
 street or road shall direct : and if after application to such authority 
 no such direction shall be given, then in some conspicuous position in 
 such street or road ; and such notice shall also state the place or places 
 at which the plans of such tramway will be deposited. 
 
 Rule VI.— Notice to Owners and Lessees of Railways, Tra?n- 
 ways, and Ca 7 ials. —On or before the 15th day of December imme¬ 
 diately preceding the application for any Provisional Order for laying 
 down a tramway crossing any railway or tramway on the level, or 
 crossing any railway, tramway, or canal by means of a bridge, or 
 otherwise affecting or interfering with such railway, tramway, or canal, 
 notice in writing of such application shall be served upon the owner or 
 reputed owner and upon the lessee or reputed lessee of such railway, 
 tramway, or canal, and such notice shall state the place or places at 
 which the plans of the tramway to be authorised by such Provisional 
 Order have been or will be deposited. 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 67^ 
 
 Similar notice must also be given to County Councils and to pro¬ 
 prietors of navigable rivers in respect of their bridges or other works 
 which are proposed to be crossed or otherwise interfered with. 
 
 Every notice under this rule must be accompanied by a copy of 
 Rule XVII., omitting the first paragraph, and must state where copies 
 of the draft Provisional Order, when deposited at the Board of Trade,, 
 can be obtained. 
 
 Rule VII.— Notice to Local and Road Authorities. —Where the 
 promoters make application for an extension of time for the construc¬ 
 tion of, or for authority to abandon, any tramway, they must, on or 
 before the 15th day of December, serve notice of such application 
 upon all the local and road authorities affected. 
 
 Rule VIII.— Intimation to inte 7 iding Objectors. —The preceding 
 advertisement and notices, other than the street notice, must state that 
 every company, corporation, or person desirous of making any repre¬ 
 sentation to the Board of Trade, or of bringing before them any 
 objection respecting the application, may do so by letter, addressed 
 to the Assistant Secretary of the Railway Department of the Board of 
 Trade, on or before the ifh fanuary next ensuing ; that copies of 
 their objections must at the same time be sent to the promoters ; and 
 that in forwarding to the Board of Trade such objections, the objectors 
 or their agents should state that a copy of the same has been sent to 
 the promoters or their agents. 
 
 Rule IX.— Notice to Frontagers. —On or before the 15th day of 
 December immediately preceding the application for a Provisional 
 Order, notice in waiting must be given to the owners or reputed 
 owners, lessees or reputed lessees, and occupiers of all houses, shops, 
 or warehouses abutting upon any part of any street or road where, for 
 a distance of thirty feet or upwards, it is proposed that a less space 
 than nine feet six inches shall intervene between the outside of the 
 footpath on either side of the road and the nearest rail of the 
 tramway. 
 
 This notice shall be given in respect of such premises on both sides 
 of the road, and must contain a notification that if such owner, lessee, 
 or occupier dissents from the tramway being so laid, he may express 
 his dissent by a statement in writing, addressed to the Assistant 
 Secretary of the Railway Department of the Board of Trade, oit or 
 befo 7 'e the 1st January next ensuing, and that he must at the same 
 time send a copy of his dissent to the promoters. 
 
68 o 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 DEPOSITS ON OR BEFORE 30TH NOVEMBER. 
 
 “ Schedule B.— (Part II.) 
 
 “ (i.) The promoters are to deposit— 
 
 “I. A copy of the advertisement published by them. 
 
 “ 2. A proper plan and section of the proposed works, if any, such plan and 
 “ section to be prepared according to such regulations as may from time to 
 
 time be made by the Board of Trade in that behalf. 
 
 (2.) The documents aforesaid are to be deposited for public inspection— 
 
 “ In England, in the office of the clerk of the peace for every county, riding, 
 “ or division, and of the parish clerk of every parish, and the office 
 “ of the local authority of every district in or through which any such 
 “ undertaking is proposed to be made; in Scotland, in the office of the 
 ‘‘ principal sheriff clerk for every county, district, or division which 
 “ will be affected by the proposed undertaking, or in which any 
 “ proposed new work will be made. 
 
 “ (3.) The documents aforesaid are also to be deposited at the office of the 
 “ Board of Trade.” 
 
 Rule X.— Map aiid Diagram. —A published map of the district 
 on a scale of not less than six inches to a mile (or, if no map on such 
 a scale be published, then the best map obtainable), with the line of 
 the proposed tramway marked thereon, and a diagram on a scale of 
 not less than two inches to a mile prepared in accordance with the 
 specimen appended to these rules, must also be deposited on or before 
 the 30th of November. 
 
 Rule XI.— Reqairemciits as to Plans. —The plans to be deposited 
 must also comply with the following requirements :— 
 
 The plans shall indicate whether it is proposed to lay the tramway 
 along the centre of any street or road, and if not along the centre, 
 then on which side of, and at what distance from, an imaginary line 
 drawn along the centre of such street or road, and whether or not, and 
 if so, at what point or points, it is proposed to lay such tramway, so 
 that for a distance of thirty feet or upwards a less space than nine feet 
 six inches, or if it is intended to run thereon carriages or trucks 
 adapted for use upon railways, a less space than ten feet six inches, 
 shall intervene between the outside of the footpath on either side of 
 the street or road and the nearest rail of the tramway. 
 
 All lengths shall be stated on the plan and section in miles, furlongs, 
 chains, and decimals of a chain. 
 
 The distance in miles and furlongs from one of the termini of each 
 tramway shall be marked on the plan and section. 
 
 Each double portion of tramway, whether a passing-place or other¬ 
 wise, shall be indicated by a double line. 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 68 l 
 
 The total length of the street or road upon which each tramway 
 is to be laid shall be stated {i.e. the length of route of each tram¬ 
 way). 
 
 The length of each double and single portion of such tramway, and 
 the total length of such double and single portions respectively, shall 
 also be stated. 
 
 In the case of double lines (including passing-places), the distance 
 between the centre lines of each line of tramway shall be marked on 
 the plans. This distance must in all cases be sufficient to leave at 
 least 15 inches between the sides of the widest carriage and engines 
 to be used on the tramways when passing one another. 
 
 The gradients of the street or road on which each tramway is to be 
 laid shall be marked on the section. 
 
 Every crossing of a railway, tramway, river, or canal shall be shown, 
 specifying in the case of railways and tramways whether they are 
 crossed over, under, or on the level. 
 
 All tidal waters shall be coloured blue. 
 
 All places where for a distance of 30 feet and upwards there will be 
 a less space than nine feet six inches between the outside of the foot¬ 
 path on either side of the street or road and the nearest rail of the 
 tramway shall be indicated by a thick dotted line on the plans and on 
 the side or sides of the line of tramway where such narrow places 
 occur, as well as noted on the plans, and the width of the street or 
 road at these places shall also be marked on the plans. 
 
 Note. —The section of each tramway should, where practicable, be 
 shown on the same page as the plan. 
 
 Rule Plans in certain cases to be in Duplicate. —The 
 
 plans to be deposited with the clerk of the peace or sheriff clerk (as 
 the case may be) must be in duplicate. ^See Standing Orders of the 
 House of Lords and of the House of Commons.) 
 
 Rule XIII.— Portio 7 is only of Plans required in ce 7 'tain cases. 
 —In cases where the proposed works are intended to be made in or 
 through one or more parishes or districts, the deposit with the parish 
 clerks or Local Authorities need consist only of a copy of so much 
 of the plans and sections as relates to their respective parishes or 
 districts. 
 
 Rule XIV.— Pla 7 is, ^c., to be De;positcd Oi Pa 7 dia 77 ie 7 it. —The 
 following Standing Orders must also be complied with* :— 
 
 * 
 
 These Standing Orders refer to amended as well as to original plans. 
 
682 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Standing Order of the House of Lords. 
 
 ‘‘ Whenever plans, sections, books of reference, or maps are deposited in 
 the case of an application to any public department or county council for a 
 Provisional Order or Certificate, duplicates of the said documents shall at the 
 same time be deposited in the office of the Clerk of the Parliaments, provided 
 that with regard to such deposits as are so made at any public department or 
 with any county council after the prorogation of Pailiament and before the 
 thirtieth day of November in any year, such duplicates shall be so deposited 
 on or before the thirtieth day of November.” 
 
 Standing Order of the House of Commons. 
 
 “ Whenever plans, sections, books of reference, or maps are deposited in 
 the case of any application to any public department or county council for a 
 Provisional Order or Provisional Certificate, duplicates of the said documents 
 shall at the same time be deposited in the Private Bill Office, provided that 
 with regard to such deposits as are so made at any public department or with 
 any county council after the prorogation of Parliament, and before the 
 thirtieth day of November in any year, such duplicates shall be so deposited on 
 the thirtieth day of November.” 
 
 DEPOSITS ON OR BEFORE 23RD DECEMBER. 
 “Schedule B.—(Part III.) 
 
 “ (I.) The promoters are to deposit at the office of the Board of Trade— 
 
 “ ]. A memorial signed by the promoters, headed with a short title 
 “descriptive of the undertaking (corresponding with that at the head of 
 “ the advertisement), addiessed to the Board of Trade, and praying 
 “ for a Provisional Order. 
 
 “ 2. A printed draft of the Provisional Order as proposed by the promoters, 
 “ with any schedule referred to therein. 
 
 “ 3. An estimate of the expense of the proposed works, if any, signed by 
 “ the persons making tl:e same. 
 
 “ (2.) They are also to deposit a sufficient number of such printed copies at 
 “ the office named in that behalf in the advertisement; such copies to be 
 “there furnished to all persons applying for them at the price of not more 
 “ than one shilling each. 
 
 “ (3.) The memorial of the promoters (to be written on foolscap paper, 
 “ bookwise, with quarter margin) is to be in the following form, with such 
 “variations as circumstances require : 
 
 “ [Short title of undertaking.'] 
 
 “ To the Board of Trade. 
 
 “ The memorial of the promoters of [short title of undertaking] 
 
 ‘ ‘ Showeth as follows : 
 
 “ I. Your memorialists have published in accordance with the requirements 
 “ of the Tramways Act, 1870, the following advertisement: 
 
 “ [Here ad'vef'tisem£?it to he set out verbatim P] 
 
 ^ This advertisement may be in print and fixed to the body of the 
 memorial. 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 683 
 
 “ Your memorialists have also deposited, in accordance with the require- 
 “ ments of the said Act, copies of the said advertisement and \Jiere state 
 “ deposit of the several matters required by AcTj. 
 
 “Your memorialists therefore pray that a Provisional Order 
 “ may be made in the terms of the draft proposed by your 
 “ memorialists, or in such other terms as may seem meet. 
 
 “ ^ d' I 
 
 Rule XV.—The following documents, &c., must also be deposited 
 at the Board of Trade on or before the 23rd December, viz. :— 
 
 (i.) List of Railways, Tramways, and Canals, and Cofy of the 
 FLotice. —A complete list of every railway, tramway, and canal pro¬ 
 posed to be crossed or otherwise affected or interfered with, together 
 with the names and addresses of the owners or reputed owners, and ol 
 the lessees or reputed lessees thereof, and a certified copy of the notice 
 served upon them. 
 
 (2.) Lists of Local and Road Authorities and Cofy of Notice. —A 
 complete list of the local and of the road authorities through whose 
 districts the proposed tramway is to pass (including in such list the 
 clerk to the County Council in cases where it is proposed to cross 
 county bridges), and if any such district is or forms part of a highway 
 district, under the provisions of The Highway Acts,’’ a statement to 
 that effect must accompany the deposit. Also a separate list of the 
 local and road authorities affected by any application relating to the 
 use of steam or other mechanical power on authorised tramways, or to 
 an extension of time or abandonment ; together with a copy of any 
 notice served under Rule VII. 
 
 (3.) Cofy of Street Notice. —A certified copy of the notice which 
 is recjuired by Rule V. to be posted in the streets in October or 
 November next before the application. 
 
 (4.) List of Frontagers a 7 id Cofy of Notice. —In all cases where for 
 a distance of 30 feet or upwards it is proposed that a less space than 
 nine feet six inches shall intervene between the outside of the foot- 
 path on either side of the road and the nearest rail of the tram¬ 
 way, or a less space than ten feet six inches if it is intended to run 
 on the tramway carriages or trucks adapted for use upon railways, a 
 complete list of the owners or reputed owners, lessees or reputed 
 lessees, and occupiers of all houses, shops, or warehouses abutting 
 upon any part of the highway, where such less space is proposed, 
 together with a certified copy of the notice which was served on them 
 on or before the 15th December, as required by Rule IX. (The list 
 should be so prepared as to show distinctly and separately every 
 length of street or road where for a distance of 30 feet or upwards 
 
684 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 such less space is proposed and in respect of every such length of 
 street or road it should indicate in parallel columns the name of 
 the street, the name or number of the house, shop, or warehouse, and 
 the names of the owner or reputed owner, the lessee or reputed 
 lessee, and of the occupier.) 
 
 (5.) Description of Land .—A description of the land (if any) which 
 the promoters propose to purchase for the construction of the tram¬ 
 way. (The contracts for the purchase of all the lands required must 
 be produced at the time of proving compliance with the Act and these 
 Rules.) 
 
 (6.) Meni 07 'andum of Association, &c .—A list of every Provi¬ 
 sional Order or Act of Parliament (if any) of the promoters; and 
 where the promoters are a company incorporated under the Companies 
 Act, 1862, a printed copy of the Memorandum of Association, Articles 
 of Association, and any registered special resolution of the company, 
 and in the case of a company incorporated in any other manner, a 
 copy of every deed or instrument of settlement or incorporation. 
 
 (7.) Dee .—A fee of 6y cheque payable to “An Assistant 
 
 Secretary of the Board of Trade.’’ (This fee will not necessarily be 
 taken to cover the cost of inquiries or other matters arising out of the 
 application. With respect to costs in such matters, security must be 
 given from time to time by the promoters as the Board of Trade may 
 require.) 
 
 DRAFT PROVISIONAL ORDER. 
 
 Rule XVI.—The following rules must be observed in regard to the 
 draft Provisional Order ;— 
 
 (i.) The draft Provisional Order must be deposited in triplicate and 
 be printed on 07 ie side 07 ily of the page, so as to leave the back of 
 the page blank, and any schedule annexed must begin a new page. 
 
 (2.) The draft Provisional Order must describe where each tram¬ 
 way is to commence and terminate, and must state the streets and 
 roads along which it is to pass, and the total length of the double and 
 single portions respectively of such tramway in miles, furlongs, chains, 
 and decimals of a chain. 
 
 (3.) Each double and single portion of such tramway, with its com¬ 
 mencement and termination, must also be described. (This can be 
 done by stating that each line or branch line will be double or single 
 throughout, except at certain specified places where it will be single or 
 double.) 
 
 (4.) Every passing-place must be described as a double line in 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 685 
 
 accordance with the Standing Order of the House of Lords, which 
 provides that “ Lzuo lines of tramway run 7 img side by side shall be 
 described as a doicble lineF 
 
 (5.) In cases where the promoters are individuals their addresses as 
 well as names should be inserted in the draft Order. 
 
 (6.) The names and addresses of the agents for the Provisional 
 Order must be printed on the outside of the draft Order, and there 
 must be a notice at the end of it stating that objections are to be 
 addressed to the Assistant Secretary of the Railway Department of 
 the Board of Trade on or before the 15th January next ensuing, that 
 copies of objections must at the same time be sent to the promoters, 
 and that in forwarding to the Board of Trade such objections, the 
 objectors or their agents should state that a copy of the same has been 
 sent to the promoters or their agents. 
 
 PROOFS OF COxMPLIANCE WITH THE ACT AND RULES. 
 
 Rule XVII.—The agent should be prepared to prove compliance 
 with the provisions of the Act and these Rules by the 15/-^ January, 
 and all sicch Jroofs 7 nust be C07npleted on or before the 227id 
 February. Six days’ notice will be given of the day and hour at 
 which the agents are to attend for the purpose at the Board of Trade,, 
 and printed forms of proof will accompany the notice. These forms 
 should be filled up by the agents, and brought with the requisite 
 documents to the Department at the time fixed for proving com¬ 
 pliance. 
 
 If any local or road authority, or any railway, tramway, or canal 
 company, or any other company, body, or person desire to have any 
 clauses or other amendments inserted in the Order, they must deliver 
 the same to the agents for the Order, and also to the Board of Trade,, 
 not later than the %th February. 
 
 On or befof'e the 227id February the agents must .deposit at the 
 Board of Trade a filled-up draft printed Order (in duplicate) con¬ 
 taining in manuscript all such clauses or other amendments as have 
 been agreed upon. 
 
 If any of the clauses or other amendments [which have been de¬ 
 livered to the agents are not settled with the consent of both parties, 
 the agents must, so far as they can, on or before the 22nd February, 
 show what are the amendments, if any, which each party would be 
 willing to accept. 
 
 After the 22nd February no further proposals for clauses will be 
 entertained by the Board of Trade. 
 
686 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 DEPOSIT AND ADVERTISEMENT OF ORDER AS MADE. 
 
 “Section 13.—When a Provisional Order has been made as aforesaid and 
 “ delivered to the promoters, the promoters shall forthwith publish the same 
 “by deposit and advertisement according to the regulations contained in 
 “Part IV. of the Schedule (B.) to this Act.” 
 
 “ Schedule B.—(Part IV.) 
 
 “ (i.) The promoters are to deposit printed copies of the Provisional Order, 
 “when settled and made for public inspection m the offices of clerks of the 
 “ peace and sheriff clerks, where the documents required to be deposited by 
 ‘ them under Part II. of this schedule were deposited. 
 
 “ (2.) They are also to deposit a sufficient number of such printed copies at 
 “ the office named in that behalf in the advertisement, such copies to be 
 “ there furnished to all persons applying for them at the price of not more 
 “ than* each. 
 
 “ (3.) They are also to publish the Provisional Order as an advertisement 
 “ once in the local newspaper in which the original advertisement of the 
 “ intended application was published, or, in case the same shall no longer be 
 “ published, in some other newspaper published in the district.” 
 
 (Note. —Section 14 of the Act requires that the Order as made shall be 
 deposited and advertised not later than the 25th April.) 
 
 Rule XVIII.— Deposit of Amended Plan and Sectio 7 t. —Should 
 any alteration of the plan and section originally deposited for the pur¬ 
 poses of the Order be made, with the approval of the Board of Trade, 
 before the Order is granted, a copy of such plan and section (or of so 
 much thereof as may be necessary), showing such alteration, must, 
 before the Order is introduced into a Confirmation Bill, be deposited 
 by the promoters for public inspection :— 
 
 In England, in the office of the clerk of the peace for every county, 
 riding, or division, and of the parish clerk of every parish, and the 
 office of the Local Authority of every district, affected by such altera¬ 
 tion ; and 
 
 In Scotland, in the office of the principal sheriff clerk for every 
 county, district, or division affected by such alteration. 
 
 Copies of such documents are at the same time to be deposited 
 at the office of the Board of Trade, in the office of the clerk of the 
 Parliaments and at the Private Bill Office. 
 
 Rule XIX.—When a Provisional Order has been made, and before 
 it is introduced into the Confirmation Bill, the promoters will be 
 required to submit to the Board of Trade the following proofs, viz. ; — 
 
 (i.) The receipt of the clerk of the peace or sheriff clerk, or proof by 
 
 * The Board of Trade consider that the price to be here inserted should 
 not be more than one shilling. 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES, bSj 
 
 affidavit of the deposit of the Order with such officer as required by 
 Part IV. of Schedule B. to the Act. 
 
 (2.) A copy of the local newspaper containing the advertisement of 
 the Order. This advertisement must have a short heading stating 
 that the Order has been made by the Board of Trade under the Tram¬ 
 ways Act, 1870, previous to its being introduced into a Confirmation 
 Bill, and must also state the name of the office where printed copies 
 of the Order can be obtained. 
 
 (3.) Proof must also be given that the advertised Order is a correct 
 copy of the Order delivered by the Board of Trade to be advertised, 
 that it was inserted in the newspaper in which the original advertise¬ 
 ment of the application for the Order was published, and that a suffi¬ 
 cient number of printed copies of the Order were deposited for sale at 
 the office named in the original advertisement, with a statement of the 
 price for which they may be obtained. 
 
 (4.) Receipts or proof by affidavit of the deposit of amended plans 
 as required by Rule XVIII. • 
 
 Printed forms for these proofs will be furnished by the Board of 
 Trade when the Order is sent to the promoters to be advertised, and 
 one of these forms must be filled up by the promoters, and brought or 
 forwarded to the Department with the requisite documents as soon as 
 ^possible after the advertisement and deposit have been made. 
 
 DEPOSIT OF MONEY, PENALTY FOR NON-COMPLETION 
 OF TRAMWAYS, AND RELEASE OF DEPOSIT. 
 
 Rule XX.— Deposit of Aloney in the Chancery Division under 
 Section 12 of Act. —After the Provisional Order is ready, and before 
 the same is introduced by the Board of Trade into a Confirming Bill, 
 \\\^ pronioters they are a Local Authority) shall, if they are 
 
 not possessed of a tramway already opened for public traffic, which 
 has during the year last past paid dividends on their ordinary share 
 capital, pay as a deposit a sum of money not less than five per centum 
 on the amount of the estimate of the expense of the construction of 
 the tramway, as follows ; namely. 
 
 Where the tramway or any part thereof will be situate in England 
 —to the account of the Paymaster-General for and on behalf of 
 the Supreme Court of Judicature in England to the credit of the 
 particular tramway : 
 
 Where the tramway will be situate wholly in Scotland—either to the 
 account of the Paymaster-General for and on behalf of the 
 Supreme Court of Judicature in England in manner aforesaid, or 
 
688 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 (at the option of the promoters) into a bank in Scotland estab¬ 
 lished by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter, in the name and 
 with the privity of the Queen’s Remembrancer of the Court of 
 Exchequer in Scotland ex ;parte the particular tramway. 
 
 The Board of Trade may issue their warrant to the promoters for 
 such payment into court, which warrant shall be a sufficient authority 
 for ^erso 7 is therein named, not exceeding five in number, or the 
 majority or survivors of them, to pay the money therein mentioned to 
 the account of the Paymaster-General for and on behalf of the 
 Supreme Court of Judicature in England or into the bank therein 
 mentioned, in the name and with the privity of the officer therein 
 mentioned, if any, and for that officer to issue directions to such bank 
 to receive the same, to be placed to his account there according to the 
 method (prescribed by statute, or general rules or orders of court or 
 otherwise) for the time being in force respecting the payment of 
 money into the said courts respectively, and without fee or reward. 
 
 Provided, that in lieu, wholly or in part, of the payment of money, 
 the promoters may bring into court as a deposit an equivalent sum of 
 bank annuities, or of any stocks, funds, or securities on which cash 
 under the control of the respective courts is for the time being per¬ 
 mitted to be invested, or of exchequer bills (the value thereof being 
 taken at the price at which the promoters originally purchased the 
 same, as appearing by the broker’s certificate of that purchase) ; and 
 in that case the Board of Trade shall vary their warrant accordingly 
 by directing the transfer or deposit of such amount of stocks, funds, 
 securities, or exchequer bills by the persons therein named. 
 
 Where money is so paid into the Supreme Court of Judicature, the 
 court may, on the application of the persons named in the warrant 
 of the Board of Trade, or of the majority or survivors of them, order 
 that the same be invested in such stocks, funds, or securities as the 
 applicants desire and the court thinks fit. 
 
 In the subsequent provisions of these Rules, the term ‘Ghe deposit 
 fund” means the money deposited, or the stocks, funds, or securi¬ 
 ties in which the same is invested, or the bank annuities, stocks, 
 funds, securities, or exchequer bills transferred or deposited, as the 
 case may be ; and the term “the depositors” means the persons 
 named in the warrant of the Board of Trade authorizing the deposit, 
 or the majority or survivors of those persons, their executors, adminis¬ 
 trators, or assigns. 
 
 Rule XXI .—Peiialty for Non-compietioii of Tramways .—If the 
 promoters empowered by the Order to make the tramway are pos- 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 689 
 
 sessed of a tramway already opened for public traffic, and which has 
 during the year last past paid dividends on their ordinary share 
 capital, no deposit will be required : but if such promoters (unless 
 they are a Local Authority) do not, within the time in the Order 
 prescribed, or within the time as prolonged by the special direction 
 of the Board of Trade under section 18 of the Tramways Act, 1870, 
 and if none is prescribed, or if the time has not been prolonged as 
 aforesaid, then within two years from the passing of the Act con¬ 
 firming the Order, complete the tramway authorized by the Order, 
 they will be liable to a penalty of £^o a day for every day after the 
 expiration of the period so limited, until the said tramway is com¬ 
 pleted and opened for public traffic, or until the sum received in 
 respect of such penalty shall amount to five per cent, on the esti¬ 
 mated cost of the works ; and the said penalty may be applied for 
 by any road authority claiming to be compensated in accordance 
 with the provisions of Rule XXII., and in the same manner as the 
 penalty provided in the third section of the Act 17 & 18 Viet. c. 31, 
 known as “The Railway and Canal Traffic Act, 1854,” and every 
 sum of money recovered by way of such penalty as aforesaid shall 
 be paid under the warrant or order of such court or judge as is 
 specified in the said third section of the Act 17 & 18 Viet. c. 31, to 
 an account opened or to be opened in the name and with the privity 
 of the Paymaster-General for and on behalf of the Supreme Court of 
 Judicature in England [the Queen’s Remembrancer of the Court of 
 Exchequer in Scotland (according as the tramway is situate in Eng¬ 
 land or Scotland)], in the bank named in such Order, and shall not 
 be paid thereout, except as provided by Rule XXII., but no penalty 
 will accrue in respect of any time during which it shall appear, by a 
 certificate to be obtained from the Board of Trade, that the pro¬ 
 moters were prevented from completing or opening such tramway by 
 unforeseen accident or circumstances beyond their control: Pro¬ 
 vided that the want of sufficient funds will not be held to be a circum¬ 
 stance beyond their control. 
 
 Rule XXII.— A££licati 07 i of Defosit .—If the promoters em¬ 
 powered by the Order to make the tramway do not within the time 
 in the Order prescribed, or within the time as prolonged by the 
 special direction of the Board of Trade under section 18 of the 
 Tramways Act, 1870, and if none is prescribed, or if the time has 
 not been prolonged as aforesaid, then within two years from the 
 passing of the Act confirming the Order, complete the tramway, and 
 open it for public traffic, then and in every such case the deposit 
 
 Y Y 
 
690 
 
 APFENDJX. 
 
 fund, or so much thereof as shall not have been repaid to the de¬ 
 positors (or any sum of money recovered by way of such penalty as 
 aforesaid), shall be applicable, and after due notice in the London 
 or Edinburgh Gazette, as the case may require, shall be applied 
 towards compensating all road authorities for the expense incurred 
 by them in taking up any tramway or materials connected therewith 
 placed by the promoters in or on any road vested in or maintainable 
 by such road authorities respectively, and in making good all damage 
 caused to such roads by the construction or abandonment of such 
 tramway, and for which expense or damage no compensation or 
 inadequate compensation shall have been paid, and shall be dis¬ 
 tributed in satisfaction of such compensation in such manner and in 
 such proportions as to the Supreme Court of Judicature in England, 
 or Court of Exchequer in Scotland, as the case may be, may seem 
 fit ; and if no such compensation shall be payable, or if a portion of 
 the said deposit fund (or of the sum or sums of money recovered by 
 way of penalty aforesaid) shall have been found sufficient to satisfy 
 all just claims in respect of such compensation, then the said deposit 
 fund (or the sum or sums of money recovered by way of penalty 
 aforesaid), or such portion of it as may not be required as aforesaid, 
 shall in the discretion of the court if the promoters are a company 
 and a receiver has been appointed, or if such company is insolvent 
 and has been ordered to be wound up, be paid or transferred to such 
 receiver, or to the liquidator or liquidators of the company, or be 
 applied in the discretion of the court as part of the assets of the 
 company, for the benefit of the creditors thereof. Subject to such 
 application as aforesaid, the deposit fund may be repaid or re-trans¬ 
 ferred to the depositors or as they shall direct. 
 
 Rule XiSAll.—Release of Deposit .—The court in which the 
 deposit is made shall, on the application of the depositors, order the 
 deposit fund to be paid or transferred to the applicants, or as they 
 shall direct, if, within the time by the Order prescribed, or within 
 the time prolonged by the special direction of the Board of Trade 
 under section 18 of the Tramways Act, 1870, and if none is pre¬ 
 scribed, or if the time has not been prolonged as aforesaid, then 
 within two years from the passing of the Act confirming the Order, 
 the promoters thereby empowered to make the tramway, complete it, 
 and open it for public traffic after inspection by an inspector ap¬ 
 pointed by the Board of Trade, and upon a certificate of the Board 
 of Trade that the tramway is fit for public traffic, as provided by 
 Rule XXV. : Provided, that if within such time as aforesaid any 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 6g I 
 
 portion of a line of tramway authorized by an Order is opened for 
 public traffic, after such inspection as aforesaid, and on such certifi¬ 
 cate under Rule XXV. as aforesaid, then on the production of a 
 certificate of the Board of Trade, specifying the length of the portion 
 of the tramway opened as aforesaid, and the portion of the deposit 
 fund which bears to the whole of the deposit fund the same propor¬ 
 tion as the length of the tramway so opened bears to the entire 
 length of the tramway authorized by the Order, the court in which 
 the deposit is made shall, on the application of the depositors, order 
 the said portion of the deposit fund so specified in such certificate 
 as aforesaid to be paid or transferred to them, or as they shall 
 direct. 
 
 Rule XXIV .—Miscellaneozis as to De;posits .—The depositors 
 shall be entitled to receive payment of any interest or dividends 
 from time to time accruing on the deposit fund while in court; and 
 the court in which the deposit is made may from time to time, on 
 the application of the depositors, make such order as seems fit 
 respecting the payment of the interest or dividends accordingly. 
 
 If either House of Parliament refuse to confirm any Provisional 
 Order in respect whereof a deposit has been made under these rules, 
 or authorize a portion only of any tramway comprized in such Order, 
 or if any such Provisional Order be withdrawn before the same is 
 confirmed by Parliament, the court shall, upon production of a cer¬ 
 tificate of the Board of Trade, order the deposit fund or a propor¬ 
 tionate part thereof, as the case may be, to be paid to the depositors, 
 or as they shall direct. 
 
 The issuing in any case of any warrant or certificate relating to 
 deposit or to the deposit fund, or any error in any such warrant or 
 certificate or in relation thereto, shall not make the Board of Trade, 
 or the person signing the warrant or certificate on their behalf, in 
 any manner liable for or in respect of the deposit fund, or the interest 
 of or dividends on the same, or any part thereof respectively. 
 
 Any application under these Rules to the Supreme Court of Judi¬ 
 cature shall be made in a summary manner by summons at 
 Chambers. 
 
 OPENING OF TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Rule XXV.—The promoters shall give to the Board of Trade at 
 least 14 days’ notice in writing of their intention to open any tram¬ 
 way, or portion of a tramway, and such tramway or portion of 
 tramway, shall not be opened for public traffic until an Inspector 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 692 
 
 appointed by the Board of Trade has inspected the same, and the 
 Board of Trade has certified that it is fit for such traffic. The 
 above-mentioned notice should be accompanied by the following 
 documents, viz. : 
 
 (i.) A copy of the Act or Provisional Order authorizing the con¬ 
 struction of the tramways. 
 
 (2.) A copy or tracing of so much of the deposited plans and sec¬ 
 tions as relates to the portion of tramway proposed to be opened, 
 distinguishing between double and single line, and showing in red 
 ink any variations therefrom in the tramways as constructed. 
 
 (3.) A list of the local and road authorities concerned. 
 
 (4.) A diagram of the lines submitted for inspection, on a scale of 
 about two inches to a mile. 
 
 PROLONGATION OF TIME FOR THE COMMENCEMENT 
 OR COMPLETION OF WORKS. 
 
 The Board of Trade, under the powers conferred upon them by 
 section 18 of the Tramways Act, 1870, have made the following 
 Rules with respect to applications for a prolongation of time for the 
 commencement or the completion of the works authorized by any 
 Order made under the above-named Act:— 
 
 1. The application should be in the form of a memorial setting 
 forth the grounds on which the application is made, and must be 
 made least one month before the expiration of the time prescribed 
 for the commencement or the completion of the works, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 2. The promoters of any tramway undertaking authorized by any 
 Order, who intend to apply to the Board of Trade for a prolongation 
 of the time limited for the commencement or the completion of the 
 works authorized by such Order, shall publish by advertisement, 
 once at least in each of two successive weeks, in some one and the 
 same newspaper published in the district affected by such Order, a 
 notice of their intention to apply to the Board of Trade for a pro¬ 
 longation of time. 
 
 3. The notice must state the period to which it is proposed to 
 prolong the time limited for the commencement or the completion of 
 the works, as the case may be, and must contain a notification that 
 all persons desirous of making any representation to the Board of 
 Trade, or of bringing before them any objection respecting the 
 application, may do so by letter addressed to the Assistant Secre¬ 
 tary (Railway Department), Board of Trade, on or before a day to 
 
BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 
 
 693 
 
 be named in the advertisement, being not less than 21 days from the 
 date of the first publication of the advertisement, and that copies of 
 their representations or objections should at the same time be sent 
 to the promoters. 
 
 4. A similar notice must be delivered to every local and road 
 authority before the second publication of the notice. Copies of 
 newspapers containing the notice, and a statement that a copy of it 
 has been duly served on the local and road authorities as required 
 by these Rules, must be sent to the Board of Trade with the appli¬ 
 cation. 
 
 ♦ ^ 
 
 5. Before the Board ox Trade comply with the application, they 
 will impose such conditions (if any) as they think fit. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 694 
 
 III.— Forms of Byelaws and Regulations issued 
 BY THE Board of Trade— 
 
 (i) For a Local Authority. 
 
 (ii) For a Tramway Company. 
 
 (iii) With respect to the Use of Steam Power, 
 
 (iv) With respect to Electric Traction. 
 
 (10 
 
 BYELAWS AND REGULATIONS MADE BY THE LOCAL 
 AUTHORITY, UNDER SECTION 46 OF THE TRAM¬ 
 WAYS ACT, 1870. 
 
 1. For the purpose of these Byelaws and Regulations the term 
 “ car” shall mean any [engine or] carriage using any tramway laid 
 down within the said [borough], and the terms “driver ” and “ con¬ 
 ductor ” shall respectively mean the driver and conductor or other 
 person having charge of a [an engine or] car. 
 
 2. The driver of every car shall cause the same to be driven at a 
 speed of not less than [four] miles an hour on the average, and not 
 exceeding eight miles an hour. 
 
 3. The driver of every car shall so drive the same that it shall not 
 
 follow a preceding car at a less distance than * yards. 
 
 4. Subject to the requirements of Byelaws Nos. 3 and 5, the driver 
 or conductor of a car shall stop the same for the purpose of setting 
 down or taking up passengers, when required by any passenger 
 desiring to leave the car, or by any person desirous of travelling by 
 the car, for whom there is room, and to whose admission no valid 
 objection can be made : Provided that nothing in this Byelaw shall 
 require a car to be stopped on any gradient steeper than i in 25. 
 
 * This distance should be not less than 10 nor more than 150 yards 
 
BYELAWS FOR A LOCAL AUTHORITY. 
 
 695 
 
 5. Except at a passing place or terminus, no car shall be stopped 
 at the intersection or junction of two or more streets or roads, nor 
 within [ten] yards of a car on an adjoining line of rails. 
 
 6. The driver of a car, on coming in sight of a vehicle standing or 
 travelling on any part of the road so as not to leave sufficient space 
 for the car to pass, shall sound his bell or whistle as a warning to 
 the person in charge of such vehicle, and that person shall, with 
 reasonable dispatch, cause such vehicle to be removed so as not to 
 obstruct the car. 
 
 7. No person shall in any way wilfully impede or interfere with the 
 traffic on the tramways, nor shall any driver or conductor needlessly 
 cause interruption to the ordinary road traffic. 
 
 8. Every driver, conductor, or other person offending against any 
 of these Byelaws and Regulations shall be liable to a penalty not 
 exceeding forty shillings for each offence, and not exceeding for any 
 continuing offence ten shillings for every day during which the 
 offence continues. 
 
 \_Heye insert any Byelaws to 7 neet special casesi\ 
 
 9. These Byelaws shall come into force on the day 
 
 of 18 
 
 The Common Seal of the said Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses, 
 affixed by order of the Council of the said Borough at a meet¬ 
 ing of such Council held on the day of 
 
 in the presence of 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 Town Clerk. 
 
 I hereby certify that a true copy of the foregoing Byelaws and 
 Regulations has, in accordance with the provisions of section 46 of 
 the Tramways Act, 1870, been laid before the Board of Trade not 
 less than two calendar months before such Byelaws and Regulations 
 came into operation, and that such Byelaws and Regulations have 
 not been disallowed by the Board of Trade within the said two 
 calendar months. 
 
 An Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trade. 
 day of 189 . 
 
696 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ill.) 
 
 BYEL/VWS AND REGULATIONS MADE BY THE COM¬ 
 PANY UNDER THE POWERS CONFERRED ON THE 
 COMPANY BY THE TRAMWAYS ACT, 1870. 
 
 1. The Byelaws and Regulations hereinafter set forth shall 
 extend and apply to all carriages of the Company, and to all places 
 with respect to which the Company have power to make Byelaws or 
 Regulations. 
 
 2. Every passenger shall enter or depart from a carriage by the 
 hindermost or conductor’s platform, and not otherwise. 
 
 3. No passenger shall smoke inside any carriage. 
 
 4. No passenger or other person shall, while travelling in or upon 
 any carriage, play or perform upon any musical instrument. 
 
 5. A person in a state of intoxication shall not be allowed to enter 
 or mount upon any carriage, and if found in or upon any carriage 
 shall be immediately removed by or under the direction of the con¬ 
 ductor. 
 
 6. No person shall swear or use obscene or offensive language 
 whilst in or upon any carriage, or commit any nuisance in or upon 
 or against any carriage, or wilfully interfere with the comfort of any 
 passenger. 
 
 7. No person shall wilfully cut, tear, soil, or damage the cushions 
 or the linings, or remove or deface any number plate, printed or 
 other notice, in or on the carriage, or break or scratch any window 
 of or otherwise wilfully damage any carriage. Any person acting in 
 contravention of this Regulation shall be liable to the penalty pre¬ 
 scribed by these Byelaws and Regulations, in addition to the liability 
 to pay the amount of any damage done. 
 
 8. A person whose dress or clothing might, in the opinion of the 
 conductor of a carriage, soil or injure the linings or cushions of the 
 carriage, or the dress or clothing of any passenger, or a person who, 
 in the opinion of the conductor, might for any other reason be offen¬ 
 sive to passengers, shall not be entitled to enter or remain in the 
 interior of any carriage, and may be prevented from entering the 
 interior of any carriage, and shall not enter the interior of any car¬ 
 riage after having been requested not to do so by,the conductor, and, 
 
BYELAIVS FOR A COMPANY. 
 
 697 
 
 if found in the interior of any carriage, shall, on request of the con¬ 
 ductor, leave the interior of the carriage upon the fare, if previously 
 paid, being returned. 
 
 9. Each passenger shall, upon demand, pay to the conductor or 
 other duly authorised officer of the Company the fare legally demand- 
 able for the journey. 
 
 10. Each person shall show his Ticket (if any) when required so to 
 do to the conductor or any duly authorised servant of the Company, 
 and shall also, when required so to do either deliver up his Ticket or 
 pay the fare legally demandable for the distance travelled over by 
 such passenger. 
 
 11. A passenger not being an artisan, mechanic, or daily labourer, 
 within the true intent and meaning of the Acts of Parliament relat¬ 
 ing to the Company, shall not use or attempt to use any Ticket 
 intended only for such artisans, mechanics, or daily labourers. 
 
 12. Personal or other luggage (including the tools of artisans, 
 mechanics, and daily labourers) shall, unless otherwise permitted 
 by the conductor, be placed on the front or driver’s platform, and 
 not in the interior or on the roof of any carriage. 
 
 13. No passenger or other person not being a servant of the Com¬ 
 pany shall be permitted to travel on the steps or platforms of any 
 carriage, or stand either on the roof or in the interior, or sit on the 
 outside rail on the roof of any carriage, and shall cease to do so 
 immediately on request by the conductor. 
 
 14. No person, except a passenger or intending passenger, shall 
 enter or mount any carriage, and no person shall hold or hang on by 
 or to any part of any carriage, or travel therein otherwise than on a 
 seat provided for passengers. 
 
 15. When any carriage contains the full number of passengers 
 which it is licensed to contain, no additional person shall enter, 
 mount, or remain in or on any such carriage when warned by the 
 conductor not to do so. 
 
 16. When a carriage contains the full licensed number of passen¬ 
 gers, a notice to that effect shall be placed in conspicuous letters 
 and in a conspicuous position on the carriage. 
 
 17. The conductor shall not permit any passenger beyond the 
 licensed number to enter or mount or remain in or upon any part of 
 a carriage. 
 
 18. No person shall enter, mount, or leave, or attempt to enter, 
 mount, or leave, any carriage whilst in motion. 
 
698 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 19. No dog or other animal shall be allowed in or on any car¬ 
 riage, except by the permission of the conductor, nor in any case in 
 which the conveyance of such dog or other animal might be offensive 
 or an annoyance to passengers. No person shall take a dog 01 
 other animal into any carriage after having been requested not to do 
 so by the conductor. Any dog or other animal taken into or on any 
 carriage in breach of this Regulation shall be removed by the person 
 in charge of such dog or other animal from the carriage immediately 
 upon request by the conductor, and in default of compliance with 
 such request may be removed by or under the direction of the con¬ 
 ductor. 
 
 20. No person shall travel in or on any carriage of the Company 
 with loaded fire-arms. 
 
 21. No passenger shall wilfully obstruct or impede any officer or 
 servant of the Company in the execution of his duty upon or in con¬ 
 nexion with any carriage or tramway of the Company. 
 
 22. The conductor of each carriage shall enforce or prevent the 
 breach of these Byelaws and Regulations to the best of his ability. 
 
 23. Any person offending against or committing a breach of any 
 of these Byelaws or Regulations shall be liable to a penalty not ex¬ 
 ceeding Forty Shillings. 
 
 24. The expression “conductor” shall include any officer or 
 servant in the employment of the Company and having charge of a 
 carriage. 
 
 25. There shall be placed and kept placed in a conspicuous 
 position inside of each carriage in use a printed copy of these Bye¬ 
 laws and Regulations. 
 
 26. These Byelaws shall come into force on the day 
 
 of , 189 . 
 
 Secretary of the Company. 
 
 I hereby certify that a true copy of the foregoing Byelaws and 
 Regulations has, in accordance with the provisions of s. 46 of the 
 Tramways Act, 1870, been laid before the Board of Trade not less 
 than two calendar months before such Byelaws and Regulations 
 came into operation, and that such Byelaws and Regulations have 
 not been disallowed by the Board of Trade within the said two 
 calendar months. 
 
 An Assistant Secreta?y to the Board of Trade. 
 
 189 . 
 
REGULATIONS AS TO STEAM POWER. 
 
 699 
 
 (III.) 
 
 REGULATIONS AND BYELAWS MADE BY THE BOARD 
 OF TRADE WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF STEAM 
 [OR ANY MECHANICAL] POWER ON TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The Board of Trade under and by virtue of the powers conferred 
 upon them in this behalf, do hereby order that the following Regula¬ 
 tions for securing to the public reasonable protection against danger 
 in the exercise of the powers conferred by Parliament with respect to 
 the use of steam [or any mechanical] power on all or any of the 
 tramways on which the use of such power has been authorised by the 
 
 (hereinafter called ‘‘the tramways ”) 
 be [added to] or [substituted for] all other Regulations in this behalf 
 contained in any Tramway Act or Tramway Order confirmed by Act 
 of Parliament or in any Order of the Board of Trade heretofore made 
 thereunder : 
 
 And the Board of Trade do also hereby [make the following Bye¬ 
 laws] or [rescind and annul all Byelaws heretofore made by them 
 with regard to all or any of the tramways aforesaid, and do hereby 
 make the following Byelaws], or [in addition to the Byelaws already 
 made by them] with regard to all or any of such tramways :— 
 
 Regulations.— I. The engine or engines to be used on the 
 tramways shall comply with the following requirements^ that is to 
 say;— 
 
 {a.) Each coupled wheel shall be fitted with a break block, which 
 can be applied by a screw or treadle or by other means, and 
 also by steam. 
 
 (Z».) A governor (which cannot be tampered with by the driver) 
 shall be attached to each engine, and shall be so arranged 
 that at any time when the engine exceeds a speed of [teri] 
 miles an hour it shall cause the steam to be shut off and the 
 break applied. 
 
 (g) Each engine shall be numbered and the number shall be 
 shown in a conspicuous part thereof. 
 
700 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 {d.) Each engine shall be fitted with an indicator by means of 
 which the speed is shown ; with a suitable fender to push 
 aside obstructions ; and with a special bell [or whistle, or 
 other apparatus] to be sounded as a warning when neces¬ 
 sary. 
 
 {c.) Arrangements shall be made enabling the driver to com¬ 
 mand the fullest possible view of the road before him. 
 
 [/.) Each engine shall be free from noise produced by blast and 
 from the clatter of machinery such as to constitute any 
 reasonable ground of complaint either to the passengers or 
 to the public ; the machinery shall be concealed from view 
 at all points above four inches from the level of the rails, 
 and all fire used on such engines shall be concealed from 
 view. 
 
 II. Every carriage used on the tramways shall be so constructed 
 as to provide for the safety of passengers, and for their safe entrance 
 to, exit from, and accommodation in, such carriages, and for their 
 protection from the machinery of any engine used for drawing or 
 propelling such carriages. 
 
 III. The Board of Trade and their officers may, from time to 
 time and shall on the application of the Local Authority of any of 
 the districts through which the said tramways pass, inspect such 
 engines or carriages used on the tramways and the machinery 
 therein, and may, whenever they think fit, prohibit the use on the 
 tramways of any of them which in their opinion are not safe for use. 
 
 IV. The speed at which such engines and carriages shall be 
 driven or propelled along the tramways shall not exceed the rate of 
 
 miles an hour, and the speed at which such engines and 
 carriages shall pass through facing-points, whether fixed or movable, 
 shall not exceed the rate of four miles an hour. 
 
 V. The engines and carriages shall be connected by double 
 couplings. 
 
 VI. Every engine running on the tramways shall carry a lamp or 
 lamps placed in a conspicuous position in the front of the engine, 
 and such lamp or lamps shall be kept lighted from sunset to sunrise, 
 or when there is a fog, and shall show when lighted a bright coloured 
 light. 
 
 fHere to follow any sfecial Regulatiofis that may be necessary.^ 
 
REGULATIONS AS TO STEAM POWER. 
 
 701 
 
 VII. The speed of the engines and carriages shall not exceed the 
 rate of four miles an hour at the following places : — 
 
 Fefialty. — Nfote, —Any Company or person using steam [or any 
 mechanical] power on the tramways contrary to any of the above 
 Regulations is for every such offence subject to a penalty not ex¬ 
 ceeding ten pounds, and also in the case of a continuing offence to a 
 further penalty not exceeding five pounds for every day after the 
 first, during which such offence continues. 
 
 Byelaws. —I. The special bell [or whistle, or other apparatus] 
 shall be sounded by the driver of the engine from time to time when 
 it is necessary as a warning. 
 
 II. No smoke or steam shall be emitted from the engines so as to 
 constitute any reasonable ground of complaint to passengers or to 
 the public. 
 
 III. Whenever it is necessary to avoid impending danger, the 
 engine shall be brought to a standstill. 
 
 IV. The entrance to and exit from the carriages shall be by the 
 hindermost or conductor’s platform. 
 
 [Here to follow any special Byelaws that may be necessary i] 
 
 V. The engines and carriages shall be brought to a standstill 
 immediately before reaching the following points :— 
 
 VI. A printed copy of the foregoing Regulations and Byelaws, 
 and of all additional Regulations and Byelaws hereafter made, shall 
 be placed, and kept placed, in a conspicuous position inside of each 
 carriage in use on the tramways. 
 
 Penalty. — Note. —Any person or corporation offending against or 
 committing a breach of any of these Byelaws is liable to a penalty 
 not exceeding forty shillings. 
 
 The provisions of the Tramways Act, 1870, with respect to re¬ 
 covery of penalties is applicable to the penalties for the breach of 
 these Regulations or Byelaws. 
 
 Signed by order of the Board of Trade this day of 189 . 
 
 An Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trade. 
 
702 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 (IV.) 
 
 REGULATIONS MADE BY THE BOARD OF TRADE UNDER 
 THE PROVISIONS OF THE TRAMWAYS 
 
 ACT, FOR REGULATING THE EMPLOYMENT OF 
 INSULATED RETURNS, OR OF UNINSULATED ME¬ 
 TALLIC RETURNS OF LOW RESISTANCE ; FOR PRE¬ 
 VENTING FUSION OR INJURIOUS ELECTROLYTIC 
 ACTION OF OR ON GAS OR WATER PIPES OR OTHER 
 METALLIC PIPES, STRUCTURES, OR SUBSTANCES ; 
 AND FOR MINIMISING AS FAR AS IS REASONABLY 
 PRACTICABLE INJURIOUS INTERFERENCE WITH 
 THE ELECTRIC WIRES, LINES, AND APPARATUS OF 
 PARTIES OTHER THAN THE COMPANY, AND THE 
 CURRENTS THEREIN, WHETHER SUCH LINES DO OR 
 NOT USE THE EARTH AS A RETURN. 
 
 Definitions.— In the following regulations—The expression 
 “ energy ” means electrical energy. The expression “generator” 
 means the dynamo or dynamos or other electrical apparatus used 
 for the generation of energy. The expression “motor” means any 
 electric motor carried on a car and used for the conversion of energy. 
 The expression “pipe” means any gas or water pipe or other 
 metallic pipe, structure, or substance. The expression “wire” 
 means any wire or apparatus used for telegraphic, telephonic, elec¬ 
 trical signalling or other similar purposes. The expression “ cur¬ 
 rent’'means an electric current exceeding one-thousanth part of one 
 ampere. The expression “The Company” has the same meaning 
 as in the Tramways Act. 
 
 Regulations.— i. Any dynamo used as a generator shall be of 
 such pattern and construction as to be capable of producing a con¬ 
 tinuous current without appreciable pulsation.* 
 
 2. One of the two conductors used for transmitting energy from 
 
 * The Board of Trade will be prepared to consider the issue of regulations 
 for the use of alternating currents for electrical traction on application. 
 
REGULATIONS AS TO ELECTRIC TRACTION 703 
 
 the generator to the motors shall be in every case insulated from 
 earth, and is hereinafter referred to as the “ line” ; the other may 
 be insulated throughout, or may be uninsulated in such parts and to 
 such extent as is provided in the following regulations, and is herein¬ 
 after referred to as the “ return.” 
 
 3. Where any rails on which cars run or any conductors laid 
 between or within three feet of such rails form any part of a return, 
 such part may be uninsulated. All other returns or parts of a return 
 shall be insulated, unless of such sectional area as will reduce the 
 difference of potential between the ends of the uninsulated portion of 
 the return below the limit laid down in Regulation 7. 
 
 4. When any uninsulated conductor laid between or witldn three 
 feet of the rails forms any part of a return, it shall be electrically 
 connected to the rails at distances apart not exceeding 100 feet 
 by means of copper strips having a sectional area of at least 
 one-sixteenth of a square inch, or by other means of equal conduc¬ 
 tivity. 
 
 5. When any part of a return is uninsulated it shall be connected 
 with the negative terminal of the generator, and in such case the 
 negative terminal of the generator shall also be directly connected, 
 through the current-indicator hereinafter mentioned, to two separate 
 earth connections which shall be placed not less than 20 yards 
 apart. 
 
 Provided that in place of such two earth connections the Com¬ 
 pany may make one connection to a main for water supply of not 
 less than three inches internal diameter, with the consent of the owner 
 thereof and of the person supplying the water, and provided that 
 where, from the nature of the soil or for other reasons, the Company 
 can show to the satisfaction of an inspecting officer of the Board of 
 Trade that the earth connections herein specified cannot be con¬ 
 structed and maintained without undue expense the provisions of 
 this regulation shall not apply. 
 
 The earth connections referred to in this regulation shall be con¬ 
 structed, laid, and maintained so as to secure electrical contact 
 with the general mass of earth, and so that an electro-motive force, 
 not exceeding four volts, shall suffice to produce a current of at 
 least two amperes from one earth connection to the other through 
 the earth, and a test shall be made at least once in every month to 
 ascertain whether this requirement is complied with. 
 
 No portion of either earth connection shall be placed within 6 feet 
 
704 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of any pipe except a main for water supply of not less than 3 inches 
 internal diameter which is metallically connected to the earth con¬ 
 nections with the consents hereinbefore specified. 
 
 6. When the return is partly or entirely uninsulated the Company 
 shall in the construction and maintenance of the tramway {a) so 
 separate the uninsulated return from the general mass of earth, and 
 from any pipe in the vicinity ; {b) so connect together the several 
 lengths of the rails; (c) adopt such means for reducing the differ¬ 
 ence produced by the current between the potential of the unin¬ 
 sulated return at any one point and the potential of the uninsulated 
 return at any other point; and {d) so maintain the efficiency of the 
 earth connections specified in the preceding regulations as to fulfil 
 the following conditions, viz :— 
 
 (i.) That the current passing from the earth connections through 
 the indicator to the generator shall not at any time exceed 
 either two amperes per mile of single tramway line or five per 
 cent, of the total current output of the station. 
 
 (ii.) That if at any time and at any place a test be made by con¬ 
 necting a galvanometer or other current-indicator to the unin¬ 
 sulated return and to any pipe in the vicinity, it shall always be 
 possible to reverse the direction of any current indicated by in¬ 
 terposing a battery of three Leclanche cells connected in series if 
 the direction of the current is from the return to the pipe, or by 
 interposing one Leclanche cell if the direction of the current is 
 from the pipe to the return. 
 
 In order to provide a continuous indication that the condition (i) 
 is complied with, the Company shall place in a conspicuous position 
 a suitable, properly connected, and correctly marked current- 
 indicator, and shall keep it connected during the whole time that the 
 line is charged. 
 
 The owner of any such pipe may require the Company to permit 
 him at reasonable times and intervals to ascertain by test that the 
 conditions specified in (ii) are complied with as regards his pipe. 
 
 7. When the return is partly or entirely uninsulated a continuous 
 record shall be kept by the Company of the difference of potential 
 during the working of the tramway between the points of the unin¬ 
 sulated return furthest from and nearest to the generating station. If 
 at any time such difference of potential exceeds the limit of seven volts, 
 the Company shall take immediate steps to reduce it below that limit 
 
REGULATIONS AS TO ELECTRIC TRACTION. 705 
 
 8. Every electrical connection with any pipe shall be so arranged 
 as to admit of easy examination, and shall be tested by the Com¬ 
 pany at least once in every three months. 
 
 9. Every line and every insulated return or part of a return except 
 any feeder shall be constructed in sections not exceeding one-half of 
 a mile in length, and means shall be provided for isolating each 
 such section for purposes of testing. 
 
 10. The insulation of the line and of the return when insulated, 
 and of all feeders and other conductors, shall be so maintained that 
 the leakage current shall not exceed one-hundredth of an ampere 
 per mile of tramway. The leakage current shall be ascertained 
 daily before or after the hours of running when the line is fully 
 charged. If at any time it should be found that the leakage cur¬ 
 rent exceeds one-half of an ampere per mile of tramway the leak 
 shall be localised and removed as soon as practicable, and the 
 running of the cars shall be stopped unless the leak is localised and 
 removed within twenty-four hours. Provided that where both line and 
 return are placed within a conduit this regulation shall not apply. 
 
 11. The insulation resistance of all continuously insulated cables 
 used for lines, for insulated returns, for feeders, or for other purposes, 
 and laid below the surface of the ground, shall not be permitted to 
 fall below the equivalent of ten megohms for a length of one mile. 
 A test of the insulation resistance of all such cables shall be made 
 at least once in each month. 
 
 12. Where in any case in any part of the tramway the line is 
 erected overhead and the return is laid on or under the ground, and 
 where any wires have been erected or laid before the construction 
 of the tramway in the same or nearly the same direction as such 
 part of the tramway, the Company shall, if required so to do by the 
 owners of such wires or any of them, permit such owners to insert 
 and maintain in the Company’s line one or more induction-coils or 
 other apparatus approved by the Company for the purpose of pre¬ 
 venting disturbance by electric induction. In any case in which the 
 Company withhold their approval of any such apparatus the owners 
 may appeal to the Board of Trade, who may, if they think fit, dis¬ 
 pense with such approval. 
 
 13. Any insulated return shall be placed parallel to and at a dis¬ 
 tance not exceeding three feet from the line when the line and 
 return are both erected overhead, or eighteen inches when they aie 
 both laid underground. 
 
 Z Z 
 
7o6 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 14. In the disposition, connections, and working of feeders the 
 Company shall take all reasonable precautions to avoid injurious 
 interference with any existing wires. 
 
 The Company shall so construct and maintain their system as 
 to secure good contact between the motors and the line and return 
 respectively. 
 
 16. The Company shall adopt the best means available to prevent 
 the occurrence of undue sparking]at the rubbing or rolling contacts 
 in any place and in the construction and use of their generator and 
 motors. 
 
 17. In working the cars the current shall be varied as required 
 by means of a rheostat containing at least twenty sections, or by 
 some other equally efficient method of gradually varying resistance. 
 
 18. Where the line or return or both are laid in a conduit the 
 following conditions shall be complied with in the construction and 
 maintenance of such conduit;— 
 
 (a.) The conduit shall be so constructed as to admit of easy exa¬ 
 mination of and access to the conductors contained therein and 
 their insulators and supports. 
 
 {d.) It shall be so constructed as to be readily cleared of accumu¬ 
 lation of dust or other dedris, and no such accumulation shall 
 be permitted to remain. 
 
 {c.) It shall be laid to such falls and "so connected to sumps or 
 other means of drainage, as to automatically clear itself of 
 water without danger of the water reaching the level of the 
 conductors. 
 
 {d.) If the conduit is formed of metal, all separate lengths shall 
 be so jointed as to secure efficient metallic continuity for the 
 passage of electric currents. Where the rails are used to form 
 any part of the return they shall be electrically connected to the 
 conduit by means of copper strips having a sectional area of at 
 least one-sixteenth of a square inch, or other means of equal 
 conductivity, at distances apart not exceeding one hundred feet. 
 Where the return is wholly insulated and contained within the 
 conduit, the latter shall be connected to earth at the generat¬ 
 ing station through a high-resistance galvanometer suitable for 
 the indication of any contact or partial contact of either the 
 line or the return with the conduit. 
 
 (<?.) If the conduit is formed of any r.on-metallic material not being 
 
REGULATIONS AS TO ELECTRIC TRACTION. 707 
 
 of high insulating quality and impervious to moisture through¬ 
 out, and is placed within six feet of any pipe, a non-conducting 
 screen shall be interposed between the conduit and the pipe, of 
 such material and dimensions as shall provide that no current 
 can pass between them without traversing at least six feet of 
 earth, or the circuit itself shall in such case be lined with bitu¬ 
 men or other non-conducting damp-resisting material in all 
 cases where it is placed within six feet of any pipe. 
 
 (yi) The leakage current shall be ascertained daily, before or after 
 the hours of running when the line is fully charged, and if at 
 any time it shall be found to exceed half an ampere per mile of 
 tramway the leak shall be localised and removed as soon as 
 practicable, and the running of the cars shall be stopped unless 
 the leak is localised and removed within twenty-four hours. 
 
 19. The Company shall, so far as may be applicable to their 
 system of working, keep records as specified below. These records 
 shall, if and when required, be forwarded for the information of the 
 Board of Trade. 
 
 Daily Records.—N o. of cars running. 
 
 Maximum working current. 
 
 Maximum working pressure. 
 
 Maximum current from the earth connections {vtde Regula¬ 
 tion 6 (i.)). 
 
 Leakage current {vide Regulations 10 and 18 (/.)). 
 
 Fall of potential in return {mde Regulation 7). 
 
 Monthly Records. —Condition of earth connections (z//de Regu¬ 
 lation 5). 
 
 Insulation resistance of insulated cables (vide Regulation ii). 
 
 Quarterly Records. —Conductance of joints to pipes {vide 
 Regulatic*n 8). 
 
 Occasional Records.— Any tests made under provisions of 
 Regulation 6 (ii.). 
 
 Localisation and removal of leakage, stating time occupied. 
 
 Particulars of any abnormal occurrence affecting the electric work¬ 
 ing of the tramway. 
 
 6th March, 1894. Board of Trade, 
 
 7, Whitehall Gardens, S.W. 
 
 z z 2 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 708 
 
 IV.—Parlia^ientary Enactments as to Scotland 
 
 AND Ireland. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 There is a special Act—the Tramways (Scotland) Act, 1861 (24 & 
 25 Viet. c. 69)—applying only to Scotland, by which facilities were 
 given for the construction of tramways in country districts (namely, 
 on “turnpike and statute labour roads”), but practically none for 
 their construction in large towns. Even as regards country districts, 
 however, the Act has remained a dead letter. The Tramways Act, 
 1870 {ante, pp. 665 to 672), applies to Scotland as well as England, 
 and since the date of its passing, all tramways constructed in Scot¬ 
 land have accordingly been subject to its provisions, which (as will 
 have been seen) afford the fullest facility for the construction of tram- 
 wa3^s in towns. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 In Ireland, the Act of 1870 does not apply, there being a number 
 of Acts applicable to Ireland alone. The proceedings under these 
 Acts, although not as uniform as in England under the single Act of 
 1870, are of a simple character. 
 
 The Acts relating to tramways are the Tramways (Ireland) Act, 
 i860 (23 & 24 Viet. c. 152); the Tramways Ireland (Amendment) 
 Act, 1861 (24 & 25 Viet. c. 102); the Act of 1871, known as Lord 
 Cairns’s Act (34 &: 35 Viet. c. 114) ; the amending Act of 1876 relat¬ 
 ing only to Dublin (39 & 40 Viet. c. 65) ; the Tramways (Ireland) 
 Amendment Act, 1881 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 17) ; and the Tramways and 
 Public Companies (Ireland) Act, 1883 (46 & 47 Viet. c. 43). 
 
 The course of procedure under the Acts is as follows : The pro¬ 
 moters present a memorial to the Lord Lieutenant in Council, setting 
 forth the particulars of their scheme, and stating that the require¬ 
 ments of the Acts as to notice, &c., have been complied with ; and 
 to the memorial is appended a draft of the proposed Order. A public 
 inquiry is then made by the Board of Works as to the merits of the 
 undertaking in an engineering point of view, and the grand jury 
 of the county^ after considering the report of the Board of Works 
 and other matters, provisionally approve or disapprove of the under¬ 
 taking. Provision is made for traversing their decision on the 
 grounds either that the preliminaries required by law have not been 
 complied with, or that the construction of the undertaking according 
 
PARLIAMENTAR ENACTMENTS. 
 
 709 
 
 to the plan approved of by them would not be beneficial to the 
 public. An appeal is reserved to the Lord Lieutenant, who has a 
 discretion as to making an Order or not. 
 
 “ The Order is not required to be confirmed by Parliament in cases 
 where the undertaking is approved by the grand jury and no petition of 
 appeal against such approval has been presented to the Lord Lieu¬ 
 tenant ; but in any case in which an appeal has been presented before 
 the Order in Council is made, the Order has no effect until confirmed 
 by Parliament, even although no person shall appear on such appeal. 
 
 “ The authorised gauge is five feet three inches, being the ordinary 
 railway gauge in Ireland.” * 
 
 Lord Cairns’s Act of 1871 provided for the introduction of steam as 
 a motive power, subject to a restriction to a speed of six miles an 
 hour on country roads, and three miles an hour in towns or villages 
 (the latter restriction pointing, no doubt, to the use of steam for 
 mineral rather than for passenger traffic); but by the Act of i88t a 
 speed of six miles an hour was allowed in towns or villages, and a 
 speed of ten miles on country roads. 
 
 By a separate set of Acts relating to “ light railways ” in Ireland, 
 provision has been made for aid from the Treasury in cases where it 
 is declared by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in Council that it is 
 desirable that a light railway should be constructed for the develop¬ 
 ment of fisheries or other industries ; and it is declared that the 
 expression “light railway” includes “tramway” as that word is 
 used in the Tramway (Ireland) Acts (52 &: 53 Viet. c. 66, § ii). The 
 proceedings to be taken for the establishment of light railways are 
 similar to those in the case of tramways, subject, however, to the 
 special provisions of the Acts dealing with light railways. These 
 are the Light Railways (Ireland) Act, 1889 (52 & 53 Viet. c. 66); the 
 Railways (Ireland) Act, 1890 (53 and 54 Viet. c. 52); Transfer of 
 Railways (Ireland) Act, 1890 (54 Viet. c. 2); and the Public 
 Accounts and Charges Act, 1891 (54 & 55 Viet. c. 24). 
 
 By the Act of 1890, it was provided that the promoters of any 
 undertaking, who have obtained from a grand jury a presentment 
 under the Tramways (Ireland) Acts approving of their undertaking, 
 may enter into an agreement with any railway company with whose 
 railway the undertaking is or is intended to be connected, for the 
 transfer of the undertaking to the railway company. But any such 
 agreement requires the sanction of the shareholders of the railway 
 company and the approval of the Railway and Canal Commission. 
 (54 Viet. c. 2, §§ 1—3.) 
 
 * Sutton’s Tramway Acts of United Kuigdom (2nded., 1883), pp. li., lii. 
 
710 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 V.—Terms of Purchase of Tramways by- Local 
 Authorities (Judgment of the House of Lords). 
 
 Judgment was given by the House of Lords, determining the 
 interpretation to be put on certain provisions of the Tramways Act, 
 1870, on 30th July, 1894. Two cases were before the House on 
 appeal—in the one case from the Scotch Courts, and in the other case 
 from the English Courts—the main question being the same in each 
 case—namely, upon what principle the sum to be paid by a Local 
 Authority for the purchase of a line of tramway, under the provisions 
 of the 43rd section of the Act of 1870, is to be calculated. Section 43 
 of the Tramways Act, 1870, is as follows ;— 
 
 “ Where the promoters of a tramway in any district are not the local 
 authority, the local authority, if, by resolution passed at a special meeting ot 
 the members constituting such local authority, they so decide, may ^vithin six 
 months after the expiration of a period of twenty-one years from the time when 
 such promoters were empowered to construct such tramway, and wdthin six 
 months after the expiration of every subsequent period of seven years, or within 
 tliree months after any order made by the Board of Trade under either of the 
 two next preceding sections, with the approval of the Board of Trade, by 
 notice in writing require such promoters to sell, and thereupon such promoters 
 shall sell to them their undertaking, or so much of the same as is within such 
 district, upon terms of paying the then value (exclusive of any allowance for 
 past or future profits of the undertaking, or any compensation for compulsory 
 sale, or other consideration whatsoever) of the tramway, and all lands, build¬ 
 ings, works, materials, and plant of the promoters suitable to and used by 
 them for the purposes of their undertaking within such district, such value to 
 be in case of difference determined by an engineer or other fit person nomin¬ 
 ated as referee by the Board of Trade on the application of either party, and 
 the expenses of the reference to be borne and paid as the referee directs. And 
 when any such sale has been made, all the rights, powers, and authorities of 
 such promoters, in respect to the undertaldng sold, or where any order has 
 been made by the Board of Trade under either of the next preceding sections, 
 all the rights, powers, and authorities of such promoters, prerious to the 
 malving of such order in respect to the undertaking sold, shall be transferred 
 to, vested in, and may be exercised by the authority to whom the same has 
 been sold, in like manner as if such tramway was constructed by such authority 
 under the powers conferred upon them by a prorisional order under this Act, 
 and in reference to the same they shall be deemed to be the promoters.” 
 
 The subjoined report of the two cases is taken (in substance) from 
 the Times of July 31st, 1894 :— 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 n 
 
 4 
 
 I I 
 
 HOUSE OF LORDS (July 30, 1894). 
 
 [Before the Lord Chancellor, Lord Watson, Lord 
 Ashbourne, and Lord Shand). 
 
 The Edinburgh Street Tramways Company v. The Lord 
 Provost, Magistrates, &c., of the City of Edinburgh. 
 
 This was an appeal by the above-mentioned tramway company from 
 a decision of the First Division of the Court of Session in Scotland, the 
 respondents being the local authority within the City of Edinburgh 
 entitled by section 43 of the Tramways Act, 1870, to purchase the 
 tramway undertaking within their district on the expiration of twenty- 
 one years from the time when it was authorised to be constructed. 
 
 On the 12th of August, 1892, they gave notice to the appellants that, 
 in exercise of their rights under the section, they would purchase the 
 appellants’ undertaking within the City of Edinburgh (except the line 
 from Waterloo Place to Jock’s Lodge), twenty-one years having 
 elapsed since the appellants’ tramway was authorised. The appel¬ 
 lants and respondents having differed as to the price to be paid for 
 the undertaking, the Board of Trade, on November 15th, 1892, 
 appointed Mr. Henry Tennant, of York, as referee, to fix what the said 
 price should be. 
 
 Mr. Tennant having heard proof on behalf of both parties, including 
 evidence for the appellants as to the rental value of, or owners’ 
 interest in, the tramway lines which the respondents were purchasing, 
 on November 13th, 1893, he issued his award, finding the appellants 
 entitled to £212,ys. 6d. for the various items which were being 
 sold by them to, and which had to be paid for by, the respondents. 
 
 In setting out award, Mr. Tennant stated that the following ques¬ 
 tions arose in the course of the proof and argument:— 
 
 “ (Second), Whether in view of the terms of said section 43 of said Tram¬ 
 ways Act of 1870, I am entitled, in valuing tramways, to take into account the 
 present profits or rental value of the undertaking, or on what other basis the 
 value of said tramways should be determined; and (Third) whether, in the 
 event of the basis of valuation of said tramways being found to be according to 
 the cost of construction and establishment, I am entitled in said valuation to 
 make allowance to said company for certain sums expended by said company 
 in obtaining Parliamentary authority for the construction thereof, and for a 
 sum of ;!ri2,500 contributed by said company towards the cost of widening the 
 North Bridge in the City of Edinburgh.” 
 
 Mr. Tennant went on to say :—■ 
 
 “ And, considering that, to enable me, as referee under said appointment by 
 the Board of Trade, to proceed to the proper and complete determination of 
 the value of the said tramways, lands, buildings, and others, I have found it 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 7 I 2 
 
 necessary, in the first place, to dispose of the said questions which have arisen 
 as aforesaid, and that, after full consideration of said questions, and specially 
 after careful consideration of the terms of said section 43 of said Tramways 
 
 Act of 1870, I am of opinion that I must assume.(Second) That in 
 
 valuing the tramways I am not entitled to take into account the present profits 
 or rental value of the undertaking, but that the pro]:)er value of said tramways 
 to be determined by me, according to my construction of the statute is such 
 sum as it would cost to construct and establish the same under deduction of a 
 proper sum in respect of de]:ireciation to their present condition, and that in 
 estimating such cost I am entitled to take into account the fact that said tram¬ 
 ways are now succes.-.fully constructed and in complete working condition; 
 (Third) that I am entitled, in valuing said tramways according to cost of con- 
 •struction and establishment, to make allowance both for the sums expended by 
 said company in obtaining said Parliamentary authority, in so far as I consider 
 such expenditure necessary or proper, and also for the said sum of ;^2,5C)0, 
 which sum I consider was a necessary and proper expenditure by said company 
 to enable double lines of tramways to be laid over said North Bridge, and 
 which double lines form ])art of the undertaking.” 
 
 Action was taken by the tramway company for the purpose of 
 reducing the said award or degree-arbitral, on the ground that Mr. 
 Tennant’s view of the 43rd section of the Tramways Act was 
 erroneous ; and for declarator that he ought, under that section, to 
 have fixed the value to be paid by the Corporation of Edinburgh for 
 the tramway on a rental basis, and for an order on him to proceed 
 with the reference, and to find and declare the value of the tramway 
 lines according to their rental value. Both the Lord Ordinary and 
 the First Division (the Lord President dissenting), in the Court of 
 Session, held Mr. Tennant’s award to be good and his view of the 
 43rd section of the Tramways Act to be correct, and repelled the 
 appellants’ pleas, sustained the defences, and assoilzied the 
 respondents. The appellants thereupon brought the present appeal. 
 
 Mr. Asher, Q.C., Mr. A. Graham Murray, Q.C., and Mr. Vary 
 Campbell, appeared for the company ; and the Lord Advocate and 
 Mr. Moulton, Q.C., for the Edinburgh Corporation ; and when the 
 case was argued some time ago, judgment was reserved. 
 
 Their Lordships now delivered judgment, from which it will be seen 
 that the decision of the Court below in favour of the respondents was 
 affirmed by a majority, Lord Ashbourne dissenting. 
 
 The Lord Chancellor.- —-The appellant company was formed 
 under the provisions of a private Act of Parliament in the year 1871. 
 This Act incorporated Part 11 . and Part III. of the Tramways Act, 1870. 
 Section 43 of that Act entitled the respondents within six months after 
 the expiration of a period of twenty-one years from the time when the 
 appellants were empowered to construct the tramway by notice in 
 writing to require the appellants to sell their undertaking. They 
 
7'£/^J/S OF PUFCHASE. 
 
 713 
 
 accordingly, on August I2tn, iS92,gave notice to the appellants that in 
 exercise of their rights under that section they would purchase the 
 appellants’ undertaking within the city of Edinburgh. 
 
 The appellants and respondents having differed as to the price to be 
 paid, the Board of Trade appointed i\Ir. Henry Tennant, of York, as 
 referee, to fix what the price should be. In the narrativ^e of the award 
 or degree-arbitral, which he made, Mr. Tennant stated that, in his 
 opinion, after careful consideration of the terms of section 43 of the 
 Tramways Act, 1870, in valuing the tramways he was not entitled to 
 take into account the present profits or rental value of the undertaking, 
 but that the proper value of the tramways to be determined by him, 
 according to his construction of the statute, was such sum as it would 
 cost to construct and establish the same under deduction of a proper 
 sum in respect of depreciation for their present condition, and that in 
 estimating such cost he was entitled to take into account the fact that 
 the tramways were then successfully constructed and in complete 
 working condition. 
 
 The present action was thereupon raised by the appellants against 
 the respondents for the purpose of reducing Mr. Tennant’s award 
 or decree-arbitral, upon the ground that his view of section 43 of 
 the Tramways Act, 1870, was erroneous, and for declarator that he 
 ought, under the section, to have fixed the value to be paid by the 
 respondents for the tramways upon the rental basis, and for an order 
 on him to proceed with the reference, and to find and declare the value 
 of the tramway lines according to their rental value. Both the Lord 
 Ordinary and the First Division of the Inner House have held Mr. 
 Tennant’s award to be good, and have assoilzied the respondents. 
 The question on this appeal is whether these decisions were correct. 
 
 The question turns on the construction to be put upon the language 
 employed in section 43 of the Tramways Act, 1870, which prescribes 
 the terms upon which the promoters of a tramway (in this case the 
 appellants) are to sell their undertaking to the local authority. The 
 words are as follows:—“Upon terms of paying the then value (ex¬ 
 clusive of any allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking, 
 or any compensation for compulsory sale, or other consideration 
 whatsoever ) of the tramway and all lands, buildings, works, materials, 
 and plant of the promoters suitable to and used by them for the pur¬ 
 poses of their undertaking.” 
 
 It is contended on behalf of the appellants that the value of the 
 tramway must be ascertained by taking into consideration what 
 rental could be obtained for it if let with all the statutory rights 
 of using it possessed by the promoters, and then allowing whatever 
 
714 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 may be thought the proper number of years’ purchase of the rental 
 which could thus be obtained. The sum so arrived at, it was argued, 
 would represent the then value of the tramway within the meaning 
 of the section. Before discussing the language used by the Legisla¬ 
 ture, it is, I think, necessary to consider the nature of the rights and 
 powers of the promoters which it is said are to be thus taken into 
 account, and the manner in which they are conferred upon them. 
 The promoters obtained authority, in the first place, to interfere with 
 public highways by laying down tramways upon them, and maintaining 
 the tramways so laid down. But the most important power which 
 they obtained was that contained in section 34 of the Tramways Act, 
 1870, which authorised them to use upon the tramways so laid down 
 carriages with flanged wheels, or wheels suitable only to run on the 
 rail prescribed by their Act, and provided that subject to the provisions 
 of their Special Act and of that Act the promoters and their lessees 
 should have the exclusive use of their tramways for carriages with 
 flanged wheels or other wheels suitable only to run on the prescribed 
 rail. It will be seen that the power thus conferred is limited to the 
 promoters and their lessees, the promoters being the person or com¬ 
 pany authorised to construct the tramways. The right conferred is a 
 personal one, and cannot be claimed by any persons who do not come 
 within the designation of promoters or lessees of promoters. It is 
 not conferred upon the promoters’ assignees. A conveyance, there¬ 
 fore, by the promoters of their tramways, or even of their undertaking, 
 would not carry with it the right to the statutory monopoly conferred 
 upon the promoters by the section to which I have referred. 
 
 I proceed now to consider the words of the provision upon which 
 the question at issue turns. It is to be observed that, although the 
 undertaking is described as the subject of the sale, it is to be sold, 
 not upon terms of paying its then value, but upon terms of paying 
 “ the then value of the tramway and all lands, buildings, works, 
 material, and plant of the promoters suitable to and used by them 
 for the purposes of their undertaking.” It appears clear that the 
 word “tramway” cannot be read as synonymous with “undertak¬ 
 ing.” The words which follow “ tramway ” are, to my mind, con¬ 
 clusive upon this point. What, then, does “ tramway ” mean as 
 used in the section ? I have examined every instance of its use in 
 the statute, and it appears to me in every other case, at all events, 
 to be used to describe the structure laid down on the highway, and 
 nothing more, and I cannot see my way to give any other meaning 
 to it in the section under consideration. The word “tramway” 
 may, no doubt, without impropriety be held to include all proprietary 
 
TBIRMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 7^5 
 
 rights attached to it; but I do not think that it can with propriety 
 be held to compromise all the powers in relation to the tramwa}^ 
 which are conferred by the statute upon the promoters. I have 
 already pointed out that the power exclusively to use the tramway 
 was granted to the promoters as such, and is not capable of transfer 
 by them. This is distinctly recognised by the enactment which im¬ 
 mediately follows that under consideration. It is provided that 
 when a sale has been made, all the rights, powers, and authorities 
 of the promoters in respect to the undertaking sold shall be trans¬ 
 ferred to, vested in, and may be exercised by the authority to whom 
 the same has been sold in like manner as if the tramway was con¬ 
 structed by such authority under the powers conferred upon them by 
 a provisional order under the Act, and in reference to the same they 
 shall be deemed to be the promoters. It is by virtue of this enact¬ 
 ment, and of this alone, that the local authority become entitled to 
 the exclusive use of the tramway, which was previously vested in the 
 promoters. It is the statute, and not the company which originally 
 constructed the tramways, which confers upon the local authority 
 this right. It is also worthy of note that some, if not all, of the 
 rights, powers, and authorities of the promoters are treated as not 
 included even in the term “undertaking,” inasmuch as they are 
 spoken of as the rights, powers, and authorities of the promoters 
 “ in respect to the undertaking sold.” 
 
 I have so far dealt with the language of the section, without taking 
 into consideration the words within the parenthesis, upon which so 
 much of the argument turned ; what was to be paid by the pur¬ 
 chasers was the then value of the tramway, “ exclusive of any 
 allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking, or any com¬ 
 pensation for compulsory sale or other consideration whatsoever.” 
 
 It was contended for the appellants that the presence of the paren¬ 
 thesis indicated that in the opinion of the Legislature the term “ value 
 of the tramway” would, but for the words in the parenthesis, have 
 justified an allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking, and 
 must therefore include something more than the value of the structure. 
 I cannot assent to this argument. The words of the parenthesis may 
 well have been enacted by way of precaution to make sure that coun¬ 
 tenance was not given to any contention which would have involved 
 fixing a sum in excess of the value of the structure. There is, I think, 
 a fallacy involved in considering the meaning of the words which 
 follow the parenthesis by themselves, and then inquiring how far the 
 meaning thus attributed to them is to be modified by reason of the 
 words which precede. Each part of the provision throws light on 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 7 l6 
 
 the other. It is by reading it as a whole that the intention of the 
 Legislature is to be ascertained. The words found within the paren¬ 
 thesis, to my mind, support the view that “ tramway ” is to be con¬ 
 strued in the manner which I have indicated, and not in that contended 
 for by the appellants. 
 
 It is said that the words “exclusive of any allowance for past or 
 future profits of the undertaking” were introduced for the purpose of 
 preventing the arbitrator making any addition to the value otherwise 
 arrived at in respect of such profit. 1 find it difficult to understand 
 how it could ever be supposed that an arbitrator v/-ould make any 
 addition to the value of the tramway in respect of the past profits of 
 the undertaking, or how it could ever have been thought necessary to 
 prohibit his doing so. It is, however, quite intelligible that it might 
 be thought necessary to guard against his allowing fof, or, in other 
 words, taking into account, past profits in arriving at the value of the 
 tramway. But if the word allowance ” is used in this sense in rela¬ 
 tion to past profits, its meaning must be the same in relation to future 
 profits. I, therefore, construe the words as enacting that neither the 
 profits made in the past nor to be anticipated in the future were to be 
 taken into account in assessing the value. 
 
 It was argued that if the value of the tramway were arrived at by 
 taking so many years’ purchase of the rental which could have been 
 obtained for it, if let, no profits would be allowed for in the value so 
 ascertained. I am unable to adopt this view. How would it be pos¬ 
 sible to determine the rental which could be obtained except by 
 reference to the profits which had been or which might be made? The 
 rent which a tenant would be prepared to give would obviously de¬ 
 pend upon the profits to be anticipated. It was further argued that 
 the Legislature had only excluded an allowance for past or future and 
 not for present profits. Why, it was asked, if all profits were to be 
 excluded, were the words “past or future” inserted? To my mind 
 the words cover all profits, whether made or to be made. And the 
 reason for their insertion appears to me plain. If the word “ profits ” 
 alone had been used it would have been open to contention that only 
 profits actually made were referred to, and that the provision did not 
 exclude an allowance for profits to be anticipated in the future. Read¬ 
 ing the enactment as a whole, I can find no indication, but quite the 
 contrary, that the arbitrator, in determining the then value of the tram¬ 
 way, was to take into account those rights and powers which had been 
 possessed by the promoters as such by virtue of the statute, and 
 which would be thereafter by the said statute conferred upon the local 
 authority. 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE, 
 
 717 
 
 Reliance was placed by the appellants upon the provisions of 
 sections 41 and 42 of the Tramways Act, 1870, enabling the Board of 
 Trade, if the promoters discontinued the working of their tramway, or 
 were insolvent, to declare that their powers in respect of the tramway 
 should be at an end. In the first of these cases, the Board of Trade 
 were empowered to declare the powers of the promoters at an end 
 from the date of the order, in the latter, at the expiration of six months 
 from the making of the order, but in both cases it is provided that the 
 powers of the promoters shall thereupon cease and determine, ‘Ainless 
 the same are purchased by the local authority in manner by this Act 
 provided.” Inasmuch as section 43 applies to a purchase by the local 
 authority within three months after any order made by the Board of 
 Trade under either of the two preceding sections, it was contended 
 that this showed that the purchase of the undertaking was regarded 
 by the Legislature as a purchase of the powers of the promoters. 
 
 . I do not think it possible to give the effect contended for to this 
 argument, and to construe the word ^Aramway” in that part of section 
 43 which regulates the terms of payment in a different manner to that 
 which a consideration of the section itself suggests on account of the 
 language employed in the two preceding sections. That language is 
 certainly not very felicitous. Whether the undertaking' is purchased 
 or not, the powers of the promoters equally cease and determine : the 
 purchase does not keep their statutory powders alive. The powers are 
 possessed thereafter by the local authority by virtue of the statute, in 
 precisely the same manner as they were acc[uired by the promoters. 
 
 For these reasons I think the interlocutors appealed from should be 
 affirmed, and the appeal dismissed with costs. 
 
 Lord Watson and Lord Shand concurred. 
 
 Lord Ashbourne. —The facts of the case have been so fully stated 
 by the Lord Chancellor, that I need only refer to them at such length 
 as may make my meaning plain. 
 
 The direct question raised before your Lordships is, wTiether the 
 arbitrator was right in valuing the tramway at what it would cost to 
 make, or whether he ought to have ascertained what it could have 
 been let for to a tenant who could use it, and then have capitalised its 
 annual value. 
 
 The cases of the Edinburgh Street Tramways Company and of the 
 London Street Tramw'ays Company [see have been argued before 
 
 your Lordships together, as they depend upon precisely the same point. 
 The cpestion in the Edinburgh case depends upon the construction of 
 section 43 of the general Tramways Act, 1870, and the London case 
 depends upon section 44 of the London Street Tramways Act, but the 
 
7i8 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 two sections are in identical terms, as is the case with many other sec¬ 
 tions of the Act. For convenience, I shall refer only to the sections of 
 the general Tramways Act, 1870, and shall not deem it necessary to 
 note specially the corresponding sections of the London Street Tram¬ 
 ways Act of 1870, which are mentioned in detail in the judgments in 
 the London case. 
 
 The decision your Lordships are now called on to give is of deep 
 moment to all the tramway companies in Great Britain, and involves 
 interests of considerable magnitude. The section is not clear. In 
 any view of the case it is a cumbrous and unfortunate piece of draft¬ 
 ing, not plain or direct, and each side is confronted with difficulties in 
 its interpretation. It is not surprising to find that amongst the Judges 
 before whom the case has come there have been wide differences of 
 opinion, and therefore I have applied myself to the consideration of 
 the case, with many doubts and misgivings as to the soundness of my 
 own judgment on important points, where, though I might be sup¬ 
 ported by the opinions of Judges of eminence, I know my conclusions 
 have been opposed to authorities for whom I entertain the very highest 
 respect. The clause requires the closest and most critical examina¬ 
 tion and analysis in order to see what is the method of the transfer, 
 what is sold, and what is to be paid. 
 
 What is the method ? As Jlfr. yustice Mathew, in the London 
 case, has forcibly said, “ Nothing would have been easier than to 
 have said that at the end of the twenty-one years there shall be a 
 transfer of your undertaking, and you shall be paid for the cost of 
 material in situ capable of being worked, less depreciation.’’ But 
 the Legislature in its wisdom has used a long, complicated, and in¬ 
 volved sentence, from which we have to spell out and infer such 
 meanings as we can. The transaction is to take place by a sale. A 
 sale involves a selling and a buying, a bargaining, and here an arbi¬ 
 tration. If what was meant was a statutable transfer at a statutable 
 price, it was certainly not felicitous drafting to enact that the trans¬ 
 action should be carried out by the machinery set out at such length 
 in the section. But a far more important consideration in the matter 
 is what is sold and transferred under the section. The undertaking, 
 of course, is sold, but the great difficulty is to give the due and pro¬ 
 per meaning to the word “ tramway.” Is it only the tramway in sitzt, 
 or the tramway with the power to use it 1 This is really a governing 
 point in the case. Does the sale of the tramway include or involve or 
 carry with it the right to use it ? The words of the section are, 
 ‘‘ When any such sale has been made, all the rights, powers, and 
 authorities of the company in respect of the undertaking sold . . . 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 719 
 
 shall vest ” in the purchaser. The words here, again, are not the best 
 or the clearest. They must be read, not only with the rest of the sec¬ 
 tion, but also in connection with other sections, in order to see whether 
 the right to the tramway is treated in the Act as carrying with it the 
 right to use the tramway. 
 
 Section 41 deals with the discontinuance of tramways, and enacts 
 that in certain cases the Board of Trade may by order declare that 
 
 9 
 
 from the date of the order the powers of the promoters shall be at an 
 end, “ and the said powers of the promoters shall cease and deter¬ 
 mine, unless the same are purchased by the local authority in manner 
 by this Act provided ”—/.^?., by section 43. Thus section 41 expressly 
 states that the powers, including the right to use, are purchased under 
 section 43. 
 
 Section 42 is to the like effect. It deals with the insolvency of pro¬ 
 moters, and provides for the ceasing of their powers unless the same 
 are purchased by the local authority in manner by this Act provided,’'' 
 again by section 43. 
 
 In this connection it is important to note section 44, which enacts,— 
 
 “AVliere any tramway in any district has been opened for traffic for a period 
 of six months, the promoters may, with the consent of the Board of Trade, sell 
 their undertaldng to any person, corporation, or company, or to the local 
 authority of such district ; and when any such sale has been made, all the 
 rights, powers, authorities, obligations, and liabilities of such promoters in 
 respect to the undertaking sold shall be transferred to, vested in, and may be 
 exercised by, and shall attach to the person, corporation, company, or local 
 authority to wffiom the same has been sold, in like manner as if such tramway 
 was constructed by such person, corporation, company, or local authority 
 under the powers conferred upon them by special Act, and in reference to the 
 same they shall be deemed to be the promoters.” 
 
 In my opinion a sale under section 44 would carry with it the right 
 to use the tramway. Similar words are used in section 43 ; the 
 machinery of sale is resorted to, “ the rights, powers, and authori¬ 
 ties ” are also transferred, and I cannot resist the conclusion that 
 under both sections the buyer was intended to purchase and acquire 
 with the tramway the right to use it. 
 
 It was argued before your Lordships that the powers were to be 
 regarded as the creatures of the statute, given independently by its 
 provisions to the promoters,” and that the sale had nothing to sa}’’ 
 to them, and did not carry, affect, or transfer them. I do not find 
 any such idea in the judgments of the Court of Appeal in the London 
 case. Lord Justice Lindley says, “ The vendors have only a right 
 of user, that is by section 20; they have no land to sell, they have 
 only an easement so far as the land is concerned, but they have an 
 
"120 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 exclusive right to use the tramway by section 29, and to grant 
 licences to other persons to use it by section 37. These rights will 
 be enjoyed by the purchasers, and these rights must be borne in 
 mind in ascertaining the value of the tramway. These rights exclude 
 any valuation of the tramway as so much old iron to be broken up 
 and removed. The tramway must be valued as an existing tramway, 
 used as such by the vendors before the sale, and to be used as such 
 by the purchasers after the sale.” 
 
 The words oiLord Justice Smith on this point are very strong and 
 clear: ‘‘ I cannot doubt that what is to be sold and bought is not 
 merely the tramway in situ as a structure, but the undertaking of the 
 company as a going, toll-earning concern—that is to say, the tram¬ 
 way as then in use, with the rights, powers, and authorities of the 
 company to maintain it in the public streets, run cars thereon with 
 flanged wheels to the exclusion of all others, to take the prescribed 
 tolls for so doing, and to exercise the other powers contained in the 
 Act. Of this I have no doubt; the words of the section are clear, 
 ‘ and thereupon the company shall sell,’ not their rails and sleepers, 
 but ‘ their undertaking,’ and when such sale has been made, ‘ all 
 the rights, powers, and authorities of the company in respect to the 
 undertaking are to vest in the County Council.’ ” 
 
 Lord Justice S 7 )iith, in the clearest words, gave his opinion that 
 the company had to sell “the powers granted to the company of 
 running cars with flanged wheels thereon to the exclusion of all others, 
 and of taking the prescribed tolls and the other powers in the Act 
 mentioned” ; and he adds emphatically, “ that this is what is to be 
 sold by the company to the London County Council I do not doubt.” 
 
 I concur in this view of Lord Justice Smith, which I regard as of 
 the highest importance as stating and explaining the great value of 
 the subject-matter to be sold. It may be that the language of the 
 section is involved and roundabout, that the conveyancing is defec¬ 
 tive ; but to my mind it is much more in accordance with the 
 language of all the sections of the Act to hold the conclusion I have 
 indicated than to spell out a narrower one in contradiction to what 
 I believe to be the meaning of section 43 itself, as well as to the dear 
 words of sections 41 and 42, and the construction required to give 
 effect to section 44. 
 
 If, then, the undertaking sold comprised or included a tramway 
 capable of being used and with a right to use it, the next great ques¬ 
 tion is. What is the price to be paid for it under the section ? The 
 section answers (leaving out the parenthesis for the present), “the 
 then value of the tramway, and all lands, buildings, works, materials. 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 -] 21 
 
 and plant.” The actual tramway, in a very literal sense, consists of 
 . little else except its iron rails. The then value of the tramway 
 from the old iron point of view, would be a ludicrous mockery, and 
 accordingly every one—Judges and arbitrators alike—repudiate any 
 such construction, and admit that a wider interpretation must be 
 sought. Lord Jicstice Smith says : There can be no doubt that in 
 any ordinary case, where an undertaking, such as the present, is to 
 be sold and paid for, its present—that is, its then value is in practice 
 arrived at by capitalising its rental value.” Mr. JiCstice Mathew 
 on this point says : ‘‘ Value is to be ascertained as it would have to 
 be ascertained where, for instance, the property was rated, and, 
 therefore, you must use it in its proper sense. This tramway is a 
 hereditament, capable of earning profits, and assessable under the 
 Poor Law Act. In arriving at its value, it is clear from the Pimlico 
 case (9 L.R.O.B.) that the meaning of the word value is recognised 
 in many cases in ^ari materia statutes, for instance, relating to 
 metropolitan valuation in the Act of 1869, and also in the Union 
 Assessment Act. To get at the value you take the profits, deduct 
 the tenants’ charges and profits, and what is left is the rent which 
 would be paid by a tenant for the opportunity of earning his profit, 
 and which would be earned by the occupier, who is the tenant. That 
 is the rent, and by capitalising that rental you get at the value of the 
 hereditament.” 
 
 I therefore take it that apart from the parenthesis ‘‘ the then value ” 
 would be held to have its ordinary meaning, as stated by Lord Justice 
 Smith. The onus of proving that the ordinary meaning should not 
 be given to the words “ the then value ” is cast upon those who deny 
 it, and the respondents insist that for this purpose they are entitled to 
 rely upon the parenthesis, which says ‘^exclusive of any allowance 
 for past or future profits of the undertaking, or any compensation for 
 compulsory sale or other considerations whatsoever.” Prmta facie, 
 these words imply that, but for their use, the thing excluded would 
 have been included. An exception, a parenthesis, an exclusion, under 
 ordinary circumstances, would be held to qualify and lessen the 
 generality of preceding words. Here, according to the contention, 
 they are used not to abate, but to destroy and contradict, the ordinary 
 meaning of the words, the then value.” 
 
 If the argument is correct that the value of the tramway is only the 
 value of the materials in situ, profits would not need to be excluded, 
 because not comprised in the original subject-matter. It is admitted 
 that ‘‘the then value ” is not to be found in the value of old iron ; it 
 is admitted that something very much more is to be assessed. Where 
 
 3 A 
 
722 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 is the line to be drawn ? Lord Justice Smith well puts the question, 
 “ Are the words of exclusion in this section so strong, when applied 
 to the things to be paid for—namely, a tramway in situ —as to exclude 
 the ordinary way of ascertaining present value ?” 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the County Council can only acquire 
 ownership rights under the sale. They can let, but cannot them¬ 
 selves use, occupy, or work the tramway. They are debarred from 
 making occupiers’ profits, and therefore it is most reasonable to pro¬ 
 vide that no allowance should be made for them in the sale. It is most 
 fair that in a sale to a public authority “ the then value” should not 
 be run up by history of “ past ” or the anticipation of “ future ” profits. 
 These words, “ past or future,” are suggested by the word ‘‘ then.” 
 The provision is that no allowance ” is to be made, and that is very 
 far from an enactment that ” the then value ” may not be ascertained 
 according to the ordinary rule and practice in like cases. The argument 
 of the respondents concentrates attention exclusively upon the 
 parenthesis, and ignores and belittles everything in the section which 
 would explain its terms. The Lord Justice Geiieral in his judgment 
 well says : “ The contention of the Corporation seems to me exposed 
 to the grave objection that it allows words having a subordinate and 
 qualifying position to kill the plain import of the main proposition 
 to which they relate, and does so by ascribing to those words more 
 meaning than, facie, they bear. I cannot conceive why the 
 
 Legislature should describe the transaction as a sale, and say the 
 terms are to be the payment of the existing value of the tramway, and 
 then incidentally and by way of exclusion put in words which make 
 the terms inconsistent with sale and purchase, and inconsistent also 
 with payment of existing value.” 
 
 It must be remembered that ” the then value ” of lands and build¬ 
 ings has also to be measured under the same section, and it would be 
 almost impossible to ascertain the value of land and buildings without 
 considering what rent a tenant would pay for them. The land and 
 buildings may have cost large sums, and no one could suggest the 
 reasonableness of giving less than their fair value under this provision. 
 No allowance ” is here to be made for “ past or future profits,” but 
 
 the then value ” is to be arrived at by the ordinary methods. 
 
 It is also not to be forgotten that under this section a tramway com¬ 
 pany might be compelled to sell the most paying and successful part 
 of its undertaking, retaining only the part which barely, if at all, paid 
 its expenses. Under this section, admittedly, they could get no com¬ 
 pensation for compulsory sale, or for severance. The company concede 
 that they, under its terms, are debarred from “any allowance” for 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 723 
 
 their profits in “ the past ” or their hope of greater profits in “the 
 future ” ; but could it have been intended that in providing they were 
 to get “ the then value’’ they were to get less than would come to 
 them under the ordinary rule, and be subjected to an arbitrary stand¬ 
 ard discovered by the arbitrator? The Kirkleatham case is important 
 as showing (to quote Afr. Justice Henii Collins) “ the words which the 
 Legislature uses when it does intend that the thing sold and the thing 
 paid for shall be the materials, and not the right to use the materials.” 
 
 The section in the present case is framed in an entirely different 
 manner, because, in my opinion, the Legislature contemplated a 
 different operation with different results. No question of hardship 
 can be considered. The construction of this section is all that is 
 before your Lordships. I venture to think that the construction sug¬ 
 gested by the County Council is unreasonable, and that it would be 
 natural to expect that if the Legislature contemplated such a mean¬ 
 ing they would have said so in plain language. The weighty words 
 of Mr. Justice Mathew are worthy of attention —“ This Act of Par¬ 
 liament was intended to inform the public who were disposed to 
 become shareholders in any undertaking of this sort, and one would 
 expect plain language addressed to such persons and their advisers 
 as to what Parliament meant. If Parliament meant to inform the 
 public ‘ you shall not have, at the end of 21 years, compensation for 
 the value of the undertaking, but the undertaking shall be sold and 
 the materials in situ, less depreciation,’ I cannot help thinking that 
 very few tramways would have been constructed under these circum¬ 
 stances, because a shareholder proposing to take shares must satisfy 
 himself that the profits of the undertaking would not only pay him 
 interest upon his investment, but would restore to him wholly or par¬ 
 tially, at the end of 21 years, his capital.” 
 
 I have already intimated the doubts which I must entertain of the 
 soundness of my views when I recognise the high authority of those who 
 have reached a different conclusion, but, with all deference and submis¬ 
 sion, in my opinion the judgment appealed from should be reversed. 
 
 The judgment of the Court below was affirmed, and the appeal dis¬ 
 missed with costs. 
 
 The London Street Tramways Company v. The London 
 
 County Council. 
 
 This appeal from a decision of the Court of Appeal involved a 
 similar question. The appellants have, under the authority of their 
 
 3 A 2 
 
724 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Acts of Parliament, laid down and constructed tramways in certain 
 streets of the metropolis, and work such tramways with cars and 
 horses, and own or hold on lease various depots in connection there¬ 
 with. A large section of the tramways, being the tramways in ques¬ 
 tion in this appeal, were constructed and worked under the powers 
 of the London Street Tramways Act, 1870. By section 44 of that Act 
 it was provided :— 
 
 “ The Metropolitan Board of AVorks may, if by resolution passed at a special 
 meeting they so decide, within six months after the expiration of a period of 
 twenty-one years from the passing of this Act, and within six months after 
 the expiration of every subsequent period of seven years, or within three 
 months after any order made by the Board of Trade under either of the two 
 next preceding sections, with the approval of the Board of Trade, by notice in 
 writing, require the company to sell, and thereupon the company shall sell to 
 them their undertaking upon terms of paying the then value (exclusive of any 
 allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking, or any compensation 
 for compulsoiy sale, or other consideration whatsoever) of the tramway and all 
 lands, buildings, works, materials, and plant of the company suitable to and 
 used by them for the purposes of their undertaking, such value to be in case of 
 difference determined by an engineer or other fit person nominated as referee 
 by the Board of Trade on the application of either party, and the expenses of 
 the reference to be borne and paid as the referee directs; and when any such 
 sale has been made all the rights, powers, and authorities of the company in 
 respect to the undertaking sold, or where any order has been made by the 
 Board of Trade under either of the next preceding sections, all the rights, 
 powers, and authorities of the company previous to the making of such order in 
 respect of the undertaking sold, shall be transferred to, vested in, and may be 
 exercised by^ the Aletropolitan Board of AVorks in like manner as if that Board 
 had been authorised by this Act to construct the tramways and had been 
 named in this Act instead of the company. No such resolution shall be valid 
 unless a month’s previous notice of the meeting and of the purpose thereof has 
 been given in manner in which notices of meetings of such Board are usually 
 given, nor unless two-thirds of the members constituting such Board are 
 present and vote at the meeting, and a majority of those present and voting 
 concur in the resolution, and it shall be lawful for the chairman of any such 
 meeting, with the consent of a majority of the members present, to adjourn the 
 same from time to time, and the Metropolitan Board of AVorks may, in order 
 to raise money for the purpose of carrying this section into effect, create 
 additional stock, not exceeding in the whole ^300,000, under the Metropolitan 
 Board of AAMrks (Loans) Act, 1869, in like manner and with the like sanction 
 in and with which they may create stock in order to raise money for the 
 purposes of the Acts mentioned in the first schedule to that Act, and all the 
 j^rovisions of that Act shall apply as if that money were raised and that stock 
 were reated for the purposes of the last-mentioned Acts, with the exception 
 that the money required for the purposes of this section may be borrowed by 
 them in addition to the sum limited by section 38 of the Metropolitan Board of 
 AVorks (Loans) Act, 1869, provided always that the Aletropolitan Board of 
 A\"orks shall not under the powers of this Act and of any other Act passed in 
 the present Session for the construction of tramways in the Metropolis and of 
 the Tramways Act, 1870, create additional stock exceeding in the whole 
 /,'300,ooo.” 
 
T£J?J/S OF PURCHASE. 
 
 725 
 
 The respondents in this action, under the provisions of the Local 
 Government Act, 1888, have succeeded to all the rights and duties of 
 the Metropolitan Board of Works, including the rights conferred 
 by the said 44th section. In pursuance of the said powers the respon¬ 
 dents duly gave notice in writing to the appellants that the respon¬ 
 dents required the appellants to sell to them the tramways and works 
 and undertaking authorised by the London Street Tramways Act, 
 1870, and in pursuance of the said Act the Board of Trade duly 
 appointed Sir Frederick Bramwell as referee to determine the value, 
 exclusive of any allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking 
 or any compensation for compulsory sale or other consideration what¬ 
 soever, of the tramways constructed under the authority of the said 
 Act, and of all land, buildings, works, materials, and plant of the 
 Tramway Company suitable to and used by them for the purposes ol 
 the undertaking authorised by the said Act. 
 
 In the course of the proceedings the appellants proposed to tender 
 evidence of the actual profits made by them on the purchased tram¬ 
 ways, and stated that the object of such evidence was to arrive at the 
 value of the tramways by taking a certain number of years’ purchase 
 of the profits to be shown by such evidence. The respondents objected 
 to such evidence on the ground that, having regard to the terms of 
 the London Street Tramways Act, 1870, the referee was prohibited 
 from taking past profits into consideration for the purpose aforesaid. 
 The referee refused to receive such evidence on the ground that the 
 terms of the said Act did not authorise or permit him to adopt a 
 method of valuation based on years’ purchase of profits. 
 
 Thereupon the appellants tendered further evidence to show the 
 rental value of the purchased tramways considered as let or capable 
 of being let to a tenant, and stated that the object of such evidence 
 was to arrive at the value of the purchased tramways exclusive of any 
 allowance for past or future profits of the undertaking. The respon¬ 
 dents objected to such evidence, but the referee admitted the same, 
 subject to such objection as might be taken on its being shown by 
 cross-examination or further evidence that the proposed mode of 
 arriving at a value by means thereof involved an allowance for past or 
 future profits of the undertaking, and on such evidence and cross-ex¬ 
 amination being completed, and such objection taken, the referee 
 abstained from taking such evidence into consideration in arriving at 
 the value awarded, on the ground that the mode of valuation to which 
 such evidence was directed involves an allowance for past or future 
 profits within the meaning of the said section. 
 
 The respondents tendered evidence to show the opinion of expert 
 
726 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 witnesses as to the proper cost of construction of the purchased 
 tramways and the depreciation of such value by comparing' the con¬ 
 dition at the time of sale and purchase with the condition when 
 newly constructed, and stated that the object of such evidence was 
 to arrive at the value on the basis of cost, less depreciation. The 
 appellants objected to such evidence on the ground that evidence of 
 the cost of construction, either with or without depreciation, was in¬ 
 admissible for the purpose of ascertaining the value according to 
 the true intent and meaning of the said section. The referee ad¬ 
 mitted such evidence as giving information which he might properly 
 take into consideration in determining the value within the meaning 
 of the said section under the circumstances aforesaid. 
 
 The referee, with a view to ascertain the value of the purchased 
 tramways, measured by what would be the cost of establishing the 
 purchased tramways as existing at the time of sale and purchase, 
 required evidence of the cost of obtaining the Parliamentary powers 
 necessary to authorise the construction and use thereof, and evidence 
 relating to certain outgoings which in the course of the reference 
 had been incidentally mentioned, and appeared to be outgoings of 
 the kind necessarily or usually involved in the construction and 
 establishment of tramways such as the purchased tramways, and 
 some such evidence was given. 
 
 In the course of the proceedings an agreement was made between 
 the appellants and the respondents as to the price to be paid by the 
 respondents for such of the depots of the appellants as the respon¬ 
 dents required to purchase, and as to the separate valuations of the 
 horses, cars, harness, and stable utensils, plant, machinery, tools, 
 and other materials in such agreement more particularly described. 
 
 The referee having heard the evidence given on behalf of the 
 appellants and the respondents respectively, and the arguments of 
 their counsel respectively, duly made and published his award, 
 dated the nth day of March, 1893, by which he determined and 
 awarded that the sum of ;^64,50o was the value of the purchased 
 tramways and the works thereof, other than the works comprised 
 in the before-mentioned agreement, exclusive of any allowance for 
 past or future profits of the undertaking, or any compensation for 
 compulsory purchase or other consideration whatsoever, except the 
 consideration of the value to the appellants or the respondents, 
 measured by what it would cost either the appellants or the respon¬ 
 dents to establish the purchased tramways if such tramways did not 
 now exist, but taking into account a proper deduction in respect of 
 depreciation. 
 
TERMS OF PURCHASE. 
 
 727 
 
 The appellants gave notice of motion to set aside or to send back 
 to the referee the award, and the motion was heard before the 
 Divisional Court of the Queen’s Bench Division, consisting of Mr, 
 Justice Mathew and Mr. Justice Collins, in January, 1894. The 
 learned judges, having taken time to consider, gave judgment in favour 
 of the appellants, ordering the award to be remitted to the referee for 
 reconsideration and redetermination, and the costs of the motion to 
 be ultimately paid by the respondents. The respondents appealed 
 from this judgment to the Court of Appeal, and their appeal came on 
 to be heard before Lord Justice Lindley, Lord Justice Kay, and Lord 
 Justice A. L. Smith, in March, 1894. The Court, having taken time 
 to consider, gave judgment allowing the appeal, and discharging the 
 order with costs of such appeal and of the Divisional Court. The 
 company thereupon appealed to the House of Lords. 
 
 Sir R. Webster, Q.C., Mr. Cripps, Q.C., and Mr. H. Sutton 
 appeared for the appellant company ; and Mr. Finlay, Q.C., and Mr. 
 Freeman for the London County Council. The case having been 
 argued, judgment was reserved, and their Lordships now delivered 
 formal judgment, dismissing the appeal with costs. 
 
 The Lord Chancellor. —I have carefully considered the distinc¬ 
 tions pointed out between this case and that in which judgment has 
 just been delivered, but I think with those of your Lordships who 
 heard the case that there is no such difference as to lead to a different 
 conclusion. 
 
 Lord Watson and Lord Shand concurred. 
 
 Lord Ashbourne said that he differed from the rest of their 
 Lordships in this as he had done in the previous case. 
 
 The judgment of the Court of Appeal was affirmed, and the appeal 
 dismissed with costs. 
 
728 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
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 receipts. 
 
 1 
 
 rO LOVO 
 
 oi CM IN 
 
 ro 0 
 
 S3 i-i >-1 
 
 P- rt- 0 
 t\oq (J\ 
 
 oT CM in' 
 
 hH 0 CO 
 
 10 CO CO 
 
 hH hH r:)- 
 
 CM 06' ■cp 
 
 CO Nd- -rf- 
 'Ct- ^ 
 
 CM NO hH 
 hH CO CO 
 
 CO OnnO 
 
 CO hP x^^ 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CM CM CM 
 
 NO hH LO 
 
 CX CO ON 
 
 NO ^ 0 
 
 ^ r\ 
 
 ION hH >0 
 
 CM CO 0 
 •cj- co/O 
 
 CO <0 CO 
 
 Total 
 
 capital 
 
 expended. 
 
 ^ 'lC^OO 
 
 0 CM 
 
 ^ q^o(^ 
 
 , ^vd' lOGO' 
 
 ^ CO CO h-l 
 
 10 CM 
 
 •N #N ♦N 
 
 H-l HH l-H 
 
 l-H h-l HH 
 
 0 ^ CO 
 
 CM CO CO 
 
 CO CM CO 
 
 oo' 0 0 
 
 X-^ >0 ON 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 hH hH hH 
 
 NO NO ON 
 
 CO CM NO 
 
 CXD ON 0 
 
 ^ •'v 
 
 X^ CO CO 
 
 Hch x^oo 
 
 CM CM CM 
 
 •N *N 
 
 hH hi hi 
 
 0 hch CM 
 
 CO CO LO 
 
 NO CM hH 
 
 *N »N 
 
 CM 0 H- 
 NO X^ 0 
 
 hH CO hH 
 
 P- <0 
 
 hi hH hH 
 
 Total number 
 of passengers 
 carried. 
 
 hH ND <N 
 oi h-l ^ CO 
 
 h-l GnoO 
 
 VU ^ «N 
 
 to h-l r^co 
 
 S 10 CO CM 
 cn CM h-l On 
 
 noo coo 
 
 P -^no 
 p- 'i- • 0 - 
 
 hH X^ 0 
 
 0 NO NO 
 
 ON NO hH 
 
 rv 
 
 NO CO CO 
 
 CM "cj- ON 
 ^ h.^ 
 
 cT cT (nT 
 
 CO CX; 00 
 
 NO CO 
 
 NO CO hH 
 ^ CO CO 
 <0 p- CO 
 'ct- OnnO 
 
 ON CO CM 
 p-NO CO 
 
 CO CO (O 
 
 CO NO C3n 
 
 Xh^ 0 
 
 Td- CO LO 
 
 P CO CDN 
 
 CM XH^CX 
 
 NO NO CM 
 
 rs *N 
 
 LO hH 00 
 
 NO CX C3N ■ 
 10 CO CO 
 
 Number of 
 cars 
 
 belonging 
 to the 
 companies. 
 
 .NO On 
 
 “ ON CO CM 
 
 rt CM CM <0 
 ^ CO CO CO 
 
 CONO O' 
 
 CM CM CM 
 
 ■P" 
 
 00 CO CM 
 
 O' CO Hcl- 
 
 co CO CO 
 
 X^ 0 CX 
 
 NO CM (3N 
 
 ^ 
 
 Number of 
 locomotive 
 engines 
 belonging 
 to the 
 companies.' 
 
 1/3 
 
 m 
 
 .2 CM CM 
 
 be CO O' CM 
 
 C LO 0“ LO 
 
 P 
 
 000 
 
 hH CM CM 
 
 CO CM hH 
 
 CM CM CM 
 
 ON h-i- CO 
 
 X^ CONO 
 
 CO CO LO 
 
 Number of 
 horses 
 belonging 
 to the 
 companies. 
 
 t/3 O-nD CO 
 
 <u CX) 0 CO 
 
 >2 CO CONO 
 
 0 rs •N 0 
 
 hH (Si on r<^ 
 
 CNJ CM (N 
 
 iHh. rhNO 
 
 0 CX) CO 
 hH CM CO 
 
 "ci- •p- ^ 
 
 hH OnnO 
 
 CM 0 hH 
 
 0 hH CM 
 
 CM oT CnT 
 
 CM CGn ^ 
 hH CM 
 
 0 NO CM 
 
 1 c5n (51 o' 
 
 1 CM CM CO 
 
 j 
 
 Length of ' 
 lines open 
 for public 
 traffic. 
 
 i 
 
 1 "> 
 
 CJ 00 0 hH 
 
 •-NO COMO 
 
 ^ r^ 
 
 "ThNO 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 hH CM ro 
 
 hH hH hH 
 
 hH hH hH 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 CONO 0 
 
 NO 'c(-NO 
 (On On ON 
 
 
 1 hH CM CO 
 
 On 0 0 
 
 1 CO CO 00 
 
 1 r-H hH 
 
 rrt ^ 
 
 a cej 
 
 I hH CM CO 
 
 On ON ON 
 
 1 CO CO CX) 
 
 1 hH hH 1—1 
 
 "O 
 
 C3 
 
 H-> 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 in 
 
 hH CM CO 
 ON ON ON 
 CO CO CO 
 
 hH hH hH 
 
 a 
 
 '0 
 
 5-1 
 
 1—1 
 
 i Totals for ( 1891 
 
 1 United < 1892 
 Kingdom ( 1893 
 
 1 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 729 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Total Working Expenditure on all the Tramways 
 OF THE United Kingdom for the Year ending 
 
 I 
 
 June 30, 1893.* 
 
 Items. 
 
 Maintenance of way and works 
 j Locomotive power . 
 
 1 Horsing, or animal power 
 j Repair and renewal of engines 
 j Repair and renewal of cars . 
 
 1 Renewal of horses . 
 
 Traffic expenses 
 Direction and management . 
 Rent of tramways (offices, 
 j stables, and sheds) 
 
 I Rates, taxes, and turnpike 
 tolls . . . . . 
 
 Compensation for personal in¬ 
 jury . 
 
 Legal and parliamentary 
 Sundry . . . . . 
 
 Working 
 
 expenditure. 
 
 Per mile 
 open. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total 
 expendi¬ 
 ture. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 188,461 
 
 196 
 
 6'64 
 
 ^ 122,776 
 
 128 
 
 4'33 
 
 1 1,060,879 
 
 1,104 
 
 0 *-» • 0 Q 
 
 0/ 0° 
 
 i 54,099 
 
 56 
 
 1*90 
 
 ! 123,306 
 
 128 
 
 4-35 
 
 1 144.969 
 
 151 
 
 5-12 
 
 791.055 
 
 823 
 
 27-88 
 
 82,970 
 
 86 
 
 2-92 
 
 ' 47.978 
 
 50 
 
 I -68 
 
 80,541 
 
 84 
 
 2-84 
 
 29,296 
 
 31 
 
 1-04 
 
 9.374 
 
 10 
 
 •34 
 
 101,742 
 
 106 
 
 ,V 58 
 
 ; 2,837,446 
 
 1 
 
 2.953 
 
 100-00 
 
 * See ante, p. 48. 
 
 Totals 
 
730 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 MILEAGE LENGTH OF STREET RAILWAYS IN THE 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, WITH CAR-STOCK. 
 
 The subjoined Table * shows the street-railway mileage opened, 
 with the number of cars worked by horse, electrical, cable, and 
 steam-power, in the several United States of America, for the 
 year 1893, with totals for 1892 added for comparison. The mileage 
 length is single track, one mile of double track being counted as 
 two of single track, and switches in addition. The numbers of cars 
 under the headings cable, electrical, and steam, include trail cars as 
 well as motor cars :— 
 
 * Adapted from The Street Railway yournal, J?a\\x2LV\, 1804. 
 
STREET RAILWAYS IN AMERICA 
 
 731 
 
 Comparison of the Mileage and Cars of Street Rail- 
 AVAYS in the United States of America, for the 
 Years ending December 1892 and 1893. 
 
 States and Terri- 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Electric. 
 
 Cable. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Total. 
 
 tories. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Miles.1 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 i 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Aides. 
 
 Cars. 
 
 Alabama .... 
 
 36 
 
 92 
 
 79 
 
 144 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 IH 
 
 112 
 
 263 
 
 348 
 
 Arizona .... 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 ... 
 
 . • • 
 
 . . . 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Arkansas . . 
 
 38 
 
 85 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 
 • • . 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 78 
 
 181 
 
 California . . 
 
 231 
 
 706 
 
 251 
 
 403 
 
 156 
 
 630 
 
 49 
 
 79 
 
 687 
 
 1828 
 
 Colorado .... 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 163 
 
 327 
 
 30 
 
 232 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 215 
 
 570 
 
 Connecticut . . 
 
 107 
 
 417 
 
 72 
 
 158 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 • • • 
 
 179 
 
 575 
 
 Delaware . . . 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 • • • 
 
 * • • 
 
 ... 
 
 • . . 
 
 19 
 
 72 
 
 District Columbia 
 
 57 
 
 324 
 
 56 
 
 107 
 
 22 
 
 389 
 
 . .. 
 
 ... 
 
 135 
 
 820 
 
 Florida .... 
 
 28 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 • • • 
 
 • . • 
 
 . . . 
 
 • . . 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 ; Georgia .... 
 
 34 
 
 89 
 
 213 
 
 306 
 
 
 . . * 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 275 
 
 422 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 • •• 
 
 • • • 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 » . • 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Illinois .... 
 
 343 
 
 3389 
 
 396 
 
 805 
 
 86 
 
 863 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 828 
 
 5059 
 
 Indiana .... 
 
 92 
 
 167 
 
 173 
 
 402 
 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 273 
 
 583 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 232 
 
 431 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 291 
 
 540 
 
 Kansas .... 
 
 54 
 
 III 
 
 108 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 22 
 
 173 
 
 293 
 
 1 Kentucky . . . 
 
 98 
 
 280 
 
 130 
 
 413 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 . . . 
 
 228 
 
 693 
 
 Louisiana . . . 
 
 98 
 
 334 
 
 50 
 
 103 
 
 . • • 
 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 157 
 
 473 
 
 Maine. 
 
 28 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 93 
 
 .. • 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 • . . 
 
 76 
 
 145 
 
 Maryland . . . 
 
 59 
 
 263 
 
 no 
 
 267 
 
 37 
 
 809 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 208 
 
 743 
 
 Massachusetts . . 
 
 219 
 
 1968 
 
 616 
 
 2184 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 841 
 
 4165 
 
 Michigan.... 
 
 51 
 
 206 
 
 249 
 
 637 
 
 . •. 
 
 . .. 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 309 
 
 854 
 
 Minnesota . . . 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 319 
 
 778 
 
 II 
 
 80 
 
 
 . . 
 
 340 
 
 874 
 
 ^Mississippi . . . 
 
 21 
 
 54 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 • * * 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 64 
 
 Missouri .... 
 
 43 
 
 183 
 
 324 
 
 1078 
 
 108 
 
 III4 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 482 
 
 2405 
 
 Montana .... 
 
 
 . . • 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 66 
 
 76 
 
 Nebraska . . . 
 
 52 
 
 91 
 
 160 
 
 297 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 208 
 
 424 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 . •. 
 
 . . . 
 
 46 
 
 89 
 
 New Jersey . . . 
 
 167 
 
 669 
 
 202 
 
 500 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 378 
 
 1186 
 
 JSl ew Y ork . . . 
 
 629 
 
 4275 
 
 758 
 
 2215 
 
 39 
 
 408 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 1438 
 
 6934 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 53 
 
 
 . . 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 69 
 
 157 
 
 55b 
 
 1785 
 
 44 
 
 322 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 673 
 
 2272 
 
 Oregon .... 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 91 
 
 173 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 137 
 
 243 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 522 
 
 1812 
 
 687 
 
 1278 
 
 70 
 
 324 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1278 
 
 3420 
 
 Rhode Island . . 
 
 68 
 
 353 
 
 51 
 
 89 
 
 3 
 
 58 
 
 
 ... 
 
 122 
 
 500 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 34 
 
 93 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 • • ♦ 
 
 46 
 
 99 
 
 South Dakota . . 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 1 Tennessee . . . 
 
 23 
 
 50 
 
 202 
 
 332 
 
 • t* 
 
 • • • 
 
 73 
 
 57 
 
 298 
 
 439 
 
 Texas . 
 
 99 
 
 205 
 
 278 
 
 365 
 
 . . . 
 
 • • • 
 
 1 32 
 
 29 
 
 409 
 
 599 
 
 Utah. 
 
 • . • 
 
 • • • 
 
 86 
 
 128 
 
 « • » 
 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 lOI 
 
 138 
 
 Vermont .... 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 •«. 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 Virginia .... 
 
 26 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 i8i 
 
 ... 
 
 ♦ • . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 274 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 221 
 
 250 
 
 27 
 
 77 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 271 
 
 340 
 
 West Virginia . . 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 34 
 
 85 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 104 
 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 230 
 
 419 
 
 ... 
 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 265 
 
 461 
 
 1 Wyoming . . . 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 Total 1893 . . 
 
 3497 
 
 16845 
 
 7476 
 
 17233 
 
 658 
 
 4805 
 
 566 
 
 616 
 
 12174 
 
 39509 
 
 Total 1892 . . 
 
 4460 
 
 19315 
 
 5939 
 
 13415 
 
 646 
 
 3971 
 
 620 
 
 698 
 
 11634 
 
 37274 
 
732 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN STREET 
 TRAMWAYS INTO EUROPE. 
 
 By CHARLES BURN, C.E. 
 
 Tiifi American horse tramway for the conveyance of passengers 
 through the streets of cities, though in use in the United States since 
 1855, was not introduced into England until i860, nor on the Conti¬ 
 nent until 1861. 
 
 In i860 the American, Mr. George Francis Train, with the co¬ 
 operation of Mr. G. B. Bruce, Mr. James Samuel, and Mr. Charles 
 Burn, civil engineers, and others, obtained permission of the parish 
 vestries to lay down tramrails along the Kennington Road, from 
 Westminster Bridge to Kennington Common, from Westminster 
 Abbey along Victoria Street to Victoria Station, and from the 
 Marble Arch to Notting Hill Gate, along the Bayswater Road. 
 Registered companies were formed to carry them out, the capital of 
 which was privately subscribed by Mr. Train and his friends. 
 
 The tramrail adopted was what was then known as the Phila¬ 
 delphia tramrail, being 5 inches wide, 3 inches of which was flat, 
 with a raised flange on one side 2 inches wide and f inch in height, 
 the flat portion to be for the use of the ordinary vehicles. The gauge 
 was 4 feet 81 ^ inches. The rail was fixed to longitudinal sleepers, 
 resting upon cross ties, laid upon the substratum of the roadway. 
 
 This rail, having a flat portion which could be used by ordinary 
 vehicles, was thought to offer great advantages to the public, and 
 that less objection would be raised to laying it down in the public 
 thoroughfares than the grooved rail, which could be used by the 
 tram'cars only ; but it was soon found to be very objectionable. The 
 horses of the ordinary vehicles slipped upon the flat portion of the 
 rail, and the raised flange seriously obstructed vehicles crossing 
 
INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN TRAMWAYS, 733 
 
 the tramway, causing- breakage of the axles, &c., so that great 
 opposition was raised by the owners of private carriages and 
 other vehicles against the Tramways, leading to legal proceed¬ 
 ings being taken against the Tramway Companies, the result being 
 that the Companies were compelled to remove the rails and rein¬ 
 state the roadways. Tramways were considered a nuisance and not 
 adapted for London ; so that by having adopted an unsuitable rail 
 the introduction of tramways into London was delayed ten years. 
 
 Mr. Train also obtained permission at the same time from the 
 local authorities at Birkenhead to lay down tramways in that town, 
 the same rail being adopted as in London. The local street traffic 
 not being there so large as in London, no great objection was raised 
 there against the rail; so the Birkenhead tramway was allowed to 
 remain. Afterwards Parliamentary powers were obtained by the 
 Tramway Company, the old rail was supplanted by the grooved rail, 
 and this tramway has been working ever since ; so the Birkenhead 
 tramway may be regarded as the first American tramway constructed 
 and successfully worked in England. 
 
 Three years previously, or in 1857, ^ concession was granted by 
 the French Government to a Monsieur Boyer Bardyto construct and 
 work an American horse tramway from Clermont-Jerraud to Reom, 
 in the Department of the Puy de Dome. This concession he trans¬ 
 ferred to Mr. Charles Burn, C.E., in 1859, who endeavoured to 
 carry it out by means of an English company called The Anglo- 
 French Tram Railroad Company, Limited.” This company was 
 the first English tramway company registered in London. Attempts 
 were made to raise the capital in London, but without success; so 
 the project was abandoned and the concession lapsed. The cahier 
 des charges, or conditions upon which this concession was granted, 
 has been the model upon which concessions for tramways on the 
 Continent since granted have been based. 
 
 In 1861 a concession was obtained by Mr. Charles Burn, C.E., 
 for the construction and working of an American tramway in 
 Switzerland, from Geneva to Carouge, a length of about two miles. 
 The conditions upon which this tramway was granted were based 
 upon the model of the Clermont-Reom concession, with this ex¬ 
 ception, that by reason of want of knowledge and experience on 
 the part of the authorities as to the construction and working of 
 American street tramways in Europe, and the effect upon other 
 vehicles using the roadway, the concession was made a conditional 
 one for five years only, at the end of which time, if the tramway was 
 found to impede the ordinary traffic, or found to be a nuisance, the 
 
734 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 concessionaire was bound to remove it; if otherwise, the concession 
 held good for another fifty years. 
 
 The tramway was constructed and opened by Mr. Burn in i86i, 
 and proved a great success ; so that within twelve months after the 
 opening the concession was made definitive for fifty-five years. 
 
 This being the first American tramway constructed on the Con¬ 
 tinent, it attracted notice from all parts ; so that within a few years 
 concessions were obtained for tramways in Vienna, Hamburg, 
 Copenhagen, and Berlin, and they are now found in most European 
 cities, and have proved to be a great benefit to the inhabitants, and 
 generally remunerative to the proprietors. 
 
 In England the tramway idea languished. It was ten years after 
 Mr. Train’s first attempt to establish tramways in London in i860, 
 that a second attempt was made. After the expenditure of many 
 thousand pounds and against great opposition, an Act of Parliament 
 was obtained by an Anglo-American Syndicate for the construction 
 of tramways in North London. 
 
TRAMWAYS IN GERMANY. 
 
 735 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 TRAMWAYS IN GERMANY: A COMPARISON BETWEEN 
 THE COST OF HORSE-TRACTION AND ELECTRIC 
 TRACTION.* 
 
 (Zeitschrift fiir Transportwesen und Strassenbau, 1893, p. 432.) 
 
 The comparison is founded on many years’ experience of an im¬ 
 portant German tramway company in horse-traction (the situation of 
 which, however, is not given), and by carefully obtained trial-results 
 in electric traction. 
 
 The tramway selected is 8'o8 miles in length, and establishes 
 intercourse between a large town and several suburbs. The time¬ 
 table is so prepared that the trams run at 6.0, 6.30, 7.0 A.M., and 
 then every quarter of an hour until 9 P.M., after which they run at 
 9,30, lo.o, 10.30, and ii P.M. The car, which is a one-horse one, 
 carries thirty persons inclusive of driver and guard ; on twenty days 
 of the year it is necessary to double this service. 
 
 With the use of horse-traction, a speed of eight to ten miles an 
 hour is the limit, and eight cars are required for the service ; 126 (2 
 X 63) single tours are made daily, and 1018*08 (126 x 8*o8) car-miles 
 are run, consequently 391, 961 [(365 + 20) x ioi8*o8] car-miles are 
 run in the year. 
 
 As the daily performance of a horse in tramway work amounts, on 
 the average, to 16 miles, theoretically 63 horses are required for the 
 usual trafidc, but in practice, 10 per cent, more are added to make 
 allowances for disease and rest, so that 70 horses are kept. The 
 70 horses represent a capital of ;^3,i50 (70 x ^45), and a further 
 sum of ;^4,250 is required for land and buildings. The following 
 
 * For this paper the Author is indebted to the Mmutes of the Proceedings 
 of the Institution of Civil Engineers^ vol. cxvi., session 1893-94, where it 
 appears amongst the Foreign Abstracts. 
 
736 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 tables are then given as representing the yearly cost of horse- 
 traction :— 
 
 I.—Payment of Interest and Depreciation. 
 
 4 per cent, interest on ;^7,400 (;^3,i50 -t- ^4,250) 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 . 296 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 ,, depreciation of capital value of horses 
 
 • 472 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 li ,, „ ,, buildings 
 
 • 63 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Total 
 
 00 
 
 OJ 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 II.— Cost 
 
 OF jMANAGEMENT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d 
 
 Salary of manager 
 
 . 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Wages of eight drivers 
 
 
 360 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Wages of six stable-boys 
 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Provender for seventy horses 
 
 . 
 
 2,175 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Harness and shoeing . 
 
 
 287 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Veterinary treatment . 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Repair of stables, &c. 
 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Sundries .... 
 
 • 
 
 72 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 3 oOO 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 J hese two sums, amounting to ;^4.i32 5s. od. yearly for 70 horses, 
 gives 3s. 2’8d. per horse per day. But to this sum is still to be 
 added the hiring price of 63 horses for 20 days at 5s. per day, 
 which amounts to ^315. Therefore the total yearly disbursement 
 for horse-traction is ;^4,447 5s. od., the cost per car-mile being 
 
 , \ 39D961 / 
 
 The estimate for electric traction is founded on the overhead line 
 system of O. L. Kummer & Co., of Dresden. Each car is provided 
 with 2 electromotors of 8 H.P. The capital required is estimated as 
 follows : — 
 
 Band ......... 
 
 Buildings ......... 
 
 Boiler and engine and two dynamos, including all fit¬ 
 tings . 
 
 Length of 8’o8 miles ofline-work, fixed complete 
 Electric fittings for nine cars, one of which stands in 
 reserve ........ 
 
 £ 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,600 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 > 75 o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Ln 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2,250 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total capital expenditure 
 
 . 11,250 o o 
 
TRAMWAYS IN GERMANY. 
 
 737 
 
 The following tables are then given as representing the yearly cost 
 of electric traction :— 
 
 I.—Payment of Interest and Depreciation. 
 
 4 per cent, interest on ;^i 1,250 
 
 ,, depreciation on buildings account . 
 
 ,, ,, engine, See., account 
 
 ,, ,, line-work account . 
 
 ,, ,, electro-motors account 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 450 o o 
 24 o o 
 281 5 o 
 
 175 00 
 337 10 o 
 
 1,267 15 o 
 
 II.—Cost of Management. 
 
 Salary of manager 
 Wages for three enginemen 
 Fuel .... 
 Carriage of cinders . 
 Lubricants ... 
 General repairs 
 Sundries .... 
 
 Total 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 fi. 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 180 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 830 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 125 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 225 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 72 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 L 532 5 o 
 
 These two sums, amounting to ^2,800, give i72d. per car-mile as 
 the cost of electric traction. 
 
 The paper concludes in enumerating several advantages that 
 electrical cars possess over the horse-cars in the matter of speed, 
 safety, and size in crowded streets, as well as in cost. 
 
 J. A. T. 
 
738 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 APPENDIX G. 
 
 GAS MOTORS FOR TRAMWAYS.* 
 
 (By A. Kemper, Dessau, Journal fur Gasbeleuchtung, 1893, p. 505.) 
 
 Only twenty-six years have elapsed since the first horse-tramway 
 was established in Germany, but in 1889, in about fifty towns, there 
 were 838 miles in use, while in the United States much greater 
 progress has been made. 
 
 With horse-tramways, in addition to the heavy cost,' there is the 
 objection to the litter they create, especially at stopping places. 
 The cost of horses for one-horse cars amounts to from i’35 to i’50 
 pence per car per mile, and twice as much for two-horse cars ; but 
 the cost of the motive power is small compared with the total cost, 
 including veterinary surgeons, medicines, renewal of horses, shoe¬ 
 ing, and repairing and cleaning the streets, all of which bring the 
 total cost of working a one-horse tramcar to 4'5 to 5*4 pence per 
 mile, or for a two-horse car 5‘8 to 773 pence per mile. Horses have 
 the advantage over other motors that they more easily overcome 
 obstacles; experiments have shown that a horse, pulling a full 
 tramcar, temporarily exerts more than ten times the nominal traction 
 power. Horse-cars are also light, weighing only to 2 to 2\ tons, 
 while the weight of a motor-car is 4 to 7 tons and more. 
 
 With steam-power there is not only the nuisance of smoke, ashes, 
 and sparks, but also the disadvantage of weight and the general 
 difficulty of working, and the w'orking expenses are so heavy that 
 steam can only be used advantageously when several cars are taken 
 together. At Berne compressed air is used, compressed at a central 
 station to 50 atmospheres, one horse-power being required to com¬ 
 press 148 cubic feet of air. The speed of the cars is about 7 miles 
 
 * For this paper the Author is indebted to the Minutes of the Proceedings 
 of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. cxvi., session 1893-94, where it 
 appears amongst the Foreign Abstracts. 
 
GAS MOTORS FOR TRAMWAYS. 
 
 739 
 
 per hour, which can be increased to over 9 miles per hour. A car 
 weighs about 7 tons, and carries 20 passengers. 
 
 Cable-trams are suitable for steep gradients, but they can seldom 
 be used in a town, as the cable must be enclosed, and passing places 
 can only be worked with horses or supplementary cables. Hydraulic 
 and also benzene and naphtha motors have also been proposed, and, 
 in New York, trials have been made to utilise liquid carbonic acid. 
 Electric motors have also been extensively adopted in America, and 
 they are looked upon with much favour in Germany ; but it has been 
 found difficult to charge the accumulators on the cars. 
 
 For working tramcars with gas the receivers are six to ten in 
 number, having a total capacity of 44 to 88 cubic feet, and are 
 placed beneath the floor. The gas supply is taken from the mains, 
 only a supply-station and a small compressing engine being needed ; 
 one or more such stations being provided, according to the length of 
 the line, each station costing ^400 to £600. A plan for a compress¬ 
 ing-station is given, showing an 8-H.P. gas-engine with a compressor 
 capable of compressing 2,130 cubic feet of gas per hour. The gas, 
 taken from the main, is passed through a meter to two storage 
 vessels, having a united capacity of nearly 400 cubic feet. At a 
 pressure of 8 atmospheres they will supply the reservoirs of two cars 
 at 6 atmospheres. The gas required for compressing purposes is 
 about 8 per cent, of the gas to be compressed. Two types of cars 
 for gas-tramways have been introduced in Germany, Those of 
 Messrs. Guillieron and Amrein are used on the line between Neu- 
 chatel and St. Blaize. There is an 8-H.P. gas-engine on the outside 
 platform of the car. The gas receivers are sufficient for the double 
 journey of over 3 miles each way, the consumption being estimated 
 at 34 cubic feet per car per mile. An empty car weighs 6 tons, will 
 carry 20 passengers, and costs ;^75o. 
 
 The other type is that of Liihrig of Dresden. Each car is driven 
 by two 7-H.P. gas-engines, fixed under the seats, with the fly-wheels 
 behind the backs of the seats. The engines can be worked together 
 or separately, and arrangements are made for three rates of speed, 
 150 revolutions per minute when engines are running free, 200 revo¬ 
 lutions for low and 240 for high speed. If the car remains only a 
 short time at the stopping or end stations, the engines run alone, to 
 avoid re-starting. Ignition is effected by means of a small electro¬ 
 magnetic lighter. The condensing-tanks are on the roof of the car, 
 with automatic circulation. There are three shafts, one with toothed 
 wheels worked direct from the engines and wheels for varying the 
 speed. The large cars weigh when empty 75 tons, and with 29 
 
 3 B 2 
 
740 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 persons tons, and will ascend an incline of i in 23 at a moderate 
 speed. A smaller car, better suited to steep gradients, has been 
 constructed, and is worked with a lO-H.P. engine. This car weighs 
 about 4^ tons, and holds 22 persons, and would ascend an incline of 
 I in 15 at a speed of over 3^ miles per hour. The cost of a large car 
 is estimated at ^900, and of the smaller one at £yoo. The gas- 
 consumption, with 10 to 12 passengers with the large car, was found 
 to be 347 to 37 cubic feet per car per mile. 
 
 For the cost of construction it is estimated that, for a line about 
 five miles long, with cars running every five minutes, which would 
 require 20 cars, and with an average working day of 14 hours, the 
 cost of a gas-worked tram-line, including rails, cars, buildings, &c,, 
 would be ^6,040 per mile. Under similar conditions an electric 
 tram is estimated to cost ^7,648 per mile, and a horse-tram ^5,636. 
 The working expenses with gas at 3s. 5d. per 1,000 cubic feet are 
 estimated at about 3 pence per car per mile, for horse-trams, with 
 i-horse cars at 4’25 to 5*4 pence per car per mile, and for electric 
 trams at 3'86 pence per car per mile; and it is shown that, with 
 similar traffic conditions, a gas-tram might be expected to give a 
 return of 6^ per cent, on the capital invested, while an electric tram 
 would barely cover the cost of working. 
 
 C. G. 
 
ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS LN EUROPE. 
 
 741 
 
 APPENDIX H. 
 
 ELECTRICAL TRAMWAYS IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 
 
 According to Mr. Robert Hammond,* the following is a complete 
 list of the electric tramways or railways in operation (June 1894), in 
 Europe:— 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 fi 
 
 o . 
 
 <D 
 
 .S 
 
 bJD^ 
 
 .5 & 
 
 
 Country and Town. 
 
 System. 
 
 ^ (U 
 
 
 ^ u 
 
 Method of 
 transmission. 
 
 
 
 
 bE S 
 c 
 
 rt fe 
 
 0 g 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNITED KING 
 
 DOM. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Portrush—Bushmills I 
 
 (Ireland) .j 
 
 ! Blackpool. 
 
 Siemens . 
 
 H 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Holroyd-Smith ... 
 
 1883 
 
 2 
 
 140 
 
 Conduit 
 
 1 Ryde Pier (I.W.) 
 
 Siemens ... 
 
 1883 
 
 f 
 
 12 
 
 Third rail 
 
 1 Brighton. 
 
 Magnus Volk 
 
 1884 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Bessbrook—Newry (Ire-) 
 land) . j 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 188s 
 
 3i 
 
 62 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 Elwell-Parker ... 
 
 1890 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 CAccumu- 
 \ lators 
 
 Southend Pier . 
 
 Crompton. 
 
 1890 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Condon (City and S. > 
 London Railway) ... ) 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 1890 
 
 3i 
 
 1200 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Carstairs. 
 
 Anderson-Munro 
 
 1891 
 
 I? 
 
 50 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Leeds . 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1891 
 
 5i 
 
 200 
 
 Overh ead 
 
 1 St. Peter Port (Guernsey) 
 
 Siemens Bros. 
 
 1892 
 
 
 200 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Walsall, Wednesbury,) 
 Darlaston (S. Staff.) ) 
 
 ( Electric Construe- ( 
 
 ( tion Corporation ) 
 
 1892 
 
 7 i 
 
 380 
 
 Overhead 1 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 1893 
 
 61 
 
 1600 
 
 Third rail 
 
 Douglas—Grondle Glen 1 
 (I. of Man) .i 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 1893 
 
 2| 
 
 100 
 
 Overhead 
 
 * In a paper on “Electric Street Tramways,” read at the Annual jNIeeting 
 of the Incorporated Association of INIunicipal and County Engineers held in 
 London 21st to 23rd June, 1894. 
 
742 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 .5 
 
 bji^ 
 
 .S di 
 
 
 Country and Town. 
 
 System. 
 
 § 
 
 O 
 
 0) 
 
 0 (L) 
 
 ^ u. 
 
 0 
 
 Method of 
 transmission. 
 
 
 
 nj 
 
 bXi S 
 c 
 
 ci ^ 
 
 0 g 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 0 
 
 yA 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lichterfeld (near Berlin) 
 
 Siemens &. Halske 
 
 i88i 
 
 
 60 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Frankfort—Offenbach ... 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1884 
 
 At 
 
 160 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Halle . 
 
 Sprague . 
 
 I 1891 
 ) 1892 
 1892 
 
 fi 
 
 350 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Gera . 
 
 Sprague . 
 
 5 
 
 525 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Bremen . 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1892 
 
 74 
 
 450 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Hanover ... 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1893 
 
 73 
 
 400 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Breslau . 
 
 Sprague ... 
 
 1893 
 
 II 
 
 600 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Dresden ... 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1893 
 
 3 f 
 
 270 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Remschied . 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1893 
 
 5 t 
 
 330 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Barmen ... 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1893 
 
 I 
 
 400 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Essen . 
 
 Sprague . 
 
 1893 
 
 7 i 
 
 400 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUN 
 
 GARY. 
 
 
 
 
 Modling-Vienna 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1883 
 
 2| 
 
 195 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Buda Pesth 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1889 
 
 I211 
 
 ) Conduit 
 
 Buda Pesth 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1893 
 
 3 ii 
 
 
 j Overhead 
 
 Lemberg. 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1893 
 
 3 l 
 
 400 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Baden-Voslau . 
 
 Schuckert... 
 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iCompagnie Inter-") 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liege-Herstal . 
 
 nationale d’Elec- ^ 
 
 ( tricite . ) 
 
 1893 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bilbao . 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1891 
 
 8| 
 
 280 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clermont-Ferrand 
 
 Thury . 
 
 1890 
 
 45 
 
 500 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Marseilles. 
 
 Oerlikon. 
 
 1892 
 
 3 i 
 
 750 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Paris — 
 
 
 
 Madeleine-Saint-Denis 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 375 
 
 CAccumu- 
 
 Opera-Saint-Denis 
 
 ( Compagnie de ) 
 
 1 I’Industrie Elec- > 
 
 1893 
 
 5 f) 
 
 \ lators. 
 
 
 Salene . 
 
 1892 
 
 3 l 
 
 500 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 ( trique,de Geneve ) 
 
 
 Bordeaux — Bouscat 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1893 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florence-Fiesole 
 
 C Sprague and ) 
 ^Thomson-Houston J 
 
 1890 
 
 Ai 
 
 250 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Siemens & Halske 
 
 1892 
 
 
 300 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Rome 
 
 Cattori 
 
 1893 
 
 130 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Milan . 
 
 Thomson-Houston 
 
 1893 
 
 2 
 
 300 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kiew . 
 
 Sprague ... 
 
 1892 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 SWITZERL 
 
 AND. 
 
 
 
 
 Vevey-Montreuse 
 
 
 1887 
 
 6i 
 
 600 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Sirrch-Gelterkinden ... 
 
 Oerlikon. 
 
 1891 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Grutsch-Miirren 
 
 Oerlikon. 
 
 ^Compagnie de 
 
 1891 
 
 2| 
 
 150 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Orbe-Chavornay 
 
 g I’industrie Elec- V 
 k trique,de Geneve.) 
 
 1893 
 
 23 
 
 130 
 
 Overhead 
 
 Stausstad-Staus. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1893 
 
 I 
 
 40 
 
 Overhead 
 
 
 Totals ... 
 
 • • < • • 
 
 194^ 
 
 14579 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A berdeen District tramways : 
 capital, receipts, and working 
 expenditure, 97 ; Livesey’s system 
 of way, 226 
 
 Accumulators for electric tramways, 
 
 563 
 
 Acts of Parliament, table of, author¬ 
 ising construction of tramways, 23 ; 
 Liverpool, 17 ; Tramways Act of 
 1870, 665 ; Acts relating to Scot¬ 
 land and Ireland, 708 
 Air, compressed, locomotives : Beau¬ 
 mont’s, 523; Hughes and Lancas¬ 
 ter’s, 524; Mekarski’s, 519 ; Scott- 
 Moncrieff, 522 
 
 Aldred-Spielmann rail, 130-132 ; cost 
 of, 131 ; system of way, 341, 342 ; 
 use and cost of, per mile, London 
 tramways, 130, 131; merits of, 
 
 342 
 
 Alford and Sutton, steam tramways 
 at, 278 
 
 America, tramways in, 329; their 
 mileage length, 730 ; electric trac¬ 
 tion on, 565 ; their introduction 
 into Europe, 732 
 Ammoniacal-gas car, 413 
 Antwerp, tramways at, 305 
 Ashes, their use for pavement, 116 
 Asphalte, failure of as a pavement for 
 tramways, 114; use of, on Vale of 
 Clyde tramway, 200 
 Aspinall, A. F,, design of tramways 
 at Hor\rich, 292 ; cost of, 292 ; 
 shunting engines by, 476 
 Axle-boxes, 355, 363, 374 
 
 B ahia tramways, Cockburn- 
 Muir’s Iron way at, 320 
 Bald\vin locomotive works, steam-car 
 constructed at, 432 ; cost of run¬ 
 ning it, 433 ; locomotive by, 433 
 Barcelona tramway. Merry weather’s 
 locomotive on, 440, 442 
 Barker’s system of iron way, 340; 
 where applied, 246, 251 ; at Leeds, 
 251 ; at Manchester, 246 ; cost of, 
 250 ; merits of, 340, 343 
 Barker’s system on South London 
 tramways, 139 
 Barker’s rail, 244 
 Battersea, Mealdns’ w^ay at, 135 
 Baxter’s steam-car, 417 
 Bearings, comparison of systems of, 
 
 352 
 
 Bearing-springs for cars, 365, 374, 
 
 383 
 
 Beaumont’s compressed-air car, 523 
 Bede and Co.’s hot-water steam-car, 
 
 430 
 
 Belfast Harbour tramway: Lizar’s 
 way, 287; Salmond’s way, 288 ; 
 cost, 290 
 
 Belfast tramways, construction of, 
 120; rails and fastenings, 121, 
 162 
 
 Beloe, C. H., line of Barker’s way at 
 AVallasey, 251 ; cost of, 251 ; 
 Southport tramways designed by, 
 201 ; Wirral tramway by, 204 
 Beresford Hope, Mr., evidence on 
 New York and London tramway 
 systems, 6, 14 
 
744 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Berlin, electric traction on railways 
 at, 566 
 
 Bessbrook and Newry tramway : 
 wheels used on, 396 ; cars on, 568, 
 569; section of cars, 569; brake used 
 on, 570 ; generating machineiy of, 
 570 ; dynamos for, 571 ; methods 
 of connecting cars and transmission 
 of currents, 574 ; construction of, 
 568; Edison-Hopkinson dynamo 
 for locomotive car, 573; motor 
 power of and position on cars, 573 ; 
 cost and working expenses, 574, 
 575 ; traffic, 578 
 
 Birkenhead, George F. Train’s tram¬ 
 way at, 13 ; Wirral tramway, 204 
 Birmingham, Edge’s system at, 294; 
 steam traction on, cost of, 78 ; 
 Ritson’s engines at, cost of, 471 
 Birmingham cable tramways, 543 
 Binningham Central tramw’ays, capi¬ 
 tal, receipts, and working expendi¬ 
 ture, 78 ; comparison of expense of 
 four systems of haulage, 84; mile¬ 
 age and passengers, 78; cars used 
 on, 371 
 
 Binningham electric tramways, 578 
 Blackpool electric tramway, traffic 
 on, 580; property, receipts and 
 working expenditure of, 100; con¬ 
 struction of, 578, 579 
 Board of Trade rules as to provisional 
 orders, 673 ; forms of byelaws and 
 regulations, 694 
 
 Bogies on steam-cars, 374 ; Fairlie’s 
 double bogie steam-caniage by 
 Brown, 482 ; by Rowan, 488 
 Boston {U.S.), cast-iron tram-rails at, 
 7,8 
 
 Brakes of tram-cai's, 356, 357, 358, 
 366, 370, 374; steam on Ran- 
 some’s steam-car, 435 ; on Meiry- 
 weather’s engine, 448 ; for electric 
 tram-cars, Bessbrook and Newry 
 line, 570; City and South London 
 electric railway, 592 ; Liverpool 
 Overhead railway, 607 
 Brevoort, H. L., test of fireless loco¬ 
 motives by, 416 
 
 Bristol tramways, construction of, 
 230, 231; cost of, 233, 240; 
 Hughes’s engines, 462 ; Kincaid’s 
 system of way, 230, 231, 341 ; re¬ 
 construction of, 78 
 
 Brixton (London) cable tramway, 554 
 Brompton, West, trial of Grantham’s 
 steam-car at, 419 
 
 Broomielaw Quay, Glasgow, Ran- 
 some, Deas, and Rapier’s way, 280 
 Brown, A., steam-car by, 482 
 Bruce, Sir George B., Buenos Ayres 
 Grand National tramways by, 328 
 Brunswick, Edge’s system at, 295 
 Brunton’s system of way, Oxford, 266 
 Brussels, tramways in, 305 ; sections 
 of rails, 306; cost, 308 ; working 
 expenditure, 308 ; Loftus Perkins’s 
 condensing locomotive, 423 
 Bucharest tramways, Kerr’s system 
 of way, 278 
 
 Buel, R. H., test of locomotives by, 
 416 
 
 Buenos Ayres tramways, system of, 
 II ; a city of tramways, 318 ; Cock- 
 bum-Muir’s system, 318 ; merits of, 
 321 ; Livesey’s system, 315, 318; 
 quantities and costs of, 317 ; tram¬ 
 ways by Wood, 326 ; sections of 
 rails and fastening, 326 ; quantities 
 and cost of, 327; tramways by Sir 
 G. Bruce, 328 
 
 Burn, Charles, inventor of the girder 
 rail, 330 ; on the introduction of 
 American street tramways into 
 Europe, 732 
 
 Bury tramways, length of, 52 
 Byelaws, power to make, 671 ; forms 
 of, issued by Board of Trade : for 
 local authority, 694 ; for a company, 
 696 ; with respect to steam-power, 
 699 ; with respect to electric trac¬ 
 tion, 702 
 
 C ABLE traction, 525 ; life of cables, 
 529 ; methods of construction, 
 525. 532, 543. 562 ; cost, 541 ; 
 development sin contemplation, 542, 
 556 ; machinery and engines, 527, 
 
 54L 545. 546, 553. 555 ; sections of 
 pulleys, 544, 545 speed, 532 
 Cable tramways, Binningham, 543 ; 
 Brixton, t;S 3 ; Edinburgh, =533; 
 Highgate Hill, 532; Matlock, 
 ^ 552 ; San Francisco, 525, 527 
 Cameron, A, J. D., Meakins’ way 
 by, for South London tramways, 
 
 135 
 
INDEX 
 
 745 
 
 Canada, system of way in, 146 
 Canartio and East New York, fireless 
 locomotive used at, 415 
 Capital invested in tramways. See 
 Cost, Receipts, etc. 
 
 Carl, M., modification of Francq’s 
 fireless locomotive, 510 
 Capital, receipts, and expenditure of 
 tramways : Aberdeen, 97 — 99 ; 
 Bessbrook & Newry (electric), 574, 1 
 575; Birmingham Central, 78—85 ; 
 (for cable power), 82 ; Blackpool, ' 
 100, loi ; City and Suburban Elec¬ 
 tric Railway, 594—597 ; Edinburgh, 
 
 91—96; Florence & Fiesole Elec¬ 
 tric Railway, 603 ; Glasgow Tram¬ 
 ways (electric), 86—90; Guernsey ■ 
 Tramway, 583; Liverpool Over- j 
 head Railway, 614 ; London Street 
 Tramways, 67—72 ; London Tram¬ 
 ways, 60—66 ; North Metropolitan, i 
 52—59 ; South London, 73—77 | 
 
 Cars: number employed, 25, 50, 51 ; 
 cost, 54, 357, 367 ; constiiiction 
 of, 355 ; advantages of small and 
 large, discussed, 358 ; bearing 
 springs, 365, 374, 383 ; car wheels, 
 355> 388, 393 ; bogies, 374 ; bogie- 
 double car, 482, 488, 489 ; dummy 
 cars for cable traction, 528, 530, 
 553, 554 ; section of, 530 ; original, 
 354; Alartineau’s, dead weight of, 
 357; French tram-cars, 378; Eade’s 
 reversible car, 381 ; Falcon Com¬ 
 pany’s, for Birmingham Central 
 tramways, 371 ; inside and outside, 
 by jMetropolitan Railway Carriage 
 and Wagon Company, 366 
 Cars for electric tramways : con¬ 
 nection of currents with wheels of, 
 558, 559 , 573 , 579 , 6oi_, 603; con¬ 
 nection of, with switches and 
 motor, 563, 579, 581; section of, 
 on Bessbrook and Newry tram¬ 
 ways, 568, 569, 570; Liverpool 
 Overhead railway, 606 
 Cars, London tramways, mainte¬ 
 nance and work of, 60-66 ; London 
 Street tramways, 68-72 ; number 
 of, 27 
 
 Cars, North Metropolitan, mainte¬ 
 nance of, 56 ; number of, and miles 
 run by, 54, 58 
 
 Cars, North Metropolitan Tramway, 
 
 54 ; inside car by the Starbuck Car 
 and AVagon Company, 369 ; radial 
 axle by James Clerninson, 376 
 Cars, life of, in America, 357 
 Cars, miles run by, 25 ; London 
 Tramways, 58 ; North Metropoli¬ 
 tan, 55 ; London Street tramways, 
 68 ; South London tramways, 74, 
 77 ; Birmingham, 78, 84 ; Glasgow 
 Corporation tramways, 87 ; Edin¬ 
 burgh, 93 ; Blackpool, lOO, 578 
 Cars, starting-gear for, 402 ; by Mr. 
 H. P. Holt, 404 
 
 Cassel tramway, 312; Merrywea- 
 ther’s locomotives, 443 
 Chicago, cable tramway at, 527 
 Church, A. G., on omnibus and tram¬ 
 way horses, 105 
 
 Cincinnati tramway, steam-car on, 
 
 409 
 
 City and South London electric 
 railway : construction, 585 ; posi¬ 
 tion of sleepers and method, 585 ; 
 gradients, 585; section of, 586, 
 587; engines for generating cur¬ 
 rents, 586, 587 ; switches, system 
 of, 588 ; feeders for, 588 ; cables, 
 588; motors and locomotives in 
 use, 590, 591, 592, 593; Mr. 
 Greathead’s modification of AVest- 
 inghouse brake, 592 ; efficiency 
 of system, 593 ; consumption of 
 electricity, 593; cost and work¬ 
 ing expenses, 397, 594 _ 
 
 Clerninson, James, radial-axle pas¬ 
 senger car by, 376 
 
 Cockburn-AIuir’s iron way, 318, 344 ; 
 at Bahia, 320; at Buenos Ayres, 
 320; at Lima, 321; at Monte Video, 
 320, 321 ; at Vienna and Palermo, 
 320; merits of rails, 321 ; span of 
 bearings, 351 ; steel rail, 321, 322 ; 
 test of steel and iron rail, 344 ; tests 
 of rails for transverse strength by 
 Air. Kirkaldy, 321 
 t Cockerell’s hot-water locomotive, 504 
 Colam, AV. N., cable tramway by, 
 at Buxton, 556; Edinburgh, 533 ; 
 Alatlock, 553 
 
 Colebrookedale Iron Company, cast- 
 ! iron tram-rails laid by, 3 
 Compagnie Generale des Omnibus, 
 tram-omnibus by, 379 
 Compressed-air cars and locomotives. 
 
746 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 514; data, 515; Beaumont, 523; 
 Hughes and Lancaster, 524 ; Me- 
 karski, 519; Scott-Moncrief, 522 
 Compressed-gas motor, 655 
 Comiie, J. S., on Connelly oil motor, 
 
 653 
 
 Coney Island railroad, trial of Ran¬ 
 som car on, 436 
 
 Connelly oil motor at Greenwich and 
 Croydon, 651 
 
 Conradi, H., on tractional resistance, 
 406, 407 ; design of rail-cleaner by, 
 406 ; test of Hughes’s locomotive 
 at Lille, 465 
 
 Constantinople tramways in con¬ 
 struction, 309; cost, 310 
 Construction of tramways, general 
 conclusions on, 340; regulations 
 for, under Tramways Act, 669, 673 
 Continental electric railways, 598; 
 
 working cost and performance, 599 
 Copenhagen : A. Kohl’s locomotive, 
 440; Smith and Myjind’s locomo¬ 
 tive, 430 
 
 Cost, construction :—Aberdeen (Live- 
 sey), 226; Belfast Harbour (Sal- 
 mond), 290; Bristol (Kincaid), 
 233, 240 ; Brussels, 308 ; Constan¬ 
 tinople, 310; Dewsbury, Batley, 
 and Birstal (Kincaid), 230 ; (Tms- 
 well), 274; Dublin, 164, 165*; 
 Dundee, 212—214; Edinburgh 
 (Macrae), 220—224 ; Glasgow Har¬ 
 bour (Ransome, Deas, and Rapier), 
 281, 284, 286; Glasgow Corpora¬ 
 tion, 86, 181—183, 190—194; 
 
 Leicester (Kincaid), 234; Liver¬ 
 pool (Deacon), 158—160; London 
 Tramways, 60, 115; Manchester 
 (Barker), 251 ; Paris, 299; Salford 
 (Kincaid), 238, 243 ; Southport 1 
 (Beloe), 202, 203 ; Wirral (Beloe), 
 205 : Livesey’s grooved rail, 317; 
 Cockburn-Muir’s iron way, 320 
 Cost, receipts, and expenditure of 
 tramways : capital, cost, receipts, 
 and expenses of tramways in United ^ 
 Kingdom (1878—1890), 27 ; sup¬ 
 plementary for 1891—1893, 728 ; 
 capital expenditure of all tramways 
 in United Kingdom (1890), 28—37 ; 
 receipts, working expenses, and ! 
 stock of all tramways in United 
 Kingdom (1890), 38—47; working | 
 
 expenditure on tramways of United 
 Kingdom (1880 and 1890), 48 ; 
 supplementary for 1893, 729 
 Cost, steam horse-power, com¬ 
 
 parison of, 453, 454, 490, 491 ; 
 electric versus steam-power, com¬ 
 parison of, 604 
 
 Crescent-rail on Brussels tramways, 
 
 307 
 
 Crossings, 663; Bristol, 231; Dun¬ 
 dee, 209; Edinburgh, 219; Glas¬ 
 gow, 170, 180; Guinness’s Breweiy, 
 291 ; Liverpool, 144, 145, 147; 
 Salford, 237 ; Vale of Clyde, 199 
 Croydon, Connelly oil motor at, 651 
 Curry, Matthew, on the Lisbon steam 
 tramway, 314 
 
 Curves, construction of, Belfast Har¬ 
 bour tramways, 289 
 
 D E feral, system of way, Mann¬ 
 heim and Ludwigshafen, 324 
 Deacon, George F., Liverpool tram¬ 
 ways by, 143, 144; merits of the 
 system, 147, 340; cost of, 147, 
 149 
 
 Deas, James, his report on the cast- 
 iron tramway at Glasgow Harbour, 
 282 ; design of steel rail tramway, 
 284 
 
 Dewsbury, Birstal, and Batley tram¬ 
 ways, construction, 229; cost of, 
 230; Gomersal extension, Trus- 
 well’s way for, 272 ; cost of, 274 ; 
 Merryweather’s engine on, 446; 
 cost and working expenses of, 452 ; 
 cost of steam and horse-power on, 
 compared, 453, 454 
 Dick, Kerr, and Co., lessees of Edin¬ 
 burgh tramways for cable traction, 
 542 ; girder rails by, 332, 336 
 Dickinson, Mr., system of flangeless 
 wheels, 397; system of electric trac¬ 
 tion, 628 
 
 Disc-wheel, construction of, for cars, 
 
 389 
 
 Discontinuance of tramways, 670 
 Dixon, J., Meakins’ way by, 135 
 Dock tramways, system for con¬ 
 struction of, 161. See Glasgow 
 Harbour Tramways, Belfast 
 Harbour Tramways. 
 
 Dowson’s iron way, 254 
 
 Dublin tramways, construction, 162 ; 
 
INDEX, 
 
 747 
 
 cost, 164, 165 ; length of, 52 ; cars 
 used on, 363 
 
 Dublin and Lucan tramways, Perrett’s 
 steam-car used on, 480, 482 
 Dudley and Stourbridge steam tram¬ 
 ways, ruling gradients of, 471 ; 
 Kdtson and Co.’s locomotives on, 
 471 ; cost of engines on, 471 
 Dugdale’s system of way, 261, 340; 
 
 Huddersfield, 261, 264 
 Dundee street tramways, system of, 
 207; construction of, 207, 210; 
 gradients, 208; cost, 210, 212, 
 214; test of Gowan’s rail for, 330 
 Dunscombe, Mr. Deacon’s system as 
 laid at Liverpool by, 148 ; report of, 
 on Liverpool tramways, 148, 150 ; 
 system of, for suburban lines of 
 Liverpool, 160 
 
 Dynamos for electric traction, 558 ; 
 Bessbrook and Newry line, 571 ; 
 Siemens’s, for Guernsey line, 581 ; 
 Elwell-Parker, on Liverpool Over¬ 
 head railway, 608 ; Edison’s, on 
 Neversink Mountain railroad, 646 
 
 ADE’S reversible car, 381 
 
 Edge, C. A., his system of way, 
 293 ; at Brunswick, 295 
 Edinburgh Street tramways : con- 
 stiaiction of, 215; construction of 
 Portobello branch, 216; cost of, 
 217, 219; cost and wmrking ex¬ 
 penses, 91 ; gradients and curves, 
 216; Gowan’s rail, 330; purchase 
 of, by Corporation of, 542 ; renewal 
 of, 223 
 
 Edinburgh (Northern) cable tram¬ 
 ways, construction of, 532 
 Edison’s compound ■ dynamo for 
 Neversink Mountain railroad, 646 
 Electric railways : Berlin and Paris, 
 566 ; City and South London, 585 ; 
 Continental, 598 ; Florence and 
 Fiesole, 600; Liverpool Overhead, 
 605 ; Lichterfelde, 598, 599; Mod- 
 ling, 598 ; Montreux, 598 ; Pesth, 
 398. And see Electric Tram¬ 
 ways 
 
 Electric traction: historical notice, 
 558, 566 ; galvanic power, 558 ; 
 dynamos used for, 558 ; connexion 
 of motor with wheels of car, 558, 
 559; methods of transmission of 
 
 currents, 559, 560; feed wire, its 
 uses, 561 ; trolly stands for, 561, 
 
 562 ; overhead connexion for trans¬ 
 mission of current, section of, 563 ; 
 switches for, connexion of cars 
 with, 563 ; storage batteries, 563 ; 
 accumulation of power, methods 
 of, 563 ; electrical terms and units, 
 
 563 ; development of, in America 
 and on the Continent, 563 ; Dr. 
 Wemer Siemens’s application of 
 to railways, 566 ; at Berlin, 566 ; 
 at Paris, 566 ; gauge and con¬ 
 struction of, 566, 567 ; Portrush 
 and Giants’ Causeway, tramway at, 
 567 ; rails on, 567 ; Ryde Pier, 
 567 ; distribution of electric power 
 on Bessbrook and Newry line, 576 
 —578 ; generating engines for City 
 and South London Railway, 586, 
 587 ; absorption of electrical force 
 for efficiency on Liverpool Overhead 
 railway, 611, and on City and South 
 London, 593 ; distribution of elec¬ 
 trical power on Neversink Mountain 
 railroad, 643, 644; form of byelaws 
 issued by Board of Trade, 691 
 
 Electric traction, cost of: at Bess¬ 
 brook and Newry, 574—577 ; Bir¬ 
 mingham, 83 ; Blackpool, 580; 
 Continental lines, 603 ; Guernsey, 
 583 ; Liverpool Overhead railway, 
 
 614 ; City and South London rail¬ 
 way, 596, 597; electric power versus 
 steam power, cost of, compared, 
 604 ; electric traction and horse 
 traction, cost of, in Germany com¬ 
 pared, 735 
 
 Electric tramways at Berlin, 266 ; 
 Barking, 59; Bessbrook and Newry, 
 567 ; Birmingham, 78, 578 ; Black¬ 
 pool, 100, 578 ; Bristol, 78 ; 
 
 Guernsey, 581 ; Leeds (Roundhay) 
 
 615 ; Paris, 266 ; Portrush and 
 Giants’ Causeway, 567 ; Ryde Pier, 
 567 ; South Staffordshire, 623, 634 ; 
 list of, in United Kingdom, 565 ; 
 list of, in European countries, 641. 
 And see Electric Railways 
 
 Elwell-Parker dynamos, 608 
 
 F AIRLIE, R. F., his double bogie 
 steam-carriage, 482, 488, 489 
 Falcon Engine and Car Company, 
 
748 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 manufacture of tramway locomo¬ 
 tives by, 407 ; wheels of steam cars 
 by, 371, 375 
 
 Fastenings for rails and sleepers, Lar¬ 
 sen’s, 118, 162 ; Liverpool, 156, 157; 
 Hopkins’s improvements in methods 
 of, 162 
 
 Feed-wire, its methods of use in 
 electric traction, 561, 588 
 Fireless locomotives, 502. See also 
 Hot-water Locomotives 
 Flangeless wheel cars, 393 
 Florence and Fiesole electrical rail¬ 
 way, 600 ; cost of construction, 603 ; 
 working expenses, 603 
 Floyd, T., Kerr’s way by, for Wool¬ 
 wich and Plumstead tramways, 
 277 ; cost of, 277 
 
 Ford, H. W., report on Cockburn- 
 Muir’s way at Buenos Ayres, 321 
 Fowler, A. M., design of Salford 
 Corporation tramways, 235 ; New¬ 
 castle-upon-Tyne, 240 
 Fox, Sir Douglas, La Plata tram¬ 
 ways by, 329 
 
 Francq, M. Leon, Versailles tramway 
 by, 302 ; tram-cars by, 378 ; hot- 
 water locomotives by, 509 ; cost of 
 working, 511 
 
 Francq and Mesnard’s fireless loco¬ 
 motive, 512 
 French tram-cars, 378 
 
 G alvanic power, its application 
 to tramways, 558 
 Gas motor, 655 
 
 Gas-motors for tramways, A. Kemper 
 on, 738 
 
 Gauge: Alford and Sutton steam tram¬ 
 way, 278 ; maintenance, methods, 
 and importance of, 348; Kincaid’s 
 system of keeping to, 348 ; Bahia, 
 320; Belfast, 120; Berlin (electric) 
 566 ; Birkenhead, 13 ; Birmingham 
 (cable), 550; Bristol, 231 ; Brixton 
 (cable), 553 ; Brussels, 305 ; Buenos 
 Ayres, 315,329 ; Dublin (Guinness’s 
 Brewery), 291 ; Dundee, 207 ; Edin¬ 
 burgh, 215, and (cable), 533 ; early 
 timber tramways, 2 ; Highgate 
 (cable), 532 ; Honvich (locomotive 
 works), 292 ; Huddersfield, 261 ; 
 Hull, 230 ; Ireland, standard gauge 
 in, 291; Glasgow, 167, 175, 188; 
 
 Leeds, 116, 231; Leipzig, 312; 
 Liege, 305; Lisbon, 313; Liver- 
 pool, 18, 20; London, in, 114, 
 135; Madras, 254; Manchester, 
 249; Matlock (cable), 553 ; Monte 
 Video, 320; Moscow, 311 ; New¬ 
 castle-upon-Tyne, 257 ; Notting¬ 
 ham, 256 ; Paris, 296, 299; Phila¬ 
 delphia, 9 ; Portrush and Giant’s 
 Causeway (electric), 567; railway 
 gauge required by Act of Parlia¬ 
 ment, 18; Salford, 234; Sheffield, 
 230, 231 ; Southampton, 258 ; 
 
 Southport, 201 ; Staffordslrire, 
 North, 269; Stockton-on-Tees, 244; 
 Tottenham (Vignoles), 269 ; United 
 States, II; Vale of Clyde, 168; 
 Wellington, 314; AVoolwich and 
 Plumstead, 277 ; AVTrral, 204 
 Gaune, M., performance and cost of 
 Francq’s engine on the Rueil- 
 Marly tramway, 510, 511 
 Geneva, tramways at, 304 
 Geoghegan, locomotive by, 473 
 Germany, cost of horse traction and 
 electric traction in, compared, 735 
 Ghent, tramways in, 305, 306 
 Girder rails : invented by C. Bum, 
 330 ; patents of A. Legrand and J. 
 Gowans, 330; weights and dimen¬ 
 sions in use, 332 ; tests of, 335 ; 
 sections of, 336, 337 ; Kincaird’s 
 type of, 338 ; and see Rails 
 Glasgow Corporation tramways : Act 
 for, 166; first system of constmc- 
 tion, 166; gauge of way, 167; length 
 of, 52, 86, 193 ; cost of construc¬ 
 tion of first contract, 171; second 
 system of construction, 175, 351 ; 
 Johnstone and Rankines’ way, 175, 
 184; merits of the way, 340, 351 ; 
 cost of, 190, 192, 194 ; economy of 
 second system, 181 ; cost and work¬ 
 ing expenditure, 86, 90; compara¬ 
 tive wear of iron rails and steel rails, 
 184 
 
 Glasgow Corporation gas works, tram¬ 
 way at, 283 
 
 Glasgow harbour, tramway at, 280 ; 
 
 constmction, 281 ; cost, 281 
 Glasgow Tramway and Omnibus Com¬ 
 pany, 86, 166 
 
 Glass sleepers, trial of, on North 
 Metropolitan Tramways, 124 
 
INDEX, 
 
 749 
 
 Gomersal extension tramway, 274 
 Goschler, Mr., cost of his tramway at 
 Paris, 299; Constantinople, 310 
 Gowans’ system of way, 132 ; girder 
 rail, 132, 133; tests of, 133 ; at 
 Dundee, 133, 212 ; London, 133 ; 
 Manchester, 133 ; cost of, in Lon¬ 
 don, 132 ; merits of, 342 
 Gradients: Bristol, 231; Edinburgh 
 Cable Tramway, 533 ; Edinburgh 
 Street Tramway, effect of, on horses, 
 91; City and Suburban (London) 
 Electric Railway, 585; Dundee, 
 208; Edinburgh, 216; Highgate 
 Hill Cable Tramway, 532 ; Lisbon, 
 313 ; London, 117 ; Matlock Cable, 
 553 ; Rouen, 444 ; San Francisco, 
 528 ; Stoke-on-Trent, 454 ; Wan¬ 
 tage, 419 ; influence of, on mecha¬ 
 nical propulsion, 494 
 Grantham, John, steam cars by, 
 418, 421 ; cost of working, 420— 
 423 ; Wantage Tramways, 419 
 Great Eastern Railway tramway in 
 London goods yard, 280 
 Greathead, Mr., his modified West- 
 inghouse brake, 592 
 Greenwich, Connelly oil motor at, 
 
 651 
 
 Greenwood, Mr., on compressed air 
 locomotives, 524 
 
 Grice and Long, steam car by, 409 
 Gripper, description of, as applied to 
 cable traction, 1:26, 1:28, c;37, c.C2, 
 557 ; sections of, 531, 540, 552, 554, 
 555 
 
 Grover and Newton, Kincaid’s way 
 by, at Stockton-on-Tees, 244 
 Guernsey tramway, Merryweather’s 
 engines on, 443; electric traction 
 used on, 580, 581 ; dynamos and 
 cars in use, 581 ; rails by Vignoles, 
 582; traffic on, 583 ; cost and work¬ 
 ing expenses, 583 
 
 Guinness’s Brewery tramway (Dublin), 
 construction and section of, 290 ; 
 narrow gauge, cost of, 292; Geo- 
 ghegan’s locomotive, 473 
 
 H all, sir Benjamin, his opposi¬ 
 tion to tramway legislation, 12 
 Hamburg tramways, Bro^vn’s steam 
 car at, 487 
 
 Hammond, R., list of electrical tram¬ 
 ways in Europe, 741 
 Handyside, 289; car-wheel, 391 
 Harbour tramways : Ransome, Deas, 
 and Rapier’s cast-iron way, 280; 
 Glasgow Harbour, cost of, 281, 282 ; 
 system for lighter traffic, 282 ; Bel¬ 
 fast Harbour tramway, 287; Ligne’s 
 way, 287 ; Salmon’s way, 288 
 Haworth’s tramway system at Salford, 
 
 Highgate-hill cable tramway, 532 
 Holt, Alfred, flangeless wheels for 
 wagons, invented by, 393 
 Holt, Heniy P., on functional resis¬ 
 tance of tram-cars, 398, 399 ; design 
 of starting gear for cars, 402 ; on 
 electrical railways, 585 
 Hopkins, George, engineer for tram¬ 
 way in Dublin, 162 ; Liverpool, 17 ; 
 London, no, 123; Vale of Clyde, 
 169, 195 ; pavement, on margin of, 
 for tramways, 21 
 
 Hopkinson, Edward, designs of Bess- 
 brook and Newry Electric Tram¬ 
 ways, 568 
 
 Horses, life of, on tramway work, 52, 
 54, 91, 404 ; life on omnibus work, 
 104, 105 ; number of, employed for 
 tramway work, 25, 28; injury to, 
 from defective pavement, 344 ; pur¬ 
 chase and maintenance of, cost, 55, 
 58, 70, 71, 76, 90, 91 
 Horse-traction and electric-traction, 
 cost of, in Germany, compared, 735 
 Horsing; Edinburgh, 91; London 
 Tramways, 60; London Street 
 Tramways, 67; North Metropoli¬ 
 tan, 52, 54 
 
 Hormch locomotive works tramway, 
 292 ; Aspinall’s engines, 476 
 Hot-water locomotives and steam- 
 cars: Lamm’s ammoniacal-gas car, 
 413; his thermo-specific engine, 
 414; Bede and Co.’s hot-water 
 steam-car, 430; Buel’s report on, 
 416 ; Cockerell’s locomotive, 504 ; 
 Francq’s locomotive, 509; Francq 
 and Mesnard’s locomotive, 512 ; 
 Todd’s hot-water steam-car, 412 ; 
 data for hot-water power, 502 
 Hoylake and Birkenhead tramways, 
 trial of Grantham’s car on, 422 
 Huddersfield Corporation tramways. 
 
750 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dugdale’s system for, 261 ; recon¬ 
 struction, 264 ; test of girder-rail 
 for, 335 ; cost of, 265 
 
 Hughes, Henry, steam locomotive 
 by, 456 ; trials of, on tramways at 
 Leicester, 457 ; Edinburgh, 458 ; 
 Paris, 458 ; Sheffield, 458 ; Vale of 
 Clyde, 458; AVantage, 458; on 
 functional resistance of tram-cars, 
 399 ; Southern Tramways of Paris, 
 458 ; working cost, 461 ; Bristol, 
 462 ; Lille, 463 
 
 Hughes and Lancaster’s compressed- 
 air car, 524 
 
 Hull tramway, Kincaid’s system on, 
 230 
 
 Huntingdon, Mr., on cost of tramway 
 construction in London, 114 
 
 I KDIA-RUBBER, bearing springs 
 of by George Spencer, 384, 383 ; 
 tests of, by Mr. Kirkaldy, 385 
 Ipswich tramways, Kerr’s way for, 275 
 Ireland, standard gauge of tramways 
 in, 291 ; Tramway Acts relating to, 
 708 
 
 Iron substructure for tramways. See 
 AVays 
 
 J ACOB, Mr., Kincaid’s way by, at 
 Salford, 241 
 
 Johnstone and Rankine’s way, 342, 
 343; advantages of, 193, 345; at 
 Glasgow, 166, 175, 187 
 
 K emper, a., on gas motors for 
 tramways, 738 
 
 Kerr’s system of way, 342, 343 ; tram¬ 
 ways by, at Ipswich, 275 ; AVool- 
 wich, 277 ; second system of way, 
 278 ; third system of way for 
 Bucharest and Madrid Tramways, 
 278 
 
 Kincaid’s iron way, as patented, 112, 
 116, 227, 341 ; his second patent, 
 230; cost of, at Bristol, 240; gauge, 
 his system of keeping to, 348 ; sub¬ 
 structure by, 351; span of bearings, 
 351 ; steel girder rail by, 338 ; cost, 
 339 ; constmction of tramway at 
 Bristol, 230, 236, 238; Dewsbury, 
 229; Greenwich, 112; Hull, 230; 
 Leeds, 116, 229, 230; Leicester, 
 
 230, 233 ; Salford, 234 ; Sheffield, 
 229 ; Stockton-on-Tees, 244, 245 ; 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 240 
 Kirkaldy, DaGd, tests of tram rails 
 by, 321 ; tests of india-rubber 
 springs by, 385 
 
 Kitson and Co., patent valve gear for 
 tramway locomotives, 468 ; locomo¬ 
 tive by, 468 ; on Dudley and Stour¬ 
 bridge tramway, 471 
 Kohl, A., locomotive by, 430 
 
 L AAIM, Dr. Emile, ammoniacal- 
 gas car by, 413; hot-water 
 locomotive by, 414 
 La Plata tramways, 329 
 Larsen’s rail and fastening, 118; 
 advantages of, applied to tramways, 
 162, 345 ; in Belfast, 120, 162 ; 
 Dublin, 162 ; London Street Tram¬ 
 ways, 119, 134 
 Latta, A. B., steam-car, 409 
 Lausanne and Echellens railway. 
 Brown’s steam-car on, 482 
 Lebout, AI., Constantinople tram¬ 
 ways designed by, 309 
 Leeds electric tramway. See Round- 
 hay 
 
 Leeds tramways, construction of, 
 Kincaid’s way, 229, 230 ; Barker’s 
 way at, 251 ; resistance to traction 
 on, by H. P. Holt, 398 
 Legrand’s girder-rail, 330, 331 
 Leicester tramways, construction, 
 233 ; cost, 234; trial of Air. 
 Hughes’s locomotive on, 457 
 Leipzig tramway, 311 
 Length of tramways, 23, 24, 27, 48 ; 
 England and Wales, 48 ; London, 
 48, 50; table showing length of 
 lines authorised and opened by 
 various companies, 23—37 
 Leytonstone (North Metropolitan) 
 Extension tramway, Alajor Beau¬ 
 mont’s compressed-air car on, 524 ; 
 Page’s system of way at, 125 
 Lichterfelde electric railway, 598, 599 
 Liege, tramways at, 305 
 Light, G. L., cast-iron tram-rail by, 
 .7, 8, 350 
 
 Lille, tramways at, 304; Hughes’s 
 engine at, 463 ; cost and working 
 expenditure of engines, 466 
 
INDEX, 
 
 751 
 
 Lima tramways, Cockbum - Muir’s 
 steel rails for, 321 ; strength of, 
 322 
 
 Lisbon tramways, 313; locomotives 
 on, 314 ; abandoned, 314 
 
 Liverpool Overhead railway, 605 ; 
 cost, 614 ; methods of transmission 
 of electric currents, 610; tests for 
 efficiency, 612 ; motors, 606 ; West- 
 inghouse brake for cars, 607 
 
 Liverpool tramways, 16 ; system, 16, 
 21 ; construction, 340 ; Noble’s 
 crescent rail, 16; gradients, 21; 
 reconstruction of, on G. F. Deacon’s 
 system, 140; cost, 158; crossings 
 and points, 141 ; Duncombe’s de¬ 
 sign for tramways in suburbs of, 
 160; cost, 160; results, 161 ; tests 
 for rail, 153; tests for sleepers, 
 155; bolts and nuts, 156; merits 
 of, 340 » 344 
 
 Livesey’s grooved rail tramway, 317; 
 system of way, Aberdeen, 226; 
 iron way, 12, 315 ; at Buenos A5nes, 
 with steel rails, 316; his system of 
 way in advance of his time, 345 ; 
 his coupled stools, 351 ; his span 
 of bearings, 351 
 
 Lizar’s system of tramways at Belfast 
 harbour, 287 
 
 Local authority, power to purchase 
 tramways, 670 ; judgment of House 
 of Lords as to terms of purchase, 
 710; byelaws for tramway worked 
 by, 684 
 
 Locomotives. See Steam Locomo¬ 
 tives, Compressed-air Loco¬ 
 motives, Fireless Locomo¬ 
 tives, Hot-WATER Locomotives 
 
 London tramway movement as re¬ 
 vived, 1865, 14 
 
 London General Orhnibus Company ; 
 capital, cost, and working expendi¬ 
 ture, 102 ; charge for horse-hire, 
 52, 60, 67 ; damage to omnibuses 
 by imperfect way, 344 
 
 London Tramways: Acts obtained, 
 22; length of, 22, 48, 50, 51; 
 cost of, 51, 114—116, 131 ; con- 
 stmction of, 22, 60, iio, 113; 
 
 general cost and working expendi¬ 
 ture, 60, 64, 68; inclines and 
 
 curves, 117; renewal of cars, 65 ; 
 renewal of way, 66 ; Aldred- 
 
 Spielmann’s way for, 130 ; Gowan’s 
 girder rail on, 133; reconstruction 
 and cost of, on Gowan’s system, 130, 
 124 
 
 London Street Tramways : Acts ob¬ 
 tained for, 21 ; length of, 22, 67 ; 
 mileage receipts and passengers on, 
 67, 68, 69; cost of, 70; mainte¬ 
 nance of cars, 71 ; maintenance of 
 way, 71 ; construction of, 72, 119 ; 
 Larsen’s fastening for, 119, 134; 
 reconstruction of, with girder rail, 
 
 ^34 
 
 London Street tramways, inclines 
 and curves on, 117 
 
 Lords, House of, judgment as to 
 terms of purchase by local autho¬ 
 rity, 710 
 
 Loubat, M., tramway by, in New 
 York, 5 ; in Paris, 296 
 
 Ludwigshafen tramways, De Feral’s 
 way for, 324 
 
 Lynde, J. H., construction of Man¬ 
 chester Corporation tramways 
 under, 246 
 
 M ACKIESON’S system, 340 ; at 
 Dundee, 207, 212 
 
 M’Nay and Co., Winby and Levick’s 
 way by, at Nottingham, 255 
 Macrae’s system of way, 342 ; at Edin¬ 
 burgh, 215 
 
 Madras tramways, 254 
 Madrid tramways, 278 ; Kerr’s way 
 for, 279 
 
 Manchester Corporation tramways. 
 Barker’s system of, 246 ; construc¬ 
 tion of, 256; cost of, 151 ; Gowan’s 
 way at, 133 
 
 Mannheim tramways, De Feral’s way 
 for, 324 
 
 Marks, C., cable tramway by, at Mat- 
 lock, 553 
 
 Martineau, Mr., his table of weights 
 of cars, 357 ; on the advantage of 
 inside cars, 358 
 Matlock cable tramway, 552 
 Meakins’ system of way, 135, 138, 342; 
 Southwark and Battersea, 135 ; cost 
 of, on South London Tramway, 137, 
 
 138 
 
 Mechanical power on tramways, 409 ; 
 historical sketch, 312 ; elementary 
 
752 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 datum, 398 ; hot-water locomotive, 
 502; compressed air locomotives, 
 514; locomotives by Merry weather 
 and Sons, 437, 438 ; condensing 
 locomotive by John Perkins, 423 ; 
 Bissell bogie steam car by Edward 
 PeiTett, 478; double-bogie steam 
 car by A. Brown, 482 ; double-bogie 
 steam car by W. R. Rowan, 488 ; 
 elementary data, resistance to trac¬ 
 tion on a railway, 398 ; tramway lo¬ 
 comotive, 406 ; A. P. Holt’s experi¬ 
 ence on grooved rails, 398, 400, 402 ; 
 Mr. Hughes’s experiments, 399; 
 causes of resistance; M. Deloudiant’s 
 experiments, 400; Mr. Tresca’s ex¬ 
 periment, 400, 401; Col. Sytenko’s 
 experiment, 401 ; Mr. AVood’s esti¬ 
 mate, 401 ; Messrs. Menyweather’s 
 conclusion, 402 ; John Philhp’s ex¬ 
 periments in starting cars, 402 ; E. 
 Perrett’s experiments, 404 ; experi¬ 
 ments on Modling (Vienna) electric 
 railway, 407, 408; Mr. Conradi’s 
 experience, 406, 407; mechanical 
 propulsion, with rules, 492 ; adhe¬ 
 sion, 494 ; influence of gradients, 
 494; steam consumed, 495 ; pro¬ 
 perties of steam, 497, 498 ; examples 
 for use of the rules, 499; data for 
 water and fuel, 501 ; hot-water 
 power, 502 ; Cockerell’s hot-water 
 engine, wdth results and experi¬ 
 ments, 504 ; compressed air power, 
 514 ; form of regulations issued by 
 Board of Trade, 699 
 Mekarski’s compressed air car, 519 
 Merryweather’s steam locomotives, 
 
 437 ; three classes of, 438 ; at Paris, 
 
 438 ; at Cassel, Guernsey, and AVel- 
 lington, N.Z., 443 ; at Rouen, 444 ; 
 at Batley, 446 ; at Stoke-on-Trent, 
 454; performances of, 438, 440, 442, 
 445 » 499 
 
 Aletropolis, tramways in, 48 ; length, 
 48, 50 ; curves, 117 
 Metropolitan Railway Carriage and 
 Waggon Company, inside and out¬ 
 side passenger car by, 360; car- 
 wheels by, construction of, 361, 368 
 Metz, De Feral’s way at, 324 
 Miller and Co., wheels by, 389 
 Mines and minerals under tramways, 
 662 
 
 Modling (Vienna) electric railway, 
 construction of, 598 ; experiment on, 
 for resistance, 407, 408 
 Monte Video tramway, Cockburn- 
 Muir’s steel rails for, 320, 321 ; 
 quantities and cost of, 320 
 Montreux electric railway, 598 
 Morris, J., on margin of pavement 
 for tramway, 21 
 AIoscow tramway, 311 
 Motor, oil, 651 ; compressed gas, 655 
 Motors, connection of, with car-wheels 
 worked by electric traction, 558; 
 construction of, on locomotive of 
 City and South London electric 
 railway, 591 ; Sprague, on Florence 
 and Fiesole electric railway, 602 ; 
 Liverpool overhead railway, 606 ; 
 Roundhay (Leeds) tramway, 618 ; 
 South Staffordshire tramway, 632 
 Moscow, Vignoles’ rail at, resistance 
 to traction of, 401 
 
 N antes tramway, Alekarski’s 
 compressed-air car, 521 
 Neversink Mountain electric railroad, 
 641 ; worked by turbines, 641 ; 
 arrangements for working, 643 ; 
 particulars of power employed, 644 ; 
 details of machinery, 645 ; test, for 
 resistance, 647 ; road data, 648 ; 
 distribution of electrical power, 647, 
 649 ; Edison’s compound dynamo, 
 646 ; transmission of currents, 646 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, AAffnby and 
 LeGck’s way at, 255, 257 ; cost of, 
 257 ; Kincaid’s way, 240 
 Newcastle tramways, report of Cor¬ 
 poration Committee on cable trac¬ 
 tion, 542 
 
 New A^ork grooved tram-rails, 6, 7 ; 
 step rails, 10 ; car used on tramways 
 at, 354 
 
 New York (East) and Canartio tram¬ 
 way, hot-water locomotives on, 415; 
 tests by Mr. Buel and Mr. Brevoort, 
 416 
 
 New York and Haarlem, first Ameri¬ 
 can line of tramways, 5 ; unpopular 
 and suppressed, 5 ; revived in 1852, 5 
 Noble’s crescent rail, 16, 17 
 North British Rubber Company,, 
 india-rubber springs by, 365, 384 
 
INDEX. 
 
 753 
 
 ^^orth Chicago City railway, resist¬ 
 ance to traction, by A. AV. Wright, 
 406 
 
 North London Suburban tramways, 
 Vignoles’ way for, 269 
 
 North London tramways, purchase of, 
 
 53 
 
 North Metropolitan tramway ; work¬ 
 ing stock, 53 ; cars on, 54 ; mileage 
 and passengers, 55—58; Page’s 
 system of way for glass sleepers on, 
 124, 125 ; experimental lengths of 
 different way, 122, 123, 124; plank 
 base, 123; unequal wear of rail, 
 124; Wiiiby and Levick way for, 
 124 ; Beaumont compressed-air car 
 on, 524 _ 
 
 North Staffordshire tramways, Vig¬ 
 noles’ way for, 269 ; Merry weather’s 
 engines on, 454 
 
 Nottingham and District tramways, 
 Winbv and Levick’s way for, 2qc; ; 
 cost of, 256 
 
 IL motor cars, 651 
 Omnibuses, average life of horses 
 used for, 104, 105 ; of omnibus, 
 104. See .also London General 
 Omnibus Company 
 
 Orleans, New, hot-water locomotives 
 used at, 413, 414 
 
 Oxford, City and District tramway, 
 Brunton’s way for, 266 
 
 P AGE’S system of way, 342 ; North 
 Metropolitan Tramway, 125 ; 
 cost of, 128, 129 
 
 Paris tramways, PTancq & Mesnard’s 
 fireless locomotives for, 512 ; Meriy- 
 weather’s locomotives for, 437,439 ; 
 tramways in, 296 ; cost of, 300, 
 301 ; electric traction on railways 
 in, 566 ; Hughes’s locomotives on 
 Southern tramways of, 458 ; cost 
 of, 461 
 
 Passenger traffic, returns of, 38 
 Paving and pavement, asphalte a 
 failure, 114 ; ashes, use of for, 116 ; 
 wood, 260 ; support of, 344 ; im¬ 
 perfect, damage by to traffic, 344; 
 importance of maintaining, 344, 350 
 Perkins, Loft us, condensing locomo¬ 
 
 tive by, 423 ; report of AI. Fan- 
 camps on, 424 ; report of Mr. Spee 
 on, 425 ; improvements of, 426, 427 
 Perrett, Edward, steam-cars by, 478 ; 
 on starting resistance of cars, 404, 
 
 405 
 
 Pesth electric railway, 598 
 Philadelphia girder rail, 329 ; slip rail 
 in, 9 ; trial of steam-cars at, 432, 
 436 ; comparative cost of horse and 
 steam power, 434, 435 
 Phillip, John, on the starting resist¬ 
 ance of cars, 402 
 Points and crossings, 663 
 Portobello, construction of branch of 
 Edinburgh Street tramways, 216; 
 cost of, 217 
 
 Portrush and Giants’ Causeway elec¬ 
 tric tramway, 569 
 Potteries, tramway in the, 14 
 Pritchard, E., Birmingham cable 
 tramways by, 543 
 
 Provincial tramway, table of cost and 
 working expenditure of, 28 
 Purchase of tramways by local 
 authorities. House of Lords’ judg¬ 
 ment as to terms of, 710 
 
 R adial-AXLE car by James 
 Cleminson, 376 
 
 Rail cleaner by H. Conradi, 406 
 Rails : Aldred-Spielmann rail, 130, 
 132, 342 ; Aspinall’s at Horwich 
 locomotive works, 293 ; Barker’s 
 steel rail, 244, 248 ; Beloe rails, 21, 
 204 ; box rail unsuited for me¬ 
 chanical traction, 124 ; abandoned 
 at Glasgow, 175, 185 ; on Wirral 
 tramway, 204 ; Brussels, iron rails 
 in, 305 ; Buenos A.yrrs rails, 321, 
 327; Burn’s girder rail, 330; Cassel 
 iron rail, 313 
 
 Rails : cast-iron, when first tried, 3 ; 
 cleaners for, 406 ; effects on trac- 
 tional resistance, 407 ; channeled 
 rail, advantages of in towns, 161, 
 184 ; Cockburn-Muir, 319, 352 ; 
 crescent rail, 16, 307 ; Deacon’s 
 steel rail, 152 ; Deacon’s rail in 
 Liverpool, 142 ; Dowson’s iron rail, 
 254 ; Dugdale’s rail, 261 ; Dug- 
 dale’s steel rail at Highgate-hill 
 (cable), 532 ; flat rail, 14 ; objec- 
 
 C 
 
754 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 lions to, III ; Sir Douglas Fox, 
 on La Plata tramway, 329; Francq’s 
 iron rail, 302 ; girder rail by 
 Brunton, 264 ; American, Phila¬ 
 delphia, 329 ; Burns, 330 ; De 
 Feral, 325 ; Edge, 294 ; Gowan, 
 132, 196, 212, 330, 343; Johnstone 
 and Rankine, 186; Ken', 276 ; 
 Kincaid, 112, 331, 338; Legrand, 
 
 331 ; Meakins, 135 ; Winby and 
 Levick, 256 ; girder rail, 334 ; for 
 cable tramway at Edinburgh, 534, 
 537 ; at Birmingham, 550, 551 ; 
 tests of, for resistance, 335 ; sections 
 of various (Dick, Kerr & Co.), 
 336, 337 ; weight and dimensions, 
 
 332 ; grooved iron rail in New York, 
 5 ; best form of grooved rail, 340, 
 349; Guinness’s brewery, 290; 
 Guernsey electric tramway, 582; 
 Haworth’s flat rail, 14, 15 ; John¬ 
 stone and Rankine’s, at Glasgow, 
 166, 176, 184, 187, 188, 342, 343 ; 
 Kerr’s rail, 276, 279; Kincaid’s 
 iron rail, 227, 229, 230, 231, 237, 
 352 ; Kincaid’s South London tram¬ 
 ways, 112; girder rail, 338; Kin¬ 
 caid’s steel rail, 238, 239, 242; 
 Larsen’s rail, 118, 119, 120, 134, 
 162 ; Dublin, 162 ; Vale of Clyde, 
 196, 198 ; North Metropolitan, 123, 
 124 ; Lebout’s iron rail, 309 ; Leeds 
 (early) rails, 116; Legrand girder 
 rail, 330 ; Leipzig rail, 312 ; Light’s 
 cast-iron rail in Boston (U.S.), 8 ; 
 Lille iron rail, 304; Lisbon iron 
 rail, 313 ; Liverpool rail, early, 17 ; 
 Livesey’s steel rail, 315 ; Livesey’s 
 iron rail, 317 ; Lizars’ iron rail, 287 ; 
 London tramway, rail for, no, 112 ; 
 South London, 135, 136; Loubat’s 
 rail, 5, 297, 298, 300; Macrae iron 
 rail, 218; Macrae steel rail, 23; 
 Mackieson’s iron rails, 209, 211, 
 213; Neversink Mountain railroad 
 rails, 640, 642; New York step 
 rail, 10; Noble’s crescent rail, 16, 
 17; Page’s rail, 125; Philadelphia 
 step rail, 9 ; girder rail, 329 ; Port- 
 rush and Giants’ Causeway (electric) 
 rails, 567 ; Ransome, Deas, and 
 Rapier’s cast-iron rails, 280; 
 Shaw’s steel rail, 252 ; Siemens’ 
 steel rails at Lima, 321 ; steel and 
 
 iron, comparative wear of, 344; in 
 Glasgow, 184 ; on the North Metro¬ 
 politan, 124 ; strength of Cockbum- 
 Muir’s iron and steel, 321 — 323 ; 
 Rymney or box-rail, 132 ; steel rail 
 tests, 153—155 ; step rail, ii, 401, 
 481 ; strength and design of con¬ 
 siderations as to, 340, 342, 350; 
 Sytenko’s rail, 311; stiffness of 
 rails, 352; step rail, 9, lo, ii; 
 tests of rail by Mr. Kirkaldy, 321, 
 322 ; at Buenos Ayres, 327 ; timber 
 rail of early tramway, 2 ; Train’s 
 step rail, 13 ; triple rail system, 
 15 ; Truswell’s rail, 271 ; Vignoles^ 
 rail, 269, 270; objections to, 342; 
 modifications of, by Bum, 330 ; 
 at Guernsey, 582; unequal wear 
 of rail, 124 ; Wellington (N.Z.) 
 iron rail, 314 ; Wilson’s rail, 258, 
 259 ; AVinby and Levick’s rail, 124 
 
 Ransom, Louis, steam-car by, 434; 
 trials of steam-car, 436 
 
 Ransome, Deas, and Rapier, cast-iron 
 way at Glasgow Harbour, 280, 283; 
 at Glasgow Corporation Gasworks, 
 283 ; cost of, 282, 284, 285 ; width 
 of bearing, 287 
 
 Receipts of tramways. See Cost, 
 Receipts, etc. 
 
 Resistance on tramways : advantage 
 on the round contour of the groove, 
 
 113, 114 ; advantage of the shallow 
 groove, 168, 169, 196; central bear¬ 
 ing for wheels, 232 ; advantage ot 
 a first-rate rolling surface, 344, 379 
 C. L. Light’s sloping berme, 7, 
 350; freedom of the slip rail, ii 
 freedom of Mr. Haworth’s flat rail, 
 14; disadvantages of the crescent 
 rail, 16, 17, 307 ; Mr. Holt’s ex- 
 peiffnents, 398 ; advantages of light¬ 
 ness and elasticity, 381; starting 
 gear for cars to prevent, 402 ; E. 
 Perrett’s experiments, 404, 481 ; 
 A. W. Wright’s experiment, new 
 rails V. worn rails, 406; J. A, 
 Wright’s observations on resistance 
 on a dusty day, 406 ; causes of re¬ 
 sistance, 345, 356, 398; necessity 
 for vertical stiffness, 352 ; reduction 
 of, by the use of radial axles and 
 loose wheels, 376; resistance of 
 car on slip rail at Chicago, 405, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 755 
 
 481 ; tests for resistance, on Rouen 
 steam-tramways, 406; on Never- 
 sink Mountain electric railroad, 
 649 
 
 Ridley and Co., tramways laid by, 
 
 255. 257 
 
 Rolling surface, advantage of a good, 
 
 344 > 379 
 
 Rouen tramways, resistance to trac¬ 
 tion on dusty days, 406; Merry- 
 weather’s engines for, 444 ; perfor¬ 
 mance and working cost of, 445 
 
 Roundhay electric tramway, 615 ; 
 example of Thomson-Houston sys¬ 
 tem and current American practice, 
 615; circuit as in use, 561, 616; 
 electric connections of rails, 616; 
 cross-suspension, method of over¬ 
 head construction, 616; cars and 
 motors, 618; trolley and trolley- 
 wire, 622 ; arrangement of station 
 and car-shed, 622; operation ex¬ 
 penses, 626 
 
 Rowan, W. R., steam-car by, 488 ; 
 cost of steam and horse-power on, 
 490, 491 
 
 Rueil-Marly tramway, Francq’s en¬ 
 gine, 510 
 
 Rusholme, Shaw’s way at, 252 
 
 Ryde Pier, electric tramway at, 567 
 
 S ALFORD, Haworth’s tramway in, 
 14 ; Corporation tramways, con¬ 
 struction of, on Kincaid’s way, 234, 
 241 ; Fade’s reversible car on, 281 
 Salmon, T. R., system of tramway at 
 Belfast harbour by, 287, 288 
 Salto tramway, Cockburn-Muir’s iron 
 way at, 320 
 
 San Francisco, system of cable tram¬ 
 ways at, 425, 427 
 
 Santander, Todd’s steam locomotive 
 for, 411 
 
 Scoria blocks, use of at Salford, 242 
 Scotland, Tramway Acts relating to, 
 708 
 
 Scott-Moncrieff’s compressed-air car, 
 522 
 
 Shaw’s system of way, 340 ; at Rus¬ 
 holme, 252 ; cost of, 253 
 Sheffield tramway, construction of, 
 229 ; Hughes’s locomotive on, 458 
 Sheibner, Mr., on electrical railways, 
 
 585» 598 
 
 Shelford, AV,, Meakins’ way by, for 
 Southwark and Deptford tramways, 
 
 .135 
 
 Siemens, Dr. Werner, on electric 
 traction, 566 ; motor at Guernsey, 
 581 ; steel rails in Monte Video 
 and at Lima, 320 ; tests of the rails, 
 322 
 
 Sleepers, systems of: block system, 
 318 ; cast-iron for crossings, 155 ; 
 cast-iron, 246; at Madras, 254; 
 description of varipus systems, 340, 
 347 ; crossings 4nd points, 155 ; 
 fastening to rails, mode of, 156; 
 glass, 124 ; cost of timber and cast- 
 iron compared, 160; curves, 163; 
 City ancl Suburban electric rail¬ 
 way, 585 ; longitudinal, merits of, 
 
 347 ; timber, 146, 340, 349 ; trans¬ 
 verse, 342 ; wrought - iron, 324, 
 
 348 
 
 Smith and Mygind, locomotive by, at 
 Copenhagen, 430 
 
 Societe Metallurgique et Charbon- 
 niere, three-cylinder locomotive by, 
 
 429 
 
 Southampton street tramways, Wil¬ 
 son’s way for, 258 ; cost of, 260 
 
 South London tramway, capital and 
 working expenditure of, 73, 75 ; 
 horses on, 74, 76 ; account of mile¬ 
 age receipt and passengers, 74; 
 repairs and renewal of cars and way, 
 77 ; reconstniction of, 135-^139; 
 cost of, 137 
 
 South Staffordshire electiic tramway, 
 627 ; its system especially designed 
 by Mr. Dickinson, 628 ; generation 
 and transmission of power, 629 ; 
 cars and motors employed, 632 ; 
 the trolley as used by Mr. Dickin¬ 
 son, 634; cost per car mile, 638 ; 
 wear and tear of trolley-wire, 640 
 
 .Southport tramway, construction of, 
 201 ; cost of, 202 
 
 Southwark and Deptford, Mealdns’ 
 way for, 135 
 
 Spee, M., report by, on Perkins’s con¬ 
 densing locomotive, 425 ; on BMe 
 and Co.’s Belgian locomotives, 431 
 
 Spencer, George, and Co.’s india- 
 rubber springs, 384 
 
 Spontaneous evaporation, 503 
 
 Sprague motor, 602 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Spring, bearing of tram-cars, 365, 370, 
 374> 383> 384; india-rubber, 384, 
 
 385 
 
 Starbuck Car Company, car-wheels 
 ^ by, 369 
 
 Steam cars, historical sketch, 409; 
 byelaws issued by Board of Trade 
 applicable to, 699 ; Baldwin’s, 432 ; 
 Bede and Co.'s, 430; Brown’s,. 
 482 ; Grantham, 418 ; Perrett’s, 
 478; Ransom’s, 434; Todd’s, 410; 
 Tram’s, 409 : Rowan’s, 488; Wil¬ 
 kinson’s condensing locomotive, 471 
 Steam locomotives : on Lisbon tram¬ 
 way, 313; historical sketch, 409; 
 calculation for steam power, 492 ; 
 at Alford and Sutton, 278 ; Fal¬ 
 con and Co., 466; Geoghegan, 
 473 ; Kitson and Co., 468, 470; 
 Hughes, 456 ; Vale of Clyde, 456, 
 458 ; Wantage, 458 ; Southern 
 Tramways of Paris, 458, 461 ; Bris¬ 
 tol, 462 ; Lille, 465 ; Menyweather 
 and Sons, 437 ; at Cassel, 312 ; 
 Rouen, 444 ; Dewsbury, 446 ; 
 Stoke-on-Trent, 454; Bnrcelona, 
 440, 442 ; Merryweather’s latest 
 design of locomotive, 442 ; Loftus 
 Perkins, 423, 426 
 
 Steam-power, form of regulations 
 issued by Board of Trade, 699 
 Steam-power?^, horse-power. Rowan’s 
 comparison of, 490 ; methods of 
 calculating pressure, 502, 503 ; ex¬ 
 amples for, 505 ; principle of spon¬ 
 taneous evaporation, 503. 
 
 Starbuck Car and Waggon Company, 
 inside passenger-car by, 421 
 Starting gear, design of, by Mr. Holt, 
 402, 404 ; cost of, 404 
 Steel V. iron rails, 321, 443 
 Stephenson, Gurdon L., on cost of 
 girder-rail, 138 ; improvement of 
 Meakins’ system by, 138 
 Stephenson, John, original tram-car 
 . by, 354 ; design of brake for tram- 
 car, 366 
 
 Step-rail: in Philadelphia, 9 ; New 
 York, 10, II; Birkenhead, 13; 
 failure of, in England, 14 
 Sterne, L. and Co., indiambber 
 spiral springs by, 385 
 Stockholm tramway. Rowan’s steam- 
 car on, 491 
 
 Stockton-on-Tees and District tram¬ 
 ways, Kincaid’s way by Grover and 
 Newton, 244 
 
 Stoke-on-Trent. Merryweather’s loco¬ 
 motives at. 454 
 
 Storage batteries for electric tram- 
 ways, 563 
 
 Straps, use of, in tramway construc¬ 
 tion, 125 
 
 Strasburg tramways, steam-cars on, 
 487 
 
 Stratford, glass sleepers at, 124 
 
 Substructure of tramways, importance 
 of, 346 ; construction of, for cable 
 tramways at San Francisco, 528 ; 
 Highgate-hill, 532 ; Edinburgh, 
 533, And see NA.YS 
 
 Sunderland tramways, Brown’s loco¬ 
 motive on, 487; Gowan’s way at, 
 
 . ^33 
 
 Switches, use of. on electric tramway, 
 563 ; on electric railway, 588 
 
 .Sytenko, Colonel. Moscow tramway 
 designed by. 311 ; on resistance of 
 tramway, 401 
 
 T ests of rails, Cockbum-Muir’s 
 steel 7^. iron rail, 321, 323, 327 
 Thomson-Houston system of electric 
 tramways, instance of, 615 
 Tie bars, use of, 111 ; abandoned by 
 Mr. Hopkins, 122 
 
 Todd, L. J., steam locomotive by, 
 410 ; hot-water steam-car by, 412 
 Train, George F., 8, 12 ; tramway at 
 Birkenhead, 13; London, 14; Pot¬ 
 teries, 14 ; steam-cars by, 409 
 Tramways, particulars of: Early in¬ 
 stances, I ; Aberdeen, 97, 99, 226 ; 
 America, 5, 329, 730; Antwerp,305 ; 
 Bahia, 320; Barcelona, 440, 442 ; 
 Battersea, 135 ; Belfast Harbour, 
 287, 288 ; Belfast, 120; Berlin, 566 ; 
 Bessbrook and Newry, 396, 567 ; 
 Birkenhead, 13, 204; Birmingham, 
 78, 294, 371, 471, 543, 578 ; Black¬ 
 pool, 100, 378, 379; Boston (U.S.), 
 8; Bristol, 78, 231, _ 341, 462; 
 Brixton, 553; Broomielaw Quay, 
 280; Brunswick, 295; Brussels, 
 305, 423 ; Bucharest, 279; Buenos, 
 Ayres, ii, 12, 318, 320, 326, 327:, 
 328; City and South London, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 588 ; Canada, 146; Cassel, 312, 443 ; I 
 Chicago, 527; Cincinnati, 409; 
 Coney Island, 436; Constantinople, 
 309 ; Copenhagen, 430 ; Dewsbury, 
 Birstal, and Batley, 229, 272 ; Dub¬ 
 lin, 52, 162, 164, 363; Dublin and 
 Lucan, 480, 482 ; Dudley and 
 Stourbridge, 471 ; Dundee, 207, 
 330; Edinburgh, 91,215, 216, 219, 
 223, 330, 533 . 534 » 542; Florence 
 and Fiesole, 598, 600; Ghent, 305, 
 306 ; Geneva, 304 ; Glasgow, 86, 
 166, 171, 184, 185, T93, 280, 283, 
 341 ; Greenwich, 545; Guernsey, 
 443, 580; Guinness’s Brewery, 290, 
 473 ; Plamburg, 487; Highgate 
 Hill, 532; Horwich Locomotive 
 Works, 292, 476; Hoylake and 
 Birkenhead, 421 ; Huddersfield, 
 26r, 264, 335 ; Hull, 230; Ipswich, 
 275; La Plata, 329; Lausanne, 
 482; Leeds, 229, 251, 398, 615; 
 Leicester, 233, 417 ; Leipzig, 311 ; 
 Leytonstone, 125,524: Lichterfelde, 
 598; Liege, 305; Lille, 304,46^, 
 466 ; Lima, 321 ; Lisbon, 313; 
 Liverpool, 16, 17, 21, 140, 158, 160, 
 340, 605; London, 14; London 
 Tramways, 22, 48, 50, 60, no, 113, 
 130? 133; London Street Tram¬ 
 ways, 21, 22, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 
 117,119, 134; Madras, 254 ; Ma¬ 
 drid, 279 ; Manchester, 133, 151, 
 246; Mannheim, 324; Matlock, 
 552 ; Metropolis, 48, 50, 117 ; Metz, 
 324; Modling, 407, 598; Monte 
 Video, 320; Moscow, 311, 401; 
 Nantes, 521 ; Neversink Mountain, 
 641; Newcastle-upon-T}me, 240; 
 New Orleans, 413 ; New York, 5, 
 6, 7, 10, 354, 415, 416; North 
 London, 53, 269; North Metro¬ 
 politan, 53, 54, 122, 124, 125 ; 
 
 North Staffordshire, 269, 454; 
 
 Nottingham, 255 ; Oxford, 266 ; 
 Paris, 296, 300, 437, 439, 458, 461, 
 512, 560; Philadelphia, 9, 329, 
 
 432, 436; Portobello, 216, 217; 
 Portrush and Giants’ Causeway, 
 569; Potteries, 14; Rueil Marly, 
 510 ; Rouen, 406, 445 ; Rusholme, 
 252 ; Ryde Pier, 567 ; Salford, 14, 
 234, 241, 281; Salto, 320; San 
 Francisco, 425,;_ Santander, 411 
 
 Sheffield, 229, 458 ; Societe Metal- 
 lurgique et Charbonniere, 439; 
 Southampton, 258, 260; South 
 London, 73, 135 ; Southport, 201 ; 
 South Staffordshire, 627; South¬ 
 wark and Deptford, 135; Stock¬ 
 holm, 491 ; Stockton-on-Tees, 244 ; 
 Stoke-on-Trent, 454 ; Strasburg, 
 487; Stratford (London), 124; 
 Vale of Clyde, 168, 195, 261, 458, 
 522 ; Versailles. 302 ; Vienna, 320, 
 408, 422 ; Wallasey, 251 ; Wan¬ 
 tage, 419, 458, 522 ; Wellington 
 (N.Z.), 314, 444; Wirral, 204; 
 Woolwich, 277 
 
 Tresca, M., on tractional resistance, 
 400 
 
 Triple-rail system, 15 
 
 Trolleys, description of, as used for 
 electric traction, 560, 562, 634 
 
 Trumpeters on Buenos Ayres tram¬ 
 ways, 12 
 
 Truswell’s system of way, 272, 274; 
 at Birstal, 272 
 
 Turbines, use of, on Neversink Moun¬ 
 tain railroad, 644. 
 
 Turton and Busby, lessees of Man¬ 
 chester suburban tramway, 351 
 
 U NITED STATES, tramways 
 
 first employed in, 5; electric 
 traction in, 564 ; length of tram¬ 
 ways, 730 ; introduced into Europe 
 from, 732 
 
 Unwin, Professor, on Connelly oil 
 motor, 653 
 
 V ALE OF CLYDE tramways. Act 
 for, 168, 195 ; construction of, 
 195, 261 ; length of, 195 ; Scott 
 Moncrieff’s compressed-air car on, 
 522 ; cost of working it, 523 ; 
 Hughes’s locomotive on, 458 
 Vaucamps, N., on the performances 
 of the Perkins locomotive, 424 
 Versailles tramways, constmction of, 
 302 
 
 Vickers, forged steel points by, 237 
 Vienna tramways, Cockburn-Muir’s 
 way on, 303 ; Grantham’s car on, 
 422 ; experiment for tractional re¬ 
 sistance on, 408 
 
758 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Vignoles’ system of way, 341, 342 ; 
 Tottenham and Stoke, 269 ; resist¬ 
 ance to traction of Vignoles’ rail at 
 Moscow, 401 ; modification of Vig¬ 
 noles’ rail by Burn, 330 ; rail, 
 Guernsey electric tramway, 582 
 
 W ALLASEY, Barker’s way at, 
 by Mr. Beloe, 251 ; cost, 251 
 Wantage rail and tramway, Grantham 
 car on, and cost of working, 419 
 —422 ; Hughes’s locomotive on, 
 458 ; Mekarski’s compressed-air 
 car, 522 
 
 Ways having cast-iron substructure : 
 Aldred and Spielmann system, 
 London, 132; Barker’s system at 
 Manchester, 246 ; Deacon's system, 
 Liverpool, 140, 148; Dugdale’s sys¬ 
 tem at Huddersfield, 261, 263; 
 K-incaid’s, at Bristol, 227, 230, 231; 
 Newcastle, 240; Salford, 241 ; 
 Mackison’s system, Dundee, 207 ; 
 Shaw’s system at Rusholme, 252 ; 
 Truswell’s system at Bristol, 272 ; 
 Vignole’s system, Tottenham and 
 Stoke, 269; Wilson’s system at 
 Southampton, 258, 259 
 . AVays having wrought-iron substruc¬ 
 ture : Dowson’s system, 254 ; De 
 Feral’s system, Mannheim and Lud- 
 wigshafen, 324 ; Kerr's system at 
 Ipswich, 275; AVoolwich, 277; Mea- 
 kins’ system, Southwark and Batter¬ 
 sea, 135 ; Page’s system, London, 
 125; Winby & Levick’s system, 
 Nottingham, 255 ; Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne, 256 
 
 Ways which are rolled in one piece : 
 Brunton’s system at Oxford, 266 ; 
 Gowan’s system at Dundee, 133, 
 212; London, 133; Manchester, 
 133; Sunderland, 133; Johnstone 
 8<: Rankine’s system at Glasgow, 
 
 167,187 ; Macrae’s system in Edin¬ 
 burgh, 224 
 
 Ways having wood substructure : 
 Beloe’s system at Southport, 201 ; 
 Mackieson’s system, Dundee, 207, 
 
 214 ; Macrae’s system, Edinburgh, 
 
 215 
 
 AVellington (N.Z.) City tramway, 314 ; 
 
 Alerryweather’s engine for, 443 
 AVestinghouse brake on Liverpool 
 overhead railway, 607 ; modifica¬ 
 tion of, by Mr. Greathead, for use 
 on City and .Suburban electric rail¬ 
 way, 592 
 
 AVheels and axles of tram-cars, con¬ 
 struction of, 15, 355, 360, 386; 
 flangeless, 393, 397; wear of wheels, 
 357 ; of French tram-cars, 379 ; 
 Eade’s reversible car, 381 ; disc- 
 wheels, 389 ; Handyside car-wheel, 
 
 389 
 
 AVilkinson’s locomotive, 471 
 AVilson’s system of way, 341 ; at 
 Southampton, 258 
 
 AVinby and Levick’s system of way, 
 255. 342, 345; on tramway at 
 London, 124 ; Newcastle, 257; 
 Nottingham, 255 
 AA^irral tramways, 204 
 AVood-plank base for longitudinal 
 sleepers, 349; at Islington and on 
 North Metropolitan Tramways, 123 
 Wood substructure for tramways. 
 See Ways 
 
 AVoods, Edward, improvement of the 
 Grantham car by, 419, 421, 422 ; 
 on resistance of tram-cars, 401 
 AVoolwich and Plumstead tramway, 
 Kerr’s way on, 277 
 
 i Working expenses of tramways : see 
 I Cost, Receipts, and Expendi¬ 
 ture 
 
 AVright, A. AV., experiments on re¬ 
 sistance of cars to traction, 406 
 Wright, J. A., on resistance to trac¬ 
 tion on a dusty day, 406 
 
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 tating Mechanical Operations. By William Templeton. Sixteenth 
 Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. 
 Hutton, C.E. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 
 Illustrative Diagrams, 6s. strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and 
 tear. 
 
 “ In its modernised form Hutton’s ‘ Templeton ’ should have a wide sale, for it contains 
 much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables 
 and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be 
 appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of ‘ Templeton.’ ”— 
 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 “ It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there 
 are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book.” — 
 
 Building News. 
 
 London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers’ Hall Court, E.C. 
 
7, Stationers’ Hall Court, London, E.C. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 INCLUDING NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN 
 
 ENGINEERING: CIVIL, MECHANICAL AND MARINE; 
 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING; 
 MINING, METALLURGY; ARCHITECTURE, 
 BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS; 
 SCIENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES; 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING; 
 AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY; 
 
 LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 D. K. Clark’s Pocket-Book for Mechanical Engineers. 
 
 The Mechanical Engineer’s pocket-book of Tables, 
 
 FormUL/E, Rules, and Data ; A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in 
 Engineering Practice. By D, Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E., Author of 
 “ Railway Machinery,” “ Tramways,” &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 
 Small 8vo, 700 pages, 9^-. bound in flexible leather covers, with rounded corners and 
 gilt edges. 
 
 ' Summary of Contents. 
 
 Mathematical Tables.—Measurement of Surfaces and Solids.—English Weights and 
 Measures.—French Metric Weights and Measures.—Foreign Weights and Measures.— 
 Moneys.—Specific Gravity. Weight and Volume.—Manufactured Metals.—Steel Pipes.— 
 Bolts AND Nuts.—Sundry Articles in Wrought and Cast Iroj, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, 
 Zinc.—Strength of Materials.—Strength of 'Timber.—Strength of Cast Iron.—Strength 
 OF Wrought Iron.—Strength of Steel.—Tensile Strength of Copper, Lead, etc.—Resist¬ 
 ance OF Stones and other Building Materials.—Rivei hd Joints in Boiler Plates.—Boiler 
 Shells.—Wire Ropes and Hemp Kopes.—Chains and Chain Cables.—Framing.—Hardness of 
 Metals, Alloys and Stones.—Labour of Animals.—Mechanical Principles.—Gravity and Fall 
 OF Bodies.—Accelerating and Retarding Forces.—Mill Gearing, Shafting, &c.—Transmission 
 OF Motive Power.— Heat.—Combustion: Fuels.—Warming, Ventilation, Cooking Stoves.— 
 Steam.—Steam Engines and Boilers.— Railways.—Tramways.—Steam Ships.—Pumping Steam 
 Engi.nes and Pumps.—Coal Gas, Gas Engines, &c. —Air in Motion.—Compressed Air.—Hot Air 
 Engines.—Water Power.—Speed of Cutting Tools.—Colours.—Electrical Engineering. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ Mr. Clark manifests what is an innate perception of what is likely to be useful in a pocket- 
 book, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation. Verv frequently we find the information 
 on a given subject is supplied by giving a summary description of an exp Timent, and a statement ot 
 the results obtained. There is a very excellent steam table, occupying five-and-a-half pages ; and there 
 are rules given for several calculations, which rules cannot be found in otlier pocket-books, as, for 
 example, that on page 497, for getting at the quantity of water in the shape of priming in any known 
 weight of steam. It is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineering subject concerning 
 which this work supplies no information, and the excellent index -it the end adds to its utility. In 
 one word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which the engineer will be 
 saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet more wearisome n nt through various text-books and 
 treatises, and, as such, we can heartily recommend it to our readers, who must not run away with 
 the idea that Mr. CUrk’s Pocket-book is only Moles worth in auot er form. On the contrary, each 
 contains what is not to be found in the other; and Mr Clark rakes mo e room and deats at more 
 length with many subjects than Molesworth possibly could.’ —The Engineer. 
 
 “ It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a >i mlar compass, or produce a book of 
 650 pages which should be more compact or convenient for puuke< re erence. . . . Will be appre¬ 
 
 ciated by mechanical engineers of all classes .”—Pract cal Engineer 
 
 ” Just the kind of work that practical men r:quire to have near to therr ,”—English Mechanic, 
 
2 
 
 C/^OSBV LOCKWOOD 6 - SON^S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MR. HUTTON’S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. 
 
 Handbook for Works’ Managers. 
 
 The WORKS’ MANAGER’S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES^ 
 Tables, and data. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool 
 Makers, Machinists, and IMetal Workers ; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By 
 W. S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of “The Practical En¬ 
 gineer’s Handbook.” Fourth Edition, carefully Revised and partly Re-written. In 
 One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, price I5j'. strongly bound. 
 
 The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety 
 of modern ertgineering zuork, and having fozmd his notes extremely ustfif decided to 
 publish them — revised to date- — believing that a practical zvork, suited to the DAILY RE¬ 
 QUIREMENTS OF MODERN would be favourably received. 
 
 Ln the Fourth Edition the First Section has been re-zvritten and improved by the 
 addition of numerates Illustrations and new matter relating to Steam Engines and 
 Gas Engines. The Second Section has been enlarged and Illustrated, and throughoict 
 the book a great number of emetidatiotis and alterations have been ttiade, with the objeeP 
 of rendering the book more generally usefid. 
 
 * Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for 
 application in workshop practice, rather tjian from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains 
 a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experience, and is seldom written 
 in \iOoV?,."—EnFneer. 
 
 “ The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers’notes, memoranda, and rules, andl 
 well worthv of being on every mechanical engineer’s bookshelf.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 “ Tlie information is precisely that likely to be required in piractice. . . . The work forms a de¬ 
 
 sirable addition to the library not only of the works’ manager, but of anyone connected with general 
 engineering.”— Mining yournal. 
 
 “ A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible through an elaborate index. . . . Such 
 a volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts of ‘ works ’ connected with 
 the metal trades.”— Ryland's Irott Trades Circular. 
 
 “ Brimful of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton’s books have met a pressing 
 want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man possessing a 
 c »py.”— Practical Engineer. 
 
 Hew Manual for Practical Engineers. 
 
 The Practical Engineer’s Handbook, Comprising a 
 
 Treati.se on Modern Engines and Boilers, Marine, Locomotive, and Stationary. 
 And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent 
 Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other 
 Pingineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of 
 Tiade and other Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechanical 
 Pingineering. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of 
 “The Works’ Manager’s Handbook for Engineers,” &c. With upwards of 370 
 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised, with Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 50c 
 pp., price iSj-. strongly bound. 
 
 This work is designed as a companion to the Author's “ Works’ Manager’s 
 Handbook.” It possesses many new and otdginal features, and contains, like its prede¬ 
 cessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publication, but collected by the 
 Author for his oivn use in the construction of a great variety of Modern Engineering 
 Work. 
 
 The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by up- 
 zvards of 370 Woodcuts ; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all 
 engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for Engines, Boilers, and other 
 Engineering Work. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as occasion arose, and we have not on a 
 s ngle occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were in quest.*' 
 
 A thenoeum. 
 
 ‘‘ A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go through without learning some¬ 
 thing that will be of service to him.”— Mari-ne Engineer. 
 
 ” An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable text-book for students of engineer¬ 
 ing.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “ This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on mechanical! 
 engineering.”— Btiilding News. 
 
 ‘‘The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown 
 much judgment in the selections he has made. . . . There is no doubt that this book is one of the 
 most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular compendium.”— Enghieer. 
 
 A mass of information, set down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be easily referred 
 to at any time. The matter is uniformly good and well chosen, and is greatly elucidated by the 
 illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engineers’ shelves, where it will rank as one of the 
 most^u^'ernl books of reference.”.— Practical Engi7ieer. 
 
 ” FuT of useful information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers.”— 
 English Mechanic. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, 
 
 MR. HUTTON’S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS — continued. 
 
 Practical Treatise on Modern Steam-Boilers. 
 
 Steam Boiler Construction, a Practical Handbook for 
 
 Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users. Containing a large Collection of 
 Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice in the Design, Construction, and Work¬ 
 ing of all Kinds of Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By Walter 
 S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of “ The Works’ Manager’s 
 Handbook,” “ The Practical Engineer’s Handbook,” &c. With upwards of 300 
 Illustrations. Second Edition, medium 8vo, i8j. cloth. 
 
 This Work fj- in continuation of the Series of Handbooks'W 7 -itten 'by 
 the Authof', viz: —“ The Works’Manager’s Handbook” and “The Practical 
 Engineer’s Handbook,” which are so highly app^-eciated bv Ejigineers for the practical 
 nature of their information ; and is consequently written in the same style as those works. 
 
 The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy I'epercJice, 
 of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on Steam-Boilers, will .be of 
 conside7'able service to those for rvhom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed 
 wo7'thy of as favourable a reception as has becjt accorded to its predecessors. 
 
 * Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly laid before the reader. The volume 
 shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact sciences ; and 
 such a book is of the utmost value to the pin de siecle Engineer and Works’ Manager.”— Marine 
 Engineer. 
 
 “There has long been room for a modern handbook on steam boilers; there is not that room now, 
 because Mr. Hutton has filled it. It is a thoroughl/ practical book for those who are occupied in the 
 construction, design, selection, or use of boilers.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that it must find its way into the 
 libraries of every one interested in boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly in¬ 
 formed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents.”— Machinery Market. 
 
 “The value of this book can hardly be over-estimated. The author’s rules, formulae, &c., are all 
 very fresh, and it is impossible to turn to the work and not find what you want. No practical engineer 
 should be without it.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Hutton's “Modernised Templeton.” 
 
 The Practical Mechanics’ Workshop Companion. Com¬ 
 prising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical 
 Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results lor 
 Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William Tempi.eton, Author of 
 “The Engineer’s Practical Assistant,” &c. &c. Sixteenth Edition, Revised, 
 Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of 
 “The Works’ Manager’s Handbook,” “The Practical Engineer’s Handbook,” 
 &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., tvith 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative 
 Diagrams, 6s. strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “In Its modernised form Hutton’s ‘ Templeton ’ should have a wide sale, for it contains mucL 
 valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he 
 might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned 
 to value the original editions of ‘ Templeton.' ”— English Mechanic. 
 
 “It has met with great success in the engineering work.shop, as we can testify; and there are a 
 great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book.”— Building Neivs. 
 
 “ This familiar text-book—well known to all mechanics and engineers—is of essential service to the 
 every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with engineering 
 and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold.”— Building News. (becond 
 Notice.) 
 
 “ This well-known and largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the sort .'o 
 useful to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as to consn- 
 lute it piactically anew book. Itwill be largely used in the office and workshop.”— Mechanical IVcrld. 
 
 “ The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful book 10. 
 Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found.”— Iron. 
 
 Templeton's Engineer's and Machinist’s Assistant. 
 
 THE ENGINEER’S, MILLWRIGHT’S, AND MACHINIST’S PRAC¬ 
 TICAL assistant. a collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By 
 William Templeton. Seventh Edition, with Additions. i8mo, 2 j'. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. * 
 
 “ Occupies a foremost place aniong books of this kkid. A more suitable present to an apprentice t> 
 any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made.”— Building News. 
 
 “ A deservedly popular work. It should be in the ‘ drawer ’ of every mechanic. ”— Engl sh MetnanU . 
 
4 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Foley’s Office Reference Book for Mechanical Engineers, 
 
 The MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S REFERENCE BOOK, for Machine 
 and Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. General Engineering 
 Data. Part II. Boiler Construction. With 51 Plates and numerous Illus¬ 
 trations. By Nelson Foley, M.I.N.A. Folio, jCS half-bound. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 PART 1 . 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Circumferences and Areas, &c., Squares, 
 Cubes, Fourth Powers. 
 
 Square and Cube Roots. 
 
 Surface of Tubes. 
 
 Reciprocals. 
 
 Logarithms. 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 Specific Gravities and Weights. 
 
 Work and Power. 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Combustion. 
 
 Expansion and Contraction. 
 
 Expansion of Gases. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Static Forces. 
 
 Gravitation and Attraction. 
 
 Motion and Computation of Resulting 
 Forces. 
 
 Accumulatfd Work. 
 
 With DIAGRAMS for Valve-Gear. Belting 
 Screw Propellers, and Copper Pipes. 
 
 Centre and Radius of Gyration. 
 
 Moment of Inertia. 
 
 Centre of Oscillation. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 Strength of Materials. 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 Test Sheets of Metals. 
 
 Friction. 
 
 Transmission of Power. 
 
 Flow of Liquids. 
 
 Flow of Gases. 
 
 Air Pumps, Surface Condensers, &c. 
 
 Speed of Steamships. 
 
 Propellers. 
 
 Cutting Tools. 
 
 Flanges. 
 
 Copper Sheets and Tubes. 
 
 Screws, Nuts, Bolt Heads, &c. 
 
 Various Recipes and Miscellaneous Matter. 
 
 AND Ropes, Discharge and Suction Pipes, 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Treating of. Power of Boilers. 
 Useful Ratios. 
 
 Notes on Construction. 
 Cylindrical Boiler Shells. 
 Circular Furnaces. 
 
 Flat Plates. 
 
 Stays. 
 
 Girders. 
 
 Screws. 
 
 Hydraulic Tests. 
 
 Riveting. 
 
 Boiler Setting, Chimneys, and Mountings. 
 Fuels, &c. 
 
 Examples of Boilers and Speeds of Steam¬ 
 ships. 
 
 Nominal and Normal Horse Power. 
 
 With DIAGRAMS for all Boiler Calculations and Drawings of many Varieties of Boilers. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ This aopears to he a work for which there should be a large demand on the part of mechanical 
 •engineers. It is no easy matter to compile a book of this class, and the labour involved is enormous, 
 particularly when—as the author informs us—the majority of the tabFs and diagrams have been 
 specially prepared for the work. The diagrams are exceptionally well executed, and generally 
 constructed on the method adopted in a previous wotk by the same author. . . The tables ate 
 
 very numerous, and deal with a greater variety of subjects than will generally be found in a work of 
 tills kind ; they have evidently been compiled with great care and are unusually complete. All the 
 information given appears to be well up to date. ... It would be quite impossible within the 
 limits at our disposal to even enumerate all the subjects treated; it should, however, be mentioned 
 that the author does not confine himself to a mere bald statement of formulas and laws, but in very 
 many instances shows succinctly how these are derived. . . . The latti-r part of the book is 
 devoted to diagrams relating to Boiler Construction, and to nineteen beautifully-executed plates of 
 working drawings of boilers and their details. As samples of how such drawings should be got out, 
 they may be cordially recommended to the attention of all young, and even some elderly, engineers. 
 . . . Altogether the book is one which every mechanical engineer may, with advantage to himself 
 
 add to his library.”— Industries. 
 
 “ Mr. Foley is well fi ted to compile such a work. . . . The diagrams are a great feature of the 
 work. . . . Regarding the whole work, it may be very fairly stated that Mr. Foley has produced a 
 volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispensable to all mechanical 
 engineers.” — Marine Engineer. 
 
 “ We have carefully examined this work, and p'-onounce it a most excellent reference book for the 
 use of marine engineers.”— Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers. 
 
 “ A veritable monument of industry on the part of Mr. Foley, who has succeeded in producing what 
 is simply invaluable to the engineering profession.”— Steamship. 
 
 Coal and Speed Tables. 
 
 A Pocket Book of Coal and Speed Tables, for Engineers 
 
 and Steam-users. By Nelson Foley, Author of “The Mechanical Engineer’s 
 
 Reference Book.” Pocket-size, 3J. 6 d. cloth, 
 
 “ These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day use ; they are of sufficient scope 
 for most practical purposes, and may be commended to engineers and users of steam.”— Iron. 
 
 “ 1 his pocket-book well inerits ihe attention of the practical engineer Mr. Foley has compiled .a 
 very useiul set of tables, the information contained in which is frequently required by engineers, coal 
 conmmers, and users of steam .”—Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, Cfc. 
 
 5 
 
 Steam Engine. 
 
 Text-Book on the Steam Engine, with a Supplement on 
 
 Gas Engines, and Part II. on Heat Engines. By T. M. Goodev^e, M.A., 
 Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal College of Science, London ; 
 Author of “The Principles of Mechanics,” “The Elements of Mechanism,” 
 &c. Twelfth Edition, Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 
 6s. cloth. 
 
 “ Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which will bear comparison with 
 anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise.”— Engineer. 
 
 ‘Mr, Goodeve’s text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself.”— 
 Mining yournal. 
 
 Gas Engines. 
 
 On Gas Engines, with Appendix describing a Recent Engine with 
 
 Tube Igniter. By T. M. Goodeve, M. A. Crown 8vo, 2 s. 6d. cloth, [yustpublished. 
 
 “ Like all Mr. Goodeve’s writings, the present is no exception in point of general excellence. It is 
 a valuable little volume.’’ —Mechanical IVorld. 
 
 Steam Engine Design. 
 
 A Handbook on the Steam Engine, with especial Reference 
 
 to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical 
 Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, and Users of Steam Power. By Herman 
 Harder, C.E. English Edition, Re-edited by the Author from the Second 
 German Edition, and Translated, with considerable Additions and Alterations, by 
 H. H. P. PowLES, A.M.I.C.E., M.l.M.E. With nearly i,ioo Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, Qj. cloth. 
 
 “ A perfect encyclopaedia of the steam engine and its details, and one which must take a permanent 
 place in English drawing-ofhces and workshops .”—A Foreman Pattern-maker. 
 
 “ This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the construction 
 and design of medium-sized stationary engines. . . . A careful study of its contents and the arrange¬ 
 
 ment of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is probably no other book like it in this country. 
 The volume aims at showing the results of practic.il experience, and it certainly may claim a complete 
 achievement of this idea.”— Nature. 
 
 “there can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned in the 
 design and construction of the steam engine.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 Steam Boilers. 
 
 A Treatise on Steam Boilers: Their Strength, Construction, 
 
 and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, 6 j. cloth. 
 
 “The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all employing 
 steam power to possess themselves of the work.”— Ryland's Iro}t Trade Circular. 
 
 Boiler Chimneys. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS : Their Draught-Power and 
 
 Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert Wilson, A.I.C.E., 
 Author of “A Treatise on Steam Boilers,” otc. Second Edition. Crown 8vc, 
 3^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building.’’— The Builder. 
 
 Boiler Making. 
 
 The Boiler-Maker’s Ready Reckoner and assistant. 
 
 With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of PUters, 
 Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. 
 Third Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, ^s. half-bound. 
 
 “ No workman or apprentice should be without this book.’’— Iron Trade Circular. 
 
 Locomotive Engine Development. 
 
 THE Locomotive Engine and its development, a Popular 
 
 Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines between 
 1803 and 1893. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Author of “Safe Railway 
 Working,” &c. Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. With 95 Illus¬ 
 trations. Crown 8vo, 3^ 6d. cloth. {Just published. 
 
 “ Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution of the modern locomotive 
 will find much to attract and entertain in this volume.” - The Times. 
 
 “ The author of this work is well known to the railway world, and no one, probably, has a better 
 knowledge of the history and development of the locomotive. The volume before us should be of 
 value to ail connected with the railway system of this country.”— Nature. 
 
6 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Fire Engineering. 
 
 Fires, Fire-Engines, and Fire-Brigades, with a History 
 
 of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Remarks on Fire-Proof 
 Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances 
 in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems; Flints on Fire-Brigades, &c. &c. By 
 Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, 
 £i 4s. cloth. 
 
 “To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most 
 heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject.”— 
 Engineering. 
 
 “ It displays much evidence of careful research, and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly together. 
 His acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of steam fire engines, old and new, and 
 the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, is accurate and full.”— Engineer. 
 
 Estimating for Engineering Work, &c. 
 
 Engineering Estimates, Costs, and accounts: a Guide 
 
 to Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Estimates and 
 Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam 
 Boilers ; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A General 
 Manager. Demy 8 vo, 12^. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘This is an excellent and very useful book, covering subject-matter in constant requisition in 
 
 every factory and workshop.The book is invaluable, not only to the young engineer, but 
 
 also to the estimate department of every works "—Builder. 
 
 “ VVe accord the work unqualified praise. The information is given in a plain, straightforward 
 manner, and bears throughout evidence of the intimate practical acquaintance of the author with 
 every phrase of commercial engineering.”— Mechanical World, 
 
 Engineering Construction. 
 
 Pattern-Making : A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types 
 
 of Engineering Construction and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine-made, 
 Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, 
 Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c.; together 
 with the methods of Estimating the weight of Castings ; to which is added an Appen¬ 
 dix of Tables for Workshop Reference. By A Foreman Pattern-Maker. 
 Second Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged. With upwards of 450 
 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7^. 6(/. cloth. [fustpublished. 
 
 “ A w'ell-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has practised 
 
 what he has written about.We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young 
 
 journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making.”— Builder. 
 
 “ More than 370 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and explicit, 
 thus rendering the work an excellent vade niecicm for the apprentice who desires to become master of his 
 t rade.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms. 
 
 LOCKWOOD’S Dictionary of terms Used in the Practice 
 
 OF Mechanical Engineering, embracing those current in the Drawing Office, 
 
 Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths’, and Boiler Shops, &c. &c. 
 
 Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by A Foreman Pattern- 
 
 Maker, Author of “ Pattern Making. ” Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. 
 
 Crown Svo, ^s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Just the sort of handy dictionary required b}' the various trades engaged in mechanical engineer¬ 
 ing. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and every foreman 
 engineer and mechanic should have a copy .”—BuiliUng News. 
 
 One of the most useful books which can be presented to a mechanic or student .”—English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 “ Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes us as a 
 happy idea to combine with a definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of which it 
 treats ,”—Machinery Market. 
 
 Mill Gearing. 
 
 Toothed Gearing : A Practical Handbook for Offices and Work¬ 
 shops. By A Foreman Pattern Maker, Author of “Pattern Making.” 
 “Lockwood's Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms,” &c. With 184 
 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6 s. cloth. {Just published. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Cha.p. I. PRiNCTPLits. — II. Formation of 
 Tooth Profiles.— III, Proportions of Teeth. 
 —IV. Methods of Making Tooth Forms.— 
 y. Involute Teeth.— VI. Some Special Tooth 
 I' oRMs.— Vn. Bevel Wheels.— VIII. Screw 
 Gears. — IX. Worm Gears. — X. Helical 
 
 Wheels.— XL Skew Revels.— XII. Variable 
 AND OTHER Gears.— XIII. Diametrical Pitch. 
 — XIV. The Odontograph. — XV. Pattern 
 Gears.— XVI. Machine Moulding Gears.— 
 XVII. Machine Cut Gears.— XVIII. Propor¬ 
 tion OF Wheels. 
 
 “Me m.ust give the book our unqualified praise for its thoroughness of treatment and we can 
 heartily recommend it to all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet written.”—r 
 Mech/i 7 i 2 cal IVorld. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, Ct^c. 
 
 Stone-working Machinery. 
 
 STONE-WORKING Machinery, and the Rapid and Economical 
 
 Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone 
 M orks. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 9^'. 
 
 ‘‘The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stonework.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for buildinv or ornamental purposes.”—• 
 Jifack:nery Market. 
 
 Pump Construction and Management. 
 
 Pumps and Pumping : a Handbook for Pump Users. Being 
 
 Notes on Selection, Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, 
 M.I.M.E., Author of “Woodworking Machinery,” “Saw Mills,” &c. Second 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘Phe matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuseness 
 cias been the author’s aim throughout; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of 
 'Use .”—Journal of Gas Lighting. 
 
 ” Tnoroughly practical and simply and clearly written.”—G/asg-oit; Herald. 
 
 Milling Machinery, &c. 
 
 Milling Machines and Processes : A Practical Treatise 
 
 on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including Information on Making and 
 Grinding the Cutters. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of “Lathe-Work,” 
 “ Handybooks for Handicrafts,” &c. With upwards of 300 Engravings, including 
 numerous Drawings by the Author. Large crown 8vo, 352 pages, 12s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ^ “ A new departure in engineering literature. . . . We can recommend this work to all interested 
 
 in milling machines ; it is what it professes to be—a practical treatise.”— Kngineer. 
 
 “ A capital and reliable book which will no doubt be of considerable service both to those who are 
 .already acquainted with the process as well as to ttiose who contemplate its a.^O'^Gon.." —Industries. 
 
 Turning. 
 
 LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and 
 Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By PAUL N. Hasluck. Fourth 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5^'. cloth. 
 
 “ Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do 
 It, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable.”— Engineering. 
 
 ” We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur it will simply be invalu¬ 
 able. To the student it will convej' a great deal of useful information.”— Engineer. 
 
 Screw-Cutting. 
 
 Screw Threads: And Methods of Producing Them. With 
 
 numerous Tables and complete Directions for using Screw-Cutting loathes. By 
 Paul N. Hasluck, Author of “Lathe-Work,” &c. With Seventy-four Illustra¬ 
 tions. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Waistcoat-pocket size. i.r. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ” Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies, and screwing-tools generally 
 .are illustrated and their action described.”— Mechanical lEorld. 
 
 ” It is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe ; in fact a niultuni-itf 
 r>a>-vo on all the subjects it treats upon.”— Carpenter and Builder. 
 
 Smith's Tables for Mechanics, &c. 
 
 Tables, Memoranda, and Calculated Results, for Me¬ 
 chanics, Engineers, Architects, Builders, &c. Selected and Arranged 
 by Francis Smith. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, wdth a New 
 Section of Electrical Tables, Formula;, & Memoranda. Waistcoat-pocket 
 size, IJ. 6 d. limp leather. 
 
 ” It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae to 
 suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith’s waistcoat-pocket col¬ 
 lection may be looked upon as a successful Engineer. 
 
 “The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed into the dimensions of a 
 card-case.”— Building Neivs. “ A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge.”— Iron. 
 
 French-English Glossary for Engineers, &c. 
 
 A POCKET Glossary of Technical terms : English- 
 
 FRENCH, French-English ; with Tables suitablefor the Architectural, Engineer¬ 
 ing, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By John James Fletcher, Engineer 
 and Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 200 pp. Waistcoat-poeket 
 size, IL 6d. limp leather. 
 
 “ It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have so 
 large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a liliputian volume. 
 The litt'e book will be useful both to students and travellers.”— Architect. 
 
 “ The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the Tables are new and well arranged 
 We cordially commend the book.”— Mechanical IVorld. 
 
8 
 
 CROSBY LOCKVVOOV o- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Year-Book of Engineering Formulce, &c. 
 
 The ENGINEER’S YEAR-BOOK FOR 1894. Comprising Formulae 
 
 Rules, 'tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Marine and 
 Miae Engineering. By H. R. Kempe, A.M.lnst.C.E., M.I.E.E., Technical 
 Officer of the Engineer-in-Chief’s Office, General Post Office, London, Author of 
 “A H indbook of Electrical Testing, ” “ The Electrical Engineer’s Pocket-Book, ”■ 
 &c. With 700 Illustrations, specially Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 60O' 
 pages, Sj-. leather. [yust published. 
 
 “Represents an enormous quantity of work, and forms a desirable book of reference,”— The 
 Engineer. 
 
 “ The volume is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country.”— Engineering.. 
 “This valuable and well-designed book ot reference meets the demands of all descriptions of engi¬ 
 neers.”— Saturday Reviezv. 
 
 ‘‘Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering and construction.”— Building 
 News. 
 
 “ The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, complete- 
 and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort, 
 and that may justly be said of it.”— Mining Jotir 7 ial. 
 
 “There is certainly room for the new comer, which supplies explanations and directions, as well 
 as formulse and tables, It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical annuals.”— 
 Architect. 
 
 “ Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an engineer has to use day 
 by day. It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe’s compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy 
 people for whom the work is intended.’’— Herald. 
 
 Portable Engines. 
 
 The Portable Engine : Its Construction and Manage¬ 
 ment : A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By 
 William Dyson Wansbrough. With 90 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3.^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every one- 
 
 who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere.”— Mark Lane Express. 
 
 “We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who have to 
 do with their construction or use.”— Timber Trades your 7 ial. 
 
 “Such a general knowledge of the steam-engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader should 
 be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.”— Building Nezvs. 
 
 “ An excellent text-book of this useful form of engine. The ‘ Hints to Purchasers ’ contain a good- 
 deal of common-sense and praciical wisdo n.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 “Iron and Steel” : A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory,. 
 
 and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters' 
 and their Stock-takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; 
 Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, 
 and Consulting Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional- 
 Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoare, Author of “The Slide Rule,” &c. Eighth 
 Edition, Revised throughout and considerably Enlarged. 32mo, 6 a leather. 
 
 “ For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal.”— Iron. 
 
 “ One of the best of the pocket books.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 “ We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds of iron- 
 and steel works.”— Naval Science. 
 
 Elementary Mechanics. 
 
 Condensed Mechanics, a Selection of Formulae, Rules, Tables,. 
 
 and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, Science Classes, &c. In accord¬ 
 ance with the Requirements of the Science and Art Department. By W. G. 
 Crawford Hughes, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8 vo, 2.3. bd. cloth. 
 
 “ The book is well fitted for tho.se who are either confronted with practical problems in their work, 
 or are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through their formulae, 
 again.”— Marme Engineer. 
 
 “ It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is intended.”— Railway News. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 The Safe Use of Steam. Containing Rules for Unprofessional 
 
 Steam-users. By an Engineer, Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6 d. 
 
 “ If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sensations 
 by their rarity.”—English MecJiaiiic. 
 
 Warming. 
 
 Heating by Hot Water ; with information and Suggestions 
 
 on the best Methods of Heating Public, Private and Horticultural Buildings. By 
 Walter Jone.s. Second Edition. With 96 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 2 s. 6 d. net. 
 
 “ We confidently recommend all interested in heating by hot water to secure a copy of this- 
 valuable little treatise.”— The Plumber and Decorator, 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, drc. 
 
 
 THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS 
 
 (“The Engine Driver’s Friend”). 
 
 Locomotive-Engine Driving. 
 
 Locomotive-Engine Driving : A Practical Manual for Engineers. 
 
 in Charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds, Member of the- 
 Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector, L. B, and S. C. R. Ninth 
 Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. With Illustrations and 
 Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 4^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the: 
 book not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of loco¬ 
 motive engines.”— Engineer. 
 
 ‘‘ Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical- 
 treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation,”—A i/ienteum... 
 “ Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly.”— Railway Service Gazette. 
 
 “Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of oun 
 engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore.”— Scotstna^i. 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving. 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving: a Practical Manual for Engineers. 
 
 in Charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds. Fifth Edition^ 
 Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4^-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points treated 
 
 is clear and practical.He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for the- 
 
 class for whom it is specially intended.”—E 7 tgiHeering. 
 
 “ Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only know 
 something about the stationary engine, but all about it.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr. Reynolds’s book will require but little actual; 
 experience with boilers and engines befo e he can be trusted to look after them.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. 
 
 The Model Locomotive Engineer, Fireman, and Engine- 
 
 Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and theii^ 
 Inventors. By Michael Reynolds. With numerous Illustrations, and a fine 
 Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, 4^-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ From the technical knowledge of the author, it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more forcibly 
 
 than anything written by Dr. Smiles.The volume contains information of a technical kind;,, 
 
 and facts that every driver should be familiar with.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 “ We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has eve/ 
 laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine.’’— Iron. 
 
 Continuous Railivau Brahes. 
 
 Continuous Railway Brakes : A Practical Treatise on the 
 
 several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom : their Construction and Perform¬ 
 ance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By Michael Reynolds^ 
 Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 “A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public 
 opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake.”— English Mechanic.- 
 “ Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principal and relative connection of the various 
 parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 Engine-Driving Life. 
 
 Engine-Driving Life : Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the 
 
 Lives of Locomotive Engine-Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third and- 
 Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, u. 6 d. cloth. [y^tstpubliihed.. 
 
 “ From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins’s most thrilling conceptions are thrown into- 
 the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page.”— North. British Mail. 
 
 “Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read ‘ Engine- 
 Driving Life’ for himself, and if he once takes it up he will find that the author’s enthusiasm and real' 
 love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page.”— Saturday Review. 
 
 Pocket Companion for Enginemen. 
 
 THE ENGINEMAN’S POCKET COMPANION and Practical Educator 
 for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics. By Michael Reynolds. 
 With Forty-five Illustrations and numerous Diagrams. Third Edition, Revised.. 
 Royal i8mo, 3^-. od. strongly bound for pocket wear. 
 
 “ This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of a 
 competent engineer.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 “A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the Information an engine- 
 minder desirous of mastering the scientific princ pies of his daily calling would require.”— The Miller. 
 
 “A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics.”— Daily Chronicle, 
 
CO 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 MR. HUMBER'S VALUABLE ENGINEERING BOOKS. 
 
 The Water-Supply of Cities and Towns. 
 
 A Comprehensive Treatise on the Water-Supply of 
 
 Cities and Towns. By William Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E,, and M. Inst. M.E., 
 Author of “Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction,” &c. &c. Illustrated 
 with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 
 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text. Imp. 4to, £6 6^. elegantly 
 and substantially half-bound in morocco. 
 
 List of Contents. 
 
 I. Historical Sketch of some of the means 
 
 THAT HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR THE SUPPLY OF 
 
 \Vater to Cities and Towns. —II. Water and 
 THE Foreign Matter usually associated 
 WITH IT. --III. Rainfall and Evaporation.— 
 IV. Springs and the Water-bearing Forma¬ 
 tions OF various Districts. —V. Measurement 
 and Estimation of the Flow of Water.— 
 VI. On the Selection of the Source of 
 Supply. — VIE Wells. — VIII. Reservoirs.— 
 IX. The Purification of Water. —X. Pumps. 
 —XI. Pumping Machinery.— Xil. Conduits.— 
 
 XIII. Distribution of Water. —XIV. Meters 
 Service Pipes, and House Fittings.- XV. 
 The Law and Economy of Water Works.— 
 XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.—• 
 XVH. Description of Plates.—Appendices, 
 giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velo¬ 
 cities, &c. &c., together with Specifica¬ 
 tions OF several Works illustrated, among 
 
 WHICH WILL BE FOUND : ABERDEEN, BiDEFORD, 
 
 Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, 
 Rotherham, Dublin, and others. 
 
 “The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or in any 
 other language. . . . Mr. Humber’s work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness 
 
 much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises.”— 
 
 “ We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of information on 
 a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, are mostly 
 drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention of every engineer whose, 
 practice may lie in this branch of the profession.”— Builder. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. 
 
 A Complete and Practical Treatise on Cast and 
 
 VVROUGHT Iron Bridge Construction, including Iron Foundations. In 
 Three Parts—Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, 
 A.-M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, 
 with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous 
 Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., imp. 4to, £6 i6j'. 6 d. half-bound in morocco. 
 
 “ A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to elevations, 
 plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very much enhance the instructive worth of those 
 illustrations.”— Civil Engineer and Architect's yournal. 
 
 “ Mr. Humber’s stately volumes, lately issued—in which the most important bridges erected during 
 the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawksbaw, Mr. P.oge, 
 Mr. Fowler. Mr. Heinans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in 
 great detail.”— Etig-ineer. 
 
 Strains, Calculation of. 
 
 A Handybook fortheCalculationofStrainsin Girders 
 
 AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES AND THEIR STRENGTH. Consisting of Formulae 
 and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Application, &c. 
 By William Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E. , &c. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, with 
 nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, ^s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good.”— Athenepu}n. 
 
 “We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers.”— English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 Barlow's Strength of Materials, Enlarged by Humber. 
 
 A Treatise on the Strength of Materials; with Rules 
 
 for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, 
 &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R. S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, B. W. 
 Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H, Barlow, F.R S. ; to which are added, Experiments 
 by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy ; and Formulae for Calculating 
 Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by Wm. Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E. Demy 
 Svo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Woodcuts, i8j. cloth. 
 
 “Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank in future, 
 as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ There is no greater authority than Barlow.”— Building News. 
 
 “ As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every- 
 civil engineer and practical mechanic.”— English Mechanic. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, dr-v, 
 
 II 
 
 MR. HUMBER’S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 
 Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price £12 I2j. half-morocco. Each volume 
 
 sold separately as follows :— 
 
 A Record of the progress of Modern Engineering. First 
 
 Series. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and 
 other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E., &c. 
 Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale. Photographic Portrait of 
 John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifica¬ 
 tions, &c., ^3 31-. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. 
 <8 plates): Southport Pier (2 plates); Vic¬ 
 toria Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and 
 G. W. R. (6 plates) ; Roof of Cremorne Music 
 Hall; Bridge over G. N. Railway; Roof of 
 Station, Dutch Rhenish Rail (2 plates); 
 
 Bridge over the Thames, West London Ex¬ 
 tension Railway (5 plates) ; Armour Plates : 
 Suspension Bridge, Thames (4 plates); The 
 Allen Engine; Suspension Bridge, Avon 
 (3 plates) ; Underground Railway (3 plates). 
 
 “ Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in a 
 permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for 
 many important engineering works.”— Enguieer. 
 
 Humber’S Progress of modern Engineering. Second Series. 
 
 Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, 
 C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., 
 ^3 3T. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 
 plates) ; Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. 
 Railway (3 plates) ; DigswellViaduct, Great 
 Northern Railw’Ay; Robbery Wood Viaduct, 
 Great Northern Railway; Iron Permanent 
 Way; Clydach Viaduct ; Merthyr,Tredegar, 
 AND Abergavenny Railway; Ebbw Viaduct, 
 
 Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Rail¬ 
 way ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall 
 Railway ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 
 plates) ; Bridge over the Thames, L. C. 
 and D. Railway (6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, 
 Greenock (4 plates). 
 
 “ Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has 
 here brought before the profession and the public .”—Practical Mechanic's loarjial. 
 
 HUMBER’S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Third Series. 
 Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R. M‘Clean, late 
 Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £l 3^. 
 half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Main Drainage, Metropolis.— North Side .— | 
 Map showing Interception of Sewers; 
 Middle Level Sewer (2 plates); Outfall j 
 Sewer, Bridge over River Lea (3 plates); 1 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Marsh Lane, 
 North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and 
 Barking Railway Junction ; Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway 
 <3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over 
 East LondonWaterworks’ Feeder (2 plates) ; 
 Outfall Sewer Reservoir (2 plates) ; Out¬ 
 fall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; 
 Outfall Sewer, Penstocks. Sotith Side.— 
 Outfall Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 
 
 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir and 
 Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Filth 
 Hoist; Sections of Sewers (North and 
 South Sides). 
 
 Thames Embankment.—Section of River 
 Wall; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 
 plates) ; Landing Stairs between Charing 
 Cross and Waterloo Bridges; York Gate 
 I (2 plates); Overflow and Outlet at Savoy 
 I Street Sewer (3 plates) ; Steamboat Pier, 
 
 I Waterloo Bridge (3 plates); Junction of 
 \ Sewers, Plans and Sections; Gullies, 
 j Plans, and Sections; Rolling Stock j 
 I Granite and Iron Forts. 
 
 ” The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear representa¬ 
 tions of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber’s 
 volume.”— Erigineer. 
 
 Humber’S Progress of modern Engineering. Fourth Series. 
 
 Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, late Pres. 
 Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £'}y 3^. half¬ 
 morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain¬ 
 age, Metropolis (4 plates) ; Barrow Docks 
 (5 PLATES); Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and 
 Valparaiso Railway (2 plates) ; Adam’s Lo¬ 
 comotive, St. Helen’s Canal Railway (2 
 plates); Cannon Street Station Roof, 
 Charing Cross Railway (3 plates); Road 
 Bridge over the River Moka (2 plates); 
 Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia ; 
 
 Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Rail¬ 
 way (3 plates) ; St. Germans Viaduct, Corn¬ 
 wall Railway (2 plates); Wrought-Iron 
 Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks 
 (6 plates); Milroy’s Patent Lxcavator; 
 Metropolitan District Railway (6 plates) ; 
 Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters (3 
 plates). 
 
 “We gladly welcome another year’s issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Hum¬ 
 ber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its usefulness in giving 
 the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most 
 eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly prized.”— Artizan. 
 
12 
 
 CROSB V LOCKVVOOD ^ SONB CATALOGUE. 
 
 Statics, Graphic and Analytic. 
 
 Graphic and Analytic statics, in their Practical Application 
 
 to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and 
 Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By 
 R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With 
 numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged 
 for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Revised and En¬ 
 larged. 8VO, i6j. cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Graham’s book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied.”— 
 Engineer. 
 
 “The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much 
 care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well-selected 
 examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman.”— Athenceiim. 
 
 Practical Mathematics. 
 
 Mathematics for Practical Men : Being a Common-place 
 
 Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil 
 Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., F.R.A.S.,, 
 Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. Fourth Ed., carefully revised by J. R. Young,. 
 formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. With 13 Plates, 8vo, is. cloth.. 
 
 ‘‘ The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathematical 
 difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in> 
 which every step of the process is clearly worked out.”— Bnilder. 
 
 “ One of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. . . . It is an instructive book for the 
 
 student, and a Text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally 
 to refresh his memory upon them.”— Building News. 
 
 Hydraulic Tables. 
 
 Hydraulic Tables, Co-Efficients, and formuL/C for Finding 
 
 the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With 
 New Formulas, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, 
 Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville,, 
 Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, carefully revised, with considerable 
 Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 14^'. cloth. 
 
 “Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice; its study will prevent the annoyance o? 
 avoidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest me.ans of successfully carrying out any given 
 work connected with hydraulic engineering.”— Mining yonrnal. 
 
 “It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness .... From the 
 good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations and abundance of formulae, the carefully 
 calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, which is- 
 displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition.”— Architect. 
 
 Hydraulics. 
 
 Hydraulic Manual. Consistingof Working Tables and Explana¬ 
 tory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. 
 By Lowis D’A. Jackson, Author of “Aid to Survey Practice,” “Modern. 
 Metrology,” &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, i6s. cloth. 
 
 “ The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful observer of 
 the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his command he has- 
 constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineer’s pro¬ 
 fession. We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to be acquainted with the latest 
 development of this important subject.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ The standard work in this department of mechanics.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its thorough 
 adoption of recent experiments; the text is in fact in great part a short account of the great modern 
 experiments.”— Nature. ' 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 On the Drainage of Lands, Towns, and Buildings. By 
 
 G. D. Dempsey, C.E., Author of “The Practical Railway Engineer,” &c. 
 Revised, with large Additions on Recent Practice in Drainage Engineering,. 
 by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E., Author of “Tramways: their Construc¬ 
 tion and Working,” “ A Manual of Rules, Tables, and Data for Mechanical 
 Engineers,” &c. Second Edition, Corrected. Fcap. 8vo, 5^-. cloth. 
 
 “The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey’s excellent work is characterised by the comprehensive- 
 grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher.”— 
 Athencetim. 
 
 “ As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering, the book is to be commended to all who are 
 making that branch of engineering science their special study.”— Iron. 
 
 “A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student.”—- 
 Building News. 
 
CIF/L ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, 6-^. 
 
 13 
 
 Water Storage, Conueyance, and Utilisation. 
 
 Water Engineering: a Practical Treatise on the Measure¬ 
 ment, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns, 
 for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By Charles Slagg, Water and Drainage 
 Engineer, A.-M.Inst.C.E., Author of “Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns, and 
 in Villages,” &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ^s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of water¬ 
 power, the work is in many respects excellent.”— Engineering, 
 
 ‘‘The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent 
 authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear 
 and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very carefully 
 and exhaustively.”— Builder. 
 
 ‘‘ For anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a consideration of the practical 
 applications of the science there is no better guide.’’— Architect. 
 
 Siuer Engineering. 
 
 River Bars ; The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment 
 
 by “Induced Tidal Scour;” with a Description of the Successful Reduction by 
 this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I, J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin 
 Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, ^js. 6d, cloth. 
 
 y We recommend all interested in harbour works—and, indeed, those concerned in the improvements 
 vsf rivers generally—to read Mr. Mann’s interesting work on the treatment of river hz.xs.’'—Engineer. 
 
 Trusses. 
 
 Trusses OF Wood and Iron. Practical Applications of Science 
 
 in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and 
 Details of Construction. With Complete Working Drawings. By William 
 Griffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and Art. 
 Oblong 8vo, 45-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘ ‘ This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of roof 
 ■trusses that no student need be ignorant of these matters.”— Practical Engineer, 
 
 Railway Working. 
 
 Safe Railway Working : A Treatise on Railway Accidents, 
 
 their Cause and Prevention ; with a Description of Modern Appliances and 
 Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Consulting 
 Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illustrations and 
 Coloured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 3^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, In short, all who wish for information 
 on railway matters will find a perfect encycloptedia in ‘ Safe Railway Working.’ ”— Railzvay Review. 
 
 “We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a uniforn. 
 code and practice is advocated.”— Herepathis Railway Jom'nal. 
 
 “The author may be congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable 
 anformation on the principal questions affecting the safe working of railways.”— Railzvay Engineer. 
 
 Oblique Bridges, 
 
 ■' A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 
 
 With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buck, M.I.C.E. Third 
 Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I.C.E. ; and with the 
 addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique 
 Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I.C.E. Royal 8vo, 12^. cloth. 
 
 “The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck’s treatise, and it would' 
 'be impossible to consult a better.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ Mr. Buck’s treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the subject 
 ■of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and architect, on a 
 confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck’s work is unsurpassed.”— Building Nezvs. 
 
 Tunnel Shafts. 
 
 THE Construction of Large Tunnel Shafts : A Prac¬ 
 tical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E., Resident 
 Engineer, London and North-Western Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates, 
 royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
 “ Many of the methods given are of e.xtreme practical value to the mason, and the observations (n 
 the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates, will be found o. 
 considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession.”— Building News. 
 
 “ Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time and 
 obviate many mistakes.”— Collierv Guardian. 
 
14 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON’S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Student’s Text-Book on Surveying. 
 
 Practical Surveying : A Text-Book for Students preparing for 
 
 Examinations or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George W. Usill, 
 A.M.I.C.E., Author of “The Statistics of the Water Supply of Great Britain.” 
 With 4 Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustrations. Third Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. Including Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, 
 &c. Crown 8vo, ' js . 6 d . cloth ; or, on Thin Paper, bound in limp leather, gilt 
 edges, rounded corners, for pocket use, price 12s . 6 (/. 
 
 “The best forms,of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of 
 employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his 
 experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student in 
 his inexperience will find most serviceable.”— Engineer. 
 
 “The latest treatise in the English language on surveying, and we have no hesitation in saying 
 that the student will find it a better guide than any of its predecessors. . . . Deserves to be recog¬ 
 nised as the first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering, and every 
 gentleman of education who sets out for the Colonies would find it well to have a copy.’'— 
 Architect, 
 
 Survey Practice. 
 
 Aid to Survey Practice : for Reference in Surveying, Level¬ 
 ling, and Setting-out ; and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With 
 Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D’A. Jackson, A.M.I.C.E., 
 Author of “Hydraulic Manual,” “Modern Metrology,” &c. Second Edition, 
 Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, 12s . 6 d . cloth. 
 
 “Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend this book 
 as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor.”— Athenceum. 
 
 “ As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the 
 matured instructions afforded in its pages.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 “ The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by 
 a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a verj'^ useful one.”— Builder. 
 
 Surveying, Land and Marine. 
 
 Land and Marine Surveying, in Reference to the Preparation 
 
 of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns’ Water Supplies j 
 Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By 
 W. Davis Haskoll, C.E., Author of “Bridge and Viaduct Construction,” &c. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, pj-. cloth. 
 
 “ This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommending it, 
 feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 “A most useful and well ai ranged book for the aid of a student. We can strongly recommend it as 
 a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors.”—.5 
 
 “This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended to 
 all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 Field-Book for Engineers. 
 
 The ENGINEER’S, MINING SURVEYOR’S, AND CONTRACTOR’S 
 
 FlELD-Book. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of 
 Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with 
 minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with 
 the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections 
 in the ordinary manner ; Setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential 
 Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting- 
 out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tan¬ 
 gents and Offsets; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 
 inches in depth. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. E. With numerous Woodcuts, 
 Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 12s . cloth. 
 
 “The book is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make is 
 useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same.”— Athenceum. 
 
 “ Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work 
 and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared 
 with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume.”— Railway News. 
 
 Levelling. 
 
 A TREALISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. 
 
 Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in the Con¬ 
 struction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford’s Rules for the same. By Frederick 
 W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, with the addition of Law’s 
 Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine’s Field 
 Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 
 8vo, 8j-. 6 d . cloth. Trautwine on Curves may be had separate, 5^. 
 
 “ The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges.” — Engineer. 
 
 “ The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger 
 members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms’s useful work.”— Engineering. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, 
 
 15 
 
 Trigonometrical Surveying. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONO¬ 
 METRICAL Survey, for the Formation of Geographical and Typographical Maps 
 and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems 
 Formulas, and Tables. By Lieut.-General Frome, R.E. Fourth Edition Revised 
 and partly Re-written by ^lajor-General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G. R.E 
 With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, i6j-. cloth. ’ 
 
 “The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for is the best testimony to its merits. No 
 words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this work 
 Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary to bring every 
 portion of the contents up to the present date.”— Broad Arrow. ^ 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A Treatise on Field Fortification, The Attack of Fortresses, 
 
 Military Mining, and Reconnoitring. By Colonel J. S. Macaulay, late Professor 
 of Fortification in the R.M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, with separate 
 Atlas of 12 Plates, 12^. cloth. 
 
 Tunnelling. 
 
 Practical tunnelling. Explaining in detail the Setting-out of 
 
 the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling 
 under Ground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork 
 of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various 
 portions of the work. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Third 
 Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Imp. 8vo, 
 with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 305'. cloth. 
 
 “The estimation in which Mr. Simms’s book on tunnel ing has been held for over thirty years cannofi 
 be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Professor Rankine ‘The best source of informa¬ 
 tion on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms’s work on Practical Tunnelling.”’— Arcniiect. 
 
 “ It has been regarded from the first as a text book of the subject , . . Mr. Clark has added 
 
 immensely to the value of the book.”— Ettgineer. 
 
 Tramways and their Working. 
 
 Tramways : Their Construction and Working. Em¬ 
 bracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the 
 Various Modes of Traction, including Plorse Power, Steam, Cable Traction, 
 Electric Traction, &c. ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample 
 Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, 
 and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By 
 D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. With numerous Illustrations and Folding 
 Plates. In One Volume, 8vo. 700 pages. Price about 25J. [Nearly ready. 
 
 “ All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author’s 
 work ‘ Railway Machinery.’ ”— Engineer. 
 
 “An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this kind of locomotion, and 
 a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found.”— Buildins: News. 
 
 “The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliances, are so 
 fairly indicated in the work under review that any engineer about to construct a tramway will be enabled 
 at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him.”— Athe 7 icEU 7 n. 
 
 Curves, Tables for Setting-out. 
 
 Tables of Tangential angles and Multiples for 
 
 Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, 
 M.Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, 
 waistcoat-pocket size, 3^. 6 d. 
 
 “ Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free 
 to manipulate the instrument—no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work.”— Efigineer. 
 
 “ Very handy : a man may know that all his day’s work must fall on two of these cards, which he pais 
 into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind.”— Athetieenm. 
 
 Earthwork. 
 
 Earthwork Tables. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of 
 
 Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By 
 Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 
 “ The way in which accuracy is attained, bv a simple division of each cross section into three 
 elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious.”— AthcficeJitn, 
 
CROSBY LOCKWOOD (Sr’ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 
 Heat, Expansion by. 
 
 Expansion of Structures by heat. By John Keily, c.e., 
 
 late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Departments. Crown 8vo, 
 3J. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Section I. — Formulas and Data. 
 
 Section II. — Metal Bars. 
 
 Section III. — SrMPLE Frames. 
 
 •Section IV. — Complex Frames and Plates 
 Section V. — Thermal Conductivity. 
 
 Section VI. — Mechanical Force of Heat. 
 Section Vll. — Work of Expansion and Con¬ 
 traction. 
 
 Section VIII. — Suspension Bridges. 
 
 Section IX. — Masonry Structures. 
 
 “The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other 
 structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or architect can 
 find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books.’’— Brtilder. 
 
 “ Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as suspen¬ 
 sion bridges and the like could not do better than consult Mr. Keily’s valuable and handy exposition of 
 Lhe geometrical principles involved in these changes.”— Scotsmaft. 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement of. 
 
 A MANUAL ON Earthwork. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E. 
 
 With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. i8mo, 2 s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ A great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and available for rough estimates, 
 as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineer’s and contractor’s offices.’’— Artizan. 
 
 Strains in Ironwork. 
 
 The Strains on Structures of Ironwork; with Prac¬ 
 tical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M. Inst. C.E. Second 
 Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, ^s. cloth. 
 
 “The student cannot find a better little book on this subject.”— Enghteer. 
 
 Cast Iron and other Metals, Strength of. 
 
 A Practical Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron and 
 
 other Metals. By THomas Tredgold, C.E. Fifth Edition, including Hodgkin- 
 son’s Experimental Researches. 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
 Oblique Arches. 
 
 A PRACTICAL Treatise on the Construction of Oblique 
 
 Arches. By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8 vo, 8 .f. cloth. 
 
 Girders, Strength of. 
 
 Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of 
 
 Wrought Iron and Steel Girders, &c., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By 
 J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. On a Sheet, 2 s. 6d. 
 
 Water Supply and Water-Works. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Water Supply of Towns 
 
 AND THE Construction of Water-Works. By W. K. Burton, A.M.Inst.C.E., 
 Professor of Sanitary Engineering in the Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, and 
 Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-Works. With an Appendix on WATER¬ 
 WORKS IN COUNTRIES SUBJECT TO EARTHQUAKES, by JOHN MiLNE, F.R.S., 
 Professor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. With numerous Plates 
 and Illustrations. \_ln the press. 
 
AIAAVNE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, ^c. 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGA¬ 
 TION, etc. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders. 
 
 The Naval Architect’s and Shipbuilder’s Pocket-Book 
 
 OF Formul/e, rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer’s and Surveyor’s 
 Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, Member of the Instita- 
 tion of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fifth Edition, Revised and En¬ 
 
 larged to 700 pages, with upwards of 
 bound in leather. 
 
 Summary of 
 
 Signs and Symbols, Decimal Fractions.— 
 Trigonomety.— Practical Geometry.— Men¬ 
 suration. — Centres AND Moments of Figures. 
 
 —Moments of Inertia and Radii of Gyrat-pon. 
 
 — Algebraical Expressions for Simpson’s 
 Rules. — Mechanical Principles. —Centre 
 OF Gravity. — Laws of Motion.—Displace¬ 
 ment, Centre of Buoyancy.— Centre of 
 Gravity of Ship’s Hull.—Stability Curves 
 AND MeTACRNTRES.— SeA AND ShALLOVV-WATER 
 Waves.—Rolling of Ships.—Propulsion and 
 Resistance of Vessels. — Speed Trials.— 
 Sailing, Centre of Effort. — Distances 
 DOWN Rivers, Coast Lines. — Steering and 
 Rudders of Vessels.— Launching Calcula¬ 
 tions AND Velocities.—Weight of Material 
 AND Gear.— Gun Particulars and Weight. 
 --Standard Gauges.— Riveted Joints and 
 Riveting. — Strength and Tests of Mate¬ 
 rials.—Binding and Shearing Stresses, etc. 
 
 —Strength of Shafting, Pillars, Wheels, 
 etc. — Hydraulic Data, etc. — Conic Sec¬ 
 tions, Catenarian Curves. — Mechanical 
 Powers, Work.—Board of Trade Regula¬ 
 tions FOR Boilers and Engines.—Board of 
 Trade Regulations for Ships. — Lloyd’s 
 
 300 Illustrations. Fcap., 12s. 6d. strongly 
 Contents. 
 
 Rules for Boilers.—Lloyd’s Weight of 
 Chains.—Lloyd’s Scantlings for Ships.— 
 Data of Engines and Vessels.—Ships’ Fit¬ 
 tings AND Tests.—Seasoning Preserving 
 Timber—Measurement of Timber.—Alloys, 
 Paints, Varnishes.—Data for Stowage.— 
 Admiralty Transport Regulations.— Rules 
 FOR Horse-power, Screw Propellers, etc.— 
 Percentages FOR Butt Straps, etc, —Parti¬ 
 culars OF Yachts.—Masting and Rigging 
 Vessels.—Distances of Foreign Ports.— 
 Tonnage Tables.—Vocabulary of French 
 and English Terms.—English Weights and- 
 Measures.—Foreign Weights and Measures. 
 —Decimal Equivalents.—Foreign Money.— 
 Discount and Wage Tables.—Useful Num¬ 
 bers AND Ready Reckoners.—Tables of 
 Circular Measures.-Tables of Areas of 
 AND Circumferences of Circles.—Tables of 
 Areas of Segments of Circles.—Tables of 
 Squares and Cubes and Roots of Numbers 
 —Tables of Logarithms of Numbers.— 
 Tables of Hyperbolic Logarithms.—Tables 
 OF Natural Sines, Tangents, etc.—Tables 
 OF Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, etc. 
 
 “ In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value. It contains a 
 vast amount of information. We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation for its 
 specific purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, or seaman, 
 wood or iron shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work.”— Nautical Magazine. 
 
 “ Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Will be 
 found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected from, 
 the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form.”— ■Ettgineer. 
 
 “ The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for solving 
 m.any of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work.”— E'oh. 
 
 “There is no doubt that a pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the shipbuilding 
 trade. . . . The volume contains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and presented in a 
 handy form.”— Marine Engineer. 
 
 Marine Engineering. 
 
 Marine Engines and Steam Vessels: a Treatise on. By 
 
 Robert Murray, C. E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with considerable 
 Additions by the Author and by George Carlisi.e, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the 
 Board of Trade at Liverpool. 121110, 5 a cloth boards. 
 
 “ Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine engine and boiler maker a general 
 introduction into his practical work.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 “We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular in the futine 
 as it has been in the past, as, for its size, it contains more useful information than any similar 
 treatise.’’— Industries. 
 
 “ As a compendious and useful guide to engineers of our mercantile and royal naval services, we 
 should say it cannot be surpassed.”— Building News. 
 
 “The information given is both sound and sensible, and well qualified to direct young sea-going 
 hands on the straight road to the extra chief’s certificate. . . . Most useful to surveyors, inspectors, 
 draughtsmen, and all young engineers who take an interest in their profession.”— Glasgoxa Herald. 
 
 “An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineering.”— Liverpool Mercury. 
 
 Electric Lighting of Ships. 
 
 Electric Ship Lighting : A Handbook on the Practical Fitting 
 
 and Running of Ship’s Electrical Plant, for the Use of Shipowners and Builders, 
 JMarine Electricians and Sea-going Engineers in Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, 
 Author of “ Electric Light,” “ Dynamo Construction,” &c. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations, Crown 8vo, ']s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 B 
 
i8 
 
 C/WSBV LOCKWOOD ^ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FORMUL/E FOR 
 Marine Engineers. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A. Third Edition. Royal 
 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4.C 
 “ We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want .”—Naval Science, 
 
 “ A most useful companion to all marine engineers .”—United Service Gazette. ' 
 
 introduction to Marine Engineering. 
 
 Elementary Engineering : A Manual for Young Marine 
 
 Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, 
 Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of Marine Engines 
 and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By John 
 Sherren Brewer, Government Marine Surveyor, Hongkong. Second Edition, 
 Revised, small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the 
 chapters on the management of boilers and engine?,."—Nautical Magazine. 
 
 “A useful introduction to the more elaborate text books.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “ To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge, Mr. 
 Brewer offers decidedly useful \\e\\i.”—AthencEum. 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 Practical Navigation. Consisting of The Sailor’s Sea-Book, 
 
 by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser; together with the requisite Mathe¬ 
 matical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law, 
 C.E., and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated. i2mo, 7J. strongly half-bound. 
 
 Drawing for Marine Engineers. 
 
 lockie’s Marine Engineer’s Drawing-Book. Adapted to 
 
 the Requirements of the Board of Trade Examinations. By John Lockie, 
 C.E. With 22 Plates, Drawn to Scale. Royal8vo, ;^s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “The student who learns from these drawings will have nothing to unlearn.’’— Engineer. 
 
 “The examples chosen are essentially practical, and are such as should prove of service to engineers 
 generally, while admirably fulfilling their specific purpose .”—Mechanical World. 
 
 Saiimaking. 
 
 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By Samuel B. Sadler, 
 
 Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, 
 of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other Illustrations, bmall qto, 12s. 6d. 
 cloth. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Chap. I. The Materials used and their 
 Relation to Sails.— II. On the Centre of 
 Effort.— III. On Measuring. —IV. On Draw¬ 
 ing._ V. On the Number of Cloths required. 
 
 —VI. On Allowances. —VII. Calculation of 
 Gores. — VIII. On Cutting Out.— IX. On 
 Roping. — X. On Diagonal-Cut Sails.— XI. 
 Concluding Remarks. 
 
 “ This work is very ably written, and is illustrated by diagrams and carefully-worked calculations. 
 'I'he work should be in the hands of every sailmaker, whether employer or employed, as it cannot tail to 
 assist them in the pursuit of their important avocations .”—Isle of Wight Herald. 
 
 “This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manufacture, 
 cutting out. roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a first-rate text-book 
 and guide .”—Portsmouth Times. 
 
 “The author of this work has rendered a distinct service to all interested in the art of sailmaking. 
 
 The subject of which he treats is a congenial one. Mr. Sadler is a practical sailmaker, and has devoted 
 years of careful observation and study to the subject; and the results of the experience thus gained he 
 has set forth in the volume before n?."—Steamship. 
 
 Chain Cabies. 
 
 Chain Cables and Chains. Comprising Sizes and 'Curves 01 
 
 Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, 
 Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for 
 Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, 
 Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of 
 Cables, &c. &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F. E.R.N., M.Inst. C.E., Engineer- 
 Surveyor-in-Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving 
 Establishments, and General Superintendent, Lloyd’s Committee on Proving 
 Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations, and Lithographic Drawings. 
 Folio, £2 2s. cloth, bevelled boards. 
 
 It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it a com¬ 
 plete and standard work of reference on the subject .”—Nautical Magazine. 
 
MIXING AND METALLURGY. 
 
 19 
 
 MINING AND METALLURGY. 
 
 Mining Machinery. 
 
 MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES: A Practical Treatise 
 for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists and Managers of Mines. By E. Henry 
 Davies, M.E., F.G.S. Crown 8vo, 580 pp,, with upwards of 300 Illustrations. 
 I2i'. 6 d. cloth. Uf list published. 
 
 “ Mr. Davies, in this handsome volume, has done the advanced student and the manager of mines 
 good service. Almost every kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, and the woodcuts 
 and plates are good.”— Atkencc'itm. 
 
 *■ From cover to cover the work exhibits all the same characteristics which excite the confidence 
 and attract the attention of the student as he peruses the first page. The work may safely be recom¬ 
 mended. By its publication the literature connected with the industry will be enriched, and the 
 reputatioa of its author enhanced.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 ” Mr. Davies has endeavoured to bring before his readers the best of everything in modern mining 
 appliances. His work carries internal evidence of the author’s impartiality, and this constitutes one 
 of the great merits of the book. Throughout his work the criticisms are based on his own or other 
 reliable experience.”— Iron and Steel Trades' Journal. 
 
 ” The work deals with nearly every class of machinery or apparatus likely to be met with or 
 required in connection with metalliferous mining, and is one which we have every confidence in recom- 
 cnending.”— Practical Engineer. 
 
 ” Invaluable to mining engineers, metallurgists, and mine managers.’’— The Mining Review., 
 Denver, Colorado, U.S.A. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A Treatise on metalliferous Minerals and Mining, 
 
 By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c. , Author of “ A Treatise on Slate 
 and Slate Quarrying.” Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged, 
 by his Son, E. FIenry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. With about 150 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, I2i-. 6 d cloth. 
 
 “ Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, can have a better book for 
 bis companion and his guide.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “ We are doing our readers a service in calling theirattention to this valuable work.”— Mining World. 
 “ A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist; but 
 also very interesting to the general public.”-— Iron. 
 
 ” As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, and it 
 supplies an actual want.”— Athenceum. 
 
 Earthy Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A TREATISE ON EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. 
 
 By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of “Metalliferous Minerals,” &c. Third 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 
 With about 100 I Busts. Crown 8vo, 12^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same 
 amount of information packed in equally convenient form.”— Academy. 
 
 “We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades 
 manuals w'hich have recently appeared.”— British Quarterly Review. 
 
 Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom. 
 
 British Mining : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical 
 
 Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. 
 By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records ; Editor of “ Ure’s Dic¬ 
 tionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,” &c. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 
 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ One of the most valuable works of reference^ of modern times. Mr. Hunt, as Keeper of Mining 
 Records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, and 
 has evidently made the most of them. . . _. The language and style adopted are good, and the treat¬ 
 ment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific.”— Engineeri 7 tg. 
 
 “ The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical information on mining subjects, and we know 
 of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only merit of Mr. 
 Hunt’s volume it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in the library of everyone interested in the 
 development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this country.”— Atheneenni. 
 
 “ A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may be in¬ 
 terested in our great mineral industries.”— Engineer. 
 
 Underground Pumping Machinery. 
 
 Mine Drainage : Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on 
 
 Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Description of a 
 large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere 
 of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and their merits compared with 
 other forms of Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michele. 8vo, i5j-. cloth. 
 
 “ Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining engineers, and students generally 
 who require to be acquainted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines. It is a most valu¬ 
 able work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam_ pumping machinery.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 “ Much valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive circu- 
 ation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery.”— Mining Journal. 
 
20 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD dr- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Prospecting for Gold and other Metals. 
 
 The PROSPECTOR’S Handbook : a Guide for the Prospector 
 
 and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. 
 Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of “Fiji and New Caledonia.”' 
 Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Small crown Svo, 3^.6^. cloth. 
 
 “ Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colon'sts, in whose way are so often thrown many 
 mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading 
 points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical detail into* his 
 pages as would supply material for a book three times its size.”— Mining Lournal. 
 
 Mining Notes and Formulce. 
 
 NOTES AND FORMUL/E FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John 
 Herman Merivale, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mining in 
 the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Third Edition, Revised' 
 and Enlarged, Small crown Svo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects.”— Ceal Iron and 
 Trades' Review. 
 
 ” The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book 
 that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations.”— 
 Engineer. 
 
 Handyboob for Miners. 
 
 The MINER’S HANDBOOK: A Handybook of Reference on the 
 
 subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, See. Forthe Use 
 of Students and others interested in Mining matters. Compiled by John 
 Milne, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. 
 Square i8mo, Js. 6d. cloth. [jus^ published.^ 
 
 “ Professor Milne’s handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with mining, and 
 will be extremely popular among students.”— Athenecuni, 
 
 Miners’ and Metallurgists’ Pocket-Boob. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. Com¬ 
 prising Rules, Formula:, Tables, and Notes, for Use in Field and Office Work. 
 By F. Danvep.s Power, F.G.S., M.E. Fcap. Svo, ^s. leather, gilt edges. 
 
 “This excellent book is an admirable example of its kind, and ought to find a large sale amongst 
 English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ Miners and metallurgists will find in this work a useful vaae-mecnm containing a mass of rules,, 
 formulae, tables, and various other information, the necessity for reference to which occurs in their daily 
 duties.”— Iron, 
 
 Mineral Surveying and Valuing. 
 
 THE Mineral Surveyor and Valuer’s Complete Guide. 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation of 
 Mining Properties, with New Traverse 1 ables. By Wm. Lintern. Third Edition, 
 Enlarged. i2mo, qj. cloth, 
 
 “ Mr. Lintern’s book forms a valuable and thoroughly trustworthy guide.”— Iron and Coal Trades'’ 
 Review. 
 
 Asbestos and its Uses. 
 
 Asbestos : its Properties, Occurrence, and Uses. With some 
 
 Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada. By Robert H. Jones. With Eight 
 Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown Svo, 12 s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ An interesting and invaluable work.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Explosives. 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a Practical 
 Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, Nitro- 
 Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds. Including the Manufacture of 
 Collodion-Cotton. By M. Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, 
 Author of “The Metallurgy of Gold,” “The Metallurgy of Silver,” &c. With 
 about 100 Illustrations. Crown Svo, ioj. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ” Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the 
 use of explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary.”— Nature. 
 
 " A vetitahie mine cf information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mini^'g and 
 blasting purpose s.”- A nny and Navy GazNte. 
 
MINING AND METALLURGY. 
 
 21 
 
 Colliery Management 
 
 The Colliery Manager’s Handbook: a Comprehensive 
 
 Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of 
 Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-Mining Students pre¬ 
 paring for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamely, Mining Engineer and 
 Surveyor ; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical 
 Engineers; and Member of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. 
 With nearly 500 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Second Edition, 
 Revised, with Additions, medium 8vo, about 700 pp. Price 5 j-. strongly bound. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 'Search for Coal. 
 
 IMineral Leases and other Holdings. 
 Shaft Sinking. 
 
 Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface Ar¬ 
 rangements. 
 
 Steam Boilers and their Fittings. 
 TTimbering and Walling. 
 
 Narrow Work and Methods of Working. 
 (Underground Conveyance. 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 On the Friction of Air in Mines. 
 
 The Priestman Oil Engine; Petroleum and 
 Natural Gas. 
 
 Surveying and Planning. 
 
 Safety Lamps and Fire-Damp Detectors. 
 Sundry and Incidental Operations and Ap¬ 
 pliances. 
 
 Colliery Explosions. 
 
 Miscellaneous Questions and Answers. 
 Appendix: Summary of Report of H.M. Com¬ 
 missioners ON Accidents in Mines. 
 
 The Gases met with in Mines; Ventilation. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order, 
 •suitable to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but at the same time has 
 iprovided mining students with a class-book that is as interesting as it is instructive .”—Colliery 
 Manager. 
 
 ‘‘ Mr. Pamely’s work is eminently suited to the purpose for which it is intended—being clear, inter¬ 
 esting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the very latest machines in every 
 •department. ... A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed this work .”—Colliery 
 Guardian. , 
 
 ‘‘ This is the most complete ‘ all-round ’ work on coal-mining published in the English language. . . . 
 No library of coal-mining books is complete without it .”—Colliery Engineer (Scranton, Pa., U.S. A.). 
 
 “ Mr. Pamely’s work is in all respects worthy of our admiration. No person in any responsible 
 (position connected with mines should be without a copy.” — Westminster Revieiu. 
 
 Coal and Iron. 
 
 The Coal and Iron Industries of the united Kingdom. 
 
 Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, 
 with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varie¬ 
 ties. Also, an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses 
 of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. 
 By Richard Meade, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With Maps 8vo, 
 ;^i Ss. cloth. 
 
 *■ The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all interested in coal and iron production, 
 .and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of Its class which we have ever met. . . . 
 (A book of reference which no one engaged in the iion or coal trades should omit from his library .”—Iron 
 ■and Coal Trades' Review. 
 
 Coal Mining. 
 
 Coal and Coal Mining, a Rudimentary Treatise on., By the 
 
 late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c.. Chief Inspector of the Mines 
 of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations, i2mo, 4L cloth boards. 
 
 “ As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the principal 
 methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers .”—Mining Journal. 
 
 Subterraneous Surveying. 
 
 Subterraneous Surveying, Elementary and Practical Treatise 
 
 on ; with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, Surveyor of 
 Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 121110, 3^-. cloth boards. 
 
 Cranite Quarrying. 
 
 Granites and our Granite industries. By George 
 
 F. Harris, F.G.S., Membre de la Societe Beige de Geologie, Lecturer on 
 Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, 2 s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “A clearly and well-written manual for persons engaged or interested in the granite industry.”— 
 Scotsman. 
 
 “ An interesting work, which will be deservedly esteemed .”—Colliery Guardian.^ 
 
 “ An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph on a subject which has hitherto received 
 unaccountably little attention in the shape of systematic literary treatment .”—Scottish Leader. 
 
22 
 
 C/^OSBV LOCKWOOD 
 
 6 ' 
 
 SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Gold, Metallurgy of. 
 
 The Metallurgy of Gold : A Practical Treatise on the 
 
 Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of Concen¬ 
 tration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. 
 Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayed 
 of the U.S. Mint, San Francisco, Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. 
 With 187 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ‘Practical Treatise.’ The whole process of gold 
 milling, from the breaking ot the quartz to the as.-ay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly 
 narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail.”— Saturday Review. 
 
 ‘‘The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it to- 
 all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry,”—il/bnng- Journal. 
 
 Silver, Metallurgy of. 
 
 The Metallurgy of Silver : A Practical Treatise on the 
 
 Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying,. 
 Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler, Author of “ The Metal¬ 
 lurgy of Gold,” &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. With 150 Illustrations. Crown 
 8 VO, loj'. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘ A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long felt want 
 amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected 
 with the industries.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 “For chemists, practical miners, assayers, and investors alike, we do not knov/ ot any work on) 
 the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Lead, Metallurgy of. 
 
 The Metallurgy of argentiferous Lead : A Practical' 
 
 Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. 
 Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern. 
 Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.E.,. 
 Author of “ The Metallurgy of Gold,” &c. Crown 8vo, 400 pp,, with 183 Illus¬ 
 trations, 12^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace all the 
 stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery 
 as an article of commerce.” —Practical Hngineer. 
 
 “The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author. Those who wish to obtain a. 
 thorough insight into the present state of this industry cannot do better than read this volume, and all 
 mining engineers cannc^^ail to find many useful hints and suggestions in it.”— Industries. 
 
 “ It is most carefully written and illustrated with capital drawings and diagrams. In fact, it is the 
 work of an expert for experts, by whom it will be prized as an indispensable text-book.”— Bristol 
 Mercury, 
 
 Iron, Metallurgy of. 
 
 Metallurgy of Iron. Containing Hi.story of Iron Manufacture^ 
 
 Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iroi> 
 and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., A.R.S.M. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. i2mo, 5^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points ; while- 
 all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into.”— Standard. 
 
 Iron Mining. 
 
 The Iron Ores of Great Britain and Ireland: Their 
 
 Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for and 
 Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By J. D. 
 Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. With Plates and Illustrations. Crown 8vOy 
 ibA cloth. 
 
 “ The author has a thorough practical knowledge of his subject, and has supplemented a careful 
 study of the available literature by unpublished information derived from his own observations.- 
 The result is a very useful volume which cannot fail to be of value to all interested in the iron in¬ 
 dustry of the country.”— Industries. 
 
 “ Constitutes a systematic and careful account of our present knowledge of the origin and occur¬ 
 rence of the iron ores of Great Britain, and embraces a description of the means employed in reach¬ 
 ing and working these ores.”— Iron. 
 
 “ Mr. Kendall is a great authority on this subject and writes from personal observation.”— 
 Colliery Guardian. 
 
 “ Mr. Kendall’s book is thoroughly well done. In it there are the outlines of the history of ore 
 mining in every centre and there is everything that we want to know as to the character of the ores 
 of each district, their commercial value and the cost of working them.”— Iron and Steel Trades 
 Journal, 
 
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL EiVGINEERING, 
 
 23 
 
 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. 
 
 Electrical Engineering. 
 
 The Electrical Engineer’s Pocket-Book of Modern 
 
 • Rules, Formul/e, Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kempe, M. Inst. E.E., 
 A. M. Inst. C.E., Technical Officer, Postal Telegraphs, Author of “ A Handbook of 
 Electrical Testing,” &c. Second Edition, Thoroughly Revised, with Additions. 
 With numerous Illustrations, royal 32010, oblong, 5^'. leather. 
 
 “ There is very little in the shape of formulae or data which the electrician is likely to want in 
 a hurry which cannot be found in its pages .”—Practical Engineer. 
 
 “ A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical electrical engineering and its various 
 applications to the industries of the present day.”— Iron, 
 
 “ It is the best book of its kind .”—Electrical Engineer. 
 
 “ Well arranged and compact. The Electrical Engineer’s Pocket-Book is a good one." — Elec¬ 
 trician. 
 
 ■ “ Strongly recommended to those engaged in the various electrical industries.”— Electrical 
 Review, 
 
 Electric Lighting. 
 
 Electric Light Fitting : A Handbook for Working Electrical 
 
 Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Management. By J. W. 
 Urquhart, Electrician, Author of “ Electric Light,” &c. With numerous Illusts. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with Additional Chapters. Crown 8vo, ^s. cloth. 
 
 “This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric lighting, and is 
 addressed to men who are already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses 
 a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author’s useful work on ‘ Electric 
 Light.’ ”— Electrician, 
 
 “This is an attempt to state in the simplest language the precautions which should be adopted 
 in installing the electric light, and to give information for the guidance of those who have to run the 
 plant when installed. The book is well worth the perusal of the workman, lor whom it is written.”— 
 Electrical Review, 
 
 “ We have read this book with a good deal of pleasure. We believe that the book will be ot 
 use to practical workmen, who will not be alarmed by finding mathematical formulae which they 
 are unable to understand .”—Electrical Plant, 
 
 “ Eminently practical and useful.Ought to be in the hands of everyone in charge of an 
 
 electric light plant .”—Electrical Engineer, 
 
 “ Mr. Urquhart has succeeded in producing a really capital book, which we have no hesitation 
 in recommending to working electricians and electrical engineers .”—Mechanical World, 
 
 Electric Light. 
 
 Electric Light : its Production and Else, Embodying Plain 
 
 Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, 
 and Electiic Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of “Electric Light 
 Fitting,” “Electroplating,” &c. Fifth Edition, carefully Revised, with Large 
 Additions and 145 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, "js, 6 d, cloth. 
 
 - “ The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered and explained in a very clear and 
 concise manner.”— Electrical Review, 
 
 “ Contains a good deal of very interesting information, especially in the parts where the author gives 
 dimensions and working costs.”— Electrical Engineer. 
 
 “A miniature vade-mecum of the salient facts connected with the science of electric lighting.”— 
 Electrician, 
 
 “ You cannot for your purpose h.ave a better book than ‘ Electric Light,’ by Yrquhcirt." —Engineer. 
 
 “The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject.”— At/ienanm. 
 
 Construction of Dynamos. 
 
 Dynamo Construction : A Practical Handbook for the Use of 
 
 Engineer Constructors and Electricians-in-Charge. Embracing Framework Build¬ 
 ing, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. 
 With Examples of leading English, American, and Continental Dynamos and 
 Motors. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of “Electric Light,” “Electric Light 
 Fitting,” &c. With upwards of 100 Illustrations, crown 8vo, "js, 6 d, cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Urquhart’s book is the first one which deals with these matters in suen a way that the engineer¬ 
 ing student can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads his readers up to 
 difficult subjects by reasonably simple tests.”— Etigineering Review, 
 
 “The author deals with his subject in a style so popular as to make his volume a handbook of great 
 practical value to engineer contractors and electricians in charge of lighting Installations.”—Ycij/jwrtw. 
 
 “ ‘ Dynamo Construction ’ more than sustains the high character of the author’s previous publica¬ 
 tions. It is sure to be widely read by the large and rapidly-increasing number of practical electricians.” 
 — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 “ A book for which a demand has long existed.”— Mechatiical World, 
 
24 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SOAT'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 A New Dictionary of Electricity. 
 
 The Standard Electrical Dictionary, a Popular Die- 
 
 tionary of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engineering. Con¬ 
 taining upwards of 3,000 Definitions. By T. O’Connor Sloane, A.M., Ph.D., 
 Author of “The Arithmetic of Electricity,” &c. &:c. Crown 8vo, 630 pp., 350 
 Illustrations, Js. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “ 1 he work has many attractive features in it, and is, beyond doubt, a well put together and use¬ 
 ful publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index 
 about 5,coo references will be found. The inclusion of such comparatively modern words as ‘ im- 
 pedencp,’ ‘reluctance,’ &c., shows that the author has desired to be up to date, and indeed there are 
 other indications of carefulness of compilation. The work is one which does the author great credit 
 and it should prove of great value, especially to students.”—E/rctrica/ Review. 
 
 “ We have found the book very complete and reliable, and can, therefore, commend it heartily.” 
 
 Mechanical World. 
 
 ” Very complete and conta'ns a large amount of useful information.”— Industries. 
 
 ” An encyclopaedia of electrical science in the compass of a dictionary. The information given 
 is sound and clear. The book is well printed, well illustrated, and well up to date, and may be 
 confidently recommended.”— Builder. 
 
 “ We hail the appearance of this little work as one which will meet a want that has been keenly 
 felt for some time. . . . The author is to be congratulated on the excellent manner in which he 
 has accomplished his task.”— Practical Engineer. 
 
 “ The volume is excellently printed and illusirated, and should form part of the library of every 
 one who is directly or indirectly connected with electrical matters.”— Hardware Trade Journal. 
 
 Electric Lighting of Ships. 
 
 Electric Ship-Lighting ; A Handbook on the Practical Fitting 
 
 and Running of Ship’s Electrical Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, 
 Marine Electricians, and Sea-going Engineers in Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, 
 C.E., Author of “ Electric Light,” &c. With 88 Tllusts., crown 8vo, ys. Cd. cloth. 
 “ The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance in these days, and Mr. Urquhart 
 is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of the practical marine 
 electrician.”— The Steamship. 
 
 ‘‘ Distinctly a bcok which of its kind stands almost alone, and for which there should be a 
 demand.”— Electrical Review. 
 
 Electric Lighting. 
 
 The Elementary Principles of Electric Lighting. By 
 
 Alan A. Campbell Swinton, Associate I.E.E. Third Edition, Enlarged and 
 Revised. With Sixteen Illustrations. Crown 8vo, i.f. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles of 
 electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little work.”— Bradford Obse 7 ~ver. 
 
 Dynamic Electricity. 
 
 The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism. 
 
 By Dhilip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of “Elements of Static Electricity,” 
 “The Elements of Electric Lighting,” &c. &c. Crown 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 
 Illustrations, loj'. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 Electric Motors, &c. 
 
 The Electric Transformation of Power and its Applica¬ 
 tion by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction. By P. 
 Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D,, Author of “The Elements of Electric Lighting,” &c. 
 With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ys. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 Dynamo Construction. 
 
 How TO Make a Dynamo: a Practical Treatise for Amateurs. 
 
 Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Constructing a 
 Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. Fourth 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 ” The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to 
 enable any amateur mechanic possessed of average skill and the usual tools to be found in an 
 amateur’s workshop, to build a practical dynamo machine.”— Electrician. 
 
 Text-Book of Electricity. 
 
 The STUDENT’S Text-Book of Electricity. By H. M. 
 
 Noad, Ph.D., F.R.vS. New Edition. With Introduction and Additional 
 Chapters by W. H. Preece, M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, I2J-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 A Manual of Electricity : including Galvanism, Magnetism, 
 
 Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics, &c. By H. M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. Fourth 
 Edition (1859). 8vo, Ai 4J-. cloth. 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &^c. 
 
 25 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. 
 
 Building Construction. 
 
 Practical building Construction : A Handbook for 
 
 Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for Persons En¬ 
 gaged in Building. By John Parnell Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building 
 Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Medium 
 8vo, 450 pages, with 1,000 Illustrations. \2s. 6d. cloth. [J-usipublished. 
 
 “ This volume is one of the most complete expositions of building construction we have seen. It 
 ■contains all that is necessary to prepare students tor the various examinations in building construc¬ 
 tion.”— Building News, 
 
 “The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest the 
 ‘hand of a man of experience in b lilding operations—and the volume muse be a blessing to many 
 teachers as well as to students.”— Architect. 
 
 “This volume promises to be the recognised handbook in all advanced classes where building 
 construction is taught from a practical point of view. We strongly commend the book to the notice of 
 all teachers of building construction.” — Technical World. 
 
 “ The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids fair 
 to take a permanent place as a favourite students’ text-book. The large number of illustrations deserve 
 particular mention for the great merit they possess for purposes of reference, in exactly corresponding 
 to convenient scales.”— Jour. Inst. Brit. Archts, 
 
 €on Crete. 
 
 CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES. A Book for Architects, 
 Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By George L. Sutcliffe, 
 A.R.I.B. A. 350 pages, with numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. 
 
 [yust published. 
 
 “ The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The manual fills a long fell gap. It is 
 careful and exhaustive ; equally useful as a student’s guide and an architect’s book of reference.”— 
 Journal of Royal Institution of British Architects. 
 
 “ There is room for this new book, which will probably be for some time the standard work on the 
 subject for a builder’s purpose.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 “A thoroughly useful and comprehensive British Architect. 
 
 Mechanics for Architects. 
 
 The Mechanics of architecture : A Treatise on Applied 
 
 Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects. By E. W. Tarn, M.A, , 
 Author of “The Science of Building,” &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Illus¬ 
 trated with 125 Diagrams. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. published. 
 
 ” The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechanics, arid really contains 
 sufficient to enable a careful and pa nstaking student to grasp the principles bearing upon the ma¬ 
 jority of building problems. . . . Mr. Tarn has added, by this volume, to the debt of gratitude 
 
 which is owing to him by architectural students ior the many valuable works which he has pro¬ 
 duced for their use.”— The Builder. 
 
 “ The mechanics in the volume are really mechanics, and are harmoniously wrought in with the 
 distinctive professional matter proper to the subject. The diagrams and type are commendably 
 •clear.”— The Schoolmaster. 
 
 The New Builder’s Price Boob, 1894. 
 
 LOCKWOOD’S BUILDER’S PRICE BOOK FOR 1894. A Com¬ 
 prehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, Architects, 
 Engineers, and Contractors. Re-constructed, Re-written, and Greatly Enlarged. 
 By Francis T. W. Miller. 700 closely-printed pages, crown 8vo, 4^-. cloth. 
 
 ” This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in every English office connected with 
 ‘the building and engineering professions.”— Industries. 
 
 “ An excellent book of reference.”— .Architect. 
 
 “ In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a work of this kind should be—compre¬ 
 hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well bound.”— British Architect. 
 
 Designing Buildings. 
 
 The Design of Buildings: Being Elementary Notes on the 
 
 Planning, Sanitation and Ornamentive Formation of Structures, based on Modern 
 Practice. Illustrated with Nine Folding Plates. By W. Woodley, Assistant 
 Master, Metropolitan Drawing Classes, &c. Demy 8vo, 6s. cloth. {PJ-ustpublished. 
 
 Sir William Chambers’s Treatise on Civil Architecture. 
 
 THE Decorative Part of Civil architecture. By Sir 
 
 William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an 
 Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Re¬ 
 vised and Edited by W. H. Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, 21J. cloth. 
 
26 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A Handy Book of Villa architecture : Being a Series of 
 
 Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and 
 Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of “The Spires and Towers of 
 England,” &c. 6i Plates, 4to, £i iij". 6d. half-morocco, gilt edges. 
 
 “The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they 
 will prove very valuable and suggestive.”— Building Nezvs. 
 
 Text-Book for Architects. 
 
 The ARCHITECT’S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful Infor¬ 
 mation for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. 
 &c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo, 3^*. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be hard to 
 find a handier or more complete little volume.”— Standard. 
 
 Taylor and Gresy’s Rome. 
 
 THE Architectural antiquities of Rome. By the late 
 
 G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New Edition, 
 thoroughly Revised by the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of the late G. L. 
 Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford, and Chaplain of Gray’s Inn. 
 Large folio, with 130 Plates, ;^3 ^s. half-bound. 
 
 “Taylor and Cresy’s work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional books 
 which cannot be bettered.”— Architect. 
 
 Linear Perspective. 
 
 Architectural Perspective. The whole Course and Opera¬ 
 tions of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Perspective- 
 Illustrated by 39 Folding Plates. By F. O. Ferguson. 8 vo , 3^. 6d. boards. 
 
 “ It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-ireated subject that I have met with.”— 
 E. Ingress Bell, Esq., the R.I.B.A, Journal. 
 
 Architectural Drawing. 
 
 Practical Rules on Drawing, for the Operative Builder 
 
 and Young Student in Architecture. By George Pyne. With 14 Plates, 4to, 
 Js. 6d. boards. 
 
 Vitruvius' Architecture. 
 
 The Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio. Trans¬ 
 lated by Joseph Gwilt, E.S.A., F.R.A.S. New Edition, Revised by the 
 Translator. With 23 Plates, fcap. 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Valuing. 
 
 The STUDENT’S Guide to the Practice of Measuring 
 
 AND Valuing Artificers’ Work. Containing Directions for taking Dimen¬ 
 sions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of 
 Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas and Solidities. 
 Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. With Additions by E. Wynd- 
 HAM Tarn, M.A. Sixth Edition. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 
 Js. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing 
 artificers’ work that has yet been published .”—BjcUdbig News. 
 
 Pocket Estimator and Technical Guide. 
 
 The Pocket Technical Guide, Measurer, and Estimator 
 
 FOR Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Measuring 
 Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and 
 Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the parts of a Building collectively. 
 By A. C. Beaton. Sixth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, ia 6d. gilt edges. 
 
 “No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ‘ Beaton.’ ”— Building News. 
 
 Donaldson on Specifications. 
 
 The Handbook of Specifications; or, Practical Guide to 
 
 the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and 
 Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings 
 actually executed by eminent Architects and Engineers. By Professor T. L. 
 Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition, in One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards 
 of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates, £i lu. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ . . . Valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . . Suffice il 
 
 to say that Donaldson’s ‘ Handbook of Specifications’ must be bought by all architects.”— Builder. 
 
27 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &-c. 
 
 Bartholomew and Rogers* Specifications. 
 
 Specifications for Practical architecture, a Guide to 
 
 the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay on the Structure 
 and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work by Alfred 
 Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to by Frederick 
 Rogers, Architect. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. With numerous 
 Illustrations, medium 8vo, 15^. cloth. 
 
 “ The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew’s work is toO' 
 well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every young archi¬ 
 tect must be equipped.”— Architect, 
 
 Construction. 
 
 The Science of Building: An Elementary Treatise on the 
 
 Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Third 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with 59 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 41. cloth. 
 
 “A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all Builder. 
 
 House Building and Repairing. 
 
 The HOUSE-OWNER’S ESTIMATOR; or, What will it Cost to 
 
 Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book for Unprofessional People, as well as 
 the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By J. D. Simon. Edited by F.T. W. 
 Miller, A.R. I. B.A. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, 3 J‘. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over.”— Field. 
 
 Cottages and Villas, 
 
 Country and Suburban Cottages and Villas : How to 
 
 Plan and Build Them. Containing 33 Plates, with Introduction, General 
 Explanations, and Description of each Plate. By James W. Bogue, Architect^ 
 Author of “Domestic Architecture,” (See. 4to, loj. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Building; Ciuil and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 A Book on building, Civil and Ecclesiastical, including Church 
 
 Restoration ; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyramid, &c. By Sir 
 Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 “ A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive.”— The Times. 
 
 Sanitary Houses, etc. 
 
 The Sanitary Arrangements of Dwelling-Houses. By 
 
 A. T. Wallis Tayler, A. M. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, with numerous Illustra¬ 
 tions. {In the press. 
 
 Ventilation of Buildings. 
 
 Ventilation, a Text-Book to the Practice of the Art of Venti¬ 
 
 lating Buildings. By W. P. Buchan, R.P. i2mo, 4^-. cloth. 
 
 “ Contains a great amount of useful practical information, as thoroughly interesting as it is techni¬ 
 cally roXiahle.' ” — British Architect. 
 
 The Art of Plumbing. 
 
 Plumbing, a Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the 
 
 Plumber. By W. P. Buchan, R.P. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. i2mo, 4s. cloth. 
 
 “ A text book which may be safely put in the hands of every young plumber.”— Builder. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c. 
 
 Practical Geometry, for the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. 
 
 Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, 
 Figures, and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. 8vo, 9X. cloth. 
 
 “ No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules 
 aid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory.”— Scotsman. 
 
 The Science of Geometry. 
 
 The Geometry of Compasses; or. Problems Resolved by the 
 
 mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By 
 Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3^^. 6d. cloth. 
 
CROSS V LOCKWOOD SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 s8 
 
 CARPE NTRY, TIMBE R, etc. 
 
 Iredgold’s Carpentry, Revised and Enlarged by Tarn. 
 
 The Elementary Principles of Carpentry: a Treatise 
 
 on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, 
 and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and 
 Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Pro¬ 
 perties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Building; 
 also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific 
 Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix 
 of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh Edition, 
 thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 
 Author of “ The Science of Building,” &c. With 6i Plates, Portrait of the Author, 
 and several Woodcuts. In One large Vol., 4to, 2 ^s. cloth. 
 
 Ought to be in every architect’s and every builder’s library.”— Builder. 
 
 “ A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry is concerned. 
 The author’s principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great 
 intrinsic value.”— Building News. 
 
 Woodworking Machinery. 
 
 Woodworking machinery: its Rise, Progress, and Con¬ 
 struction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical Con¬ 
 version of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by leading English, 
 French, and American Engineers. ByM. Powis Bale, A. M.Inst. C.E., M.I.M.E. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with la-ge Addition.*^, large crown 8vo, 440 pages, gs. 
 cloth. \y^tst published. 
 
 “ Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much information that his 
 •book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber.”— Architect. 
 
 ‘‘ The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author is a 
 ■thorough master of his subject.”— Buildi 7 ig Ne^vs. 
 
 Saw Mills. 
 
 Saw Mills : Their Arrangement and Management, and the 
 Economical Conversion of Timber. (A Companion Volume to “Woodworking 
 Machinery.”) By M. Powis Bai.e. Crown 8vo, loj-. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “The acini dstration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined from a 
 ■financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and the like are gone into 
 >in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted state. 
 We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise.”— Builder. 
 
 <^\lic hoi son's Carpentry. 
 
 The CARPENTER’S NEW GUIDE ; or. Book of Lines for Car¬ 
 penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge 
 of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson’s standard work. A New 
 Edition, Revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A. Together wfith Practical Rules 
 on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, £1 is. cloth. 
 
 Handrailing and Stairbuilding. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Handrailing: Showing New 
 
 and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Mould.s, 
 Bevelling, Tointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George Collings. 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Treatise on Stair- 
 BUiLniNG. With Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth limp. 
 
 “ Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult b’-anch of joinery.”— Builder. 
 
 “ Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the aid 
 ■of plates and explanatory letterpress.”— Furniture Gazette. 
 
 Circular Work. 
 
 Circular work in Carpentry and Joinery: a Prac¬ 
 tical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By George 
 Collings. With Diagrams. Second Edition, i2mo, 2 s. 6d. cloth limp. 
 
 “ An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in definition, 
 and practical in the examples selected.’' — Bi^ilder, 
 
 Handrailing. 
 
 Handrailing Complete in Eight Lessons. On the Square- 
 
 Cut System. By J. S. Goldthorp, Teacher of Geometry and Building Construc¬ 
 tion at the Halifax Mechanic’s Institute. With Eight Plates and over 150 Practical 
 Exercises. 4to, y. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ Likely to be of considerable value to joiners and others who take a pride in good work. The 
 • arrangement of the book is excellent. We heartily commend it to teachers and students.”— Timber 
 Tirades Journal, 
 
CARPENTRY, TIMBER, 
 
 Timber Merchant’s Companion. 
 
 The Timber merchant’s and Builder’s Companion. Con¬ 
 taining New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of 
 Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative 
 Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Stan¬ 
 dard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price pei' 
 Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to- 
 Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price 
 of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. 
 By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 3^. cloth. 
 
 “ Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that every 
 timber merchant and builder ought to possess it.’’— Hull Advertiser. 
 
 “We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity of' 
 arrangement leave nothing to be desired.”— Tirtiber Trades' Jourual. 
 
 Practical Timber Merchant 
 
 The Practical Timber Merchant : Being a Guide for the use 
 
 of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising useful Tables for all 
 purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength- 
 of Timber, Remarks on the Growth ofTimber, St.c. By W. Richardson. Fcap. 
 8vo, 35-. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders, 
 foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber.’’— Jourtial of Forestry.. 
 
 Timber Freight Booh. 
 
 The Timber Merchant’s, Saw Miller’s, and Importer’s- 
 
 Freight Book and Assistant. Comprising Rules, Tables, and Memoranda 
 relating to the Timber Trade. By William Richardson, Timber Broker ; together 
 with a Chapter on Speeds of Saw Mill Machinery by M. Powis Bale 
 M.I.M.E., &c. i2mo, 3r. 6d. cloth boards 
 
 “ A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda relating to the timber trade. We recom¬ 
 mend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supplying a real’ 
 want m the trade.”— Buildhig News. 
 
 Packing-Case Mahers, Tables for. 
 
 Packing-Case Tables; showing the number of Superficial Feet 
 
 in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. RICHARD¬ 
 SON, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oblong qto, 3^. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ Invaluable labour-saving tables.”— Ironmonger. “ Will save much labour and calculation.”— Grocer.. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. 
 
 The TRADESMAN’S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. 
 
 Tables calculated from I to 200 inches in length, by i to 108 inches in breadth. 
 For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c.. 
 By James Hawkings. Fourth Edition. P'cap., 3^-. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any 
 surface of w-hich the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be foundi 
 of the greatest utility to all engaged in building operations.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “ These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in superficial' 
 measurement.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 Forestry. 
 
 The Elements of Forestry. Designed to afford information- 
 
 concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with 
 suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B. Hough. Large 
 crown 8vo, loj. cloth. 
 
 Timber Importer’s Guide. 
 
 The Timber Importer’s, Timber Merchant’s, and Builder’s 
 
 Standard Guide. By Richard E. Grandy. Comprising:—An Analysis of 
 Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular 
 Arrangements for fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, 
 including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. &c. ; together with 
 copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. i2mo, 
 2s. cloth limp. 
 
 “ Everything it pretends to be: built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws 
 in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c.”— English Mechanic. 
 
30 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 
 
 Woods and Marbles, Imitation of. 
 
 School of Painting for the Imitation of Woods and 
 
 MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. Van DER Burg and P. Van der 
 Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, i8| by 12^ 
 in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 
 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price;i^i iij". 6 d. 
 
 List of 
 
 I. Various Tools Required for Wood 
 Painting.—2,3. Walnut; Preliminary Stages 
 OF Graining and Finished Specimen.—4. Tools 
 Used for Marble Painting and Method of 
 Manipulation. — 5, 6. St. Remi Marble; 
 Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen. 
 —7. Methods of Sketching Different Grains, 
 Knots, &c.—8, 9, Ash: Preliminary Stages 
 AND Finished Specimen.—10. Methods of 
 Sketching Marble Grains.—ii, 12. Breche 
 Marble; Preliminary Stages of Working 
 .AND Finished Specimen.—13. Maple; Me¬ 
 thods OF Producing the Different Grains. 
 —14, 15. Bird’s-Eye Maple; Preliminary 
 Stages and Finished Specimen.— if'. Methods 
 OF Sketching the Different Species of 
 White Marble.—17, 18. White Marble ; Pre- 
 
 Plates. 
 
 I LiMiNARY Stages of Process and Finished 
 Specimen.—19. Mahogany; Specimens of Vari¬ 
 ous Grains and Methods of Manipulation.— 
 20, 21. Mahogany ; Earlier Stages and 
 Finished Specimen.—22,23,24. Sienna Marble ; 
 ' Varieties of Grain, Preliminary Stages and 
 i Finished Specimen.—25, 26,27. Juniper Wood ; 
 
 ! Methods OF Producing Grain, &c.; Prelimi¬ 
 nary Stages and Finished Specimen.—28, 29 
 30. Vert de Mer Marble; Varieties of 
 Grain and Methods of Working, Unfinished 
 AND Finished Specimens.—31, 32, 33. Oak ; 
 Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed and 
 I Methods of Manipulation, Preliminary 
 I Stages and Finished Specimen.—34, 35, 36 
 I Waulsort Marble; Varieties of Grain 
 Unfinished and Finished Specimens. 
 
 “Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage in 
 consultiii.g this book._ . . . Some of the Working Men’s Clubs should give their young men the 
 
 opportunity to study it.”— Btnhier. 
 
 “ A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and manage¬ 
 ment of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the student who 
 aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature .”—Building News. 
 
 Wall Paper. 
 
 Wall Paper Decoration. By Arthur Seymour Jennings, 
 
 Author of “ Practical Paper Hanging.” With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 
 
 [Ln fi'eparation, 
 
 House Decoration. 
 
 Elementary Decoration: a Guide to the Simpler Forms of 
 
 Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. By James W. 
 Facey. With numerous Illustrations. In One Vol., 54-. strongly half-bound. 
 
 House-Painting, Graining, etc. 
 
 House-Painting, Graining, Marbling, and Sign Writing, 
 
 A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Sixth Edition. With Coloured 
 Plates and Wood Engravings. i2mo, 64-. cloth boards. 
 
 “ A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man .”—English Mechanic. 
 
 Decorators, Receipts for. 
 
 The DECORATOR’S ASSISTANT : A Modern Guide to Decora¬ 
 tive Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 
 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Information for General 
 Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. 
 Fifth Edition, Revised. 152 pp., crown 8vo, 14 '. in wrapper. ’ ’ 
 
 “ Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger 
 treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full of varied 
 information on the painter’s art .”—Building News. 
 
 Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration. 
 
 Ornamental Interiors, Ancient and Modern. By j. Moyr 
 
 Smith. Super-royal 8vo, with Thirty-two full-page Plates and numerous smaller 
 Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, 184'. 
 
 “The book is well illustrated and handsomelv got up, and contains some true criticism and a good 
 many good examples of decorative treatment. —The Bznlder. “ 
 
DECORATIVE ARTS, qt-c. 
 
 31 
 
 British and Foreign Marbles. 
 
 Marble Decoration and the Terminology of British and Foreign 
 
 Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Author of 
 “Shoring and its Application,” &c. With 28 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 3^'. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and 
 builder .’’—Building World. 
 
 “ A carefully and usefully written treatise; the work is essentially practical.”— Scotsman. 
 
 Marble Working, etc. 
 
 Marble and Marble Workers: a Handbook for Architects, 
 
 Artists, Masons, and Students. By Arthur Lee, Author of “A Visit to Carrara,” 
 “The Working of Marble,” &c. Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ A really valuable addition to the technical literature of architects and masons .’’—Building News. 
 
 DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. 
 
 A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of Beginners; 
 with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, 
 and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By 
 F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6 s. ornamental boards. 
 
 “The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the 
 author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as 
 taste. ”— A theticeum. 
 
 Ornamental Alphabets, Ancient and Mediaeval, from the Eighth 
 
 Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, 
 Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the 
 use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, 
 Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. Collected and 
 Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. 
 Royal 8vo, oblong, 2s. 6d. ornamental boards. 
 
 “For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop- 
 doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, ttiis book will be useful.”— 
 A thence um. 
 
 % 
 
 Examples of modern Alphabets, Plain and Ornamental, 
 
 including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court 
 Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque; with several 
 Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large 
 and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decora¬ 
 tive Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by 
 F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, 
 oblong, 2s. 6d. ornamental boards. 
 
 ‘ ‘ There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can 
 be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental 
 tetters is wonderful.”— Standard. 
 
 MEDi/EVAL Alphabets and Initials for Illuminators. 
 
 By F. G. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in 
 Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks. Fourth and 
 Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 4^. ornamental boards. 
 
 “ A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of 
 the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled.”— Suti. 
 
 The EMBROIDERER’S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing Initials, 
 
 Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, 
 Medimval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected by F. Dela¬ 
 motte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, is. 6d. ornamental wrapper. 
 
 “ The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art of 
 plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work.”— Bast Anglian Times. 
 
 Wood Carving. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS; with Hints 
 on Design. By A Lady. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 
 8vO, 2s. in emblematic wrapper. 
 
 “ The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ‘A Lady’s 
 publication.’’— Athencettm. 
 
32 
 
 C/aOSBV LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE, etc. 
 
 The Heavens and their Origin. 
 
 The Visible Universe : Chapters on the Origin and Construc¬ 
 tion of the Heavens. By J. E. Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of “Star Groups,” &C.. 
 Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, lbs. cloth. 
 
 “ A valuable and lucid summary of recent astronomical theory, rendered more valuable and attractive 
 by a series of stellar photographs and other illustrations.”— T/ie Tivies. 
 
 “In presenting a clear and concise account of the present state of our knowledge, Mr. Gore has- 
 made a valuable addition to the literature of the subject.”— .Nature. 
 
 “ Mr. Gore’s ‘ Visible Universe ’ is one of the finest works on astronomical science that has recently 
 appeared in our language. In spirit and in method it is scientific from cover to cover, but the style is so- 
 clear and attractive that it will be as acceptable and as readable to those who make no scientific preten¬ 
 sions as to those who devote themselves sj. ecially to matters astronomical.”— Leeds Mercury. 
 
 “ As interesting as a novel, and instructive withal; the text being made still more luminous by 
 stellar photographs and other illustrations. . . . A most valuable book.”— Mattchester Nxaniiner. 
 
 The Constellations. 
 
 Star Groups : A Student’s Guide to the Constellations. By J. 
 
 Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Author of “The Visible Universe,”' 
 “The Scenery of the Heavens.” With 30 Maps. Small 4to, 5^. cloth, silvered. 
 
 “ A knowledge of the principal constellations visible in our latitudes may be easily acquired from- 
 the thirty maps and accompanying text contained in this v/orV." — Nature. 
 
 “The volume contains thirty maps showing stars of the sixth magnitude—the usual naked-eye limits 
 — and each is accompanied by a brief commentary, adapted to facilitate recognition and bring to notice 
 objects of special interest. For the purpose of a preliminary survey of the ‘ midnight pomp ’ of ftie 
 heavens, noth'ng could be better than a set of delineations averaging scarcely twenty square inches in- 
 area, and including nothing that cannot at once be identified.” —Saturday Review. 
 
 “ A very compact and handy guide to the constellations.” —.<4 
 
 Astronomical Terms. 
 
 An Astronomical Glossary ; or, Dictionary of Terms used in 
 
 Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of Remarkable and Interesting 
 Celestial Objects. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of “The Visible 
 Universe,” &c. Small crown 8vo, 2 s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “A very useful little work for beginners in astronomy, and not to be despised by more advanced- 
 students.”— The Times. 
 
 “A very handy book . . . the utility of which is much increased by its valuable tables of astro¬ 
 nomical data.”— The Atheuaum. 
 
 “Astronomers of all kinds will be glad to have it for reference.”—Guardian. 
 
 The Microscope. 
 
 The Microscope : its Construction and Management. Including 
 
 Technique, Photo-micrography, and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By 
 Dr. Henri van Heurck, Director of the Antwerp Botannical Gardens. English 
 Edition, Re-Edited and Augmented by the Author from the Fourth French Edition, 
 and Translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.R.M.S., F.G.S., &c. About 400 pages, 
 with Three Plates and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, imp. 8vo, i8j., cloth gilt. 
 
 “This is a translation of a well-known work, at once popular and comprehensive, on the structure, 
 mechanism, and use of the microscope.”— Times. 
 
 “ The translation is as felicitous as it is accurate.”— Nature. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Astronomy. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M. a., F.R.S. Third 
 
 Edition, Revised by William Thynne Lynn, B.A., F.R. A.S., formerly of the 
 Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 121110, 2 s. cloth limp. 
 
 “A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners.”— Knowledge. 
 “ Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr.Lynn.”— Educational Times.. 
 
 Recent and Fossil Shells, 
 
 A Manual of the MOLLUSCA : Being a Treatise on Recent and 
 
 Fossil Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant Palteontologisll 
 in the British Museum. With an Appendix on Recent and Fossil Conchologi- 
 CAL Discoveries by Ralph Tate, A.I..S., F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. Water- 
 house and Joseph Wilson Lowry. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 
 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Edition (1880). Crown 8vo, 7^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘ A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information.”— Science Gossip. 
 
 Geology and Genesis. 
 
 The Twin Records of Creation; or Geology and Genesis, 
 
 their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By G. W. V. le Vaux. 8vo, 5J. cl. 
 
 “A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the argu¬ 
 ments of those who would set God’s Works against God’s Word. No real difficulty is shirked, and np 
 sophis'ry is left unexposed.”— The Reck. 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE, 
 
 33 
 
 DR. LARDNER^S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The Handbook of mechanics. Enlarged and almost re-written 
 
 by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 “ The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete have 
 been replaced by others of more modern character. 'I'he explanations throughout are studiously popular, 
 and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches of physics to the industrial arts, 
 and to the practical business of life.”— Miniiig; Journal. 
 
 “ Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements.”— Nature. 
 “ Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popularising the 
 subject than Dr. Lardner : and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise, and the others 
 of the series, for use at the present time.”— Scotsjnan. 
 
 The Handbook of Hydrostatics and pneumatics. New 
 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 236 
 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5 l cloth. 
 
 “ For those ‘who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the profound 
 methods of mathematical investigation,’ this work is not merely intended, but well adapted.”— Chemical 
 News. ^ 
 
 “The vmume before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twice the bulk of the former 
 edition, and all the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book.”— Nature. 
 
 ‘‘ Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements.”— 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 The Handbook of Heat. Edited and almost entirely re-written 
 
 by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A. S., «S:c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 “The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or 
 lurking doubts behind.”— Engineeri)ig. 
 
 “ A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and is so arranged that It can be under¬ 
 stood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science. . . . Mr. Loewy has 
 
 included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects of heat.”— Standard. 
 
 “ A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers.”— EnStUsh Mechanic. 
 
 The Handbook of Optics. By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., 
 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, 
 I/Ondon. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver PIarding, B.A. Lond., of University 
 College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pages, 5 j-. cloth. 
 
 “Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated.” 
 — Mechanic's Magazine. 
 
 The Handbook of Electricity, Magnetism, and acoustics. 
 
 By Dr. Lardner. Ninth Thousand. Edited by Geo. Carey Foster, B.A., 
 F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5.^. cloth. 
 
 “The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calcidated to preserve the terse and 
 lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of 
 scientific knowledge.”— PoJ>ular Science Review. 
 
 The Handbook of astronomy. Forming a Companion to the 
 
 “Handbook of Natural Philosophy.” By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, 
 London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S., 
 Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. 
 In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, 9^'. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious atid well- 
 arranged a form—certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public.”— Athen<eum 
 
 “ We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we 
 strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general—but at the same time correct—acquaintance 
 with this subli(ne science.”— Quarterly Journal of Science. 
 
 “ One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject . . . We would recommend not only 
 
 the student of the elementary principles of the science, but him who aims at mastering the hi her and 
 mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him.”— Practical Ma ;nzine. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 Rudimentary Treatise on Geology, Physical and 
 
 Historical. Consisting of “ Physical Geology,” which sets forth the i.eading 
 Principles of the Science ; and “ Historical Geology,” which treats of tlu- Vlinerai 
 and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial r •ierence 
 being made to the British Series of Rocks. By Ralph Pate, A.L.S., ’• G.S., 
 &c. &c. With 230 Illustrations. i2mo, 5 -f- cloth boards. 
 
 ” The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exha isiive and 
 well arranged.”— School Board Clwonicle. 
 
34 
 
 CA'OSBV LOCKiVOOD 6 - SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DR. LARDNER’S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 The Museum of Science and Art. Edited by Dionysius 
 
 Lardner, D. C.L. , formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in 
 University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 
 double volumes, £i IJ,, in a new and elegant cloth binding; or handsomely 
 bound in half morocco, 3ii'. 6 d. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which the 
 humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ‘ Common Things ’ 
 which every well wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable 
 publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction and improvement 
 widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith wil meet with disappointment.”— 
 The Times. 
 
 “ A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine subjects 
 ot importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a popular style of 
 treatment. ”— .Spectator, 
 
 “ The ‘ Museum of Science and Art ’ is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to 
 the scientific instruction of every class of society.”—Sir David Brewster, in the North British 
 Review. 
 
 ‘‘ Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or 
 the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found among the 
 new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a valuable present.”— 
 Examiner. 
 
 *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen s Libraries, 
 
 Science Classes, Sr^c. 
 
 Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, Man, 
 the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illustrations, cloth 
 
 gilt, 5.r. 
 
 The Microscope. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin and 
 Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Microscope, Micro¬ 
 scopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2i-. 
 
 Popular Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of the 
 Earth, &c. 20i Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2r. 6i/. 
 
 Popular Physics. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmosphere, 
 Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the Thermometer, the 
 Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Steam and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and Steam 
 Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2 s. 
 
 Pop ular Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens. The Earth, Sun, 
 Moon, Planets. Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influences, &c. 182 Illus¬ 
 
 trations, cloth gilt, 4r. 6d. 
 
 The B ee and White Ants l Their Manners and Habits. W^ith Illustrations of 
 Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2 s. 
 
 The Electric Telegraph Popularized. To render intelligible to all who can 
 Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various forms of 
 Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, ix. 6d. 
 
 Dr. Lardner's School Handbooks. 
 
 Natural Philosophy for Schools. By Dr. Lardner. 328 
 
 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 35 -. 6 i/. cloth. 
 
 “A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey, in 
 clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science .”—British 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 Animal Physiology for Schools. By Dr. Lardner. With 
 
 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3J-. Cd. cloth. 
 
 “Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated .”—Gardener s Chronicle. 
 
 Lardner and Bright on the Electric Telegraph. 
 
 The Electric Telegraph. By Dr. Lardner. Revised and 
 
 Re-written by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8 vo, 2J. 6d. cloth. 
 “ One of the most readable books extant on the ElectricTelegraph.”— Mechanic. 
 
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, U-c. 
 
 33 
 
 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, etc. 
 
 Chemistry for Engineers, etc. 
 
 Engineering Chemistry : A Practical Treatise for the Use of 
 
 Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. 
 Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in 
 Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. 
 Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S., Formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist 
 to the Great Eastern Railway. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 
 8vo, 400 pp., with Illustrations, loj. 6 d. cloth. {Justpublished. 
 
 “ In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. . . 
 
 The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the despatch required 
 of engineering chemists permits.”— Chemical News. 
 
 ” Those in search of a handy treatise on the subject of analytical chemistry as applied to the 
 •every-day requirements of workshop practice will find this volume of great assistance.”— Ivon. 
 
 ‘‘The first attempt to bring forward a Chemistry specially written for the use of engineers, and 
 we have no hesitation whatever in saying that it should at once be in the possession of every railway 
 engineer.”— The Railway Engineer. 
 
 ‘‘The book will be very useful to those who require a handy and concise resume of approved 
 methods of analysing and valuing metals, oils, fuels, &c. It is, in fact, a work for chemists, a guide 
 to the routine of the engineering laboratory. . . . The book is full of good things. As a handbook of 
 "technical analysis, it is very welcome.”— Builder. 
 
 “ Considering the extensive ground which such a subject as Engineering Chemistry covers, the 
 ■work is complete, and recommends itself to both the practising analyst and the analytical student.”— 
 Chemical Trade Journal. 
 
 “ The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trustworthy 
 results in experienced hands. . . . There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the 
 'Chapter on ‘ Oils and Lubrication’ being specially noticeable in this respect.”— Engineer. 
 
 The Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, &c. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture 
 of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, 
 Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations 
 and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of Text. Second Edition, 
 with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, ;^i lox. cloth. 
 
 “This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the rnost ap¬ 
 proved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood engravings, all 
 of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufacture is very fully 
 •described m this manual, and each improvement explained.”— Athenatuin. 
 
 ” We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a 
 notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, 
 but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological authors.”— Chemical Review. 
 
 The Blowpipe. 
 
 The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology. 
 
 Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, 
 and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.-Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., 
 F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 
 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘The student who goes conscientiously through the course of e.xperimentation here laid down will 
 gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had ‘ got up ’ any of the best 
 text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents.”— Chemical News. 
 
 Commercial Chemical Analysis. 
 
 The Commercial Handbook of Chemical analysis; or, 
 
 Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value 
 of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, 
 Editor of Rose’s “Treatise on Chemical Analysis.” New Edition, to a great 
 extent re-written by Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations. Crown 8vo, 12^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the housewife 
 as to the pharmaceutical practitioner.”— Medical Times. 
 
 ‘‘ Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the 
 work is well edited and carefully written.”— Nature. 
 
 Dye-Wares and Colours. 
 
 THE Manual of Colours and Dye-Wares : Their Pro¬ 
 perties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the use of 
 Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Second Edition, 
 
 Revised and greatly Enlarged, crown 8vo, Js. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 ‘‘ A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each article 
 is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophis¬ 
 tication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable.”— Chemist and Druggist.^ 
 
 “There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. T.0 students preparing for 
 examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful.”— Chemical News. 
 
36 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON^S CATALOGUE 
 
 Modern Brewing and Malting. 
 
 A HANDYBOOK for BREWERS; Being a Practical Guide to the 
 
 Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research 
 which bear upon the Practice of Brewing, By Herbert Edwards Wright. 
 M.A., Author of “A Handbook for Young Brewers.” Crown 8vo, 530 pp., 
 I2J. td. cloth. 
 
 “ May be consulted with advantage by the student who is preparing himself for examinational 
 tests, while the scientific brewer will find in it a resume of all the most important discoveries of 
 modern times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes 
 great c^re to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts.”— Brewers' Journal. 
 
 “ We have great pleasure in recommending this handybook, and have no hesitation in saying that 
 it is one of the best—if not the best—which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing in this 
 country, it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer’s library.”— Brewer's Guardian. 
 
 “Although the rtquirements of the student are primarily considered, an acquaintance of half-an- 
 hour’s duration cannot fail to impress the practical brewer with the sense of having found a trustworthy 
 guide and practical counsellor in brewery matters.”— Trade Journal. 
 
 Analysis and Valuation of Fuels. 
 
 FUELS: Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous: Their Analysis and 
 
 Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J. Phillips, F.C.S.,. 
 Formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the Great Eastern Railway. 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 
 “ Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever 
 fuel is used on a large scale,”— Chemical News. 
 
 “ Cannot fail to be of wide interest, especially at the present i\vae."—Railway News. 
 
 Pigments. 
 
 The ARTISTS’ Manual of Pigments. Showing their Com¬ 
 position, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adulteration.s ; Effects 
 in Conibination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and the most Reliable Tests 
 of Purity. Together with the Science and Arts Department’s Examination Ques¬ 
 tions on Painting. By H. C. Standage. Second Edition, crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ This work is indeed nniltum-in.-pariio, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all whO" 
 come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or users.”— Chemical Reviezu. 
 
 Gauging. Tables and Rules for Revenue Officers, Brewers, &c. 
 
 A Pocket book of mensuration and Gauging : Containing 
 
 Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. 
 By J* B. Mant (Inland Revenue). Second Edition, Revised. i8mo, 4 J. leather. 
 
 This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Department, 
 and will be a favourite book of reference. I he range of subjects is comprehensive, and the arrangement 
 simple and clear. Civilian. “ Should be in the hands of every practical brewer,”— Brewers' Journal. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES AND MANUFACTURES. 
 Cotton Spinning. 
 
 Cotton Manufacture: a Practical Manual. Embracing the 
 
 various operations of Cotton Manufacture, Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Opera¬ 
 tives, Overlookers and Manufacturers. By John Lister, Technical Instructor, 
 Pendleton. With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 7.r. id. cloth. [Just Jublished. 
 
 Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc. 
 
 Flour manufacture : a Treatise on Milling Science and Prac- 
 
 tice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical 
 lechnology m the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated 
 from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with Supplement By H. H. P. 
 Powles, Assoc. Mernb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated 
 with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Roy. 8vo, 2$s. cloth. 
 
 TR.lufe the standard authority on the science of milling. . . : 
 
 The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a successful 
 career, he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this 
 handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, sound English 
 which has little, if any, tiace of the German idiom."—The Miller. ^ J^ngiisn, 
 
 are surI^nm^Knw^?n°!vi^‘-^ celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers will, we 
 are sure, nol be sJow m availing themselves of Us pages. — Millers' Gazette, 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 
 37 
 
 Agglutinants. 
 
 Cements, Pastes, Glues and Gums : A Practical Guide to the 
 
 Manufacture and Application of the various Agglutinants required in the Building, 
 Metal-Working, Wood-Working, and Leather-Working Trades, and for Workshop, 
 Laboratory or Office Use. With upwards of 900 Recipes and Formulae. By H. C. 
 vStandage, Chemist. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “We have pleasure in speaking favourably of this volume. .So far as we have had experience, 
 which is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustworthy.’’— At/iena?um. 
 
 “As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of 
 ■curiosity among the large number of industries it touches.”— Daily Chronicle. 
 
 “ In this goodly collection of recipes it would be strange if a cement lor any purpose cannot be 
 .found.”— Oil and Colonrman's Journal. 
 
 Soap-making. 
 
 The Art of Soap-making : A Practical Handbook of the 
 
 Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New 
 Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By 
 Alexander Watt. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, js. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soap- 
 tioiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art.”— Chemical Nezvs. 
 
 “ A thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in our language. We con- 
 ,:gratu ate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature.”— Nature 
 
 "Paper Making. 
 
 Practical Paper-Making: a Manual for Paper-makers and 
 
 Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. 
 Clappertox, Paper-maker, With Illustrations of Fibres from Micro-photographs. 
 Crown 8vo, ^s. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c., whilst his 
 manual will be found of greai service to students of technology, as well as to veteran prper-makers 
 and mill owners. The illustrafions form an excellent feature.”— The World's Patter Trade Review. 
 
 ‘‘ We recommend everybody interested in the trade to get a copy of this thoroughly practical 
 .book.”— Paper Making. 
 
 .Paper Making. 
 
 The Art of Paper Making : A Piactical Handbook of the 
 
 Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. 
 Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the 
 Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for 
 Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By Alexander Watt, Author of “The 
 Art of Soap-Making.” With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Js. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable informa- 
 *iion. The ‘ Art ot Paper-making,’ is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical 
 •class, or for the private student.”— Paper and Printing Trades Journal. 
 
 leather Manufacture. 
 
 The Art of Leather Manufacture : Being a Practical 
 
 Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing 
 are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, and many Recent 
 Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the Estimation of Tannin, and a 
 Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c. By Alexander 
 Watt, Author of “Soap-Making,” &c. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 “A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently valuable 
 production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers.”— Chemical Review. 
 
 Soot and Shoe Making. 
 
 The Art of Boot and Shoe-Making : A Practical Hand¬ 
 book, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and Making, 
 with a Description of the most approved Machinery Employed. By John B. 
 Leno, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Sho‘’-Maker. i2mo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written. The chapter on clicking, which shows 
 Ihow waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book.”— Scottish Leather Trader. 
 
 Dentistry Construction. 
 
 Mechanical Dentistry: a Practical Treatise on the Construc¬ 
 tion of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Useful Formulce, 
 Tables, and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c. By C. Hunter. 
 Third Edition. With 100 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 3.5-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter’s treatise to all students preparing for the profession 
 <f dentistry, as well as to every mechanical demist.”— Dublin Journal 0/ Medical Science. 
 
38 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Wood Engraving. 
 
 Wood Engraving ^ A Practical and Easy Introduction to the 
 
 Study of the Art. By William Norman Brown. Second Edition. With 
 numerous Illustrations. i2mo, ij". 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 “The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wanting to understand the firsJ 
 elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving.”— Graphic. 
 
 Horology. 
 
 A Treatise on modern horology, in Theory and Practice. 
 
 Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the School ol 
 Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon Watch Manu¬ 
 facturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Seventy- 
 eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. Second Edition. 
 Super-royal 8vo, £2 2s. cloth ; £2 iol half-calf. 
 
 ‘‘ There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this production of 
 M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and as aj 
 reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman.”— Horological Jotintal. 
 
 “The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which con¬ 
 tinental watchmakers are indebted for the me:hanical superiority over their English brethren—in fact,, 
 the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's ‘ Treatise.’ ”— Watchmaker, Jeweller, and Silversmith. 
 
 Watchmaking. 
 
 The WATCHMAKER’S HANDBOOK. Intended as a Workshop. 
 
 Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts. 
 Translated from the I'rench of Claudius Saunier, and considerably enlarged by- 
 Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the Horological Institute, and 
 Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With numerous Woodcuts 
 and Fourteen Copper Plates. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 9^“. cloth. 
 
 “Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and) 
 concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a handbook 
 intended for the use of a workman. Should be found in every workshop.”— Watch a7id Clockmaker. 
 
 “This book contains an immense number of practical details bearing on the daily occupation of a 
 watchmaker.”— Watchmaker atid Metalworker (Chicago). 
 
 Watches and Timekeepers. 
 
 A History of Watches and other Timekeepers. By 
 
 James F. Kendal, M.B.H. Inst., is. 6d. boards ; or 2s. 6d. cloth, gilt. 
 
 ' Mr. Kendal’s book, for its size, is the best which has yet appeared on this subject in the 
 English language.”— Industries. 
 
 “ Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it concerning the ingenious, 
 devices of the ancient or modern horologer. The subject is treated in a liberal and entertaining 
 spirit, as might be expected of a historian who is a master of the craft.”— Saturday Review. 
 
 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, &c. 
 
 Electro-Deposition : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis ot 
 
 Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descriptions of 
 Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of 
 the Materials and Processes used dn every Department of the Art, and. several 
 Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By Alexander Watt, Author of 
 “ Electro-Metallurgy,” &c. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, gs., cloth. 
 
 “ Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical descriptions- 
 of methods, processes and materials, as actually pursued and used in the workshop.’’— Engineer. 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy. 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy : Practically Treated. By Alexander 
 
 Watt, Author of “Electro-Deposition,” &c. Ninth Edition, including the most 
 recent Processes. i2mo, 4^-. cloth boards. 
 
 “ From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful pro¬ 
 secution of electroplating.”— Iron. 
 
 Working in Gold. 
 
 The JEWELLER’S ASSISTANT IN THE ART OF WORKING \N 
 Gold ; A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the 
 Experience of Thirty Years’ Workshop Practice. By George E. Gee, Author of 
 “The Goldsmith’s Handbook,” &c. Crown 8vo, Js. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ This manual of technical education is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a handi¬ 
 craft which is cert.afnlv capable of great improvement.’’— The 7 imes. 
 
 “ Very useful in the workshop, the knowledge is practical, having been acquired by long experience*, 
 and all the recipes and directions are guaranteed to be succe.'^sful.”— Jeweller and Heialwcrktr. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 
 39 
 
 Electroplating. 
 
 Electroplating ; A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of 
 
 Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c. ; with 
 Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries, and Dynamo Machines used in 
 the Art. By J. W. Urquhart, C. E., Author of “Electric Light,” &c. Third 
 Edition, Revised, with Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 “ An excellent practical manual.”— Engineering. 
 
 “An excellent work, giving the newest information .’’—Horological Jotirnal. 
 
 Electrotyping. 
 
 Electrotyping : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing 
 
 Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. 
 Urquhart, C. E. Crown 8vo, 55'. cloth. 
 
 “ The book is thoroughly practical ; the reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading laws of 
 electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up 
 to the final preparation of the work.”— JournaL. 
 
 Goldsmiths’ Work. 
 
 The GOLDSMITH’S Handbook. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, 
 
 &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. i2mo, ^s. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 “ .A good, sound educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority.”— Horoiogical Journal. 
 
 Silversmiths’ Work, 
 
 The SILVERSMITH’S Handbook. By George E. Gee, jeweller, 
 
 &c. Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illusts. i2mo, 3^. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 
 “ The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . The workers m the trade will speedily 
 
 discover its merits when they sit down to study it.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 *The. above two works together, strongly half-bound, price ys. 
 
 Bread and Biscuit Baking. 
 
 The Bread and Biscuit Baker’s and Sugar-Boiler’s 
 
 Assistant, including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on 
 the Art of Bread-making. By Robert Wells, Practical Baker. Second Edition, 
 with Additional Recipes. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker .”—Saturday Review. 
 
 Confectionery for Hotels and Restaurants. 
 
 The. Pastrycook and Confectioner’s Guide. Eor 
 
 Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family Use. 
 By Robert Wells, Author of “ The Bread and Biscuit Baker’s and Sugar Boiler’s 
 Assistant.” Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition 
 our readers cannot do better than purchase this book.”— Baker's Times. 
 
 Ornamental Confectionery. 
 
 Ornamental Confectionery : A Guide for Bakers, Con¬ 
 fectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a Variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks 
 on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. By Robert 
 Wells, Practical Baker, Author of “The Bread and Biscuit Baker’s and 
 Sugar-Boiler’s Assistant,” &c. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 5^-. 
 
 “ A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The 
 llustrative designs are alone worth treble the am aunt charged for the whole work.”— Baker's Times. 
 
 Flour Confectionery. 
 
 THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER, Wholesale and Retail. 
 Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With 
 Remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. To which are added 
 Recipes for Dainties for the Working Man’s Table. By Robert Wells, Author 
 of “The Bread and Biscuit Baker,” &c. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “The work is of a decidedly practical character, and in every recipe regard is had to economical 
 working.”— North British Daily Mail. 
 
 Laundry Work. 
 
 Laundry Management, a Handbook for Use in Private and 
 
 Public Laundries. Including Descriptive Accounts of Modern Machinery and 
 Appliances for Laundry Work. By the Editor of “ The Laundry Journal.” With 
 numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Crown 8vo, 2s. Cd. cloth. 
 
 “This book should certainly occupy an honoured place on the shelves of all housekeepers who 
 wish to keep themselves au courant of the newest appliances and methods.”— The Queen. 
 
40 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. 
 
 BY PAUL N. HASLUCK, 
 
 Editor of “Work ' (New Series), Author of “ Lathe Work,” “ Milling Machines,” &c. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 144 pages, cloth, price u. each. 
 
 ISr’ These Handybooks have been written to supply information for Workmen, 
 Students, in the several LLandicrafts, on the actual Practice of the 
 
 Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Technical Knowledge of 
 the several Crafts. Ln describing the processes employed, and the manipulation of 
 material, workshop terms are used; workshop p 7 'actice is fully explained; and the text is 
 freely illustrated with draxvings of modemi tools, appliances, and processes. 
 
 The Metal Turner’s HANDYBOOK. a Practical Manual for 
 
 Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With over 100 Illustrations. Price u. 
 
 ‘‘ The book will be of service alike to the amateur and the artisan turner. It displays thorough 
 knowledge of the subject.”— Scotsman. 
 
 THE WOOD TURNER’S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for 
 
 Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illustrations. Price IJ’. 
 
 “ We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have hitherto 
 sought in vain for a manual of this special industry.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 THE Watch Jobber’s HANDYBOOK. a Practical Manual on 
 
 Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Price u. 
 
 “ We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and study this 
 inexpensive work.”— Clerkenwell Chronicle. 
 
 THE Pattern Maker’s HANDYBOOK. a Practical Manual on 
 
 the Construction of Patterns for Founders. With upwards of 100 Illustrations, u. 
 “ A most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern maker.”— Knowledge. 
 
 The MECHANIC’S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 
 on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Information on various Handicraft 
 Processes. With Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. Comprising about 
 200 Subjects. Price ia 
 
 “A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every workshop; and it should cer¬ 
 tainly find a place in all technical schools.”— Saturday Review. 
 
 The model Engineer’s HANDYBOOK. a Practical Manual on 
 
 the Construction of Model Steam Engines. With»upwards of 100 Illustrations, ij. 
 “ Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book.”— Builder. 
 
 THE Clock Jobber’s HANDYBOOK. a Practical Manual on 
 
 Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Price u. 
 It is of nestimable service to those commencing the icade."—Coventry Standard. 
 
 The Cabinet Worker’s Handybook. a Practical Manual 
 
 on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. 
 With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Price u. 
 
 “Mr. Hasluck’s thoroughgoing little Handybook is amongst the most practical guides we have 
 seen for beginners in cabinet-work.”~SalMrdfly Review. 
 
 THE WOODWORKER’S HANDYBOOK OF MANUAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Em¬ 
 ployed in Woodworking, With 104 Illustrations. Price li’. published. 
 
 THE METALWORKER’S HANDYBOOK. With upwards of 100 Illus¬ 
 
 trations. [/« preparation. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do it, 
 and how to convey his knowledge to others.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative 
 skill and scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals 
 are marvels of what can be produced at a popular price.”— Schoolmaster. 
 
 Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience.”— Daily Chronicle. 
 
 Practical, sensible, and remarkably cheap.”— Journal of Education. 
 
 “Concise, clear, and ^vdiCiicdd.''—Saturday Review. 
 
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, 
 
 41 
 
 COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. 
 Commercial Education. 
 
 Lessons in Commerce. By Professor R. Gambaro, of the 
 
 Royal High Commercial School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by James Gault, 
 Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King’s College, London. Crown 
 8vo, 3L 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial educa¬ 
 tion by the opportune production of this volume. . . . The work'is peculiarly acceptable to English 
 readers and an admirable addition to existing class books. In a phrase, we think the work attains its 
 object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with which the commer¬ 
 cial man interested therein should be familiar.”— Chamber of Co7it77ievce Jotirnal. 
 
 “ An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career, and, in fact 
 the information it contains on matters of business should be impressed on every one.”— CouTiting Hoiise. 
 
 Foreign Commercial Correspondence. 
 
 The foreign Commercial Correspondent: Being Aids 
 
 to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages—English, French, German, 
 Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, 3L 6 d. cl. 
 “Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better 
 than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They 
 consist not of entire specimen letters, but—what are far more useful—short passages, sentences, or 
 phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms.”— Athericemn. 
 
 “ A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and 
 celiable. The book is a thoroughly good one.”— Schoolviaster, 
 
 Accounts for Manufacturers. 
 
 Factory accounts : Their Principles and Practice. A Handbook 
 
 for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the Nomenclature of Machine 
 Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance; 
 the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large 
 number ot Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke andj. M. Fells. Fourth 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, 250 pages. 6r. strongly bound. 
 
 “A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . The principle of 
 
 ^issimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree 
 with.”— Acco7inta7tts' yoiirnal. 
 
 “ Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not 
 derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work .”—Local Govern77ie7it ChroTticle. 
 
 intuitive Calculations. 
 
 The Compendious Calculator ; or, Easy and Concise Methods 
 
 of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and 
 Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By Daniel O ‘Gorman. 
 Corrected and extended by Prof. J. R. Young. Twenty-seventh Edition, Revised by 
 C. Norris. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth limp ; or, 3^-. Cd. strongly half-bound in leather. 
 ‘‘It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in com¬ 
 merce or manufacturing industry. It is crammed full of rules and formulae for shortening and employing 
 calculations.”— Knowledge. 
 
 Modern Metrical Units and Systems. 
 
 Modern Metrology : a Manual of the Metrical Units and 
 
 Systems of the present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English 
 System. By Lewis D'A. Jackson, A.-M. Inst. C.E., Author of “Aid to Survey 
 Practice,” &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and measures.” 
 
 Nature. 
 
 The Metric System and the British Standards. 
 
 A Series of metric Tables, in which the British Standard 
 
 Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in 
 Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, ioj. 6 d. strongly bound. 
 
 ” Mr. Dowling’s Tables are well put together as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system 
 into the other.”— Athe7iae7i77t. 
 
 iron and Metal Trades’ Calculator. 
 
 The Iron and metal Trades’ Companion : For expedi¬ 
 tiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from ix. 
 per cwt. to II 2 X, perewt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. 
 By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp., px. 
 
 “A most useful set of tables, nothing like them before existed.”— Building News. 
 
 ‘‘Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the taoles will be found useful in every 
 other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight .”—Railway News. 
 
42 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Chadwick's Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. 
 
 The Number, Weight, and Fractional Calculator. 
 
 Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the value 
 at 422 different rates, ranging from ^ Penny to 20s. each, or per cwt., and 
 
 ^20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from i to 470.—Any number 
 of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts.—Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., 
 and lbs., from i to 1,000 tons. By William Chadwick, Public Accountant. 
 Third Edition, Revised and Improved. 8vo, price iSj. strongly bound for Office 
 wear and tear. 
 
 Ls adapted for the ttse of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, Canal 
 Companies, Shippers^ Shipping Agents, General Carriers, Sfc. Lronfounders, Brass- 
 founders, Metal Merchants, Lron Manifacturers, Lronmongers, Engineers, Machinists, 
 Boiler Mahers, Milhvrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder MaJiers, Colliery Proprietors, 
 Timber ALerchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers, Valuersy 
 Brokers, Alill Oiuners and Alanufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants, and General 
 Wholesale Tradesmen. Also for the Apportionment of Mileage Charges for Railway Traffic. 
 
 * f Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary, and the refer¬ 
 ences are even more quickly made. For making up accounts or estimates the book must prove invalua¬ 
 ble to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combi¬ 
 nation to do.”— Engineer. 
 
 “The most complete and practical ready reckoner which it has been our fortune yet to see. It is 
 difficult to imagine a trade or occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use, either in saving 
 human labour or in checking work. The publishers have placed within the reach of every commerciai 
 man an invaluable and unfailing assistant.”— The Miller. 
 
 “ The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Harben's Comprehensiue Weight Calculator. 
 
 The Weight Calculator: Being a Series of Tables upon a 
 
 New and Comprehen.sive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any 
 Weight from i lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. to i68j. per cwt., 
 and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting 
 of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 
 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure correct¬ 
 ness and promote despatch. By Henry Harben, Accountant. Fourth Edition, 
 carefully corrected. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound, 5^'. 
 
 “ A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the kind we 
 have seen.”— Ironmonger. 
 
 “ Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices.”— Sheffield 
 Independent. 
 
 Harben’s Comprehensiue Discount Guide. 
 
 The Discount Guide. Comprising several Series of Tables for 
 
 the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by which may be 
 ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the 
 Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, 
 or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any 
 required profit after allowing one or more Discounts: to which are added Tables 01 
 Profit or Advance from i| to 90 per cent.. Tables of Discount from i| to 985 per 
 cent., and Tables of Commission, &c., from ^ to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, 
 Accountant, Author of “The Weight Calculator.” New Edition, carefully Revised 
 and Corrected. Demy 8vo, 544 pp.,;,^! 5^. half-bound. 
 
 “A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means 
 saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables throughout the 
 work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. I'he work is a model of typographical clearness, 
 and must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders.”— British Trade 
 yournal. 
 
 Iron Shipbuilders’ and Merchants’ Weight Tables. 
 
 Iron-Plate weight Tables : For iron Shipbuilders, Engi¬ 
 neers, and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of upwards of 
 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates from i foot by 6 in. by i in. to 10 feet by 5 
 feet by i in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of i 
 inch in thickness. Carefully compiled, and thoroughly Revised by H. Burlinson 
 andW. PI. Simpson. Oblong 410, 25^. half-bound. 
 
 “ This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had much practical experience of 
 what is wanting in making estimates, and the use of the book will save much time in making elaborate 
 calculations.”— EnscHsh Mechanic. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &-c. 
 
 43 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 Dr. Fream’s New Edition of “ The Standard Treatise on Agriculture.’' 
 
 The Complete Grazier and farmer’s and Cattle 
 
 Breeder’s Assistant : a Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written by 
 William Youatt. Thirteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably En¬ 
 larged, and brought up to the Present Requirements of Agricultural Practice, by 
 William P'ream, LL.D., Steven Lecturer in the University of Edinburgh, Author 
 of “The Elements of Agriculture,” &c. Royal 8vo, i,ioo pp., with over 450 
 Illustrations. Price £1 lu. 6 d. strongly and handsomely bound. 
 
 Extract from Publishers’ Advertisement. 
 
 “ A treatise that made its original appearance in the first decade of the century, and that enters 
 upon its Thirteenth edition before the century has run its course, has undoubtedly established its 
 position as a work of permanent value. . . . The phenomenal progress of the last dozen years 
 
 in the Practice and Science of Farming has rendered it necessary, however, that the volume should 
 be re-written, . . . and for this undertaking the Publishers were fortunate enough to secure the 
 
 services of Dr. Fream, whose high attainments in all matters pertaining to agriculture have been 
 so emphatically recognised by the highest professional and official authorities. In carrying out his 
 editorial duties, Dr. Fream has been favoured with valuable contributions by Prof. J. Wortley 
 Axe, Mr. E. Brown, Dr. Bernard Dyer, Mr. W. J. Malden, Mr. R. H. Rew, Prof. Sheldon, Mr. 
 J. SiNCLAtR, Mr. Sanders Spencer, and others. 
 
 “ As regards the illustrations of the work, no pains have been spared to make them as repre¬ 
 sentative and characteristic as possible, so as to be practically useful to the Farmer and Grazier.” 
 
 Summary of Contents 
 
 Book I. On the Varieties, Breeding, Rear¬ 
 ing, Fattening AND Management of Cattle. 
 
 Book II, On the Economy and Management 
 OF THE Dairy. 
 
 Book III. On the Breeding, Rearing, and 
 Management of Horses. 
 
 Book IV. On the Breeding, Rearing, and 
 Fattening of Sheep. 
 
 Book V. On the Breeding, Rearing, and 
 Fattening of Swine. 
 
 Book VI. On the Diseases of Live Stock. 
 
 Book VII. On the Breeding, Rearing, and 
 Management of Poultry. 
 
 Book VIII. On Farm Offices and Imple¬ 
 ments of Husbandry. 
 
 Book IX. On the Culture and Manage¬ 
 ment OF Grass Lands. 
 
 Book X. On the Cultivation and Applica¬ 
 tion OF Grasses, Pulse and Roots. 
 
 Book XL On Manures and their appli¬ 
 cation TO Grass Land and Crops. 
 
 Book XII. Monthly Calendars of Farmwork, 
 
 Opinions of the Press on the New Edition. 
 
 _ ‘‘ Dr. FYeam is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work 
 which will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that 
 it will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . . . The 
 
 illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull. New Year’s 
 Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art.”— The Times. 
 
 “ The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work of 
 reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals.”— Athenceum. 
 
 “The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists in the English language 
 to-day. . . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land 
 
 owner.”— Mark Lane Express. 
 
 “ In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique 
 position among books dealing with scientitic agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricultural 
 library of itself.”— North Britisli Agriculturist. 
 
 “ A compendium ©f authoritative and well-ordered knowledge on every conceivable branch of 
 the work of the live stock farmer; probably without an equal in this or any othei country.”— York¬ 
 shire Post, 
 
 “The best and brightest guide to the practice of husbandry : one that has no superior—no equal 
 we might truly say—among the agricultural literature now before the public. ... In every section 
 in which we have tested it, the work has been found thoroughly up to date.”— Bell's Weekly Mes¬ 
 senger, 
 
 British Farm Live Stock. 
 
 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. By Robert Wallace, 
 
 F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c.. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the 
 University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably 
 Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 
 79 Plates and Maps. Price 12^. 61 ., cloth. 
 
 “ A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great 
 Britain, and one which is likely to hnd its way to the shelves of every country gentleman’s 
 library.’’— The Times. 
 
 “The latest edition of ‘ Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ’ is a production to be proud of, and 
 its issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science.”— 
 Scottish Farmer. 
 
 “ The book is very attractive, . . . and we can scarcely imagine the existence of a farmer who 
 would not like to have a copy of this beautiful and useful work.”— Mark Lane Express. 
 
 “ A work which will long be regarded as a standard authority whenever a concise history and 
 description of the breeds of live stock in the British Isles is required.”— Bell's Weekly Messenger. 
 
44 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- 6’(97V^’6' CATALOGUE. 
 
 Dairy Farming. 
 
 British Dairying : A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy- 
 
 Farm. For the Use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural 
 Colleges and the Working Dairy-Farmer. By Prof. J. P. Sheldon, late Special 
 Commissioner of the Canadian Government, Author of “Dairy Farming,” “The 
 Farm and the Dairy,” &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6 d. cloth. 
 “May be confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy farming.”— Agricultural 
 •Gazette. 
 
 “ Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced.’’— North 
 British Agriculturist. 
 
 “ It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject.’’— The Times. 
 
 Dairy Manual. 
 
 Milk, Cheese and Butter: Their Composition, Character and 
 
 the Processes of their Production. A Practical Manual for Students and Dairy 
 Farmers. By John Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, 
 Berkeley. Crown 8vo, 380 pages, with Coloured Test Sheets, and numerous Illus¬ 
 trations, ‘]s. 6 d. cloth. \.Justpublished. 
 
 Agricultural Facts and Figures. 
 
 Note-Book of Agricultural facts and Figures for 
 
 Farmers and Farm Students. By Primrose McConnell, B.Sc. Fifth 
 Edition. Royal 32010, roan, gilt edges, with band, 45-. 
 
 “ Literally teems with information and we can cordially recommend it to all connected with 
 agriculture.”— North British Agricultuiist. 
 
 Small Farming. 
 
 Systematic Small Farming ; or, The Lessons of my Farm. 
 
 Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. By Robert 
 Scott Burn, Author of “Outlines of Modern Farming,” &c. With numerous 
 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 6^-. cloth. 
 
 “This is the completest. book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer will 
 read with pleasure, and accept as a guide.”— Field. 
 
 Modern Farming. 
 
 Outlines of Modern Farming. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, 
 
 Manures, and Crops—Farming and Farming Economy—Cattle, Sheep, and Horses— 
 Management of Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry—Utilization of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, 
 &c. Sixth Edition. In one vol., 1,250 pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated, 12s. 
 “The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, and in 
 this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit.”— Morning Advertiser. 
 
 Agricultural Engineering. 
 
 Farm Engineering, The Complete Text-Book of. Com¬ 
 prising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm Roads, 
 Fences and Gates ; Farm Buildings; Barn Implements and Machines ; Field Imple¬ 
 ments and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By Professor John Scott. In 
 one vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 12s. 
 
 “Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work 
 v/ell; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume 
 v/ill be of great value to agricultural students.”— Mark La7te Express. 
 
 Agricultural Text-Book. 
 
 THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN: A Text-Book of Agriculture. 
 
 Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and 
 Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). Second Edition, 
 Revised, with Additions. i8mo, 2s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information.”— Agricultural Eco}tojnist. 
 
 “ It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a 
 vast and useful fund of knowledge.”— Educational Tiiites. 
 
 Tables for Farmers, &c. 
 
 Tables, Memoranda, and Calculated Results for Farmers, 
 
 Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents, Auctioneers, &c. With a 
 New System of Farm Book-keeping. Selected and Arranged by Sidney Francis. 
 Third Edition, Revised. 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather, u. 6 d. 
 
 “ Weighing less than 1 oz., and occupying no more space than a match box, it contains a mass of 
 facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every opera¬ 
 tion on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole of the 
 tables having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it.”— Bell’s Weekly Messenger, 
 
AGRICULTURE, EARA//JVG, GARDENING, 
 
 45 
 
 The Management of Bees. 
 
 BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT: A Guide to the Manipula¬ 
 tion of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the General Management of the Apiary. 
 By G. Gordon Samson. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, u. cloth. 
 
 “ The intending bee-keeper will find exactly the kind of information required to enable him to make 
 a succefsful start with his hives. The author is a thoroughly competent teacher, and his book may be 
 commended.”— Morning Post. 
 
 farm and Estate Book-keeping. 
 
 Book-Keeping for Farmers and Estate Owners, a 
 
 Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all Classes of 
 Farms. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant. Second Edition,. 
 Revised. Crown 8vo, 3 j‘. 6 d. cloth boards ; or, 2 s. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 “ The volume is a capital study of a most important snh]ect.”-~Ag'riciiit7(rai Gazette. 
 
 ” The young farmer, land agent, and surveyor will find Mr. Woodman’s treatise more than repay- 
 its cost and study.”— Buildings News. 
 
 Farm Account Book. 
 
 WOODMAN’S Yearly Farm Account Book. Giving a Weekly 
 
 Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expenditure under each 
 Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With Valuation, Profit and 
 Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the Year. By Johnson M. Wood¬ 
 man, Chartered Accountant, Author of “ Bookkeeping for Farmers.” Folio,. 
 Js. 6 d. half-bound. 
 
 ” Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately.”— Agriculture. 
 
 Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. 
 
 The Forcing-Garden ; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, 
 
 and Vegetables. With Plans and Estimates for Building Glasshouses, Pits and 
 Frames. With Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. Crown 8vo, 3 ^ 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. The book is written witF 
 great care, and contains a great deal of valuable teaching.”— Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 Good Gardening. 
 
 A PLAIN Guide to Good Gardening; or, How to Grow 
 
 Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. By S. Wood. Fourth Edition, with considerable 
 Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3 j-. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical direc¬ 
 tions are excellent.”— AthencBiun. 
 
 ” May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the plain, simple, 
 and trustworthy information it gives on common matters too often neglected.’’— Gardeners' Chronicle. 
 
 Gainful Gardening. 
 
 MULTUM-IN-PARVO Gardening; or, Howto make One Acre ot 
 
 Land produce £620 a-year, by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; also. 
 How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise £ 1^6 per annum 
 clear Profit. By Samuel Wood, Author of “Good Gardening,” &c. Fifth and 
 Cheaper Edition, revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, il sewed. 
 
 ‘‘We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman’s gar¬ 
 dener, but to the market grower.”— Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 Gardening for Ladies. 
 
 The Ladies’ Multum-in-Parvo Flower Garden, and 
 
 Amateurs’ Complete Guide. With Illusts. By S. Wood. Cr. 8vo, y. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Thisvolume contains a good deal of sound, common-sense instruction.”— Florist. 
 
 “ Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience.”— Scotsman, 
 
 Receipts for Gardeners. 
 
 Garden receipts. Edited by Charles W. Quin. i 2 mo, is. 6d. 
 
 cloth limp. 
 
 “ A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable information.”— Athenantm. 
 
 Market Gardening. 
 
 MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. By Contributors to “ The 
 Garden.” Compiled by C. W. Shaw, late jiditor of “Gardening Illustrated.” 
 12 mo, y. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 
 “ The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published.”— Farmer. 
 
 Cottage Gardening. 
 
 Cottage Gardening; or. Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for 
 
 Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. i 2 mo, u. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 . “ Contains much useful information at a small charge.”— Glasgow Herald, 
 
46 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING, 
 
 ESTATE AGENCY, etc. 
 
 Auctioneer’s Assistant. 
 
 The Appraiser, auctioneer, Broker, House and Estate 
 
 Agent and Valuer’s Pocket Assistant, for the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, 
 or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and of property generally ; with 
 Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, 
 Re-written and greatly Extended by C. NoRRiS, Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 
 32mo, 5^. cloth. 
 
 “A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of prices 
 for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c.”— Standard. 
 
 “ Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase, sale, or 
 renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of propertv generally, with prices for inventories, and a 
 guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects.”— Builder. 
 
 Auctioneering. 
 
 AUCTIONEERS : THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES. A Manual of 
 Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By Robert Squibbs, Auc¬ 
 tioneer. Second Edition, Revised and partly Re-written. Demy 8vo, I2j. 6t/. cloth. 
 
 Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “The standard text-book on the topics of which it treats.’’— Athenceum. 
 
 “The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much information in a compendious 
 and satisfactory form.”— Builder. 
 
 “ May be recommended as giving a great deal of information on the law relating to auctioneers, 
 in a very readable form .”—Law Jcmnal. 
 
 “ Auctioneers may be congratulated on having so pleasing a writer to minister to their special 
 needs.”— Solicitors’ Journal. 
 
 “ Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent work.”— Ironmonger. 
 
 “ Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcome this book from the fact that it treats 
 
 the subject in a manner somewhat new to the profession.”— Estates Gazette. 
 
 inwood’s Estate Tables. 
 
 Tables for the Purchasing of Estates, Freehold, 
 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing 
 of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodies, for 
 Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, De¬ 
 ferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. ; together with Smart’s Five Tables of 
 Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate 
 Rates. By W. Inwood. 24th Edition, with considerable Additions, and new and 
 valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest 
 of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c., by M. Fedor Thoman, of the Societe Credit 
 Mobilier of Paris. Crown 8vo, 8 j. cloth. 
 
 “Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, 
 as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent 
 service.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ ‘ Inwood’s Tables ’ still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched by 
 large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully-arranged Tables cannot fail to be 
 of the utmost utility.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 Agricultural Valuer’s Assistant. 
 
 The Agricultural Valuer’s Assistant, a Practical 
 
 Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates ; including Rules and Data for 
 Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights and Values of Agricultural 
 Produce and Timber, and the Values of Feeding Stuffs, Manures, and Labour; 
 with Forms of Tenant-Right Valuations, Lists of Local Agricultural Customs, 
 Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, &c. &c. By Tom 
 Bright, Agricultural Surveyor. Second Edition, much Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 
 5^. cloth. 
 
 “ Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour, con¬ 
 tents and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds.”— Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 “ An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and value 
 to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds.”— Farmer. 
 
 Plantations and Underwoods. 
 
 POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS: A Practical Hand¬ 
 book on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, Improving, and Grubbing 
 Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for Purposes of Transfer, Rental, 
 Sale or Assessment. By Tom Bright, Author of “ The Agricultural Valuer’s 
 Assistant,” &c. Crown 8vo, 3^. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome aid.”— North British Agriculturist. 
 
 “ Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted interest 
 and use both to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds.”—Am/ Herald. 
 
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING, dr-Y. 
 
 47 ' 
 
 Hudson's Land Valuer’s Pocket-Book. 
 
 The Land Valuer’s Best assistant : Being Tables on a 
 
 very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for 
 reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. 
 By R. Hudson, C.Pl New Edition. Royal 321110, leather, elastic band, 4^-. 
 
 “ Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man.”— Farmeis' Journal. 
 
 Eiuart’s Land Improver’s Pocket-Book. 
 
 The Land Improver’s Pocket-Book of Formul>e, Tables, 
 
 AND Memoranda required in any Computation relating to the Permanent 
 Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor and 
 Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 321110, oblong, leather, 
 gilt edges, with elastic band, 4^-. 
 
 “A compendious and handy little volume.”— Sj>ectatof. 
 
 Complete Agricultural Surveyor’s Pocket-Book. 
 
 The Land Valuer’s and Land Improver’s Complete 
 
 PoCKET-BooK. Being the above Two Works bound together. Leather, with 
 strap, yj. 6 d. 
 
 House Property. 
 
 Handbook of house Property : A Popular and Practical 
 
 Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and 
 Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures : with Examples of all 
 kinds of Valuations, Useful Information on Building and Suggestive Elucidations 
 of Fine Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. Fifth Edition, 
 Enlarged. i2mo, 55-. cloth. 
 
 “The advice is thoroughly practical.”— Law Journal. 
 
 ” For all who have dealings with house property, this is an indispensable guide.”— Decoration. 
 
 “ Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on Fine Art. 
 , . . . A well-written and thoughtful work.” —Land Agent's Record, 
 
 LAW A ND MISCELLAN EOUS. 
 
 Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders. 
 
 Handbook for the Use of Solicitors and Engineers 
 
 Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders, for the 
 authorization of Railways, Tramways, Works for the Supply of Gas and Water, and 
 other undertakings of a like character. By L. Livingston Macassey, of the 
 Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, and Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers ; 
 Author of “ Hints on Water Supply.” Demy 8vo, 950 pp., 25s. cloth. 
 
 ” The author’s double experience as an engineer and barrister has enabled him to approach the 
 subject alike from an engineering and legal point of view.”— Local Governmetit Chronicle. 
 
 Law of Patents. 
 
 Patents for Inventions, and How to Procure them 
 
 Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M. Harding- 
 HAM, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C. E., &c. Demy 8vo, u. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 Labour Disputes. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION: An Historical 
 Sketch, with Practical Suggestions for the Settlement of Labour Disputes. By 
 J. S. Jeans, Author of “Railway Problems,” “England’s Supremacy,” &c. 
 Crown 8vo, 200 pp., 2s. 6 d. cloth. [^Jttslpublished. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Sanitary Officials. 
 
 The Health Officer’s Pocket-Book : a Guide to Sani¬ 
 tary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health, Sanitary Inspectors, 
 Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By Edward F. Willoughby, M.D. 
 (Lond.), &c.. Author of “ Hygiene and Public Health.” Fcap. 8vo, yj. 6 d., cloth, 
 red edges, rounded corners. published. 
 
 ” A mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind on the various subjects of 
 which it treats. The matter seems to have been carefully compiled and arranged for facility of 
 reference, and it is well illustrated by diagrams and woodcuts. The different subjects are succinctly 
 but fully and scientifically dealt with.”— The Lancet. 
 
 ‘‘ Ought to be welcome to those for whose use it is designed, since it practically boils down a 
 reference library into a pocket volume. ... It combines, with an uncommon degree of efficiency, 
 the qualities of accuracy, conciseness and comprehensiveness.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “ An excellent publication, dealing with the scientific, technical and legal matters connected 
 with the duties of medical officers of health and sanitary nspectors. The work is replete with 
 information.”— Local Government Journal. 
 
48 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country. 
 
 Every Man’s Own Lawyer : A Handy-Book of the Principles 
 
 of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. Thirty-first Edition, carefully Revised, 
 and including the'Legislation of 1893. Comprising (amongst other Acts) the 
 Vohtntary Conveyances Act, 1893 ; the Married Women's Property Act, 1893 ; 
 the Trtistee Act, 1893 ; the Savings Bank Act, 1S93 ; \.\\e Barbed Wire Act, 1893 »■ 
 the Industrial and Provident Societies' Act, 1893 5 tl's Hours op Labour of Railway 
 Servants Act, 1893 ; the Fertiliser and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893, etc., as well 
 Betting and Loans (Infants) Act, 1892; the Gaming Act, 1892; Shop 
 Hours Act, 1892 ; the Conveyancing and Real Pi'operty Act, 1892 ; the Small Hold¬ 
 ings Act, 1892 ; and many other new Acts. Crown 8vo, 700 pp., price 6^. ^d. (saved 
 at every consultation ! ), strongly bound in cloth. [ffust published, 
 
 The Book will be found to comprise (amongst other matter) — 
 
 The Rights and Wrongs of Individuals—Landlord and Tenant— 
 Vendors and Purchasers—Partners and Agents—Companies and Associa¬ 
 tions—Masters, Servants and Workmen—Leases and Mortgages—Libel 
 AND Slander—Contracts and Agreements—Bonds and Bills of Sale— 
 Cheques, Bills and Notes—Railway and Shipping Law—Bankruptcy and 
 Insurance—Borrowers, Lenders and Sureties—Criminal Law—Parlia¬ 
 mentary Elections—County. Councils—Municipal Corporations—Parish 
 Law, Churchwardens, etc.—Public Health and Nuisances—Copyright and 
 Patents—Trade Marks and Designs—Husb.vnd and Wife, Divorce, etc.— 
 Trustees and Executors—Guardian and Ward, Infants, etc.—Game Laws 
 AND Sporting—Horses, Horse-dealing and Dogs—Innkeepers, Licensing^ 
 ETC.—Forms of Wills, Agreements, etc. etc. 
 
 The object of this work is to enable those who consult it to help themselves to 
 the law; and thereby to dispense, as far as possible, with professional assistance ana 
 advice. There are many zvrongs and grievances zvhich persons submit to from time tO' 
 time through not knoiving how or where to apply for redress ; and many persons have as 
 great a dread of a lawyer's office as of a lion's den. With this book at hand it is believed 
 that many a Six-AND-Eightpence may be saved; many a wrong redressed; many a 
 right reclaimed ; many a law suit avoided; and many an evil abated. The zvork has- 
 established itself as the standard legal adviser of all classes, and has also made a reputa¬ 
 tion for itself as a useful book of reference for lazvyers residing at a distance from lazv 
 libraries, who are glad to have at hand a zvork embodying recent decisions and enactments. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ It is a coTiplete code nf English L^w written in plain language, which all can understand. . 
 
 Should be in me hands ot every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers’ bills.”— Weekly Times. 
 A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care.”— Law Magazine. 
 
 “ A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English law.”— Globe. 
 
 “ This excellent handbook. . . . Admirably done, admirably arranged, and admirably cheap. ’’— 
 Leeds Mercury. 
 
 . ‘‘A concise, cheap, and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that be who runs 
 may read, and he who reads may understand. ’’— Tigaro. 
 
 A dictionary of legal tacts well nut together . The book is a very useful one.”— Spectator. 
 
 “ A woris which has long been wanted, which is thoroughly well done, and which we most cordially 
 recommend.”— Sunday Times. 
 
 “The latest edition of this popular book ought to be in every business establishment, and on every 
 library table.”— Sheffield Post. 
 
 “ A complete epitome of the law; thoroughly intelligible to non-professional readers.”—iJr/Ps 
 Life. 
 
 Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers. 
 
 The PAWNBROKERS’, FACTORS’ AND MERCHANTS’ GUIDE TO 
 THE Law of Loans and Pledges. With the Statutes and a Digest of Cases. By 
 H. C. Folkard, Esq., Barrister-at-Law. Fcap. 8vo, 3^“. 6d. cloth. 
 
 The Law of Contracts. 
 
 Labour Contracts : A Popular Handbook on the Law of Con¬ 
 tracts for Works and Services. By David Gibbons. Fourth Edition, with Appendix 
 of Statutes by T. F. Uttley, Solicitor. Fcap. 8vo, 3L 6d. cloth. 
 
 The Factory Acts. 
 
 Summary of the Factory and Workshop acts ( 1878 -i 891 ). 
 
 For the Use of Manufacturers and Managers. By Emile Garcke and J. M. 
 Fells. (Reprinted from “ Factory Accounts.”) Crown 8vo, 6d. sewed. 
 
Mcale’s Kutrimentarg Series. 
 
 l^onboit, 1862, 
 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers of 
 
 “WE ALE’S SERIES.” 
 
 A NEW LIST OF 
 
 WEALE’S SERIES 
 
 OF 
 
 RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 
 
 0^ “ WEALE’S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of Science 
 e.nd Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture and Building, Civil 
 Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Physical and Chemical 
 Science, and many miscellaneous Treatises. The whole are constantly undergoing revi- 
 cion, and new editions, brought up to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are 
 .constantly issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their excellence is 
 assured.”— Amencan Literary Gazette. 
 
 “Amongst the literature of technical education, Weale’s Series has ever enjoyed 
 a high reputation, and the additions being made by Messrs. Crosby Lockwood & Son 
 ■render the series even more complete, and bring the information upon the several subjects 
 down to the present time.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “Any persons wishing to acquire knowledge cannot do better than look through 
 Weale’s Series and get all the books they require. The Series is indeed an inexhaus- 
 'tible mine of literary wealth.”— The Metropolitan. 
 
 “Weale’s Series has become a standard as well as an unrivalled collection ot 
 treatises in all branches of art and science.”— Public Opinion. 
 
 “The excellence of Weale’s Series is now so well appreciated that it would be 
 v/asting our space to enlarge upon their general usefulness and value.”— Builder. 
 
 “It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more popular with or 
 more useful to young engineers and others than the excellent treatises comprised m 
 Weale’s Series.”— Engineer. 
 
 “The volumes of Weale’s Series form one of the best collections of elementary 
 technical books in any language.”— Architect. 
 
 “ A collection of technical manuals which is unrivalled.”— Weekly Dispatch. 
 
 Iplnbliclplita, 1876, 
 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers for 
 
 Books : Rudimentary Scientific, 
 
 “WEALE’S SERIES,” &c. 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 
 
 7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E C. 
 
 D 
 
CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 50 
 
 WEALE ’S RUDIIVIENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. 
 
 The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated with Wood- 
 cuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the following List it mus^ 
 be understood that the books are bound in limp cloth, unless otherwise 
 stated ; but the volumes marked -with a ;j; may also be had stroiigly bound 
 in cloth boards for 6 d. extra. 
 
 N.B.—In ordering from this List it is recommended, as a means of 
 facilitati 7 i^ business and obviating error, to quote the numbers affixed to the 
 volumes, as well as the titles and prices. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 31. WELLS AND WELL-SLNICLNG. By John Geo. Swindell, 
 
 A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, C.E. Revised Edition. With a New 
 Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illustrated. ...... 2/0 
 
 “ Sol'd practical information, written in a concise and lucid style. The work can be recommended 
 as a text-book for all surveyors, architects, &c.’'— Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 35. THE BLASTING AND QUAE EYING OF STONE, 
 
 for Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of 
 Bridges. By Gen. SirJ. Burgoyne, K.C.B. ...... 1/6 
 
 43. TUBULAR AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, 
 
 describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. With a Sketch of 
 Iron Bridges, &c. By G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. Fourth Edition . 2lt> 
 
 FOUNDATIONS AND CONCEETE WOEKS. With Prac¬ 
 tical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Beton, Pile-driving, 
 Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson, AI.R.I.B.A. Seventh Edition . 1/6 
 
 60. LAND AND ENGINEEEING SUEVFYING. For 
 
 Students and Practical Use. By T. Baker, C.E. Fifteenth Edition, 
 revised and corrected by }. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, 
 Belfast College. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams.2/0 J 
 
 8o-. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA. With Examples 
 
 and Particulars of actual Embankments, &c. By John Wiggins, F.G.S. . 2/0 
 
 81. WATEE WOEKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With 
 
 a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing 
 Supplies of Water ; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinery for 
 raising Water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S., C.E. Enlarged Edition . . q/cj 
 
 “ Every one who is debating how his village, town, or city shall be plentifully supplied with pure 
 water should read this book.”— Newcastle Cojtrant. 
 
 1,7. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING. By Thomas Fen- 
 
 WICK. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Surveys without the use 
 of the Magnetic Needle, and other modern Improvements. ByT. Baker, C.E. 2/6;J 
 
 ,,3. CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, A 
 
 Sketch of. By David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams. .3/0 
 
 ,67. A TREATISE ON THE APPLICATION OF IRON TO 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, ROOFS, AND OTHER 
 WORKS By Francis Campin, C.E. Fourth Edition .... 2/6;J| 
 
 “ For numbers oi 3'onng engineers the book is just the cheap, handy, first guide they want.”— 
 I'.iiddlesbrough Weekly News. “ Remarkably accurate and well written.”— Artizan. 
 
 EOADS AND STEEETS {THE CONSTEUCTION 0 E\ 
 
 in Two Parts : I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads, by H. 
 
 Law, C.E.. Revised by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E.; II. Recent Practice: 
 Including Pavements of Stone,Wood, and Asphalte; By D. K. Clark, C.E. 4/6J 
 
 “ A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will be of considerable 
 service to architects, builders, and property owners generally.’’— Building-Nezus. 
 
 .03. SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS 
 
 AND IN VILLAGES. By Charles Slagg, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Second 
 Edition, enlarged.3/0J 
 
 “This is a very useful book. There is a great deal of work required to be done in the smaller towns 
 and villages, and this little volume will help those who are willing to do it.’’— Bjtilder. 
 
 The t indicates that these vols. may be had strongly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
IVEALE'S EUD/MENTAEY SEEJES. 
 
 51 
 
 Civil Kngineering, etc., co7itimied. 
 
 212. THE CONSTRUCTION OF GAS WORKS, and the Manu¬ 
 facture and Distribution of Coal Gas, By S. Hughes, C.E. Re-written by 
 “vvii Richards, C.E, Eighth Edition, with important Additions . 5/6^ 
 
 Will be of infinite service alike to manufacturers^ distributors, and consumers /’—Forejnan Ejigineer, 
 
 213. TIONEER ENGINEERING: A Treatise on the Engineering 
 
 Ciperations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New Countries. 
 
 By Edward Dobson, A.I. C.E. Wich numerous Plates. Second Edition . 4/6J 
 ^ familiar with the difficulties which have to be overcome in this class of work, and 
 much of his advice will be valuable to young engineers proceeding to our colonies.”— E7igi7ieerins^* 
 
 216. materials ANN CONSTRUCTION: A Theoretical 
 
 and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erection of Works of 
 Construction, By Francis Campin, C.E. Second Edition, carefully revised, p/oj 
 kr exposition of the practical application of the principles of construction has yet beer 
 
 published to our knowledge in such a cheap comprehensive form .”—Bzcildijig News. 
 
 219. CIVIL ENGLNEERLNG. By Henry Law, M. Inst. C.E- 
 
 Including a Treatise on Hydraulic Engineering by G. R. Burnell, 
 M.I.C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, with Large Additions on Recent 
 Practice by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E, 6 j. 6 d., cloth boards . 7/6 
 An admirable volume, which we warmly recommend to young engineers.”— Builder. 
 
 260. LRON BRLDGES OF MODERATE SPAN: Their Con¬ 
 struction and Erection, By Hamilton Weldon Pendred, late Inspector of 
 Ironwork to the Salford Corporation. With 40 Illustrations .... 2/0 
 * Students and engineers should obtain this bock for constant and practical wf.Q.” — Colliery Guardian 
 
 268. THE DRALNAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BULLD- 
 
 INGS. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on Recent 
 Practice in Drainage Engineering, by D. Kinnear Clark, M.I.C.E. Second 
 Edition, corrected ..4/6t 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 33. CRANES, the Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising 
 
 Heavy Bodies for the Erection of Buildings, »&c. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S. 1/6' 
 
 34. THE STEAM ENGINE. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated . 1/6 
 
 59. STEAM BOILERS: Their Construction and Management. 
 
 By R. Armstrong, C.E. Illustrated.1/6 
 
 “ A mass of information suitable lor beginners.”— Design and IVork. 
 
 82. THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to d.rive Flour Mills, 
 
 and to give motion to Turbines and other Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph 
 Glynn, F.R.S., &c. New Edition, Illustrated.2/0 
 
 98. PRACTICAL MECHANISM, axi^ Machine Tools. By T. 
 
 Baker, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and Machinery, by J. Nasmyth, C.E. 2/6 
 
 139. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Treatise on the Mathematical 
 
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 164. MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, as applied to Marine, 
 
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 Ship-building, &c. By J. G. WiNTON. Fourth Edition, Illustrated . . 3/6^ 
 
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 himself to a higher position, this clearly written and practical treatise will be a great help.”— Scotsman. 
 
 165. IRON AND HEAT, exhibiting the Principles concerned in the 
 
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 “A very useful and thoroughly practical little volume.”— MinBtg Jourjial. 
 
 166. POWER IN MOTION: Horse-power Motion, Toothed-Wheel 
 
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 Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. Third Edition ..... cz/oX 
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 THE WORKMAN’S MANUAL OF ENGLNEERLNG 
 
 DR A WING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering Drawing. 
 
 Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Seventh Edition. 300 Plates and Diagrams 36* 
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 tsar The + indicates that these vols. may be had strongly bound at 6 J. extra. 
 
52 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Mechanical Engineering, etc., contmued. 
 
 190. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Port¬ 
 able, An Elementary Treatise on. Being an Extension of the Treatise on 
 the Steam Engine of Mr. J. Sewell. By D. K. Clark, C.E. Third Edition 3/6^ 
 “Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently, and in a popular style.”— Iron. 
 
 200. FUEL, ITS COMBUSTION AND ECONOMY. Con¬ 
 sisting of an Abridgment of ‘‘ A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the 
 Prevention of Smoke.” By C. W. Williams, A.I.C.E. With extensive 
 Additions by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, corrected 3/6J 
 
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 the combustion and economy of fuel to be had.”— Engineer. 
 
 702. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. 
 
 By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large Additions treating of the Modern 
 Locomotive, by D. K. Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With numerous Illustrations . 3 lot 
 
 “ A model of what an elementary technical book should be.”— Academy. 
 
 211. THE BOIIERMAKEHS ASSISTANT in Drawing, Tern- 
 
 plating, and Calculating Boiler Work, &c. By J. Courtney, Practical Boiler¬ 
 maker. Edited by D. K. Clark, C.E. Third Edition, revised . . 2/0 
 
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 has our unqualified approval. Scarcely a point has been omitted.”— Forema^i Enghieer. 
 
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 tions as to their management.”— Scotsman. 
 
 223 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Comprising Metallurgy, 
 
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 236. DETAILS OE MACHINERY. Comprising Instructions for 
 
 the Execution of various Works in Iron in the Fitting-Shop, Foundry, and 
 
 Boiler-Yard. By Francis Campin, C.E.. . . 3/0+ 
 
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 251 
 
 237. THE SMITHY AND FORGE, including the Farrier’s Art 
 
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 upon the book ; shoeing smiths will find it both useful and interesting.”— Bnilder. 
 
 03S. THE SHEET-METAL WORKEHS 6^ ; A Practical 
 
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 and Working Patterns. By W. J. E. Crane , Second Edition, revised. . t/6 
 
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 less ability in treating them.”— Plumber. 
 
 STEAM AND MACHINERY MANAGEMENT: A Guide 
 
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 254. THE BOILER-MAKERB READY RECKONER, with 
 
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 and Riveters. By John Courtney. Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. 
 Second Edition, revised, with Additions ........ 4/0 
 
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 takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines.— The Engineer. 
 
 236. ST A TIONAR Y ENGINE-DRIVING. A Practical Manual 
 
 for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds, 
 M.S.E. Fourth Edition. 35. 6 d. limp ; cloth boards .....’ 4/6 
 
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 ■exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially intended.”— Engineering. 
 
 5 ::^' The t indicates that these vols. may be had strongly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
 « 
 
 ■255- 
 
IVEALE^S EC7DIMENTARV SER/ES. 
 
 53 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY, etc. 
 
 4. MINERALOGY, Rudiments of. By A. Ramsay, F.G.S. 
 
 Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Woodcuts and Plates . . . . 3 61 
 
 . The author throughout has displayed an intimate knowledge of his subject, and great facility in 
 imparting that knowledge to others. The book is of great utility .”—Milling Joicrnal. 
 
 117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, with and without the 
 
 Magnetic Needle. By T. Fenwick and T.Baker, C.E. Illustrated . • 2/6% 
 
 133. METALLURGY OE COPPER: An Introduction to the 
 
 Methods of Seeking, Mining, and Assaying Copper. By R. H, Lamborn. 2/6J 
 
 135. ELECTRO-METALLURGYj Practically Treated. By Alex¬ 
 ander Watt. Ninth Edition, enlarged and revised. With Additional 
 Illustrations, and including the most Recent Processes . YJlist published, 3/6I 
 
 “ From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary.’’— Iron. 
 
 172. MINING TOOLS, Manual of. By William Morgans, 
 
 Lecturer on Practical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines .... 2/6 
 
 ij2*.M!NING tools, atlas of Engravings to Illustrate the 
 
 above, containing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to Scale. 4to. . 4/6 
 
 “ Students, Overmen, Captains, Managers, and Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful 
 hints by the study of Mr. Morgans’ Manual .”—Colliery Guardian. 
 
 176. METALLURGY OP IRON. Containing History of Iron 
 
 Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu¬ 
 facture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S,, A.R.S.M. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Sixth Edition, levised and enlarged .... 5/0I 
 
 “ Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points ; while all 
 material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into.”— Standard. 
 
 180. COAL AND COAL MINING, A Rudimentary Treatise on. 
 
 By the late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector 
 of the Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, revised and enlarged • 3/61 
 
 “Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and as an outline is 
 given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the two principal methods of 
 working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers .”—Mining Journal. 
 
 195. THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER ^S COM¬ 
 PLETE GUIDE. Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying 
 and the Valuation of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By W. 
 Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. Third Edition, with an Appendix on 
 Magnetic and Angular Surveying, with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle 
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 “ Contains much valuable information, and is thoroughly trustworthy ”—Iron Sr’ Coal Trades Review, 
 
 214. SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, Scientific, Practical, 
 
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 numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates, Third Edition .... 3/0J 
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 H fl€€T 
 
 7 ^, A FIRST BOOK OF MINING AND QUARRYING, with 
 
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 Devon. Second Edition, with additions ........ 1/6 
 
 “ For those concerned in schools in the mining districts, this work is the very thing that should be in 
 the hands of their schoolmasters.”— Iron. 
 
 architecture, building, etc. 
 
 jb. ARCHITECTURE — ORDERS —The Orders and their 
 
 .Esthetic Principles. By W. H. Leeds. Illustrated ..... 1/6 
 
 17. ARCHITECTURE—STYLES —The History and Descrip¬ 
 
 tion of the Styles of Architecture of Various Countries, from the Earliest to the 
 Present Period. By T. Talbot Bury, F.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated . . 2/0 
 
 *T Orders and Styles of Architecture, in One Vol., 3.^. 6d. 
 
 18. ARCHITECTURE—DESIGN—The Principles of Design in 
 
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 Greek and Gothic Architects. By Edw. Lacy Garbett, Architect. Illustrated 2,6 
 
 “ We know no work that we would sooner recommend to an attentive reader desirous to obtain clear 
 views of the nature of architectural art. The book is a valuable one.’’— Builder. 
 
 * Y'" The three preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled “Modern 
 
 .Architecture,6j. 
 
 The J indicates that these vols. may be had strongly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
C/WSBY LOCKWOOD 6 - SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Architecture, Building, etc., continued. 
 
 22. THE ART OF BUILDING^ Rudiments of. General Prin¬ 
 ciples of Construction, Strength and Use of Materials, Working Drawings, 
 
 Specifications, &c. By Edward Dobson, M. R. I .B.A., &c.2/0J 
 
 “ A good book for practical knowledge, and about the best to be obtained .”—Building News. 
 
 MASONRY AND STONECUTTING: The Principles of 
 
 Masonic Projection and their application to Construction. By E. Dobson, 
 M.R.I.B.A.2/6J 
 
 42, COTTAGE BUILDING. By C. Bruce Allen. Eleventh 
 
 Ed..with Chapter on Economic Cottages for Allotments, by E. E. Allen,C.E. 2/0 
 
 45. LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MAS¬ 
 TICS, PLASTERING, 5 fc. By G. R. Burnell, C.E. Thirteenth Edition 1/6 
 
 57. WARMING AND VENTILATION of Domestic and Public 
 
 Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses, Ships, &c. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. 3/0 
 
 xzi. ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES, qnc.: Experimental 
 
 Essays on the Principles of Construction in. By William Bland . . 1/6 
 
 116. THE ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS; or, 
 
 The Principles of the Science of Sound applied to the purposes of the Architect 
 and Builder. By T. Roger S.mith, M.R.I.B.A., Architect. Illustrated . 1/6 
 
 127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, The Art 
 
 of. By T. A. Richardson. With Illustrations, engraved by O. Jewitt . 1/6 
 “A valuable aid to the practice of architectural modelling.”— Bzcilder’s Weekly Reporter. 
 
 12S. VITRUVIUS—THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS 
 
 VITRUVIUS POLIO. In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by 
 
 Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. With 23 Plates.S/o 
 
 N.B. — I'kis is the only Edition of Vitruvius procurable at a moderate price. 
 
 130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, An Inquiry into the Prin¬ 
 ciples of Beauty in ; with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the 
 
 Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen .i/o 
 
 preceding Works in One handsome VoL, half bound, entitled “ANCIENT 
 
 Architecture,” 6r. 
 
 132. DWELLING-HOUSES, The Erection of, Illustrated by a 
 
 Perspective View, Plans, Elevations, and Sections of a Pair of Villas, with 
 the Specification, Quantities, and Estimates. By S. H. Brooks, Architect . 2/6^ 
 
 156. QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, in Bricklayers’, 
 
 Masons’, Plasterers’, Plumbers’, Painters’, Paperhangers’, Gilders’, Smiths’, 
 Carpenters’and Joiners’Work. By A. C. Beaton, Surveyor . . . 1/6 
 
 “ This book is indispensable to builders and their quantity clerks .”—English Mechanic. 
 
 175. LOCKWOOD’S BUILDER’S PRICE BOOK EOR 1894. 
 
 A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, 
 Architects, Engineers, and Contractors, Re-constructed, Re-written, and 
 greatly Enlarged. By Francis T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B.A. 700 pages. . 3/6J 
 
 182 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY —The Elementary Prin¬ 
 ciples OF Carpentry. Chieflv composed from the Standard Work of 
 Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With Additions, and a TREATISE ON 
 JOINERY by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Fifth Edition, Revised and Extended . 3/6J 
 
 182* CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. ATLAS of 35 Plates to 
 
 accompany and illustrate the foregoing book. With Descriptive Letterpre.ss. 4to 6/o 
 
 “These two volumes form a complete treasury of carpentry and joinery, and should be in the hands 
 of every carpenter and joiner in the empire.”— Iron. 
 
 185. THE COMPLETE MEASURER; setting forth the Measure¬ 
 ment of Boards, Glass, Timber and Stone. By R. Horton. Fifth Edition . 4/0 
 *** The above, strongly bound in leather, price 5J'. 
 
 187. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight- 
 
 WICK, Architect, Author of “The Palace of Architecture,” &c., &c. Fifth 
 Edition, revised and enlarged by G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. 3/6J 
 “A copy ought to be considered as necessary a purchase as a box of instruments.”— Architect. 
 
 The X indicates that thcAe vols. may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. 
 
WE ALE'S RUDIMENTA R K SE R /ES. 
 
 55 
 
 Architecture, Building, etc., continued. 
 c88 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 
 SIGtL WRITING: With a Course of Elementary Drawing, and a Collection 
 of Useful Receipts. By Ellis A. Davidson. Sixth Edition. Coloured Plates 5/0 
 *** The above in cloth boards, strongly bound, 6s. 
 
 “ .4 mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical ma.T\.” — Englis/i Mechanic, 
 
 189. THE R UDIMENTS OF ERA CTICAL BRICK!A YING. 
 
 General Principles of Bricklaying; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting ; 
 Pointing; Paving, Tiling, &c. By Adam Hammond. With 68 Woodcuts . 1,6 
 “ The young bricklayer will find it infinitely valuable to him.”— Glasgoiv He7-ala. 
 
 191. PLUMBING: A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or 
 
 Craft of the Plumber. With Chapters upon Hcuse Drainage and Ventilation. 
 
 By Wm. Baton Buchan, R.P.,Sanitary Engineer. Sixth Edition,revised and 
 enlarged, with 380 Illustrations ...... ... 3/6X 
 
 A text-book which may be safely put into the hands of every young plumber, and which will also 
 <be found useful by architects and medical professors.”— Builder. 
 
 192. THE TIMBER IMPORTERS, TIMBER MERCHANT’S, 
 
 AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By R. E. Gkandy . . 2/0 
 
 “ Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws 
 in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c.”— English MechaJiic. 
 
 206. A BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir 
 
 Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Author of “Clocks and 
 Watches and Bells,” &c. Second Edition, enlarged ..... 4/6+ 
 “A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive.”— Times. 
 
 226. THE JOINTS MADE AND USED BY BUILDERS. 
 
 By Wyvill J. Christy, Architect. With 160 Woodcuts ..... s/cj 
 “The work is deserving of high commendation.” — Builder. 
 
 228. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS, OF WOOD A.ND 
 
 IRON : Deduced chiefly from the Works of Robison, Tredgold, and Humber. 
 
 By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, revised . . i'6 
 
 “ Mr. Tarn is so thoroughly master of his subject, that although the treatise is founded on the w^rks 
 •of others, he has given it a distinct value of his own. It will be found valuable by all students.”— Builde>', 
 
 229. ELEMENTARY DECORATLON: As applied to Dwelling 
 
 Houses, «S:c. By James W. Facey. Illustrated ...... 2/0 
 
 “ The principles which ought to guide the decoration of dwelling-houses are clearly set forth, and 
 ■elucidated by examples ; while lull instructions are given to the learner.”— Scotitjuan. 
 
 257. PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. A Guide to the 
 
 Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and 
 the Principles of Decorative Design. By James W. Facey .... 2/6 
 *** Nos. 229 and 257 in One handsome Vol., half-bound,entitled “ HOUSE DECORA¬ 
 TION, Elementary and Practical,”5J. 
 
 230. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING; 
 
 Showing New and Simple Methods. By Geo. Collings. Second Edition. 
 Revised, including a TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING. With Plates . 2/6 
 “ Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery.”— Builder. 
 
 047. BULLDLNG ESTATES: A Treatise on the Development, 
 
 Sale, Purchase, and Management of Building Land. By F. Maitland. 
 Second Edition, revised .......... 2/0 
 
 “This book should undoubtedly be added to the library of every professional man dealing with 
 ^Duilding land.”— La)id Agent's Record. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT FOR USERS. By Henry Faija, 
 
 A.M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Corrected ....... 2/0 
 
 “ Supplies in a small compass all that is necessary to be known by users of cement .”—Buildijtg Nevjs, 
 
 ■252. BRLCKJVORK : A Practical Treatise, embodying the General 
 
 and Higher Principles of Bricklaying, Cutting and Setting ; with the Applica¬ 
 tion of Geometry to Roof Tiling, &c. By F. Walker ..... i,'6 
 *■' Contains all that a young tradesman or student needs to learn from books .”—Building News. 
 
 259. 
 
 GAS FLTTLN^G: A Practical Handbook. By John Black. 
 
 With 121 Illustrations . . ....... . . 
 
 “ Contains all the requisite information for the successful fitting ofpiouses 
 tt is written in a simple practical style, and we heartily recommend it ” 
 
 a gas service 
 ”— Plumbei' and Decorator. 
 
 2/6 
 , &c. 
 
 253. THE TLMBER MERCHANT’S, SA IV MLLLER 'S, AND 
 
 IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. By William 
 Richardson, with additions by M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., &c, . . • 3 '^i 
 
 “A compendium of calculations which suppliesa real want in the trade.’’— Building News. 
 
 The J indicates that these vols. may be had strotigly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
 
56 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Architecture, Building, etc., conimued. 
 
 23 
 
 189.. 
 252 
 
 258. 
 
 [THE PRACTICAL BRICK AND TILE BOOK. Com¬ 
 prising: Brick and Tile Making, by E. Dobson, A.I.C.E, ; Practical 
 
 Bricklaying, by A. Hammond ; Brickwork, by F. Walker. 550 pp. 
 with 270 Illustrations, strongly half-bound.. . 6/0- 
 
 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND fOINERY. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By 
 George Collings. Second Edition ... . 2/6 
 
 “ Cheap in price, clear in definition, and practical in the examples selected.”— Builder. 
 
 261. SHORING, and Its Application : A Handbook for the Use of 
 
 Students. By George H. Blagrove. With 31 Illustrations . . . 1/.6’ 
 
 “ We recommend this valuable treatise to all students .”—Building News. 
 
 265. the art of practical brick cutting and 
 
 SETTING. By Adam Hammond. With 90 Engravings .... 1/6' 
 
 267- THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING: An Elementary Trea- 
 
 tise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. 
 
 Lond. Third Edition, revised and enlarged.. 3/0X 
 
 271. VENTILATION : A Text Book to the Practice of the Art of 
 
 Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. Buchan, R. P., Author of ” Plumbing,” 
 
 &c. With 170 Illustrations ...... \Justpublished. 3/6J 
 
 272. ROOF CARPENTRY ; Practical Lessons in the Framing of 
 
 Wood Roofs. For the Use of Working Carpenters. By Geo. Collings, Author 
 of ‘‘ Handrailing and Stairbuilding,” &c . [Justpublished. 2/- 
 
 2,3. THE PRACTICAL PLASTERER : A Compendium of Plain 
 
 and Ornamental Plaster Work. By Wilfred Kemp . [Just pitblished. 2 ^- 
 
 SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGATION, etc. 
 
 51. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE: An Exposition of the Elemen¬ 
 
 tary Principles. By James Peake, H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth . . 3/6;^ 
 
 53^ SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND RIVER SER VICE, Elementary 
 
 and Practical Principles of the Construction of. By Hakon A. Sommerfeldt. i/d 
 
 Ss**.AN ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above. 
 
 Twelve large folding Plates. Royal 410, cloth. 7/C 
 
 54. MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF 
 
 SHIPS. Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks; Chain, Wire, and Hemp 
 Ropes, &c., relative to every class of vessels. By Robert Kipping, N.A. 2/0- 
 
 ^^^*.IKON SHIP-BUILDING. With Practical Examples and 
 
 Details. By John Grantham. Fifth Edition.4/0- 
 
 55. THE SAILOR’S SEA BOOK: A Rudimentary Treatise on 
 
 Navigation. By James Greenwood, B.A. With numerous Woodcuts 
 and Coloured Plates. New and enlarged Edition. By W. H. Rosser . 2/6J 
 “Is perhaps the best and simplest epitome of navigation ever compiled.— Field. 
 
 55 PR A CTICAL NA VIGA TION Consisting of The Sailor’s 
 
 & Sea-Book, by James Greenw'OOd and W. H. Rosser ; together with 
 
 204. Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by 
 
 Henry Law, C.E. , and Prof. J. R. Young. Half-bound in leather . . 7/0 
 
 “ A vast amount of information is contained in this volume, and we fancy in a very short time that it 
 will be seen in the library of almost everv ship or yacht afloat.”— Hunt's Yachting Magazuie. 
 
 80. MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS. By 
 
 R. Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Additions by 
 the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E.4/6'J 
 
 “An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineering .”—Liuerpool Mercury. 
 
 3lis. THE FORMS OF SHIPS AND BOATS. By W. Bland. 
 
 Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and Models . . .1/6 
 
 99. NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, in 
 
 Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. Young. New Edition. Illustrated . 2/6 
 “ A very complete, thorough, and useful manual for the young navigator.”— Observatory. 
 
 106. SHIPS’ ANCHORS, a Treatise on. By George Cotsell. 1/5 
 
 149. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. With Draughting, and the 
 
 Centre of Effort of the Sails. Also, Weights and Sizes of Ropes ; Masting, 
 Rigging, and Sails of Steam Vessels, &c. By Robert Kipping, N.A. . 2/6.J 
 
 155. THE ENGINEER’S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND 
 
 MERCANTILE NAVIES. By a Practical Engineer. Revised by 
 D. F. M'Carthy, late of the Ordnance Survev Office. Southampton . . 3/^ 
 
 The J indicates that these vols. may be had strongly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
WE ALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 57 
 
 AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 6i*. A COMPLETE READY RECKONER FOR THE AD¬ 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF LAND, ^c. By A. Arman. Third Edition, 
 
 revised and extended by C. NORRiS, Surveyor, Valuer, &c.a/O’ 
 
 “ A very useful book to all who have land to measure.”— Mark Lane Express. 
 
 “ Should be in the hands of all persons having any connection with land.”— Irish Farm. 
 
 131. MILLER'S, CORN MERCHANT'S, AND FARMER'S 
 
 READY RECKONER. Second Edition, revised, with a Price List of 
 Modern Flour Mill Machinery, by W. S. Hutton, C.E.2/0 
 
 “ Will prove an indispensable vade mecuin. Nothing has been spared to make the book complete andi 
 perfectly adapted to its special purpose. ’— Miller. 
 
 140. SOILS, MANURES, AND CROPS. (Vol. I. Outlines of 
 
 Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts.2/0 
 
 141. FARMING AND FARMING ECONOMY, Historical and 
 
 Practical. (Vol. II. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. 3/0 
 
 “Eminently calculated to enlighten the agricultural community on the varied subjects of which itx 
 treats ; hence it should find a place in every farmer’s library.”— City Press. 
 
 142. STOCK; CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HORSES. (Vol. III. 
 
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 145. DAIRY, PIGS, AND POULTRY. (Vol. IV. Outlines of 
 
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 best authorities.”— London Revieiv. 
 
 146. UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, IRRIGATION, AND 
 
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 Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts.2/6 
 
 “ A work containing valuable information, which will recommend itself to all interested in modern' 
 farming.”— Field. 
 
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 177. FRUIT TREES, The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. 
 
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 207. OUTLINES OF FARM MANAGEMENT. Treating of 
 
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 140. 
 
 141. 
 
 142. 
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58 
 
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 239. DRAINING AND EMBANKING. A Practical Treatise. 
 
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 158. THE SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT. Con¬ 
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 ,96. THEORY OF COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUL 
 
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 ,96. ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M. A., F.R.S., 
 
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 173. PHYSICAL ( 96 ^ K, partly based on Major-General Port- 
 
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 183. ANIMAL PHYSICS, Handbook of. By Dionysius LARD- 
 
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 69. MUSIC, A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. With 
 
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 186. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative 
 
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 246. A DICTIONARY OF PAINTERS, AND HANDBOOK 
 
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