STUDIES OF INSECTS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION 
 OF RED CLOVER SEED 
 
 BY 
 
 FAUSTINO QUESALES OTANES 
 B. Agr. University of the Philippines, 1918 
 A. B. University of Illinois, 1921 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 
 Degree of 
 
 MASTER OF SCIENCE 
 IN ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 1922 
 
mj= 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 Janua ry 19 , 1 922_ 
 
 I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY 
 
 SUPERVISION BY Faustlno (^uesaXea Xitanea 
 
 ENTITLED ^ Studies „pf Insec ta -Af f^ctln^ -the EroductLon 
 
 of Red Cl over Seed . 
 
 BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 THE DEGREE OF Master. of Science. 
 
 
 Recommendation concurred in* 
 
 Committee 
 
 on 
 
 Final Examination* 
 
 ^Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 
 
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1 
 
 TABLE OP CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION, - - 2 
 
 II. METHODS, - 4 
 
 III. DATES OP CLIPPING OP THE PLOTS,-- — - . — -5 
 
 IV. RELATION OP CLIPPING TO NUIIBERS OP INSECTS— — 5 
 
 t. DISCUSSION OP THE ABUNDANCE OP PESTS STUDIED 7 
 
 1. The Clover Seed-Midge--' .-.7 
 
 2. The Clover Seed-Chalcid-' 10 
 
 3 . The Clover Seed-Caterpillar- 12 
 
 VI. RELATION OP CLIPPING AND ABUNDANCE OP PESTS TO THE 
 
 YIELD OP SEED 
 
 VII. THE LESSER CLOVER LEAP-WEEVIL 15 
 
 1. General Importance--^ I 5 
 
 2. Origin and Distribution--^ 15 
 
 3 . Present Distribution of the Species in the 
 
 United States--- 16 
 
 4. Pood Plants- — - — 1? 
 
 5 . The Species in Illinois 17 
 
 6. Nature and Extent of Injury 17 
 
 7. Life History and Habits-- 20 
 
 8. Abundance 22 
 
 9 . Natural Enemies — 25 
 
 VIII. POLLINATION OP RED CLOVER- 29 
 
 1. Insects Observed Working on Clover Heads 29 
 
 2. Comparison of the Activity of Bees 34 
 
 3« Experiments on Pollination of Red Clover 37 
 
 Experiment with Tetralonla dilecta Cress. — 37 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/studiesofinsectsOOotan 
 
1 a 
 
 TABLE OF CONTEI'JTS ( CONT . ) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Experiments on Pollination of Red Clover 
 
 Experiment with Meliesodes bimacula ta Le P.--38 
 
 Experiment with Exoprosopa prorsa -40 
 
 Experiment with Mep;achile brevis Say — • — 40 
 
 Controls -41 
 
2 
 
 STUDIES OP INSECTS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION 
 OP RED CLOVER SEED 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 With soil and weather conditions all favorable to the growth 
 and flowering of red clover, a low yield of seed can be attributed 
 
 to 
 
 chiefly^ two factors, namely, the absence or scarcity of insect 
 pollinators and the abundance of insects thatiaffect the seeds di- 
 rectly. The most important insects that infest the heads of clover 
 are the clover seed-midge ( Pasyneura lep;uminicola Lint.}^ the clover 
 seed-chalcid (Bruchophagug _funebris Hpw. ) . and the clover seed-cater- 
 pillar (Enannonla inters tine ta na Clem.). It is the object of this 
 paper to present the observations that were made on these pests 
 during the spring and summer of 1921 in the hope that they will be 
 of some value to workers engaged in the control, or in the study of 
 the control, of these clover pests. The points especially dealt 
 with in this paper are the periodic abundance of these insects and 
 the relation of such abundance to the production of red clover seed, 
 and the control of Insects by means of pasturing, clipping, or early 
 cutting of the June hay crop. 
 
 with a limited time at his disposal, there has been no attempt 
 on the part of the writer to cover every phase of the subject. For 
 example, he has not gone Into a detailed study of the life histories 
 and descriptions of the pests dealt with, as the results of accurate 
 Investigations that have been published on these subjects by previous 
 workers, both In and outside the state of Illinois, have made such a 
 study unnecessary. Anyone interested In the most Important insect 
 

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 pests of red clover, particularly the three mentioned here, will 
 find a detailed and accurate account of them, especially as regards 
 life history, descriptions and control, in Bulletin 134, by Dr. J. W 
 Folsom, published in 1909 by the University of Illinois Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. (See also 1909 Report of the State Entomologist 
 of Illinois for the same article by Dr. PolsonU 
 
 In the present paper an account of observations made by the writ- 
 er on the lesser clover leaf-weevil ( Phytonomus nigrlrostris Fab. } 
 is Included, however, since so far as the writer knows, no data have 
 been published in regard to the occurrence and work of this Insect 
 in Illinois. There are also included in this paper some observatione 
 on pollinating insects, with special reference to results of experl-, 
 ments performed showing the possibility of red clover being polli- * 
 nated by bees other than bumblebees and honey bees. 
 
 This investigation was done under the direction of Dr. J. W. Fol- 
 som and to him I desire to express my thanks for his constant advice 
 and suggestions and for certain data on pollination. I desire also 
 to express my thanks to Mr. W. P. Flint for putting at my disposal 
 the records of observations that were made during the last two years, 
 1919 and 1920. My thanks are also due to Dr. C. P. Alexander for the 
 Identification of certain specimens. 
 
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 II. METHODS 
 
 These observations, which were begun In the latter part of April 
 1921, were made on a clover -field on the South Farm of the Universi- 
 ty of Illinois. This field is one of a series of plots which is 
 being used by the experiment Station in crop rotation investigations 
 and bears the serial number 700. It is subdivided into eighteen 
 one- fifth acre plots, each of 2 by 16 rods, numbered consecutively 
 from 741 to 758 inclusive, from north to south. Its total area is 
 three and three- fifths acres. It was sown to clover in 1920 and was 
 therefore in the second year of its growth at the time my studies 
 were made. 
 
 In studying the abundance of the seed-infesting insects, a 
 strip about four feet wide throughout the west edge of this field 
 was swept with an insect net, usually every other day, on Tuesdays, 
 Thursdays, and Saturdays, in the forenoon from 10 to 12 o'clock as 
 a rule. The Insects collected, which were desired for the purposes 
 of this Investigation, were picked from the net by means of a pair 
 of forceps and put, in most cases, together in vials containing 
 about 70 per cent, of denatured alcohol. They were then sorted out 
 in the laboratory and the number of Individuals of each species was 
 counted and recorded. 
 
 In sweeping the field with the net, the pacing was made as uni- 
 form as possible, as the length of the steps has a direct relation 
 to the number of strokes with the net, and a wide variation in the 
 number of strokes in the sweepings would materially affect the re- 
 sults. 
 
 The data obtained on the variation in abundance in this locali- 
 

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 ty of the insects studied are here presented in the form of graphs. 
 In discussing the results, it is desirable to deal with each species 
 separately. 
 
 III. DATES OP CLIPPING OP THE PLOTS 
 
 On May 10 the plants were forming buds. A week later, May 17, 
 the heads were beginning t6 show the pink, and some were in full 
 bloom on May 19. 
 
 May 19, plot 741 was clipped and was again clipped on June 13. 
 
 Plot 742 was clipped on May 31. 
 
 June 16, plots 743 and 745 to 758 Inclusive, were clipped, in- 
 cluding the strip along the west edge of the field that was being 
 swept. 
 
 Plot 744 was left undipped. 
 
 Herafter only plots 741 to 749 inclusive, will be considered, 
 as these were the only plots from which seed were extracted, the 
 plants on plots 750 to 758, inclusive, being cut for hay. 
 
 Thus of all the plots, only one. No. 741, was double- clipped; 
 one plot, 744, being left undipped, and all the others single- 
 clipped. 
 
 IV. RELATION OP CLIPPING TO NUMBERS OP INSECTS 
 
 The clipping on June 16 of the strip that was being swept ne- 
 cessarily affected the collection of insects, especially the clover 
 seed-chalcid. It did not, however, affect the seed-midge, as the 
 flies had already disappeared two weeks before June 16. It affected 
 the lesser clover leaf“weevil to some extent. More will be said on 
 this subject beyond. 
 
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 Because of the clippings, the sweeping of the strip was dis- 
 continued, as the number of individuals of each species collected 
 therefrom would be too low, and the figures obtained would not give 
 a good indication of the abundance of each species. Instead of 
 sweeping this area, a strip about 24 feet long and of the same width 
 as the original strip, four feet, on the north edge of the undipped 
 plot, plot 744, was swept and the figures obtained were used in com- 
 puting the number of individuals for the original strip. An ob- 
 jection to this method is that the figures would be too high, es- 
 pecially in the case of the chalcids, as their tendency would be to 
 concentrate upon the plots which were not clipped on June 16, where 
 they could find heads in which to oviposit. 
 
 On July 7, the clover heads in plot 742 were in just the right 
 condition for oviposition by the chalcids. The insects were then 
 observed in numbers as in plot 744. Beginning July 7, a strip in 
 plot 742 of the same size as that in 744 was swept, the sweeping in 
 744 being continued until July 21, The clover on 744 was cut for 
 seed on July 30. 
 
 The averages of the collections from the two strips from July 
 7 to 21 were taken and the figures were used in computing the number 
 of individuals for the original strip. The computations of the num- 
 ber of individuals for the original strip from July 21 to August 5 
 were based on collections from the strip in 742 alone. 
 
 Beginning August 3, a strip about four feet wide along the west 
 edges of plots 745 to 749 Inclusive was swept. The sweepings in plot 
 742 were continued, however, until August 18. 
 
 August 20, the clover on plots 741, 742, 7 4 3^ and 745 to 749 in- 
 clusive was cut for seed. Beginning August 20 and thereafter the 
 

 
 
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 V. DISCUSSION OP THE ABUNDANCE OP PESTS 
 
 STUDIED 
 
 1. THE CLOVER SEED-MIDGE 
 (Dasyneura leguminicola Lint. ) 
 
 Graph No. I shows the results obtained for the clover seed-midge, 
 In central Illinois tv/o full broods of the seednmidge are known. 
 There is also a feeble third generation of flies which properly be- 
 longs to the May, or first^ brood of the next year. The midges of 
 the first generation during the past season were first collected on 
 May 10, two individuals having been collected on that day with the 
 net. On May 12, ten were collected; then there was a drop in the 
 collections to three and two on May 14 and 1? respectively. The 
 number collected jumped suddenly to forty- five on May 19 and then, 
 on May 21, to one hundred and twenty- six, the maximum number col- 
 lected. The drop in the number collected three days later. May 24, 
 was as sudden as the rise, fifty-tv;o having been collected on that 
 day. On May 27 and 28, the midges were scarce; only one individual 
 being collected on each of these days. The flies disappeared three 
 days later, as the record shows. 
 
 The flies of the second generation began to appear about August 
 18, but were not abundant, five being the maximum number collected, 
 and this occurred on August 25. This scarcity of flies was probably 
 due to the clippings of the clover. 
 
 Thus, according to these observations, the midges were on the 
 wing during the past season on May ^0, reaching their maximum a- 
 bundance on May 21, and disappearing after a week. The flies of the 
 

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 first generation were thus on the wing for a period of approxi- 
 mately three weeks. The dates of appearance and of maximum a- 
 bundance of the midges for the past season are rather early, con- 
 sidering previous observations for this locality. Dr. J. W. Folsom, 
 in 1907, did not find the midges until May 15; they were common 
 May 23, but did not reach their maximum abundance until May 30. Dr. 
 Folsom attributed this to the lateness of the season that year, due 
 to prolonged cold weather in April. In 1903 to 1906 Inclusive, ac- 
 cording to Dr. Folsom, the dates of maximum abundance were May 24 
 and 25, the time when the young greeiiclover heads were most abun- 
 dant. Unpublished observations by Mr. Spooner, under the direction 
 of Mr. W. P. Flint, entomologist of the Natural History Survey, for 
 the last two years, 1919 and 1920, show that in 1919, the flies 
 were on the wing May 15, reaching their maximum abundance May 31 
 and disappearing June 3. In 1920, the date of appearance was late, 
 the midges having been collected first on May 24. They reached 
 their maximum abundance two days later. May 26, and disappeared 
 I after two weeks. Judging from these observations, the adults of 
 the first generation may be expected in the second week of May or 
 earlier. 
 
 The larvae of the first generation of the clover seed-midge were 
 at work in the heads during the last days of May and during June. 
 
 On June 4, the midges were abundant in the heads, 26 larvae having 
 emerged from ten clover heads in full bloom. It is known that the 
 larvae of the first generation may be found working in clover heads 
 as late as the first week of July and even later. 
 
 A fairly accurate estimate of the amount of Infestation by the 
 midge larvae may be obtained by putting the infested clover heads 
 
 
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 tv. M i 
 
9 
 
 in a corked bottle and then counting the number of larvae that 
 emerge from the clover heads. Mere examination of the heads by 
 tearing off the florets will not show all of the larvae or may show 
 none at all. In the case referred to previously, in which 26 lar- 
 vae were obtained from ten heads,, mere examination of the heads by 
 tearing off the florets disclosed only three larvae, whereas when 
 these same heads were put in a tightly corked bottle a total of 
 26 larvae was obtained. 
 
 The larvae of the flies of the second generation, according 
 to Dr. Folsom, are most abundant during the last two weeks of 
 August and the first two weeks of September, and it is during this 
 time that they do most damage. Most of these larvae pass the winter 
 either as larvae or pupae. A few of the larvae, however, are said 
 to attain their full growth early enough to produce flies in early 
 September or even later. 
 
 As to when the larvae of the second generation leave the heads 
 to pupate in the soil, I do not find any definite statement for cen- 
 tral Illinois. They may remain in the heads until the middle of 
 October or even later, depending upon the weather. In 1919, the 
 writer observed the larvae still common in blover heads on October 
 3, and in 1921 they were still found in considerable numbers on 
 October 6. 
 
 In the laboratory, with artificial heat, the flies may emerge 
 any time during the fall and winter. Thus, ^In 1919, larvae col- 
 lected on October 3 gave adults on October 2? and November 3; and 
 in 1921, larvae collected October 6 gave adults in December and in 
 January 3, 1922. 
 
I 
 
 
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 riSS, iJt ■^••^ •«+^0CU«^r. .‘5>'di> 
 
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 |j...lw &x ,. .£. vts^"iicr*^ hHaa tr > - • ''.vniii^^'^'5' 
 
 f’ Kiv ■ "'.' ^ 
 
10 
 
 2. THE CLOVER SEED-CHALCID 
 ( Bruchophap;us funebris How. ) 
 
 Adults of this species were first collected on May 19, six in- 
 dividuals having been caught with the net on that day. There was 
 a gradual Increase for two succesive sweepings on May 21 and 24, the 
 number of Individuals collected being 14 and 16 respectively. Then 
 a drop in the collections followed, the curve maintaining an almost 
 constant level for three successive sweepings, and then dropping 
 suddenly, and eventually to zero on June 13* 
 
 As has been stated elsewhere, the strip which was being swept 
 was clipped on June 16. This affected the collections, as the chal- 
 cids naturally concentrated on plots 741, 742 and 744, especially 
 on 744, where there were heads )sui table for oviposltion. The con- 
 centration of the chalcids on plot 744 may be taken as a reason for 
 such a sudden rise in the collection, as shown in curve A, graph II, 
 from zero on June 13 to over 200 on June 22. The figures obtained 
 from the sweepings in plots 744, 742 and the strip comprising the 
 west edges of plots 745 to 749, inclusive, were used in computing the 
 number of individuals that would have been collected from the ori- 
 ginal strip. It is from such computations that curve A was plotted. 
 
 The portion of curve A beginning June 16 and continuing up to 
 August 18 should be taken as theoretical, being derived from the 
 collections from the strips in plots 742, 744, and 745 to 749, in- 
 clusive. 
 
 Curve B was plotted from actual collections from plots 742 and 
 and 744, iihile curve C from the actual collections from the strip 
 comprising the west edges of plots 745 to 749^ Inclusive. 
 
J^v' ffl-' 
 
 %T3n1‘ . .: .^liJ ®Q'->J»|Ji j:-' 
 
 ^ '•- . •• '<7 ;^;-’ 4 ^ 
 
 ta^ , ' 7CUS f'- 'ff£y >s ari^rfiXfii=i ij(i ^^- a I 
 
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11 
 
 It should be added that the remaining part of curve A, begin- 
 ning August 20, represents actual collections from the whole ori- 
 ginal strip. 
 
 As the preceding observations show, the chalcids v/ere on the 
 wing May 19. According to Dr. Folsom (1909), the chalcids as a rule 
 do not begin to emerge until May 15. Some observations in previous 
 years, however, showed the date of emergence to be later than my 
 record. Thus, in 1907, Dr. Folsom found no adults until May 23^ 
 and in 1920, Mr. Spooner did not collect the adults until May 26, 
 
 On the contrary, in 1919, Mr. Spooner collected the adults more 
 than two v/eeks earlier, B5ay 10, which is rather early. 
 
 As the curves show, the chalcids were most abundant after the 
 middle of June, the maximum number collected occurring on June 23, 
 after which there was a sudden decrease in the number. The insects 
 were fairly common throughout July up to the middle of August, after 
 which the adults became scarce. It is known that the chalcids can 
 be found from May 15 to October 15, or later, especially on volunteei 
 clover, where they can find heads at any time in just the right con- 
 dition for ovlpcbition. During the past season no individuals were 
 found after October 15, except one, and this was collected on October! 
 
VC: •; ■ 
 
 V<^11 .' 10 * 1 ^..?- 
 
12 
 
 3. THE CLOVER SEED- CATERPILLAR 
 (Enarmonia interstinctana Clem.) 
 
 The moths of this species were not present in such numbers as 
 to constitute an important pest in 1921. Graph III shov/s that the 
 largest number of moths collected in May was three. On June 22 and 
 23, the number collected on each day was eight. These numbers for 
 June, however, were not actual but computed, being based on the 
 numbers collected from the fifty sweeps made in plot 744. After 
 June 23, no more moths were collected except on August 12 and 16, 
 three moths having been collected on each of these days. These fi- 
 gures for August, like those for June, were computed, being based 
 on the collections from the strip comprising the west edges of plots 
 745 to 749 inclusive. 
 
 In 1920, the moths were present in large numbers. They were 
 most abundant during the last two weeks of May and the first week 
 of June, the maximum number collected being more than five hundred. 
 They were present in much fewer mmibers in July, and fewer still in 
 August of that year. 
 
 On June 30, 1921, a hymenopterous parasite emrged from a larva 
 collected on June 22, 1921. This parasite was identified by Mr. H. 
 L. Vierlck as belonging to the genus Mlcrobracon . 
 
 
r'r k/. 
 
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13 
 
 VI. RELATION OF CLIPPING AND ABUNDANCE OF PESTS TO THE 
 
 YIELD OF_ SEED 
 
 Plot 741 was clipped on May 18, at a time when the plants were 
 forming buds, when the clover seed-midge adults were on the wing, 
 and when the chalcids and lesser clover leaf- weevil adults and lar- 
 vae were not yet abundant. It was again clipped on June 13, at a 
 time when the clover seed midge larvae were at work in the clover 
 heads and when the clover leaf- larvae and adults were abundant. At 
 this time the chalcids were not as yet abundant. Plot 741 was thus 
 double- clipped. 
 
 Plot 742 was clipped on May 31, at a time when the clover seed- 
 midges had already disappeared but when the larvae of this species 
 and of the lesser clover leaf-weevil were at work in the clover heads 
 At this time also, the chalcids were not yet abundant. 
 
 Plots 743 and 745 to 749 inclusive were clipped on June 16. 
 
 This time the clover seed“midge larvae were at work in the clover 
 heads . 
 
 Plot 744 , as has been stated previously, was left undipped. 
 
 The following table shows the yield in seed of these different 
 plots in bushels per acre. 
 
 Plot No. Yield in bushels per acre. 
 
 741 0.46 
 
 742 0.64 
 
 743- -0.80 
 
 744 0.51 
 
 745 - - 0.72 
 
 746 1.00 
 
 747 - 1.04 
 
 748 #' 0.92 
 
 749- 0.95 ^ 
 
 Examination of the preceding table shows that the acre yields 
 

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 ^•'. ■ V 
 
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14 
 
 by plots are extremely low, far below the average in Illinois. 
 
 One reason for these extremely low yields is no doubt the scar- 
 city of bumblebees during the past season. A second reason is pro- 
 bably the weediness of the field as a whole, particularly plots 741, 
 742 and 744, and a third reason is the somewhat thin stand of clover 
 that was present. 
 
 Comparison of the preceding yields shows several things. The 
 double- clipped plot, 741, and the iinclipped plot, 744, gave the lo- 
 west yields, being 0.46 and 0 . 5 I bushels, respectively. $he plots 
 which were single-clipped, 742, 743, and 745 to 749 inclusive, gave 
 each a higher yield per acre, the yield ranging from 0.64 to 1.04 
 bushel per acre, the average being 0.88 bushel. 
 
 The reason for the lower yield in the undipped plot, 744, is 
 probably the fact that the seed-infesting insects, the chalcids es- 
 pecially, concentrated their attacks on it after most of the other 
 plots were clipped. 
 

 A 
 
 .. Cl. .'j 
 
 ’ o i 
 
 '.1 : . 
 
 W 'V , 
 
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 >- •■•" • • I’ioj'f ■• I 
 
 
15 
 
 VII. THE LESSER CLOVER LEAF- WEEVIL 
 ( Phy tonomus ni^rlrostrls Fab. ) 
 
 1 , General Importance 
 
 It seems desirable, in view of the importance of the insect, to 
 give a brief historical account of its origin and also some data as 
 regards its distribution in North America, particularly in the 
 United States, so far as could be gathered from the literature. 
 
 2. Origin and Distribution 
 
 The lesser clover leaf-weevil invaded North America from Europe, 
 where it is of general occurrence. The date of its introduction 
 into America is not definitely known. F. M. Webster, who published 
 a detailed historical account of the insect in 1909, makes the as- 
 sumption tliat it first gained a foothold in Nev/ Brunswick and else- 1 
 where in extreme eastern Canada, his basis for this assumption being 
 that it first became destructive in those sections of North America. 
 From these regions the pest spread to other parts of the continent 
 by natural agencies. Webster also states that Hubbard and Schwarz 
 collected the insect in Massachusetts during the winter of 1873-74, 
 and that Blanchard, one of the oldest and most careful collectors of 
 New England Coleoptera, is of the opinion that it may have occurred 
 in Massachusetts as early as 1865. Provancher, in 1877, described 
 it from Quebec under the name of Erirhinus viridis . How long the 
 species had been known to Provancher prior to his description of the 
 insect is not known. Since 1873-74, the Insect has gradually ex- 
 tended its territory. Titus (1911) showed that the range of the 
 species in that year comprised southeastern Canada (New Brunswick, 
 
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16 
 
 Ontario and Quebec, Including Prince Edward Is.), the New England 
 States, and extended westward into Indiana and as far south as the 
 southeastern coast of Virginia. Webster (1909) discussed the possi- 
 bility of the insect having spread southward through the agency of 
 the Gulf Stream, floating on debris carried from the beach. Titus, 
 however, thought this to be improbable, stating that many persons 
 have tried the effect of salt water on insects and found that it is 
 rare for the latter to surviv* longer than a few hours. That the 
 insect reached the southern coast by gradual flight, passing a 
 little farther southward year by year, or that it was carried by 
 trains, seemed to Titus to be more probable. In support of the 
 first possibility, he mentioned Houghton's report on the spring 
 flight of the species in Delaware. 
 
 3. Present Distribution of the Species in 
 in the United States 
 
 The latest paper giving a detailed accoimt of the distribution 
 of the species was that by Titus in 1911. According to him, the 
 distribution of the insect in the United States, as then recordE?d, 
 embraced the following states: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- 
 chusetts, Rhode Island, Delaware, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, Michigan, 
 Indiana, and Minnesota. Since 1911, so far as I have ascertained, 
 there has not been any published record of the insect in other states 
 except one by Cooley, who recorded it from Montana in 1916. It is 
 of Interest to trace the migration of the Insect since 1911. If it 
 has been present in Montana since 1916, it is probable that the 
 beetle has been present also in other states east of Montana. 
 

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17 
 
 44. Food Plants 
 
 In Europe, Algeria, Egypt, and in Asia Minor, it has been re*- 
 corded as feeding on different species of Ononis , especially Ononis 
 spinosa . Its other food plants in Europe are Buphthalmum salici * 
 folium and Trifolium pratense . Trifolium agrarium has also been 
 given as a probable food plant of the insect on that continent. 
 
 In Worth America, it is known to feed on red clover ( Trl folium 
 pratense ) . mammoth clover ( Trifolium medium ) . alfalfa ( MedicaRO 
 satlva ) . crimson clover ( Ti^l folium incarnation ) . white clover (Tri- 
 folium repens ) . and alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum). 
 
 5. The Species in Ill in ois 
 
 Mr. W. ?. Flint, entomologist of the Illinois Natural History 
 Survey, observed large numbers of the beetles in Urbana, Illinois, 
 in the fall of 1919. The pest may have been present in Illinois 
 some years before this, having escaped observation; for Titus, in 
 1911 , recorded the insect as occurring as far west as the western 
 boundary of Indiana. 
 
 Heretofore there has not been any published record and account 
 of the Insect from Illinois since Mr. Flint found it in 1919. Du- 
 ring 1920 , a study of its abundance was made by Mr. Spooner, under 
 Mr. Flint's directions. The following observations were made by 
 the writer at Urbana, Illinois, on a clover field on the University 
 Farm. 
 
 6. Nature and Extent of In.lury 
 
 Early in May, 1921, the writer found the young larvae of this 
 

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18 
 
 species in the leaf axils of the clover plants, feeding on the young 
 leaf buds and riddling them with numerous holes, which increased in 
 size as the leaves grey/. Usually only one larva was found in one 
 leaf bud, but rarely two. In no Instance has the writer found three 
 
 In flower heads the larvae feed near the bases of the florets. 
 Only one larva is usually present in one head, though occasionally 
 two may be found. A larva eats only a few of the florets and pre- 
 vents these from forming seeds. The greatest damage done by the 
 larvae, however, is in the newly developing heads, as the larvae 
 feed oh these as they appear and the damage results in the mal- 
 formation of the flowers. Just how much damage is done by the in- 
 sect in this manner, the writer has not been able to determine, but 
 Mr. Flint states that fifty per cent, of the heads may be made ab- 
 normal by the larvae in this way when the latter are present in large 
 numbers. 
 
 The beetles feed on the leaves and malce numerous holes, par- 
 ticularly near the midribs, seeming to shov/ preference for the young 
 growing leaves. The adults have been observed by the writer resting 
 on clover heads in full bloom, but he has not happened to observe 
 them feeding on the florets. 
 
 On May 17, 1921, heads were picked at random in order to deter- 
 mine the amount of Infestation by the larvae. Out of thirty- seven 
 heads, ^rteen were found to contain larvae, i.e., thirty-five per 
 cent, of the heads were infested. Of sixty-four heads picked at raji- 
 dom from volunteer plants growing near First Street, Champaign, tv/en- 
 six, ior forty;;* per cent. , of the heads were found to be infested. 
 
 Out of these tv/enty-six heads infested, tv/o heads contained two lar- 
 vae each, one three larvae, and all the others one larva each. 
 
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.20 
 
 7. Life History and Habi ts 
 
 In Urbana, on April 12, 1921, active adult beetles were found 
 together with adults of the clover root-curcullo ( Sj tones hispi - 
 dulus ) • 
 
 On April 28, sweepings were begun in order to determine the 
 abundance of this insect at different periods of the season, as 
 well as that of the clover seed-chalcid, clover seed-midge, and the 
 clover seed-caterpillar. 
 
 On May 7, young larvae of this species were noticed by the 
 writer for the first time, feeding on the young leaf buds of red 
 clover. The presence of the larvae was easily detected by means of 
 the feeding holes and the excreta on the buds. Several larvae were 
 collected and taken to the laboratory, where they were confined in 
 vials and supplied with fresh clover leaves every day, the vials 
 being plugged with cotton to allow circulation of air. The follow- 
 ing table shows partly the life history of the insect, as studied 
 by me: 
 
 Larvae Date of spin- Date of pupation Date of emer- 
 ning cocoon gence 
 
 1 May 16 May 18 May 23 
 
 2 May 16 May 17 * May 23 
 
 3 --May 16 May 17 May 23 
 
 4-^ May 14 -May J? May 23 
 
 5 May 16 May 17 May 23 
 
 The preceding data show that the pupal stage is five or six 
 days, and that the larva pupates one to three days after spinning 
 its cocoon. The time spent by the insect in the cocoon, according 
 to the preceding records, was, on the average, eight days. Herrick 
 and Detwiller (1919) found that, in Ithaca, New York, the period 
 spent by the insect in the cocoon, from the time of spinning to the 
 
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emergence of the adult, was on the average, fourteen days, which is 
 almost twice as long as the record in Urhana. Herrick and Detwiller 
 made their observations during the last days of June and during 
 July, 1919. 
 
 Of the larvae collected on May 7, two were confined together in 
 one vial. Both of these spun cocoons on May 12. One pupated on 
 May 13 and the other on the following day. Both beetles emerged on 
 the same day. May 20, with a difference of a few hours, the one pu- 
 pating first, of course, emerging first. The first adult, after 
 having emerged, ate all of its cocoon and after having done this It 
 ate also the caudal end of the cocoon of the other insect, which 
 was already a fully developed adult but still in the cocoon. 
 
 On May 14, six adults were collected and placed in a vial. These 
 were transferred to potted clover plants in the laboratory and a 
 chimney cage put over them. Two of these beetles were in copula 
 upon transference. On May 16, in addition to numerous feeding holes, 
 punctures were observed in the leaves, and an examination of these 
 punctures showed the presence of minute elliptical eggs, which were 
 those of the beetles. The punctures in wlilch the eggs were laid 
 were made mostly through the upper epidermis of the leaves, and this 
 is probably the normal mode of oviposition in the leaves. The eggs 
 were mostly under the lower epidermis, and could be detected and 
 located easily even with the unaided eye, since they formed swellings 
 on the lower surface of the leaves. As a rule, only one egg is laid 
 in each puncture. In some Instances, however, two eggs were observed 
 together in the same puncture. A case was observed in which two eggs 
 attached end to end were simply laid on the surface of the leaf. A 
 case was also noticed in which an egg was only partly inserted in the 
 
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21 
 
 punc ture « 
 
 Ovlposition probably tak;es place at night, the insect remaining 
 rather inactive during the day. 
 
 The following record was made of the life history of the insect 
 in the laboratory: 
 
 May 14 6 adults in captivity. 
 
 May 16 — Eggs laid. 
 
 May 17 Eggs have turned dark. 
 
 May 23 Eggs hatched. 
 
 June 4 Larvae formed cocoons. 
 
 June 6 Larvae pupated. 
 
 June 11 Adults fully developed but still in the 
 
 cocoons. 
 
 June 12-13 --Beetles emerged. 
 
 As shown by the above data, the eggs turn dark within one day 
 after oviposition and hatch in seven days. The larval and the pu- 
 pal stages are fourteen and five days respectively. Thus the insect 
 spends a large part of its life in the larval stage. The life cycle, 
 from the date of oviposition to that of the eifrgence of the adult, 
 
 A 
 
 is twenty-seven days. The life-cycle of the insect out-of-doors pro- 
 bably differs from that in the laboratory, on account of differences 
 in temperature, moisture, and other factors. 
 
 As mentioned previously, the eggs of the insect in the labora- 
 
 . ^ field, 
 
 tory were laid in punctures in the leaf. In the^eggs are certainly 
 
 not normally deposited in the leaves. Wilderrauth (V/ebster, 1909) 
 
 finding 
 
 examined hundreds of leaves without a single egg on any, but he had 
 
 A 
 
 no difficulty whatever in finding the eggs under the epidermis of the 
 
 basal leaf sheaths, more often in groups of three. 
 
 Webster (1909) made the statement that cocoons were usually 
 
 spun among the full-blooming heads, although one cocoon was found on 
 a clover leaf by Caudell. Contrary to this observation, the present 
 writer has found the cocoons to be more abundant attached to the 
 

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22 
 
 lower surface of the basal foliage and especially among the dried 
 leaves on the surface of the ground, the cocoons being also attached 
 to these dried leaves. 
 
 The beetle is brown when fully developed, the color being dis- 
 tincly visible through the coarsely woven silky cocoon. Records in 
 the laboratory show that a day usually elapses after the adult is 
 fully developed, before the beetle eats its way out of the cocoon. 
 
 It assujnes its normal green color at least three or four days after 
 emergence. The temporary brown color has a significance in con- 
 nection with the determiination of the abundance of the adults in the 
 field at different periods of the growing season and of the number 
 of generations, as will be seen subsequently in this paper. 
 
 8. Abundance 
 
 Graph No. IV shows the variation in abundance of the adults as 
 determined by sweepings. The adults were still scarce betv/een April 
 28 and May 24, the maximum number collected during this period being 
 thirty-nine, on May 12. The adults began to be collected in numbers 
 on May 27, the number collected on that day being ninety-one. The 
 number collected dropped to forty on May 28, increasing to one hun- 
 dred and forty-one on May 31, and then to one hundred and seventy- 
 four on June 2. There was a drop again to seventy -six on June 4, but 
 this was followed by a sudden rise to four hundred and thirty- seven, 
 the maximum number collected, on June 9. The decrease in the col- 
 lections on June I3 was also sudden, the number collected on that 
 day being one hundred and ninety. On June 16, as has already been 
 stated, the strip which was being swept was clipped. The portion 
 of the curve from June 22 up to August 20 does not represent actual 
 
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 collections, being computed chiefly from the figures obtained from 
 the strip in plot 744, the undipped plot. 
 
 Thus, according to the preceding observations, the period of 
 abundance of the beetles extends from the last days of May to about 
 the last days of June, i.e., approximately one month. The beetles 
 were scarce during July and August and thereafter. 
 
 On May 27 newly emerged adults were collected for the first 
 time during the season. Then there was an increase in the col- 
 lections from that date onward. These newly emerged adults were of 
 the new brood, while the beetles collected before May 27 were pro- 
 bably of the last year's brood. Out of ninety-two beetles caught 
 with the net on May 27 , thirty- three had recently emerged, as in- 
 dics.ted by the brown color. Recently emerged adults continued to 
 appear until June 30, after which no more were caught with the net. 
 Out of the maximum number of adults collected on June 9, 384 had 
 evidently recently emerged, and probably almost all of those col- 
 lected on that day were of the new brood. 
 
 The following table shows the number of newly emerged adults 
 collected during the period of greatest abundance: 
 
 Date 
 
 No. collected 
 
 Nev^ly emerged 
 
 May 
 
 27 
 
 92 
 
 - —29 
 
 n 
 
 28 
 
 -40 
 
 -27 
 
 tf 
 
 31 
 
 141 
 
 - 133 
 
 June 
 
 2- 
 
 174 
 
 144 
 
 ft 
 
 4 
 
 --76--- 
 
 64 
 
 tf 
 
 9 
 
 437 
 
 384 
 
 ft 
 
 13 
 
 --190- 
 
 123 
 
 The beetle is, as a rule^ nocturnal in its habits, resting on 
 the ground under rubbish and in between the bases of the stems of 
 the plants during the day, and mating and doing most of its feeding 
 at night. Some adults, however, remain on the plants during the da^^ 
 

 
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24 
 
 and a large number do so when the ground is very moist. This, in 
 a way, affects the number of specimens collected with the -he t. On 
 a day following a rain an unusually large number of adults can be 
 collected with a net. 
 
 After the clipping of most of the plots on June 16, the beetles 
 were abundant in the stubble and under the cut hay, together with 
 Si tones flavescens and Hyp era punctata . On June 22, the new leaves 
 were observed to be greatly damaged by these these three species, 
 being riddled with numerous holes. There is no doubt that the com- 
 bined injury by these three species may do much to reduce the hay 
 crop and also to retard the growth of the clover plants. 
 
 It seems reasonable to infer from the first appearance of the 
 larvae in the field, the records of the abundance of the larvae, and 
 from life history records in the laboratory, that the beetles begin 
 to lay their eggs in the latter part of April and continue to ovi- 
 posit through May. The larvae were most abundant and did most da- 
 mage after the middle of May up to the middle of June, and were 
 scarce toward the last days of June. The period of emergence of 
 adults in the field, as far as my observations showed, ranged from 
 May 27 to June 30. 
 
 On June 27, ten adults were confined in the laboratory on potted 
 plants, but these did not lay eggs. Throughout July and August, no 
 larvae were observed in the field, showing that the insect had ceased 
 to breed during these months, although records by Mr. Spooner show 
 that the larvae have been collected as late as July 17 and 21. There 
 is probably only one generation during May and June, but oviposit! on 
 is prolonged over a considerable period. From May 7 up to June 15, 
 the larvae were found in all stages of development. 
 

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On September 20, a newly emerged adult and a cocoon were col- 
 lected by the v/riter. Again, on October 6, a newly emerged beetle 
 was found. All of these records are evidences of second generation 
 of beetles, although the insects of the second brood are not a- 
 bundant. 
 
 The insect hibernates as an adult on the ground under the dead 
 plants and other rubbish in the field and in between the stems of 
 the living plants. 
 
 9, Natural Enemies 
 
 Two insects are known to be parasitic on the larvae of Phyto - 
 npmus nlgrirostris . namely, a small fly, Anisia species, near varia - 
 bilis Coq., and a hymenopteron, Bracon sp., both of which were re- 
 ported by Webster in 1909. 
 
 The larva of this insect is attacked by a fungus, Entomophthora 
 sphaerosperma Pres., which is also the worst enemy of the larva of 
 Hyp era punctata . As to the manner of the attack of this fungus, on 
 tha larva of Hyp era punctata . Titus says: "The fungus develop;^.^ in 
 the body of the host, as a network of branching mycelia, some of the 
 branches push through the ventral wall and become attached as rhi- 
 zoids to some surface; over the body is formed a gray velvety coa- 
 ting of fine threads which have penetrated the skin; on the tips of 
 some of these are formed conldia; from these come temporary spores 
 which are shot away from some distance and may thus alight upon an- 
 other host and begin to grow. Resting spores develop inside the 
 host and probably may thus live over until the next season. 
 
 The sick larvae crawl up the plants during the night, ascending 
 as high as possible; if on a slender stem or a grass blade they coll 
 
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26 
 
 themselves about it in a horizontal position. 
 
 "Arthur (I885) states that they die by noon, remaining in this 
 position, and during the late afternoon have changed to a velvety 
 gray. By the next morning the larva is only a blackened shriveled 
 mass. " 
 
 According to Dr. Folsom, who published a detailed account in 
 1909 of the attack of the fungus on the larva of Hyp era punctata 
 as observed by him in Illinois, the fungus needs damp and not too 
 cold weather for its development, and affects the larvae in April 
 and May and again in October and November, but not during the win- 
 ter. Under these favorable conditions, the disease may kill the 
 larvae of Hyp era punctata by the wholesale. 
 
 The manner of the attack of the fungus on the latva of Phyto - 
 nomus nip;rirostris is probably similar to that on the larva of Hy ~ 
 pera . and the extent of its infestation, under favorable conditions, 
 may be equally great. 
 
 On June 2, 1921, four cocoons of Phytonomus nl^rlrostris were 
 collected in the field by the writer and placed in a vial plugged 
 with cotton. On June 16, 1921, a hymenopterous parasite had emerged 
 from one of these cocoons. This was identified by Dr. C. P. Alexan- 
 der, entomologist of the Illinois Natural History Survey, as Spilo - 
 chalcis torvina Cress, and this determination was later confiraed 
 by Mr. Henry L. Vierick. 
 
 So far as I have ascertained from available literature, this is 
 the first record of the species as being parasitic on Phytonomus 
 nlgrirostris . Titus (I905) reported having reared the chalcid from 
 the sugar beet crown borer, Hulstea undulatella Clemens, and also 
 from the pupa of an unidentified tortricid from Chino, California. 
 
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 # 
 
 
27 
 
 Cresson described the chalcid and gave Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
 Illinois, and Texas as its habitat. Thus, according to the pre- 
 ceding records, the parasite is widely distributed in the United 
 States. Cresson' s technical description of the species follows: 
 
 Female — Black, opaque; spot between antennae, transverse 
 beneath each posterior ocellus, spot on anterior orbits; narrow 
 posterior orbits, and the large mandibles except tips, pale ye- 
 llow; thorax densely rugulose; pro thorax with four whitish dots 
 on anterior margin— two on each side and two approximately above 
 —and a reddish spot near each posterior angle; mesothorax with 
 a short line on each side of middle lobe and two spots on pos- 
 terior part of each lateral lobe, pale orange yellow; scutellum 
 with a rounded pale yellowish spot on each side, tegulae pale 
 yellow, fuscous posteriorly; wings hyaline; legs black, sericeous 
 tips of anterior femora, their tibia at tips and within and all 
 the tarsi, except tips, yellowish white; posterior coxae entire- 
 ly black; their femora black, inner side with a yellowish apical 
 spot, outer side with a spot at base beneath, a spot at tip 
 above and a transverse tortuous band near apex, pale yellowish, 
 sometimes irregularly margined with brown, and interrupted into 
 spots, femoral teeth minute; posterior tibiae black, with a 
 yellowish annulus at tip and another nbai? .base; abdomen subsifom 
 smooth and polished, first segment with a whitish spot on each 
 side between middle and apex, sometimes wanting and the second 
 segment with a large spot of same color on each side at base, 
 sometimes the fifth segment has lateral pale spot; petiole ro- 
 bust, scarcely half the length of posterior coxae. Length . 15- 
 .20 inch. Hab. — ^Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois, Texas. 
 
 The markings on posterior femora vary considerably. 
 
 This hymenopterous parasite was collected by the writer at va- 
 rious times in the field. The following data show the number col- 
 lected: 
 
 Date No. collected 
 
 June 22 2 
 
 June 23 2 
 
 August 4 1 
 
 " 12 1 
 
 »' 24 1 
 
 It will be worth while to ascertain the percentage of parasitism 
 in future studies in this locality. 
 
 On June 16, 1921, a dead larva was found, on examination of 
 which a hymenopterous larva was found attached transversely to the 
 
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28 
 
 ventral aspect of the third segment, hut unfortunately this 
 parasite succumbed to dryness in the laboratory. 
 
 The carabid beetles of the species Calosoma calidum , were obt- 
 served in the field. On July 7, one beetle was taken alive to the 
 laboratory and placed in a glass jar, and with it were placed the 
 following insects: 
 
 Four adults of Phytonomus nigrl rostris 
 Two adults of Si tones hispidulus 
 Three caterpillars, species unknown. 
 
 On July 8, all of these insects were found to have been devoured 
 by the beetle, leaving only such apparently unedible portions of the 
 bodies of the adults of Phytonomus and Si tones , as the elytra and 
 portions of the legs. It seems probable, then, that this carabid 
 preys on Phytonomus nig;rirostris in the field also. 
 
 
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29 
 
 VIIi: POLLINATION OF RED CLOVER 
 
 II. INSECTS OBSERVED WORKING ON CLOVER HEADS 
 
 Red clover ie a plant which is entirely dependent upon insects 
 for it fertilization. Of the insects that pollinate red clover, the 
 humble^ees are the most important. It is estimated that the United 
 States is indebted to bumblebees to the amount of |60. 000,000 an- 
 nually for their work as pollinators of red clover, to say nothing 
 of other farm crops. 
 
 The abundance of bumblebees in a particular locality varies 
 from year to year. During the past season, for example, bumblebees 
 were not observed in numbers in clover fields at Urbana, and this 
 certainly accoiints to a large extent for the extremely low yields 
 of red clover here reported. 
 
 The importance of bumblebees as pollenizers depends upon their 
 numbers when the clover field is in full bloom. In Illinois, bumble- 
 bees are considered most important pollenizers of the second crop 
 of clover, for the workers are abundant in late July, August, and 
 September. They are not important as pollenizers of the first crop, 
 for in Jime the only bumblebees on the wing are a few queens that 
 have survived the winter and these do not do much pollinating as 
 they stay most of the time in the nest. It is a well known fact, 
 therefore, that the first crop of clover is not pollinated by bxmible- 
 bees to any appreciable extent. 
 
 In a recent paper. Dr. Folsom made the statement that twenty 
 years ago in Illinois, it was taken for granted that there was not 
 enough seed in the June crop to pay for its extraction. Since then, 
 however, farmers in the state in increasing number have found it 
 
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profitable, ;now and then, to cut the June crop for seed instead of 
 hay, and have obtained i Lniiiuiikljln yields of from one half a bushel 
 to two bushels of seed, and possibly more, per acre. 
 
 This being the case, the question as to how the June crop is 
 pollenized needs to be ansv/ered. Dr. Folsom has learned from va- 
 rious sources that in a few instances the yield of seed had occurred 
 in a region where Italian honey bees were common and had been ob- 
 served working on the flowers. Dr. A. D. Hopkins and Dr. Folsom 
 have both found out that honey bees of this race are no doubt im- 
 portant pollenizers. There ^ however, cases reported in which yields 
 of clover seed had been obtained in places where the honey bees did 
 not occur, so that in the words of Dr. Folsom, "there still remained 
 some mystery as to how the June crop is pollenized." 
 
 Now, according to Dr. Folsom, Mr. W. P. Flint has dn several 
 occasions observed a species of bee belonging to the genus Tetralonle 
 sucking the florets of red clover in June, and has several times re- 
 ceived the same bee from observant farmers, who noticed its abundance 
 in the clover fields. 
 
 After the middle of May, 1921, the writer observed a species of 
 bee working on the heads of clover. This bee was later identified 
 by Vierlck as Tetralonia dilecta Cress. Its presence in large num- I 
 bers in the field attracted attention to such an extent that Dr. Fol- 
 
 t-he wy ’i'ter 
 
 som and undertook to make some observations and perform experiments 
 in order to find out whether this species of Tetralonia and other 
 species observed in the field pollenize red clover or not. On May 
 24, Dr. Folsom took a root cage with parallel glass sides to the clo- 
 ver field; in it was placed a solid row of clover heads in full bloom 
 and then several individuals of Tetralonia dilecta were introduced 
 
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31 
 
 into the cage. Some of the bees worked on the blossoms, their ope- 
 rations being studied under a hand lens. Examination under the mi- 
 croscope of the mouth parts of specimens collected from the field 
 that had previously been observed working on the heads of clover 
 showed the presence of many pollen grains, especially on the mentum, 
 but also on the maxillae. As a matter of fact, pollen grains were 
 observed sticking almost everywhere on the ventral aspect of the 
 mouth parts, these pollen grains being indistinguishable from those 
 of red clover. 
 
 Tetralonia dilecta Cress, belongs to the family Euceridae, a 
 family of solitary digger bees with but one male and one female to 
 each nest. The two sexes of the species are so different from each 
 other in general appeaij^ce, the female resembling the honey bee^ that 
 it may be mistaken for the latter, so that one who is not familiar 
 with the sexual individuals will take them to be distinct species. 
 For Instance, we erred at first in calling the male Mellssodes obli - 
 qua Say. For these reasons, it seems desirable to give in this pa- 
 per brief descriptions of the sexes in order to enable the collector 
 or observer to recognize them in the field. 
 
 Male . The clypeus is yellow euid is sparsely pubescent. The pu- 
 bescence of the thorax and of the legs is usually of a much lighter 
 color than that of the female, being light yellow or nearly grayish. 
 The antennae are longer than those of the female, reaching to the 
 base of the abdomen. The male measures about 1.2 cm. in length. 
 
 F^ale. The clypeus is black and more hairy than that of the 
 male. The pubescence of the thorax and of the legs is brownish ye- 
 llow. The whit^' l^ransverse bands of hairs on the abdomen are mor^ 
 
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32 
 
 pronounced than those of the male. The antennae extend to about 
 the middle of the thorax a little caudad of the base of the anterior 
 v/ing. The female measures from 1.5 to 1.7 cm. in length. 
 
 Specimens Of Tetralonia dilecta were first observed and col- 
 ted by the writer on May 17, 1921, when the first heads of clover 
 were just beginning to bloom. On May 24, the bees were abundant 
 and a few days after this Dr. Folsom and I began our experiments. 
 
 On June 30, the bees had disappeared, showing that the period of 
 activity of the species was approximately forty-four days. 
 
 A second bee of importance, Melissodes blmaculata Le P., ap- 
 peared on July 5. This bee has also been observed working on the 
 
 florets of clover and examination of the mouth parts showed the pre- 
 
 is 
 
 sence of pollen grains of red clover. This^a black bee, belonging 
 to the same family as Tetralonia dilecta Cress. As in Tetralonia . 
 the male has longer antennae than the female, as is characteristic 
 of the family to which these insects belong. 
 
 Male. The male is slightly smaller than the female, measuring 
 about 1.1 cm. The clypeus is yellow. The pubescence of the middle 
 and posterior tibiae and the metatarsus of each posterior leg is 
 white. The male lacks the two spots on the abdomen, which are pre- 
 sent in the female. 
 
 Female . The female measures from 1.2 to 1.3 cm. in length. The 
 clypeus is black. The posterior legs are more distinctly pubescent 
 than the corresponding legs of the male, and their pubescence is 
 brownish yellow instead of white, as in the male. The fourth dorsal 
 abdominal segment has an apical patch of white hairs on each side; 
 hence the name of the species. 
 
 IrPdividuals of this species were first observed in the field on 
 

 
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33 
 
 July 5, but were not abundant then. On July 9, the bees were pre- 
 sent in large numbers and remained so until August 5, after which 
 they became scarce, disappearing on August 13. The period of acti- 
 vity of this species, therefore, was approximately forty days. 
 
 Besides these two species that have been described, there are 
 other bees of less importance that were observed working on the 
 heads of clover. Among these are two species of MeRachile . latima - 
 nus Say and brevis Say, both of which belong to the family Megachl- 
 lidae, a family of leaf-cutters. The members of this family have 
 the habit of making cells for their young out of neat^-y-cut pieces 
 of leaves. Of the two species mentioned, brevis was observed to be 
 present in larger numbers and seems to be the better pollinator of 
 the two. Megachile latimanus is the more alert, and is most of the 
 time on the wing, and is easily disturbed by the approach of the 
 collector. This species has the habit of darting swiftly past the 
 collector, and it was while the insects were in the act of darting 
 that the writer caught all of his specimens. 
 
 Small bees of the genus Halictus were also observed by the writer 
 working on the heads of red clover. 
 
 A species of fly , Exoprosona prorsa . was likewise observed sucl^- 
 ing the florets of clover. This fly was first collected by the 
 writer during the past season on July 19 . It was present in consi- 
 derable numbers August 16, after which it became scarce, disappearing 
 on August 25. Thus its period of activity was approximately forty 
 days. 
 
 Examination of the mouth parts of this fly failed, however, to 
 show the presence of pollen grains. This is due to the fact that the 
 mouth parts are smooth and destitute of setae to which the pollen | 
 

 
 
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34 
 
 grains may attach themselves. The absence of pollen grains, howevei; 
 on the mouth parts is not sufficient evidence that the fly does not 
 pollinate clover to some extent. 
 
 In addition to the insects that have already been mentioned, 
 thrlps were found in great abundance in clover heads and these in- 
 sects are thought to pollinate red clover accidentally. 
 
 2-. COMPARISON OP THE ACTIVITY OP THE BEES 
 
 With the object of comparing the activity of the different bees 
 observed in the field, data were obtained as regards the number of 
 heads visited and of the number of florets sucked by them per mi- 
 nute. In order to have a sound basis of comparison, the observation} 
 were made at periods when most of the heads were in full bloom. The 
 following tables show the data obtained. 
 
 Name of insect No. of heads Total No. Average No. of 
 
 visited per of florets florets sucked 
 minute sucked per per head, 
 
 minute 
 
 Bombus pennsylvanicus 6 39 6.5 
 
 6 -26 4.3 
 
 4- 
 
 4- 
 6 
 3 
 6 
 5 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5- 
 
 5- 
 
 6 - 
 
 •46. 
 
 •32- 
 
 •A 1.5 
 • 8.0 
 
 •38. 
 
 • 28 - 
 
 : 28 . 
 
 • 8.0 
 
 • 6.0 
 
 Average- 
 
 ■35* 
 
 Bombus separatus- 8- 
 
 5* 
 
 8 - 
 
 Average 
 
 o. 
 
 -42- 
 
 ‘31* 
 
 •38. 
 
 • 22 - 
 
 •33- 
 
 -7.0 
 
 •5.2 
 
 • 6.2 
 
 *4.7 
 
 ■2,4 
 
 •4.5 
 

 ' 
 
 
 
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 . 'Vr.t'd.',, t\ 
 
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 u* • .-i Vi. '-(My. 
 
 
 ^ .i.* 
 
 
 'tt!^,i'£-' '■•. ’J.‘ 
 
 
 1 'j '■>€> '■ '■■ ;■ -.f f <j 
 
 
35 
 
 Name of insect 
 
 Tetralonia dilecta- 
 (Female) 
 
 Average 
 
 Tetralonia dilecta 
 
 (Male) 
 
 Avera.ge 
 
 Melissodes bimaculata' 
 
 Average 
 
 Megachile brevis 
 
 Average 
 Apis mfclltfera 
 
 Average 
 
 No. of heads 
 
 Total No. 
 
 Average No. of 
 
 visited per 
 
 of florets 
 
 florets sucked 
 
 minute. 
 
 sucked per 
 minute 
 
 per head 
 
 8 
 
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 7 19 2.7 
 
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 5 9 1.8 
 
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 3 - — 12---- 4.0 
 
 8 17 2 . 1 
 
 3 12 —4.0 
 
 5 15 2.6 
 
 3 -12-- 4.0 
 
 6 --14 --2.3 
 
 14- 3.0 
 
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36 
 
 The preceding data may he siimmarized in the following table: 
 
 Name of insect Average Average No. Average No. 
 
 No.. of heads of florets of florets 
 
 visited per sucked per sucked per 
 
 minute minute head 
 
 Borabus pennsylvanicus 5 35 7 
 
 Bombus separatus 7 33 4 
 
 Tetralonia dilecta (Female) — 8--- 12 1 
 
 Tetralonia dilecta (Male) 4 17 3 
 
 Melissodes bimaculata 4 15 — 4 
 
 Megachile brevis 3 10 3 
 
 Apis mfcllifera 5 14 3 
 
 (Note: In figuring out the averages, decimals exceeding 0.5 
 were taken as unity.) 
 
 Although the preceding observations are somewhat meager, yet 
 they are presented, for they give some idea as to the relative ac^. 
 tivity of the bees in pollination. The last table summarizing the 
 data obtained speaks for itself. It appears that the bumblebees, 
 Bombus p ennsy 1 vani cu s and Bombus separatus . sucked more florets 
 than the other bees here listed. B. pennsylvanicus visited from 
 
 three to six heads per minute, the average being five, and sucked 
 florets in each head ranging from twenty- six to forty- six, the ave- j 
 rage being thirty- five. The average number of florets sucked by 
 this species per clover head is seven. B. separatus visited more 
 heads per minute than B. pennsy Ivani cus . but sucked fewer florets 
 per minute^ per head. Of the sexes of Tetralonia dilecta . the femaleJ 
 as the figures show, visited more heads per minute than the male but 
 sucked fewer florets in the same period of time. The male, there- 
 fore,* o;f this species may be regarded as the better pollinator. 
 
 There is not much appreciable difference, however, between the male 
 Tetralonia dilecta and Melissodes bimaculata and the Italian honey 
 bee. Apis mglll f era , in this respect. Megachile brevis stands some- 
 
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37 
 
 what below these three last bees mentioned in the number of heads 
 visited and in the number of florets sucked per minute. 
 
 .3 . EXPERIMENTS ON POLLINATION OF RED CLOVER 
 
 The statement has already been made that Tetralonia and Melis - 
 sodes were observed thrusting the proboscis into the florets of red 
 clover blossoms and that examination of their mouth parts showed 
 the presence of numerous pollen grains, especially on the tongue 
 and maxillae, which were indistinguishable from those of red clover. 
 These observations, however, are not alone sufficient to justify 
 the conclusion that these bees pollinate red clover. It was neces- 
 sary to perform experiments to determine whether clover heads on 
 which the bees had worked, and from which other insects had been ex- 
 cluded, would produce seeds. Clover plants with unopened buds were 
 carefully dug up from the field and transplanted to flower pots of 
 about twenty centimeters in diameter. All heads which were in full 
 bloom were of course removed from the plants. These potted plants 
 were placed out-of-doors on bigger pots of about thirty- four centi- 
 meters in diameter filled almost to the top with soil. The plants I 
 were then protected with cylindrical wire cages of about forty-eight 
 centimeters in height and forty-five centimeters in diameter and 
 with a mesh of one millimeter. When some of the heads began to bloom 
 bees were collected from the field and turned loose in the cage. 
 
 . Experiment with Tetralonia dilecta Cress. 
 
 Clover plants with unopened buds were potted on May 25. On May 
 26, some of the clover heads were in bloom and Dr. Folsom put thirty 
 individuals of T. dilecta into the cage. Some of the bees were ob- 
 

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38 
 
 served working on the flowers on the same day. After twenty-four 
 hours, all of the hees had died. Five days later. May 31, the 
 writer put four males and three females into the cage, and some of 
 these were also observed working on the flowers. These bees also 
 died after twenty-four hours. It was observed that the bees, soon 
 after being turned loose in the cage, rested and crawled on the 
 wire, especially near the top of the cage, and attempted to find 
 their way out. In their flight within the cage, however, some of 
 the bees struck the clover heads and in this way carae to find them 
 and work on the florets. For this reason, in order that the bees 
 could find the flowers more readily, it v/as found necessary to raise 
 the pots in such a way that the clover heads would be as close to 
 the top as possible. 
 
 The writer did not have any difficulty in catching the bees in 
 the field. In the act of sucking the florets, they did not seem to 
 mind the slightest interruptions and were easily caught by the use 
 of a wide-mouthed bottle. 
 
 On July 1, the clover heads had dried and were picked for seeds. 
 From 789 florets, not counting undeveloped florets which could not 
 have been pollinated. Dr, Folsom and the writer obtained 1?1 seeds, 
 showing that tv^entjr-one per cent, of the florets had been pollenlzed 
 by Tetralonia . 
 
 , Experiment v/lth Melisso des bimaculata Le P. 
 
 Clover plants for this experiment were potted on July 12. Two 
 days later, when some of the flowers were beginning to bloom. Dr, 
 Folsom put seven individuals in the cage at 2:30 p.m,, and he ob- 
 served one of these working on the heads ten minutes later. On July 
 
16, the writer -introduced eleven bees, and on July 19, five more. 
 Some of these were also observed working on the heads. In all -a 
 total of twent 3 r- three bees had been Introduced into the cage. 
 
 These bees behaved in the cage in much the same way as did the 
 Tetralonia individuals, and like the latter did not live long in 
 the cage. Most of them died after twenty-four hours. 
 
 Melissodes bimaculata is much more active on the wing than Te - 
 tralonia dilecta . and the author had some difficulty in collecting 
 specimens for the pollination experiment by means of a wide-mouthed 
 bottle and found it necessary to use the insect net. 
 
 On August 4, 1921, the writer picked the dried heads and exa- 
 mined them for seeds. As several beeS' had'. been observed working on 
 the heads. Dr, Folsom and the writer expected to get some seed, but 
 when the heads were exarained the 216 florets counted gave only two 
 seeds. Thus the results of this experiment were negative, 
 
 A second experiment, however, with the same insect gave much 
 better results. Plants for this experiment were potted on July 21 
 and were given the same 080*6 as those in previous experiments. On 
 July 23, some of the flowers were in full bloom and the writer put 
 fifteen individuals of bimaculata into the cage. On Jul 3 ^ 25, 
 sixteen more bees were Introduced; thus thirty-one bees were used 
 in this experiment. Many of these bees were observed working on the 
 heads. On August 12, the heads were picked for seed. Seven heads 
 gave a total number of two hundred and ninety-three florets^ from 
 which ninety seeds were obtained. This experiment showed that Me - 
 lissodes bimacu lata Le P. pollinates red clover. 
 
40 
 
 . Experiment with Exoprosopa prorea 
 
 Plants for this experiment were potted on July 26, Two days 
 later, July 28, when some of the heads were in bloom, the writer in- 
 troduced ten flies into the cage. The flies, after a fev/ minutes 
 in confinement, sta^yed almost invariably on the sides of the cage. 
 None of these flies was observed v/orking on the heads. In the morn- 
 ing of July 29, only two flies remained alive^tUie were still 
 on July 50, showing that these insects live a little longer in con- 
 finement than individuals of Tetralonia dilecta and Melissodes bima - 
 culata. On July 30, twelve more flies were introduced into the cage. 
 Some of these were observed working on the clover heads. 
 
 On September 16, the heads were examined for seeds. It is only 
 necessary to mention that the nine heads obtained, in this experiment 
 produced no seeds. 
 
 Thus the results of this experiment were negative, 
 
 . Experiment with Megachlle brevis Say 
 
 As in the preceding experiment, the plants used were potted on 
 
 July 26. Only two bees were used in this experiment but the insects 
 
 the 
 
 worked very Industriously on the clover heads, Llke^other bees ex- 
 perimented with, individuals of M, brevis do not live long in confine 
 ment. 
 
 The results of this experiment were not .conclusive, as only three 
 seeds were obtained from twelve heads. It must be remembered, how- 
 ever, that the first experiment with Melissode s bimaculata gave si- 
 milar results. 
 
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 41 
 
 In connection with the preceding experiments, red clover 
 plants with heads in bloom removed and ijaving only unopened buds, 
 were planted in two pots. These potted plants were used as controls 
 They were placed out-of-doors and covered with wire cages just as 
 in the preceding experiments, but no bees were introduced into the 
 cages. When the heads were picked and examined, one of the pots 
 gave 357 florets^ all of which were without seeds. The other pot 
 gave 287 florets, which were likewise seedless. 
 

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42 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Cooley, R. A. 1916. Insect Pests of T915» Thirteenth Ann. Rept. 
 
 State Ent. Montana, Bull. 109, Mont. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 154. 
 Cresson, E. T. l American Hymenopterar- Synopsis of the North 
 
 American Species belonging to Genera Leucospis, Smicra, and 
 Chalcis. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., V. 4, pp. 29-60. 
 
 Folsom, J. W. 1909. Insect Pests of Clover and Alfalfa. Bull. 
 134, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. 
 
 Herrick, G. W. , and Detwiller, J. D. 1919. Notes on Some Little- 
 Known Pests of Clover. Jour. Econ. Ent., V. 12, pp. 206-209. 
 Houghton, C. 0. 1908. Notes on the Lesser Clover Leaf-Weevil. 
 
 Jour. Econ. Ent., V. 1, p. 297. 
 
 Titus, E. G. 1905. The Sugar Beet Crown-Borer. Bull. 54, U. S. 
 Bur. Ent., pp. 34-40. 
 
 Titus, E. G. 1911. Genera Hypera and Phytonomus in America, 
 
 North of Mexico. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., V. 4, pp. 3B3-474. 
 Webster, F. M. I909. The Lesser Clover Leaf-Weevil. Bull. 85, 
 
 U. S. Bur. Ent. 
 
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