ll B RAR.Y OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS G30.7 UZGb cop RGHICULTURE The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN APR 2 8 2( L16I O-I096 Effects of Sex, Length of Feeding Period, and a Ration of Ear-Corn Silage on the Quality of Baby Beef BY SLEBTER BULL, FRED C. OLSON, AND JOHN H. LONGWELL UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 355 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 167 PLAN OF EXPERIMENTS 169 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 171 Slaughter Data 171 Grades of Calves and of Carcasses 172 Dressing Percentages 179 Cutting Test 179 Physical Composition of Carcasses 202 Physical Composition of Wholesale Cuts 204 Physical Composition of Wholesale Ribs 210 Physical Composition of 9th, 10th, and llth Ribs 213 Firmness of Fat 217 Color of Lean 219 Mechanical Determination of Toughness 225 Cooking and Palatability Tests 226 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.. . 229 Urbana, Illinois September, 1930 Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made or sponsored by the Experiment Station Effects of Sex, Length of Feeding Period, and a Ration of Ear-Corn Silage on the Quality of Baby Beef 1 By SLEBTER BULL, FRED C. OLSON, and JOHN H. LONGWELL* RAIN-FED CATTLE of good quality are being marketed at younger ages than they were several decades or even several years ago. It may safely be predicted that this trend will con- tinue for the next few years, the proportion of aged cattle (cattle two years old and older) of the better grades decreasing and the proportion of calves and yearlings increasing. The choice or prime two-year-old steer, however, weighing 1,400 to 1,500 pounds is not likely to become extinct, as has the 2000-pound steer of a generation ago. There are a number of reasons for the trend toward younger cattle. From the producers' standpoint the younger cattle are more economi- cal because they put on their gains considerably more cheaply than do aged cattle, their increase in weight being high in water and low in fat. Also, finished calves or yearlings may be held for an anticipated rise in the market much more satisfactorily than finished aged steers. From the consumers' standpoint the carcass of the younger animal is more desirable because it cuts out smaller steaks and roasts which more nearly fit the purse and the oven of the housewife, has little or no waste fat on the cuts even when finished, and supplies tender meat. As a matter of fact, these small, tender cuts do not have the desirable flavor of mature beef of the same quality, but since most consumers judge beef largely by its leanness and tenderness, the lack of flavor in baby beef is not objectionable except to a few connoisseurs. There are enough of these connoisseurs, however, to supply a constant, if small, demand for mature beef of quality, and a certain amount of such beef is always in demand by the high-class hotels, restaurants, and clubs and by the dining-car and steamship trade. This trade is willing to pay high prices to get mature beef of superior quality. If there is any surplus of such beef over this limited demand, it must go into the retail trade, usually at a sharp discount. Owing to the high cost of production and the fact that finished mature steers may be held in the feedlot for only a short time, a slight 'This bulletin is a contribution from the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Illinois on the National Cooperative Project, "A Study of the Factors Which Influence the Quality and Palatability of Meat." The cooperating agencies are the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture and twenty-two state agricultural experiment stations. The national project was inau- gurated by a committee representing these agencies and the National Livestock and Meat Board. 'SLEETER BULL, Associate Chief in Meats ; F. C. OLSON, First Assistant in Animal Husbandry ; and JOHN H. LONGWELL, formerly Associate in Animal Husbandry. 167 168 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, overproduction of such cattle usually results in disastrous price de- clines. In case of calves and yearlings any surplus in the retail trade goes into competition with mature beef for the hotel trade. Finished calves or yearlings, as previously mentioned, may be held for a better market much more economically than mature cattle. Thus a decline in their price is not likely to be so great nor to last so long as a decline in the price of aged steers. In any event, because of lower feed costs such a decline is not so disastrous to the producer as a decline in prices of mature beef. In spite of cheaper production costs, the price of baby beef is fre- quently as high as or above that of mature beef of the same quality. / Development Of The Modern Steer FIG. 1. STYLES CHANGE IN BEEF These steers were exhibited at the 1928 International Live Stock Exposition to illustrate the changes in the size, age, and type of beef steers during the past fifty years. The calf on the right was also Grand Champion steer of the show. (Courtesy International Live Stock Exposition Company and Live Stock Photo Company) This situation is explained by the wider demand for baby beef and the frequent oversupply of heavy steers. Until feeders appreciate this situation and reduce the number of heavy steers of choice and prime grades, this price relationship is likely to continue. Heifers are usually discriminated against in the livestock market after they reach a weight of 700 pounds. This sex penalty may be as much as two or three cents a pound. In the dressed-beef market heifer beef is more difficult to sell and usually must be moved at a cent or two a pound under steer beef of equal grade. Since half the beef calves are heifers, a goodly proportion of which go to market as such, it is important to analyze the reasons for this discrimination in order to determine whether or not it is justified. Ninety-nine beef consumers out of every hundred cannot distin- guish between heifer and steer beef in the carcass, in the cut, or on the 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 169 table, yet most of them honestly believe that heifer beef is vastly in- ferior to steer beef and refuse to buy it except at a cut price. When one considers that heifer carcasses supply most of the beef in many of the better-grade markets, it is apparent that many people who would not purchase heifer beef as such are doing so regularly. The butcher's objections to heifer beef are somewhat more definite, at least in his own mind, than are those of the consumer. The butcher who sells heifer beef for what it is has more or less "sales resistance" to overcome. He also maintains that the heifer will not dress out as high as the steer because it has a larger amount of killing fat, that the heifer carcass is more wasty, that is, contains more cutting fat, and that it cuts out a smaller percentage of high-priced cuts. Obviously more definite information is needed as to the quality of beef from calves of different ages, finish, and sex in order that the pro- ducer may intelligently govern his feeding operations. The experi- ments reported herein were undertaken as a means of supplying such information. Incidental to the main purpose of these experiments were the tests designed to throw light on the effect of a ration of ear-corn silage on the quality of the beef produced. Ear-corn silage (that is, the ear and husk of fairly mature corn) was introduced into the corn belt as a solution to the soft-corn problem. Many feeders have continued to use this method of harvesting the corn crop on account of the economy of the operation, and most of this silage is fed to beef cattle. No studies having been made on the effect of ear-corn silage on the quality of the beef produced, such investigations seemed highly desirable. PLAN OF EXPERIMENTS The first experiment was begun in December, 1926, as one of the series on factors affecting the quality of baby beef, in which various experiment stations and the U. S. Department of Agriculture are co- operating. The calves were all high-grade Herefords averaging about 375 pounds. They were quite uniform and very thrifty. A lot of 12 steers and a lot of 12 heifers were selected for the experiment. Ten steers and 10 heifers were full-fed a ration of shelled corn (7 parts), cottonseed meal (1 part), corn silage, 8 pounds, and alfalfa hay, 2 pounds. An- other lot of 15 steers was full-fed a ration of ear-corn silage (28-30 pounds), cottonseed meal (approximately 1.5 pounds) and alfalfa hay (2 pounds). Two representative steers and two representative heifers were slaughtered at the beginning of the experiment. Five heifers and three shelled-corn steers were slaughtered after 140 days of feeding, five heifers and four shelled-corn steers after 200 days of feeding, and the 170 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, FIG. 2. GRADING THE LIVE ANIMALS The calves were graded by the official Grading Committee composed, from left to right, of D. J. Slater and L. B. Burke, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and F. G. King, Purdue University. remaining three shelled-corn steers and three of the ear-corn-silage steers after 266 days of feeding. Inasmuch as the results of the feeding experiment are reported else- where in detail, 1 they will not be discussed here. The average daily gains of the lots were as follows : 140 days Ibs. Shelled-corn steers 2.52 Shelled-corn heifers 2.56 Ear-corn-silage steers 2.25 200 days Ibs. 2.35 2.36 2.18 266 days Ibs. 2.06 2.05 There was no difference in rate of gain between heifers and steers on the same ration. During the first 200 days, however, the steers on shelled corn made more rapid gains than those on ear-corn silage; for 266 days the gains were the same. In order to obtain further information on the effect of the length of the feeding period and of the ear-corn-silage ration on the quality of baby beef, these phases of the investigation were continued in 1927-28. A lot of 20 high-grade Hereford steer calves averaging 427 pounds was full-fed the standard ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage, and alfalfa hay as in the preceding experiment. The experi- ment was begun November 19, 1927. Two check steers were slaugh- tered at the time the others were put on feed, two after 112 days of l lll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1927-28, pp. 89-91, and Bui. 313, 1928. 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 171 FIG. 3. GRADING THE CARCASSES Members of the Grading Committee : E. T. Edinger and D. J. Slater, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and F. G. King, Purdue University. feeding, two after 147 days of feeding, two after 182 days of feeding, and two after 214 days of feeding. The others (12 head) were slaugh- tered in Chicago after 214 days of feeding. A similar lot of 15 calves weighing 427 pounds was fed ear-corn silage, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay as in the preceding experiment. Two calves from this lot were slaughtered at the University and eight were slaughtered at Chi- cago after 214 days of feeding. The remaining five calves from this lot were slaughtered in Chicago after 245 days of feeding. The details and the results of the feeding phase of this experiment have been given elsewhere. 1 Following are the average daily gains: Shelled-corn steers 112 days Ibs. 251 147 days Ibt. 247 182 days Ibs. 251 214 days Ibs. 244 245 days Ibs. Ear-corn-silaee steers . . 2.20 2.12 The shelled-corn steers made excellent gains; the gains of the ear- corn-silage steers were not quite so good. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Slaughter Data The calves slaughtered at the Experiment Station were weighed for three consecutive days before slaughter. The contents of the digestive tract were weighed and deducted from the slaughter weight to obtain the "net body weight." '111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpts. 1927-28, pp. 105-111, and 1928-29, p. 59. 172 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, The more important data obtained at the time of slaughter are given in Tables 1 and 2. 1 The data are calculated on the net body weights and the warm weights of the different parts in order to elimi- nate the influence of "fill." In percentages of head, shank, hide, tail, blood, and the internal organs there were no differences due to sex or ration. In general there was a gradual decrease in percentage of head, shank, hide, and diges- tive tract with increased length of the feeding period, indicating that these parts do not increase in weight so rapidly as the total weight of the animal. Considering the experimental error involved in slaughter work, it is not apparent that there were any differences in percentage of blood, liver, heart, and lungs which were due to differences in length of feeding. Killing fat (caul and gut fat) is often considered a good indication of condition. Assuming that the composition of the wholesale rib cut represents the composition of the entire carcass (page 210) , and com- paring the amount of killing fat with the amount of rib fat, it is to be noted that the amount of killing fat is only a fair indication of con- dition (Tables 11 and 12). As might be expected, there was a general increase in amount of killing fat with the increased time of feeding. The average killing fat of heifers was greater than for steers killed at the same time but not enough greater to affect the dressing percentages materially (Table 3). The amount of killing fat of the shelled-corn steers was greater than the amount of killing fat of the ear-corn-silage steers slaughtered at the same time. Grades of Calves and of Carcasses The feeder calves were graded by the official grading committee of the cooperative experiments mentioned above. The calves were graded again as slaughter cattle just before slaughter, and the carcasses were graded later by the same committee. The results of the grading of the feeder calves, the fat calves, and the carcasses are given in Tables 3 and 4. For convenience in discussion, the percentage of fat in the rib cut is included as a measure of finish. The numerical grades are based on 100 as a perfect score. A grade of 90 or above means a prime (or selected, in case of feeder) animal or carcass, 80 to 89 is choice, 70 to 79 is good, and 60 to 69 is medium. A choice feeder calf must have excellent conformation and quality, and these characters change but little during the process of fattening. It is fairly safe to assume, therefore, that a choice feeder calf which grades less than choice as a slaughter animal is unfinished. lr rhe results of various chemical studies of the carcasses and cuts are given in part in 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rpts. 1927-28, pp. 99-105, and 1928-29, p. 73. 1930} QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 173 Influence of Sex. The check heifers were considerably fatter than the check steers, altho they did not grade so high as one of the steers. The heifers and steers slaughtered after 140 days of feeding had prac- tically the same grades as they had had as feeders, ranging from high good to choice. There was practically no difference in grade due to sex. The carcasses of the heifers were somewhat better than those of the steers. This difference was due largely to the higher finish of the heifers, altho this was not true in case of Heifer 98. In general the steer carcasses were somewhat smoother. The carcasses were judged and given the following rank: First 19H Fifth 41S Second 95H Sixth 100H Third 34S Seventh 91S Fourth 11H Eighth 98H The heifers slaughtered at 200 days graded somewhat lower as feeders at the beginning of the feeding period than the steers slaugh- tered at the same time. As slaughter cattle there was about the same difference in their grades. The carcasses all graded about the same, all being choice. With one exception the heifer carcasses were con- siderably fatter than the steer carcasses. Heifers 63 and 76 were criticized as being wasty. Differences Due to Length of Feeding Period. In the first experi- ment the slaughter grades of the heifers killed at 140 days were about the same as of those killed at 200 days. Considerable improve- ment, however, was shown in the carcass grades of the heifers fed for the longer period. If Heifer 98 is eliminated from consideration, not much difference is evident in the finish of these two groups of heifers. The steers killed at 200 days in this experiment were markedly su- perior to those killed at 140 days, both in slaughter and in carcass grades, as a result of the longer feeding and the consequent better con- dition. The shelled-corn steers fed for 266 days, altho somewhat fatter, were no better and their carcasses were no better than those fed for only 200 days. It is of interest to note that the shelled-corn steers fed for 266 days had about the same degree of finish as the heifers fed for 200 days, and that the steers fed for 200 days had about the same degree of finish as the heifers fed for 140 days. In the second experiment only four of the feeders graded lower than choice and they were at the top of good. Hence any differences in slaughter and carcass grades may be attributed largely to condition. The calves slaughtered after 112 days of feeding graded good as slaughter cattle, being lacking in finish, as shown by the percentage of fat in the ribs. Their carcasses graded good. The calves slaugh- tered after 147 days graded about the same as those on feed 112 days. Their carcasses were good -|- and choice . They were underfinished, 174 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, h 2 H 9 s M E X H j-. t, -^ I -a s 1 H s ^ J 2 O ^ QJ I! & g a g ^ ^ g a ^ o ^ 3 o I K X w ** K -2 o 3 P s M T r u ifl ts 32 & I 1 u U "S k I u "S I t s r-oooo ^"CON y --.. wo-wco """* ^" ** d CO^ CO M* CO CO CO COCO t^-t^t 1QU91O co e* r~ co e -"- ' O ^ <-^ to t~t ^-(Ot^rt-a-N iee-"N -*!--* ^- N CM co CO d COW rococo CO CO COCOOSO tO 1 S33 ooo OOOOOOO) OOOOC& c 1 CCf^t- 000000 r-t~io. MTi-eo U5 518 o OQaeW Sfejssg^: CO >> 1 1 1 : :| 33K< SU ; ;6 too3<: S3 : : -fe KSKKK-S SOUS *-l O% -* ^ -fc racDM'* ^ CO OS 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 175 TABLE 1. SLAUGHTER DATA FOR HEIFERS AND STEERS: FIRST EXPERIMENT Continued (Results expressed as percentage of net body weight 1 ) la U "= ?* 5* . 13 1 111! * 111 i III * |1 * aa 1 * I * hJ 1 1 pa I * 1 u i i CO 1 t sfM H * 1 O 00 Ob- COr- OOOOI^OOOO i"->oeo oooc^co "*" ntC " *** C-l CC GO OO OC OO ^* * 00 ^ CO OJO'V -. i - f f """"""""' 717171 ____ 4.io(Ma>ooo> t~t^a>t^u9 1.7; 71 --71 .- COdcONNIN 0^0,1- *00t- 000^ ** co^.^ w^^.a,o, -.0000. t^iaioco -vnaoto -HOOOOCS 1 cocoeocoNco cocoeocoeo 1 (NCS1CON CONCSUN s = 1 \ i CO CO CJ CO OJ 1 ^ o m r- m in r^aoaooao ooor-,, o>r.oooo 1 II t-OON-.0 --,-, ^.0(N -^.^.CO i eeocoeo cococococo eocococo eocococo j I SgSSS ; 5518 ; ~ r -i 71-1-1 jj 25 | n _ .z 1 O 00 CO 1 jlgggl l}g ; ggl * 176 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, z m s S - - H J M W 'I B 3 H - 12 H c CO 43 K cB 5 I 1 1 H QJ s- 5 * " 3 1 i toous CN oo p p co eococo u co>o>o toio to < IIO t* CM CO CM OOCMO OOOOS eo CM co eococo c^eoeo CMCOCM IN ININ IN ININ * CO ININ OSOSOB OOOOS OOOO O IN CO o ^ 1 ^"O'T k<5kOU5 weowwMeo cNeocNccco . 1 CO^OO t~COO ICiOODOOtO CDOOCMCN ^OOOScNtOCO l-CO^!Tfi CM OOSOOCO kOCOOCO j S33 sss ^-^-n?; 8S88 CMNCNIMeMcN t t^co t r CM CM CM CM CM sssg Sb-t-cD CM CM CM 1 cooor- CO OO t tO-^MCOOOlQ - - s -. tOCMIOOS-HCO coioosecto CO CM CM oo^t-t- 1 OOOOS OOO'W ccoooe<5t~ CC-9-OCO kC OO CM O CM O> CM^-IOOO CMOCOOO cMOOOt- S5 kQCDkQ to-^-ia co c t* co r~ CD cot- CO CO t-cor-t-coco 1- 1- vc I- t- t- cor- CD CD cor- CD JS kOOCO kO C^ t^ O5 1O CM CM CO OO OSCOU5 t- O>OOOIO O>0> ~ - ~. ~. ^ OS OS -^ COCMOCO *** OO 00 00 OOOOOOO) o> e o> oo O O OS OS OS OS OOO1OSOS OOSOO ososoos a co CM in cs oo oc os oo IMt-00 os^ooiat^oo OS kO OS CO OS ^ / - ---. i CD CD CO 00 1 ll OSk<5cM CC"5<< CM OOOOO t-t-OS-* osiQooraiao 000 t- CO CD r- eo * s CDO^CM CM CM 05coco>ocoe<5 Ml * * n n eo * CO CO 1< CM CO COkOTf* CO CO CO CO "Ss> CO CO CO * OO T ^H CO O O3 IMOOOO ocooojo--! t-ot-t-o OSOCMO cost- OS 23 CM CM CM OO"5-"COOCO CM OOOO t^OOSOOOSc - t -. - r t-cM t- OScMrt 1^ r-r~cot- CDt-t~COCOt- co co cor- CD r- co co co i- .= !-:- .5 13 oo t>--H VTNCC'HN ^"1OCO CO Ud ^< OO -^ OO oo us ko os r- O CO OO O ^" OOS-H ,3i - T. -. -- s - cososco> 00000100 00 00 OS 00 00 00 0000000000 OO OO t OO 00 00 t- 00 c co CM co ot^-* >-i c t O) rt OS ecco CO IO *( CO CM 00 OI-H oor- COO CM a tnmic -W U5 CO OO CO CO t^ CD 1OU9CO1O U5 IO t^ U5 fl U5 kOkOkOCOUS kT3 kO TJ M* kOkOkOkO o, 9 t-CM'* ot~ COcOOiOM^ O ec^ ~* CM CO CD O O -H OCOcOS ^f oo m co CO 00 CO OS ( kOkfJkO U5COO .- .- L- ..- L- l- .-.-.-.- .-.'.-: <-'- ,-,-,- kQkOkOkO kOOCOkO 1 - :-. ~ ooco OOt^MOOO CDCOO'V -. 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"C > O ft oS w o 8 < < fi I. u Round 64.0 9.6 21.6 4.3 52.9 15.7 30.8 65.1 14.9 19.0 63.9 17.4 18.6 100.0 16.6 83.0 39.0 59.8 .1 58.7 12.4 25.2 2.2 59.3 23.4 17.4 39.8 40.3 18.9 68.1 9.3 19.9 2.1 40.1 7.6 46.3 6.3 68.5 7.5 - 20.2 3.0 59.5 9.2 29.0 74.6 9.6 16.2 57.5 8.0 20.2 100.0 28.1 71.9 58.6 39.3 .2 68.1 6.1 23.9 .8 64.5 15.6 19.0 53.8 24.7 21.2 70.0 7.1 19.8 2.2 40.9 5.5 46.1 7.5 68.7 15.4 14.1 .9 52.3 29.4 18.5 61.1 27.4 11.7 61.1 28.4 9.6 100.0 10.1 89.9 27.4 72.7 53.0 31.4 14.8 .9 53.9 36.6 10.6 43.9 43.5 12.2 63.7 22.1 12.5 .7 46.6 10.8 36.5 5.3 66.3 16.4 15.2 1.5 53.2 28.4 18.0 63.2 24.2 12.4 66.2 29.5 10.2 100.0 9.5 90.4 39.3 60.5 .2 53.9 31.3 13.5 .8 52.4 34.8 12.6 45.1 41.1 14.0 65.1 21.0 12.9 .8 46.4 11.5 39.1 2.8 65.1 18.1 13.8 2.1 47.9 37.4 14.0 61.1 27.9 11.0 49.7 40.6 9.4 100.0 6.7 93.2 25.9 72.6 .3 53.3 33.3 12.4 .5 42.0 48.4 10.0 37.8 52.6 9.0 60.5 26.4 11.5 .8 45.8 13.9 37.2 3.3 66.9 16.4 17.0 .8 55.1 24.4 20.6 65.1 22.0 13.0 58.7 29.0 11.9 100.0 5.9 94.1 38.8 60.5 .4 53.5 31.1 15.0 .3 48.4 39.0 13.0 44.2 43.5 12.3 63.5 22.0 13.1 1.1 42.1 13.6 39.3 4.5 65.3 17.6 16.0 .6 56.9 25.8 17.9 63.1 24.9 12.3 57.1 31.2 11.4 100.0 7.6 92.3 33.3 66.2 .6 51.6 33.5 14.0 .7 47.5 41.8 11.0 38.8 50.9 10.7 62.4 23.0 13.1 .9 43.8 14.7 38.5 2.4 67.3 18.7 15.0 .4 53.4 30.2 16.6 58.8 26.7 14.0 54.6 34.9 9.9 100.0 7.0 93.0 34.0 65.4 .3 52.4 31.8 13.5 1.4 46.2 44.8 9.7 42.2 49.4 8.8 64.9 21.8 13.0 .8 45.2 14.6 37.4 2.3 Fat Bone Tendon Rump Fat Bone Loin end Fat Bone Short loin Fat Bone Bed fat Fat Kidney knob Lean Fat Flank Lean Fat Bone Ribe Fat . ... Bone Tendon Navel Fat Bone Brisket Fat Bone Chuck Lean Fat Bone Tendon . . Shank Lean Fat Bone Tendon 'Fed ear-corn silage. 1930} QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 207 o g o g i O t Ws* < "a i - tC eg ^ a It 2 js ^1 ^ C o ^ 10COCM.O 001- 010 10 CO1OOO CMOO CO** OS t~ 5 1 sss CM 00 00 IOCM SS5 = SCM ^^ CO 8 COCO OS 88 SSS2- 3s CM COW s~ f CM ^ S2 IOCM SS2 10 CO CM lOCO 8 a sas A CO CO CM CO 1- -^ 1- t-t-us CO 10 o CMOO CO 00 CO OO OS CO CO PH 88s OCO 10 CO Sg2 1OCO 8 a S3 CM CO 1 1OCO 83 CMIO IOCS CO ^.-,0 oso> oso OS* CO t~oo S I CO S82 SS2 g52 8 >g 3 Sco " J^S CO 00 CO CO CO 00 OOOO9 o 010 CO 00 CO CM t- 00 OS CM S CO001O . IOCM ScM^J U9co2 8 "8 CM CO COCO OS 10 CO 1 r- t-co* CO 00 0* CM OS OS o * CO CMOl- -00** 52S : SS32 CM 1O CM COCM SS2 8 28 * IO s5 "" Si CO O>OSO *OCO CO*IO CMOS t^CM CO OS CO CO 00 1 > SS-2 : cocc 8 00 OO 00 O COCO SS2 i! OS CM t^coco 00* O *CO- CO 10 * CO t>. 0*-- - 3"" oo SS2 : SS2 SI52 gcO * CM 8 OOS 00 00 1OOO* IO CM- s CM OS OlOCO Ot-CM 00 CM OS o OS CM O IO CM CM CO IO OO t~ CM * CO IOCM CM ScM SCO CM CM 8 op 1 OO- coS CO OO * IOCM Si rococo CO OS CO *0 t^lO* CO* t^- CO * < OSOOOCO 1 < 00* CO SO CO CM CM co2 3S2 8 00 Sa oso co as SS2 Is osco* . CMCOU5 CMOOCM OS CM* o CO* 1O1OCM OCO IOCM & S2S : O " CM I---'- CO ^ SS2 8 2 ss S IO CM QQ *-co * 1OCOOS COOS1O o CO* 00 00*CMO s Sana - IO CM CM OCMCM S CM CM ^H s= 8 COCO OS 00 coco IO CO *-> Si COO.OOS oust- *..o- oooo OO COCO1O U500t~ "8 > "2 S2?5 ?2 CJ CO 8 ' CMOO S3 SCM CM 1-S * if 10 S2S COCM* r^ i^ ii 8 s* a 00*0.00 OOSCM a>oo^ 00 t^ o -co COiOlO CM*O>O> S oooo 1OOOCO 8 S5S S3 : : Jl pi j Jll^ " s jjj Bed fat Fat Kidney knob 1 r**i |jjj 208 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, Si (N- C00> f-MOCO ON- 1 -e t>- ^H 1 O -^ O CM CO CO ^r ^ i-l O Oi O ^ CO 5 ? TS CO -00- -0> I--(M CO >o ooo ot^ *CDOS p S 1 h- Nrl'OS O 00 10 OU30005 N OS- s 0>OO CON -*OCO COCO CO w ^ 0>0>- CO- t--CO- OOSN i 3 > U50N t^OSCO 1005CO ,). CO H ^ 41 O w "S sl 00-0 ^ f as 00 ^l -^ ^H If -^T r- < CO N 5S5 02 <- J O5OOt~- to O OO OOt^OOCO -Ht-es O 0) rn M oo 3S2 5S52 SS2- ^^M- g 03 t> fl S3 WCOtO N0005 O.CONOO t~(M H a3 1 ^2 3S?S S22 5^ $ * 00^. COOOOO CO-00 OS-* CO S * O m Is 3! oco ? o cooo DC w fe: S I 02 O 00 t^OO (MiOCOOJ ^ o * t, cu * Oi c?S 552 332 t~ CO to 2: co {g IO O5 t^OOO OS T o a m : : : : : : : : : Z 6 CQ J a J S 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 209 more than the steer. At 200 days, when the heifer carcass contained 18 percent more fat than the steer, the heifer flank contained 20 per- cent more than the steer flank. It is interesting to note that the flanks of the calves fed for only 112 days contained almost as much fat as those fed for the longer periods. In other words, the flank is one of the first cuts to fatten. This fact seems to vitiate the value of the flank as a measure of con- dition in the live animal. The flanks of the shelled-corn and ear-corn silage steers contained about the same amounts of fat. Navel. The navel was a very fat cut, containing much more fat than the carcass. The fat in the navel of the check heifer was 50 per- cent greater than that in the check steer. The navel of the heifer killed at 140 days was only a little fatter than that of the steer slaugh- tered at the same time. The navel of the heifer slaughtered after 200 days was considerably fatter than the steer navel. There was a rapid increase in the fat content of the heifer navels during the 200-day feeding period. The steer navels increased in fat- ness during the first 147 days of feeding. After this time the increase in condition was quite slow, showing that this cut fattens in the early stages of fattening. The navel of the ear-corn silage steer killed after 266 days was a little fatter than that of the shelled-corn steer fed the same length of time. Brisket. The brisket of the check heifer contained 63 percent more fat than the brisket of the check steer. At 140 days the heifer brisket contained 5 percent more than the steer brisket, and at 200 days 26 percent more than the steer. The brisket ranks next to the flank in fat content, containing much more than the carcass. Most of the brisket fat on the heifer carcasses had been stored before the heifers were put on feed. In fact the in- crease due to grain feeding was not great. In case of the steers the initial fat content was low, but a very rapid increase took place during the first 147 days, after which the increase was slow. There was no significant difference in the fat content of the briskets of the shelled-corn and the ear-corn-silage steers. Chuck. The chuck of the check heifer was 31 percent fatter than the steer chuck. At 140 days there was no difference between the chucks due to sex. At 200 days the heifer chuck had 26 percent more fat than the steer chuck. The composition of the chucks from the shelled-corn and the ear- corn silage steers was practically the same. The chuck was a very lean cut and contained considerably less fat than the carcass. The increase in fat content was slow but gradual up to 182 days of feeding, after which there was no change. 210 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, Shank. The shank was the leanest cut of the carcass. The in- crease in fat content was quite irregular, probably due to mechanical error in the separation of tendon and fat, and the small size of the cut, which magnifies such error. Physical Composition of Wholesale Ribs Studies by Lush 1 at the Texas Station have shown that the fat con- tent (as determined chemically) of the boneless meat of the whole- sale rib cut is an excellent indication of the fat content of the entire animal. In the present investigation the physical analysis of the wholesale rib cut (Tables 11 and 12) represented quite accurately the physical composition of the entire carcass in the case of all carcasses (Tables 7 and 8) excepting those of the thin calves. Consequently the physical analysis of the wholesale rib cut of each animal is taken as a measurement of the finish of the carcass. Comparison of Heifers and Steers. The ribs of the check heifers contained more than twice as much fat as the steer ribs, but only 12 percent less lean. At 140 days the average fat content of the heifer ribs was 18 percent greater than that of the steer ribs. All the heifer ribs but one (No. 98), were fatter than the steer ribs. Omitting No. 98, the average fat content of the heifer ribs was 26 percent greater TABLE 11. PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF WHOLESALE RIBS OF STEERS AND HEIFERS: FIRST EXPERIMENT (Results expressed as percentage of weight of cut) Animal Lean Fat Bone Tendon Animal Lean Fat Bone Tendon On feed days On feed 200 days 77H... 58.0 58.7 58.3 68.1 65.1 66.6 15.0 12.4 13.7 6.1 7.3 6.7 22.0 25.2 23.6 23.9 24.0 23.9 1.7 2.2 1.9 .8 1.6 1.2 76H... 48.7 52.4 53.3 52.4 49.6 51.3 50.3 47.5 53.5 52.6 51.0 39.3 33.0 33.3 33.5 36.0 35.0 31.6 37.9 31.1 31.9 33.2 11.7 14.1 12.4 13.6 13.3 13.0 14.0 14.2 15.0 14.5 14.4 .7 .9 .5 .8 1.0 .8 1.3 .7 .3 1.3 .9 47H 10H 63H... 843 59H 38H 148 Average Average On feed 140 days 52S 88S... 51S 98H 57.7 53.0 48.0 48.6 49.9 51.4 53.9 54.8 59.5 56.1 23.5 31.4 36.5 36.2 34.7 32.5 31.3 28.6 22.5 27.5 17.1 14.8 15.0 13.6 13.9 14.9 13.5 15.3 16.6 15.1 1.1 .9 .6 1.0 .9 .9 .8 1.0 1.5 1.1 308 100H Average 95H On feed 266 days 11H 19H Average . . . . 853... (Shetttd-c 51.6 50.6 47.1 49.8 Ear-corn-i 52.4 51.5 51.4 51.8 ornsteeri) 33.5 34.9 36.7 35.0 tilagt ttetr 31.8 32.9 31.9 32.2 14.0 13.2 14.2 13.8 ij 13.5 14.6 15.2 14.4 .7 .7 .8 .8 1.4 .9 1.0 1.1 41S 738 34S. . . 328 918 Average Average ( 728 338 648 Average 'Lush, J. L., Jour. Agr. Res. 32, 727. 1926. 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEP 211 TABLE 12. PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF WHOLESALE RIBS OF STEERS: SECOND EXPERIMENT (Results expressed as percentage of weight of cut) Steer Days on feed Lean Fat Bone Tendon Shelled-corn steers 88... 64 2 10 4 22 9 1 9 52 62 7 14 6 20 7 1 5 Average 63 5 12 5 21 8 1 7 94... 112 51 8 30 4 16 2 1 24 112 62 21 6 15 5 2 Average 56 9 26 15 8 6 87... 147 56 2 28 2 14 6 5 89 147 55 5 28 4 14 1 1 i Average 55 9 28 3 14 3 8 P17... 182 54 1 29 8 14 4 1 4 69 182 49 2 35 7 13 8 .9 Average 51 7 32.8 14 1 1.1 60... 214 47.9 40 6 10.7 1 3 Pll... 214 47 8 36 2 14 1 2 P 2... 214 51 5 35 5 12 4 1 5 P21 214 52 7 32 2 13 8 1.0 78 214 53 8 31 14 1 g 93... 214 45 6 41 12 4 9 21 214 52 6 33 13 3 1.2 11 214 46 2 39 2 13 5 9 49... 214 49 8 35 8 13 3 1 1 65 214 52 2 32 5 14 6 1.1 2 214 54 8 30 14 2 1 3 73 214 59 4 24 2 15 1 1 4 P16 214 51 8 32 9 13 6 1.3 65 214 52 33 4 13 8 9 Average 51.3 34.1 13.5 1.1 Ear-corn-silage steers 86... 214 52 8 32 14 3 .8 26 .. 214 53 6 30 15 2 1.2 P 9... 214 57 1 27 2 14 5 1.3 71... 214 53 9 30.9 14.0 1.1 P18 214 54.6 30.2 14.1 1.4 41 214 57.0 28 14 1 1.6 46 214 54 5 31 13.2 1.1 44 214 50 1 36.1 12.8 .9 97 214 52 6 32 2 13 9 .8 22 214 51 9 33 7 13.0 .9 Average 53 8 31.1 13.9 1.1 P4... 245 49 5 37.4 12.2 .9 6 245 52.3 33.7 13.5 .7 35 245 60 2 23 7 15.5 .8 P10 245 51 6 33.0 14.4 .9 5 245 50.8 34.7 13.9 .9 Average 52.9 32.5 13.9 .8 than that of the steer ribs, and the lean somewhat lower than that of the steer ribs. It is interesting to note that the ribs of the heifers fed for 140 days were as fat as those of the steers fed for 200 days. The fat content of the ribs of the heifers slaughtered after 200 days was greater than that of the ribs from the steers fed the same length of time. The difference, however, was much smaller than in case of the calves fed only 140 days. Steer 88 was considerably fatter than his mates. Omitting this steer, the heifer ribs were all fatter than the steer ribs. There were no significant differences due to sex, in content 212 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, FIG. 24. WHOLESALE RIBS FROM SHELLED-CORN STEERS FED 214 DAYS Most of the ribs were well finished and well marbled, but not wasty. FIG. 25. WHOLESALE RIBS FROM EAR-CORN-SILAGE STEERS FED 214 DAYS These ribs were not so well finished nor so well marbled as the shelled-corn ribs shown in Fig. 15. QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 213 of lean and bone. The ribs of the heifers fed 200 days had about the same finish as those of the steers fed the same ration for 66 days longer. Effect of Length of Feeding Period. As would be expected, the fat content of the ribs increased with the length of the feeding period. This increase was rapid in the early part of the feeding period and slow in the later part. The heifers showed little or no increase in fat content after 140 days of feeding. The shelled-corn steers showed only slightly more fat in the ribs when fed for 266 days than when fed for 200 days and for 214 days. FIG. 26. WHOLESALE RIBS FROM EAR-CORN-SILAGE STEERS FED 245 DAYS These ribs were as well finished as those from shelled-corn steers fed 214 days (see Figs. 24 and 25) . Ear-Corn Silage Compared With Shelled Corn. The ribs of the ear-corn-silage steers were not quite so fat as those of the shelled-corn steers fed the same length of time. In the first experiment the ribs of the ear-corn-silage steers fed 266 days were about as fat as those of the shelled-corn steers fed 200 days. In the second experiment the ribs of the ear-corn-silage steers fed 214 days were not so well finished as those of the shelled-corn steers fed for the same period. The 245- day ear-corn-silage ribs were not quite, but almost, as fat as those of the shelled-corn steers fed for only 214 days. In other words, about thirty to sixty days additional feeding was required to make the ear- corn-silage steers as fat as the shelled-corn steers. Physical Composition of the 9th, 10th, and llth Ribs The percentages of lean, fat, bone, tendon, and rib eye (the sec- tion of the longissimus dorsi muscle) in the 9th, 10th, and llth rib cut were determined during the mechanical analysis of the seven-rib wholesale cut. Prior to cutting, tracings were made of the surface of the cut at the 12th rib, showing the external covering of fat, the rib eye, the position of the bones and the intramuscular fat. The areas of the rib eye and fat covering were determined from the tracings by means of a planimeter. 214 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, 1930} 215 Under the discussion of the physical composition of the wholesale rib cut and the composition of the entire carcass, it was pointed out that the physical composition of the wholesale rib cut was representa- tive of the composition of the entire carcass. Since the 9th, 10th, and llth rib cut was analyzed independently, it was hoped that there might be a definite relationship between the percentage of fat in this cut and the fat in the entire carcass. Such a factor would be valuable as a measurement of the condition of a carcass without analyzing either the carcass or the wholesale rib cut. The wholesale ribs and the 9th, 10th, and llth rib cuts from 77 carcasses, including 57 of the carcasses from the experiments reported in this Bulletin and 20 good and choice two-year-old carcasses from another of our experiments, were analyzed physically. The relation- ship between the fat in the two cuts was obtained by dividing the per- TABLE 13. PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF 9m, lOra, AND HTH RIBS, AREA OF RIB EYE AND AREA OF FAT OVER RIB EYE OF STEERS AND HEIFERS: FIRST EXPERIMENT Animal Davson feed Lean Fat Bone Tendon Rib eye in total cut Rib eye in fat- free cut Area 1 of rib eye Area 1 of fat over rib eye Relation of fat to fat of whole- sale ribs' 47H... pet- 58.1 pet- 19.1 pet. 22.8 pet. pet. 21.4 pet. 26.5 iq. cm. tq. cm. pet. 77H 56.7 15.9 22.2 1.5 27.4 34.1 Average 57.4 17.5 22.5 1.5 24.4 30.3 84S. . . 63.7 8.4 25.4 23.1 26.0 14S 64.4 6.8 25.1 1.4 24.7 27.2 Average 64.0 7.6 25.2 1.4 23.9 26.6 98H... 140 54 4 26 4 16 5 1 8 21 6 29 7 53 2 11 4 112 100H 140 50 1 35 13 7 1 5 18 7 28 7 54 8 11 9 111 3 95H 140 44 7 38 8 15 7 7 17 9 29 3 48 8 12 8 106 4 11H 140 43 5 40 6 13 2 1 6 16 9 29.0 48.7 17.9 112 3 19H 140 45 8 38 5 14 4 1 3 16 5 26 8 35 8 20 6 111 Average 41S... 140 47.7 50 2 35.9 34 14.7 14 5 1.4 1 2 18.3 17 7 28.7 26 8 52.3 57 3 14.9 10 9 108 6 348 . 140 49 5 32 3 16 1 4 19 2 28 3 58 1 11 1 112 6 91S 140 57 22 7 17 5 2 22 28 8 60 5 9 100 5 Average 76H... 200 52.2 44 1 29.6 43 8 16.0 11 5 1.5 1 19.6 15 8 28.0 27 9 58.6 65 5 10.3 17.7 111 5 10H... 200 50 3 36 2 13 1 9 19 9 31 67 2 14 9 109 8 63H... 200 43 3 42 13 9 5 17 8 30 9 71 9 23 7 125 9 59H 200 49 6 36 8 13 1 3 16 1 25 2 58 1 11 6 110 1 38H 200 44 2 41 2 12 5 1 7 19 7 33 7 61.4 16.9 114.6 Average 528... 200 46.3 49 7 40.0 35 8 12.8 13 3 1.1 1 6 17.9 20 6 29.7 31.9 64.8 63.1 17.0 17.2 113.2 888... 200 42 8 42 3 14 1.0 15.7 27.0 66.9 17.9 111.6 518 . 200 48 8 36 14 4 9 17 7 27 6 63 5 15.1 115.7 308 200 49 2 34 2 15 2 2 21 2 31.9 75.4 20.3 107.1 Average 858... 266 47.7 45 37.1 39 8 14.2 14 5 1.4 .6 18.8 15 5 29.6 25.8 67.2 67.0 17.6 17.2 118.8 738. . . 266 48 8 38 5 11.2 .7 8.1 31.5 59.3 15.2 110.3 328 266 44 1 40 12 9 1 1 18 7 32 2 66.3 18.8 109.1 Average 46.0 39.5 12.8 .8 17.8 29.8 64.2 17.1 Ear-corn-eilage steers 728... 266 45 5 37.5 13.8 1.3 17.3 28.6 60.3 26.5 118.1 338 266 48 6 36 6 14 1 8 20.7 32 6 75.1 19.5 111.1 648 266 47.6 36 2 14.6 1.2 20.1 31.7 65.6 17.1 113.2 Average 47.2 36.8 14.1 1.1 19.4 31.0 67.0 21.0 'Taken between the 12th and 13th ribs. 'Fat in wholesale rib cut = 100 percent. 216 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, centage of fat in the 9th, 10th, and llth rib cut by the percentage of fat in the wholesale cut and multiplying by 100. The percentage of fat in the retail cut was higher than in the wholesale cut in every in- stance, the relationship ranging from 101 to 126 percent. The average was 110.11 .34, with a standard deviation of 4.47 .24. In other words, the amount of fat in the 9th, 10th, and llth ribs was not a very accurate measure of the amount of fat in the wholesale rib cut and consequently, the amount of fat in the carcass. TABLE 14. PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF 9TH, lOrn, AND HTH RIBS, AREA OF RIB EYE AND AREA OF FAT OVER RIB EYE OF STEERS: SECOND EXPERIMENT Animal Days on feed Lean Fat Bone Tendon Rib eye in total Rib eye in fat- free cut Area 1 of rib eye Area 1 of fat over rib eye Relation of fat to fat of wholesale rib* Shelled-corn steers 88... 112 112 147 147 182 182 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 pet. 60.8 63.2 62.0 44.4 57.8 51.1 50.8 52.5 51.6 51.1 47.3 49.2 45.5 47.8 46.8 46.8 48.6 51.9 50.4 41.8 50.4 43.4 47.8 50.4 54.1 57.2 48.9 pet. 12.5 16.2 14.4 35.9 24.7 30.3 30.9 30.7 30.8 32.7 38.6 35.7 39.2 37.6 42.7 39.4 38.3 33.4 33.4 44.8 34.5 42.4 37.7 34.1 30.4 25.6 36.7 pet. 22.9 18.5 20.7 16.4 16.0 16.2 17.3 15.3 16.3 14.7 14.4 14.5 13.2 13.7 9.7 13.3 12.1 13.3 14.5 12.2 13.5 12.7 13.2 14.3 14.0 15.4 13.2 pet. 2.7 1.7 2.2 2.2 .4 1.3 1.3 .9 1.1 1.3 .7 1.0 1.4 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.4 pet. 22.6 25.0 23.8 17.0 23.3 20.2 20.6 80.6 20.6 18.7 15.4 17.1 18.0 17.3 19.3 17.3 19.0 21.1 19.8 15.9 21.6 17.1 18.1 21.0 20.9 21.8 19.1 pet. 26.2 29.9 28.1 26.9 31.4 29.2 29.7 30.0 29.8 27.8 24.7 26.3 30.0 27.6 33.1 28.0 30.3 31.8 30.0 28.9 33.1 29.8 29.1 31.7 30.0 29.3 30.2 tq. cm. 39.2 37.3 38.2 47.9 57.6 52.8 62.8 52.0 57.4 56.9 57.8 57.4 80.5 58.2 61.7 64.2 53.1 54.8 72.2 56.2 59.2 53.1 58.5 68.2 68.0 64.3 62.3 eq.cm. 5.5 9.1 7.3 10.6 11.4 10.7 15.0 15.7 15.4 12.5 17.5 15.0 16.8 23.6 30.7 17.3 28.5 25.7 19.1 21.8 15.1 17.2 20.3 17.9 17.1 16.0 20.5 pet. 114.4 117.9 109.4 107.9 109.7 108.0 119.3 112.6 105.1 108.7 107.9 103.5 107.8 109.3 104.3 108.0 105.3 104.8 101.4 105.8 52. Average 94... 24 Average 87... 89 Average P17. . . 69 Average P16.... 65 60. . Pll... P2.... P21.... 78... 93 21 11 49 55 2 73 Average Ear-corn-silage steers 26... 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 245 245 245 245 245 50.6 33.0 15.2 1.4 22.4 33.3 62.8 57.6 56.8 67.6 60.2 63.0 78.1 53.4 56.8 59.7 61.6 65.2 71.5 76.5 66.7 57.6 67.5 14.8 20.8 14.3 16.9 17.2 12.5 19.2 16.9 20.2 16.7 17.0 22.7 25.0 13.6 20.8 21.3 20.7 110.3 iii'7 107.5 106.6 116.0 110.7 110.7 113.3 109.2 118.6 109.5 109.7 109.6 109.7 86... P9 ... 53.8 50.6 51.8 52.5 51.5 46.2 48.8 48.7 50.5 42.9 49.4 57.6 47.6 46.8 48.9 30.4 33.2 32.2 32.5 34.3 40.0 36.5 36.8 34.3 44.4 36.9 26.0 36.2 38.0 36.3 14.3 14.9 14.2 13.4 12.9 12.2 13.3 13.0 13.7 11.6 12.6 15.6 14.9 14.3 13.8 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.2 1.4 1.2 .8 1.0 1.4 1.2 1.0 .8 1.1 1.0 1.0 20.9 18.7 17.9 22.6 21.1 18.6 18.8 18.5 20.0 14.9 19.6 21.8 15.5 14.7 17.3 30.0 28.1 26.5 33.1 32.0 31.2 29.9 29.5 30.4 26.7 31.2 29.4 24.4 23.6 27.1 71 P18... 41.... 46 44 97... 22. .. Average P4... 6... 35... P10 5 Average "Taken between the 12th and 13th ribs. 'Fat in wholesale ribs = 100 percent. 1930} QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 217 Tables 13 and 14 give the data from the physical analyses of the 9th, 10th, and llth ribs of the carcasses of these experiments. The area of fat over the rib eye between the 12th and 13th ribs was determined by measuring the fat which covered the rib eye proper. There was no indication that the area of fat over the rib eye is a very accurate measurement of the percentage of visible fat in the cut. The area of the rib eye (between the 12th and 13th ribs) was greater in the steers slaughtered after 140 days than in the heifers slaughtered at that time. When slaughtered after 200 days of feeding, there was no significant difference between the sexes. There were no differences in percentages of rib eye due to sex whether calculated on the basis of the entire or on the fat-free cut. There was a gradual but irregular decrease in percentage of rib eye with increased length of the feeding period. That this was due largely, if not entirely, to the increase in condition is indicated by the fact that there were no significant differences between the calves slaugh- tered at different times when the percentages of rib eye were calculated on the basis of the fat-free cut. There were no significant differences between the shelled-corn and ear-corn silage ribs, either in percentage or area of rib eye. Firmness of Fat Firmness of fat is a factor of considerable importance in judging the quality of beef. A soft, oily fat is quite objectionable. One of the TABLE 15. REFRACTIVE INDEXES OF FAT OF STEERS AND HEIFERS FED FOR VARIOUS PERIODS AND OF STEERS FED SHELLED CORN COMPARED WITH STEERS FED EAR-CORN SILAGE : FIRST EXPERIMENT Animal Days on feed Refractive index Animal Days on feed Refractive index 77H 1.4572 1.4573 1.4572 1.4564 1.4570 1.4589 1.4605 1.4598 1.4596 1.4585 1.4595 1.4601 1.4592 1.4595 76H... 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 1.4568 1.4571 1.4570 1.4570 1.4570 1.4568 1.4569 1.4568 1.4568 1.4569 47H .. 10H. . . 848 63H 59H... 14S. 38H Average 528... 98H .. 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 888 100H 518 MH 80S 11H Average 19H jiq Shelled-corn steers 348... 858 266 266 266 1.4569 1.4570 1.4569 1.4569 918 738 Average 328 Average Ear-corn-ailage steers 728... 266 266 266 1.4569 1.4568 1.4568 1.4568 338... 648 . Average 218 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, TABLE 16. REFRACTIVE INDEXES OF FAT OF STEERS FED SHELLED CORN AND OF STEERS FED EAR-CORN SILAGE FOR VARIOUS PERIODS: SECOND EXPERIMENT Steer Days on feed Refractive index Steer Days on feed Refractive index Shelled-corn steer I jar-corn-eilage sta ;re 88 4580 86... 214 1 4590 52 .4569 26... 214 4586 Average .4574 P9 214 4579 71 214 .4579 94... 112 .4579 P18 214 4588 24 112 .4578 41 214 4582 Average .4578 46 214 .4581 44 214 .4579 87... 147 4578 97 214 4579 89 147 .4577 22 214 .4583 Average 4577 4583 P17... 182 .4581 P4... 245 .4584 69 182 4572 6 245 4581 Average .4576 35 245 4589 P10 245 4588 P16. . . 214 .4588 5 245 .4590 65 214 .4588 Average .4586 60 214 .4585 Pll... 214 .4589 P2... 214 4580 P21 214 4590 78 214 .4580 93 214 4581 21 214 4581 11 214 4581 49 214 .4585 55 214 4583 2 214 4581 73 214 1 4580 Average 1.4584 best measures of firmness of fat is the refractive index of the rendered fat. A fat sample was taken from over the 12th rib of each carcass, rendered, and the refractive index determined. (Tables 15 and 16). No differences in firmness due to sex were evident in the first ex- periment; there were distinct differences, however, due to length of the feeding period and finish. The fat of the check calves was quite hard. After 140 days of feeding, the fat softened up considerably, being about the same as lard from corn-fed hogs. The fat of the calves fed for 200 days was much firmer than that of the 140-day calves, being in fact quite firm. There was no further hardening of the fat in the calves slaughtered after 200 days. The results of the second experiment are not in accord with those of the first experiment. The fat of Steer 52, a check steer, was as hard as that of the check calves in the preceding experiment. The fat of the other check steer was somewhat soft. The fat of all the steers killed after 112, 147, and 182 days of feeding was quite soft, except that of No. 69, which was fairly hard. The fat of all the steers fed longer than 182 days was somewhat soft. In fact, the fat seemed to become softer with increased feeding. There was no difference in firmness between the shelled-corn and ear-corn-silage steers in either experiment. 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 219 Color of Lean The color of beef is generally recognized as an important factor in the determination of its market value. As a matter of fact, no one has definitely demonstrated that the color of beef actually affects its quality. Yet, as long as packers, wholesalers, and retailers generally, and consumers to a certain extent, have the idea that dark colored or purple beef is of poor quality, such beef is bound to meet a certain amount of sales resistance regardless of its actual quality. The market demands that beef from cattle from one to two years of age should show a bright pink color, with the lighter shades pre- ferred. In beef from mature cattle, a light cherry red is desired. Dark or "black" beef is especially discriminated against. Determination of Color. Colors are most difficult of description. A light cherry red to one person may be described entirely differently by another. In fact, two persons may not even see the same color alike because while people are rarely totally color blind occasionally one is partially color blind. Such factors as illumination, color of background, surface character of the sample, colors of objects pre- viously seen, etc., also affect the judgment of the observer to a very great extent. Hence, considering the difficulty of giving an intelligible description of color, definite physical measures must be used in scien- tific work. Color of meat may be measured just as definitely as the height or weight of a steer. Of course, different, and to most people unfamiliar, terms are used in describing the measurements. According to Luck- iesh, 1 of the various methods of analyzing color, that of the spectro- photometer is the most useful. The physicist and the psychologist specify the nature of any color in terms of three fundamental attri- butes, viz., brilliance, hue, and saturation. Brilliance is that attribute of any color in respect of which it may be classed as equivalent to some member of a series of grays ranging from black to white. Brilliance is expressed as percentage of relative brightness. Thus the brilliance of absolute black is percent and that of pure white is 100 percent, all other colors falling in between. For example,- meat which has a brightness of 17 percent is 17 percent as bright (or light) as a pure white. Incidentally, it would be a very bright (or light) color for meat. On the other hand, a brightness of 10 percent would be very dark meat. By the hue of a color is meant that attribute of the color which permits it to be classed as reddish, yellowish, greenish, etc. Hue is expressed as dominant wave length in millimicrons (m/x). Thus, if the dominant wave length of a meat sample is 620 millimicrons, the sample is classed as a red because its dominant wave length falls in 'Color and its applications. D. Van Nostrand Co. 1927. 220 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, the red part of the spectrum. If the dominant wave length were 640 m/A a deeper red would be indicated because the wave length falls in a "redder" part of the spectrum. Purples do not exist on the spectrum but depend upon combining long and short wave lengths (red and violet) . Ordinarily purples are defined by the wave length of the com- plementary hue which falls in the green or yellow-green region of the spectrum. Saturation is that attribute of any color, possessing hue, by virtue of which the normal eye perceives, in addition to hue, the presence or absence of gray. A color in which gray is noticeably present is de- scribed as "dull." Saturation is expressed in percentage purity. In other words, the percentage purity is a measure of the vividness of the color. A low percentage of purity means a dull color while a high percentage of purity means a vivid color. * FIG. 28. THE SPECTROPHOTOMETER This apparatus was used to measure the color of the meat. By means of the spectrophotometer the brilliance, hue, and satura- tion of a meat sample may be easily and quickly determined. For- tunately, all extraneous factors, such as total or partial color blindness, variation in the illuminant, nature of the background, etc., are con- trolled. With this instrument two or more experienced observers will obtain the same results on the same sample. The readings are taken quite rapidly, (triplicate readings on a sample may be made in 6 minutes) so there is little or no change in color during the analysis. Differences in color which are too slight to be seen with the naked eye are measured. The presence of marbling has no effect upon the analysis except to make the readings a little more difficult. The color analyses in this investigation were made with the Keuffel and Esser spectrophotometer 1 (Fig. 28). A cross-section about one- 'For description of apparatus, see Jour. Optical Soc. of Amer. 11, pp. 403-10. October, 1925. 1930} QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 221 half inch thick from the rib eye of the 12th rib was used for analysis. The analysis was made thirty minutes after cutting. All analyses were made in triplicate. Inasmuch as sex apparently had no effect upon the color of the meat, the results of both the 1926-27 and the 1927-28 experiments with calves have been grouped together (Table 17). Analyses are also in- cluded for two choice veal calves of known age and feeding, for ten two- to three-year-old steers fed corn, cottonseed meal, silage and alfalfa hay in another experiment, and for some old cows and typical "black cutters" for comparison. Unfortunately the method of color analysis had not yet been worked out when the check calves of the first experiment were slaughtered. Hence there are no color analyses of the rib eyes of these calves. Under the heading "Interpretation" an attempt is made to describe briefly the brightness and the hue indicated by the analysis. The brightness is described as light, medium, or dark as measured by the percentage of brightness (Column 4 of Table 17) . The hue is described according to the system of nomenclature proposed by Ridgeway. 1 Jones 2 has made determinations of the dominant wave length (hue) of the thirty-six "hues" utilized by Ridgeway in his system. Hence by referring the dominant wave length of the meat sample to the wave lengths of Ridgeway 's colors, the name of the hue as proposed by Ridgeway is obtained. Then, considering the purity of the hue as expressing its degree of dullness, and the brightness of the sample, the color of the sample is obtained. A more scientific method of describing the hue is to locate on the color triangle, or dominant wave length chart, 3 shown in Fig. 29 the dominant wave length as given in the table. The numbers around the outside of the triangle represent different wave lengths, those along the straight line being complementary (purple). We have indicated on the chart the approximate wave length where the different hues begin; that is, violet has an approxi- mate wave length of 400 to 445, blue 446 to 499, etc. Thus, starting with 400 on the chart (the shortest visible wave length), which is an intense violet, the hue changes gradually from violet to blue, becoming blue at 446; at 500 it changes from blue to blue-green; at 513 from blue-green to green ; at 578 from green to yellow ; at 592 from yellow to orange; at 620 from orange to red; at 493C from red to purple; and at 400 from purple to violet. 'Color standards and nomenclature. Published by Robert Ridgeway, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., 1912. 'Colorimetry report, Jour, of Optical Soc. of Amer. 6, p. 572. August, 1922. *Idem, Fig. 9, p. 575. 222 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, Assuming that the sample has a dominant wave length of 605, we find from the chart that its hue is orange red. If the wave length is 640, the hue is an intense red; if 494C, it is reddish purple; if 560C, it is violet purple. Naturally the interpretations are open in part to the same criticism as the description of any color. Taken in connec- tion with the color analysis, however, even small differences are re- corded. For example, the descriptions of the colors of the two veal samples are identical. By referring to the analyses with the spectro- photometer, however, it is seen that No. 1 was considerably lighter FIG. 29. COLOR TRIANGLE The numbers around the outside of the triangle represent different wave lengths, those along the straight line being complementary (purple). Starting with 400 on the chart (the shortest visible wave length), which is an intense violet, the hue changes gradually from violet to blue, becoming blue at 446; from blue to blue-green at 500; from blue-green to green at 513; from green to yellow at 578; from yellow to orange at 592; from orange to red at 620; from red to purple at 493 C; and from purple to violet at 400. than No. 2, having a higher percentage of brightness. No. 1 was more of a greenish yellow, while No. 2 was an orange yellow. The color of No. 1 was a little duller, as shown by a lower purity. These calves had been suckling their dams and were strictly choice. No. 1 was 25 days old and No. 2 was 176 days old. Color of Meat From Unfinished Calves. The meat from the feeder calves, which had been fed on grass, was quite dark and the hues were in the orange part of the spectrum. Most of the samples from the par- tially finished calves were considerably lighter than those from the feeder calves. The hues were about the same, with the exception of No. 87, which was in the red part of the spectrum and quite dull. Finished Calves. Most of the samples from the finished calves (yearlings) were about the same in brightness as those from the par- tially finished calves. The dominant wave length was a little higher; that is, it was nearer the red end of the spectrum. The saturation was lower than in the thin and partly fattened calves, i.e., the colors were 1930] 223 TABLE 17. EFFECT OF AGE AND FINISH ON COLOR OF BEEF Animal Carcass grade Days on feed Bright- ness Dominant wave length Saturation (purity) Interpretation of brightness and wave length Veal calves 1. Choice Choice pet. 28.7 18.8 III;! 580 590 pet. 19 22.5 Very light, cadmium yellow Very light, cadmium yellow 2 Feeder calves 88.... Medium Medium 12.5 11.8 12.1 609 596 602.5 13 25 19 Dark, scarlet Dark, orange chrome 52. Average Partially finished calves (baby beef) 24... Good- 112 11.6 591 25 Dark, orange 94 Good - 112 15.2 594 29.5 Light, cadmium orange Average 13.4 592.5 27.2 98H Good- 140 13.5 596 17 Dark, orange chrome 100H Good 140 14.3 589 25 Medium, cadmium yellow 95H... Good+ 140 17.1 588 22 Very light, cadmium yellow 11H Good+ 140 13.7 594 18 Dark, cadmium orange 19H Choice 140 14.7 594 21 Medium, cadmium orange 41 Good 140 15.0 604 12 Light, grenadine red 34 Good-r- 140 13.8 592 23 Dark, orange 91 Good 140 15.4 589 24 Light, cadmium orange 87 Good+ 147 16.2 628 2 Very light, spectrum red 89. Choice 147 16 2 595 19 Very light, cadmium orange Average 15.0 596.9 18.3 Finished yearlings (baby beef) 69. Choice 182 14.5 620 11 Medium, scarlet red P17... Good- 182 13.7 602 13.5 Dark, flame scarlet 76H... Choice 200 13.3 638 3 Dark, spectrum red 10H Choice 200 14.5 605 9 Medium, grenadine red 63H Choice 200 14.5 605 14 Medium, grenadine red 59H... Choice 200 12.6 605 12 Dark, grenadine red 38H Choice 200 13 2 603 12.5 Dark, flame scarlet 52S Choice 200 13.6 616 7 Dark, scarlet red 88S Choice 200 12.7 612 10 Dark, scarlet 51S Choice 200 14.4 610 9 Medium, scarlet 30S Choice 200 14.7 628 4 Medium, spectrum red 26 Choice 214 14.1 603 15.5 Medium, flame scarlet 88 Choice 214 16.4 600 18.5 Light, flame scarlet P16 Choice+ 214 14 4 596 17.5 Medium, orange chrome 65 Choice 214 14.7 592 28.5 Medium, orange 60.... Choice 214 15.4 605 10 Light, grenadine red Pll Choice 214 13 618 8 Dark, scarlet red P2. .. Choice 214 15.1 602 14 Light, flame scarlet P21 Choice 214 15 5 595 19 Light, cadmium orange 78. ... Choice 214 13.2 600 18 Dark, flame scarlet 93 Choice+ 214 15.0 605 13 Light, grenadine red 21. Choice 214 16 5 600 14.5 Light, flame scarlet 11. . . . Choice 214 19.0 592 24 Very light, orange 49 Choice 214 13.9 607 12 Dark, grenadine red 55.... Choice 214 16 5 598 16 Light, orange chrome 2 Choice 214 14.8 650 4 Medium, spectrum red + 73.... Good 214 13.0 605 11 Dark, grenadine red P9... Choice 214 14.4 605 13 Medium, grenadine red 71 Choice 214 13.3 608 12 Dark, scarlet P18 Good+ 214 14.4 598 14.5 Medium, orange chrome 41. Choice 214 16 600 13.5 Light, flame scarlet 46 Choice 214 14.0 595 20 Medium, cadmium orange 44. Choice 214 16 1 590 19 Light, cadmium yellow 97. . Choice 214 16 7 593 20 Light, orange 22. Choice 214 15 1 595 21 Light, cadmium orange Average 14.6 605.6 13.8 (Table concluded on next page) 224 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, TABLE 17. EFFECT OF AGE AND FINISH ON COLOR OF BEEF Concluded Animal Carcass grade Days on feed Bright- ness Dominant wave length Saturation (purity) Interpretation of brightness and wavelength Highly finished yearlings (baby beef) P4... Choice+ 245 pet. 13.6 IP/1 640 pet. 2 Dark, spectrum red 6 Choice 245 12.9 605 12.5 Dark, grenadine red 35. Good+ 245 12.5 615 10 Dark, scarlet red P10 Choice 245 13.1 610 11 Dark, scarlet 5 Choice 245 12.3 615 8 Dark, scarlet red 12.9 617 8.7 85S... Choice 266 14.1 605 11 Medium, grenadine red 73S . ... Choice 266 13.9 640 2 Dark, spectrum red 32S . . Choice 266 15.4 605 10 Light, grenadine red 72S... Choice 266 13.0 655 2 Dark, spectrum red 33S ChoiceH- 266 14.1 605 10.5 Medium, grenadine red 64S Choice 266 13.9 607 11.5 Dark, grenadine red Average 14.1 619.5 7.8 Two-year-old steers 33. .. Good 84 11.4 496C 12 Dark, rose-red purple 34 Good- 84 11.6 497C 13 Dark, rose-red purple 36 Choiee 84 11.6 505C 15 Dark, rose-red purple 32 Good 84 12.9 507C 12 Dark, rose-red purple 40 Good 84 11.8 493C 12 Dark, rose-red purple 39 Good- 84 12.9 498C 11 Dark, rose-red purple 35. Good- 84 13.9 615' 10 Dark, scarlet red 37 Good-|- 84 13.9 603 1 12 Dark, grenadine red 31 Good 84 11.8 620' 6 Dark, scarlet red 38 Choice 84 12.5 493C 14 Dark, rose-red purple 1 Average 12.4 498. 4C 11.7 Four-year-old steers 2.... Medium+ 9.5 503C 15 Very dark, rose-red purple 3 Medium+ 9.6 615 12 Very dark, scarlet red Hard-bone cows 660628. Medium 10 2 493C 13 5 66302S 660628 Canner Common 10.7 13.7 493C 494C 13 8 Very dark, rose-red purple Dark, rose-red purple 31. Good 10 6 493C 11 Average 11.3 493. 2C 11.4 "Black cutters" 660428.... Common Heifer 10 515C 12 Very dark, rose-red purple N77 Choice Yr. steer 9.9 540C 13 Very dark, rhodamine purple N206 Choice Yr. steer 9 1 510C 8 N253 Choice Yr. steer 9 6 565C 17 N269 Choice Yr. steer 9 494C 3 Very dark, rose-red purple 128. Choice Yr. steer 8 9 540C 14 Average 9.4 527. 3C 11.2 'Omitted from average. duller. In all the color work which the authors have done on meats, the saturation has decreased with the increase in wave length. Highly Finished Baby Beef. The samples from the highly finished baby beef were darker, duller, and had a higher dominant wave length (a redder hue) than those not so well finished. Two-Y 'ear-Old Steers. The two-year old steers were fed corn, cottonseed meal, silage, and alfalfa hay for 84 days. Presumably they 1930} QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 225 were grass-fed prior to the experiment. The meat was uniformly dark. The dominant wave lengths of seven of the ten samples were reddish purple. It will be noted that the samples having red hues were duller than those with purple hues. Four-Y ear-Old Steers. The two four-year old steers had been fed various rations, most of them limited in amount. They were not com- parable to the younger cattle in quality. Both samples were very dark. The hue of one was reddish purple and of the other, orange red. Neither was particularly dull. Old Cows. The meat from the old cows was quite dark and all the hues were reddish purple. "Black Cutters." Heifer 660428 was a common yearling whose feeding was unknown, but she probably was grass-fed. N 77, N 206, N 253, and N 269 were from choice baby beeves and were obtained by Prof. Wm. J. Loeffel, of the University of Nebraska, as typical of the "black cutters" so often found in the beef from Boys' and Girls' Club calves. No. 128 was a choice yearling steer fed corn, cottonseed meal, silage and alfalfa hay in another experiment. These samples were all quite dark. All but one of them had a higher wave length than any of the purples found in preceding samples; this shows as a deeper or more violet purple. N 253 was the worst color the authors have ever encountered, having a very low percentage of brightness, a very high dominant wave length in the purples, and a high percentage of purity, showing a very dark, very intense, violet purple color. Mechanical Determination of Toughness In an effort to measure the relative toughness of meat, a mechani- cal shear, or "mousetrap," has been used on a hundred different car- casses grading from prime steers to canner cows. The "mousetrap" consists of a steel box with both ends and the top open and with a slit across the bottom thru which a piece of strap steel containing a hole in the upper end is inserted. The meat sample, which is obtained by means of a sampler constructed on the principle of a cork borer, is in- serted into the box and thru the hole in the strap steel. The box is fastened to the upper clamp and the strap steel to the lower clamp of a Scott tensile-strength machine, which is operated by a motor and set of gears, giving a constant speed and pull. The pounds of pull re- quired to shear the sample of meat is recorded on a dial. Three sam- ples were taken from the eye of the 12th rib. Individual samples from the same rib gave quite variable results. Consequently conclusions are not warranted. There was no correlation (.0215 .1397) between the tenderness score of the palatability committee and the toughness of 23 ribs as measured by this apparatus. 226 BULLETIN No. 355 [September, Cooking and Palatability Tests Plan of Cooking Test. Cooking tests were made to determine the nature and amount of the cooking losses. Ten days after slaughter, the 9th, 10th, and llth ribs from the left side of all carcasses except those of the initial kill were roasted. The method followed was that recommended for use in the National Cooperative Project. Each roast was placed in an open roasting pan without water or seasoning of any kind. The meat was seared at a temperature of 527 F. for twenty minutes and then cooked slowly at 257 F. until the temperature at the center of the rib eye reached 135 F. It was then removed from the oven and permitted to reach approximately the maximum internal temperature before cutting. The roasts were weighed before and after cooking to determine losses due to evaporation and to drippings. One roast of each group cooked was saved for chemical analysis. Tables 18 and 19 give the results of the cooking experiments. Comparison of Heifer and Steer Ribs. The total cooking losses of the 140-day heifer ribs and of the 140-day steer ribs were practi- cally the same. Apparently the heifer ribs lost slightly less in evapo- ration and slightly more in drippings than the steer ribs. The fact that the heifer ribs were fatter is the probable explanation of this. The total losses from the 200-day heifer ribs apparently were greater than those from the steer ribs. This was due to a greater amount of drippings from the heifer ribs as the losses due to evaporation were about the same. Again the heifer ribs were fatter. Effect of Length of Feeding. From the standpoint of length of feeding there were no significant differences between the losses of the 140-day and the 200-day heifer ribs. Finish as Related to Cooking Loss. The finish of the steer ribs apparently had little or no effect upon the total cooking loss. In the thinner ribs the loss due to evaporation of moisture was relatively great and the loss in drippings small. With increasing finish, the loss by evaporation decreased and the loss from drippings increased at about the same rate, so that the finish of the ribs had but little effect on the total loss. Most housewives think that the losses from a fat roast are considerably greater than from a lean roast. Character of Ration and Cooking Loss. The ribs from the ear- corn-silage steers lost more water but about the same amount of fat as the ribs from the shelled-corn steers. It is interesting to note that the uncooked ear-corn-silage ribs contained more water than the un- cooked shelled-corn ribs. Cooking Time. The average time required to cook the roasts of the first experiment was 19.6 minutes per pound. In the second ex- periment it was 21.5 minutes per pound. The meat was quite rare when cut. 1930] QUALITY OF BABY BEEF 227 *o op co N * u < r* cp eo o b ^ -^H eo o o w ~* N o O4 -^ co i-t -3iO*fltf3 iO *O iO iO O *O O U5 3 O t^-OO OOCO . ^j. ^j. ^j. ^r o -to a I a a _>. _>>.>> ,>> .S.S ll 1 .2 2 "S'a I IB 03 2 2 g'g-gg SSSS s II a H O g M c c O h C ^ . te ^ .-._^- J . QJQQ^QJ ^a(r<* .e- H co oo in , s c^ i- -^ct-iC'-o - c re -r ^ r; c o to 10 TT o -^ -r -^ COOOIAC& cOcOk^co MB J TS odoooc 00.000 ooo w"* 5 ^^"^^^ a2tco-*ai 1 59 11 r - -.T ~ ' ~ S3IS Firmness of lean && Firm Moderately firm Moderately firm Firm Soft Moderately firm tion of rib 60 ted distribution ted distribution isive ted distribution .. 1 S.I 5 Jg II Moderate Moderate Plentiful, Moderate Plentiful, Plentiful, 1 ightly coarse ery fine s? 1 x O3> fe> >fe fefe . ! i i fl | e ae .~ e: i 2S _ 1 is . * C